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diff --git a/39275.txt b/39275.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d723272 --- /dev/null +++ b/39275.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7364 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Directions for Collecting and Preserving +Insects, by C. V. Riley + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Directions for Collecting and Preserving Insects + +Author: C. V. Riley + +Release Date: March 26, 2012 [EBook #39275] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Jens Nordmann and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: + +The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and +formatting have been maintained. + +Corrections applied to the original text have been listed at the end of +the text. + + +The ligature oe and OE has been marked as [oe] and [OE]. + +Formatting: + +Text in italics has been marked with underscores (_text_) and spaced text +with equal signs (=text=). + + + + + SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. + UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. + + + + DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. + + BY + + C. V. RILEY, M. A., PH. D., + _Honorary Curator of the Department of Insects, U. S. National Museum._ + + + + Part F of Bulletin of the United States National Museum, No. 39 + (with one plate). + + + + WASHINGTON: + + GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. + + 1892. + + + + + =CONTENTS.= + + Page. + INTRODUCTORY 3 + MANUAL OF INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS 5 + CHARACTERISTICS OF INSECTS 5 + SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF ENTOMOLOGY 6 + CLASSIFICATION OF HEXAPODS 8 + Order Hymenoptera 12 + Order Coleoptera 14 + Order Lepidoptera 16 + Order Hemiptera 17 + Suborder Thysanoptera 18 + Order Diptera 19 + Suborder Aphaniptera 20 + Order Orthoptera 21 + Suborder Dermaptera 22 + Order Neuroptera 22 + Suborder Trichoptera 23 + Suborder Mecoptera 23 + Suborder Neuroptera 23 + Suborder Platyptera 24 + Suborder Plecoptera 25 + Suborder Odonata 25 + Suborder Ephemeroptera 25 + Suborder Thysanura 26 + COLLECTING 26 + General considerations 26 + Collecting apparatus 29 + The sweeping net 29 + The water net 31 + Water dip-net 32 + The umbrella 32 + The beating cloth 33 + The umbrella net 34 + The sieve 35 + The chisel 36 + The trowel 36 + The collecting tweezers 36 + The brush 37 + The fumigator 38 + The haversack 38 + The lens and microscope 39 + Collecting Hymenoptera 39 + Collecting Coleoptera 42 + General directions 42 + Winter collecting 43 + Spring collecting 44 + Myrmecophilous and Termetophilous species 44 + Spring flights of Coleoptera 44 + Beach collecting 45 + Attracting by lights 45 + Traps 45 + Freshet 45 + Summer collecting 46 + Collecting under stones 46 + Collecting in rotten stumps and logs 46 + Collecting in dying or dead trees 47 + Beating living trees, shrubs, and vines 47 + Sweeping 47 + Collecting on mud and gravel banks 48 + Collecting aquatic beetles 49 + Collecting at the seashore and on sandy places 49 + Collecting dung beetles 49 + Night collecting 50 + Fall collecting 50 + Collecting Lepidoptera 50 + Collecting the adults 50 + Collecting the early states 53 + Collecting Hemiptera 54 + Collecting Diptera 55 + Collecting Orthoptera 57 + Collecting Neuroptera 58 + Pseudoneuroptera 58 + Neuroptera 59 + KILLING AND PRESERVING INSECTS 60 + First preservation of living specimens 60 + Killing specimens 61 + Alcohol 61 + Chloroform and ether 62 + Cyanide of potassium 63 + Other agents 65 + Special directions for different orders 66 + ENTOMOTAXY 67 + Care of pinned and mounted specimens 67 + Insect pins 67 + Preparation of specimens 68 + Pinning 69 + Mounting on points 70 + Mounting duplicates 73 + Temporary storage of specimens 74 + Envelopes for Lepidoptera, etc. 74 + Directions for spreading insects 75 + A new apparatus for spreading Microlepidoptera 76 + Spreading Microlepidoptera 77 + Relaxing 79 + Inflation of the larvae of Lepidoptera 80 + Stuffing insects 82 + Dry preservation of Aphides and other soft-bodied insects 82 + Mounting specimens for the microscope 84 + Preparing and mounting the wings of Lepidoptera 86 + Preservation of alcoholic specimens 88 + Apparatus and methods 88 + Vials, stoppers, and holders 89 + Preserving micro-larvae in alcohol 92 + Preservative fluids 93 + Alcohol 93 + Alcohol and white arsenic 93 + Alcohol and corrosive sublimate 94 + Two fluids to preserve form and color 94 + Glycerin 94 + The Wickersheim preserving fluid 94 + Labeling specimens 95 + General directions 95 + Labels for pinned specimens 95 + Labeling alcoholic specimens 97 + Cabinet for apparatus 98 + INSECT BOXES AND CABINETS 98 + General directions 98 + The folding box 98 + The cabinet 100 + The Lintner display box 101 + The Martindale box for Lepidoptera 104 + Horizontal _versus_ vertical arrangement of boxes 104 + Lining for insect boxes 104 + ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS IN THE CABINET 106 + Systematic and biologic collections 106 + Economic displays 106 + Labeling collections 107 + MUSEUM PESTS, MOLD, ETC 108 + Museum pests 108 + Remedies 109 + Naphthaline 109 + Bisulphide of carbon 110 + Mercury pellets 110 + Carbolic acid 110 + A means of preserving insects in dry, hot countries 110 + Mold 111 + Verdigrising and greasing 111 + THE REARING OF INSECTS 112 + General directions 112 + The breeding cage, or vivarium 112 + Detailed instructions for rearing 115 + The root cage 118 + Other apparatus 119 + The insectary 120 + DIRECTIONS FOR PACKING AND TRANSMITTING INSECTS 121 + NOTES AND MEMORANDA 123 + INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING ARACHNIDS AND MYRIAPODS 124 + Directions for collecting spiders 124 + Apparatus 124 + Time and locality for collecting 125 + Collecting other Arachnids, mites, ticks, scorpions, etc 126 + Collecting Myriapoda 130 + TEXT BOOKS AND ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS 131 + Comprehensive works most useful for the student of North + American insects 132 + General works on classification 132 + Hymenoptera 132 + Coleoptera 132 + Lepidoptera 133 + Hemiptera 134 + Diptera 134 + Orthoptera 135 + Neuroptera 135 + Myriapoda 135 + Arachnida 136 + American periodicals 136 + Foreign periodicals 138 + The more useful works on economic entomology 140 + Entomological works published by the United States Entomological + Commission and by the United States Department of Agriculture 141 + Works by the United States Entomological Commission 141 + Bulletins of the Division of Entomology, U. S. Department of + Agriculture 142 + Special reports and bulletins 144 + HOW TO OBTAIN ENTOMOLOGICAL BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS 145 + + + + + INTRODUCTORY. + + +There is a constant demand, especially from correspondents of the Museum +and also of the Department of Agriculture, for information as to how to +collect, preserve, and mount insects. There is also great need of some +simple directions on a great many other points connected with the proper +packing of insects for transmission through the mails or otherwise; +labeling; methods of rearing; boxes and cabinets; text-books, etc. +Interest in the subject of entomology has, in fact, made rapid growth in +the last few years, and now that nearly every State has an official +entomologist connected with its State Agricultural Experiment Station, +the number of persons interested in the subject may be expected to +increase largely in the near future. I have hitherto made use of the +Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, No. 261, which is a pamphlet on +collecting and preserving insects prepared by Dr. A. S. Packard. This is +out of print, and I have been requested by Prof. Goode to prepare for +Bulletin 39, U. S. N. M., something that would cover the whole ground +and give the more essential information needed for collectors and +students of insect life. I have deemed it unnecessary to go too much +into detail, but have studied not to omit anything essential. Customs +and methods vary in different countries and with different individuals, +but the recommendations contained in the following pages are based upon +my own experience and that of my assistants and many acquaintances, and +embrace the methods which the large majority of American entomologists +have found most satisfactory. + +Much of the matter is repeated bodily from the directions for collecting +and preserving insects published in my Fifth Report on the Insects of +Missouri (1872) and quotations not otherwise credited are from that +Report. The illustrations, also, when not otherwise credited or not +originally made for this paper, are from my previous writings. Some are +taken from Dr. Packard's pamphlet, already mentioned; others, with the +permission of Assistant Secretary Willits, from the publications of the +Department of Agriculture, while a number have been especially made for +the occasion, either from photographs, or from drawings by Miss L. +Sullivan or Dr. Geo. Marx or Mr. C. L. Marlatt. When enlarged, the +natural size is indicated in hair-line. In the preparation of the +pamphlet I have had the assistance of Mr. E. A. Schwarz, and more +particularly of Mr. C. L. Marlatt, to both of whom I desire here to +express my obligations. + + C. V. R. + + +[Illustration: Pl. 1.--ILLUSTRATION OF BIOLOGIC SERIES.] + + + + + MANUAL OF INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. + + * * * * * + + By C. V. RILEY, + _Honorary Curator of the Department of Insects, U. S. National Museum._ + + * * * * * + + + CHARACTERISTICS OF INSECTS. + + +The term "insect" comes from the Latin _insectum_, and signifies "cut +into." It expresses one of the prime characteristics of this class of +animals, namely, that of segmentation. This feature of having the body +divided into rings or segments by transverse incisions is possessed by +other large groups of animals, and was considered of sufficient +importance by Cuvier to lead him, in his system of classification, to +group with Insects, under the general term Articulata, Worms, Crustacea, +Spiders, and Myriapods. Worms differ from the other four groups in +having no articulated appendages, and in having a soft body-wall or +integument instead of a dense chitinous covering, and are separated as a +special class _Vermes_. The other four groups of segmented animals +possess in common the feature of jointed appendages and a covering of +chitinous plates, and are brought together under the term _Arthropoda_. +The division of the body into a series of segments by transverse +incisions, characteristic of these animals and these only, justifies the +use of Cuvier's old name, Articulates, as this segmented feature +represents a definite relationship and a natural division--as much so as +the vertebral column in Vertebrates. The Cuvierian name should be +retained as a coordinate of Vertebrates, Molluscs, etc., and the terms +Vermes and Arthropods may be conveniently used to designate the two +natural divisions of the Articulates. + +The term "insect" has been employed by authors in two different +senses--one to apply to the tracheated animals or those that breathe +through a system of air tubes (tracheae), comprising Spiders, Myriapods, +and insects proper or Hexapods,[1] and the other in its restricted sense +as applied to the Hexapods only. To avoid confusion, the latter +signification only should be used, and it will be thus used in this +article. + + [1] From the Greek [Greek: exapous], having 6 feet. + +We see, then, that insects share, in common with many other animals, the +jointed or articulated structure. Wherein, then, do they differ? +_Briefly, in having the body divided into thirteen joints and a +subjoint_, including the head as a joint, and in the adult having six +true, jointed legs, and usually, though not always, wings. The five +classes of Articulates differ from each other in the number of legs they +possess in the adult form, as follows: Hexapoda, 6 legs; Arachnida, 8 +legs; Crustacea, 10-14 legs; Myriapoda, more than 14 legs; Vermes, none. +This system holds for the adult form only, because some mites +(Arachnida) when young have only 6 legs, and many true insects in the +larva state either have no legs at all, or have additional abdominal +legs which are not jointed, but membranous, and are lost in the perfect +or adult state. These are called false or prolegs. + +It will serve to make these instructions clear if I at once explain that +the life of an insect is marked by four distinct states, viz., the egg, +the larva, the pupa, and the imago, and that the last three words will +constantly recur. We have no English equivalent for the words larva and +pupa, for while some authors have written them with the terminal _e_, so +as to get the English plural, yet "larves" and "pupes" so shock the ear +that the terms have not been (and deserve not to be) generally adopted. + +We have seen that an insect in the final state has six true legs. Yet +even here many species depart from the rule, as there are many in which +the perfect insect, especially in the female sex, is apodous or without +legs, just as there are also other cases where they are without wings. +Sometimes the legs seem to be reduced in number by the partial or total +atrophy of one or the other pair, but in all these exceptional cases +there is no difficulty in realizing that we have to deal with a true +insect, because of the other characters pertaining to the class, some of +which it will be well to allude to. + +Insects are further characterized by having usually three distinct +divisions of the body, viz.: head, thorax, and abdomen, and by +undergoing certain metamorphoses or transformations. Now, while a number +of other animals outside of the insect world go through similar +transformations, those in the Crustacea being equally remarkable, yet, +from the ease with which they are observed and the completeness of the +transformations in most insects, the metamorphoses of this class have, +from time immemorial, excited the greatest curiosity. + + + + + SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF ENTOMOLOGY. + + +But few words are necessary to indicate the importance of entomology, +especially to the farming community; for while insects play a most +important part in the economy of nature and furnish us some valuable +products and otherwise do us a great deal of indirect good, yet they are +chiefly known by the annoyances they cause and by the great injury they +do to our crops and domestic animals. Hence some knowledge of insects +and how to study them becomes important, almost necessary, to every +farmer. + +The scope of the science may best be indicated by a statement of the +number of species existing, as compared with other animals. The +omnipresence of insects is known and felt by all; yet few have any +accurate idea of the actual numbers existing, so that some figures will +not prove uninteresting in this connection. Taking the lists of +described species, and the estimates of specialists in the different +orders, it is safe to say that about thirty thousand species have +already been described from North America, while the number of species +already described or to be described in the Biologia Centrali-Americana, +i. e., for Central America, foot up just about the same number, Lord +Walsingham having estimated them at 30,114 in his address as president +of the London Entomological Society two years ago, neither the +Orthoptera nor the Neuroptera being included in this estimate. By way of +contrast the number of mammals, birds, and reptiles to be described from +the same region, is interesting. It foots up 1,937, as follows: + +Mammals, 180; birds, 1,600; reptiles, 157. + +If we endeavor to get some estimate of the number of insects that occur +in the whole world, the most satisfactory estimates will be found in the +address just alluded to, and in that of Dr. David Sharp before the same +society. Linnaeus knew nearly 3,000 species, of which more than 2,000 +were European and over 800 exotic. The estimate of Dr. John Day, in +1853, of the number of species on the globe, was 250,000. Dr. Sharp's +estimate thirty years later was between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Sharp's +and Walsingham's estimates in 1889 reached nearly 2,000,000, and the +average number of insects annually described since the publication of +the Zoological Record, deducting 8 per cent for synonyms, is 6,500 +species. I think the estimate of 2,000,000 species in the world is +extremely low, and if we take into consideration the fact that species +have been best worked up in the more temperate portions of the globe, +and that in the more tropical portions a vast number of species still +remain to be characterized and named, and if we take further into +consideration the fact that many portions of the globe are yet +unexplored, entomologically, that even in the best worked up regions by +far the larger portion of the Micro-Hymenoptera and Micro-Diptera remain +absolutely undescribed in our collections, and have been but very +partially collected, it will be safe to estimate that not one-fifth of +the species extant have yet been characterized or enumerated. In this +view of the case the species in our collections, whether described or +undescribed, do not represent perhaps more than one-fifth of the whole. +In other words, to say that there are 10,000,000 species of insects in +the world, would be, in my judgment, a moderate estimate. + + + + + CLASSIFICATION OF HEXAPODS. + + +Seven orders of insects were originally recognized by Linnaeus, namely, +Neuroptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, +and Aptera. This classification was based on the organs of flight only, +and while in the main resulting in natural divisions which still furnish +the basis of more modern classifications, was faulty in several +particulars. For instance, the Aptera, which included all wingless +insects, was soon found to be a very unnatural assemblage and its +components were distributed among the other orders. The establishment of +the order Orthoptera by Olivier to include a large and well-defined +group of insects associated with the Hemiptera by Linnaeus, restored the +original seven orders, and this classification has, in the main, been +followed by entomologists up to the present time. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Pyramid showing the nature of the mouth, and +relative rank of the Orders, and the affinities of the Suborders of +Insects.] + +All insects are, in a broad way, referable to one or the other of these +seven primary orders by the structure of the wings and the character of +the mouth-parts in the imago, and by the nature of their +transformations. + +Some of these orders are connected by aberrant and osculant families or +groups, which have by other authors been variously ranked as independent +orders, but which, following Westwood substantially, I have considered, +for convenience, as suborders. (_See_ Fifth Report, Insects of Missouri, +etc., 1872.) + +In the article just cited, I made use of the accompanying diagram in the +form of a pyramid (Fig. 1), which gives a graphic representation of the +distinguishing characters and the relative rank as usually accepted, of +the orders and suborders. + +Full discussion of the different classifications is unnecessary in this +connection. Authors have differed in the past and will differ in the +future as to what constitutes a natural system, and it would require +many pages to give even a brief survey of the various schemes that have +been proposed. As I have elsewhere said, "We must remember that +classifications are but a means to an end--appliances to facilitate our +thought and study--and that, to use Spencer's words, 'we cannot, by any +logical dichotomies, actually express relations which in nature graduate +into each other insensibly.'" + +The most philosophical, perhaps, of the more modern systems of +classification is that of Friedrich Brauer, who has carefully studied +the subject, and has given us an arrangement consisting of sixteen +orders. This has many merits and has been adopted, with slight +modifications, by Packard in his "Entomology for Beginners," and by +Hyatt and Arms in their recent and valuable text-book "Insecta." +Comstock, in his "Introduction to Entomology" strongly recommends +Brauer's classification, but for reasons of simplicity and convenience +adheres to a modification of the old classification of Westwood. + +For purposes of comparison the classification by Hyatt and Arms, which +is substantially that of Brauer, may be introduced. + +In linear arrangement it is as follows: + + I. Thysanura (_Spring-tails_, etc.). + II. Ephemeroptera (_Ephemeridae_; May-flies). (=_Plectoptera_ Pack.) + III. Odonata (_Libellulidae_; Dragon-flies). + IV. Plecoptera (_Perlidae_; Stone-flies). + V. Platyptera (_Termites_, _Mallophaga_, etc.). + VI. Dermaptera (_Forficulidae_; Earwigs). + VII. Orthoptera (Locusts, Grasshoppers, etc.). + VIII. Thysanoptera (_Thripidae_; Fringe-wings). + IX. Hemiptera (Bugs). + X. Coleoptera (Beetles). + XI. Neuroptera (_Sialidae_, _Hemerobiidae_; Lace-wings, etc.). + XII. Mecoptera (_Panorpidae_; Scorpion-flies). + XIII. Trichoptera (_Phryganeidae_; Caddis-flies). + XIV. Lepidoptera (Butterflies and Moths). + XV. Hymenoptera (Bees, Wasps, etc.). + XVI. Diptera (Two-winged flies). + +The relationship of these orders cannot be indicated in a linear +arrangement, and is admirably shown by Hyatt and Arms by means of +diagrams which I reproduce (Figs. 2, 3.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Scheme illustrating origin and relationship of +Orders. (After Hyatt.)] + +The relation of these sixteen orders to the older, septenary scheme is +shown by the following arrangement: + + 1. Hymenoptera Hymenoptera XV. + + 2. Coleoptera Coleoptera X. + + 3. Lepidoptera Lepidoptera XIV. + + {Homoptera. + 4. Hemiptera {Hemiptera IX. {Heteroptera. + {Thysanoptera VIII. + + 5. Diptera {Diptera XVI. {Including Aphaniptera or Siphonaptera + {of some authors. + + 6. Orthoptera {Orthoptera VII. + {Dermaptera VI. + + {Trichoptera XIII } + {Mecoptera XII }Neuroptera. + {Neuroptera XI } + 7. Neuroptera {Platyptera V } + {Plecoptera IV } + {Odonata III }Pseudo-neuroptera. + {Ephemeroptera II } + {Thysanura I } + +It will be seen that the changes are not so great as would at first +appear. The three more important orders, namely, the Hymenoptera, +Coleoptera, and Lepidoptera, remain substantially the same in all +classifications, and so with the three orders next in importance--the +Hemiptera, Diptera, and Orthoptera. All that has been done with these +three has been to rank as separate orders what by former authors were +preferably considered as either families or suborders. The principal +change is in the Neuroptera, of which no less than eight orders have +been made. This is not to be wondered at, because the order, as formerly +construed, was conceded to be that which represents the lowest forms +and more synthetic types of insects, and as such necessarily contained +forms which it is difficult to classify definitely. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Cross section of Fig. 2.] + +In the discussion of the characteristics, habits, number of species, and +importance of the several groups, I follow, with such changes as the +advances in the science of entomology have made necessary, the +arrangement shown in Fig. 1. + +"Order HYMENOPTERA ([Greek: ymen], a membrane; [Greek: pteron], wing). +Clear or Membrane-winged Flies: Bees, Wasps, Ants, Saw-flies, etc. +Characterized by having four membranous wings with comparatively few +veins, the hind part smallest. The transformations are complete: _i. +e._, the larva bears no resemblance to the perfect insect. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Bold-faced Hornet, _Vespa maculata_. (After +Sanborn).] + +"Some of the insects of this order are highly specialized, and their +mouth-parts are fitted both for biting and sucking, and in this respect +they connect the mandibulate and haustellate insects. The common +Honey-bee has this complex structure of the mouth, and if the editors of +our agricultural papers would bear the fact in mind, we should have less +of the never-ending discussion as to whether bees are capable of +injuring fruit at first hand. The lower lip (_labium_) is modified into +a long tongue, sheathed by the lower jaws (_maxillae_), and they can sip, +or, more properly speaking, lap up nectar; while the upper jaws +(_mandibulae_), though not generally used for purposes of manducation, +are fitted for biting and cutting. The Hymenoptera are terrestrial, +there existing only a very few degraded, swimming forms. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--An Ichneumon Parasite, _Pimpla annulipes_, +showing male and female abdomen.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--A Chalcid Parasite, _Chalcis flavipes_.] + +"This order is very naturally divided into two sections--the ACULEATA +and TEREBRANTIA. The aculeate Hymenoptera, or Stingers, comprise all the +families in which the abdomen in the female is armed with a sting +connected with a poison reservoir, and may be considered the typical +form of the order, including all the social and fossorial species. The +insects of this section must be considered essentially beneficial to +man, notwithstanding the occasional sting of a bee or wasp, the boring +of a carpenter bee, or the importunities of the omnipresent ant. Not +only do they furnish us with honey and wax, but they play so important a +part in the destruction of insects injurious to vegetation that they may +be looked upon as God-appointed guards over the vegetal +kingdom--carrying the pollen from plant to plant, and insuring the +fertilization of di[oe]cious species, and the cross-fertilization of +others; and being ever ready to clear them of herbivorous worms which +gnaw and destroy. The whole section is well characterized by the +uniformly maggot-like nature of the larva. The transformations are +complete, but the chitinous larval covering is often so very thin and +delicate that the budding of the members, or gradual growth of the pupa +underneath, is quite plainly visible, and the skin often peels off in +delicate flakes, so that the transition from larva to pupa is not so +marked and sudden as in those insects which have thicker skins. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--A Horn-tail, _Tremex columba_. _a_, larva, +showing Thalessa larva attached to its side; _b_, head of larva, front +view, enlarged; _c_, female pupa, ventral view; _d_, male pupa, ventral +view; _e_, adult female--all slightly enlarged.] + +"The terebrantine Hymenoptera, or Piercers, are again divisible into two +subsections: first, the ENTOMOPHAGA, which are, likewise, with the +exception of a few gall-makers, beneficial to man, and include the +parasitic families, and the gall-flies; second, the PHYTOPHAGA, +comprising the Horn-tails (_Uroceridae_), and the Saw-flies +(_Tenthredinidae_), all of which are vegetable feeders in the larval +state, those of the first family boring into trees, and those of the +second either feeding externally on leaves or inclosed in galls. They +are at once distinguished from the other Hymenoptera by the larvae +having true legs, which, however, in the case of the Horntails, are very +small and exarticulate. The larvae of many Saw-flies have, besides, +prolegs, which are, however, always distinguishable from those of +Lepidopterous larvae by being more numerous and by having no hooks. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Saw-fly and Larva. _Pristiphora grossulariae_; +_a_, larva; _b_, imago, Walsh.] + +"Order COLEOPTERA ([Greek: koleos], a sheath; [Greek: pteron], wing). +Beetles or Shield-winged Insects. Characterized by having four wings, +the front pair (called _elytra_) horny or leathery, and usually united +down the back with a straight suture when at rest, the hind ones +membranous and folded up under the elytra when at rest. Transformations +complete. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--A Chafer, _Cotalpa lanigera_. (After Packard.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--A Longicorn, _Saperda candida_. _a_, larva; +_b_, pupa; _c_, beetle.] + +"This is an order of great importance, and in the vast number and +diversity of the species comprised in it outranks any of the others. The +ease with which the insects of this order are obtained and preserved +make it one of the most attractive to the amateur, and beetles are, +perhaps, of all insects, the best known and understood in the popular +mind. For the same reason they have, in the perfect state, received most +attention from the entomologists, but their transformations and +preparatory forms yet offer a wide and inviting field for the student. +The simplest and best-known classification of the beetles is the tarsal +system, founded on the number of joints to the tarsi, by which we get +four great sections: (1) PENTAMERA, in which all the tarsi are +5-jointed; (2) HETEROMERA, with the four anterior 5-jointed and the two +posterior 4-jointed; (3) PSEUDO-TETRAMERA, with apparently only four +joints to all the tarsi, though, in reality, there is a fifth +penultimate joint, diminutive and concealed; (4) PSEUDO-TRIMERA, with +apparently only three joints to all the tarsi. This system, like most +others, is not perfect, as there are numerous species not possessing +five joints to the tarsi belonging to the first section; and for +practical purposes beetles may be very well arranged according to habit. +We thus get, first, the ADEPHAGA, or carnivorous species, including all +those which prey on other living insects, and to which, following Mr. +Walsh, I have, for obvious reasons, applied the suggestive term +'Cannibal'; second, the NECROPHAGA, comprising those which feed on +carrion, dung, fungi, and decaying vegetation; third, the PHYTOPHAGA, +embracing all those feeding on living vegetation. This arrangement is by +no means perfect, for there are beetles which are carnivorous in the +larva and herbivorous in the imago state; while some of the NECROPHAGA +are actually parasitic. Yet, it is not more artificial than others which +have been proposed. The carnivorous species, broadly speaking, are +_Pentamerous_, the only striking exception being the Coccinellidae +(Lady-birds), which are _Pseudo-trimerous_. The carrion-feeders are also +_Pentamerous_; but vegetable-feeders are found in all the tarsal +divisions, though the _Pseudo-tetramera_ are the more essentially +herbivorous, and consequently the most injurious." + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.--The Plum Curculio, _Conotrachelus nenuphar_. +_a_, larva; _b_, pupa; _c_, beetle; _d_, plum showing egg-puncture and +crescent.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--A Soldier-beetle, _Chauliognathus +pennsylvanicus_. _a_, larva; _b-h_, parts of larva enlarged; _i_, +beetle.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--The Bogus Potato-beetle, _Doryphora juncta_. +_a_, eggs; _b_, larvae; _c_, beetle; _d_ and _e_, parts of beetle +enlarged.] + +"Order LEPIDOPTERA ([Greek: lepis], a scale; [Greek: pteron], wing). +Butterflies and Moths, or scaly-winged insects. Characterized by having +four branching-veined membranous wings, each more or less densely +covered on both sides with minute imbricated scales which are attached +by a stalk, but which easily rub off, and appear to the unaided eye like +minute particles of glistening dust or powder. Transformations complete. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.--A Butterfly, _Pieris oleracea_.] + +"Next to the Lepidoptera, the Coleoptera are, perhaps, most familiar to +the popular mind. Every one admires the beauty of these frail creatures, +dressed in every conceivable pattern, and adorned with every conceivable +color, so as to rival the delicate hues of the rainbow, and eclipse the +most fantastic and elaborate designs of man. When magnified, the scales, +to which this beauty of pattern and color is entirely due, present all +manner of shapes, according to the particular species or the particular +part of the individual from which they are taken. According to +Lewenhoeck, there are 400,000 of these scales on the wing of the common +silkworm. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.--A Sphingid, _Ampelophaga myron_.] + +"The transformations of these insects are complete, and the changes are +usually so sudden and striking as to have excited the wonder and +admiration of observers from earliest times. + +"The more common form of the larva is exampled in the ordinary +caterpillar--a cylindrical worm with a head, twelve joints and a +sub-joint; six thoracic or true legs, four abdominal and two anal +prolegs. But there is a great variety of these larvae, some having no +legs whatever, some having only the jointed legs, and others having +either four, six, eight, or ten, but never more than ten prolegs. With +few exceptions they are all vegetable-feeders, and with still fewer +exceptions, terrestrial. The perfect insects make free use of their +ample wings, but walk little; and their legs are weak, and not modified +in the various ways so noticeable in other orders, while the front pair +in some butterflies are impotent. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.--A Moth, _Utetheisa bella_.] + +"As an order this must be considered the most injurious of the seven. + +"A convenient system of classification for the Lepidoptera is based on +the structure of the antennae. By it we get two great sections: 1st, +Butterflies (RHOPALOCERA); 2d, Moths (HETEROCERA), which latter may +again be divided into Crepuscular and Nocturnal Moths. Butterflies are +at once distinguished from moths by their antennae being straight, stiff +and _knobbed_, and by being day-fliers or diurnal; while moths have the +antennae tapering to a point, and are, for the most part, night-flyers or +nocturnal. The crepuscular moths, composed mostly of the Sphinges or +Hawk-moths, hover over flowers at eve, and connect the two sections not +only in habit, but in the character of the antennae which first thicken +toward the end, and then suddenly terminate in a point or hook. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.--A Clothes-moth (_Tinea pellionella_)--enlarged. +_a_, adult; _b_, larva; _c_, larva in case.] + +"Order HEMIPTERA ([Greek: hemi], half; [Greek: pteron], wing), Bugs. The +insects of this order are naturally separated into two great sections; +1st, Half-winged Bugs, or HETEROPTERA ([Greek: heteros], different; +[Greek: pteron], wing) having the basal half of the front wings (called +_hemelytra_) coriaceous or leathery, while the apical part is +membranous. The wings cross flatly over the back when at rest; 2d, +Whole-winged Bugs, or HOMOPTERA ([Greek: homos], equal; [Greek: pteron], +wing), having all four wings of a uniform membranous nature and folding +straight down the back when at rest. The latter, if separated, may be +looked upon as a Suborder. + +[Illustration: FIG. 18.--A Plant-bug (_Euschistus punctipes_).] + +"Transformations incomplete; _i. e._, the larvae and pupae have more or +less the image of the perfect insect, and differ little from it except +in lacking wings. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.--A Soldier-bug (_Milyas cinctus_). _b_, beak +enlarged.] + +"The genuine or half-winged Bugs (Figs. 18 and 19) are usually flattened +in form, when mature; though more rounded in the adolescent stages. They +may be divided into Land Bugs (_Aurocorisa_) and Water Bugs +(_Hydrocorisa_). The species of the first division very generally +possess the power of emitting, when disturbed or alarmed, a nauseous, +bed-buggy odor, which comes from a fluid secreted from two pores, +situated on the under side of the metathorax. Such well-known insects as +the Bed-bug and Chinch-bug belong here. The habits of the species are +varied, and while some are beneficial, others are quite injurious to +man. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20.--A Tree-hopper (_Ceresa bubalus_). _a_, side; +_b_, top view.] + +"The Whole-winged Bugs (Figs. 20 and 21), on the contrary, are all +plant-feeders, and with the exception of a few, such as the Cochineal +and Lac insects, are injurious. The secretion of a white, or bluish, +waxy, or farinose substance from the surface of the body is as +characteristic of this section as the nauseous odor is of the first. It +forms three natural divisions, arranged according to the number of +joints to the tarsi--namely TRIMERA, with three joints; DIMERA, with two +joints; and MONOMERA, with one joint to the tarsi." + +Suborder THYSANOPTERA ([Greek: thysanos], a fringe; [Greek: pteron], +wing): This suborder contains the single family _Thripidae_, which +comprises minute insects commonly known as Thrips, and of which a common +species, _Thrips striatus_, is shown in the accompanying figure. (See +Fig. 22.) They bear strong relations to both the Pseudoneuroptera and +the Hemiptera and by later writers are generally associated with the +latter order. They feed on plants, puncturing and killing the leaves, or +on other plant-feeding species of their own class, and are characterized +by having narrow wings crossed on the back when at rest, and beautifully +fringed, from which latter feature the name of the suborder is derived. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.--A Plant-louse (_Schizoneura lanigera_). _a_, +infested root; _b_, larva; _c_, winged insect; _d-g_, parts of perfect +insect enlarged.] + +The mouth parts are peculiar in that they are intermediate in form +between the sucking beak of Hemiptera and the biting mouth parts of +other insects. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22.--_Thrips striatus_, with wings enlarged at +side.] + +Their eggs resemble those of Hemiptera; the larvae and pupae are active, +and in form resemble the adult, except in the absence of wings. Some +species, also, are wingless in the adult stage. + +The pupae are somewhat sluggish and the limbs and wings are enclosed in a +thin membrane which is expanded about the feet into bulbous +enlargements, giving rise to the name "bladder-footed" (Physopoda) +applied to these insects by Burmeister. + +"Order DIPTERA ([Greek: dis], twice; [Greek: pteron], wing) or +Two-winged Flies. The only order having but two wings, the hind pair +replaced by a pair of small, slender filaments clubbed at tip, and +called halteres, poisers, or balancers. + +[Illustration: FIG. 23.--A Mosquito (_Culex pipiens_). _a_, adult; _b_, +head of same enlarged; _e_, portion of antenna of same; _f_, larva; _g_, +pupa. (After Westwood.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 24.--A Hawk-fly (_Erax bastardi_). _a_, perfect +insect; _b_, pupa; larva shown at side.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 25.--A Flesh-fly (_Sarcophaga carnaria_, var. +_saracenae_). _a_, larva; _b_, puparium; _c_, adult insect with enlarged +parts.] + +"No order surpasses this in the number of species or in the immense +swarms of individuals belonging to the same species which are frequently +met with. The wings, which are variously veined, though appearing naked +to the unaided eye, are often thickly covered with very minute hairs or +hooks. As an order the Diptera are decidedly injurious to man, whether +we consider the annoyances to ourselves or our animals of the Mosquito, +Buffalo-gnat, Gad-fly, Breeze-fly, Zimb or Stomoxys, or the injury to +our crops of the Hessian-fly, Wheat-midge, Cabbage-maggot, Onion-maggot, +etc. There are, in fact, but two families, Syrphidae and Tachinidae, which +can be looked upon as beneficial to the cultivator, though many act the +part of scavengers. No insects, not even the Lepidoptera, furnish such a +variety of curious larval characters, and none, perhaps, offer a wider +or more interesting field of investigation to the biologist. It is +difficult to give any very satisfactory arrangement of these Two-winged +flies, though they easily fall into two rather artificial sections. +These are: 1st, NEMOCERA, or those with long antennae, having more than +six joints, and palpi having four or five joints. The pupa is naked, as +in the Lepidoptera, with the limbs exposed. This kind of pupa is called +_obtected_. 2d, BRACHOCERA, or those with short antennae, not having more +than three distinct joints, and palpi with one or two joints. The pupa +is mostly _coarctate_, _i. e._, is formed within, and more or less +completely connected with, the hardened and shrunken skin of the larva. + +[Illustration: FIG. 26.--The Sheep Bot (_[OE]strus ovis_). 1, 2, flies; +3, puparium; 4, 5, and 6, larvae or bots.] + +"The most anomalous of the Diptera are the Forest-flies and Sheep-ticks +(_Hippoboscidae_). They have a horny and flattened body, and resemble +lice in their parasitic habits, living beneath the hair of bats and +birds. Their mode of development has always attracted the attention of +entomologists. The larvae are hatched in the abdomen of the female, which +is capable of distention. There it remains and, after assuming the pupa +state, is deposited in the form of a short, white, egg-like object, +without trace of articulation, and nearly as large as the abdomen of the +female fly. Closely allied to these are the Bat-ticks (_Nycteribidae_), +which possess neither wings nor balancers, and remind one strongly of +spiders. + +"In this order we may also place certain wingless lice (such as _Braula +c[oe]ca_, Nitzch), which infests the Honey-bee in Europe, northern +Africa, and western Asia, but which has not yet been detected in this +country. + +[Illustration: FIG. 27.--A Flea (_Pulex_). (From Packard.)] + +"Suborder APHANIPTERA ([Greek: aphanes], inconspicuous; [Greek: pteron], +wing) or Fleas, comprising the single family Pulicidae, now placed with +the Diptera. Everybody is supposed to be familiar with the appearance of +the Flea--its bloodthirsty propensities and amazing muscular power; and +while everyone may not have the leisure and means to experience the +exhilarating influence of the chase after larger animals, there is no +one--be he never so humble--who may not indulge in the hunt after this +smaller game! In place of wings the flea has four small, scaly plates. +The minute eggs--about a dozen to each female--are laid in obscure +places, such as the cracks of a floor, the hair of rugs, etc., and the +larva is worm-like and feeds upon whatever animal matter--as grease and +blood--or decaying vegetable matter it can find. + +"Order ORTHOPTERA ([Greek: orthos], straight; [Greek: pteron], wing), or +Straight-winged Insects. Characterized by having the front wings (called +_tegmina_) straight and usually narrow, pergameneous or parchment-like, +thickly veined, and overlapping at tips when closed; the hind wings +large and folding longitudinally like a fan. Transformations incomplete. + +[Illustration: FIG. 28.--A Locust (_Acridium americanum_).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 29.--A Tree-cricket (_Orocharis saltator_). _a_, +female; _b_, male.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 30.--The Croton Bug or German Cockroach +(_Phyllodromia germanica_). _a_, first stage; _b_, second stage; _c_, +third stage; _d_, fourth stage; _e_, adult; _f_, adult female with +egg-case; _g_, egg-case--enlarged; _h_, adult with wings spread--all +natural size except _g_.] + +"The insects of this order have a lengthened body and very robust jaws, +with a correspondingly large head. The legs are strong, and fashioned +either for grasping, running, climbing, jumping, or burrowing. As in the +other orders, where the transformations are incomplete, the young differ +little from the parent, except in the want of wings; and in many +instances even this difference does not exist, as there are numerous +species which never acquire wings. There are no aquatic Orthoptera. Some +are omnivorous, others carnivorous, but most of them herbivorous. They +form four distinct sections: 1st, CURSORIA, Cockroaches; 2d, RAPTATORIA, +Mantes; 3d, AMBULATORIA, Walking-sticks; 4th, SALTATORIA, Crickets, +Grasshoppers, and Locusts. + +[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Hind wing of Earwig. (From Comstock.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 32.--An Earwig. (From Packard.)] + +"Suborder DERMAPTERA[2] ([Greek: derma], skin; [Greek: pteron], wing), +or Earwigs, consisting of the single family Forficulidae, which may be +placed with the Orthoptera. They are rare insects with us, but very +common in Europe, where there prevails a superstition that they get into +the ear and cause all sorts of trouble. The front wings are small and +leathery; the hind ones have the form of a quadrant, and look like a fan +when opened; and the characteristic feature is a pair of forceps-like +appendages at the end of the body, best developed in the males. They are +nocturnal in habit, hiding during the day in any available recess. The +female lays her eggs in the ground, and singularly enough, broods over +them and over her young, the latter crowding under her like chicks under +a hen." + + [2] Euplexoptera of some authors from [Greek: eu], well; + [Greek: plecho], folded, referring to the folded wings. + +[Illustration: FIG. 33.--A Dragon-fly (_Libellula trimaculata_). (From +Packard.)] + +"Order NEUROPTERA ([Greek: neuron], nerve; [Greek: pteron], wing), or +Nerve-winged insects. Characterized by having the wings reticulate with +numerous veins so as to look like net-work. The order forms two natural +divisions, the first including all those which undergo a complete, and +the second, called Pseudo-neuroptera (Dictyotoptera, Burmeister), +those which undergo an incomplete metamorphosis. * * * The insects of +this order are, as a whole, more lowly organized, and more generally +aquatic, than either of the others. A natural arrangement of them is +difficult on account of their degradational character. They present +forms which are synthetic and closely approach the other orders, and the +evolutionist naturally looks upon them as furnishing an idea of what the +archetypal forms of our present insects may have been. They are, as a +rule, large and sluggish, with the body parts soft and little +specialized, and the muscles weak. Their remains are found in the +Devonian and Carboniferous deposits. + +"They are mostly carnivorous, and with the exception of the White-ants +and certain Book-lice they none of them affect man injuriously, while +some are quite beneficial." + +[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Caddis-fly, larva and its case. (From +Packard.)] + +The first division of this order, or the Neuroptera proper, +characterized by having incomplete metamorphoses, may be considered +under the three following suborders: + +"Suborder TRICHOPTERA ([Greek: thrix], hair; [Greek: pteron], wing), or +Caddis-flies, containing the single family Phryganeidae, and placed with +the Neuroptera, though bearing great affinities with the Lepidoptera. +Every good disciple of Walton and lover of the "gentle art" knows the +value of the Caddis-fly, or Water-moth, as bait. These flies very much +resemble certain small moths, the scales on the wings of the latter +being replaced in the former with simple hairs. The larvae live in the +water and inhabit silken cases, which are usually cylindrical and +covered with various substances, according to the species, or the +material most conveniently obtained by the individual." + +Suborder MECOPTERA ([Greek: mekos], length; [Greek: pteron], wing). This +suborder includes a peculiar group of insects, the most striking +characteristics of which are the mouth-parts, which are prolonged into a +rostrum or beak. The wings are long and narrow, and of nearly equal +size. The abdomen of the male is constricted near its posterior end and +terminates in long clasping organs from which these insects obtain the +common name of Scorpion-flies. + +[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Panorpa or Scorpion-fly. (From Packard.)] + +The larvae of one genus (_Panorpa_) are remarkable for their great +resemblance to the larvae of Lepidoptera. They have, however, eight pairs +of abdominal legs. The habits of these insects are not well known, but +they are supposed to be generally. + +Suborder NEUROPTERA. This group as restricted by modern authors is a +small one, including the largest species, as in the Hellgrammite, the +Lace-wing Flies, the Ant-lions, and the Mantispas representing the +families, Sialidae and Hemerobiidae, with their subfamilies. The first +includes the so-called Hellgrammite Fly (_Corydalus cornutus_), one of +our largest and most striking insects, the larvae of which is known as +Dobsons by anglers, and is aquatic and carnivorous in habit. The +Hemerobiidae is a large family, comprising, as a rule, delicate insects +with rather ample gauzy wings. The larvae are predaceous. The common +Lace-wing flies are among our most beneficial insects, destroying +plant-lice and other soft-bodied species. To the same family belongs the +Ant-lion (_Myrmeleon_), the larvae of which have the curious habit of +constructing a funnel-shaped burrow in the sand, in the bottom of which +they conceal themselves and wait for any soft-bodied insects which may +fall into the trap. This family also includes the peculiar Mantis-like +insects belonging to the genus _Mantispa_. As in the true Mantis, the +prothorax of these insects is greatly elongated and the first pair of +legs are fitted for grasping. The larvae are parasitic in the egg-sacs of +certain large spiders (genera _Licosa_, _Dolomedes_, etc.), and undergo +a remarkable change in form after the first molt. In the first stage the +larvae are very agile, with slender bodies and long legs. After molting +the body becomes much swollen and the legs are much shortened, as are +also the antennae, the head becoming small and the general appearance +reminding one of the larva of a bee. + +[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Lace-wing fly. _a_, eggs, _b_, larva, _c_, +cocoons, _d_, fly with left wings removed.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 37.--An Ant-lion (_Myrmeleon_). (From Packard.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Myrmeleon larva.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 39.--_Mantispa_ with side view beneath. (From +Packard.)] + +The second section of the Neuroptera, characterized by complete +metamorphosis, comprises the following suborders: + +Suborder PLATYPTERA ([Greek: platys], flat; [Greek: pteron], wing). +Under this head are grouped the White-ants (_Termitidae_), the Bird-lice +(_Mallophaga_), and the Book-mites (_Psocidae_). The suborder receives +its name from the fact that in the case of the winged forms the wings, +when at rest, are usually laid flat upon the back of the insect. The +Mallophaga, or Bird-lice, are degraded wingless insects, and are +parasitic chiefly on birds, but also on mammals. In shape of body and +character of the mouth-parts they are most nearly allied to the Psocidae. +The latter family includes both winged and wingless forms, the +Book-mites belonging to the latter category. The winged forms may be +illustrated by the common species, _Psocus venosus_ (see Fig. 40). The +legs and antennae are long and slender and the wings are folded roof-like +over the body when the insect is at rest. They feed on lichens and dry +vegetation. + +The Termitidae are represented in this country by the White-ant (_Termes +flavipes_), which is frequently so destructive to woodwork, books, etc. +The term White-ant applied to these insects is unfortunate, as in +structure they are widely separated from ants and resemble them only in +general appearance and also in their social habits. Like the ants they +live in colonies and have a number of distinct forms, as winged and +wingless, males and females, and workers and soldiers. + +[Illustration: FIG. 40.--_Psocus venosus._ (From Comstock.)] + +Suborder PLECOPTERA ([Greek: plektos], plaited; [Greek: pteron], wing). +Closely allied to the latter suborder is the suborder Plecoptera, which +includes the single family Perlidae or Stone-flies. The larvae and pupae of +these insects are aquatic, being often found under stones in water, +whence the name. The adults are long, flattened insects, with long +antennae. The wings are ample and are somewhat folded or plaited, from +which character the suborder takes its name. + +[Illustration: FIG. 41.--A Stone-fly (_Pteronarcys regalis_). (From +Comstock.)] + +Suborder ODONATA ([Greek: othous], tooth). This includes +the Dragon-flies or Libellulidae, the most common and the best known of +the Neuroptera. The larva and the active pupa or nymph are aquatic and +are predaceous, as is also the adult. A common species is represented at +Fig. 33. + +The Suborder EPHEMEROPTERA ([Greek: ephemeron], a day-fly; [Greek: +pteron], wing) comprises the May-flies, or Ephemeridae (see Fig. 42). +These insects are very fragile and are often attracted in enormous +numbers to electric lights. They have large front wings, while the hind +wings are small, rudimentary, or wanting. They are furnished with two or +three very long, jointed, threadlike caudal appendages. The larval and +nymphal stages are passed in the water and aquatic vegetation furnishes +the food, although some species may be predaceous. The adults have very +rudimentary mouths and eat nothing; their term of life is also very +limited, not exceeding 2-4 days. + +[Illustration: FIG. 42.--A May-fly (_Potamanthus marginatus_). (From +Packard.)] + +Suborder THYSANURA ([Greek: thysanos], tassel; [Greek: oura], tail). +This suborder comprises minute, degraded insects commonly known as +Spring-tails, Bristle-tails, Fish-moths, Snow-fleas, etc. They occur in +damp situations and also infest books, wall-paper, etc., eating the +starch paste in the book-bindings, or beneath the wall paper. They +comprise very primitive forms and are interesting because they are +supposed to represent the original stock from which the higher orders of +insects have sprung. They are wingless, usually with simple eyes, and +clothed with scales, and undergo no metamorphosis. Some of them, as the +Fish-moth (_Lepisma sp._), run very rapidly and are furnished at the end +of the body with a number of long bristles. In other forms these anal +bristles or stylets are united at the base and bent under the body and +become a powerful jumping organ, giving them the very appropriate name +of Spring-tails. + +[Illustration: FIG. 43.--(_Lepisma 4-seriata_). (After Packard.)] + + + + + COLLECTING. + + +GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.--"Few departments of natural history offer +greater inducements or facilities to the student than Entomology. He +need not pass his threshold for material, for it may be found on every +hand and at all seasons. The directions for collecting, preserving, and +studying insects might be extended indefinitely in detail, as volumes +have already been written on the subject; but the more general and +important instructions are soon given. + +"Beginners are very apt to supply themselves with all sorts of +appliances advertised by natural history furnishing stores. Many of +these appliances, when it comes to real, practical field-work, are soon +abandoned as useless incumbrances; and the greater the experience, the +simpler will be the paraphernalia. My own equipment, on a collecting +trip, consists chiefly of a cotton umbrella, a strong and narrow steel +trowel or digger, a haversack slung across the shoulders, a cigar box +lined with sheet cork, and a small knapsack attached to a waistbelt +which girts a coat, not of many colors, but of many pockets, so made +that in stooping nothing falls out of them. The umbrella is one of the +indispensables. It shields, when necessary, from old Sol's scorching +rays and from the pelting, drenching storm; brings within reach, by its +hooked handle, many a larva-freighted bough which would otherwise remain +undisturbed; and forms an excellent receptacle for all insects that may +be dislodged from bush or branch. Opened and held inverted under a bough +with the left hand, while the right manipulates a beating-stick, cut for +the occasion, it will be the recipient of many a choice specimen that +would never have been espied amid its protective surroundings. Some +collectors use an umbrella painted or lined on the inside with white, to +facilitate the detection of any object that drops into it; but as there +are fully as many, if not more, pale and white insects as there are dark +or black ones, the common dark umbrella is good enough for all ordinary +purposes; and if any improvement on the ordinary cotton umbrella is +desired, it should be in the way of a joint or knuckle about the middle +of the handle, which will facilitate its packing and using. The trowel +is valuable for prying off the loosened bark from old trees, whether +felled or standing, and for digging into the ground or into decaying +stumps and logs. The haversack is for the carriage of different kinds of +boxes (those made of tin being best) intended for larval and other forms +which it is necessary to bring home alive for breeding purposes; and if +made with a partition so that the filled and empty boxes may be +separated, all the better; it may also be used for nets and other +apparatus to be mentioned, and for such provender as is necessary on the +trip. The knapsack may be made on the plan of a cartridge box, of stout +canvas or leather, and should be of moderate size and slung onto the +belt so as to be slipped to any part of the waist and not hinder free +bodily motion. It may be used to carry bottles, phials, and other small +appliances, and should be accordingly partitioned and furnished with +loops or pockets on the inside. The cigar-box is for the reception of +pinned specimens, and may be slipped onto the belt, or buttoned to the +trousers by means of leather. + +"The greatest requisites in collecting are a pair of sharp eyes and +ready hands, with coolness and self-possession; but a few traps will +materially aid. One of the most important is the hand-net, which may be +made so as to subserve the two purposes of a sweeping and an air-net." + +[Illustration: FIG. 44.--The Butterfly net-frame.] + +"The frame of the net which I use is illustrated herewith (Fig. 44), and +will be found strong and serviceable and conveniently portable. It is +constructed as follows: Take two pieces of stout brass wire, each about +20 inches long; bend them half-circularly and at one end by a folding +hinge having a check on one side, _b_. The other ends are bent and +beaten into two square sockets, _f_, which fit to a nut sunk and +soldered into one end of a brass tube, _d_. When so fitted, they are +secured by a large-headed screw, _e_, threaded to fit into the +nut-socket, and with a groove wide enough to receive the back of a +common pocket-knife blade. The wire hoop is easily detached and folded, +as at _c_, for convenient carriage; and the handle may be made of any +desired length by cutting a stick and fitting it into the hollow tube +_a_, which should be about 6 inches long. It is well to have two +separate hoops, one of lighter wire, furnished with silk gauze or some +other light material, for catching flying insects, and one which is +stouter and furnished with a net of stronger material for sweeping +non-flying specimens. + +"Another still more simple, but less convenient frame, is thus described +by my friend F. G. Sanborn, of Boston, Mass.: + +'Make a loop of strong iron or brass wire, of about 3-16ths of an inch +in thickness, so that the diameter of the loop or circle will not exceed +12 inches, leaving an inch to an inch and a half of wire at each end +bent at nearly right angles. Bind the two extremities of the wire +together with smaller wire (Fig. 45, _a_), and tin them by applying a +drop of muriate of zinc, then holding it in the fire or over a gas flame +until nearly red hot, when a few grains of block tin or soft solder +placed upon them will flow evenly over the whole surface and join them +firmly together. Take a Maynard rifle cartridge tube, or other brass +tube of similar dimensions; if the former, file off the closed end or +perforate it for the admission of the wire, and having tinned it in the +same manner on the inside, push a tight-fitting cork half way through +(Fig. 45, _c_) and pour into it melted tin or soft solder, and insert +the wires; if carefully done, you will have a firmly constructed and +very durable foundation for a collecting net. The cork being extracted +will leave a convenient socket for inserting a stick or walking cane to +serve as a handle.' + +[Illustration: FIG. 45.--The Sanborn net-frame.] + +"My friend, J. A. Lintner, of Albany, N. Y., makes very good use, in his +ordinary promenades, of a telescopic fish-rod, with a head (Fig. 46) +screwed on to one end, in which to fasten an elastic brass coil on which +the net is drawn, but which when not in use sits snugly inside his silk +hat. + +[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Clamp of the Lintner net.] + +"The bag should taper to the bottom, and in any case its length should +be fully twice the diameter of the hoop, so that by giving the net a +twist, the mouth may be closed and the contents thus secured. The +sweeping-net may be protected around the hoop with leather, and in use +should be kept in a steady and continued back-and-forth motion, over and +touching the plants, until the contents are to be examined; when, by +placing the head at the opening and quietly surveying the restless +inmates, the desiderata may be secured and the rest turned out. A sudden +dash of the air-net will usually lay any flying object at the bottom. A +net for aquatic insects may be made on the same principle, but should be +stout, with the meshes open enough to allow free passage of water, and +the bag not quite as deep as the diameter of the hoop. A forceps net, +which consists of two gauze or bobbinet covered frames, having riveted +handles, so as to close like a pair of scissors, is employed for small +insects; but I find little use for it. A coarse sieve, together with a +white towel or sheet, will be found of great service for special +occasions, particularly in the spring, when the search for minute +insects found under old leaves, or for pupae around the butts of trees, +is contemplated. With the sheet spread on the ground, and a few handfuls +of leaves and leafy mold sifted over it, many a minute specimen will be +separated from the coarser particles and drop to the sheet, where the +eye may readily detect it. Conversely, the earth taken from around trees +may be sifted so as to leave in the sieve such larger objects as pupae, +etc. Another favorite plan, with some collectors, of obtaining +specimens, especially night-flying moths, is by 'sugaring.' This +consists of applying to the trunks of trees or to strips of cloth +attached to the trees some sweet, attractive, and stupefying +preparation. Diluted molasses or dissolved brown sugar, mixed with rum +or beer, is most frequently employed. I have found sugaring of little +use till after the blossoming season, and it is almost impossible to so +stupefy or intoxicate an insect that it will remain upon the sugared +tree till the next morning. I generally sugar at eve, and visit the tree +several times between sundown and midnight, armed with wide-mouthed +killing-bottles and accompanied by a second person, who carries a +dark-lantern. Isolated trees, on the edges of woods, give the best +results. Everybody knows how some poor moths will persist in flitting +around a light until they singe their wings; and, as many insects are +strongly attracted to bright artificial light, it may be employed with +good results, especially during warm and damp evenings. The collector +should never go unprovided with a small box or tube full of different +sized pins (a corked cartridge-tube makes a good box,) a pair or two of +forceps, a pair of scissors, a little mucilage, and the killing +apparatus to be described." + +With these general remarks, it will be well to consider some of the +important paraphernalia more in detail. + + + COLLECTING APPARATUS. + +_The Sweeping Net._--A multitude of insects of all orders feed or rest +on grasses and other low plants. Upon close inspection of these plants a +careful observer will be able to secure, without any instruments, not +only many mature insects, but also many larvae in connection with their +food-plants. This is laborious and slow work, only necessary on special +occasions. The beating net, which is constructed on the same general +plan as the butterfly net, is valuable here as a time saver. By holding +the handle of the net firmly in one hand and quickly sweeping over the +plants first from right to left, and then, after quickly turning the net +again, sweeping from left to right, most insects coming within reach of +the sweep will fall into the bag and may be easily taken out and put +into the collecting-vials. From this mode of operation it is evident +that the sweeping net must be stronger in all its parts than the +butterfly net, but otherwise it may be made on the same plan. + +[Illustration: FIG. 47.--The Deyrolle Sweeping Net. _a_, net entire; +_b_, frame; _c_ and _d_, attachment of frame and handle (original).] + +The ring should be rigid, made of brass or iron, either of one piece or +of two pieces, and fastened to the handle or stick in the same way as +the butterfly net. The bag need not be as long as in the butterfly net, +about 18 inches being sufficient, but it should be of stout cotton or +linen and the bottom should preferably be sewed in as a round piece, so +as to avoid corners. Care needs to be bestowed on the fastening of the +bag on the ring, for by the use of the net the part of the bag sewed +around the ring is soon chafed through. To prevent this a strip of +leather is sewed over the cotton along the rim, but since even this must +be frequently renewed some other devices are used to give greater +durability to the net. In the pattern of a beating-net originally sold +by Deyrolle in Paris, the metal ring was flattened, with the narrow edge +pointing upwards and the broad side pierced with holes at suitable +intervals and grooved on the outer surface between the holes. The bag is +sewed on to the inner side of the ring by stout twine, which passes from +one hole to the next and is thus prevented from coming in contact with +obstructive objects, and only the bottom of the bag wears and will need +to be occasionally mended or renewed. + +Another method of preventing the tearing of the upper rim of the bag is +described and illustrated in Kiesenwetter's useful volume "Der +Naturaliensammler" from which I shall frequently have occasion to quote. +In this net the main ring is of rounded iron wire on which a number of +brass rings are slipped. These must be but little larger than the +diameter of the wire. These little brass rings should not be more than +30 mm. or at most 40 mm., distant from each other, and to them the upper +rim of the bag is sewed with very strong twine and is thus protected +from wear and tear. The handle or stick of the net should be firmly and +solidly attached to the ring and should be stout and not liable to +break. I prefer a rather short stick, say not longer than two feet. + +I figure herewith the ring of a very convenient net for sweeping or +beating purposes. It has the advantage of being for sale on the market, +and in fact is an ordinary fishing dip net of small size. It is hinged +in three places, as shown in the figure, and folds into very small +compass. When unfolded and brought together, it screws into a ferrule +which may be attached to a cane or a special handle. + +[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Beating net, opened and attached to handle, +with frame of same folded. (After Kiesenwetter.)] + +The beating net can be successfully used at almost every season of the +year. Even on warm days in winter time many specimens can be swept from +the dead grass. So long as the dew is on the plants or in rainy weather +no beating should be attempted, as the more delicate species are more or +less spoiled by the moisture. After one or two minutes' sweeping the +contents should be examined. Those insects which are quick to take wing +or which are good runners should first receive attention; the less +active can then be examined more at leisure. The desiderata are then +disposed of, the rest thrown away, and the beating renewed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Folding ring for beating net (original).] + +The beating net is an important instrument for collecting all insects +excepting mature Lepidoptera, which are apt to get rubbed. Many larvae, +especially of Lepidoptera, are caught by beating and are mostly in good +condition, but it is usually difficult to ascertain the food plant. + +_The Water Net._--The numerous insects or insect larvae which live in the +water can not be conveniently collected without the use of a net, except +where they live in small shallow streams or creeks with gravelly or +stony bottoms. A suitable water net can readily be made by using the +frame of the beating net and attaching to it a rather short bag of some +coarse material, _e. g._, "grass cloth," coarse millinet. The mode of +operation with this net is very simple: if some insect is seen swimming +in the water, the net is carefully brought beneath the specimen, which +is thus lifted out of the water. Most water insects are, however, not +seen swimming about freely, but hide amid the various plants, mosses, +etc., or in the mud at the base of the plants, and they can best be +captured by dragging the net through these plants. When taken from the +water the net is more or less filled with mud and parts of plants, and +the water must be allowed to run out and the contents of the net spread +out on a cloth or on a flat stone, if such be at hand. The insects are +at first not readily seen, but after a short while they begin to emerge +from the mud and crawl about, and can readily be taken up with a +forceps. + +[Illustration: FIG. 50.--The Water Net. (After Packard.)] + +_Water Dip Net._--The small water sieve, shown in the accompanying +illustration (Fig. 51), and somewhat resembling in appearance a jockey +cap, is frequently of service in collecting the larvae of aquatic +insects, especially where it is necessary to scrape submerged stones or +timbers. In use it is fastened on the end of a cane or stick, and can be +easily made by any tinsmith. + +[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Small Water Dip Net (original).] + +_The Umbrella._--The umbrella, as already stated, is one of the most +useful instruments of the collector, since it enables him to obtain all +those numerous insects which live on the branches of trees, on shrubs, +and on other large plants. A common stout cotton umbrella is +sufficiently large, but is liable to get out of joint, and moreover the +specimens hide themselves under the ribs. It is well, therefore, to have +the inside of such umbrella lined along the ribs with muslin, or some +other material, preferably of a light color. An umbrella specially +constructed for entomological purposes is offered for sale by E. +Deyrolle, in Paris. It resembles a stoutly built common umbrella, but +has the inside lined with white linen and the handle has a joint near +the middle, so that the umbrella can be more conveniently held and more +readily packed away. The opened and inverted umbrella is held with the +left hand under the branch which the collector intends to relieve of its +entomological inhabitants, while the right hand, armed with a heavy +stick, is free to properly jar the branch. Care must be taken in the +jarring, lest the insects are knocked beyond the circumference of the +umbrella. The larger the umbrella the greater are the chances of making +rich captures, but the more difficult it becomes to manipulate, +especially where the woods are dense or where there are many vines, etc. +In the absence of an umbrella the butterfly net or the beating net can +be used. + +A drawback to collecting with the umbrella is that many insects take +wing and escape before being secured. This can hardly be avoided, and +experienced collectors, in southern countries more particularly, have +found it advisable to discard the umbrella and to use in its stead a +very large butterfly net, 2 feet or more in diameter. + +[Illustration: FIG. 52.--The Umbrella and its mode of use. (After +Kiesenwetter.)] + +_The Beating Cloth._--A very simple substitute for the umbrella, and one +which can always be carried without inconvenience, may here be +described. It consists of a piece of common unbleached cotton cloth (1 +yard square), to each corner of which a loop of stout twine is sewed. +Upon reaching the woods, two straight sticks, each about 5 feet in +length and not too heavy, but also not so small as to be liable to break +or to bend too easily, are cut from a convenient bush. The sticks are +placed crosswise over the cloth and fastened to the loops at the four +ends. This is easily and quickly done by making sliding loops of the +simple loops. The cloth is thus kept spread out between the sticks, and +forms a very good substitute for an umbrella. In beating, the sticks are +held at their intersecting points. When not in use one of the loops is +detached from the stick and the instrument can be rolled up and carried +under one arm without seriously interfering with other operations of the +collector. When laid on the ground, with the sticks on the underside, +this simple instrument may be advantageously used as a cloth on which +to sift or examine fungi, moss, pieces of bark, etc., and since the +cloth is always tightly expanded, it offers a smooth and level surface, +where examination of various objects can be made with ease and accuracy. + +[Illustration: FIG. 53.--The umbrella beating and sweeping net +(original).] + +_The Umbrella Net._--A very convenient form of net for both sweeping and +for use in place of an umbrella for beating has been devised by Dr. +George Marx. (See Fig. 53.) It is constructed from an old umbrella, as +follows: To the handle of the umbrella are attached two steel rods +working on hinges at the apex of the umbrella, as do the ordinary +umbrella ribs, and attached to the sliding piece of the umbrella in the +same manner, as shown at _a_. These rods should be about 21/2 feet long. +When the sliding piece is pushed up and caught behind the spring clip, +as shown at _b_, a circular loop is formed giving the framework for the +net. The latter, which should be comparatively shallow, is made of stout +muslin and sewed to the frame, as in the ordinary sweeping net. The +enlarged drawings _c_ and _d_ illustrate clearly the manner of +constructing the frame. The advantage of this net is its convenience in +carrying and its general usefulness, taking the place of both the +umbrella and the sweeping net. When not in use the frame is allowed to +assume the position shown at A, and the net may be wrapped about the +frame and the whole inserted in an ordinary umbrella cover. + +_The Sieve._--This useful aid to good collecting has not been generally +employed by American entomologists. It facilitates the finding of small +insects living under old leaves, in moss, in decayed trees, in fungi, in +ants' nests, or in the ground. Any ordinary sieve about a foot in +diameter and with meshes of about one-fifth of an inch will answer, +though for durability and convenience of carriage one made of two wire +or brass rings and muslin (Fig. 54), as follows, is the best. The ends +of the wire netting should be bent around the ring so as not to project. +A piece of common muslin about 1 foot wide and long enough to go around +the circumference of one of the rings is then sewed together so as to +form a kind of cylinder or bag without bottom, and the upper and lower +rims of this bag are then sewed on around the two rings. The whole +instrument thus forms a bag, the top of which is kept open by the simple +wire ring, and the bottom is closed by the second ring covered with the +wire netting. After choosing a suitable locality a white cloth is spread +as evenly as possible on the ground; the collector then takes the sieve, +places therein two or three handfuls of the material to be sifted, +returns to his cloth, and, holding with his right hand the lower ring +and with the left hand the upper ring, shakes the sieve over the cloth. +The larger particles and specimens are retained in the sieve while the +smaller fall through the meshes on to the cloth. Care must be taken that +the siftings form an even and thin layer on the surface of the cloth, so +as to be easily examined from time to time. If the locality is favorable +many insects will be seen at the first glance crawling or running about, +and these can easily be picked up by means of a moistened brush, or with +the forceps. Many other insects, however, either feign death or, at any +rate, do not move until after the lapse of several minutes, and the +proper investigation of a single sifting often requires much time, and +patience will be more fully rewarded here than in any other mode of +collecting. + +[Illustration: FIG. 54.--The sieve. _a_, wire netting (original).] + +The size of the wire meshes given above is best adapted for sifting the +fragments of old decayed trees, which furnish the most frequent material +for the use of the sieve, but for sifting ants' nests, soil, etc., a +sieve with smaller meshes is desirable. + +The sieve is indispensable to the Coleopterist, the Arachnologist, and +to the specialist in the smaller Hemiptera and Hymenoptera, but it is +also useful for most other orders, many interesting species existing +which can be secured in numbers only by this mode of collecting. Many +Tineidae and even Noctuidae hide under old leaves, but the specimens are +usually rubbed and rendered useless in the process of sifting. Many +larvae and pupae can, however, thus be obtained. + +If the locality chosen for sifting prove to be a good one, it pays to +put the sifted material in a small sack and to carry it home where it +can be investigated at leisure, and with a greater thoroughness than is +usually possible outdoors. This sack can be easily arranged to be +attached to or drawn over the lower ring of the sieve, so that the +sifting can be done directly into the sack. + +As a rule it may be said that very dry places are least productive, +while more or less moist places are apt to furnish a rich harvest. Old +wet leaves lying immediately along the edges of swamps, or wet moss, +harbor many interesting insects, but such wet material is sifted with +difficulty. + +The sieve can be used with great advantage at all seasons of the year, +but more especially late in fall or early in spring, when so many +species are still hibernating. + +_The Chisel._--For securing the many insects living or hiding under bark +of dying or dead trees an instrument of some sort is indispensable, as, +in most cases, the bark so firmly adheres to the wood that it cannot be +torn off with the hand. A stout pocket-knife will do good service, but +far better is a common chisel of medium size and with a short handle. +This chisel is also useful as an instrument for digging in the ground or +for investigating the interior of partly decayed logs. + +_The Trowel._--Aside from the fact that many insects enter the ground +for the purpose of hibernation in various stages, there is a rich +subterranean life to be found during the summer. There are many +burrowing Coleoptera; many, if not most, ants construct subterranean +nests; the number of other fossorial Hymenoptera is very large, and +there are also various burrowing Orthoptera and many Lepidopterous larvae +which hide in the ground during the day. Some instrument for digging in +the ground is therefore of great importance, and while, as stated above, +the chisel will answer this purpose if nothing else be at hand, yet +there are other instruments which perform the work much quicker and more +thoroughly. The most available instrument is a rather small steel +trowel, such as can be had at the hardware stores in a great variety of +patterns, and which can be carried on excursions without much +inconvenience. One with a long and narrow blade, made very stout, I have +found very useful, though somewhat awkward to carry. + +[Illustration: FIG. 55.--The collecting tweezers.] + +_The collecting Tweezers._--In the picking up of specimens and +transferring them into the various bottles, vials, or boxes, the trained +collector will gather by hand the most delicate specimens without +injuring them. Yet this labor will be greatly facilitated by the use of +the tweezers or the brush. The former is a small, light pair of forceps, +made of steel or brass. It should be as pliable as possible, and the tip +should be narrow and rounded off and not pointed. It may be either +straight or curved at tip, according to individual preference. + +[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Pinning forceps.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Pinning forceps.] + +Suitable tweezers may be obtained at the larger hardware stores or of +watchmakers. Excellent tweezers made of steel (see Fig. 55) are sold for +about 40 cents a pair by Codman, Shurtleff & Co., Tremont street, +Boston, Mass. Aside from their utility in picking up specimens from the +collecting cloth or the umbrella, the tweezers are indispensable for +extracting insects from cracks, or holes in timber, or from their +burrows in branches and stems of plants, or from places whence it is +impossible to dislodge them by hand. The larger "collecting forceps," +sold by various dealers, do good service in certain emergencies, as when +large scorpions or other very large and ferocious insects are to be +secured. + +[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Pinning forceps for Lepidoptera.] + +For the handling of mounted insects various special forceps are +employed, a number of styles of which are shown at Figs. 56-8. + +_The Brush._--A common camel's hair brush, of smaller or larger size +according to individual preference, is useful for picking up very small +or soft-bodied insects. For this purpose the brush is slightly moistened +with saliva, and the tip brought in contact with the specimen, which +then adheres to the brush, so that it can readily and without injury be +transferred to the collecting bottle or box. The brush is indispensable +also for preparing small specimens for the cabinet. If taken into the +field the handle of the brush should be of a bright color, otherwise the +brush is often lost. + +[Illustration: FIG. 59.--The Fumigator. (After Kiesenwetter).] + +_The Fumigator._--This is not used by American collectors, but there are +several patterns sold by European dealers. It is intended to smoke out +specimens that hide in otherwise inaccessible places, _e. g._, cracks in +the ground, holes in hard wood, etc. The accompanying figure and the +following description of a fumigator are taken from Kiesenwetter. A +common smoking-pipe mouthpiece (Fig. 59, _a_) with flexible rubber joint +(_b_) is attached to the cover (_c_) of a very large smoking-pipe head +(_d_). To the mouth (_e_) of the latter a rubber hose (_f_) is attached, +which has a convenient discharge at its end (_g_). The pipe is then +filled with tobacco, and the latter ignited by means of a piece of +burning tinder placed on top; the cover is then screwed on, and the +smoke can be directed to any desired point by blowing air through the +mouthpiece. The smoke from a common pipe or cigar is often useful. In +sifting in cold weather a puff of tobacco smoke gently blown over the +debris on the collecting cloth will induce many specimens to move, which +otherwise "play possum" and could not be observed; and, further, tobacco +smoke blown into holes and cracks in timber by means of an improvised +funnel made of a piece of paper will be the means of securing many rare +specimens. + +_The Haversack._--In order that the above-mentioned instruments and the +various bottles, vials, and boxes which are needed for the preservation +of specimens may most conveniently and with the least impediment to the +collector be carried along on excursions, a haversack is indispensable. +This is made either of leather or, still better, of some waterproof +cloth, and should contain various compartments of different sizes; one +for stowing away the nets, the sieve, and the larger instruments, and +several smaller ones for boxes and vials--the whole so arranged that +each desired object can readily be taken out and that nothing will drop +out and get lost. The haversack is slung across the shoulders by means +of a leather strap, and a full field outfit need not be very heavy nor +seriously interfere with free bodily movements. + +Many of the smaller objects are most conveniently carried in the pockets +of the coat, which acquires, therefore, some importance to the +collector. The coat should be of some durable stuff and provided with +many pockets, so arranged that in stooping nothing falls out of them. + +_The Lens and Microscope._--In the examination of the minuter forms of +insect life the naked eye is not sufficient, and a hand-lens, or, for +more delicate work, the compound microscope will be found necessary. I +had, in my early experience, some difficulty in getting a satisfactory +hand-lens, and the use of a poor hand-lens in time injures the eyesight, +as I know by a year's rather disagreeable experience. For a hand-lens +the achromatic lenses formerly manufactured by A. K. Eaton, of Brooklyn, +N. Y., and now made by John Green, 35 Liverpool street, East Boston, +Mass., are most excellent in workmanship and are satisfactory in every +respect. A very good lens can also be purchased of any of the leading +manufacturers of microscopical apparatus in this country. The kind of +compound microscope to be purchased will depend upon the nature of the +work of the investigator. Very serviceable instruments are made by J. W. +Queen & Co., Philadelphia, Pa., and by the Bausch & Lomb Optical +Company, of Rochester, N. Y., and others. The German microscopes are in +many respects superior to those of American make, and if one has +sufficient means, I would recommend the purchase of one of the better +instruments of Zeiss's manufacture, which may be obtained either direct +from the manufacturers or through Queen & Co., or from the Boston +Educational Supply Company. Microscopic material, including slides, +cover glasses, instruments for mounting, mounting media, staining +fluids, etc., may be obtained of either of the firms named above. + +Having thus indicated somewhat fully the general methods of collecting, +and the paraphernalia most desirable in collecting, it will be well to +go still further into detail, and in connection with the different +orders give some more specific information that will be valuable as a +guide not only to the general collector, but to the specialist. + + + COLLECTING HYMENOPTERA. + +The insects of this order, including Bees, Wasps, Ants, Ichneumon-flies, +Gall-flies, Saw-flies, and allied insects have always been of unusual +interest both to entomologists and non-entomologists on account of their +diversified and peculiar habits. In abundance of species they exceed +perhaps even the Coleoptera. In general they are day fliers and always +to be found in abundance on bright days about flowers. The best season +for collecting is in early spring, on the bloom of the Willow, Alder, +and other trees. They may also be found at any season of the year, but +the males of many species are only to be taken in fall. In this order, +species of many groups can be most easily obtained by breeding. This +includes the gall-making family, Cynipidae, and the parasitic families +Chalcididae, Proctotrypidae, Ichneumonidae and Braconidae. The Chrysididae +and certain other less important families are also parasitic, but are +more easily obtained by general collecting. The implements necessary for +collecting Hymenoptera are the sweeping-net and the beating-net. Many +rare forms of the smaller parasitic families may be obtained by sweeping +the grass and foliage of all sorts. The Proctotrypidae may be collected +in quantity by sifting leaves and rubbish collected in the woods. Mr. +William H. Ashmead, who has made an especial study of this group, finds +winter sifting profitable. Dried leaves and rubbish are sifted, the +finer portion being retained and transferred to a bag. When a sufficient +quantity is collected it is removed to a warm room. Many hibernating +species are taken in this way, and, revived by the warmth, are easily +noticed when the material is spread on white paper. + +[Illustration: FIG. 60.--A Saw-fly (Nematus ventralis). _a_, _a_, _a_, +young larvae; _b_, full-grown larva; _c_, cocoon; _d_, adult; all +slightly enlarged.] + +On account of the interest attaching to a knowledge of the various hosts +of parasitic insects the collector should always aim to obtain the +latter by breeding as much as possible. This can easily be done by +keeping a lookout for larvae of all sorts which give evidence of being +parasitized. The larvae of Lepidoptera found late in the fall are very +apt to be parasitized, and should be collected and kept over the winter. +The parasites will emerge throughout the winter season and in the early +spring. Such larvae will be found on the trunks of trees, in the crevices +of the bark, and the cocoons of parasites will also be found in similar +situations. + +The Tenthredinidae (Saw-flies) are not so often found about flowers but +usually remain in the vicinity of the food-plant of the larva, and may +many of them be collected by sweeping. The larvae of this family are in +many cases difficult to breed, as most of them are single-brooded, and +it becomes necessary to carry the larvae over the winter. + +The Gall-flies, Cynipidae, are the easiest of the families to collect, +because of their abundance and because of the ease with which they may +be reared. Their galls occur in enormous variety on oaks of various +species and also upon brambles and certain common weeds. These should be +collected when mature and be kept in glass jars. The Gall-flies and +inquilinous and parasitic species may thus be easily obtained, the +former appearing at particular seasons and the latter emerging from the +galls at all seasons of the year, and sometimes continuing to escape for +a period exceeding two years. + +One of the most interesting families in this order is the Formicidae, +which comprises the true ants. In the case of these insects isolated +specimens should not ordinarily be collected, and it is especially +desirable to collect the species from colonies so that the three forms +(males, females, and workers) may be obtained together. This holds also +in the case of the social wasps and bees, but the different sexes of the +latter may be collected in a season's collecting about flowers, the +females and workers in early spring and the males in the fall. + +[Illustration: FIG. 61.--An Ichneumon (_Ophion_).] + +The Uroceridae or woodborers are to be found only about trees in which +the larvae breed. They may frequently be taken about tree trunks, or +burrowing with their long gimlet-like ovipositors into the trunks of +trees to oviposit. Breeding is also a satisfactory method of obtaining +these insects. + +Some special methods of collecting Hymenoptera may be briefly outlined. +In the case of the social bees, particularly bumble-bees, and also the +smaller wasps and yellow-jackets, a very satisfactory method of +collecting consists in first stupefying the insects in the nest by +introducing a small amount of chloroform, benzine, or bisulphide of +carbon. This should preferably be done in the late evening, after all +the insects have come in for the night. The nest may then be opened and +examined without any danger of being stung, and the different forms may +thus easily be obtained, together with any rare parasitic or inquilinous +insects. In the case of the nests of Bombi this is the best method of +obtaining the inquilinous Apathus species. + +On account of the danger of being stung, and also on account of the +extremely quick flight of these insects, the removing of Hymenoptera +from the net is not always an easy task, and in many cases rare +specimens escape. One method of avoiding the danger of being stung is to +have the collecting net constructed with an opening at the bottom which, +during the sweeping, is tied with a string. When a sufficient quantity +of insects is obtained they are, by a few quick motions, driven to the +bottom of the net, and the net is then seized just above the insects +with the hand, the folds of cloth preventing the insects from getting +to the hand, so that there is little danger of being stung. The lower +end is then carefully untied and inserted into a wide-mouthed bottle, +and the contents of the net shaken out into the bottle. After the catch +is stupefied the vial may be turned out and the undesirable material +discarded. A second method consists in the use of an ordinary +sweeping-net of light material. A quantity of Hymenoptera are collected +from flowers and driven to the bottom of the net, and secured as in the +preceding method. The portion of the net containing the insects is then, +by means of a pair of forceps, thrust bodily into a large collecting +bottle. After a few minutes the insects are stupefied and may be readily +examined. + +[Illustration: FIG. 62.--The Little Red Ant (_Monomorium pharaonis_). +_a_, female; _b_, worker enlarged.] + + + COLLECTING COLEOPTERA. + +GENERAL DIRECTIONS.--Owing to their hard outer skeleton, Coleoptera can +be collected, handled, and preserved with greater safety and with less +trouble than most other orders of insects. From this fact, and from +their very great diversity in form, Coleoptera have, next to the +Lepidoptera, always been favorites. As a consequence, there are now more +species described in this than in any other order, and in the large +museums they are much better represented than other insects. This rich +material has been studied by numerous and competent specialists, and the +classification of Coleoptera is at present more advanced and more +accessible than that of the other orders. This fact gives stimulus to +neophytes, and though the literature of our North American fauna is much +scattered and we are still in want of comprehensive works (with the +exception of the general "Classification" by Drs. Le Conte and Horn), +yet, except in a few hitherto neglected families and smaller groups, the +species are fairly well worked up. + +On the other hand, our knowledge of the earlier states of Coleoptera is +yet very imperfect as compared with the Lepidoptera. Coleopterous larvae +are, with few exceptions (notably Coccinellidae and some Chrysomelidae), +much more difficult to find and rear, and their distinguishing +characters are more difficult to study. The few comprehensive works on +Coleopterous larvae that have been published are based on rather scant +material and none of them deal with the North American fauna. + +[Illustration: FIG. 63.--A Ground-beetle (_Calosoma calidum_). _a_, +larva; _b_, adult.] + +Coleoptera occur in all climates and in all localities. Species are +known from the highest northern latitudes ever reached by man, and in +the tropics they occur in an embarrassing richness of forms. They are +found in the most arid desert lands, in the depths of our subterranean +caves, and on our highest mountains up to the line of eternal snow. The +open ocean and the open water of our Great Lakes are the only regions +free from them. As a rule, the number of species gradually increases +from the Arctic regions toward the tropics, but it would be difficult to +decide, speaking of North America, whether or not the fauna of the +Middle States is poorer in the number of species than that of the +Southern States; or whether the beetles of the Atlantic slope outnumber +those of the Pacific States or those of the Central region. On the +Pacific slope the influence of the seasons on insect life is greater +than on the Atlantic slope. While in the latter region a number of +species may be found the whole year round, there is, in the more arid +regions of the West, an abundance of insect life during and shortly +after the rainy season, with great scarcity during the dry season, +except, perhaps, on the high mountains. + +Few persons have had a more extended experience in collecting Coleoptera +than Mr. E. A. Schwarz, one of my assistants, and the following account +has been prepared by him at my request and is given _in extenso_. + +WINTER COLLECTING.--There are more species of Coleoptera hibernating in +the imago state[3] than in any other order and winter collecting is +therefore most profitable in many respects. For instance, great swampy +tracts which are inaccessible in the summer season harbor an abundance +of rare Coleoptera, which either can not be found in summer time or are +found at that season with the greatest difficulty. At the approach of +winter, however, all or most of these species will leave the swamp and +seek drier ground, where they hibernate under old leaves, under bark of +trees, or in rotten stumps near the edge of the swamp. Such places will, +therefore, give a rich harvest to the Coleopterist late in the fall, +during warm spells in midwinter, and in very early spring. If the +temperature is below the freezing point, or if the ground is frozen +hard, no winter collecting should be attempted, first, on account of +sanitary considerations, and also because the Coleoptera then retreat +more deeply into the ground and can not be found so easily as when the +ground is free from frost. Other good collecting places in winter are +the accumulated old leaves along the edges of forests or under the +shrubbery along water courses, thick layers of moss, and the loose bark +of dead or dying trees, and, finally, also under the bark of certain +living trees, _e. g._ Pines, Sycamore, Shellbark Hickory. Digging in the +ground at the base of large trees or rocks also yields good returns. The +only instruments necessary for winter collecting are the sieve, the +chisel, and the trowel. + + [3] There are a few species of Coleoptera known in Europe which belong + to the true "winter insects," _i. e._ such as appear in the imago state + only during winter time, but whether or not we have such species in our + own fauna has not yet been ascertained. + +SPRING COLLECTING.--With the first days of spring, collecting becomes a +little more varied. The methods used for winter collecting can still be +continued with good success. Certain spring flowers, notably Willow +blossoms, will furnish many valuable species, which are not seen again +during the rest of the season. + +[Illustration: FIG. 64.--A Lamellicorn (_Pelidnota punctata_). _a_, +larva; _b_, pupa; _c_, beetle; _d_, _e_, _f_, enlarged parts.] + +_Myrmecophilous and Termitophilous species._--The early spring is also +the best time for collecting the Myrmecophilous and Termitophilous +Coleoptera. Termitophilous species have in North America hitherto been +found only in connection with the White-ants (_Termes flavipes_), and +the inquilinous beetles are found running among the White-ants in the +colonies under stones, loose bark of trees, and more numerously in the +interior of old infested trees. Myrmecophilous Coleoptera are by far +more numerous in species than the Termitophilous species and are found +among many species of ants which have their nests either under stones or +loose bark of trees, in stumps or logs, or which construct larger or +smaller hills. Upon uncovering a colony of ants under a stone, the +underside of the latter as well as the galleries of the ants in the +ground should be carefully examined for inquilines, which from their +greater or slighter resemblance to the ants are liable to be overlooked +by an inexperienced collector. If such colony of ants harbors a rare +beetle the subterranean part of the colony itself should be dug out and +sifted, but since from the stony nature of the ground this is not always +practicable it is to be recommended to carefully replace the stone under +which the colony has been found. Upon revisiting the spot again the next +day or even a few hours after the first visit additional specimens of +the inquilines are usually to be obtained on the stone or in the +superficial galleries of the ants. Ant colonies in hollow trees and in +rotten logs should be sifted and there is no particular difficulty +connected with this operation. Owing to the pugnacious character of the +hill-constructing ants it would seem to be a rather unpleasant task to +examine a strong and vigorous colony for inquilinous beetles, but the +collector must not mind being bitten and stung by the infuriated ants, +and after a little experience he will find that it is not such a +difficult thing after all to attack even the largest ant-hill. The only +thorough way of investigating such ant-hills is to sieve the same, which +can be easily done if the hill is composed of sticks and other vegetable +debris. If it is built of earth or sand the process of sifting is more +difficult and tedious. Another method of securing specimens of these +inquilinous beetles is to place flat stones or similar objects on the +surface of the ant-hill and to examine them occasionally, when the +beetles will be found on the underside of the traps. + +_Spring Flights of Coleoptera._--On the first really warm days of spring +commences the "swarming" season of Coleoptera, when all winged species +are flying about, especially toward evening. On favorable days the +number of specimens and species that can thus be found is astonishingly +great, and this is one of the few occasions when the Coleopterist can +advantageously use a light butterfly net. The flying beetles preferably +alight and rest on the top of wooden fences (especially newly made +ones), on the railings of bridges, etc., where they can be easily seen +and secured, or they are attracted in great numbers by the white-painted +surface of buildings. This flying season lasts in the latitude of +Washington from the end of April to the middle of June, but favorable +days are not of frequent occurrence, since a peculiar combination of +atmospheric conditions appears to be necessary to induce the Coleoptera +to fly about in great numbers. + +_Beach collecting._--Along the shores of the ocean and the Great Lakes +untold numbers of Coleoptera and other insects fall at this season into +the water, and, if the tides, the currents, and the winds be favorable, +they are washed ashore by the waves on the sandy beaches, where they +often form windrows several inches in height and width. If the collector +is happy enough to be at the right place on the right day he has then +the opportunity to pick up hundreds of rare species within a very short +time and without any trouble. Many of the specimens thus washed ashore +are dead and decayed, but the majority are alive and in excellent +condition. This "beach collecting" affords also an excellent opportunity +for the Hymenopterist and Hemipterist to secure large numbers of rare +species, but favorable days are also here of rare occurrence. + +_Attracting by Lights._--On the beaches, day and night flying insects +can thus be captured. Away from the beach night-flying Coleoptera can +best be collected at the electric lights of our cities; but, as in the +Lepidoptera, not all night-flying species are attracted by the light. +Gas and other lights also attract Coleoptera, and the various "light +traps" that have been devised and described can advantageously be used +for collecting these insects. + +_Traps._--The method of "sugaring," so important to the Lepidopterist, +is by far less favorable for collecting Coleoptera. Still, certain rare +Carabidae, Elateridae, and Cerambycidae are attracted by this bait, and the +Coleopterist should not entirely ignore this mode of collecting. There +are a few other methods of trapping certain Coleoptera. By laying out +dead mammals, birds, fishes, snakes, etc., on suitable places and so +that they are protected from dogs, rats, etc., the carrion-feeding +Coleoptera can be found in great abundance, but a cleaner and less +disagreeable method of obtaining them is to bury in the ground tin cans +or glass jars so that the top is even with the surrounding ground and to +bait them with pieces of meat, fried fish, boiled eggs, etc. Many +Curculionidae, Scolytidae, and numerous other wood-inhabiting species can +be successfully trapped in the following way: A number of branches, +preferably of only one kind of tree, are cut and tied up into bundles of +convenient size. The bundles are then laid on the ground in a shady +place or firmly fastened on trunks of trees. When the cut branches begin +to get dry they will attract many of these Coleoptera, which can then be +readily collected by shaking the bundles out over the collecting cloth. + +[Illustration: FIG. 65.--An Elaterid (_Pyrophorus noctilucus_). (From +Packard.)] + +_Freshets._--Freshets usually take place in springtime in most of our +rivers and creeks, and furnish the means of obtaining a multitude of +Coleoptera, among which there will be many species which can not, or +only accidentally, be found otherwise. These freshets, sweeping over the +low banks or inundating wide stretches of low land, carry with them all +insects that have been caught by the inundation. Intermingled with, and +usually clinging to, the various floating debris, these insects are +eventually washed ashore by the current at various points and the +Coleopterist should not miss this rare opportunity, but go out to the +river bank at a time when the water is still rising, or at least when it +has attained its highest point. Among, or on the washed up debris, a +multitude of Coleoptera of various families can be found, and the +specimens can either be gathered up on the spot or a quantity of the +debris be put in sacks and taken home, where it can be examined more +thoroughly and with greater leisure than out of doors. A day or so after +the floods have receded the washed up specimens will have dispersed and +only a few will remain in the debris for a longer period. Still more +profitable than the spring floods are the summer freshets, because a +larger and more diversified lot of Coleoptera is then brought down by +the water. A similar opportunity for collecting is offered near the +seashore if unusually high tides inundate the low marshes along the +bayous and inlets. + +[Illustration: FIG. 66.--A Longicorn (_Prionus laticollis_).] + +SUMMER COLLECTING.--During the latter part of spring and throughout the +whole summer, when the vegetation is fully developed, every possible +collecting method can be carried on with success, so that the beginner +hardly knows what particular method to use. There are stones to be +turned over; old logs, stumps, and hollow trees to be investigated; +newly felled or wounded trees to be carefully inspected; here a spot +favorable for sifting claims attention; promising meadows and low +herbage in the woods invite the use of the sweeping net; living or dead +branches of all sorts of trees and shrubs to be worked with the +umbrella; the mud or gravel banks of ponds, lakes, rivers, and creeks +afford excellent collecting places; the numerous aquatic beetles are to +be collected in the water itself; the dung beetles to be extracted from +their unsavory habitations; in the evening the electric and other lights +are to be visited, the lightning beetles chased on meadows and in the +woods, or the wingless but luminous females of some species of this +family to be looked for on the ground, and the trees and shrubs are to +be beaten after dark in search of May beetles and other nocturnal +leaf-feeding species which can not be obtained at daytime; and, finally, +some of the rarest Scarabaeidae and some other species fly only late at +night or again only before sunrise. + +In view of this embarrassing multitude of collecting opportunities in a +good locality, the beginner is apt to be at a loss what course to +pursue. Experience alone can teach here, and only an expert collector is +able to decide, at a glance at the locality before him, what collecting +method is likely to produce the best results, and his judgment will +rarely be at fault. + +It is impossible to go into details regarding the various collecting +methods, just mentioned, and only a few general directions can be given +regarding those methods which have not previously been alluded to. + +_Collecting under Stones._--Turning over stones is a favorite method +among beginners and yields chiefly Carabidae, the larger Staphylinidae, +certain Curculionidae, and a multitude of species of other families. +Stones on very dry ground are productive, only early in spring or in the +fall, while those on moist ground, in the shade of woods, are good at +all seasons. In the Alpine regions of our mountainous districts, +especially above the timber line, collecting under stones becomes the +most important method, and is especially favorable along the edges of +snow fields. In often frequented localities the collector should +carefully replace the stones, especially those under which he has found +rare specimens. The neglect of this rule is one of the principal causes +for certain rare species having become extinct in the vicinity of our +cities. + +_Collecting in rotten Stumps and Logs._--Success in collecting in rotten +stumps depends much upon the more or less advanced stage of decay as +well as upon the situation of the log and upon the particular kind of +wood. If the decay is very much advanced neither the loose bark nor the +interior of the log will harbor many Coleoptera excepting a multitude of +_Passalus cornutus_ and its larvae. If the decay is less advanced, but if +such log is exposed to the scorching rays of the sun, it will be far +less productive than a log in a shady situation. The investigation of +the bark of a favorably situated log in the right stage of decay does +not need any special instruction, but the decayed wood itself should be +pried off with a chisel or trowel, put in the sieve and sifted on the +collecting cloth. This is the best way of obtaining the numerous species +of rare Micro-coleoptera of various families that inhabit such places. A +"red rotten" oak or beech log is more favorable for this mode of +collecting than a "white rotten" of the same or other kinds of trees. + +_Collecting in dying or dead Trees._--Dying or dead trees almost always +harbor a large number of Coleoptera and offer an excellent collecting +opportunity until the wood becomes thoroughly dry, which usually takes +place in large trees two or three years after the death of the tree, and +in less time with smaller ones. The bark of such trees is the best +collecting place for Cucujidae, Colydiidae, Scolytidae, Histeridae, etc., +and it will be found that the shady side of the tree is more profitable +than the side exposed to the sun. The numerous Buprestidae, Elateridae, +Ptinidae, Cerambycidae, Melandryidae, etc., which breed in the wood can be +obtained only with difficulty. Some specimens may be cut out from their +holes by a skillful use of the knife or hatchet; others (especially the +Buprestidae) may be found resting on or crawling over the trunk in the +bright sunshine, while the more nocturnal species may be found on the +tree toward evening or after dark, when, of course, a lantern must be +used. A large proportion of the species living in the trunks of dead +trees also breed in the dead branches of otherwise healthy trees from +which they can be beaten into the umbrella, or where the use of the +knife is more practicable than in the large trunks. The trunks of +freshly felled trees attract numbers of Cerambycidae and Buprestidae and +have to be carefully looked over, while the drying foliage of such trees +affords an excellent opportunity for the use of the umbrella. + +_Beating living Trees, Shrubs, and Vines._--The success of beating into +the umbrella branches of living trees and shrubs depends on the +particular kind of tree or shrub, on the condition and situation of +these, and largely also upon the season. Pine trees are very productive +from early in the spring to early in the summer, but much less so in +midsummer and later on. Young Oak trees or Oak shrubs are much more +preferred by the leaf-eating Coleoptera peculiar to this tree than the +older trees. The Beech, which, next to the Oak, is the best tree for +wood-boring species, harbors but few leaf-eating species. The leaves of +the Chestnut are also generally not attacked by Coleoptera; still a +surprising number of species can be beaten from this tree when it is in +blossom. There is not a single species of Coleoptera known to live in +the wood or to feed on the leaves of the Holly (_Ilex glabra_); still it +will pay the Coleopterist to beat this tree when it is in bloom. Trees, +shrubs, and vines in the interior of unbroken forest districts are, as a +rule, unproductive, while the edges of the woods, narrow strips of +hedges, and especially solitary trees are excellent collecting places. +In the Rocky Mountains, especially in the more southern sections, long +stretches of mountain slopes are occasionally perfectly bare of +vegetation with the exception of a few solitary, sickly-looking, and +dwarfed trees, but every one of these is a veritable gold mine to the +Coleopterist with his umbrella. + +_Sweeping._--The use of the beating net continues profitable from spring +till fall, a different set of species appearing with each season. Low +and swampy meadows, meadows on the slopes of mountains or surrounded by +woods, low underbrush, and herbage in smaller patches of woods are very +good beating grounds. Dry and sandy meadows are less productive, but +harbor usually a different set of species on account of the difference +in the flora. Pastures and meadows much frequented by cattle and horses +are much less productive, and where a large number of sheep are kept +there is usually no chance for using the beating net, since neither +grass nor specimens are left. The lawns in our parks and gardens are +usually poor collecting ground on account of the limited variety of +plants in such places; but the few species found there occur in enormous +number of specimens. The endless stretches of our western prairies swarm +at the right season (in June) with numerous Coleoptera (mostly +Malachiidae, Chrysomelidae, Mordellidae, Curculionidae, etc.), provided +prairie fires have not swept too frequently over the place. Fires and +cattle produce a remarkable change in the flora and fauna of the +prairies; many indigenous species disappear or become scarce and are +replaced by a much smaller number of imported species. + +[Illustration: FIG. 67.--A Dermestid (_Anthrenus scrophulariae_). _a_, +larva, dorsal view; _b_, larva, ventral view; _c_, pupa; _d_, adult--all +enlarged.] + +Sweeping may commence in the forenoon as soon as the dew has +disappeared; it is less profitable in the heat of the midday, but +produces the best results late in the afternoon and more especially in +the short interval from just before sunset until dark. At this time many +rare Pselaphidae and Scydmaenidae, species of the genera _Colon_ and +_Anisotoma_, and other small Silphidae can be beaten from the tips of +grasses, all being species which can not, or only accidentally, be found +during daytime, when they hide between the roots of plants. + +_Collecting on mud and gravel Banks._--The mud or gravel banks of +rivers, creeks, and stagnant bodies of water are inhabited, especially +early in summer, with an astonishing multitude of Coleoptera. Countless +specimens of smaller Carabidae (_Dyschirius_, _Clivina_, _Bembidium_, +_Tachys_, etc.) and Staphylinidae (_Tachyusa_, _Philonthus_, _Actobius_, +_Stenus_, _Lathrobium_, _Trogophlaeus_ and many other genera) will be +seen actively running over the mud or sand; many other specimens are +hiding under the pebbles in company with other species (_Cryptohypnus_, +_Georyssus_, etc.) or in little subterranean galleries (_Dyschirius_, +_Bledius_, _Heterocerus_). All these beetles must be collected by +picking them up with the fingers, an operation which, owing to the +activity of the specimens, requires some little practice. The beginner +will at first crush or otherwise injure many of the delicate specimens, +the capture of which is moreover by no means facilitated by the rapidity +with which most of them are able to take wing. The collector must +necessarily kneel down and he must not mind getting covered with mud. A +good device for driving these species out of their galleries or from +their hiding places under stones or in cracks of the ground is to pour +water over the banks, and this can in most cases be done with the hand. +Larger stones and pieces of wood or bark lying on the bank are favorite +hiding places of certain larger Carabidae (_Nebria_, _Chlaenius_, +_Platynus_, etc.), and should of course be turned over. Finally, the +moss growing on rocks and logs close to the water's edge, and in which, +besides other beetles, some rare Staphylinidae and the Byrrhid genus +_Limnichus_ can be found, should be scraped off and investigated on the +collecting cloth or on the surface of a flat rock, if such be +conveniently at hand. + +_Collecting aquatic Beetles._--The fishing for water beetles in deeper +water by means of the water net has already been alluded to (p. [32]), +but many species live in shallow brooks with stony or gravelly bottom, +where the water net can not be used. The Dytiscidae and Hydrophilidae +living in such places usually hide under stones, and can in most cases +be easily picked up with the hand, or a little tin dipper or a spoon +will be found convenient for catching them. The species of the family +Parnidae are found on the underside of rough stones or logs which are +either partially or entirely submerged. They are more numerous, however, +in the moss or among the roots of other plants that grow in the water. +Such plants have to be pulled out and examined over the collecting +cloth. + +[Illustration: FIG. 68.--A Tiger Beetle (_Cicindela limbata_), drawn by +Miss Sullivan--enlarged.] + +_Collecting at the Seashore and on sandy Places._--A large number of +species belonging to various families live exclusively in the vicinity +of the ocean, some on the open beach, others along the inlets, bayous, +or salt marshes, and still others on the dry sand dunes. The Cicindelae +are actively running or flying about close to the water's edge and have +to be captured with the butterfly net. The remaining maritime species +live hidden under the seaweed and other debris cast up by the waves, or +in the sand (sometimes quite deep below the surface) beneath the debris +or between the roots of the plants growing on the dunes. The majority of +the maritime species do not appear before June (in the Middle States), +but the collecting remains good until September. + +[Illustration: FIG. 69.--The Beaver Parasite (_Platypsyllus castoris_), +adult--greatly enlarged.] + +In dry sandy places away from the seashore, the collecting at the roots +of plants is especially to be recommended, and the plants, and more +especially the bunches of coarse grasses usually growing in such places, +should be pulled up and shaken out over the collecting cloth. This mode +of collecting acquires a great importance in the arid regions of the +West and Southwest, where, in the warm season, nearly all Coleoptera are +hiding during daytime in the ground at the roots of plants. + +_Collecting Dung-beetles._--The collecting of the numerous species +(_Hydrophilidae_, _Staphylinidae_, _Histeridae_, _Scarabaeidae_, etc.) which +live in the droppings of various animals is by no means an agreeable +task. The collector should provide himself with a pointed stick and +collecting tweezers, and must manage to pick up the specimens as best he +can. The larger specimens are best collected in alcohol, while the more +delicate species can be collected in a cleaner condition by removing the +droppings and sifting the ground beneath the same. Some species hide +deep in the ground beneath the droppings and have to be dug out. Summer +freshets, when pasture lands are inundated, offer an excellent +opportunity for collecting the dung-inhabiting species in a clean +condition. + +_Night Collecting._--The beating of trees and shrubs after dark is a +good method of obtaining Lachnosternas and other species, and here the +collector will do well to secure the assistance of a companion, who +takes charge of the lantern and the collecting bottles, while the +collector himself works the umbrella. + +FALL COLLECTING.--From the first of August the number of species +gradually diminishes, but late in the summer or early in fall quite a +number of other species make their appearance, _e. g._, some +Chrysomelidae, Cerambycidae, and many Meloidae. Many of these frequent the +blossoms of Golden-rods, umbelliferous and other late-flowering plants. +The fall is also the best season for collecting Coleoptera living in +fungi. Although puff-balls, toadstools, and the numerous fungi and +moulds growing on old trees, etc., furnish many species of Coleoptera +also earlier in the season, yet most fungi, and more especially the +toadstools, flourish best in the fall, and consequently there is then +the greatest abundance of certain species of Coleoptera. Decaying +toadstools are especially rich, and should be sifted, and the collector +should also not omit to examine the soil beneath them. + +During the "Indian summer" there is usually a repetition of the "spring +flight" of Coleoptera, though on a smaller scale, and collecting on the +tops of fence posts and on whitewashed walls again becomes good. The +first really sharp frost causes these late species to disappear, and +winter collecting commences again. + + + COLLECTING LEPIDOPTERA. + +In this order the importance of collecting the early states and of +rearing the adult insects rather than of catching the latter should, if +the collector has the advancement of knowledge and the greatest pleasure +in mind, be insisted upon. Collected specimens, in the majority of +cases, will be more or less rubbed or damaged and unfit for permanent +keeping, and will always be far inferior to freshly reared specimens. +All Lepidopterists, therefore, rely to a great extent upon breeding +rather than upon field collecting. There are, however, many species of +which the early states are still unknown, and these can only be taken by +field collecting, and by attracting to various lights or traps. This +subject, therefore, naturally falls into two categories--(1) the general +collecting of the adult, and (2) collecting the early stages and rearing +the perfect insects. + +[Illustration: FIG. 70.--The Eight-spotted Forester (_Alypia +octomaculata_). _a_, larva; _b_, enlarged segment of same; _c_, moth.] + +_Collecting the Adult._--The implements for the general collecting of +butterflies comprise the collecting net, and in some cases the beating +net, although the use of the latter will not often be called for. The +Rhopalocera or Diurnals may be taken about flowers, and the best season +is in the early spring. Most of them are double-brooded, and the second +brood will be in the greatest abundance during July and August. They +are, however, to be found throughout the summer. They are also to be +looked for in the neighborhood of the food-plants of their larvae, and in +the case of many species, examination of such plants affords the most +satisfactory means of collecting. The food of butterflies is almost +exclusively the nectar of flowers, but strangely enough they are also +attracted to decaying animal matter, and many species, including rare +forms, may be taken about decaying animal matter or resting on spots +where dead animals have lain, or beneath which they have been buried. +Moist spots of earth are also frequented by them, especially in dry +seasons. Many of the larger butterflies, whose larvae feed on the taller +shrubs and the foliage of trees, will be found fluttering about the open +spaces in forests, but by far the larger number, as the Browns, the +Blues, the Yellows, and the Whites, which develop on the lower +herbaceous and succulent plants, will be found flying over fields, +prairies, and gardens. Crepuscular and nocturnal Lepidoptera, comprising +most of the Heterocera, the Sphingidae, Bombycids, Noctuids, etc., have +different habits. The Sphingidae or Hawk Moths fly in early evening, and +may be collected in quantity about such plants as the Honeysuckle, +Thistle, Verbena, Petunia, etc. The Bombycids and many Noctuids also fly +in the early evening, but mostly at night. The former, however, do not +frequent flowers, except such as are the food-plants of their larvae, as +their mouth-parts are rudimentary, and they take no nourishment. + +[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Collecting Pill-box. _a_, glass bottom +(original).] + +Collecting by the aid of strong light is a favorite means for moths as +well as other insects, and nowadays the electric lights in all large +cities furnish the best collecting places, and hundreds of species may +be taken in almost any desired quantity. In woods or in other situations +they may be attracted to a lantern or to a light placed in an open +window. Various traps have been devised, which comprise a lamp with +apparatus for retaining and stupefying the insects attracted to the +light. The common form is made by providing a lantern with a strong +reflector. Under the light a funnel several inches larger than the +lantern reaches down into a box or bottle containing the fumes of +chloroform, ether, or benzine. + +[Illustration: FIG. 72.--Method of holding and manipulating collecting +pill-box in capturing (original).] + +Mr. Jerome McNeill describes at length and figures in the _American +Naturalist_, Vol. XXIII, p. 268-270, an insect trap to be used in +connection with electric lights. It consists of a tin pail or can +charged with cyanide after the manner of a collecting bottle, which is +attached beneath the globe of the electric light. + +The insects attracted by the light strike against a vertical tin screen +fixed above the can and fall into a tin funnel the small end of which +enters and closes the mouth of the can, and they are thus conducted into +the last. A support or post in the center of the can bears a hollow tin +cone, the apex of which is pierced with a number of small holes to admit +light, and enters and partly closes the lower end of the funnel. The +entire interior of the can is painted black and the chief light comes +through the holes in the apex of the interior cone. The entrapped +insects endeavor to escape by crawling up the central post towards the +light coming through the small holes in the end of the cone rather than +by the entrance slit about the latter and fall back repeatedly until +overcome by the cyanide. + +Many of the Lepidoptera will be ruined by the beetles and other insects +or by their own ineffectual attempts to escape, but Coleoptera, +Hymenoptera, Neuroptera, and Hemiptera are secured in satisfactory +condition. + +Many of the devices are very complicated and can not be described in +this connection. The nocturnal species, also, fly into our houses, and +this is especially the case in the country, and an open window, with a +strong light reflected onto a table covered with either a white paper or +a white cloth will keep one busy, on favorable nights, in properly +taking care of the specimens thus attracted. + +Another favorite method of collecting moths early in the evening, or as +late as or later than midnight, is by sugaring. This consists in +smearing a mixture of sugar and vinegar, or some similar compound, on +the bark of trees or on the boards of fences, and visiting the spot from +time to time to collect the moths attracted to the bait. It has been +found that the use of beer or some other alcoholic liquor, as rum or +brandy, with the sugar or molasses water, greatly adds to its efficiency +in attracting the moths. This method of collecting moths will be found +especially efficient on warm, moist, cloudy nights. The collector should +be provided with a dark lantern and a good net, and a number of +wide-mouthed cyanide collecting bottles. The smearing should be done +just before dark, and I have always found that better success attends +this method of collecting when two are engaged in it--one to hold a +bull's eye lantern while the other bottles the specimens. Experience +will soon teach the surest way of approaching and capturing the +specimens. + +For collecting Microlepidoptera, in addition to the ordinary net, some +special apparatus will be found very essential. Lord Walsingham makes +use of a special glass-bottomed pill-box, with which to capture +specimens, and the satisfactory nature of the work done with this box, +and the dexterity acquired by practice with it, I can vouch for by +personal experience. These glass pill-boxes are useful, also, in +admitting of the examination of specimens, so that worthless or common +species can be discarded and only desired forms kept. The method of +holding these boxes is illustrated in the accompanying illustrations. +(Figs. 72, 73.) A drop of chloroform on the bottom of the box at once +stupefies the capture so that it can be taken out and otherwise disposed +of. + +[Illustration: FIG. 73.--Same, showing method of closing pill-box after +the specimen is secured (original).] + +The necessity of rearing to obtain perfect specimens is even more +important in the case of the Microlepidoptera than with the larger +forms, and many species are very easily reared and can thus be obtained +in quantity. The Micros are abundant from early spring to late fall +about shrubbery, in open fields, and along the edges of woods. They are, +for the most part, day fliers, being on the wing chiefly in the latter +part of the day and early evening. As soon as collected they should be +transferred to pill-boxes and the greatest care should be exercised to +avoid mutilating them, as the slightest touch will denude them of a +portion of their scales or break their limbs or antennae. Lord Walsingham +thus gives his experience in collecting Micros: + +I go out with a coat provided with large pockets inside and out, +containing an assortment of pill-boxes, generally of three sizes, +glass-bottomed pill-boxes preferred, a bag slung over my shoulder, and a +net. Unless searching for particular day-flying species, I prefer the +last three hours before dark. As the sun goes down many species move +which do not stir at other times. I watch the tops of the grass, the +stems of the flowers, the twigs of the trees; I disturb leaves and +low-growing plants with a short switch and secure each little moth that +moves, taking each out of the net in a separate pill-box, selected +according to the size of the insect, as he runs up the net to escape. +Transferring the full boxes to the bag I continue the process until +moths cease flying or night sets in. Many species can be taken with a +lamp after dark. + +_Collecting the early States._--The careful entomologist who prides +himself on the appearance of his specimens, will, as stated above, rely +largely on collecting the early states and on rearing the insects, for +his material. The Macrolepidoptera have either a single or two broods, +or more, in a season, and the collection of the early states will be +greatly facilitated if a knowledge of the insect's life-habits is first +obtained. The eggs are often found on the food plants of the species, +and where they are deposited in masses they afford a very easy method of +getting the larvae in numbers. In many cases, however, the eggs are +deposited singly and their discovery then becomes a difficult matter. + +More satisfactory in some respects is the method of obtaining the eggs +from captured gravid females, and the general collector should always be +on the lookout for females of rare species from which he may be able to +obtain eggs. A single battered female may, in this way, be the source of +large numbers of excellent reared specimens. Many rare Lepidopterous +larvae may be obtained by the use of the beating net and by beating +foliage over an umbrella. A very satisfactory method consists in +collecting pupae, which may frequently be found in numbers about the +bases of the trees on which the larvae feed. Many larvae of the large +family of Owlet Moths (_Noctuidae_) are found either on the surface of +the ground or under various substances, while others burrow into the +stems of the different herbaceous plants, some being subaquatic and +feeding on the underside of leaves or in the stems of aquatic plants. In +the case of Microlepidoptera, their habit as larvae, of mining leaves or +tying or webbing them together, affords an easy means of detecting their +presence in most cases. The miners are easily noticed by the discolored +spots on the leaves or the wavy, pale, or brown lines marking their +burrows. The presence of others is indicated by the leaves being drawn +together and united with webs, or withered and brown from being +skeletonized by the larvae. Many species are case-bearers, and live upon +the leaves and branches of trees and plants, dragging their cases along +with them. Others burrow in grasses or in the stems of plants or the +trunks of trees, or in fungi. In the case of the leaf-miners and +leaf-tiers, little difficulty is experienced in rearing the imagoes. + +The care of the larvae, the outfit required, and the methods of breeding +will be described in later sections. + + + COLLECTING HEMIPTERA. + +[Illustration: FIG. 74.--A Pentatomid (_Stiretrus anchoraga_).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 75.--The Blood-sucking Cone-nose (_Conorhinus +sanguisuga_). _a_, mature bug; _b_, pupa.] + +For the most part the directions for collecting Coleoptera will apply to +this order of insects equally well, especially so far as concerns the +first section of the order (Heteroptera), and the higher families of the +second section (Homoptera). A few directions may be given for the lower +forms, including the Aphididae, Coccidae, Aleurodidae, and Psyllidae, and +the suborder Parasita, including the degraded forms which infest man and +the lower animals. The Plant-lice or Aphides should always be collected +in connection with their food-plants, and it is very essential also to +collect the same species at different seasons of the year to obtain the +different forms or generations, which frequently present very marked +differences. It is also very necessary to secure the winged forms, which +are usually produced toward autumn, and without which the species are +not easily identified. The Bark lice or Scale-insects should also be +collected in connection with the leaves or twigs which they infest. The +males of these insects are minute and, as a rule, two-winged, resembling +small gnats, and may be bred from the male scales. The females are for +the most part stationary, being fixed to the plant by the protecting, +waxy, excretion or scale. The Flea-lice (_Psyllidae_) frequently produce +galls, and these should always be collected with the insect architects. +Some species do not produce galls, and may be collected by sweeping. The +Hackberry is infested by large numbers of species of Psyllids, and these +produce a great variety of interesting galls. The Aleurodidae +(Fringe-scales) are delicate insects, and easily injured in the +taking; they are therefore best reared from their stationary and +fringed larvae and pupae, which occur on the leaves of many plants. Leaves +bearing the latter should also be collected and pinned or preserved in +alcohol. The Parasita, the lowest representatives of the order, may be +obtained from the domestic and wild animals which they infest. + +[Illustration: FIG. 76.--The Bed-bug (_Acanthia lectularia_). _a_, +young; _b_, adult--enlarged.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 77.--The Short-nosed Ox-louse (_Haematopinus +eurysternus_). _a_, female; _b_, rostrum; _c_, ventral surface, last +segments of male; _d_, female; _e_, egg; _f_, surface of egg greatly +enlarged.] + + + COLLECTING DIPTERA. + +[Illustration: FIG. 78.--Ox Bot-fly (_Hypoderma bovis_) enlarged. (After +Brauer.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 79.--The Collecting Shears. (After Kiesenwetter.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 80.--A Bee-fly (_Anthrax hypomelas_). _a_, larva +from side; _b_, pupal skin protruding from cutworm chrysalis; _c_, pupa; +_d_, imago--all enlarged.] + +Most Diptera frequent flowers and may be collected with a sweeping net +without much difficulty. The best season is from April to June, and the +bloom of the Willow, Alder, Plum, Cherry, Dogwood, Blackberry, etc., +will ordinarily yield a bountiful supply of specimens and species. +Parasitic and saprophytic forms may also readily be obtained by +breeding, the former as in the case of the parasitic Hymenoptera, and +the latter from decaying vegetable matter and fungi. The Diptera +require the most delicate treatment, and the greatest care must be +exercised both in collecting and handling. A light sweep net is the best +implement for collecting and the contents of the net should frequently +be emptied into bottles provided with blotting paper to absorb the +excess of moisture. Very small Diptera should not be killed when they +can not be immediately pinned, and hairy flies should never be taken +from the net with the hand, but should be handled with fine forceps. A +pair of special collecting shears has been used by Lord Walsingham very +successfully. It is represented in the accompanying figure, and consists +of a pair of screen-covered disks, between which the fly is caught. The +insect is at once pinned through the screen and may be removed and +transferred to a box containing a sponge soaked in chloroform. The use +of this implement is especially advisable in the case of the Bee-flies +(_Bombiliidae_) and other hairy forms which are liable to be rubbed when +collected in the ordinary net. The Gall-making Diptera (_Cecidomyidae_) +are of little value unless accompanied with their galls, and the aim +should always be to collect the galls and rear the insects rather than +the keeping of specimens taken in the course of general collecting with +a sweep net. The rearing of Cecidomyidae is, however, a delicate task, +and requires considerable experience. Some knowledge of the habits of +the species is very essential to success. From immature galls no +rearings need be expected. A good plan is to examine the galls from time +to time and collect them when it is found that the larvae are beginning +to abandon them. In the case of species like the common Cone Gall-gnat +of the Willow, the larvae of which do not leave the gall to undergo +transformation in the earth, it is advisable not to gather the galls +until the transformation to the pupa state takes place, which, in this +species, occurs in early spring. The various leaf-mining and seed +inhabiting species can be treated as in the case of the +Microlepidoptera. + +[Illustration: FIG. 81.--A Syrphus-fly.] + + + COLLECTING ORTHOPTERA. + +[Illustration: FIG. 82.--A blind Cricket (_Hadenalcus_) from Mammoth +Cave. (From Packard.)] + +The insects of this order may all be collected by the use of the +sweeping net. Some of the families are attracted to light, as certain of +the roaches and green locusts, or Katydids (_Locustidae_). Our common +roaches (_Blattidae_) are cosmopolitan insects, and infest dwellings. +Certain species are also found about ponds, under rotten logs, the bark +of trees, and particularly in decaying vegetable matter. In the tropics +the species are very abundant, but aside from the domestic forms, they +occur rarely in northern latitudes. The collection of the egg-cases +(ootheca) is important as they furnish many interesting characters. The +Mantidae, of which the Preying Mantis (_Phasmomantis carolina_) is a +type, are sluggish, carnivorous insects frequently found about houses +and may best be collected by general sweeping of vegetation. The +Phasmidae or Walking-sticks are herbivorous and may be collected in the +midst of vegetation by sweeping or by the hand. The crickets +(_Gryllidae_) frequent, for the most part, moist situations. Certain +forms, like the Mole-cricket and the Jumping Water-crickets +(_Trydactylus_ spp.), burrow in moist soil and occur in numbers near the +edges of ponds and water courses. The katydids and locusts are abundant +on low shrubs or trees and in pasture and meadow land, but are most +numerous in the somewhat dry, arid regions of the West. Most of these +insects mature in late summer and fall and should be collected at this +season. The Forficulidae or Earwigs are very odd-looking insects, +resembling somewhat the Rove-beetles (_Staphylinidae_), and are provided +with a prominent anal forceps. They are very rare in the United States, +are nocturnal in habit; and, flying about at dusk, may be attracted to +light or may be secured by sweeping after nightfall. They feed on +flowers and fruit. + + + COLLECTING NEUROPTERA. + +As indicated in the preliminary outline of classification, this large +order has been divided into many orders by later entomologists. It has +also been divided, as indicated, into two grand divisions, the +Pseudoneuroptera, comprising those insects with incomplete +transformations, and the Neuroptera proper, comprising those insects +whose metamorphoses are complete. It will be convenient to discuss these +insects under these two heads. + +_Pseudoneuroptera._--Spring-tails, Bird-lice, Stone-flies, White-ants, +Dragon-flies, May-flies. + +[Illustration: FIG. 83.--A Spring-tail (_Degeeria lanuginosa_).] + +The Spring-tails, Fish-moths, etc., representing the primitive stock +from which the higher forms have developed, have a varied habit and +hence are to be found in divers situations. The Spring-tails +(_Collembola_, etc.), occur in damp and moist places, usually in immense +numbers. The Fish-moths and Book-mites are common household pests, but +also occur outdoors under logs, boards, bricks, and rubbish of all +sorts. In houses they feed on the starch paste beneath wall-paper and +also on the starch in bookbindings and other domestic articles. They may +be collected at all seasons and a sieve is the only implement necessary. + +[Illustration: FIG. 84.--A Mallophagan (_Trichodectes latus_). (After +Denny.)] + +The Bird-lice or Mallophaga may be collected at all seasons on birds and +mammals. A number of species infest domestic animals, horses, cattle, +etc., but the majority of them can be found only by the examination of +domestic fowls and wild birds. The Stone-flies (_Perlidae_) are found in +the neighborhood of water courses and ponds, are very sluggish in +flight, and easily captured with the sweep-net. They are also attracted +to light. The Psocidae are a small family of certain degraded wingless +forms, comprising the Book-lice, which, as the name implies, infest +books, feeding on the starch of the binding. Others have ample wings and +closely resemble large Aphides. They occur on the trunks of trees and on +foliage, and feed on lichens and other dried vegetable matter. They are +gregarious in habit and frequently occur in immense numbers together. In +the case of the Termitidae or White-ants, their abundance renders their +collection an easy matter. Effort, however, should be made to discover +the different forms, the females and soldiers as well as the workers. +The former may be found in rotten tree trunks, but are very rarely met +with. In the tropics many species occur and construct curious nests, +either attaching them to the boughs of trees or building them in the +form of pyramids on the ground. The Dragon-flies (_Libellulidae_,) are +collected in the same way as the Diurnal Lepidoptera. They are very +swift flyers, and are practically always on the wing. Their collection +requires some degree of skill in the use of the net. A good method +consists in visiting, in the early morning, water courses in which the +larval and pupal states are passed, and capturing the adults just as +they issue from their pupal skins at the edges of the pond or stream. In +cold weather they are less active and may frequently be found clinging +to trees and plants, particularly in the vicinity of their breeding +places. May-flies (_Ephemeridae_) occur in immense numbers near their +breeding places in ponds and streams and are also attracted in large +quantities to electric lights. Their collection is therefore an easy +matter, but on account of the very fragile nature of these insects the +utmost care must be employed in handling them. The early states of all +the aquatic forms mentioned above may be obtained for breeding by the +use of the dip net by dragging it forcibly against water plants. + +[Illustration: FIG. 85.--_b_, a May-fly (_Palingenia bilineata_); _c_, +its larva; _a_, a Caddis-fly (_Macronema zebratum_).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 86.--A Dragon-fly (_Libellula_). (From Packard.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 87.--A Dragon-fly (_Agrion_). (From Packard.)] + +_Neuroptera proper_ (Hellgrammites, Lace-wings, Ant-lions, Caddis-flies, +etc.)--Among the largest insects of this order are the Sialidae, which +includes the enormous Hellgrammite Fly, _Corydalus cornutus_. The larvae +of this insect are carnivorous and occur in streams, under stones, etc. +The adults may be collected in neighboring situations and are also +attracted to light. The Lace-wing flies (_Chrysopa_), Ant-lions, etc., +are carnivorous as larvae, and occur, the former among the Aphides which +infest various plants and the latter at the bottom of pits in loose, +sandy soil. The adults may be obtained by general sweeping and are also +attracted to light. The most interesting insects of this order are the +Caddis-flies, on account of the peculiar and frequently very beautiful +cases constructed by their larvae, which it is important to collect. The +Caddis-flies breed in ponds and lakes and the adults may be collected in +such situations or at light. The larvae may easily be reared, and should +be collected for this purpose. Most of the insects named in this order +are extremely delicate and require great care in handling. + +[Illustration: FIG. 88.--An Ant-lion, adult (_Myrmeleon_). (From +Packard.)] + + + + + KILLING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. + + +Between the collecting of the specimens and their final disposition in a +well-arranged cabinet, a good deal of mechanical work is necessary, +involving a skill and dexterity which can be thoroughly acquired only by +practice. + +FIRST PRESERVATION OF LIVING SPECIMENS.--Larvae, pupae, or imagoes, +intended for rearing purposes, must be kept alive, and are best placed, +after capture, in tin boxes of various sizes, according to the number of +specimens to be put in each and according to the size or nature of the +food plant, etc., on or in which the specimens are found, and of which a +quantity must always be taken home. For larger tin boxes those known as +"Seidlitz powder boxes," described and figured below, which can be made +to order at any tinner's shop, are well adapted, and smaller tin boxes +of a convenient round form can be obtained of the watchmaker. The +collector will find it advisable to take with him on his longer jaunts a +larger tin collecting box as well as the smaller boxes, and for this +purpose nothing is better than a good botanist's collecting can or +vasculum. All tin boxes used for entomological purposes should be tight, +and the cover should so fit that it neither drops off too readily nor +closes too tightly. Larvae of Lepidoptera and Tenthredinidae should be +placed in a box with a quantity of the leaves of the plant on which they +were found. Larvae, especially of Coleoptera, found in the earth or in +decayed wood, should be placed in a box filled with such earth or wood, +so as to prevent shaking or rattling about. Larvae found in roots or +stems of living plants can generally be reared to maturity only if the +whole plant with a quantity of the surrounding soil is taken home, and +for this purpose the large collecting box, just mentioned, is very +useful. Most Coleopterous or other larvae found under bark or in solid +wood can be reared only if large sections of the wood are obtained and +the larvae are full grown or nearly so. This holds true, also, of species +breeding in seeds and with most leaf-mining species. The greatest +difficulty is experienced with carnivorous Coleopterous larvae, and care +should be taken with such not to inclose two or more specimens in one +box. Most larvae die quickly if placed in an empty box, and this is +especially true of predaceous species; so that it is always advisable to +pack the box with moist soil, decaying wood, leaves or other similar +substance. Aquatic larvae should be carried in tin boxes filled with wet +moss or some water plant, for, if placed in corked vials with water, +they die quickly. + +KILLING SPECIMENS.--Specimens not intended for rearing should be killed +immediately after capture unless for each specimen a separate vial or +box can be provided. If a number of miscellaneous insects are put in the +same vial the stronger specimens will, in a short time, crush or +otherwise injure the more delicate ones or the predaceous species will +devour any others they can master. But even where the specimens are +killed immediately the following rule should be observed: Do not put +large and small specimens in the same vial, but provide a larger bottle +for the larger specimens, and one, or still better, several, smaller +vials for the medium-sized and very small specimens. The importance of +this rule is recognized by all experienced collectors. + +There are several methods of killing insects, each having its own +peculiar advantages and drawbacks. + +_Alcohol._--The use of alcohol will, on the whole, prove the most +satisfactory method of killing Coleoptera, many Hemiptera, some +Neuroptera, and larvae of all sorts. Only the best quality of alcohol +should be used, but it should be diluted with from 30 to 40 per cent of +pure water, the greatest care being taken to keep the alcohol as clean +as possible. During the collecting a mass of debris and dirt is apt to +be thrown into the bottle, and when this is the case the alcohol should +be changed even during short excursions. At any rate, upon the return +from the excursion, the specimens should be at once taken from the +bottle and washed in pure alcohol in a shallow vessel. The larvae and +other material intended for permanent preservation in alcohol should be +transferred to suitable vials and the material to be mounted cleansed +with chloroform or acetic ether and then prepared for the cabinet. If it +is inconvenient or impossible to mount the Coleoptera, etc., soon after +the return from the excursion they should be washed, dried, and placed +in pill boxes between layers of soft paper, or they may be replaced in a +vial with pure alcohol. On longer collecting trips, lasting several days +or weeks, specimens will keep thus very well, provided they are not +shaken up, and this can be prevented by filling the empty space in the +vial with cotton or soft paper. If the bottle is a large one and +contains many large specimens the alcohol should be renewed three or +four times at intervals of eight or ten days; otherwise the specimens +are liable to decompose. Small and delicate specimens, if they are to +be kept in alcohol, should be treated with still greater care. Upon the +return from the excursion they should also be cleaned in pure alcohol +and placed in small vials into which a very few drops of alcohol, just +sufficient to keep the contents moist, are poured. The vial should be +corked as tightly as possible and the specimens will keep pretty well +for an indefinite time. + +The drawbacks to the use of alcohol are: 1st, that all hairy specimens +are liable to spoil; 2ndly, that all Coleoptera with soft integuments +spread the wing-cases apart if kept too long in it. The advantage of the +alcohol is that it is the simplest and least troublesome fluid for +naturalists traveling in distant countries who are not specialists in +entomology. Specimens killed in alcohol are also less liable to be +attacked by verdigris when pinned than those killed by some other +method. Rum, whisky, or similar strong alcoholic liquors may be used as +substitutes where no pure alcohol can be obtained, but are not +especially to be recommended. + +_Chloroform and Ether._--Killing with the fumes of _chloroform_ or +_ether_ (sulphuric or acetic) or _benzine_, or some other etheric oil, +is often practiced and advocated by those who, for any reason, dislike +the use of alcohol or object, on account of its poisonous nature, to the +use of cyanide of potassium, and they are of especial value in the case +of butterflies and moths, Hymenoptera and Diptera. "A small and stout +bottle of chloroform or ether, with a brush securely inserted into the +cork (Fig. 89), will be found very serviceable. A slight moistening +through the air net will stupefy most insects caught in it, and +facilitate their removal to the cyanide bottle; while a touch or two +with the wet brush under the head and thorax, will kill the more +delicate specimens outright, without in the least injuring them. Another +way of using chloroform is by means of a small, hollow tube passed +through the cork, what is called jeweler's hollow wire answering the +purpose. The liquid evaporates more readily in such a bottle, and I +altogether prefer the first mentioned. Some large insects, and +especially female moths, whose size prevents the use of the ordinary +cyanide bottles, are difficult to kill. With these, fluttering may be +prevented by the use of chloroform, or they may be killed by puncturing +the thorax or piercing the body longitudinally, with a needle dipped in +liquid cyanide, or oxalic acid. A long bottle with a needle thrust into +the cork may be kept for this purpose; but the needle must be of ivory +or bone, as those of metal are corroded and eaten by the liquids. * * * + +[Illustration: FIG. 89.--Chloroform bottle with brush.] + +"For killing small and delicate moths which have been bred, I find +nothing more handy than chloroform. They may be caught in turned wooden +boxes which are kept by every druggist; and a touch of the chloroform on +the outside of the box immediately stupefies them. It has a tendency to +stiffen them, however, and they are best set immediately after death." + +[Illustration: FIG. 90.--Bottle with liquid cyanide.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 91.--The Cyanide bottle with paper strips to give +support to the insects.] + +A piece of heavy blotting paper or heavy cloth soaked with chloroform or +ether or benzine and placed at the bottom of a jar or bottle makes an +excellent killing bottle for large-sized insects. For smaller specimens +the collecting vial should be half filled loosely with narrow strips of +soft paper, upon which a few drops of the liquid are poured, not so +much, however, as to wet the paper. While collecting, the vial must be +kept closed as much as possible. Some collectors prefer chloroform, +others ether. If this method of killing is practiced with the necessary +care, there is no objection whatever to it; the specimens are not wetted +as they are in alcohol, and remain cleaner than those killed by any +other method. The drawback is that the substances mentioned evaporate +very rapidly and have to be renewed even on short excursions. On account +of this great volatility, one can never be certain that all the +specimens in the collecting bottle are dead after a given time and there +is always some danger that one or the other of the hardier insects may +regain activity. What mischief such revived specimens are capable of +doing, many collectors have experienced to their sorrow. Another +disadvantage of these volatile substances is that if used in too large +quantities they will, in delicate specimens, especially beetles, cause +an extension of the soft ligaments between the head and prothorax or +between the latter and the mesothorax, and thus bring the specimen into +an unnatural position, or cause the head, or head and thorax to drop +off. + +_Cyanide of Potassium._--The method of killing which, of late years, has +found most favor with collectors, is the use of cyanide of potassium. +For killing large sized specimens they are simply put in what is now +universally known as the "cyanide bottle." This may be constructed as +follows: + +Take a 2-ounce quinine bottle, or still better a shorter bottle with a +wide mouth; break up a quantity of cyanide of potassium into pieces of +convenient size (about a cubic centimeter); put these pieces in the +bottle so that they form an even layer at the bottom; mix in a +convenient vessel a quantity of plaster of Paris with water just +sufficient to make the mixture semifluid and then pour it over the +cyanide so as to cover this last to a depth of about 5 millimeters. The +bottle is then left open for an hour or two until the plaster is +thoroughly dry. The walls of the bottle are then cleansed from particles +of the plaster which may have splashed on them, and the bottle is ready +for use. If not used too frequently, especially in warm weather, it will +last for an entire year or longer. Bottles or vials of different sizes +can be prepared in the same way, and a very small cyanide vial which can +be carried in the vest pocket will be found most convenient for use on +all occasions. Fig. 92 represents a medium-sized chemist's test tube, +converted into a very convenient cyanide bottle, in which, however, a +cotton wad has been used to keep the poison in place. When the collected +specimens have been removed from the bottle the latter should be +carefully wiped clean with a piece of cloth or paper. The surface of the +plaster soon becomes dirty and, on account of the hygroscopic property +of the cyanide, more or less moist, especially during warm weather. The +cyanide bottle is, therefore, not well adapted for the killing and +temporary preservation of small and delicate specimens. This difficulty +can be altogether obviated by placing a circular piece of blotting +paper, cut to neatly fit the interior of the bottle, on the surface of +the plaster. This can be renewed once a week or so, or oftener if it +becomes necessary. It will frequently be advisable, also, especially in +the collection of Diptera, Hymenoptera, and other delicate insects, to +put a strip of blotting paper partially round the inner side of the +bottle. This will absorb any moisture which may gather on the inside of +the bottle and which would otherwise wet and injure the specimens. The +accompanying figure (Fig. 93) illustrates a bottle arranged as described +above. A similar result is attained by some collectors by partially +filling the bottle with narrow strips of bibulous paper to support and +separate the insects as shown at Fig. 91. + +[Illustration: FIG. 92.--Pocket cyanide bottle.] + +For delicate specimens, also, the collecting bottle may consist of a +test-tube of about the size of Fig. 92. This is half filled with loose, +thin strips of soft white paper. A piece of cyanide about the size of a +pea is then wrapped carefully in paper and so placed in the middle of +the strips that it can not come in contact with the sides of the +glass. Some prefer to pin the paper containing the cyanide to the +lower surface of the cork. The latter should be rather short and +tapering toward its lower end. It is longitudinally perforated through +its center by a round hole just large enough to insert a goose-quill, +which is cut straight at the lower end and obliquely at its upper end. +By means of this goose-quill the specimens may be introduced into the +bottle without taking off the cork. This form of cyanide bottle lasts +for only one day's collecting, except in cold weather, and in very warm +weather it is advisable to take two prepared bottles along, so that the +first used can be stowed away as soon as the cyanide begins to moisten +the paper strips. Most insects are quickly killed in such a bottle, but +some Coleoptera must be left in for five or six hours, while others +resist death for a still longer time. This is especially true of the +Coleopterous families Curculionidae, Trogositidae, and Tenebrionidae. + +Submersion in alcohol will prove a satisfactory method of killing these +or other beetles with similar vitality. + +[Illustration: FIG. 93.--The cyanide bottle with blotting-paper lining +(original).] + +_Other Agents._--Prof. E. W. Claypole has found the use of benzine or +gasoline very cheap and satisfactory for killing Lepidoptera, as the +largest are at once killed thereby without injury to their scales. +(_Can. Ent._, XIX, p. 136.) He squirts it onto the specimen within the +net or in the open air by means of a druggist's dropping tube. Hot water +kills rapidly and leaves the specimens in good flexible condition for +mounting. The heads of large insects may be held for a few moments in +the water, while smaller specimens should first be thrown into a corked +bottle and the bottle submitted to heat. Where the laurel grows its +bruised leaves may be used in place of cyanide; they kill less quickly. +The leaves of the Laurel-cherry (_Prunus laurocerasus_), a plant +commonly grown in England for screens and hedges, are also used for this +purpose. + +Some collectors, with indifferent olfactory sense, moisten the cork of +their boxes with creosote. Its killing power lasts for several days. A +few whiffs from a cigar, when nothing else is at hand, will also kill +many of the more tender insects. + +SPECIAL DIRECTIONS FOR DIFFERENT ORDERS.--A few brief directions for the +special treatment of different orders may be given. Certain Coleoptera, +notably those of the Curculionid genus Lixus, are covered with a +yellowish pruinosity resembling pollen, which is of an evanescent +nature, so that if the specimens are collected and killed by the +ordinary methods, the pruinosity is completely lost. To preserve the +natural beauty of such species it is necessary to put each specimen +alive in a small vial and to kill it at once by means of a lighted match +held under the vial for a few seconds. In pinning or otherwise mounting +the specimen it should not be handled between the fingers. + +Many Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera, especially species with yellow +markings, if kept for any length of time in a cyanide bottle, will +become discolored, the yellow changing to reddish, and hence such +insects should not be left longer than necessary in the bottle. If care +is exercised in this respect, no danger of discoloration need ordinarily +be feared. The chloroform collecting bottle may be used with these +insects if discoloration is anticipated. All the more delicate insects, +including Hymenoptera, Diptera, the smaller Lepidoptera, and the +Neuroptera, require special care in killing. Large numbers should not be +thrown into a killing bottle together, and plenty of bibulous paper +should be kept in the bottle to prevent moisture from accumulating and +wetting and ruining the specimens. It is frequently advisable to pin +Diptera, especially the hairy forms (as the Bee-flies), in the net and +transfer them at once to a cigar box containing a sponge moistened with +chloroform. When the collecting shears are used, the insects are always +thus pinned at once, which is, in fact, the only method of securing +them. This is also necessary in the case of many Lepidoptera. Delicate +Neuroptera may be killed by the use of the cyanide bottle, or, +preferably, placed at once in a vial of alcohol, as these insects, in +many instances, cannot be kept securely if pinned or mounted. Large +Lepidoptera, as the Bombycids, may be killed by pouring benzine, +naphtha, or chloroform over the thorax and abdomen. These substances +evaporate rapidly and do not appreciably injure the vestiture of the +insects. Some collectors, in the case of butterflies, seize them +dexterously between the thumb and finger, and give a sharp pinch on the +sides of the thorax. This will prevent the fluttering of the insect when +transferred to the cyanide bottle, and, if carefully done, the scales +need not be rubbed off. It is objectionable, however, because the thorax +is distorted and subsequent anatomical study interfered with, and, in +the case of moths, should never be practiced, as the thorax affords +important characters used in classification. Orthoptera may be killed by +the use of the cyanide bottle but should be transferred at once to the +vials of alcohol. If placed in a cyanide bottle, especially in the case +of Locusts (_Acrididae_), they are apt to exude colored juices from the +mouth, so that the specimens become soiled. Hence the use of vials of +alcohol is preferable, and these insects should never be thrown into +vials containing delicate insects of other orders. Plant-lice, together +with the plant which they infest, should be placed at once in vials of +alcohol, and specimens of the Aphides, representing all the forms +present, should be mounted on slides for microscopic examination. The +fixed forms of Coccids, comprising the majority of the species, require +no special treatment, and the leaves, twigs, or bark on which they occur +may be pinned at once and placed in the collection. The free forms are +treated as in the case of plant-lice. + + + + + ENTOMOTAXY. + + +Under this term may be considered the preparation of insects for the +cabinet. + + + CARE OF PINNED AND MOUNTED SPECIMENS. + +_Insect Pins._--In mounting insects for the cabinet, expressly made +entomological pins should be used. These come from three different +sources: Klaeger pins, made by Hermann Klaeger, Berlin, Germany; Karlsbad +pins, made by one or several firms in Karlsbad, Bohemia, Austria; and +Vienna pins, made by Miller, Vienna, Austria.[4] These three kinds of +pins have each their own slight advantages and disadvantages, so that it +is difficult to say which is the best. All have the disadvantage that +the pinned specimens are liable to be ruined by verdigris, and to +obviate this japanned ("black") insect pins are made by Klaeger and +Miller. These black pins are, however, much softer than the "white" +pins, and therefore more difficult to handle. A pin of 35 millimeters in +length will be found most convenient for pinning all insects excepting +the larger Lepidoptera and other heavy-bodied insects, for which a +longer pin may advantageously be used. According to the different +degrees of fineness, the pins are numbered from No. 00 (the finest in +the trade) to No. 7 or 8, but the numbers used by the different +manufacturers do not correspond with each other. In experience, pins of +Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 (Klaeger numbers) are more often needed than the +others. The long pins of the finer numbers (Nos. 0 and 00) are difficult +to handle in the collection and, for this reason, not to be recommended. + + [4] In North America, Klaeger pins and Karlsbad pins can be obtained + through Mr. John Ackhurst, 78 Ashland Place, Brooklyn, N. Y., and + possibly also through Messrs. Blake & Co., 55 North Seventh street, + Philadelphia, Pa. The Vienna pins and the Minutien-Nadeln have to be + ordered direct through the manufacturer, Mr. Miller. + +For many small insects, especially Microlepidoptera and Microdiptera, +which _must_ be pinned, even the finest ordinary insect-pins are too +large, and two special makes of pins are in use for this purpose. The +"elbow pin" (formerly made and sold by Dr. Kuenow, of Koenigsberg, +Prussia, Germany) consists of a piece of fine silver wire, pointed at +one end, and with a coil loop at the other end, into which a longer pin +(No. 3 or No. 4) is thrust. This pin is illustrated in Fig. 94. Still +more satisfactory are the "Minutien-Nadeln" (pins for minute insects) +manufactured by Mr. Miller, of Vienna, Austria, and which consist of a +straight piece (about 14 mm. long) of extremely fine steel wire which is +pointed at one end, and which is used in connection with a piece of +pith or cork. The mode of using this pin is shown in Fig. 101. These +fine and elbow pins may be obtained either "white" or japanned. + +[Illustration: FIG. 94.--Insect mounted on "elbow-pin."] + +"Many English entomologists use short pins, very much like those of +ordinary make, and my late friend Walsh never gave up the custom, and +most vehemently opposed the use of what he ridiculed as 'long German +skewers.' But the only advantage that can possibly be claimed for the +short pins is that they are less apt to bend, consequently more easily +stuck into the bottoms of boxes, and require less room; while, compared +with the long pins, they have numerous disadvantages. Long pins admit of +the very important advantage of attaching notes and labels to the +specimen; render it more secure from injury when handled, and from +museum pests in the cabinet; and on them several rows of carded +duplicates may be fastened, one under the other, so as to economize +room." + +I have seen few old collections in better condition than that of the +late E. Mulsant, of Lyons, France; and he used iron wire, cut +slantingly, of the requisite length--a common custom in France. These +wires bend so easily and have such dull points that they require much +more careful manipulation than the pins, and the claim made for them +that they do not verdigris would, perhaps, be offset by their rusting in +moist climates or near the sea. Silver wire or silver-plated wire is +also used. + +_Preparation of Specimens._--Upon the return from an excursion the +specimens should be prepared for the collection as soon as practicable. +If they have been collected in the forenoon they should be mounted the +same evening, and those collected during an afternoon or evening +excursion should be mounted the following morning, or, at any rate, +before they get dry and brittle. Even specimens collected in alcohol +should be attended to as soon as possible. + +Specimens are taken from the collecting bottle, spread out on a sheet of +white blotting paper and cleaned from adhering impurities either with a +soft dry brush, or, in the case of species with hard covering, by +washing them with chloroform or ether or benzine where necessary. +Theoretically the best way of mounting would be to pin all specimens, +since the under side with its important characters then remains free for +examination. Pins adapted for pinning even the smallest insects have +been described above, but this pinning is such a delicate operation and +requires so much time that considering the large number of small +specimens that may be collected on a single short excursion it is next +to impossible to carry out this method, and therefore only the larger +specimens need be pinned and the smaller may be glued onto the paper +points described later. If the work is done with proper care all +insects can be prepared for the cabinet so that both the upper and under +surface of the specimen may be examined without further manipulation. + +_Pinning._--"Insects should be pinned through the middle of the thorax, +when, as is more generally the case, this portion (the mesothorax) is +largely developed. Beetles (_Coleoptera_) and Bugs (_Hemiptera_), +should, however, be pinned, the former through the right elytron or +wing-cover (Fig. 95), and the latter through the scutel or triangular +piece behind the thorax, the pin issuing between the middle and hind +legs (Fig. 96). The specimens look very pretty with all the legs neatly +spread out, but for practical purposes it is better to let them dry in +the natural, partly bent position. It is a saving of time and space, and +the limbs are not so apt to break. The legs must also not reach too far +downward or they will interfere with the proper labeling and the secure +pinning of the specimen in the cabinet. Moreover, the antennae and legs +must be brought into such position that they will not obstruct the view +of any important part of the undersurface. The pin should always project +about half an inch above the insect to facilitate handling, and +uniformity in this regard will have much to do with the neat appearance +of the collection. In pinning very large and heavy insects on a No. 4 or +No. 5 pin, it is a good plan to first flatten the pin by a few blows of +a hammer, in order to prevent the specimen from subsequently turning +round on the pin." + +[Illustration: FIG. 95.--Method of pinning and labeling Coleoptera +(original).] + +In pinning specimens which have a flat or nearly flat undersurface and +short legs (as in many Coleoptera and Hemiptera and some Hymenoptera, +_e. g._ the Saw-flies) the specimens are laid on a piece of cork and +held in place there with the fingers or with a forceps. The pin is then +pushed through the insect at the proper point, care being taken not to +strike one of the legs or coxae, and that the pin passes through the +specimen in a vertical direction. + +[Illustration: FIG. 96.--Method of pinning Hemiptera (original).] + +After the pin has been pushed through the specimen it is taken out of +the cork and the specimen is pushed up to its proper height. This can be +done either by holding the specimen between the fingers or by placing it +on the upper edge of a thick book. A piece of cardboard provided with a +small hole may also be used for this purpose. The perforations in +ordinary sheet-cork, or the lapel of one's coat, will answer the same +purpose. In pinning Lepidoptera or Hymenoptera the specimen should lie +lightly in the angle formed by the thumb and first two fingers of the +left hand and the pin be carefully thrust through at the proper angle. +In pinning all insects the pin should be so inserted that the insect is +nearly at right angles with the pin, the posterior end being slightly +depressed. + +_Mounting on Points._--Most insects which are too small to be pinned on +a No. 2 pin may be fastened to cardboard by means of gum tragacanth, gum +shellac, or any good glue. It is not always easy to determine whether to +pin a medium specimen or to glue it to a triangle. Pinned specimens are +more secure, and not so apt to fall or be knocked off, but they are +liable to become corroded by verdigris and ultimately lost, especially +in families the larvae of which are endophytous or internal feeders. It +is better to glue wherever there is doubt. A drop of corrosive sublimate +added to the water in which the gum tragacanth is dissolved will +indefinitely prevent its souring, but should not be used where the gum +is to come in contact with the pin, as it inclines the latter to +verdigris. In such cases a little spirits of camphor mixed with the gum +tragacanth is best. Shellac should be dissolved in alcohol and this +requires some time. This glue is not affected by moisture, and if it is +desired to remove the specimens, they must be immersed in alcohol until +the shellac is again dissolved. + +A number of different kinds of glue are used by entomologists. The +requirements of a good glue are that it be colorless, and, what is of +greater importance, that the specimens adhere firmly to the paper points +so that there is little or no danger of their being jarred off. Those +glues which are readily soluble in cold or lukewarm water are perhaps +more convenient than those which require alcohol or chloroform for +dissolving. Gum arabic and gum tragacanth have the disadvantage that +they are more liable to attract mites and are more brittle, so that they +do not hold specimens as well as some of the liquid glues that are on +the market. Spalding's glue answers a very good purpose, as also the +preparation known to European entomologists as Leprieur's gum. White +bleached shellac, while requiring alcohol to dissolve it, has the +advantage that a very minute quantity suffices. In olden times the +method employed was simply to glue the specimen by the ventral side to +the middle of a quadrangular piece of cardboard, which was then pinned +on a No. 3 or No. 4 insect pin. This method is still in vogue with +English entomologists, but can not be recommended except for mounting +duplicates. Much better are the small isosceles triangles which, before +mounting the specimen, are pinned through near the base on a No. 2 or +No. 3 insect pin. Only the best and finest cardboard should be used for +this purpose, since that of poor quality is liable to be broken while +passing the pin through it and will yellow with age. "Reynolds's +Superfine Board," which may be ordered through any dealer in artist's +supplies of Devoe & Co., Fulton street, New York City, is perhaps the +best for this purpose. Some of the neatest mounting which I have had +done by any of my agents or assistants is by Mr. Albert Koebele, who +has used mica or gelatine instead of cardboard, the object being not +only to show the whole of the under side of the specimen, but to obscure +less of the light from the labels and to render the triangles less +conspicuous in the cabinet. These have been in use in the museum +collection only for the last two or three years, and whether they will +eventually tend to corrode the pins is not yet settled. Mica and +isinglass are also used for the same purpose. The points used in +mounting may easily be cut by hand to a convenient size, say one-fourth +of an inch (6-8 mm) long by one-sixteenth or less at the base, and +tapering to a point. The point may be narrower or wider to accommodate +insects of different sizes. + +For cutting these triangles or points, various forms of punches similar +to the appended figure (Fig. 97) known to the trade as conductor's +punches may be used, and points thus cut are to be preferred to those +made by other means, on account of the greater uniformity secured. + +An experienced hand, however, will cut these points very rapidly and +accurately with a pair of shears, and most collectors use no special +instrument for this purpose. + +The punches mentioned may be obtained of the manufacturers[5] of such +instruments at from $2 to $3. Care should be observed in ordering to +state explicitly the length, width at base and point, or, what is +better, to inclose sample of the size of point it is desired to cut; but +above all, to state that the block of paper to be cut out is the result +desired, and that the instrument should cut clean and even, with no +ragged edges. + + [5] Montgomery & Co., 105 Fulton street, New York City. + +[Illustration: FIG. 97.--Insect punch for cutting triangles or points +(original).] + +For mounting different forms and sizes the fastidious collector uses +four or five sizes of points, but for all practical purposes one to cut +a card point not less than 1.3 mm at the base and prolonged as nearly as +possible to a point, and another a trifle wider at the base, say 11/2 or 1 +2/3 mm and with a point about 11/2 mm in width will suffice. + +[Illustration: FIG. 98.--Points for mounting insects (original).] + +For mounting most long-bodied insects, _e. g._, Staphylinidae and +Elateridae, an oblong card say 11/2 mm in width is desirable. With a little +care these may be cut with sufficient uniformity with scissors. Seven +and one-half millimeters may be taken as a standard of length, as this +is about the size used by the majority of our best collectors. Shorter +points, say 6 mm or one-quarter inch long, are sometimes preferred, +where economy of space is a desideratum. + +A series of four points of different sizes for mounting insects is shown +in the accompanying illustration. The sharp-pointed one, _a_, is +designed for the minutest forms and the larger points for large insects. +The largest should be mounted on points of a nearly rectangular shape, +shown at _d_. The dimensions of these points as adopted by most +entomologists, are as follows:-- + + +------+---------+----------+--------+ + | | Length. | Breadth. | Point. | + +------+---------+----------+--------+ + | _a_ | 7.5mm. | 1.5mm. | .0mm. | + | _b_ | 7.5 | 1.5 | .4 | + | _c_ | 7.5 | 1.5 | .6 | + | _d_ | 7.5 | 1.6 | 1.6 | + +------+---------+----------+--------+ + +The point or triangle should be mounted on the pin and directed to the +left, the height from the top of the pin varying somewhat with the +specimen, but averaging about one-half an inch. The insect is then glued +to the point with the head pointed forward. In the case of Coleoptera +and Hymenoptera, and in fact of most insects, the specimen is mounted +with the back uppermost, but in the case of the smaller Hymenoptera it +is advisable to mount some of the specimens, at least, on the left side +(see Fig. 99). This directs the legs toward the pin, as a matter of +safety, prevents their being broken in handling, and also gives +opportunity for subsequent examination of the back, side, and venter of +the specimen. Coleopterists always mount specimens on the venter, and in +the case of a correctly mounted specimen the whole underside of the body +should be available for examination except the right half of the +metasternum, as shown in figure 100. + +[Illustration: FIG. 99.--Insect mounted on cardboard triangle.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 100.--Method of gluing beetle on paper point +(original).] + +In mounting minute insects a few precautions are necessary. The beginner +usually uses too much glue or shellac, and the result is that the +mounted specimens are more or less covered with the fluid, so as to +render them unfit for examination. If, on the other hand, too little of +the glue is used, the specimens are not securely fastened to the paper +point, and are liable to be jolted off by the slightest jar. Before +mounting specimens the legs and antennae must be brought into the proper +position by means of a brush or with a dissecting needle, so that they +may easily be seen. A supply of paper points should always be at hand, +and after selecting one of the proper size for the specimen, with an +acute tip for a very small specimen and with a more obtuse point for a +larger one, a small quantity of glue is applied to the tip by means of a +pointed stick, such as a toothpick, the amount varying with the size of +the specimen. The tip of a moistened brush may be used to transfer the +specimen to the point, or one will soon become dextrous enough to do +this without the aid of the brush. The specimens are then allowed to dry +in a horizontally placed box. If the drying box is placed in a vertical +position the specimens, especially long-bodied ones, are liable to +topple over before the glue has become firm. + +[Illustration: FIG. 101.--Cecidomyiid mounted on pith (original).] + +Delicate flies and Microlepidoptera, which it will not do to fasten with +mucilage, may first be mounted on the fine pins described above and +these thrust into oblong or triangular bits of pith or cork, which are +mounted on larger pins as shown in Figures 101 and 102. This affords a +very satisfactory method of mounting, particularly as the different +sexes may be brought together on the same bit of pith, or the adult and +puparium in Diptera, as shown at Figure 101. Strips of stout cardboard +with the pins run through the narrow edge may also be used. The method +of mounting minute Hymenoptera and Diptera and other insects on a bent +wire, mentioned above, is illustrated at Figure 94. This method has not +proved so satisfactory, as the wires are apt to become loose on the pin. + +[Illustration: FIG. 102.--Microlepidoptera mounted on pith (original).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 103.--Method of mounting duplicates (original).] + +_Mounting Duplicates._--If the collector finds more specimens of a rare +species than he cares to have in his collection, the excess may be +mounted as duplicates. If the species happens to be of a large size the +specimens are pinned in the ordinary way, but if small enough to be +gummed, there is a most convenient method of rapidly mounting the +specimens so that they may be sent through the mail with much less risk +of getting broken or knocked off than if glued on paper points, and will +also take up very little room in the duplicate boxes. It consists in +gluing the specimens in a transverse row on a strip of white card paper +with one of the glues soluble in water, care being taken that between +the individual specimens some space be left, and further that the heads +and antennae do not project beyond the edge of the paper. The width of +the paper strip must be somewhat greater than the length of the +specimen, so that below the latter there is sufficient room for +inserting a pin through the paper. After the glue has become dry the row +of specimens is cut with scissors into several smaller rows of +convenient size, so that on each of these rows there are two or three or +more specimens, according to the size of the species. A locality label +is pushed high up on a No. 3 or No. 4 pin, and one of the mounted rows +of specimens is then pinned and pushed up near the locality label; a +second row is then pinned and pushed near the first row, and the same +process continued with the third row and so on. A single pin will thus +bear five or six rows, and in giving away or sending away specimens the +lowest row is taken from the pin and repinned for mailing. The +accompanying figure (Fig. 103) illustrates the mounting of a +moderate-sized species in rows of two specimens each. This method of +mounting duplicates may be adopted not only for Coleoptera, but also for +Heteroptera, Homoptera (excepting Aphididae and allied families), smaller +Orthoptera, and Hymenoptera. It is, however, impracticable for +Lepidoptera, Diptera, and most Neuroptera. + +_Temporary Storage of Specimens._--If the entomologist is prevented from +mounting his captures soon after returning from an expedition, or if, on +extended collecting trips, time does not offer for this purpose, +specimens of almost all orders except the Lepidoptera, Orthoptera, and +Neuroptera may be placed in a small, tightly closing pill box, care +being taken to keep the larger specimens apart from the small ones. In +this way specimens will keep for an indefinite period, provided they are +properly packed. In the case of the traveling collector, where the +material is to be carried from point to point at great risk of breaking, +specimens should be packed very carefully to prevent any shaking or +rattling about in the boxes. This may be done by placing a round piece +of soft paper on the top of the specimens in the pill box. This paper +should be gently pressed down and the empty space above filled with +other layers of paper or with cotton. The packing of specimens between +cotton is not recommended, as it is a difficult and tedious task to +afterwards free them from the adhering fibers. Layers of soft paper or, +yet better, velvet, are preferable. + +[Illustration: FIG. 104.--Method of preserving Diurnal Lepidoptera in +paper envelopes. (After Kiesenwetter.)] + +_Envelopes for Lepidoptera, etc._--On an extended trip, it will be found +impracticable to mount and prepare insects requiring cumbersome +apparatus for spreading, as Lepidoptera or Neuroptera, and a very +excellent plan consists in folding the wings of the insect so that the +lower surfaces come together and then placing it in a triangular +envelope, as shown in the accompanying illustration. The collector +should be provided with a quantity of paper of the requisite dimensions +for making these envelopes, and specimens, as they are taken from the +collecting bottle, may be rapidly inclosed in them, labeled, and packed +away in a tight wooden (not tin) box containing a supply of naphthaline, +the specimens thus occupying the minimum of space. Specimens secured in +this way may be kept without further manipulation indefinitely or until +time is found to relax and set them. This is also an excellent method +of sending diurnal Lepidoptera and Dragon-flies through the mails and is +preferable in some respects to mailing spread specimens. + +[Illustration: FIG. 105.--Spreading board for Lepidoptera.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 106.--Needle for spreading insects.] + +_Directions for Spreading Insects._--"For the proper spreading of +insects with broad and flattened wings, such as butterflies and moths, a +spreading board or stretcher is necessary. One that is simple and +answers every purpose is shown at Fig. 105. It may be made of two pieces +of thin whitewood or pine board, fastened together by braces at the +ends, but left wide enough apart to admit the bodies of the insects to +be spread; strips of cork or pith, in which to fasten the pins, may then +be tacked or glued below so as to cover the intervening space. The +braces must be deep enough to prevent the pins from touching anything +the stretcher may be laid on, and by attaching a ring or loop to one of +them the stretcher may be hung against a wall, out of the way. For +ordinary-sized specimens I use boards 2 feet long, 3 inches wide, and +1/3 inch thick, with three braces (one in the middle and one at each +end) 11/2 inches deep at the ends, but narrowing from each end to 1 1/6 +inches at the middle. This slight rising from the middle is to +counteract the tendency of the wings, however well dried, to drop a +little after the insect is placed in the cabinet. The wings are held in +position by means of strips of paper (Fig. 105) until dry. For +stretching the wings and for many other purposes, a handled needle will +be found useful. Split off, with the grain, a piece of pine wood 3 or 4 +inches long; hold it in the right hand; take a medium-sized needle in +the left hand; hold it upright with the point touching a walnut table, +or other hard-grained wood, and bring a steady pressure to bear on the +pine. The head of the needle will sink to any required distance into the +pine, which may then be whittled off, and you have just the thing you +want (Fig. 106). To obtain uniformity in the position of the wings, a +good rule is to have the inner margins of the front wings as nearly as +possible on a straight line. When the specimens are thoroughly stiff and +dry, they should be taken from the stretcher and kept for several weeks +in the drying box before being permanently placed in the cabinet. The +drying box is simply a box of any required dimensions, containing a +series of shelves on which to pin the specimens, and without a solid +back or front. The back is covered on the inside with fine gauze and on +the outside with coarser wire, and the door in front consists of a +close-fitting frame of the same material, the object being to allow free +passage of air, but at the same time to keep out dust and prevent the +gnawings of mice and other animals. The shelves should be not less than +2 inches deep, and if made in the form of a quadrangular frame, braced +with two cross-pieces on which to tack sheet cork, they will serve for +the double purpose of drying spread specimens and for the spreading of +others, as there are many insects with long legs which are more +conveniently spread on such a board, by means of triangular pieces of +stiff cardboard braces or 'saddles,' than on the stretcher already +described. Two of these braces are fixed on the setting board, by means +of stout pins, at sufficient distances apart to receive the body between +them. The wings are then spread upon them and kept in place until dry by +means of additional braces. In the case of bees, wasps, etc., the pin +may be thrust well into the cork or pith so that the wings may be +arranged in the proper position and braced and supported by strips of +stout cardboard. This method is especially recommended in the case of +the Fossorial wasps, the legs of which, if mounted in an ordinary +spreading board, can not be properly arranged. + +In spreading Lepidoptera I have used, in the place of a number of paper +strips pinned across the wings, blocks of glass of various sizes to hold +the wings in position. My method of mounting, with a large amount of +material on hand to be attended to, consists in pinning a row on the +spreading-board and fixing the wings in position with spreading needles, +fastening them with a single narrow strip of paper placed next the body. +The entire spreading-board is filled with specimens in this way, a +single long strip of paper on either side answering to keep the wings of +all the specimens in position. Then, instead of pinning additional +strips to hold the wings flat and securely in position, the pieces of +glass referred to are used, placing them on the wings of the insect. +With the use of glass the spreading-board must always be kept in a +horizontal position and must never be disturbed. The advantage of the +glass is that the wings can be seen through it and more truly adjusted. + +Spreading-boards may be made as described above, or it may be of +advantage, when a good deal of work is to be done, to adopt a somewhat +different method. Five or six spreading-boards may be made together, +forming a sort of shelf. A number of these shelves may be constructed +and the whole combined in a case with a screen cover to exclude insects. +The individual shelves may be arranged with grooves to slide on tongues +in the side of the case. A screen-covered case for spreading-boards is +always desirable, as the insects are otherwise very liable to be eaten +by roaches or other insects. A spreading-case of the form described is +shown at Fig. 107. + +_A new Apparatus for Spreading Microlepidoptera._--For the spreading of +Microlepidoptera my assistant, Mr. Theo. Pergande, has devised an +apparatus, represented in the accompanying illustration, which he finds +very convenient. It consists of a small spreading-block represented at +_B_ and the support with attachment shown at _A_. The former is made in +a long strip of the shape shown in the illustration, having a square +groove, _c_, cut in the top. Over this is glued a thin strip of wood, +_b_, say 1/8 inch thick, and a narrow slit is sawed in the center of +this above, cutting through into the groove _c_. This is then sawed up +into pieces of uniform length, say 11/2 to 2 inches, and the block is +completed by the insertion of a rectangular strip of pith or cork into +the groove. The Micro is pinned on a short black pin, and the pin is +thrust down into the narrow opening made by the saw and is held firmly +by the pith or cork. This block is then slid into the groove in the +setting-board _A_, which narrows slightly from _e_, and pushed along +until firmly secured (_d_). The operator can then rest his hands and +arms on either side of the support, and, if necessary, bring a large +hand lens over the object by means of a support with ball-and-socket +joint shown at _e_. The wings may thus be easily and accurately arranged +and fixed in position with pins or strips of paper, as in the ordinary +mounting of such insects. Two or three specimens may be mounted on each +of these blocks. The construction of the support is indicated in the +annexed drawing. One side is attached by clamps, shown enlarged at +_f_, which afford means of adjusting the width of the slit in which the +small sawed blocks slide and correct the shrinking or swelling which may +take place in moist or dry seasons. The advantage of the apparatus is +that the operator has the setting block firmly fixed before him and +has both hands free to manipulate the wings of the insect in addition to +having the lens in a convenient position, the use of which is necessary +in the preparation of the very minute forms. + +[Illustration: FIG. 107.--Spreading-case (original).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 108.--Spreading apparatus for Microlepidoptera +(original).] + +_Spreading Microlepidoptera._--The mounting of Microlepidoptera is about +the most delicate work in entomotaxy, and I can not do better than +quote the explicit directions given by Lord Walsingham on the subject. + +Returning to camp I put a few drops of liquid ammonia on a small piece +of sponge and place it in a tin canister with such of the boxes as do +not contain the smallest species, and put these and the remainder away +until morning in a cool place. In the morning I prepare for work by +getting out a pair of scissors, a pair of forceps, my drying-box +containing setting-boards, a sheet of white paper, and some pins. + +First, I cut two or three narrow pieces of paper from 3 to 6 lines wide, +or rather wider, according to the size of the largest and smallest +specimens I have to set. I then double each of these strips and cut it +up into braces by a number of oblique cuts. Now I turn out the contents +of the canister and damp the sponge with a few drops of fresh ammonia, +refilling with boxes containing live insects. Those which have been +taken out will be found to be all dead and in a beautifully relaxed +condition for setting. Had the smallest specimens been placed in the +canister over night there would have been some fear of their drying up, +owing to the small amount of moisture in their bodies. + +If the weather is very hot there is some danger of killed insects +becoming stiff while others are being set, in which case it is better to +pin at once into a damp cork box all that have been taken out of the +canister, but under ordinary circumstances I prefer to pin them one by +one as I set them. + +Taking the lid off a box, and taking the box between the finger and +thumb of the right hand, I roll out the insect on the top of the left +thumb, supporting it with the top of the forefinger and so manipulating +it as to bring the head pointing toward my right hand and the thorax +uppermost. Now I take a pin in the right hand and resting the first +joint of the middle finger of the right against the projecting point of +the middle finger of the left hand to avoid unsteadiness, I pin the +insect obliquely through the thickest part of the thorax, so that the +head of the pin leans very slightly forward over the head of the insect. +After passing the pin far enough through to bring about one-fourth of an +inch out below,[6] I pin the insect into the middle of the groove of a +setting board so that the edge of the groove will just support the under +sides of the wings close up to the body when they are raised upon it. +The board should be chosen of such a size as will permit of the +extension of the wings nearly to its outer edge. The position of the pin +should still be slanting a little forward. The wings should now be +raised into the position in which they are intended to rest, with +especial care in doing so not to remove any scales from the surface or +cilia of the wings. Each wing should be fastened with a brace long +enough to extend across both, the braces being pinned at the thick end, +so that the head of the pin slopes away from the point of the brace; +this causes the braces to press more firmly down on the wing when fixed. +The insect should be braced thus: The two braces next the body should +have the points upwards, the two outer ones pointing downwards and +slightly inwards towards the body, and covering the main portion of the +wings beyond the middle. Antennae should be carefully laid back above the +wings, and braces should lie flat, exercising an even pressure at all +points of their surface. The fore wings should slope slightly forwards +so that a line drawn from the point of one to the point of the other +will just miss the head and palpi. The hind wings should be close up, +leaving no intervening space, but just showing the upper angle of the +wing evenly on each side. I can give no more precise directions as to +how this desirable result may most simply and speedily be attained; no +two people set alike. Speed is an object; for I have often had to set +twelve dozen insects before breakfast. A simple process is essential, +for a man who is always pinning and moving pins, and rearranging wings +and legs, is sure to remove a certain number of scales and spoil the +appearance of the insect, besides utterly destroying its value. I raise +each of the fore wings with a pin, and fix the pin against the inner +margin so as to keep them in position while I apply the braces. Half the +battle is really in the pinning. When an insect is pinned through the +exact center of the thorax, with the pin properly sloped forward, the +body appears to fall naturally into its position on the setting board, +and the muscles of the wings being left free are easily directed and +secured; but if the pin is not put exactly in the middle it interferes +with the play of the wings. Legs must be placed close against the body +or they will project and interfere with the set of the wings. Practice, +care, and a steady hand will succeed. When all the insects that have +been killed are set the contents of the canister will be found again +ready, twenty minutes being amply sufficient to expose to the fumes of +ammonia. Very bright green or pale pink insects should be killed by some +other process, say chloroform, as ammonia will affect their colors. + + [6] This applies to the use of short pins, which should subsequently be + connected through strips of pith with longer pins. For some of the + larger micros the long pins may be used directly and a different + spreading board employed. + +Insects should be left on the setting boards a full week to dry; then +the braces may be carefully removed and they may be transferred to the +store box. + +In my own experience I have found that a touch or two of the chloroform +brush on the pill-box containing small moths is sufficient to either +kill or so asphyxiate them that they can easily be mounted. I have also +found that strips of corn pith or even of soft cork, with grooves cut +into them, are very handy for the pinning and spreading, and that by +means of a small, broad-tipped, and pliable forceps the smallest +specimens can be deftly arranged in the groove and kept in place until +pinned. In fact, for all persons who have not very great experience and +dexterity this method is perhaps more to be recommended than that of +holding them between the thumb and fingers. Where chloroform is used +either to kill or deaden specimens, it is important that after they are +once spread and in the drying box they should be subjected to an +additional asphyxiation, as the larger species may revive and are apt to +pull away from the holding strips, and thus rub off their scales. + +Microlepidoptera, together with Microhymenoptera and Diptera may be +conveniently pinned on fine, short pins, and these thrust into an oblong +bit of cork or pith. This form of mounting has already been described +and is represented in figure 102. The neatest mounting of +Microlepidoptera which I have seen is the work of my assistant, Mr. +Albert Koebele, who mounts these insects on an oblong strip of pith. +This is very light and presents no difficulty in pinning. The strips may +be made of considerable length and both sexes may be pinned on the same +block (see Fig. 103). Most Lepidoptera present on the under surface an +entirely different aspect from that on the upper surface, and, in such +cases, it is a good plan to mount a number of specimens obversely. + +_Relaxing._--It will frequently be desirable to re-spread insects which +have been incorrectly mounted, or to spread specimens which have been +collected and stored in papers, or pinned and allowed to dry without +being prepared for the cabinet. Such specimens may be relaxed by placing +them in a tight tin vessel half filled with moist sand to which a little +carbolic acid has been added to prevent molding. Small specimens will be +sufficiently relaxed to spread in twenty-four hours. Larger specimens +require from two to three days. More rapid relaxing may be caused by the +use of steam, and a flat piece of cork with the specimens laid or pinned +thereon and floated on the top of hot water in a closed vessel +constitutes an excellent relaxing arrangement. + +_Inflation of the Larvae of Lepidoptera._--The larvae of Lepidoptera +preserved in alcohol are excellent for anatomical and general study, but +are not very suitable for use in economic displays. This means of +preservation also has the disadvantage of not generally preserving the +natural color and appearance of the specimens. These objections may be +avoided, however, by the dry method of preserving larvae, viz, by blowing +or inflation. The process may be described as follows: The larva may be +operated upon alive, but should preferably be first killed by dipping in +chloroform or alcohol, or in the cyanide bottle. It is then placed on a +piece of blotting paper and the alimentary canal caused to protrude from +one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch, by rolling a pencil over the larva +from the head to the posterior extremity. The protruding tip is then +severed with a sharp knife or pair of dissecting scissors, and the +contents of the abdomen are forced out by passing a pencil, as before, a +number of times over the larva. Great care should be exercised in +expressing the fluids not to press the pencil too strongly against the +larva or to continue the operation too long, as this will, especially in +delicate larvae, remove the pigment from the skin, and the specimen when +dried will show discolored spots and be more or less distorted. The +larva should be moved from place to place on the blotting paper during +the operation, so as not to become soiled by its own juices. A straw, or +a glass tube drawn to a point at the tip, is then inserted in the +protruding portion of the alimentary canal. If a straw is used the larva +may be fastened to it by thrusting a pin through the wall of the canal +and the straw. In the case of the glass tube the alimentary canal can be +caused to adhere by drying for a few minutes and this operation may be +hastened and the fastening made more secure by touching the point of +union with a drop of glue. The straw or glass tube is then attached to a +small rubber bag, previously inflated with air, the ordinary dentist's +or chemist's gas bag answering admirably for this purpose. The larva is +now ready for drying, and for this purpose a drying oven is required +into which it is thrust and manipulated by turning it from side to side, +to keep it in proper shape and dry it uniformly until the moisture has +been thoroughly expelled. An apparatus which I have found very +convenient for this purpose is represented at Fig. 109. It consists of a +tin box with mica or glass slides, _e_, to allow the larva to be +constantly in sight. It has also a hinged top, _b_, which may be kept +closed or partly open, or entirely open, as may be necessary, during the +operation. The ends of the box are prolonged downward about 5 inches, +forming supports for it, _g_. Beneath it is placed an alcohol lamp, _f_, +which furnishes the heat. In the end of the box is a circular opening, +_d_, for the introduction of the larva, and this may be entirely or +partly closed by a sliding door, _a_. It will be found of advantage to +line the bottom of the box (inside) with a brass screen of very fine +mesh to distribute and equalize the heat. This apparatus can be very +easily made by any tinsmith and will answer every purpose. + +[Illustration: FIG. 109.--Drying oven for the inflation of larvae +(original).] + +The larvae of Microlepidoptera or young larvae may be dried without +expressing the body contents, and will keep, to a great extent, their +normal shape and appearance. The method consists in placing them on a +sand bath, heated by an alcohol lamp. The vapor generated by the heat in +the larvae inflates them and keeps the skin taut until the juices are +entirely evaporated. They may then be glued at once to cardboard and +pinned in the cases. + +In the mounting of large inflated larvae I have adopted the plan of +supporting them on covered copper wire of a size varying with the size +of the larva. A pin is first thrust through a square bit of cork and the +wire brought tightly about it and wrapped once or twice, compressing the +cork and giving a firm attachment to the pin. The wire is then neatly +bent to form a diamond-shaped loop about one-sixth of an inch in length +and again twisted loosely to the end--the length of the twisted portion +about equalling that of the larva to be mounted. This is then either +thrust into the blown skin of the larva through the anal opening, the +larva being glued to the wire by the posterior extremity, or the larva +is glued to the wire by the abdominal legs and venter, thus resting on +the wire as on a twig. This style of mounting is illustrated in Pl. I. +With a little experience the operator will soon be able to inflate the +most delicate larvae and also the very hairy forms, as for instance +_Orgyia leucostigma_, without the least injury, so that the natural +colors and appearance will be preserved. + +Another very good method, and still safer, is to blow with straw, cut +the straw square off at the anus, and then preserve the thoroughly dried +and blown specimen in a glass tube of about the same length and diameter +as the larva. This arrangement in conjunction with the tube holder, +which will be described further on, is one of the most satisfactory for +the preservation of inflated larvae. + +For the biological-display collection, larvae may be blown in various +natural positions, to be subsequently fastened on leaf or twig or in +burrows which they have occupied. Fastened to artificial foliage in +which nature is imitated as much as possible, such blown larvae are quite +effective. + +_Stuffing Insects._--Large larvae may sometimes be satisfactorily +preserved for exhibition purposes by stuffing them with cotton. The +method consists simply in making a small slit with the dissecting +scissors or a short scalpel between the abdominal prolegs, and removing +the body contents. Powdered arsenic or some other preservative should be +put in the body of the larva with the cotton used in stuffing it, and +the slit closed by a few stitches, when the larva may be dried and +mounted on a twig or leaf. This method of stuffing with cotton is also +applicable in the case of certain large-bodied insects which, if mounted +and put away without preparation, would be liable to decompose, as, for +instance, the larger moths, grasshoppers, etc. A slit can be made in the +center of the abdomen or near the anus beneath, and the body contents +removed and replaced with cotton. Stuffing in this way with cotton is of +especial advantage in the case of certain of the large endophytous +insects which grease badly. The cut will not be noticed after the insect +has dried, or it may be closed by a stitch or two. + +_Dry Preservation of Aphides and other soft-bodied Insects._--Difficulty +has always been experienced in preserving soft-bodied insects, +particularly Aphides, in a condition serviceable for subsequent +scientific study. Kept in alcohol or other antiseptic fluid, they almost +invariably lose much of their normal appearance, and many of the +important characteristics, especially of color, are obscured or lost. +The balsam mount is also unsatisfactory in many respects, as the body is +always more or less distorted and little can be relied upon except the +venation and the jointed appendages. A method of preserving soft-bodied +insects by means of the sudden application of intense heat was +communicated to the _Entomologische Nachrichten_, Vol. IV, page 155, by +Herr D. H. R. von Schlechtendal. It is claimed for this method that the +Aphides and other soft-bodied insects can be satisfactorily preserved in +form and coloring, the success of the method being vouched for by a +number of well-known German entomologists, Kaltenbach, Giebel, +Taschenberg, Mayr, and Rudow. A condensed translation of the method +employed by Schlechtendal is given by J. W. Douglas in the +_Entomologists' Monthly Magazine_ for December, 1878, which I quote: + +The heat is derived from the flame of a spirit or petroleum lamp. Above +this is placed a piece of sheet-tin, and over this the roasting +proceeds. A bulging lamp cylinder, laid horizontally, serves as a +roasting oven. In this the insect to be dried, when prepared as +directed, and stuck on a piece of pith, is to be held over the flame; or +the cylinder may be closed at the lower end with a cork, which should +extend far inwards, and on this the insect should be fastened; the +latter mode being preferable because the heat is more concentrated, and +one hand is left free. The mode of procedure varies according to the +nature of the objects to be treated. For the class of larger objects, +such as Hemiptera, Cicadina, and Orthoptera, in their young stages of +existence, the heat must not be slight, but a little practice shows the +proper temperature required. If the heat be insufficient, a drying up +instead of a natural distention ensues. The insect to be roasted is to +be pierced by a piece of silver wire on the under side of the thorax, +but it is not to be inserted so far as to damage the upper side, and the +wire should then be carried through a disk of pith, placed beneath the +insect, on which the legs should be set out in the desired position. But +with some objects, such, for instance, as a young _Strachia_, the drying +proceeds very quickly, so that if distention be not observed then the +heat is too great, for the expansion of the air inside will force off +the head with a loud report; also, with softer, thicker Pentatomidae care +must be taken to begin with a heat only so strong that the internal +juices do not boil, for in such case the preparation would be spoiled. +It is of advantage to remove the cylinder from time to time, and test, +by means of a lens, if a contraction of the skin has taken place on any +part; if so, the roasting is to be continued. The desired hardness may +be tested with a bristle or wire. For _Aphides_ the _living Aphis_ is to +be put on a piece of white paper, and at the moment when it is in the +desired position it is to be held over the flame, and in an instant it +will be dead and will retain the attitude. Then put it, still on the +paper, into the oven; or, still better, hold it over the heated tin, +carefully watching the drying and moving the paper about in order to +prevent it getting singed. The roasting is quickly accomplished in +either way, but somewhat slower out of the oven especially in the larger +kinds, such as Lachnus. If the paper turn brown it is a sure sign that +caution is requisite. To pierce these brittle preparations for +preservation is hazardous, and it is a better way to mount them with gum +on card, placing some examples on their back. + +For Cecidomyidae, Agromyzidae, Cynipidae, and other small insects liable to +shrink, yet containing but little moisture, such as Poduridae, +Pediculidae, Psyllidae, etc., another method is adopted. Over the insect, +mounted on a wire, etc., as above directed, a thin chemical reagent +glass or glass rod, heated strongly at one end, is held, and the heat +involved is generally sufficient to bring about the immediate drying and +distention, but if the heat be too little the process must be repeated; +and, although by this method the danger of burning is not obviated, yet +the position of the legs is maintained much better than by the aforesaid +roasting. + +Larvae of all kinds, up to the size of that of _Astynomus aedilis_, even +when they have long been kept in spirits, may be treated successfully by +the roasting method; but with these objects care must be taken that the +heat is not too strong or else the form will be distorted. For small +larvae it is preferable to use a short glass, in order better to effect +their removal without touching the upper part, which becomes covered +with steam, and contact with which would cause the destruction of the +preparation. Larvae of Coleoptera, which contain much moisture or have a +mucous surface, must lie on a bed of paper or pith in order to prevent +adhesion and burning, and these may be further avoided if the cylinder +be slightly shaken during the process, and the position of the object be +thereby changed. + +Many Aphides and Coccids are covered with a waxy secretion which +interferes very materially with their easy examination. Mr. Howard has +overcome this difficulty by the following treatment: + +"With Aphides and Coccids which are covered with an abundant waxy +secretion which can not be readily brushed away, we have adopted the +plan of melting the wax. We place the insect on a bit of platinum foil +and pass it once over the flame of the alcohol lamp. The wax melts at a +surprisingly low temperature and leaves the insect perfectly clean for +study. This method is particularly of use in the removal of the waxy +cocoon of the pupae of male Coccidae, and is quicker and more thorough +than the use of any of the chemical wax solvents which we have tried." +(_Insect Life_, I, p. 152.) + +_Mounting Specimens for the Microscope._--The study of the minuter forms +of insect life, including Parasites, Thysanura, Mallophaga, the newly +hatched of most insects, etc., requires the use of the microscope, and +some little knowledge of the essentials of preparing and mounting +specimens is needed. The subject of mounting the different organs of +insects and the preparation for histological study of the soft parts of +insects opens up the immense field of microscopy, the use of the +innumerable mounting media, the special treatment of the objects to be +mounted, staining, section-cutting, and many other like topics, a full +description of which is altogether out of place in the present work. +Anyone desiring to become thoroughly versed in the subject should +consult some of the larger manuals for the microscopist, of which there +are many. For the practical working entomologist, however, a knowledge +of all these methods and processes is not essential, and in my long +experience I have found that mounting in Canada balsam will answer for +almost every purpose. The softer-bodied forms will shrink more or less +in this substance, and it is frequently necessary to make studies or +drawings of them when freshly mounted; or, if additional specimens are +preserved in alcohol, they will supplement the mounted specimens and the +material may be worked up at the convenience of the student. The +materials for the balsam mounts may be obtained of any dealer in +microscopical supplies. They consist of glass slides, 3 inches by 1 +inch, thin cover-glasses of different dimensions, and the prepared +balsam. The balsam is put up very conveniently for use in tin tubes. A +sufficient quantity is pressed out on the center of the glass slide, +which has previously been made thoroughly clean and dry, the insect is +removed from the alcohol, and when the excess of liquor has been removed +with bibulous paper, it is placed in the balsam, the limbs and antennae +being arranged as desired by the use of fine mounting-needles. A +cover-glass, also made thoroughly clean and dry, is then placed over the +specimen and pressed gently until the balsam entirely fills the space +between the cover and the glass slide. The slide should then be properly +labeled with a number referring to the notes on the insect, preferably +placed on the upper edge of the slide above the cover-glass, and also a +label giving the number of the slide and the number of the slide box. On +the opposite end of the slide may be placed the label giving the name of +the specimen mounted and the date. If a revolving slide table is +employed to center the mounts, the appearance of the slide may be +improved by adding a circle of asphalt or Brunswick black. With the +balsam mounts, however, this sealing is not necessary. The slide (Fig. +110) should then be placed in a slide case with the mount uppermost, and +should be kept in a horizontal position to prevent sliding of the +cover-glass and specimen until the balsam is thoroughly dried. For +storing slides I have found very convenient the box shown at Fig. 111. +It is constructed of strong pasteboard and is arranged for holding +twenty-six slides. The cover bears numbers from 1 to 26, opposite which +the name of each insect mounted, or the label on the slide, may be +written. This box when not in use is kept in a pasteboard case, on which +may be placed the number of the box. These slide cases may be stored in +drawers or on shelves made for the purpose. In mounting specimens taken +from alcohol it is advisable to put a drop of oil of cloves upon them, +which unites with the balsam and ultimately evaporates. The occurrence +of minute air bubbles under the cover-glass need occasion no uneasiness, +for these will disappear on the drying of the balsam. + +[Illustration: FIG. 110.--Balsam mount, showing method of labeling, etc. +(original).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 111.--Slide case, showing method of labeling case +and of numbering and labeling slides (original).] + +In mounting minute Acarids or mites it has been found best to kill the +insects in hot water, which causes them to expand their legs, so that +when mounted these appendages can readily be studied. If mounted living, +the legs are almost invariably curled up under the body and can not be +seen. This method may also be used in the case of other minute insects. +Some insects, such as minute Diptera, are injured by the use of hot +water, and for these dipping in hot spirits is recommended. + +In the mounting of Aphides the same difficulty is avoided in a measure +by Mr. G. B. Buckton, author of "A Monograph of the British Aphides," by +first placing a few dots of balsam on the glass slide, to which the +insect is transferred by means of a moistened camel's-hair brush. The +efforts of the insect to escape will cause it to spread out its legs in +a natural position and a cover glass may then be placed in position and +a drop of the balsam placed at the side, when, by capillarity, it will +fill the space between the slide and cover glass and the limbs will be +found to have remained extended. If three or four drops of the balsam +are put on the glass the wings may also be brought down and caught to +them so that they will remain expanded in shape for examination. + +_Preparing and Mounting the Wings of Lepidoptera._--The student of +Lepidoptera will frequently find it necessary in the study of the +venation of wings to bleach them or denude them of their scales in some +way. Various methods of bleaching and mounting the wings of these +insects have been given, and a few of them may be briefly outlined. + +The simplest and quickest, but perhaps the least satisfactory, method is +to remove the scales with a camel's-hair brush. This will answer for the +larger forms and where a very careful examination is not required. For +more careful examination and study the wings are first bleached by the +action of some caustic solution and then mounted in balsam for permanent +preservation. Chambers's method for Tineina, Tortricina, Pyralidina, and +the smaller moths generally, is as follows: The wing is placed on a +microscopic slide in from 3 to 4 drops of a strong solution of potash, +the amount varying according to the size of the wing. A cover of glass +is then placed in position on the wing as in ordinary mounting. + +The quantity of liquid should be sufficient to fill the space beneath, +but not sufficient to float the cover glass. The mount is then placed +over an alcohol flame, removing it at the first sign of ebullition, when +the wing will be found denuded, if it be a fresh specimen. An old +specimen, or a larger wing, will require somewhat more prolonged +boiling. The fluid is drawn off by tilting the glass or with bibulous +paper, and the potash removed by washing with a few drops of water. The +cover glass is then removed and the wing mounted either on the same +slide in balsam or floated to another slide, or at once accurately +sketched with the camera lucida. Permanent mounting, however, is always +to be recommended. + +The Dimmock method of bleaching the wings of Lepidoptera, given in +Psyche, Vol. I, pp. 97-99, is as follows: He uses for bleaching a +modification of the chlorine bleaching process commonly employed in +cotton bleacheries, the material for which is sold by druggists as +chlorate of lime. The wings are first soaked in pure alcohol to dissolve +out the oily matter, which will act as a repellant to the aqueous +chlorine solution. The chlorate of lime is dissolved in 10 parts of +water and filtered. The wings are transferred to a small quantity of +this solution and in an hour or two are thoroughly bleached, the veins, +however, retaining a light brown color. If the bleaching does not +commence readily in the chlorine solution the action may be hastened by +previously dipping them in dilute hydrochloric acid. When sufficiently +decolorized the wings should be washed in dilute hydrochloric acid to +remove the deposit of calcic carbonate, which forms by the union of the +calcic hydrate solution with the carbonic dioxide of the air. The wings +are then thoroughly washed in pure water and may be gummed to cards or +mounted on glass slides in Canada balsam, first washing them in alcohol +and chloroform to remove the moisture. If either of the solutions known +as _eau de labaraque_ and _eau de javelle_ are used in place of the +bleaching powder, no deposit is left on the wings and the washing with +acid is obviated. This process does not dissolve or remove the scales, +but merely renders them transparent, so that they do not interfere with +the study of the venation. + +Prof. C. H. Fernald (_American Monthly Microscopical Journal_, I, p. +172, 1880), mounts the wings of Lepidoptera in glycerin, after having +first cleared them by the Dimmock process. After bleaching and washing, +the wings are dried by holding the slides over an alcohol flame, and a +drop of glycerin is then applied and a cover glass put on at once. By +holding the slide again over the flame until ebullition takes place the +glycerin will replace the air under the wings and no injury to the +structure of the wings will result, even if, in refractory cases, the +wing is boiled for some little time. The mount in this method must be +sealed with some microscopic cement, as asphalt or Brunswick black. + +A method of mounting wings of small Lepidoptera for studying venation, +which I have found very convenient, is thus described by Mr. Howard in +_Insect Life_, Vol. I, p. 151: + +"Some years ago we used the following method for studying the venation +of the wings of small Lepidoptera. We have told it since to many +friends, but believe it has not been published. It is in some respects +preferable to the so-called 'Dimmock process,' and particularly as a +time-saver. It is also in this respect preferable to denudation with a +brush. The wing is removed and mounted upon a slide in Canada balsam, +which should be preferably rather thick. The slide is then held over the +flame of an alcohol lamp until the balsam spreads well over the wing. +Just as it is about to enter the veins, however, the slide is placed +upon ice, or, if in the winter time, outside the window for a few +moments. This thickens the balsam immediately and prevents it from +entering the veins, which remain permanently filled with air and appear +black with transmitted light. With a little practice one soon becomes +expert enough to remove the slide and cool it at just the right time, +when the scales will have been rendered nearly transparent by the +balsam, while the veins remain filled with air. We have done this +satisfactorily not only with Tortricidae and Tineidae, but with Noctuids +of the size of _Aletia_ and _Leucania_. The mounts are permanent, and we +have some which have remained unchanged since 1880. Prof. Riley had for +some years before this been in the habit of mounting wings in balsam, in +which of course the scales cleared after a time." + +Prof. John B. Smith recommends a modification of the Dimmock process of +bleaching the wings of Lepidoptera, publishing it in Insect Life, Vol. +I, pp. 291, 292, as follows: + +"By the Dimmock process the wings are first acted upon by a saturated +solution of the chloride of lime, chlorine being, of course, the +bleaching agent. Afterward they are washed in water to which +hydrochloric acid has been added, to get rid of the slight deposit of +lime. The process is a slow one for thickly scaled, dark-colored +insects, and it occurred to me to try a mixture of the chloride and +acid, liberating the chlorine gas. The method was absolutely successful, +the wings decolorizing immediately and being ready for the slide within +two minutes. In fact, very delicate wings can scarcely be taken out +quick enough, and need very little acid. The advantage is the rapidity +of work and the certainty of retaining the wings entire, the chloride of +lime sometimes destroying the membrane in part before the bleaching is +complete. The disadvantage is the vile smell of the chlorine gas when +liberated by the combination of the two liquids. For quick work this +must be endured, and the beauty and completeness of the result are also +advantages to counterbalance the discomfort to the senses." + +For further special directions for mounting, for microscopic purposes, +different insects and the different parts of insects, representing both +the external chitinous covering and the internal anatomy, the student is +referred to special works. + + + PRESERVATION OF ALCOHOLIC SPECIMENS. + +APPARATUS AND METHODS.--The collections of most value, especially to our +various agricultural colleges and experiment stations will be largely of +a biologic and economic character, and the interest attaching to a +knowledge of the life history of insects will induce many collectors to +build up independent biologic collections. Very much of this biological +material will be alcoholic, and though many immature states of insects +may be preserved by dry processes, still the bulk must needs be kept in +liquid. This material may, when not abundant, be kept with the general +systematic collection, but experience has shown that it is better to +make a separate biological collection, and this is recommended +especially for State institutions where the collections may be expected +to attain some considerable proportions. In the case of such collections +it is very desirable to adopt some method of securing the vials in such +a manner that they can easily be transferred from one place to another +and fastened in the boxes or drawers employed for pinned insects. For +directions in this regard I reproduce from an article on the subject in +_Insect Life_, Vol. II, pp. 345, 346, which was republished, with slight +changes, from my annual report for 1886 as Honorary Curator.[7] + + [7] Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1886, Part II, + Report of the National Museum, pp. 182-186. Washington, 1890. + +_Vials, Stoppers and Holders._--The vials in use to preserve such +specimens as must be left in alcohol or other liquids are straight glass +tubes of varying diameters and lengths, with round bottom and smooth +even mouth. The stoppers in use are of rubber, which, when tightly put +into the vial, the air being nearly all expelled, keep the contents of +the vial intact and safe for years. + +Various forms of bottles are used in museums for the preservation of +minute alcoholic material. I have tried the flattened and the square and +have studied various other forms of these vials; but I am satisfied that +those just described, which are in use by Dr. Hagen in the Cambridge +Museum, are, all things considered, the most convenient and economical. +A more difficult problem to solve was a convenient and satisfactory +method of holding these vials and of fastening them into drawers or +cases held at all angles, from perpendicular to horizontal. Most +alcoholic collections are simply kept standing, either in tubes with +broad bases or in tubes held in wooden or other receptacles; but for a +biologic collection of insects something that could be used in +connection with the pinned specimens and that could be easily removed, +as above set forth, was desirable. After trying many different +contrivances I finally prepared a block, with Mr. Hawley's assistance, +which answers every purpose of simplicity, neatness, security, and +convenience. It is, so far as I know, unique, and will be of advantage +for the same purpose to other museums. It has been in use now for the +past six years, and has been of great help and satisfaction in the +arrangement and preservation of the alcoholic specimens, surpassing all +other methods for ease of handling and classifying. + +The blocks are oblong, one-fourth of an inch thick, the ends (_c c_, +Fig. 112) beveled, the sides either beveled or straight, the latter +preferable. They vary in length and breadth according to the different +sizes of the vials, and are painted white. Upon the upper side of these +blocks are fastened two curved clamps of music wire (_b b_), forming +about two-thirds of a complete circle. The fastening to the block is +simple and secure. A bit of the wire of proper length is first doubled +and then by a special contrivance the two ends are bent around a mandrel +so as to form an insertion point or loop. A brad awl is used to make a +slot in the block, into which this loop is forced (_e_, Fig. 112, 5), a +drop of warm water being first put into the slot to soften the wood, +which swells and closes so firmly around the wire that considerable +force is required to pull it out. Four pointed wire nails (_d d d d_), +set into the bottom so as to project about one-fourth inch, serve to +hold the block to the cork bottom of the case or drawer in which it is +to be placed. The method of use is simple and readily seen from the +accompanying figures, which represent the block from all sides. + +The advantages of this system are the ease and security with which the +block can be placed in or removed from a box; the ease with which a vial +can be slipped into or removed from the wire clamps; the security with +which it is held, and the fact that practically no part of the contents +of the vial is obscured by the holder--the whole being visible from +above. + +The beveled ends of the block may be used for labeling, or pieces of +clean cardboard cut so as to project somewhat on all sides may be used +for this purpose, and will be held secure by the pins between the block +and the cork of the drawers. + +[Illustration: FIG. 112.--Vial holder; 1, block, with vial, beveled on +all sides; 2, do., beveled only on ends; 3, block, end view; 5, do., +section; 4, 6, do., side views; _a_, block; _b_, spring-wire clamps; +_c_, beveled ends of block; _d_, pointed wire nails; _e_, point of +insertion of clamp. (Lettering on all figures corresponds.)] + +The use of rubber stoppers in this country was first instituted by Dr. +H. A. Hagen in connection with the Cambridge biological collection, and +he has made some very careful records to determine the durability of +such stoppers. From an examination of some seven thousand vials with +rubber stoppers, two-thirds of which had been in use for from ten to +twelve years, he comes to the conclusion that less than one in a +thousand gives out every year after twelve years' use, and in the first +six years probably only one out of two thousand. Stoppers of large size +keep much longer than those of small size. American rubber stoppers are +all made of vulcanized India rubber and have the disadvantage of forming +small crystals of sulphur about the stopper, which become loosened and +attach themselves to the specimens. It is supposed that pure +rubber-stoppers used for chemical purposes would not present this +disadvantage, which may be obviated, however, or very much reduced, if +the stoppers are washed or soaked, preferably in hot water, for an hour +or two at least. + +If stoppers are stored for a considerable time and exposed to the air +they become very hard and unfit for use, and Dr. Hagen has drawn +attention to a method recommended by Professor W. Hemple, of Dresden, +Saxony, of preventing them from becoming thus hardened. He says that to +keep rubber stoppers or rubber apparatus of any sort elastic, they +should be stored in large glass jars in which an open vessel containing +petroleum is placed. This treatment prevents the evaporation of the +fluids which are fixed in the rubber in the process of vulcanization. It +is better also to keep the light from the jar. To soften stoppers which +have already become hardened, they should be brought together in a jar +with sulphuret of carbon until they are pliable and afterward kept as +recommended above. + +In the use of the rubber stopper the novice may find some difficulty in +inserting it in a vial filled with alcohol. The compression of the +alcohol, or alcohol and air when the vial is not completely filled, +forces the stopper out, and this is true whether of rubber or cork. If a +fine insect pin is placed beside the cork when this is thrust into the +bottle, the air or liquid displaced by the cork will escape along the +pin and the latter may then be removed and the cork remains securely in +position. + +If cork stoppers have been used the vials may be stored in large +quantities together in jars filled with alcohol. This will prevent +evaporation of the alcohol from the vials, and the specimens may be +preserved indefinitely. This is only desirable in the storage of +duplicate specimens and unarranged material and is not recommended as a +substitute for the use of the rubber stopper. With cork stoppers +evaporation can be in a measure prevented if the cork is first anointed +with the petroleum preparation known as vaseline. This substance is +practically unaffected at ordinary temperature and is sparingly soluble +in cold alcohol. Experiments with it have shown that at ordinary spring +and summer temperatures there is no appreciable loss of alcohol from +vials and jars. + +My old method of keeping alcoholic specimens, which I abandoned for the +method outlined above, was fairly serviceable, inexpensive, and warrants +description. + +I had special folding boxes constructed resembling in exterior +appearance a large insect box. The bottom of the box was solid and was +made by gluing together two 11/2-inch planks. + +Holes extending nearly through the lower plank and of various sizes to +accommodate vials of different diameters were bored as closely together +as the wood justified without splitting or breaking. + +The holes were numbered consecutively and the vials when placed in them +were numbered to correspond; the box also had its number, and in the +notes the vial was referred to by number of box and vial thus, 3/73 (box +3, vial 73). The vial should project one-half to 1 inch above the hole, +and should be loose enough to provide for the swelling of the wood in +moist weather. + +To protect the vials a cover having a depth of about 11/2 inch was hinged +to the back and secured in front by hook-and-eye fastenings. + +This method of storing vials is satisfactory enough for private +collections, but for larger public collections is not so suitable. + +[Illustration: FIG. 113.--The Marx tray for alcoholic specimens +(original.)] + +A rather convenient and inexpensive method of storing vials is that used +by Dr. Marx. In this method the vials are stored in a wooden frame, +shown at Fig. 113. The top piece of the tray into which the vials are +thrust has a cork center, in which holes corresponding to the size of +the vials are made with a gun-wad punch. The outer end of the tray bears +a label or labels describing the material in the tray. The vials used by +Dr. Marx are of thinner glass than those which I recommend and flare +slightly at the top, as shown in the accompanying illustrations. They +are made in various sizes to accommodate larger and smaller specimens. A +vial thrust into the hole punched in the cork rests on the bottom piece +of the tray, the flange or neck preventing it from sliding through. +These trays are arranged on shallow shelves in a case or cabinet, +especially constructed for the purpose and a large quantity of material +may be stored by their use in small compass. The use of the cork center +piece in the upper part of the tray is not a necessity, and a wooden +piece may be used in which holes are bored with a bit of proper size. + +[Illustration: FIG. 114.--Vials used in the Marx tray (original.)] + +_Preserving Micro-larvae in Alcohol._--The following is quoted from +Packard's "Entomology for Beginners," for which it was translated from +the "_Deutsche Ent. Zeitg._," 1887, Heft I: + +"Dr. H. Dewitz mounts the larvae and pupae of Microlepidoptera, and also +the early stages of other small insects, in the following way: The +insects are put into a bottle with 95 per cent alcohol. Many larvae turn +black in alcohol, but boiling them in alcohol in a test tube will bleach +them. They may then be finally placed in glass tubes as small and thin +as possible, varying from 0.003 to 0.006 meter in diameter, according +to the size of the insects. About 0.07 meter's length of a tube is +melted over a spirit lamp, and the tube filled three-quarters full with +95 per cent alcohol, the insects placed within and the contents of the +tube heated at the end still open, and then closed by being pulled out +with another piece of glass tubing. After the glass has been held a few +minutes in the hand until it is slightly cooled off, the end closed last +is once more held over the lamp so that the points may be melted +together, and this end of the glass may be finished. During the whole +time from the closure of the tube until the complete cooling of the +glass it should be held obliquely in the hand, so that the alcohol may +not wet the upper end, for if the tube is too full it is difficult to +melt it, as the steam quickly expanding breaks through the softened mass +of glass. The tube may be mounted by boring a hole through a cork +stopper of the same diameter as the glass. The stopper is cut into the +shape of a cube, a strong insect pin put through it, and the glass tube +inserted into the hole. It can then be pinned in the insect box or +drawer, near the imago, so that the free end of the glass may touch the +bottom, while the other end stands up somewhat; while to keep the tube +in place the free end resting on the bottom may be fastened with two +strong insect pins. The specimens thus put up can easily be examined +with a lens, and if they need to be taken out for closer examination the +tube can be opened and closed again after a little practice." + +[Illustration: FIG. 115.--Method of preserving minute larvae etc. (After +Dewitz.)] + +PRESERVATIVE FLUIDS.--The principal liquids in which soft-bodied insects +may be successfully preserved are the following: + +_Alcohol._--As indicated in the foregoing portions of this work, alcohol +is the standard preservative used for soft-bodied specimens, and may be +used either full strength or diluted with water. Diluted alcohol should +always be first used with larvae, since the pure alcohol shrivels them +up. The weak spirits can afterwards be replaced by strong, for permanent +preservation. + +_Alcohol and White Arsenic._--The method of preserving insects +recommended by Laboulbene and quoted in Packard's Entomology for +Beginners, consists in plunging the insects in the fresh state into a +preservative liquid, consisting of alcohol with an excess of the common +white arsenic of commerce. The larva placed in this mixture absorbs .003 +of its own weight, and when removed and pinned is safe from the attacks +of museum pests. This liquid is said not to change the colors, blue, +green or red of beetles, if they are not immersed for more than +twenty-four hours. This treatment is applicable to the orders +Coleoptera, Hemiptera, and Orthoptera. If the insect is allowed to stay +in this mixture for a considerable time, say three or four weeks, and +then removed and dried, it becomes very hard and brittle and can not be +used for dissection or study, but makes a good cabinet specimen. The +white deposit of arsenic which will appear on drying can be washed off +with alcohol. + +_Alcohol and Corrosive Sublimate._--The same author recommends another +preparation consisting of alcohol with a variable quantity of corrosive +sublimate added, the strength of the solution varying from 100 parts of +alcohol to 1 part of corrosive sublimate for the strongest, to one-tenth +of 1 part of sublimate in 100 parts of alcohol for the weakest. The +insects are allowed to remain in this mixture not longer than two hours +before drying. The last-described preparation is said to preserve the +specimens from mold. Both of these solutions are very poisonous and +should be used with care. + +_Two Liquids to preserve Form and Color._--Professor Packard also quotes +the formula of A. E. Verrill for preserving insects in their natural +color and form. Two formulas are given; the first consists of 21/2 pounds +of common salt and 4 ounces of niter dissolved in a gallon of water and +filtered. The specimens should be prepared for permanent preservation in +this solution by being previously immersed in a solution consisting of a +quart of the first solution and 2 ounces of arsenite of potash in a +gallon of water. Professor Packard gives also the formula of M. H. Trois +for preserving caterpillars, for which it is claimed that the colors of +the caterpillars are preserved perfectly, even when exposed to strong +light. The formula for this solution is as follows: + + Common salt grams 2.35 + Alum do. 55 + Corrosive sublimate centigrams 18 + Boiling water liters 5 + +Allow the liquid to cool and add 50 grains of carbolic acid, and filter +after standing five or six days. + +_Glycerin._--Glycerin, either pure or mixed with water or alcohol, is +frequently used to preserve the larvae of delicate insects. It preserves +the color and form better than alcohol, but particularly in the case of +larvae, it causes a softening of the tissues which renders them unfit for +study. + +_The Wickersheim Preserving Fluid._--This valuable preserving fluid has +been known for some time, but is not very commonly used, on account of +frequent disappointment due to the difficulty attending its preparation. +It is claimed for it that animal or vegetable bodies impregnated with it +will retain their form, color, and flexibility in the most perfect +manner. The objects to be preserved are put in the fluid for from six to +twelve days, according to their size, and then taken out and dried in +the air. The ligaments remain soft and movable, and the animals or +plants remain fit for anatomical dissection and study for long periods, +even years. It is said to be especially valuable for the preservation of +larvae and soft-bodied insects. In order to perfectly preserve the +colors, it is necessary to leave the specimens in the fluid, or, if they +are taken out, they should be sealed up in air-tight vials or vessels. +The formula for the fluid is as follows: + +Dissolve 100 grams alum, 25 grams common salt, 12 grams saltpeter, 60 +grams potash, 10 grams arsenious acid in 3,000 grams boiling water. +Filter the solution, and when cold add 10 liters of the liquid to 4 +liters of glycerin and 1 liter of methyl alcohol. + + + LABELING SPECIMENS. + +_General Directions._--It matters little how much care and pains have +been taken in the preparation and mounting of specimens, they will have +little value unless accompanied by proper labels giving information as +to locality and date of collection, name of collector, and a label or +number referring to notebooks, if any biological or other facts +concerning them have been ascertained. There should be pinned to the +specimen labels referring to, or giving all the information obtainable +or of interest concerning it. A somewhat different style of label will +be found necessary in the case of the two forms of collections described +in the foregoing pages, namely, the biological or economic collection, +and the systematic collection. For the former, numbers may be attached +to the specimens which will refer to the notes relating to the specimen +or species. For the latter, in most cases, all necessary information may +be recorded and made available by written or printed labels attached +directly to the specimens. In most cases, however, I find a combination +of these two systems convenient and desirable. The numbering system is +very simple, and is the one which I have followed in all the species for +which I have biological or other notes. It consists in giving each +species, as it comes under observation, a serial number which refers to +a record in a notebook. With this number may be combined, if convenient, +the date of rearing or collection of the specimen, and also the locality +and food-plant if known. The vast number of species represented in a +systematic collection renders the numbering system entirely out of place +and inadequate, and the labeling system alone is generally available. If +it becomes necessary in the systematic collection to refer to +food-plants or life-history or any other fact of interest, the numbering +system should be used, and I recommend that the numbers be written in +red ink on the labels, to distinguish at a glance the numbers referring +to biological notes from other numbers that will occur in the +collection. + +_Labels for pinned Specimens._--The following labels should be employed +in the collection: (1) _Locality label_, which should be as explicit as +possible. (2) _Date of capture_, which is very useful and sometimes +quite important in various ways. It indicates at what time additional +specimens of some rare species may be secured, and greatly assists in +elaborating the life history of the species, and in other cases assists +in the correct determination of closely allied insects, which differ +chiefly in habit or date of appearance. (3) _A label to indicate the +sex_. This label has recently acquired greater importance than formerly, +on account of the value of the sexual differences in the distinction of +species. The well-known signs for male, female, and worker, printed in +convenient form, are well adapted for collections. (4) _The name of the +collector_. This label is of less value, but sometimes becomes important +in determining the history of the specimen or the exact place of +capture. The name of the species is not necessarily attached to all the +specimens in a collection, and ordinarily will be placed with the first +specimen in a series in the cabinet. This and other labeling of insects +in cabinet is discussed in another place. Other labels are useful to +indicate type specimens, namely, those of which descriptions have been +drawn up and published, and which should be designated by a special +label written by the author himself. Determinations by an authority in a +special group should be indicated, and the labels placed on specimens by +such an authority should not be removed. + +It will not be found necessary to use a separate label for each of the +data indicated above, and a single label may be made to combine many of +them, as, except for the specific names of the insects themselves (which +should always be on the lowermost label), most other words will bear +abbreviation, especially localities and dates. "A combination label, +which has given general satisfaction to all to whom it has been +communicated, is a two-line label printed in diamond type, on heavy +writing paper. The upper line consists of the name of the locality, _e. +g._, 'Washngtn' (a name consisting of more than eight letters to be +abbreviated), and the lower line has at the right-hand corner 'DC' +(interpunctuation and spacing to be avoided so as to save space). This +leaves on the second line sufficient room for inserting the date, which +can be quickly and neatly written with ink if the labels are printed in +columns of ten or more repetitions. The label thus combines locality +with date of capture. Or the upper line reads 'Arizona' and the lower +line 'Morrison,' the label thus combining locality with the name of the +collector."[8] + + [8] E. A. Schwarz, Proc. Ent. Soc., Wash., II, No. 1, 1891. + +In general I indorse the system of labeling suggested in the above +condensation from Mr. Schwarz, but there is no particular disadvantage, +and in fact many advantages, in special cases, in a larger label or in +folded labels. Particularly in visiting large foreign collections I have +found it convenient to use large labels of thin paper which will contain +a good deal of information closely written in pencil and bear folding +several times, so as not to occupy more than the ordinary label space +when pinned to the specimens. This involves detaching the label when the +specimen or species comes to be studied, but this additional labor is +insignificant compared with the large amount of valuable information +which in time is thus brought together in condensed availability for the +student; for brief notes of opinions of experts, of comparison with +types, of special studies, of reference to descriptions, etc., may thus +be all brought together. Where there is not room to indicate the +authority for a determination on the upper side of a label, I also find +it convenient to do so on the lower side. + +[Illustration: FIG. 116.--Cabinet for apparatus used in mounting and +labeling. (Original).] + +_Labeling alcoholic Specimens._--Alcoholic specimens, including +alcoholic biologic material and collections of Arachnida and Myriapoda, +are well adapted to the labeling system, as the vials are always of +sufficient size to allow the insertion of one or more labels large +enough to contain a pretty full record of the specimen. The label may +consist of a number referring to notes, or of a number together with the +other data indicated for the systematic collection. The label in my +experience is preferably written in pencil, which, in alcohol, is +practically permanent. Waterproof inks are sometimes used, and of these +the oak-gall ink is undoubtedly the best. Dr. George Marx, in labeling +his Arachnida, uses onion-skin paper and waterproof ink, such as +Higgins's drawing ink. There is some danger, in placing a label in a +vial, of its settling against the specimen and injuring it. This, +however, can generally be avoided if a little care is used. The label +may be long and narrow and folded lengthwise so as to occupy one side +only of the vial, or short and inserted in such manner that it will pass +around the inside of the vial, where it will be held by the natural +adhesion to the glass in the upper portion of the vial, as shown at Fig. +114. + +_Cabinet for Apparatus._--The work of preparation of insects for the +cabinet may be greatly facilitated if a convenient case is provided with +drawers and compartments for the keeping of pins of different sizes, +labels, braces, implements, tweezers, dissecting apparatus, and the +like, with microscopical supplies--slides, cover glasses, mounting +media, etc. I present a photograph of a cabinet of this sort used in my +earlier work and found very convenient and serviceable (Fig. 116). + + + + + INSECT BOXES AND CABINETS. + + +_General Directions._--The boxes or cases which are used to keep insects +in permanently may be made of any dimensions to suit the fancy, 12 by 16 +inches inside being a convenient size and allowing economic use of cork. +They must, however, be perfectly tight and should not be more than 21/2 +inches deep on the inside. The bottoms should be lined with something +which will hold the pins, and the whole inside covered with white paper, +which, if delicately cross ruled, will facilitate the regular pinning of +specimens. While the size and style of the box and cabinet may be left +to individual taste, some choice must be had of material. _Red cedar +should never be used._ I have learned, to my sorrow, the baneful effects +of this wood, notwithstanding it is recommended--evidently by those who +are guiltless of having used it--as having the advantage over other wood +of keeping off museum pests. It seems impossible to get this wood so +seasoned but that a certain amount of resin will continually exude from +it; and insects in boxes of this material are very apt to soften and +become greasy. Paper boxes are also bad, as they attract moisture and +cause the specimens to mold. Well-seasoned pine and whitewood are the +most satisfactory; and, in such boxes as have glass covers and are +intended to form part of a neat cabinet for parlor ornament, the fronts +may be of walnut or cherry. + +The character of the boxes and cabinets used for storing insects will +depend largely on the nature and extent of the collection and the object +of the collector. For temporary use, nothing is more convenient and +economical than a cigar box lined with cork or pith. Such boxes, +however, should be employed only for the temporary storage of fresh +specimens, as they afford free access to museum pests, and insects kept +in them for any length of time are apt to be destroyed or rendered +useless. + +_The Folding-box._--The use of folding-boxes for the working collector +is to be especially recommended in the case of those orders comprising +small insects like Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, etc. These boxes have the +great advantage of being readily rearranged on the shelves and of being +very easily used in study. The boxes of this type now manufactured by +John Schmidt, of Brooklyn, N. Y., and John Burr, of Camden, N. J., based +on the experience which I have had, have proved so serviceable and +satisfactory in this respect that I have employed them for the bulk of +the collection in the National Museum. These boxes (Fig. 117) are +constructed as follows: + +[Illustration: FIG. 117.--The Schmidt folding insect box, opened and +showing arrangement of insects (original).] + +They are of white pine, shellacked and varnished, the bottom and top +double and crossgrained, to prevent warping, and projecting slightly at +all sides except the hinged back. They are 13 by 81/4 inches outside +measurement. The inside measurement is 113/4 by 7. The sides, back, and +front are five-sixteenths of an inch thick, with a machine joint, which +is neat and very secure. The boxes are 2 5/8 inches in outside depth, +unequally divided, the lower portion 11/2 inches outside depth, lined +inside with a thin whitewood strip, projecting three-fourths of an inch +above the rim of the outside box. Over this projecting lining the lid +closes as tightly as practicable and is kept from springing by hooks and +eyes. The bottom is cork-lined and covered with a fine, white, glazed +paper. + +Similar folding boxes with both sides of equal depth and both lined with +cork, when properly covered, may be made to look like books and be set +on end in an ordinary bookcase, but the single lining is preferable, as +there is less danger of the breakage of specimens and the boxes may +either be laid flat one on the other on shelves, or, what is more +convenient, placed side by side resting on the front edge, so that the +label is attached to one of the narrow ends. The rows of insects are +then pinned crosswise, not lengthwise, of the box, with the abdomens +turned toward the front which rests on the shelf. + +All the boxes are furnished with neat brass label-holders, in which a +card containing a list of the contents can readily be placed and removed +at pleasure. The chief demerit of this box which I have endeavored to +overcome by the above details is the tendency to warp and crack in the +trying steam heat of our Government buildings. + +_The Cabinet._--For larger insects, such as Lepidoptera, Neuroptera, +etc., a larger box is desirable, and for these orders I have adopted for +use in the National Museum a cabinet which resulted from a careful study +in person of the different forms and patterns used for entomological +collections both in this country and Europe, whether by private +individuals or public institutions. The drawer and cabinet are +essentially after the pattern of those used in the British (South +Kensington) Museum, but adapted in size to our own requirements. In the +use of the National Museum these cabinets have proved eminently well +adapted to their object. + +[Illustration: FIG. 118.--Construction of insect cabinet drawer of the +National Museum. A, cross-section _f_ front; B, same _f_ side; C, view +of front end of side, 2/3 natural size (original).] + +The drawers (Fig. 118, A, B, C) are square, with an outside measurement +of 18 inches and an outside depth of 3 inches. The sides and back have a +thickness of three-eighths of an inch, while the front is five-eighths +of an inch thick. The pieces are firmly dovetailed together, the front +being clean and the dovetailing blind. The bottom, _a_, is of three-ply +crossgrained veneer, run into a groove at the sides, leaving a clear +inside depth of 2 1/16 inches to the frame of the cover. The bottoms are +lined in all but forty of the drawers with first quality cork, _b_, +one-fourth of an inch thick. At a distance of one-fourth of an inch from +the sides and back and three-eighths of an inch from the front there is +an inside box of one-eighth inch whitewood, _c_, closely fitted, and +held in place by blocks between it and the outer box. There is thus +between the inner and outer box a clear space, _d_, all round, in which +insecticides or disinfectants can be placed to keep out Museum pests, +making it impossible for such to get into the inner box containing the +specimens without first passing through this poison chamber. The entire +inside is lined with white paper, or, in the case of the uncorked boxes, +painted with zinc white. The front is furnished with a plain knob. The +cover is of glass, set into a frame, _f_, three-fourths of an inch wide, +three-eighths of an inch thick, with a one-fourth inch tongue fitting +closely into the space between the inner lining and outer box, which +here serves as a groove. This arrangement furnishes a perfectly tight +drawer of convenient size and not unwieldy for handling when studying +the collection. + +The material of which these drawers are made is California red wood, +except the cover frame, which is mahogany. The cabinets containing these +drawers are 36 inches high, 40 inches wide, 21 inches deep (all outside +measurements), and are closed by two paneled doors. Each cabinet +contains twenty drawers in two rows of ten each, and the drawers slide +by means of a groove, _g_, on either side, on hard-wood tongues, and are +designed to be interchangeable. + +_The Lintner display Box._--For beauty and security and the perfect +display of the larger _Lepidoptera_, I have seen nothing superior to a +box used by Mr. J. A. Lintner, of Albany, N. Y. It is a frame made in +the form of a folio volume, with glass set in for sides and bound in an +ordinary book cover. The insects are pinned onto pieces of cork fastened +to the inside of one of the glass plates and the boxes may be stood on +ends, in library shape, like ordinary books. For the benefit of those +who wish to make small collections of showy insects, I give Mr. +Lintner's method, of which he has been kind enough to furnish me the +following description: + +Figs. A, B, and C represent, in section, the framework of the volume, +_a_ showing the ends, _b_ the front, and _c_ the back. The material can +be prepared in long strips of some soft wood by a cabinet-maker (if the +collector has the necessary skill and leisure for framing it) at a cost +of 60 cents a frame, if a number sufficient for a dozen boxes be +ordered. Or, if it be preferred to order them made, the cost should not +exceed 80 cents each. + +Before being placed in the hands of the binder the mitering should be +carefully examined and any defect in fitting remedied, so that the +glass, when placed in position, may have accurate bearings on all the +sides. The interior of the frame is covered with tin foil, made as +smooth as possible before application, to be applied with thoroughly +boiled flour paste (in which a small proportion of arsenic may be mixed) +and rubbed smoothly down till the removal of the blisters, which are apt +to appear. The tin foil can be purchased, by weight, at druggists', and +the sheets marked off and cut by a rule in strips of proper width, +allowing for a trifle of overlapping on the sides. Its cost per volume +is merely nominal. + +First-quality single-thick glass for sides must be selected, wholly free +from rust, veins, air-bubbles, or any blemish. Such glass can be +purchased at 15 cents a pane. The lower glass, after thorough cleaning, +especially of its inner surface, with an alkaline wash, and a final +polishing with slightly wetted white printing paper, is to be firmly +secured in its place by a proper number of tin points; the upper glass +is but temporarily fastened. The binder must be directed to cover the +exposed sides of the frame with "combed" paper, bringing it over the +border of the permanent lower glass and beneath the removable upper +glass. + +[Illustration: FIG. 119.--Construction of the Lintner box.] + +The covers of the volume are of heavy binders' board (No. 18), neatly +lined within with glazed white paper. On one of the insides of the lids +may be attached, by its corners, a sheet with the numbers and names of +the species contained in the volume, or these may be placed on the pin +bearing the insect. If bound in best quality of imitation morocco, with +cloth covers, lettered and gilded on the back, the cost (for a dozen +volumes) need not exceed $1 each. If in turkey morocco, it will be +$1.50. + +The lettering and ornamentation of the back will vary with the taste of +the individual. The family designations may be permanently lettered, or +they may be pasted on the back, on a slip of paper or gum label, as are +the generic names, thus permitting the change of the contents of a +volume at any time if desired. + +The bits of cork to which the insects are to be pinned are cut in +quarter-inch squares from sheet-cork of one-fourth of an inch in +thickness. If the trouble be taken to trim off the corners, giving them +an octagonal form, their appearance will be materially improved and much +less care will be required in adjusting them on the glass. + +The cement usually recommended for attaching the cork to the glass is +composed of equal parts of white wax and resin. My experience with this +has not been favorable, for, after the lapse of a few years, I have +invariably been subjected to the serious annoyance of being compelled to +renew the entire contents of the volume, clean the glass, and replace +the corks with new cement. From some cause, inexplicable to me, a +gradual separation takes place of the cork with its cement from the +glass, first appearing at the angles of the cork, and its progress +indicated by an increasing number of iridescent rings which form within +until the center is reached, when, if not previously detached, the +insect falls with the cork, usually to its injury and that of others +beneath it. + +A number of years ago I happened to employ, in attaching a single piece +of cork in one of my cases, a cement originally made for other purposes, +consisting of six parts of resin, one of wax, and one of Venetian red. +Several years thereafter my attention was drawn to this piece by finding +it as firmly united as when at first applied, and at the present time +(after the lapse of twelve years) it is without the slightest indication +of separation. Acting upon this hint, I have, of late, used this cement +in the restoration of a number of my cases, and with the most +satisfactory results. It is important that the cement, when used, should +be heated (by a spirit lamp or gas flame) to as high a degree as it will +bear without burning. An amount sufficient to cover the bottom of the +small, flat metal vessel containing it to the depth of an eighth of an +inch will suffice and prevent the cork from taking up more than its +requisite quantity. It should be occasionally stirred to prevent the +precipitation of its heavier portions. The cork may be conveniently +dipped by the aid of a needle inserted in a handle, when, as quickly as +possible, it should be transferred to the glass, for the degree of +adhesion seems to depend upon the degree of fluidity of the cement. From +some experiments made by me, after the corks had been attached as above, +in heating the entire glass to such a degree as thoroughly to melt the +cement until it spreads outward from beneath the weight of the cork, and +then permitted to cool--the glass meanwhile held horizontally, that the +corks might not be displaced--the results appear to indicate that the +above cement, applied in this manner on glass properly cleaned, will +prove a permanent one. It is scarcely necessary to state that this +method is not available where the glass has been bound as above. + +Preparatory to corking the glass for the specimens assigned to it, the +spaces required for them are to be ascertained by arranging them in +order on a cork surface or otherwise. On a sheet of paper of the size of +the glass, perpendicular lines, of the number of the rows and at their +proper distances, are to be drawn, and cross lines equal in number to +the insects contained in the rows. The distances of these lines will be +uniform, unless smaller specimens are to occupy some portion of the +case, when they may be graduated to the required proportion. With the +sheet ruled in this manner and placed beneath the glass, the points +where the corks are to be applied are indicated by the intersections of +the lines. The sheet, marked with the family of the insects for which it +was used and with the numbers designating its divisions, may be laid +aside for future use in the preparation of other cases for which it may +be suitable. In a series of unbound cases in my collection, in which the +glasses measure 11 by 141/2 inches, I have used for my Lepidoptera and +laid aside the following scales, the citation of which will also serve +to show the capacity of the cases: 3 by 8, Catocalas; 2 by 7 and 3 by 9, +Sphingidae; 4 by 11 to 4 by 14, Bombycidae; 5 by 13 to 6 by 16, Noctuidae; +8 by 16 and 8 by 20, Lycaenidae and Tortricidae. + +The unbound cases above referred to are inexpensive frames, made by +myself, of quarter-inch white wood or pine, the corners mitered, glued, +and nailed with three-quarter inch brads, lined within with white paper +(better with tin foil), and covered without with stout manila paper. The +glasses are cut of the size of the frame, and when placed in position +thereon are appressed closely to it by laying upon them, near each +corner, a heavy weight, and strips of an enameled green paper, cut to +the width of 1 inch, are pasted over their edges, extending a little +beyond the thickness of the frame, and brought downward over the outside +of the frame. On its back two gum labels, indicating the insects +inclosed, are placed at uniform heights (7 and 12 inches), when, if all +has been neatly done, they present a tasteful appearance upon a shelf. +When there is reason to believe that the case will need to be opened +for the change or addition of specimens, it will be found convenient to +employ, for the fastening of the left-hand side of the upper glass, +paper lined with a thin muslin, to serve as a hinge when the other sides +have been cut. + +Should it become desirable to bind these cases, outside frames may be +constructed after the plans above given, with the omission of the inside +quarter inch (the equivalent of these frames), in which these may be +placed and held in position by two or three screws inserted in their +sides. + +_The Martindale Box for Lepidoptera._--Mr. Isaac C. Martindale, in the +October, 1891, number of _Entomological News_, pp. 126, 127, describes a +new form of cabinet for butterflies, the drawers of which present some +new features. They are for the same end as the Lintner box described +above--namely, for the display of the upper and under surface of the +wings of Lepidoptera, and promise to be more useful. The drawer is +described as follows: + +The especial feature is the drawer itself, which, instead of having a +cork bottom, as is usually the case, has both the top and bottom of +glass. The top part of the drawer frame fits tightly over a ledge one +inch in height, effectually preventing the intrusion of destructive +insects, the pest of the entomologist; but it is readily lifted when it +is desirable to add to the contents or change the location of the +specimens. For the inside arrangement I have taken a strip of common +tin, one inch wide, and turned up each side five-sixteenths of an inch, +thus leaving three-eighths of an inch for the bottom. The length of the +strip of tin, being about two inches longer than the width of the +drawer, admits of each end being turned up one inch. Into this tin +trough is tightly fitted a cork strip three-eighths of an inch square. +The whole being covered with white paper, such as is usually used for +lining drawers, conceals the inequalities of the cork and makes a fine +finish. They should be made to fit neatly in the drawer, and can be +readily moved about to suit large or small specimens. For _Lycaenas_, +_Pamphilas_, etc., as many as fifteen of these strips may be used in one +drawer, and as few as five for _Morphos_, _Caligos_, etc. The upturned +ends are fastened in place by using the ordinary thumb tacks that can be +procured at any stationer's. The frame work of the drawers should be of +white pine, well seasoned. Into this the thumb tacks are readily +inserted and as easily withdrawn when a change in the position of the +cork strips is needed. + +_Horizontal vs. vertical Arrangement of Boxes._--I have elsewhere +discussed the availability of the upright vs. the horizontal arrangement +of insect boxes.[9] In the case of Lepidoptera and large-bodied insects +I have found the horizontal drawer or box to be preferable. If +large-bodied insects are placed in a vertical position they are very +liable to become loose on the pins, swing from side to side, and damage +themselves and other specimens; but for the smaller insects of all +orders, the vertical arrangement is quite safe and satisfactory. If the +pin is slightly flattened, as described on p. 69, the danger of large +specimens becoming loose is to a great extent avoided. + + [9] _American Naturalist_, Vol. XV, p. 401, 1881. + +_Lining for Insect Boxes._--The old lining of insect boxes was the +ordinary sheet cork of commerce, and if a good quality of cork is +procurable it will answer the purpose. A better substance, however, for +the lining of insect boxes is the prepared or ground cork, which is now +almost exclusively used. It is simply ground cork mixed with a small +amount of glue, compressed into sheets and covered with paper. This +gives a very homogenous composition, and is much better than the +ordinary cork, having a more uniform and neat appearance, and admitting +the insertion of the pins more freely. It may be purchased from H. +Herpers, 18 Crawford street, Newark, N. J. + +A less expensive substitute is paper stretched upon a frame. Prof. E. S. +Morse has given in the "American Naturalist" (Vol. i, p. 156) a plan +which is very neat and useful for lining boxes in a large museum, which +are designed to be placed in horizontal show-cases (Fig. 120). "A box is +made of the required depth, and a light frame is fitted to its interior. +Upon the upper and under surfaces of this frame a sheet of white paper +(drawing or log paper answers the purpose) is securely glued. The paper, +having been previously damped, in drying contracts and tightens like a +drumhead. The frame is then secured about one-fourth of an inch from the +bottom of the box, and the pin is forced down through the thicknesses of +paper, and if the bottom of the box be of soft pine, the point of the +pin may be slightly forced into it. It is thus firmly held at two or +three different points, and all lateral movements are prevented. Other +advantages are secured by this arrangement besides firmness: when the +box needs cleaning or fumigation, the entire collection may be removed +by taking out the frame; or camphor, tobacco, or other material can be +placed on the bottom of the box, and concealed from sight. The annexed +figure represents a transverse section of a portion of the side and +bottom of the box with the frame. A A, box; B, frame; P P, upper and +under sheets of paper; C, space between lower sheets of paper and bottom +of box." + +[Illustration: FIG. 120.--Paper lining for insect box. (After Morse.)] + +Other substitutes are the pith of various plants, especially of corn. +Palm wood and "inodorous felt" are also used, being cut to fit the +bottom of the box. + +Pita wood or the light porous wood of the Agave or Century plant when +cut into proper strips also makes a very light and satisfactory lining, +while good close bog-peat cut into proper thicknesses is not +infrequently used in France and Germany. Druce & Co., 68 Baker street, +London, W., England, have lately been manufacturing what is known as +cork carpet, which seems to be a combination of ground cork and rubber. +It comes in various colors and of the proper thickness, and makes a very +smooth and desirable lining, holding the pins very firmly. It cost 90 +cents per square yard in England, and I have had one cabinet lined with +it as an experiment, as there is a probability that the pins may corrode +in contact with the rubber. + + + + + ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS IN THE CABINET. + + +_Systematic and biologic Collections._--The permanent arrangement of +specimens in boxes and drawers will vary somewhat with the nature of the +insects. The almost universal custom of collectors, however, is to +arrange the insects in vertical columns. In the case of the smaller +forms, as Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, 21/2 to 3 inches in width is +allowed for the columns; and for the larger insects, as Lepidoptera, +Orthoptera, for which larger drawers are recommended, a greater width of +column is needed and 41/2 to 5 inches will be found necessary. With +alcoholic material, a similar arrangement in columns may be followed. + +In spacing or dividing insect boxes into columns for the arrangement of +specimens, I have followed the plan of pinning narrow strips of colored +paper in the boxes at regular distances to divide the columns of +insects. A fine line made with a medium pencil will answer the same +purpose and will not materially disfigure the box. + +The appearance of the collection will largely depend on the care used in +the alignment of the specimens, both vertically and horizontally. It is +advisable to have at least four specimens of a species, which, +entomologically speaking, constitute a set. The collector, however, +should not limit the number of his specimens to four, as it is +frequently necessary to have a larger number to represent, firstly, the +sexes; secondly, varieties; and thirdly, geographical distribution. + +In the systematic collection the species should be arranged serially in +accordance with the latest catalogue or monograph, and if the collector +intends making a complete study of the group, space should be left for +the subsequent insertion of species not at present in his possession and +also for new species. This will avoid the rearrangement of the entire +collection at brief intervals. + +_Economic Displays._--In the case of economic displays, which will +include pinned specimens, alcoholic material, early states and specimens +illustrating the work of the insect--also the parasitic and predaceous +enemies--the horizontal arrangement can be followed, and I have found it +advisable, in making such displays, to arrange them in this manner, so +that any needed width for the display of particular species may be had. +A good idea of the system of arrangement adopted for an economic exhibit +may be obtained from the accompanying illustration (Pl. I). Every insect +will require a somewhat different treatment, owing to its different +habit, but the plan indicated in the illustration should, in the main, +be followed. Prof. J. H. Comstock uses and recommends a sort of block +system, which consists in pinning the insects and specimens showing +their work, and alcoholic material, to blocks of soft wood. These are +then arranged in the display cases. The advantage claimed for the system +is facility in transferring and rearranging the exhibits. This method is +somewhat cumbersome, and in making and handling economic exhibits I have +found pinning specimens directly to the cork lining of the box, as +already described, to be entirely satisfactory. A biologic exhibit +should be carefully planned beforehand, and when once completed is +permanent and does not require rearrangement, as is frequently necessary +in a systematic collection, owing to the constant changes in +classification. The only alteration necessary is a renewal of specimens +which have become injured, or faded by exposure to light. + +_Labeling Collections._--I have already fully discussed the subject of +labeling insects before placing them in their final resting place in the +collection. In the collection certain additional labels are required, +viz, labels for the order, family, subfamily, genus, species, and +sometimes variety. The label for the order should be placed above the +first species in the collection, and should be in large type, as should +also be the name of the family, which is to be placed above the first +species in the family. The genus label should be in prominent type, +somewhat smaller than the family label, and should be placed at the head +of the genus. Custom varies as to placing the label of the species. In +my practice I have adopted the plan of placing the label below the +series of specimens representing the species. Some entomologists reverse +this plan and place the label above the series of specimens. Others +recommend pinning the label to the first and best-determined specimen of +the series. This has the advantage of always keeping the label with the +species and preventing the danger of mistake or confusion of the latter. +In the case of large insects, however, this plan has the disadvantage +that the label can not be seen except by taking out the specimen, and, +on the whole, the plan which I have adopted of placing the label below +the series of specimens is preferable, but may be supplemented by the +other, as in addition to the independent label, one of the specimens +should have a label pinned with it. The labels should be neatly written +on blanks printed for the purpose; but a better plan, perhaps, and one +which I have followed, where possible, in labeling the national +collection, is to cut the names neatly from a catalogue of the insects, +which will furnish all the labels from order to species, and fasten them +with short, inconspicuous pins in their proper places in the collection. +Where it is not desired to keep the collection as compact as possible, +or where one has limited space, I would advise labeling the species, not +only with the recognized name, but also with the synonyms. This requires +some space, and will hardly be followed except in public collections. It +is also desirable to arrange together, and label as such, the varieties +of any given species. The appearance of the collection will depend +largely on the uniformity of the labeling, and too much care can not be +exercised in this respect. + + + + + MUSEUM PESTS, MOLD, ETC. + + +Unfortunately for the well-being of collections, dried insects are +liable to the attacks of various museum pests, the most troublesome of +which are themselves insects, but altogether out of their proper place +and role in the general collection. Unless constant precautions are +taken, the collector will discover after a few months that instead of +the rare specimens with the preparations of which he has taken no little +pains there remains only a series of fragmentary specimens, which a few +years' neglect will reduce to little more than a mass of dust or powder. +The price, then, of a good collection is eternal vigilance. Most +insects, when exposed for any length of time to strong light, fade or +lose color, and the only way to prevent such achromatism is to exclude +the light. + +Insect pests affecting collections include Psocidae, Mites, Tineidae, +Coleoptera of the families Ptinidae and Dermestidae, these last being the +most injurious. + +[Illustration: FIG. 121.--_Tineola biselliella_: _a_, adult; _b_, larva; +_c_, cocoon and empty pupa--skin enlarged.] + +The Psocidae--degraded wingless insects already referred to in the +classification (p. 24)--will find their way into the tightest boxes, but +ordinarily do little if any damage, except in the case of delicate +insects, such as Ephemerids, Microlepidoptera, and Microdiptera. The +common forms found in collections are _Atropos divinatorius_ and +_Clothilla pulsatoria_. Mites or Acari are rarely troublesome in +collections, though Dr. H. A. Hagen reports having found a species +(probably of Tyroglyphus) with imported insects, and considers them as +liable to become dangerous enemies. Tineid larvae are rarely found in +collections, and only affect the larger moths. They are not easily +discovered, since they make no dust, as do most other pests. Some +persons have been considerably annoyed by one of the common clothes +moths, _Tineola biselliella_ (Fig. 121). Dr. Hagen found that it +attacked freshly collected or newly spread insects, where the +spreading-boards were left uncovered, but Mr. F. M. Webster has found it +injurious to the general collections at Columbus, Ohio. + +Of beetles, the Ptinidae are sometimes found in collections but are not +common. Two species are known to attack entomological specimens, namely, +_Ptinus fur_, which is quite rare, in this country, but much more +abundant in Europe, and _Tribolium ferrugineum_, a cosmopolitan species +which, however, has several times been associated in injurious numbers +with large collections of insects imported from the East Indies. + +But by far the most dangerous enemies of insect collections are the +larvae of some half dozen or more species of Dermestidae belonging to the +genera Anthrenus, Attagenus, Trogoderma, and Dermestes. Of these +_Anthrenus varius_ is the more common pest, in museums, especially in +the North and East. In the South and West _Trogoderma tarsale_ and _T. +ornatum_ (?) replace Anthrenus. The European species _Anthrenus +musaeorum_, is, on the authority of Hagen, rare in this country, and +probably occurs chiefly in collections of imported insects. It is the +common injurious species of Europe. _Anthrenus scrophulariae_ (see Fig. +67) occurs also in collections, Dr. Hagen stating that he has found it +nearly as common as _A. varius_, and certainly more dangerous. In my own +experience it is rarely found in insect collections. Two species of +Attagenus (_A. pellio_ and _A. megatoma_) have also been found in +collections. _A. megatoma_ has been found by Dr. Hagen to do not a +little damage to insect collections in Cambridge, as well as to equal if +not exceed the Carpet Beetle in its disastrous attacks upon carpets and +household furniture. The other species, _A. pellio_, is rarely found in +this country, but is much more common and obnoxious in Europe than _A. +megatoma_. _Dermestes lardarius_ is sometimes found in collections, and +is attracted by the presence of animal matter such as skins, etc. The +two particularly destructive pests, as pointed out, are _Anthrenus +varius_ and _Trogoderma tarsale_. These species, together with most of +the others, have no definite breeding period, but, in the uniform +temperature of the laboratory or museum, breed all the year round and +present no definite broods. It is the experience at the Museum that the +boxes on the lower tier of shelves are very much more subject to attack +than those on the upper tiers, from which it would seem that the parent +beetle deposits her eggs outside the boxes on the floor of the cases and +that the young larvae work their way into the smallest crevices. The +danger of infection by these pests is greater in warm climates like that +of Washington than in regions further north, as the warm season begins +earlier, lasts longer, and furnishes better conditions for breeding and +multiplication. + +[Illustration: Fig. 122.--A naphthaline cone.] + +REMEDIES.--The following remedies and preventives will prove efficient +in checking or preventing the work of these pests. + +_Naphthaline._--Where tight boxes are employed little fear of the work +of these destructive agents need arise, especially if the boxes are kept +supplied with repellent naphthaline cones. These are hard cones of +naphthaline, mounted on pins for convenient placing in the boxes (see +Fig. 122), and may be obtained of dealers in entomological supplies. +Naphthaline cones act as repellents to these insects and also to some +extent retard the development of the larvae in all stages and +particularly of the eggs. + +Mr. Schwarz states (_Proc. Ent. Soc. of Washington_, Vol. I, page 63) +that in place of these cones a form of naphthaline may be used which is +known in commerce as "white carbon," and is put up in the form of small +square rods for use in intensifying the flames of gaslight. The material +is very cheap, costing only 8 cents per pound wholesale, and may be +broken up into small pieces, wrapped in paper, and pinned. The use of +naphthaline cones is not advisable in boxes containing delicate +specimens, as it leaves a deposit which dulls the colors and encourages +greasing. The deliquescence of the naphthaline cones produces a +blackish, oily residuum which will soil the lining of the box, and it is +always advisable either to pin a piece of blotting paper beneath the +cone or to wrap this in paper. + +Constant watchfulness is necessary to see that the eggs which have been +deposited and checked in development by the application of this +insecticide do not ultimately hatch and start a new generation in the +insect box. + +_Bisulphide of Carbon._--If the collection is found to be infested with +insect pests, it may be renovated by pouring a little bisulphide of +carbon into the boxes and closing them at once. This substance +evaporates rapidly and will destroy all insect life, and does not injure +specimens or pins nor stain the boxes. If infested specimens are +received, these should be inclosed in a tight box and treated with +bisulphide of carbon before being added to the general collection, and +it is always well for those who are receiving pinned specimens by +exchange or otherwise to keep a quarantine box of this kind on hand. + +_Mercury Pellets._--The use of mercury pellets is recommended to free +boxes from Mites, Psoci, etc., and also to collect any particles of dust +which may gain entrance. A few small pellets of mercury, placed free in +the bottom of the horizontal box will, by the movement of the box, be +caused to roll to and fro and accomplish the desired end. + +_Carbolic Acid._--Mr. A. T. Marshall (_Entomologist's Monthly Magazine_, +Dec., 1873, p. 176) records that he washes the paper of his boxes with +the common disinfecting solution of carbolic acid in two-thirds water, +which dries without staining and protects the specimens from Psoci. + +_A Means of preserving Insects in dry hot Countries._--In the "_Horae +Societatis Entomologicae Rossicae_," XXIV, pp. 233, 234 (1889), M. A. +Wilkins, writing from Tachkent in Turkestan, alludes to the inefficiency +of ordinary preservatives in Central Asia, on account of their rapid +volatilization through the hot dry air, so that if a collection be +neglected for only two or three months _Anthreni_ are sure to be found +in the boxes. He has hit upon a plan which he finds effective, and at +the same time very simple. He employs India-rubber bands about 11/2 inches +in width and less than the length of the boxes to which they are to be +applied. These bands are stretched over the opening line of the boxes, +and effectually prevent the entrance of the most minute destroyers. +Possibly a similar plan might be adopted in other countries with a like +climate. At any rate, the method has the merit of extreme simplicity. +(The _Ent. Mo. Mag._, Apr., 1891, p. 107.) + + + MOLD. + +Collections kept in damp places or in a moist climate are very liable to +mold, and under such conditions it is difficult to avoid this evil. +Carbolic acid is recommended, but Mr. Ashmead, who has kept a large +collection in the moist climate of Florida, has found the use of +naphthaline much more satisfactory. Mr. Herbert H. Smith who has had +more extensive experience in the tropics prefers the carbolic acid. +Moldy specimens may be cleansed by washing with carbolic acid applied +with a fine camel's hair brush. + + + VERDIGRISING AND GREASING. + +The action of the acid juices in the bodies of certain specimens--as +many of the Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera--will cause the +formation of verdigris about the pin, which in time accumulates and +disfigures and distorts the specimen, and ultimately corrodes the pin, +so that the slightest touch causes it to bend or break. There is no +preventive yet known for this trouble other than the use of pins which +have no brass to be corroded. Japanned pins are made for this purpose, +and are, on the whole, satisfactory, but they bend easily and some +caution is required in handling them. In place of these pins, which are +somewhat more expensive than the steel pins, iron pins may be used. +These are very soft and bend too easily for satisfactory use. The steel +pins may be rendered available for use by an immersion in a silver bath, +which is comparatively inexpensive. + +Insects the larvae of which live in wood are particularly subject to +verdigris, as the Cerambycidae and Elateridae in Coleoptera, the Uroceridae +in Hymenoptera and Sesiidae in Lepidoptera. In Hymenoptera the families +Formicidae, Mutillidae, and the endophytous Tenthredinidae verdigris very +rapidly, and most Diptera also. With all these insects japanned or +silvered pins should be used, or when not too large the insects should +be mounted on triangles. This verdigrising is associated with what is +known as greasing, and this, as just indicated, is also associated with +endophytous larval life. The verdigris may be prevented by the methods +indicated, and I would strongly advise, as a good general rule to be +followed, the rejection of the ordinary pins for all species which, in +the larva state, are internal feeders. But there is no way of preventing +greasing or decomposition of the fats of the body, which may affect a +specimen years after it has been in the cabinet. If the specimen is +valuable the grease may be absorbed by immersion in ether or benzine, or +by a longer treatment with powdered pipe-clay or plaster of Paris. +Insects collected on seabeaches, and saturated with salt water, also +corrode the common steel pin very quickly and should be mounted on +japanned pins. It is also advisable to rinse such specimens thoroughly +in fresh water before mounting. + +The conviction has been forcing itself on my mind for some time that the +naphthaline cones tend to promote greasing and verdigris, and carbolic +acid in some small vessel secured to the cork, were, perhaps, +preferable. + + + + + THE REARING OF INSECTS. + + +_General Directions._--The importance, even to the mere collector, of +rearing insects to obtain specimens for the cabinet has been referred to +from time to time in these pages. The philosophic study of entomology, +however, requires much more than the mere collecting of specimens, and +one of the most profitable and, at the same time, most fascinating +phases of the study relates to the life-history and habits. In no branch +of natural history are biologic studies more easily carried on, or the +biologic facts more remarkable or interesting. The systematist by such +study will be saved from the narrow and hair-splitting tendencies which +study of slight difference of characters tends to, while to the economic +entomologist it is most essential. + +In the rearing of insects success will be attained in proportion to the +extent to which the conditions of nature in the matters of temperature, +moisture, food-supply, and conditions for pupation, are observed. + +"In the hands of the careful breeder an insect may be secured against +its numerous natural enemies and against vicissitudes of climate, and +will, consequently, be more apt to mature than in a state of nature. The +breeding of aquatic insects requires aquaria, and is always attended +with the difficulty of furnishing a proper supply of food. The +transformations of many others, both aquatic and terrestrial, can be +studied only by close and careful outdoor observation. But the great +majority of insect larvae may be reared to the perfect state indoors, +where their maneuverings may be constantly and conveniently watched. For +the feeding of small species, glass jars and wide-mouthed bottles will +be found useful. The mouths should be covered with gauze or old linen, +fastened either by thread or rubber, and a few inches of moist earth at +the bottom will furnish a retreat for those which enter it to transform +and keep the atmosphere in a moist and fit condition. + +_The Breeding Cage or Vivarium._--"For larger insects I use a breeding +cage or vivarium which answers the purpose admirably. It is represented +in figure 123, and comprises three distinct parts: First, the bottom +board _a_, consisting of a square piece of inch thick walnut with a +rectangular zinc pan _ff_, 4 inches deep, fastened to it above, and with +two cross pieces _gg_ below, to prevent cracking or warping, facilitate +lifting, and allow the air to pass underneath the cage. Second, a box +_b_ with three glass sides and a glass door in front, to fit over the +zinc pan. Third, a cap _c_, which fits closely on to the box, and has a +top of fine wire gauze. To the center of the zinc pan is soldered a zinc +tube _d_ just large enough to contain an ordinary quinine bottle. The +zinc pan is filled with clean sifted earth or sand _e_, and the quinine +bottle is for the reception of the food plant. The cage admits of +abundant light and air, and also of the easy removal of excrement or +frass which falls to the ground; while the insects in transforming enter +the ground or attach themselves to the sides or the cap, according to +their habits. The most convenient dimensions I find to be 12 inches +square and 18 inches high: the cap and the door fit closely by means of +rabbets, and the former has a depth of about 4 inches to admit of the +largest cocoon being spun in it without touching the box on which it +rests. The zinc pan might be made 6 or 8 inches deep, and the lower half +filled with sand, so as to keep the whole moist for a greater length of +time." + +The sand or earth in the zinc pan at the bottom of the breeding cage +should be kept constantly moistened, and in the case of hibernating pupae +the constant adding of water to the top of the earth or sand causes it +to become very hard and compact. To overcome this objection it was +suggested in the _Entomologists' Monthly Magazine_ for June, 1876, page +17, that the base should be made with an inner perforated side, the +water to be applied between it and the outer side, and I have for some +years employed a similar double-sided base, which answers the purpose +admirably (See Figure 124). It is substantially the same as that made +for the Department by Prof. J. H. Comstock in 1879. It consists of a +zinc tray _a_, of two or three inches greater diameter than the breeding +cage, which surrounds the zinc pan proper containing the earth, and the +tube _d_ for the reception of the food-plant. The lower portion of the +inner pan _b_ is of perforated zinc. Zinc supports, _c c_, are +constructed about halfway between the bottom and the top of this pan, on +which the breeding cage rests. In moistening the earth in the cage, +water is poured into the tray, which enters the soil slowly, through the +perforations in the zinc pan. I have found this modification of very +decided advantage and use it altogether in the work of the Division, and +heartily recommend it. + +[Illustration: FIG. 123.--Insect breeding-cage or vivarium.] + +The base of the vivarium or breeding cage should never be made of tin, +but always of zinc. If made of tin, it will soon rust out. Galvanized +iron may be used in place of the zinc, and will doubtless prove equally +satisfactory. + +"A dozen such cages will furnish room for the annual breeding of a great +number of species, as several having different habits and appearance, +and which there is no danger of confounding, may be simultaneously fed +in the same cage. I number each of the three parts of each cage to +prevent misplacement and to facilitate reference, and aside from the +notes made in the notebook, it will aid the memory and expedite matters +to keep a short open record of the species contained in each cage, by +means of slips of paper pasted on the glass door. As fast as the +different specimens complete their transformations and are taken from +the cage the notes may be altered or erased, or the slips wetted and +removed entirely. To prevent possible confounding of the different +species which enter the ground, it is well, from time to time, to sift +the earth, separate the pupae and place them in what I call 'imago +cages,' used for this purpose alone and not for feeding. Here they may +be arranged with references to their exact whereabouts. + +[Illustration: FIG. 124.--Improved base for breeding-cage (original).] + +"A continued supply of fresh food must be given to those insects which +are feeding, and a bit of moist sponge thrust into the mouth of the +bottle will prevent drowning, and furnish moisture to such as need it. +By means of a broad paste brush and spoon the frass may be daily removed +from the earth, which should be kept in a fit and moist +condition--neither too wet nor too dry. In the winter, when insect life +is dormant, the earth may be covered with a layer of clean moss, and the +cages put away in the cellar, where they will need only occasional +inspection, but where the moss must nevertheless be kept damp. Cages +made after the same plan, but with the sides of wire gauze instead of +glass, may be used for insects which do not well bear confinement +indoors, the cages to be placed on a platform on the north side of a +house, where they will receive only the early morning and late evening +sun." + +_Detailed Instructions for Rearing._--In the rearing of insects every +worker will develop a number of methods of value, and it is only by +careful study and comparison of the experiences of all that the best +system can be elaborated. For this reason I have, in what follows, +quoted, in a more or less fragmentary way, the experiences of different +entomologists. + +As is remarked by Miss Murtfeldt, in an interesting paper read before +the Entomological Club of the American Association for the Advancement +of Science, August 20, 1890, "there is a great individuality, or rather +specificality, in insects, and not infrequently specimens of larvae are +found for which the collector taxes his ingenuity in vain to provide. +Not the freshest leaves, the cleanest swept earth, or the most +well-aired cages will seem to promote their development." + +The greatest care and watchfulness, therefore, are necessary to insure +success in the rearing of larvae. In many cases such larvae can only be +successfully reared by inclosing them in netting on their food-plant out +of doors. It is a frequent device of Lepidopterists also to inclose a +rare female in netting placed on the food plant of the species, where +the male may be attracted and may be caught and placed in the bag with +the female, when copulation usually takes place successfully, or a male +may be caught in the field and inclosed with such female. Mr. W. H. +Edwards, where the plant is a small one, uses for this purpose a +headless keg covered at one end with gauze, which he places over the +plant inclosing the female. + +Mr. James Fletcher, of Ottawa, Canada, one of our most enthusiastic +rearers of insects, has given some details of his methods in a recent +very interesting account of "A Trip to Nepigon." One style of cage used +by him in securing the eggs of large Lepidoptera "is made by cutting two +flexible twigs from the willow or any other shrub and bending them into +the shape of two arches, which are put one over the other at right +angles and the ends pushed into the ground. Over the penthouse thus +formed a piece of gauze is placed, and the cage is complete. The edges +of the gauze may be kept down either with pegs or with earth placed upon +them." This kind of cage is used for all the larger species which lay +upon low plants. The species which oviposit on larger plants or trees +are inclosed in a gauze bag tied over the branch. This is applicable to +insects like _Papilio_, _Limenitis_, _Grapta_, etc. Care must be taken, +however, that the leaves of the plant inside the net are in a natural +position, for some species are very particular about where they lay +their eggs, some ovipositing on the top of the leaves, others near the +tip, and many others on the under surface. "When a bag made beforehand +is used, the points must be rounded, and in tying the piece of gauze +over the branch care must be taken to pull out all creases and folds, or +the insect will be sure to get into them and either die or be killed by +spiders from the outside of the bag. It is better to put more than one +female in the same cage. I have frequently noticed that one specimen +alone is apt to crawl about and settle on the top of the cage, and not +go near the food plant. When there are two or three they disturb each +other and are frequently moving and falling on the food plant, when they +will stop for a moment and lay an egg. A stubborn female of _Coleus +eurytheme_ was only induced to lay by having a male placed in the cage +with her, and by his impatient fluttering and efforts to escape she was +frequently knocked down from the top, and every time she fell upon the +clover plant beneath, she laid an egg before crawling to the top again." +Some insects, even with all care in making their surroundings as natural +as possible, will persistently refuse to lay. Mr. Fletcher has +successfully obtained eggs from some of these by a method which he says +one of his correspondents styles "Egg-laying extraordinary." It consists +simply in "gently pressing the abdomen of a female which has died +without laying eggs, until one and sometimes two perfect eggs are passed +from the ovipositor." Mr. Fletcher has secured a number of eggs from +rare species in this way, and successfully reared the larvae. The +following directions for obtaining the eggs and rearing the larvae of +Lepidoptera, given in this paper by Mr. Fletcher, are excellent, and I +quote them entire: + +"There are one or two points which should be remembered when obtaining +eggs and rearing larvae. In the first place, the females should not be +left exposed to the direct rays of the sun; but it will be found +sometimes that if a butterfly is sluggish, putting her in the sun for a +short time will revive her and make her lay eggs. Confined females, +whether over branches or potted plants, should always be in the open +air. If females do not lay in two or three days they must be fed. This +is easily done. Take them from the cage and hold near them a piece of +sponge (or, Mr. Edwards suggests, evaporated apple), saturated with a +weak solution of sugar and water. As soon as it is placed near them they +will generally move their antennae towards it, and, uncoiling their +tongues, suck up the liquid. If they take no notice of it the tongue can +be gently uncoiled with the tip of a pin, when they will nearly always +begin to feed. It is better to feed them away from the plant they are +wanted to lay upon, for if any of the sirup be spilled over the +flowerpot or plant it is almost sure to attract ants. I kept one female +_Colias interior_ in this way for ten days before eggs were laid. When +eggs are laid they should, as a rule, be collected at short intervals. +They are subject to the attacks of various enemies--spiders, ants, +crickets, and minute hymenopterous parasites. They may be kept easily in +small boxes, but do better if not kept in too hot or dry a place. When +the young caterpillars hatch they must be removed with great care to the +food plant; a fine paint brush is the most convenient instrument. With +small larvae or those which it is desired to examine often, glass tubes +or jelly glasses with a tight-fitting tin cover are best. These must be +tightly closed and in a cool place. Light is not at all necessary, and +the sun should never be allowed to shine directly upon them. If +moisture gathers inside the glasses the top should be removed for a +short time. Larvae may also be placed upon growing plants. These can be +planted in flowerpots and the young caterpillars kept from wandering +either by a cage of wire netting or, by what I have found very +satisfactory, glass lamp chimneys. These can be placed over the plant, +with the bottom pushed into the earth, and then should have a loose wad +of cotton batting in the top. This has the double effect of preventing +too great evaporation of moisture and keeping its occupants within +bounds. Some larvae wander very much and climb with the greatest ease +over glass, spinning a silken path for themselves as they go. When +caterpillars are bred in the study it must not be forgotten that the air +inside a house is much drier than it is out of doors amongst the trees +and low herbage, where caterpillars live naturally. The amateur will +require some experience in keeping the air at a right degree of moisture +when breeding upon growing plants. In close tin boxes or jars, where the +leaves must be changed every day, there is not so much trouble. An +important thing to remember with larvae in jars is to thoroughly wash out +the jars with cold water every day. If, however, a caterpillar has spun +a web on the side and is hung up to moult, it must not be disturbed. In +changing the food it is better not to remove the caterpillars from the +old food, but having placed a new supply in the jar, cut off the piece +of leaf upon which they are and drop it into the jar. If they are not +near the moult a little puff of breath will generally dislodge them. +Some caterpillars, as _Papilio turnus_, which spins a platform to which +it retires after feeding, can best be fed upon a living tree out of +doors, but must be covered with a gauze bag to keep off enemies. A piece +of paper should be kept _attached_ to each breeding jar or cage, upon +which regular notes must be taken _at the time_, giving the dates of +every noticeable feature, particularly the dates of the moults and the +changes which take place in the form and color at that time." + +The necessity of outdoor work is further felt in the determination of +the facts in the life-history of some insects which have an alternation +of generations, as some Gall-flies (_Cynipidae_), and most Aphides. To +successfully study these insects constant outdoor observation is +necessary, or the species must be inclosed in screens of wire or netting +outdoors on their food-plant. Many insects which breed on the ground or +on low herbage may be very successfully watched and controlled by +covering the soil containing them or the plant on which they feed with a +wire screen or netting. The use of wire screens is also advisable in the +case of wintering pupae or larvae out of doors. Many species can be more +easily carried through the winter by placing them outdoors under such +screens during the winter, which insures their being subjected to the +natural conditions of climate, and then transferring them to the +breeding cage again early in the spring. This is advisable in the case +of Microlarvae and pupae. Species which bore in the stems of plants may be +easily cared for and leaf-mining and leaf-webbing forms can be secured +under screens or covers out of doors for the winter in sheltered +situations. Many species which, if kept in a warm room can not be +reared, will, if subjected to freezing weather under slight protection +in the open air, emerge successfully the following spring. + +The greatest care is necessary in the breeding of Tenthredinidae, as most +of them transform under ground and are single brooded, the larvae +remaining in the ground from midsummer until the following spring. +Nothing but constant care in maintaining uniform moisture and +temperature of the soil will insure the success of such breeding. Some +species bore into rotten wood or the stems of plants to undergo their +transformations, as for instance the Dogwood Saw-fly (_Harpiphorus +varianus_). This species, unless supplied with soft or rotten wood in +which to bore, will wander ceaselessly round the cage, and in most cases +eventually perish. + +Where a small room can be devoted to the purpose, an excellent wholesale +method of obtaining wood-boring insects (_Coleoptera_, _Lepidoptera_, +etc.) is to collect large quantities of dead or dying wood of all sorts +or any that indicates the presence of the early states of insects, and +store it in such apartment. The following spring and summer the escaping +insects will be attracted to the windows and may be easily secured. The +objection to this method is that, in many cases, it will be impossible +to determine the food habit of the insect secured, owing to the variety +of material brought together. + +_The Root Cage._--For the study of insects which affect the roots of +plants a root cage has been devised by Prof. J. H. Comstock which is of +sufficient importance to warrant full description. It consists of a zinc +frame (Fig. 125_a_) holding two plates of glass in a vertical position +and only a short distance apart, the space between the plates being +filled with soil in which seeds are planted or small plants set. Outside +of each glass is a piece of zinc or sheet iron (_b_) which slips into +grooves and which can be easily removed. When these zincs are in place +the soil is kept dark. + +The idea of the cages is, that the space between the glasses being very +narrow, a large part of the roots will ramify close to the surface of +the glass, so that by removing the zinc slides the roots may be easily +seen, and any root-inhabiting insects which it maybe desirable to breed +may thus be studied in their natural conditions without disturbing them. +Prof. Comstock has used this cage very successfully in studying the +habits of wire-worms, and its availability for many of the underground +insects, such as the Cicadas, root-lice, larvae, etc., is apparent. These +frames may be made of various sizes, to accommodate particular insects. +It will be of advantage in many cases, in order to secure the natural +conditions as nearly as possible, to sink the cage in the soil, and for +this purpose Prof. Comstock has had constructed a pit lined with brick +for the reception of his cages, and employs a small portable crane to +lift them out of the ground when it is desirable to examine them. + +_Other Apparatus._--Much of the breeding of insects can be done with the +simplest apparatus, and for the rearing of Microlepidoptera, +Gall-insects, and the keeping of cocoons and chrysalides of small +species, nothing is more convenient than a medium sized test-tube, the +end of which may be plugged with cotton. I have recently successfully +carried over the winter the larva of _Sphecius speciosus_, which had +been removed early in the fall from its earthen pod or cocoon, the larva +transforming to a perfect pupa in the spring. In this case the test tube +was plugged with cotton and inserted in a wooden mailing tube to exclude +the light. Smaller jars with glass covers or with a covering of gauze +may be employed for most insects, with the advantage of occupying +comparatively little space and of isolating the species under study. + +[Illustration: FIG. 125.--Root cage: _a_, frame with slide removed; _b_, +movable slide; _c_, top view (original).] + +Long glass tubes, open at both ends, are useful in many other ways, +especially in the rearing and study of the smaller hypogean insects or +those which bore and live in the stems of plants. An infested stem cut +open on one side and placed in such a tube will generally carry any +insect that has ceased feeding, or any species like the wood-boring bees +which feed upon stored food, successfully through their transformations; +while root-lice may be kept for a lengthy period upon the roots in such +tube, providing a portion of the root extends outside of the tube and is +kept in moistened ground or water. In all such cases these tubes, with +their contents, should be kept in the dark, either in a drawer or else +covered with some dark material which can be wound around or slipped +over them, and the ends must be closed with cotton or cork. + +The rearer of insects will frequently experience difficulty in carrying +his pupae through the winter, and, even though ordinary precautions are +taken, the mortality will frequently amount to 50 per cent of the +specimens. Mr. H. Bakhaus, of Leipzig, thus describes a device which is +substantially the base of the vivarium shown on page 114. + +"The base consists of a round plate of strong zinc, with two vertical +rims, an inch high, placed one within the other, an inch apart, and +soldered to the basal plate so that the outer one is water-tight. The +inner rim must be perforated with small holes as close to the bottom as +possible. The space inside the inner rim must be filled with fine sand, +on which the pupae should be laid. The space between the two rims is then +filled with water, which, finding its way through the holes in the inner +rim to the sand, causes the necessary moisture. Over the whole is put a +bell-shaped cover of wire gauze, which must fit tightly over the outer +rim. In this receptacle the pupae remain untouched, and receive fresh +moisture, as above indicated, if required by the drying of the sand." + +The hardy pupae of most Noctuids and Bombycids, as well as those of many +Rophalocera, may be handled with little danger, but other species, if +handled at all, or if the cocoons which they make for themselves are +broken, can seldom be reared. Constant precautions also must be +exercised in the care of the soil and the breeding cages. One of the +great drawbacks is the presence of mites and thread worms (Entozoons), +etc., which affect dying or dead pupae and larvae in the soil. They also +affect living specimens and are capable of doing very considerable +damage. To free the soil of them it is necessary at times to allow the +earth to become dry enough to be sifted, and then after removing the +pupae submit it to heat sufficient to destroy any undesired life there +may be in it. + +_The Insectary._--Up to the present time the work of rearing insects has +been largely confined to the breeding cage and breeding jar, already +described, which have been kept in the rooms of the investigator. The +advantages of having a special building for this purpose are at once +apparent and need not be insisted upon. One of the best establishments +of this kind is that of the Cornell University Experiment Station, which +was fully described in Bulletin No. 3, of that station, November, 1888. +The Kansas Experiment Station has a similar building, and one has +recently been built for the use of the Entomological Division of the +United States Department of Agriculture. The insect-breeding house, or +insectary, should comprise a building having workrooms, or laboratories, +for microscopic and general work in the study and preparation of +specimens, and also a conservatory for the rearing of specimens and the +growth of plants, and, where applied entomology is concerned, special +rooms for the preparation and the test of insecticides. The building +proper should also have a basement storage room for hibernating insects. +The laboratory should be fitted with all the apparatus used in the study +of insects, including microscopes and accessories and a dark-room for +photographic purposes. + + + + + DIRECTIONS FOR TRANSMITTING INSECTS. + + +It is very desirable in transmitting insects from the field of +exploration, or from one entomologist to another, for information, +exchange, or other purpose, that they be properly secured and packed. +Pinned and mounted specimens should be firmly fixed in a cigar box, or a +special box for mailing, and this should be carefully but not too +tightly wrapped with cotton or other loose packing material to a depth +of perhaps an inch, and the whole then inclosed in stiff wrapping paper. +It is preferable, however, to inclose the box containing the specimens +in a larger box, filling the intervening space, not too firmly, with +cotton or other packing material. Where specimens are to be sent to a +considerable distance it is advisable also to line the box in which they +are placed with cotton, which serves to catch and hold any specimens +which may become loose in transit. In the case of alcoholic specimens +each vial should be wrapped separately in cotton and placed in a strong +wooden or tin box. Special mailing boxes for alcoholic specimens have +been devised, and a very convenient form is herewith figured. It is an +ordinary tube of wood, with a metal screw top, and the interior lined +with rough cork. These tubes are made in various sizes to accommodate +vials of different dimensions. + +[Illustration: FIG. 126.--Wooden-tube mailing-box: _a_, tube; _b_, cover +(original.)] + +In mailing living specimens the essential thing is a strong box, +preferably tin, made as nearly air-tight as possible. I have found it +very convenient on long trips to carry with me a number of tin boxes in +the flat (Fig. 127), combined in convenient packages, ready to be bent +and improvised in the field. For this purpose get any tinsmith to make +out of good tin a number of pieces cut of the requisite dimensions both +for the bottoms and the covers, carefully cutting the corners to permit +the proper bending of the sides. These improvised boxes will prove +useful for keeping living larvae with their food-plants, especially if +tied up in stout brown paper to prevent any exit from the unsoldered +angles. They will also answer admirably for mailing or otherwise sending +specimens to their ultimate destination. In the case of larvae a quantity +of the food-plant should always be inclosed in the box. + +[Illustration: FIG. 127.--Tin mailing-box in the flat: _a_, box; _b_, +cover (original).] + +In transmitting insects for information the greatest care should be +taken to relieve the person of whom information is sought of as much +unnecessary work as possible. It is easy for any beginner to collect +more in a single day than an experienced entomologist can well mount, +study, and determine in a week, and as those who have the means and +information to give determinations or otherwise to assist beginners are +generally very much occupied, and their time is valuable, they are +justified in ignoring miscellaneous collectings where the sender has +made no effort to either properly mount or otherwise study and care for +his specimens. + +[Illustration: FIG. 128.--Tin mailing-box, bent into shape for use +(original.)] + +Living specimens, especially larvae, should be packed in tin, with a +supply of their appropriate food. The tighter the box the fresher will +the food as well as the specimens keep. Insects do not easily suffocate, +and it is worse than useless, in the majority of cases, to punch +air-holes in such boxes. Dead specimens, when not pinned, may be sent in +a variety of ways. Small ones may be dropped into a quill and inclosed +in a letter, or a small vial fitted into a piece of bored wood. Those +which do not spoil by wetting may be sent in alcohol, provided the +bottle is absolutely filled, or, what is better, in sawdust moistened +with alcohol, or between layers of cotton saturated with alcohol. + +The postal regulations permit the sending by mail of "dried insects +* * * when properly put up, so as not to injure the persons of those +handling the mails, nor soil the mail bags or their contents." Specimens +in alcohol may also be sent by mail, provided that the containing vial +be strong enough to resist the shock of handling in the mail, and that +it be inclosed in a wooden or papier-mache tube not less than +three-sixteenths of an inch thick in the thinnest part, lined with cork +or other soft material, and with a screw top so adjusted as to prevent +the leakage of the contents in case of breakage. Entomological specimens +are of the fourth class of mail matter, the postage on which is 1 cent +an ounce or fraction thereof, the limit of weight for a single package +being 4 pounds, and the limit as to bulk 18 inches in any direction. +Saleable matter is also non-mailable at fourth-class rates; so that the +safer method, with small packages, is to send under letter postage. It +is far better, however, for long journeys, and especially for +transatlantic shipment, to send by express. + + + + + NOTES AND MEMORANDA. + + +In the foregoing pages are given some of the more useful directions for +those wishing to commence to collect and study insects. Experience will +soon teach many other important facts not mentioned here, and the best +closing advice I can give the novice is, to get acquainted, if possible, +with some one who has already had large experience. He will be very apt +to find such a person pleasant and instructive company whether in the +field or in the closet. One important habit, however, I wish to strongly +inculcate and emphasize: The collector should never be without his +memorandum or note book. More profitless work can scarcely be imagined +than collecting natural-history specimens without some specific aim or +object. Every observation made should be carefully recorded, and the +date of capture, locality, and food-plant should always be attached to +the specimens when these are mounted. More extended notes may be made in +a field memorandum book carried in the pocket or in larger record books +at home. For field memoranda I advise the use of a stylographic pen, as +pencil is apt to rub and efface in time by the motions of the body. The +larger record book is especially necessary for biologic notes. Notes on +adolescent states which it is intended to rear to the imago can not be +too carefully made or in too much detail. The relative size, details of +ornamentation and structure, dates of moulting or transformation from +one state to another--indeed, everything that pertains to the biography +of the species--should be noted down, and little or nothing trusted to +mere memory where exact data are so essential. Many insects, +particularly dragon-flies, have brilliant coloring when fresh from the +pupa, which is largely lost afterward. The time of laying and hatching +of eggs, the number from a single female, the character of the eggs, +general habits, records of parasites and their mode of attack--all +should be entered as observed. A great many species have the most +curious life histories, which can not be ascertained except by continued +and persevering observation, not only in the vivarium or insectary but +in the field. It is almost impossible to follow, under artificial +conditions, the full life cycle of many species like the Aphididae, or +the Gall-flies, etc., which involve alternation of generations, +dimorphism, heteromorphism, migration from one plant to another, and +various other curious departures from the normal mode of development, +without careful field study and experiment. These studies are possible +only to those who are able to frequent the same localities throughout +the whole year, and can hardly be carried on by the traveling naturalist +or collector. + + + + + INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING ARACHNIDS AND MYRIAPODS. + + +The foregoing portions of this manual have dealt almost exclusively with +the subject of the securing and preservation of Hexapods, but it is +deemed advisable to include brief instructions for the collection and +care of the near allies of the true insect, Spiders and Myriapods, the +study of which will in most cases be associated with that of Hexapods. + + + DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING SPIDERS. + +_Apparatus._--Many of the directions and methods given in the foregoing +pages for the collection of Hexapods apply also to the animals named +above. Little apparatus is necessary in the collection of spiders and +other Arachnids. The essentials are vials containing alcohol, an insect +net, a sieve, and forceps. Narrow vials without necks are best for +collecting purposes, as the corks can be more quickly inserted. They +should be of different sizes, from 1 dram to 4 or 6 drams, and the +alcohol used should be at least 50 per cent strong and in some cases it +is advisable to use it at a strength of 70 or 80 per cent. The net may +be of the same construction as that used to collect insects and is used +in the same way. Some arachnologists, however, use a net of a somewhat +different make, which is much stronger. The iron ring is heavier and +larger than in the case of the insect net, resembling in this respect +the ring of the Deyrolle net. The bag is short and the handle is +fastened to both sides of the ring. This net is used for beating the +leaves of trees, bushes, and grass. Dr. Marx uses a net which is already +described and figured under the name of the Umbrella Net (see p. 34, +Fig. 52). The sieve is the same as that described on p. 35, Fig. 54, and +is used to sift the spiders from leaves and rubbish, especially during +winter. A mass of leaves and other material is thrown into the sieve and +then shaken, the spiders falling through on a piece of white cloth, +which is spread under the sieve on the ground. Many hibernating +species can be readily secured in this manner. A forceps similar to that +described for the collecting of hexapods should be used to capture or +pick up specimens, for if handled with the fingers they are apt to be +crushed, especially the smaller forms. As soon as the collecting is +finished or the vial is filled a label should be placed in this last +indicating place and date of collection. Egg sacs and cocoons should be +collected in pill boxes and properly labeled, and if possible the adults +should be reared. Both sexes should be collected and descriptive notes +or drawings made of the webs as found in nature. + +[Illustration: FIG. 129.--A ground Spider (_Oxyopes viridans_). (After +Comstock.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 130.--An orb-weaver (_Argiope argyraspides_ Walck): +_a_, male; _b_, female; _c_ and _d_, enlarged parts.] + +_Time and Locality for Collecting._--The best time to collect spiders is +in the early fall, during the months of September and October. The great +majority of the species are then mature. Many forms, however, occur in +the adult state in late spring and early summer. Numerous species may +also be collected during winter, some of these hibernating under stones, +the bark of dead trees, etc., and others, more particularly the small +forms, under dead leaves and rubbish on the ground in woods. Other +species which have hibernated may be found about the earliest flowers in +spring. No particular localities can be indicated for the collection of +spiders, since they occur in all sorts of places, in wooded or open +regions and also in and about dwellings. Many Lycosidae are found in dry +and rocky situations and quite a number in open fields. Thomisidae may be +found on flowers. The Therididae affect shady places, and many Epeiridae +will be found in similar situations. The Attidae love the sun and are +found very actively engaged in hunting insects on plants and dead +leaves. Many species of this family will be found in cases under loose +bark in winter. Evergreen trees are also quite good collecting grounds +for Attidae. The Drassidae are ground spiders and are mostly nocturnal, +hiding during the day under leaves and stones; a few forms, however, +disport in the hottest sunshine. Some genera are found most frequently +near water or in damp places, as Dolomedes and Tetragnatha; others in +sandy places, as Micaria, Targalia. + + + COLLECTING OTHER ARACHNIDS: MITES, TICKS, SCORPIONS, ETC. + +Other Arachnids--as mites, ticks, scorpions, daddy longlegs or +harvest-men--may be collected in the same way as spiders. + +The Phalangidae (Harvest-men) somewhat resemble spiders, and are at once +recognized by their extremely long legs. They occur about houses, +especially in shady places, under the eaves, etc., and in the woods and +fields. They are carnivorous and feed on small insects, especially +Aphides. They should be pressed a little when captured to extrude the +genital apparatus, if possible, and are best collected in the early +fall. + +[Illustration: FIG. 131.--A Harvest-man (_Phalangium +ventricosum_).--From Packard.] + +The Phrynidae are very peculiar looking animals, the anterior legs being +very long and slender and the maxillary palpi very large. The genus +_Thelyphonus_ is not uncommon in the South, and is known by its oblong +body, ending usually with a long, slender, many-jointed filament, from +which they are called Whip-tailed Scorpions. _T. giganteus_ is the +common species. They occur in moist situations, and are carnivorous, +feeding on insects and small animals. + +The false scorpions, Chermetidae, may at once be recognized by their +large maxillary palpi, resembling the maxillae of the true scorpion. They +are small insects, rarely exceeding a quarter of an inch in length, and +are found in dark shady places and feed upon mites, Psoci, and other +small insects. A common species is represented at figure 132. + +[Illustration: FIG. 132.--False Scorpion (_Chelifer cancroides_ +L.).--From Packard.] + +The true scorpions, Scorpionidae, are well-known forms, and are easily +recognized by their large, powerful, forceps-like maxillae, and the long +slender tail continuous with the thorax and ending with a sting, which +is, in most cases, quite poisonous. They are found mostly in the Western +and Southwestern States, and are dangerous in proportion to their size. +The poisonous nature of the sting of these animals is, however, +generally overrated, and the wounds, even of the larger species, are +rarely fatal. + +The Acarina or true mites are the lowest representatives of the +Arachnida and include many genera and species differing very widely in +habit and characters. Some of them are mere sacs, on which the mouth +parts or other organs are scarcely discernible. In general they resemble +spiders. The young, however, when they leave the egg, almost invariably +have but three pairs of feet, resembling in this respect the Hexapods. +The fourth pair is added in the later stages. They are parasitic on +insects and other animals, and some of them are vegetable feeders or +live in decaying vegetable and animal matter. + +A very interesting group is comprised in the family Phytoptidae or +gall-making mites which occur on the leaves of various trees and shrubs +and produce curious galls or abnormal growths. These mites are elongate +in form, have rudimentary mouth-parts and but four legs. A common form, +_Phytoptus quadripes_, produces a gall on the leaves of the soft maple. +The galls of all species should be collected and pinned and also +preserved in alcohol, and specimens of the mites should be mounted in +balsam. + +The members of the genus Sarcoptes are very minute and are the active +source of the itch in the lower animals and man. Another common genus is +Tyroglyphus, which includes the common cheese mite, _T. siro_. Other +species of this genus also sometimes occur in enormous numbers in +grocers' supplies. Still others are parasitic on insects, and one +species, _T. phylloxerae_ Riley, is very beneficial, since, as its name +indicates, it feeds on the Phylloxera of the grapevine. + +[Illustration: FIG. 133.--A true Scorpion (_Buthus carolinianus_).--From +Packard.] + +The Ixodidae comprise the ticks which attach themselves to cattle, hogs, +and man, and are not at all uncommon objects. These insects can be found +on the animals they infest, and distinct species will be found to occur +on most wild mammals. The common Cattle tick _Boophilus bovis_ Riley, is +represented at Fig. 134. + +[Illustration: FIG. 134.--The Cattle-tick. (After Packard.)] + +The family Orobatidae includes a number of small terrestrial mites, which +occur on the moss on trees and stones. Some species are known to feed on +the eggs of insects, and the one shown in the accompanying figure, +_Nothrus ovivorus_ has been observed, by Dr. Packard to eat the eggs of +the Canker Worm. + +[Illustration: FIG. 135.--_Nothrus ovivorus_ Packard.] + +The members of the family Gamasidae are parasitic upon animals, but +chiefly upon insects. The Hydrachnidae are parasitic also upon the +aquatic insects, and also affect fish or mussels or occur on fresh-water +plants. + +One of the most important families of mites is the Trombidiidiae which +includes a large number of species, some of which occur in immense +numbers. Most of them are vegetable feeders, but some species feed on +the eggs of insects. + +[Illustration: FIG. 136.--_Trombidium locustarum_: _a_, female with her +batch of eggs; _b_, newly hatched larva--natural size indicated by the +dot within the circle; _c_, egg; _d e_, vacated egg-shells.] + +The genus Trombidium includes a number of the Red Mites which feed on +insects in all their stages. The Locust Mite, _Trombidium locustarum_ +Riley, is one of the most interesting as well as one of the most +important of our locust enemies, and will serve to illustrate the habits +of the group. It differs so much in infancy and maturity that it has +been referred to different genera and is known under different names. +The mature form lives on the ground and feeds on all sorts of animal or +decomposing vegetable matter, and wherever the ground is filled with +locust eggs these afford an abundance of food and the mites flourish and +multiply rapidly. In the spring the female lays 300 or 400 minute +spherical orange-red eggs in the ground (Fig. 136_a_). From these eggs, +as shown enlarged at _c_, _d_, and _e_ (the two latter being the vacated +egg shells) emerge the six-legged larva shown at _b_. These are mere +specks and crawl actively about, fastening themselves to the locusts +mostly at the base of the wings or along the upper veins. They subsist +on the juices of their host. They firmly attach themselves by the mouth +and increase rapidly in size, the legs not growing and becoming mere +rudiments. In this form they are shown at Fig. 137_a_. When fully +developed they let go their hold, drop to the ground, and crawl under +the shelter afforded by holes in the earth or under sticks. Here, in the +course of two or three weeks, they transform within the larval skin to +the pupal stage shown at _b_, and eventually break through the old +larval skin and escape in the form shown at _c_ and _d_. This mature +form passes the winter in the ground and is active whenever the +temperature is a few degrees above the freezing point. A larger species +_T. giganteum_ Riley, also attacks locusts, while a third species +attacks the common House-fly. This was formerly known in the larva state +only and was referred to the genus Astoma, to which also the larval form +of Trombidium was referred. I have described the adult together with the +larva and pupa as _Trombidium muscarum_. An allied mite, _Hydrachna +belostomae_, attacks the large aquatic water bug, Belostoma, and has a +mode of development precisely similar to that of Trombidium. + +[Illustration: FIG. 137.--_Trombidium locustarum_. _a_, mature larva +when about to leave the wing of a locust; _b_, pupa; _c_, male adult +when just from the pupa; _d_, female--the natural sizes indicated to the +right; _e_, palpal claw and thumb; _f_, pedal claw; _g_, one of the +barbed hairs; _h_, the striations on the larval skin.] + +To this family also belong the common greenhouse mite, _Tetranychus +telarius_, and also the Bryobia mite, _B. pratensis_, which of late +years has attracted very considerable attention by its appearance in +immense numbers about dwellings, coming from the adjoining fields of +clover or grass. Generically allied to the greenhouse mite is the +Six-spotted Mite of the Orange (_T. 6-maculatus_ Riley), which is shown +in the accompanying figure. + +[Illustration: FIG. 138.--The Six-spotted Mite of the Orange +(_Tetranychus 6-maculatus_): _a_, from above--enlarged; _b_, tarsus; +_c_, rostrum and palpus--still more enlarged; _d_, tip of palpus--still +more enlarged.] + +Spiders and mites thus collected may be transferred to alcohol. Dr. +Marx, who has had a very considerable experience in the preservation of +spiders, recommends the use of the following mixture: Glycerin and +Wickersheim's fluid, 11/2 ounces of each, and distilled water 3 ounces, +the whole to be shaken and thoroughly mixed and added to 30 ounces of 95 +per cent alcohol. Alcohol which has previously been used for preserving +spiders, and which has therefore dissolved some of the fatty matters +from the specimens, he prefers to pure alcohol, using with this, +however, somewhat less of the distilled water. The liquid thus composed +answers all demands and keeps the specimens flexible and preserves their +coloring. Should the stopper become loose and the liquid evaporate, +there is always sufficient liquid, water or glycerine, left in the vial +to keep the specimens from drying and thus save them from destruction. +Dr. Marx also prefers to use cork stoppers rather than the rubber +stoppers recommended for other alcoholic material. His objection to the +rubber stopper is that, in a collection in which the specimens are often +used and the stoppers are frequently removed, he finds that small +particles of the rubber stopper come off and settle upon the specimens +as a white dust, which it is difficult to remove. This objection applies +only to a poor quality of rubber, and in all other respects the rubber +is much to be preferred. The colors of spiders are apt to fade somewhat +if exposed to light, and the collection should therefore be kept in +closed boxes or in the dark. + + + COLLECTING MYRIAPODA. + +Centipedes and Millipedes are collected in the same manner as spiders. +They live in damp places, under sticks and stones, and in decaying +vegetation. They should be preserved in alcohol, and on account of their +usually strong chitinous covering, precautions as to the strength of the +alcohol are less necessary here than with softer-bodied specimens. + +[Illustration: FIG. 139.--A Milliped (_Cambula annulata_).] + +The members of this subclass comprise a number of well-marked groups. +The Iulidae are cylindrical insects and occur in moist places, as do most +of the representatives of this subclass. A common form is represented in +the accompanying figure. The Chiliopodae comprise the flattened forms +having many-jointed antennae and but a single pair of limbs to each +segment of the body, and are the forms to which the name centipede may +properly be applied. They are predaceous in habit, live largely on +living animal matter, and are very quick in their movements. Some forms +are poisonous, having poison glands at the base of the first pair of +legs, but the majority of the species are entirely harmless. A number +of common species belong to the genus Geophilus and occur under stones +and logs. The genus Scolopendra includes some of the larger species of +the order. The largest known species, _S. gigantea_, occurs in the East +Indies and attains a length of from 9 inches to more than a foot. +Several species found within the limits of the United States attain a +length of 5 inches or more. The family Cermatiidae includes the very +common species _Cermatia forceps_, which, while abundant in the South +and West, occurs somewhat more rarely in the North. It is commonly found +in moist situations, in houses or conservatories, and on account of its +long legs and agile movements frequently creates considerable +consternation. It is, however, an entirely harmless and very beneficial +species, since it feeds on various household pests, including flies, +roaches, etc. + + + + + TEXT BOOKS--ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS. + + +Bulletin No. 19 of the Division of Entomology, U. S. Department of +Agriculture, contains an enumeration of the published synopses, +catalogues, and lists of North American insects, together with other +information intended to assist the student of American entomology. This +can be had upon application, and I would refer the student to it for +specific information as to synopses, catalogues, and lists. I have +deemed it advisable, however, to include here an enumeration of the more +useful works of a general character; a list of the entomological +periodicals, both home and foreign; and the entomological works +published by the different departments of the Government, with some +information as to how and of whom they can be obtained. Many of these +publications are no longer to be had except as they may be picked up +through book-dealers; but the titles even of those which are out of +print will be useful to the student as a guide to what he should find in +every good library. Requests for this kind of information are constantly +received at the Department of Agriculture and at the National Museum. +The most useful general works are given first, and, while a great many +others in foreign languages might be cited, I would strongly advise the +beginner in America to confine himself to these, and especially to read +Harris's Insects Injurious to Vegetation, Kirby & Spence's Introduction, +and Westwood's Introduction. This last, though published over half a +century ago, is still one of the most useful entomological works in the +English language. While these Introductions will be of great service in +arranging and classifying material and in giving a knowledge of the +relationships of species, there is no better text-book than the great +book of nature, which is always ready to unfold its truths to every +earnest inquirer. In field and wood alone can he become familiar with +the insects in all their wondrous life habits, instincts, and +intelligence. There alone will he receive the fullest inspiration and +pleasure in his work or find the highest reward for his efforts. + + + COMPREHENSIVE WORKS MOST USEFUL FOR THE STUDY OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS. + +H. C. C. BURMEISTER.--Handbuch der Entomologie. Berlin, 1832-1855. +5 vols. + +MANUAL OF ENTOMOLOGY.--A translation of the above, by W. E. Shuckard. +London, 1836. + +J. O. WESTWOOD.--An introduction to the modern classification of +insects, founded on the natural habits and corresponding organization of +the different families. 2 vols. London, 1839-'40. + +THOMAS SAY.--Complete writings on the Entomology of North America; +edited by John L. Le Conte. New York, 1859. + +H. A. HAGEN.--Bibliotheca Entomologica. Die Litteratur ueber das ganze +Gebiet der Entomologie bis zum Jahre 1862. Leipzig, 1862. + +A. S. PACKARD.--Guide to the Study of Insects. Henry Holt & Co., +Philadelphia and New York. (First edition, Salem, 1869.) + +---- Entomology for Beginners. Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1888. + +THE STANDARD NATURAL HISTORY.--Edited by John Sterling Kingsley. S. E. +Cassino & Co., Boston, 1884-'85. + + Volume II contains the insects, which are treated by the following + authors: _Hymenoptera_, J. H. Comstock and L. O. Howard; + _Coleoptera_, George Dimmock; _Lepidoptera_, H'y Edwards and C. H. + Fernald; _Diptera_, S. W. Williston; _Orthoptera_, C. V. Riley; + _Hemiptera_, P. R. Uhler; _Neuroptera_, A. S. Packard; _Arachnida_, + J. H. Emerton. + +J. H. COMSTOCK.--An Introduction to Entomology. Published by the author. +Ithaca, N. Y. 2 parts. Part I, 1888. + +ALPHEUS HYATT AND J. M. ARMS.--Guides for Science Teaching, No. III. +Insecta. Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, 1890. + + + GENERAL WORKS ON CLASSIFICATION. + + HYMENOPTERA. + +E. T. CRESSON.--Synopsis of the Families and Genera of the Hymenoptera +of America, north of Mexico, together with a Catalogue of the described +Species and Bibliography. Transactions Am. Entom. Society, Supplementary +volume. 2 parts. Philadelphia, 1887. + + + COLEOPTERA. + +JOHN L. LE CONTE AND GEORGE H. HORN.--Classification of the Coleoptera +of North America. Prepared for the Smithsonian Institution. Washington, +Smithsonian Institution, 1883. + + This is the most recent and the only complete classification of + North American Coleoptera. It contains also Appendix II, a "list of + bibliographical references to memoirs, in which more or less + complete synopses of the families, genera, and species of the + Coleoptera of the United States have been published." + +J. T. LACORDAIRE.--Histoire naturelle des Insectes. Genera des +Coleopteres, ou expose methodique et critique de tous les genres +proposes jusqu'ici dans cet ordre d'insectes. [Completed by J. Chapuis.] +Paris, France, 1854-1876. 12 vols, and 1 vol. plates. + +[Out of print.]WILLIAM LE BARON.--Outlines of Entomology, published in +connection with the author's Annual Reports upon injurious insects. Part +first. Including the Order of Coleoptera. Fourth Annual Report on the +Noxious and Beneficial Insects of the State of Illinois. Sep. Edit. +Springfield, 1874. + + + LEPIDOPTERA. + +G. A. W. HERRICH-SCHAEFFER.--Sammlung neuer oder wenig bekannter +aussereuropaeischer Schmetterlinge. Vol. I. Regensburg, 1850-'58; Vol. +II, Pt. 1, 1869. + + Contains a classification of the Lepidoptera, which forms the basis + of our present arrangement. + +JOHN G. MORRIS.--Synopsis of the described Lepidoptera of North America. +Part I. Diurnal and Crepuscular Lepidoptera. Washington, Smithsonian +Institution, 1862. + + Compiled descriptions of the North American Lepidoptera, from the + Rhopalocera to the Bombycidae. + +H. STRECKER.--Lepidoptera, Rhopaloceres et Heteroceres, indigenous and +exotic; with descriptions and colored illustrations. Reading, Pa., +1872-'77. + + Fifteen parts of this work have been published containing figures + and descriptions of many North American species. + +JOHN B. SMITH.--An Introduction to a Classification of the North +American Lepidoptera. <Bull. Brookl. Ent. Soc., Vol. VII, 1884, pp. +70-74 and 81-83. + + A synopsis of the families of Lepidoptera based on + Herrich-Schaeffer's classification. + +---- Synopsis of the Genera of the North American Rhopalocera. <Bull. + Brookl. Ent. Soc, Vol. VI, 1883, pp. 37-45. + +E. DOUBLEDAY AND W. C. HEWITSON.--The genera of diurnal Lepidoptera, +comprising their generic characters, a notice of their transformations, +and a catalogue of the species of each genus; illustrated, with 86 +colored plates from drawings by W. C. Hewitson. 2 vols., London, +1846-'52. + + This work was completed by Westwood after the death of Doubleday. + +S. H. SCUDDER.--Butterflies: Their structures, changes, and +life-histories, with special reference to American forms. Being an +application of the "Doctrine of descent" to the study of Butterflies, +with an appendix of practical instructions. 321 pp. and 201 text figs. +New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1881. + +---- The Butterflies of the Eastern United States and Canada with + special reference to New England. 3 vols., Cambridge, Mass., 1889; + pp. 1958, plates 59. (Published by the author. Cost about $75 for + 3 vols.) + +G. H. FRENCH.--The Butterflies of the Eastern United States. For the use +of classes in Zoology and private students. Philadelphia, Lippincott & +Co., 1886. + + Gives synopses of the genera and species, and description of the + species. + +W. H. EDWARDS.--Butterflies of North America. Boston, Houghton, Mifflin +& Co. + + Two volumes are completed and the third is in course of + publication. + + + HEMIPTERA. + +HERBERT OSBORN.--Classification of Hemiptera. <Entomologica Amer., Vol. +I, 1885, pp. 21-27. + + Short characterization of the whole order, with tables of suborders + and families. + +---- Pediculi and Mallophaga affecting Man and the Lower Animals. + Constituting Bulletin No. 7 of the Division of Entomology, U. S. + Department of Agriculture. Washington, 1891. + +P. R. UHLER.--List of Hemiptera of the region west of the Mississippi +River, including those collected during the Hayden explorations of 1873. +<Bull. U. S. Geolog. and Geogr. Survey of the Terr., Vol. I, 1875, pp. +267-361, Pl. XIX-XXI. + +---- Report upon the insects collected by P. R. Uhler during the + exploration of 1875, including monographs of the families Cynidae and + Saldae, and the Hemiptera collected by A. S. Packard, jr., M. D. + <U. S. Geolog. and Geogr. Survey, Bulletin, Vol. III, No. 2, 1877, + pp. 355-475. + +TOWNEND GLOVER.--Report of the Entomologist. <Report of the Commissioner +of Agriculture for the year 1877, pp. 17-46. + + A popular treatise on the Homoptera, with illustrations. + +A. H. HALIDAY.--An Epitome of the British genera in the Order +Thysanoptera, with indications of a few of the species. <Entomol. Mag., +Vol. III, 1836, pp. 439-451. + + + DIPTERA. + +H. LOEW AND C. R. OSTEN-SACKEN.--Monographs of the Diptera of North +America. (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.) 4 parts. Washington, +Smithsonian Institution, 1862-'72. + + The several monographs will be found enumerated under the + respective families. + +H. LOEW.--Diptera Americae septentrionalis indigena. 2 parts. Berlin, +1861-'72. (Originally published in 10 centuriae in the Berliner Entomol. +Zeitschrift.) + + Descriptions of 1,000 North American Diptera, but without synoptic + arrangement. + +C. R. OSTEN-SACKEN.--Western Diptera: Descriptions of new genera and +species of Diptera from the region west of the Mississippi and +especially from California. <Bull. U. S. Geolog. and Geogr. Survey of +the Territories, Vol. III, 1877, pp. 189-354. + +F. BRAUER.--Die Zweifluegler des Kaiserlichen Museums zu Wien. I-III. +Wien, 1880-'83. + + Important contributions to the classification of the Diptera. + + + ORTHOPTERA. + +HENRI DE SAUSSURE.--Orthoptera nova Americana (Diagnoses praeliminares). +Series I-III. <Revue et Mag. de Zool., 1859-'61. + + Contains synoptical tables of species, besides descriptions of + numerous North American Orthoptera. + +SAMUEL H. SCUDDER.--Materials for a monograph of the North American +Orthoptera. <Boston Journal of Nat. Hist., Vol. VII, 1862, pp. 409-480. + + Contains synoptical tables and a review of the system used for + classification. + +---- Remarks upon the arrangement of the families of Orthoptera. <Proc. + Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XII, 1868-'69; also separate under the + title: Entomological Notes, Vol. II, pp. 7-14. + +---- Synoptical tables for determining North American insects. + Orthoptera. <Psyche, Vol. I, 1876, pp. 169-171. + + Synopsis of families; also list of useful works in the study of + North American Orthoptera. + + + NEUROPTERA. + +HERMANN HAGEN.--Synopsis of the Neuroptera of North America, with a list +of the South American species. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, +Washington, 1861. + +---- Synopsis of the Odonata of America. <Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., + Vol. XVIII, 1875, pp. 20-96. + +SIR JOHN LUBBOCK.--Monograph of the Collembola and Thysanura. London, +Ray Society, 1873. + + The introduction gives the full bibliography up to date. + + + MYRIAPODA. + +THOMAS SAY.--Descriptions of the Myriapoda of the United States. <Journ. +Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil., Vol. II, 1821, pp. 102-114; Say's Entom. Writings, +ed. Le Conte, Vol. II, pp. 24-32. + + This is the first paper of importance on the North American + Myriapoda. + +GEORGE NEWPORT.--Monograph of the class Myriapoda, Order Chilopoda. +<Trans. Linnean Soc. of London, Vol. XIX, 1845, pp. 265-302 and 349-439. + +HORATIO C. WOOD, Jr.--On the Chilopoda of North America, with Catalogue +of all the specimens in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution. +<Journ. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil., New Ser., Vol. V, 1863, pp. 5-42. + +---- The Myriapoda of North America. <Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol. + XIII, 1865, pp. 137-248, 3 pl. + + This is the first and only monograph of the Myriapoda published in + this country. + +ROBERT LATZEL.--Die Myriapoden der Oesterreichisch-Ungarischen +Monarchie. Erste Haelfte: Die Chilopoden, Wien, 1880. Zweite Haelfte: Die +Symphylen, Pauropoden und Diplopoden, Wien, 1884. + + The most recent comprehensive work on this order, and very + important from a classificatory standpoint. + +LUCIEN M. UNDERWOOD.--The North American Myriapoda. <Entomol. Amer., +Vol. I, 1885, pp. 141-151. + + A complete bibliographical review of the subject, with tables of + families and genera. + + + ARACHNIDA. + +N. M. HENTZ.--Descriptions and figures of the Araneides of the United +States. <Journ. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vols, IV-VI, 1842-'50. + + These papers form the basis of the study of American arachnology. + Numerous species are described, but not in synoptic form. + +T. THORELL.--On European Spiders. Part I. Review of the European genera +of Spiders. Upsala, 1869-'70. + +N. M. HENTZ.--Araneae Americae septentrionalis. The Spiders of the United +States. Edited by J. H. Emerton and E. Burgess. <"Occasional Papers" of +the Boston Society of Natural History, 1875. + + A reprint of Hentz's papers on North American spiders. + +GRAF EUGEN KEYSERLING.--Amerikanische Spinnen aus den Familien +Pholcoidae, Scytodoidae und Dysderoidae. <Verh. k. k. zool.-bot. Ges. in +Wien, Vol. XXVII, 1877, pp. 205-234. + +---- Neue Spinnen aus Amerika. (Six parts.) <Verh. k. k. Zool.-bot. Ges. + in Wien, Vols. XXIX-XXXIV, 1879-'84. + +E. SIMON.--Les Arachnides de France. Paris, Vols. I-V, 1874-'84. + + These two works represent the most recent systems of + classification, and are therefore of great general value, although + they deal only with the European fauna. + +LUCIEN M. UNDERWOOD.--The Progress of Arachnology in America. <Amer. +Natur., Vol. XXI, 1887, pp. 963-975. + + A very useful review of the bibliography, with synoptic table of + the families of the Araneae. + + + AMERICAN PERIODICALS. + +THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. A monthly journal devoted to the natural +sciences in their widest sense (24 volumes published up to date. Now +published at Philadelphia). + +[Publication discontinued.]ANNALS OF THE LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY OF NEW +YORK (8 volumes, 1824-'67. Continued since 1876 as Annals of the New York +Academy of Sciences). + +[Publication discontinued.]BULLETIN OF THE BROOKLYN ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY +(7 volumes, 1878-'85. Continued as Entomologica Americana). + +BULLETIN OF THE BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY (4 volumes completed; +1874 to 1883). + +BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE +TERRITORIES, F. V. Hayden in charge (Department of the Interior; 1875 to +1879). + +BULLETINS OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, J. M. Powell, +director; beginning with 1883. + +BULLETINS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM (Department of the +Interior; beginning with 1875). + +THE CANADIAN ENTOMOLOGIST. (Published by the Entomological Society of +Ontario; 22 volumes issued up to the end of 1890. Published at London, +Ontario.) + +[Publication discontinued.]ENTOMOLOGICA AMERICANA. (Published by the +Brooklyn Entomological Society at Brooklyn, N. Y. 1885 to 1890.) + +ENTOMOLOGICAL NEWS [and Proceedings of the Entomological Section of the +Academy of Natural Sciences] (Vol. I issued in 1890. Published at +Philadelphia). + +JOURNAL OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA (commencing +with 1817). + +MEMOIRS OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY (commencing with 1866). + +[Publication discontinued.]NORTH AMERICAN ENTOMOLOGIST. (Published by the +Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, 1 volume, Buffalo, N. Y. 1879-'80.) + +[Publication discontinued.]PAPILIO. Devoted exclusively to Lepidoptera. +Organ of the New York Entomological Club (4 volumes, 1881-'84). + +PSYCHE. Organ of the Cambridge Entomological Club (5 volumes issued up +to date. Published at Cambridge, Mass. Publication begun in 1874). + +PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA +(beginning with 1841). + +PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF PHILADELPHIA +(beginning with 1860). + +PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY (commencing with +1841). + +[Publication discontinued.]PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF +PHILADELPHIA (6 volumes, 1861-'67). + +PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON (2 volumes, +beginning with 1884). + +PROCEEDINGS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM (Department of the +Interior; beginning with 1878). + +REPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE +TERRRITORIES (Department of the Interior; beginning with 1867). + +SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS (Smithsonian Institution, +Washington, D. C.; beginning 1862). + +TRANSACTIONS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OF ST. LOUIS (4 volumes hitherto +published). + +TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY and Proceedings of +the Entomological Section of the Academy of Natural Sciences (beginning +with 1868; published at Philadelphia). + +TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF PHILADELPHIA (2d +series beginning with 1818). + +Papers on entomology are also published occasionally in other American +periodicals, among which the following might be mentioned: + +JOURNAL OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. Chapel Hill, N. C. + +JOURNAL OF THE NEW YORK MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. + +NATURALISTE CANADIEN. Edited by Abbe Provancher, Cap Rouge, Quebec. + +PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, San Francisco, Cal. + + + FOREIGN PERIODICALS. + +ANNALES DE LA SOCIETE ENTOMOLOGIQUE DE BELGIQUE. Publication begun in +1857. Brussels. + +ANNALES DE LA SOCIETE ENTOMOLOGIQUE DE FRANCE. Publication begun in +1832. Paris. + +[Publication discontinued.]BERLINER ENTOMOLOGISCHE ZEITSCHRIFT. +18 volumes, Berlin, 1857-1874. + + Succeeded by the Deutsche Entomologische Zeitung. + +BULLETIN DE LA SOCIETE ENTOMOLOGIQUE DE FRANCE. + +BULLETIN DE LA SOCIETE ENTOMOLOGIQUE SUISSE. (See Mittheil. d. Schweiz. +Entom. Gesell.) + +BULLETINO DELLA SOCIETA ENTOMOLOGICA ITALIANA. Florence. (Publication +commenced in 1869.) + +DEUTSCHE ENTOMOLOGISCHE ZEITSCHRIFT. Published by the Entomological +Society of Berlin. (Publication begun in 1875.) + +ENTOMOLOGISCHE NACHRICHTEN. (Now edited by Dr. F. Karsch. Berlin. +Publication commenced in 1875.) + +ENTOMOLOGISK TIDSKRIFT; PA FOeRANSTALTANDE AF ENTOMOLOGISKA FOeRENINGEN I +STOCKHOLM: (Commenced with 1880.) + +[Publication discontinued.]ENTOMOLOGISCHE ZEITUNG: HERAUSGEGEBEN VON DEM +ENTOMOLOGISCHEN VEREIN ZU STETTIN. 36 volumes. Stettin. 1840-'75. + +ENTOMOLOGISKE MEDDELELSER UDGIVNE OF ENTOMOLOGISK FORENING. Edited by +Fr. Meinert, Copenhagen (beginning with 1887). + +THE ENTOMOLOGIST. A popular monthly journal of British entomology. Vol. +I, 1840-'42. (Publication resumed in 1864. London.) + +[Publication discontinued.]THE ENTOMOLOGIST'S ANNUAL. Edited by +H. T. Stainton. London. (Publication begun in 1855; 22 vols. published +up to 1876.) + +ENTOMOLOGIST'S MONTHLY MAGAZINE. London (beginning with 1864). + +Horae ... Variis sermonibus rossiae usitatis. Societas Entomologica +Rossica. (Publication begun in 1861.) + +[Publication discontinued.]LINNAE ENTOMOLOGICA. HERAUSGEGEBEN VOM +ENTOMOLOGISCHEN VEREINE ZU STETTIN (16 volumes, Berlin, 1846-'66). + +MITTHEILUNGEN DER SCHWEIZERISCHEN ENTOMOLOGISCHEN GESELLSCHAFT. Bulletin +de la Societe entomologique suisse. (Publication begun at Schaffhausen, +Switz., in 1862. Afterward published at Geneva.) + +REVUE D'ENTOMOLOGIE. (Published by the Societe Francaise d'Entomologie, +Caen, France. Publication begun in 1882.) + +TIJDSCHRIFT VOOR ENTOMOLOGIE. NEDERLANDSCHE ENTOMOLOGISCHE VEREINIGUNG, +Leiden, Holland (beginning with 1857. Published by the Dutch +Entomological Society). + +TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. (Begun in 1834.) + +[Publication discontinued.]WIENER ENTOMOLOGISCHE MONATSSCHRIFT +(8 volumes, Vienna, 1857-'64). + +WIENER ENTOMOLOGISCHE ZEITUNG. Vienna. (Commenced 1882.) + +[Publication discontinued.]ZEITSCHRIFT FUeR DIE ENTOMOLOGIE. Edited by +E. F. Germar (5 volumes. Leipzig, 1839-'44). + +ZEITSCHRIFT FUeR ENTOMOLOGIE. VEREIN FUeR SCHLESISCHE INSECKTEN-KUNDE ZU +BRESLAU. (Publication begun at Breslau in 1847). + +ZEITSCHRIFT FUeR WISSENSCHAFTLICHE ZOOLOGIE. Leipzig. (Begun in 1848). + +A large number of other periodicals devoted to entomology have been +issued, principally in Europe, but after continuing for a year or more +their publication has been abandoned, and they are not included here. +Important entomological papers have also been published in many serials +devoted to zoology or the natural sciences generally. Among them may be +mentioned the following: + +ANNALS AND MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. London (beginning with 1838). + +ARCHIV FUeR NATURGESCHICHTE. Berlin (beginning with 1835). + +OeFVERSIGT AF KONGL. SVENSKA VETENSKAPS ACADEMIENS FOeRHANDLINGAR +(beginning with 1844. Published at Stockholm). + + Proceedings of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. + +PROCEEDINGS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. + +REVUE ET MAGASIN DE ZOOLOGIE PURE ET APPLIQUEE. Paris (beginning with +1839). + +SITZUNGSBERICHTE DER MATHEMATISCH-NATURWISSENSCHAFTLICHEN CLASSE DER +KAISERLICHEN ACADEMIE DER WISSENSCHAFTEN ZU WIEN (beginning with 1848). + +TRANSACTIONS OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY OF LONDON (beginning with 1791). + +TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. Wellington, +New Zealand. + +VERHANDLUNGEN DER ZOOLOGISCH-BOTANISCHEN GESELLSCHAFT IN WIEN (beginning +with 1852). + + + LIST OF MORE USEFUL WORKS ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY. + +T. W. HARRIS, Insects Injurious to Vegetation. (Flint edition.) New +York, Orange Judd Co. $4 or $6. (First edition, Cambridge, 1841.) + +[Out of print.]ASA FITCH, Reports of the State Entomologist of New York, +I-XIV, Albany, 1855-'70. (For a full account of these, see First Annual +Report, by J. A. Lintner, State Entomologist of New York, pp. 294-297.) + +[Publication discontinued.]The Practical Entomologist. Vols. I and II. +Published by the Entomological Society of Philadelphia, 1865-'67. + +[Publication discontinued.]The American Entomologist, edited by +B. D. Walsh and C. V. Riley. Vol. I. St. Louis, Mo., 1868. +(Out of print.) + +[Publication discontinued.]The American Entomologist and Botanist, edited +by C. V. Riley and Dr. George Vasey. Vol. II. St. Louis, Mo., 1870. + +[Out of print.]The American Entomologist, edited by C. V. Riley. Vol. III. +[Second series, Vol. I.] New York, Hub Publishing Co., 1880. + +[Out of print.]B. D. WALSH, Annual Report on the Noxious Insects of the +State of Illinois. Chicago, Prairie Farmer Co., 1868. + +[Out of print.]C. V. RILEY, Reports of the State Entomologist of Missouri, +I-IX, Jefferson City, 1869-'77. + +[Out of print.]WILLIAM LE BARON, Reports of the State Entomologist of +Illinois. I-IV, Springfield, 1871-'74. + +[Out of print.]CYRUS THOMAS, Reports of the State Entomologist of +Illinois, I-VI, Springfield, 1876-'81. + +J. A. LINTNER, Reports of the State Entomologist of New York. Albany +(beginning with 1882). + +S. A. FORBES, Reports of the State Entomologist of Illinois. Springfield +(beginning with 1883). + +---- Miscellaneous Essays on Economic Entomology. Springfield, Ill., + 1886. (Published instead of Annual Report.) + +MARY TREAT, Injurious Insects of the Farm and Garden. New York, Orange +Judd Co., 1882. (A small work compiled from Riley's reports.) + +WILLIAM SAUNDERS, Insects Injurious to Fruits. Philadelphia, J. B. +Lippincott & Co., 1883. + +MATTHEW COOKE, Injurious Insects of the Orchard, Vineyard, etc. +Sacramento, 1883. (8vo., pp. 472.) + +P. J. VAN BENEDEN, Animal Parasites and Messmates. New York, D. Appleton +& Co., 1876. International Scientific Series. + +[Out of print.]Reports of the Entomologists of the U. S. Department of +Agriculture, T. Glover (1863-1878), J. H. Comstock (1879-1880), and +C. V. Riley (1878-1879, 1880 to date).[10] + + [10] The annual reports of the Entomologist are contained in the + corresponding annual reports of the Department of Agriculture. A + limited author's edition, separately bound, and with table of contents + and index, is published each year. + +Bulletins of the Division of Entomology of the U. S. Department of +Agriculture, C. V. Riley, Entomologist (1883 to date). + +Reports and Bulletins of the U. S. Entomological Commission. + +JOHN CURTIS, Farm Insects. London, Blackie & Son, 1860. + +ELEANOR A. ORMEROD, Manual of Injurious Insects, and Methods of +Prevention, etc. London and Edinburgh, 1881. (A small work, costing +about $1.50.) + +---- Reports of Observations of Injurious Insects and Common Farm Pests, + with Methods of Prevention and Remedy. London. Simpkin, Marshall, + Hamilton, Kent & Co., limited. (Fourteen reports issued up to 1891.) + +J. H. KALTENBACH.--Die Pflanzenfeinde aus der Classe der Insekten. 8vo. +Stuttgart, 1874. (A useful work for determining what insects infest +plants in Europe.) + +INSECT LIFE. Periodical Bulletin.--Devoted to the economy and the +life-habits of insects, especially in their relations to agriculture. +Edited by C. V. Riley, entomologist, and L. O. Howard, first assistant, +with the assistance of other members of the divisional force +(Publication begun in 1888.) + +E. L. TASCHENBERG.--Praktische Insekten-Kunde. Parts I-V. Bremen, 1879. + +FELICE FRANCESCHINI.--Gli Insetti Nocivi. Milan, 1891. + +J. T. C. RATZEBURG.--Die Waldverderbniss, oder dauernder Schade, welcher +durch Insektenfrass, Schaelen, Schlagen, und Verbeissen an lebenden +Waldbaeumen entsteht. Two parts. Berlin, 1866-'68. + + + ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS PUBLISHED BY THE UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL + COMMISSION AND BY THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. + + UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION. + +(Members of the Commission: C. V. Riley, A. S. Packard, jr., and Cyrus +Thomas.) + +[11]BULLETIN NO. 1.--Destruction of the young or unfledged Locusts +(_Caloptenus spretus_). (1877.) [pp. 15.] + + [11] All of these bulletins and reports, with the exception of the + fifth report, are out of print. + +BULLETIN NO. 2.--On the Natural History of the Rocky Mountain Locust and +on the habits of the young or unfledged insects as they occur in the +more fertile country in which they will hatch the present year. (1877.) +[pp. 14, figs. 10.] + +BULLETIN NO. 3.--The Cotton Worm. Summary of its Natural History, with +an Account of its Enemies, and the best Means of controlling it; being a +Report of Progress of the Work of the Commission. By Chas. V. Riley, M. +A., Ph. D. (1880.) [pp. 144, figs. 84, plates 1.] + +BULLETIN NO. 4.--The Hessian Fly. Its Ravages, Habits, Enemies, and +Means of preventing its Increase. By A. S. Packard, jr., M. D. (1880.) +[pp. 43, figs. 1, plates 2, maps 1.] + +BULLETIN NO. 5.--The Chinch Bug. Its History, Characters, and Habits, +and the Means of destroying it or counteracting its Injuries. By Cyrus +Thomas, Ph. D. (1879.) [pp. 44, figs. 10, maps 1.] + +BULLETIN NO. 6.--General Index and Supplement to the nine Reports on the +Insects of Missouri. By Charles V. Riley, M. A., Ph. D. (1881.) [pp. +177.] + +BULLETIN NO. 7.--Insects injurious to Forest and Shade Trees. By A. S. +Packard, jr., M. D. (1881.) [pp. 275, figs. 100.] + +First Annual Report for the year 1877, relating to the Rocky Mountain +Locust and the best Methods of preventing its Injuries and of guarding +against its Invasions, in pursuance of an Appropriation made by Congress +for this purpose. With maps and illustrations. (1878.) [pp. 477+294, +figs. 111, plates 5, maps 1.] + +Second Report for the years 1878 and 1879, relating to the Rocky +Mountain Locust and the Western Cricket, and treating of the best Means +of subduing the Locust in its permanent Breeding grounds, with a view of +preventing its Migrations into the more fertile Portions of the +trans-Mississippi country, in pursuance of Appropriations made by +Congress for this purpose. With Maps and Illustrations. (1880.) [pp. +XVIII+322+22, figs. 10, plates 17, maps 7.] + +Third Report relating to the Rocky Mountain Locust, the Western Cricket, +the Army Worm, Canker Worms, and the Hessian Fly; together with +Descriptions of Larvae of injurious Forest Insects, Studies on the +embryological Development of the Locust and of other Insects, and on the +systematic Position of the Orthoptera in Relation to other Orders of +Insects. With Maps and Illustrations. (1883.) [pp. XVIII+347+91, figs. +14, plates 64, maps 3.] + +Fourth Report, being a revised Edition of Bulletin No. 3, and the Final +Report on the Cotton Worm and Bollworm. By Charles V. Riley, Ph. D. +(1885.) [pp. XXXVIII+399+147, figs. 45, plates 64, maps 2.] + +Fifth Report, being a revised and enlarged edition of Bulletin No. 7, on +Insects Injurious to Forest and Shade Trees. By Alpheus S. Packard, M. +D., Ph. D., with woodcuts and 40 plates. (1890 (1). Small edition; only +a few for general distribution). + + + BULLETINS OF THE DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF + AGRICULTURE, UNDER DIRECTION OF C. V. RILEY, ENTOMOLOGIST. + +[Out of print.]No. 1.--Reports of Experiments, chiefly with Kerosene, upon +the Insects injuriously affecting the Orange Tree and the Cotton Plant, +made under the Direction of the Entomologist. (1883.) [pp. 62.] + +[Out of print.]No. 2.--Reports of Observations on the Rocky Mountain +Locust and Chinch Bug, together with Extracts from the Correspondence of +the Division on Miscellaneous Insects. (1883.) [pp. 36.] + +[Out of print.]No. 3.--Reports of Observations and Experiments in the +practical Work of the Division, made under the Direction of the +Entomologist. With plates. (1883.) [pp. 75, plates III.] + +No. 4.--Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical Work of +the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist, together +with Extracts from Correspondence on miscellaneous Insects. (1884.) [pp. +102, figs. 4.] + +[Out of print.]No. 5.--Descriptions of North American Chalcididae from +the Collections of the U. S. Department of Agriculture and of Dr. C. V. +Riley, with biological Notes. [First paper.] Together with a list of the +described North American species of the family. By L. O. Howard, M. Sc., +Assistant, Bureau of Entomology. (1885.) [pp. 47.] + +[Out of print.]No. 6.--The imported Elm-leaf Beetle. Its Habits and +Natural History, and Means of counteracting its Injuries. (1885.) [pp. +18, figs. 1, plates I.] + +No. 7.--The Pediculi and Mallophaga affecting Man and the lower Animals. +By Prof. Herbert Osborn. (1891.) [pp. 54, figs. 42.] + +[Out of print.]No. 8.--The Periodical Cicada. An account of _Cicada +septendecim_ and its tredicim race, with a chronology of all of the +broods known. By Charles V. Riley, Ph. D. (1885.) [pp. 46, figs. 8.] + +No. 9.--The Mulberry Silk-worm; being a Manual of Instructions in Silk +culture. By Charles V. Riley, M. A., Ph. D. (1886.) [pp. 65, figs. 29, +plates II.] + +No. 10.--Our Shade Trees and their Insect Defoliators. Being a +consideration of the four most injurious species which affect the trees +of the capital, with means of destroying them. By Charles V. Riley, +Entomologist. (1887.) [pp. 75, figs. 27.] + +[Out of print.]No. 11.--Reports of Experiments with various Insecticide +Substances, chiefly upon Insects affecting garden Crops, made under the +Direction of the Entomologist. (1886.) [pp. 34.] + +[Out of print.]No. 12.--Miscellaneous Notes on the work of the Division +of Entomology for the Season of 1885; prepared by the Entomologist. +(1886.) [pp. 45, plates I.] + +[Out of print.]No. 13.--Reports of Observations and Experiments in the +practical Work of the Division, made under the Direction of the +Entomologist. (With illustrations.) (1887.) [pp. 78, figs. 4.] + +No. 14.--Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical Work +of the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist. (1887.) +[pp. 62, figs. 2, plates I.] + +No. 15.--The Icerya, or Fluted Scale, otherwise known as the Cottony +Cushion-scale. (Reprint of some recent Articles by the Entomologist and +of a Report from the Agricultural Experiment Station, University of +California.) (1887.) [pp. 40.] + +No. 16.--The Entomological Writings of Dr. Alpheus Spring Packard. By +Samuel Henshaw. (1887.) [pp. 49.] + +[Out of print.]No. 17.--The Chinch Bug: A general Summary of its +History, Habits, Enemies, and of the Remedies and Preventives to be used +against it. By L. O. Howard M. S., Assistant Entomologist. (1888.) [pp. +48, figs. 10.] + +[Out of print.]No. 18.--The Life and Entomological Work of the late +Townend Glover, first Entomologist of the United States Department of +Agriculture. Prepared under the Direction of the Entomologist, by C. R. +Dodge. (1888.) [pp. 68, figs. 6, plates I.] + +No. 19.--An enumeration of the published Synopses, Catalogues, and Lists +of North American Insects; together with other information intended to +assist the student of American Entomology. (1888.) [pp. 77.] + +[Out of print.]No. 20.--The Root Knot Disease of the Peach, Orange, and +other Plants in Florida, due to the Work of Anguillula. Prepared under +the Direction of the Entomologist, by J. C. Neal, Ph. D., M. D. (1889.) +[pp. 31, plates 21.] + +[Out of print.]No. 21.--Report of a Trip to Australia, made under the +Direction of the Entomologist to investigate the Natural Enemies of the +Fluted Scale, by Albert Koebele. (1890.) [pp. 32, figs. 16.] + +No. 22.--Reports of the Observations and Experiments in the practical +Work of the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist. +(1890.) [pp. 110.] + +No. 23.--Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical Work +of the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist. (1891.) +[pp. 83.] + +No. 24.--The Boll Worm. Preliminary Report, made under the Direction of +the Entomologist. By F. W. Mally. (1891.) [pp. 50.] + +No. 25.--Destructive Locusts. A popular consideration of a few of the +more injurious Locusts or "Grasshoppers" of the United States, together +with the best means of destroying them. By C. V. Riley, Ph. D. (1891.) +[pp. 62, figs. 11, plates 12.] + +[12]No. 26.--Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical +Work of the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist. +(1892.) + +[12]No. 27.--Reports on the Damage by destructive Locusts during the +season of 1891, made under the Direction of the Entomologist. (1892.) +[pp. 64.] + +[12]No. 28.--The more destructive Locusts of America, north of Mexico, +by Lawrence Bruner, prepared under Direction of the Entomologist. +(1892.) + + [12] Bulletins 26 and 27 are in press, and Bulletin 28 is in course of + preparation. + + + SPECIAL REPORTS AND BULLETINS. + +[Out of print.]REPORT ON COTTON INSECTS.--By J. Henry Comstock. (1879.) +[pp. 511, figs. 77, plates III.] + +[13]SPECIAL REPORT, No. 11.--The Silkworm; being a brief Manual of +Instructions for the Production of Silk. Prepared, by direction of the +Commissioner of Agriculture, by C. V. Riley, M. A., Ph. D., +Entomologist. (First ed., 1879; fifth ed., 1885.) [pp. 37, figs. 8.] + + [13] Bull. No. 9 of the Division of Entomology covers this subject. + +[Out of print.]SPECIAL REPORT, No. 35.--Report on Insects injurious to +Sugar Cane. Prepared, under Direction of the Commissioner of Agriculture, +by J. Henry Comstock, Entomologist. (1881.) [pp. 11, figs. 3.] + +[Out of print.]DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY.--INSECTS AFFECTING THE ORANGE. +--Report on the Insects affecting the Culture of the Orange and other +plants of the Citrus Family, with practical Suggestions for their +Control or Extermination. By H. G. Hubbard. (1885.) [pp. x+227, figs. +95, plates XIV.] + +[Out of print.]SPECIAL REPORT.--Catalogue of the Exhibit of Economic +Entomology at the World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition, +New Orleans, 1884-'85. (1888.) [pp. 95.] + +SPECIAL BULLETIN.--The Horn Fly (Haematobia serrata), being an account of +its Life-history and the means to be used against it. By C. V. Riley and +L. O. Howard. (Reprinted from Insect Life, Vol. II, No. 4, October +1889.) (1889.) [pp. 11, figs. 5.] + +BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MORE IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS TO AMERICAN ENONOMIC +ENTOMOLOGY. By Samuel Henshaw. Parts I, II, and III. The more important +writings of Benjamin Dann Walsh and Charles Valentine Riley, Washington, +1890. + + + + + HOW TO OBTAIN ENTOMOLOGICAL BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. + + +Comparatively few of the works treating of the classification of North +American insects have been published as separate books; but such as have +been so published, if of comparatively recent date, can be obtained +through the regular book trade. By far the greater number of the +monographs and synopses mentioned in the preceding pages have been +published in scientific periodicals and in the proceedings or +transactions of scientific societies. These may be obtained either +through the societies or through the publishers; but single volumes of +transactions or proceedings, and more especially single papers, are +seldom sold, and the older volumes are liable to be out of print. +Moreover, the expense attending the purchase of all of the periodicals +containing the publications on a given order of insects will be so great +as to put them beyond the reach of most entomologists. The custom of +placing at the disposal of authors a number of separate copies of their +papers overcomes this difficulty to some extent and creates a small +supply. Thus it often happens that a person interested can obtain a copy +of a scientific paper by addressing the author personally. Many of +these separate copies also fall into the possession of dealers in +second-hand books, and may be purchased from them. The American +Entomological Society of Philadelphia, and also a few other societies +here and in Europe, offer for sale from their duplicates many of these +authors' extras, and in some cases publish lists. There are, moreover, +certain business establishments which make a specialty of the sale of +works and pamphlets on natural history, including entomology, and it is +chiefly through such establishments that the student is enabled to +secure the larger portion of the works needed. + +By subscribing to the entomological periodicals published in this +country (a matter of but slight expense) the student may keep abreast of +the current literature. Short book reviews or notes published therein +call attention to the more important publications in other countries. +Moreover, the Zoologischer Anzeiger, edited by Prof. J. Victor Carus, in +Leipzig, Germany, and published every fortnight, gives a tolerably +complete bibliography of the current entomological literature at +intervals of about six or eight weeks. The "Naturae Novitates," published +every fortnight by R. Friedlaender & Sohn, Carlstrasse, 11, Berlin, +Germany, gives the titles of most recent works and pamphlets. + +There are also three great annual publications, viz: "Die Fortschritte +auf dem Gebiet der Entomologie," published in Wiegmann's "Archiv fuer +Naturgeschichte;" "The Zoological Record," published by the Zoological +Record Society, in London, England; and the "Zoologische +Jahresberichte," published by the Zoological Station at Naples, Italy, +which give the full literature of the previous year, discussing the more +important papers and giving a list of the new species, besides other +information. These three publications are almost indispensable to the +student in any branch of zoology, and some one of them at least ought to +be found in every public library in the country. The volumes of the +"Zoologische Jahresberichte" since 1887 contain no titles upon +systematic and classificatory zoology, but only such as refer to +biology. + +A not inconsiderable portion of the North American literature on the +classification of insects has been published by the Government of the +United States through various channels, foremost among which are the +Smithsonian Institution, the U. S. Department of Agriculture, the U. S. +National Museum, the U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey, and the +various surveys of the Territories. Some of these publications are +distributed free of cost; while others, like certain of the publications +of the Smithsonian Institution and the Geological Survey, are sold at a +moderate price to cover the cost of publication. Many of them are out of +print, and can only be obtained through natural history book-dealers. + +Of the more general works, some may be obtained direct from the +publishers, and in such cases the publishers are mentioned in the +general list. The older works are mostly out of print and can only be +obtained from second-hand dealers. The current State reports of Lintner +and Forbes may be obtained from the secretaries of the respective State +agricultural societies at Albany, N. Y., and Springfield, Ill., while +the bulletins and reports of the entomologists of the various State +experiment stations, of which a large number are being published, may be +obtained from the directors of the respective stations. The older +reports of the State entomologist of Missouri and the State +entomologists of Illinois (Walsh, Le Baron, and Thomas) are all out of +print and can only be obtained by purchase from second-hand dealers. The +same may be said of the well-known and oft-quoted reports of Dr. Fitch, +which were published with the old volumes of the Transactions of the New +York State Agricultural Society. + + * * * * * + + + + +The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text. + + p iii: Detailed instructions for breeding -> rearing + p 5: Spiders, and Myriopods -> Myriapods + p 5: comprising Spiders, Myriopods -> Myriapods + p 7: If we endevor -> endeavor + p 8: of the Sub-orders-> Suborders + p 9: Springtails -> Spring-tails + p 9: Plectoptera -> Plecoptera + p 14: the case of the Horntails -> Horn-tails + p 14: FIG. 8.--Sawfly -> Saw-fly + p 14: Beetles or-> duplicate "or" deleted + p 16: of the common silk-worm -> silkworm + p 16: variety of these larvae -> larvae + p 17: structure of the antennae -> antennae + p 17: HETEROPTERA ([Greek: heteros], -> comma added + p 17: looked upon as a Sub-order -> Suborder + p 17: A Plant-bug Euschistes -> Euschistus + p 18: DIMERA, with two joints; -> comma changed to semicolon + p 19: four or five joints. -> period added + p 20: hatched in the abodmen -> abdomen + p 21: A Locust Acrideum -> Acridium + p 21: Orthoptera -> changed from smallcaps to all capital letters + p 21: Tree-cricket Ocharis -> Orocharis + p 21: Phyllodromia germanica.) -> germanica). + p 22: "Earwigs, consisting -> Earwigs + p 26: A May-fly Protamanthus -> Potamanthus + p 28: (Fig. c) -> (Fig. 45, c) + p 30: frequently have occassion -> occasion + p 47: put in the seive -> sieve + p 51: butterflies, whose larvae -> larvae + p 51: as their mouthparts -> mouth-parts + p 53: and otherwiise dsposed -> otherwise disposed + p 54: animals. The Plantlice -> Plant-lice + p 55: imago--all enlarged -> closing round bracket deleted + p 58: Rove-beetles Staphilinidae -> Staphylinidae + p 58: A Spring-tail -> --A Spring-tail + p 59: Palingenia bilneata -> bilineata + p 70: specimen in the cabinet. -> period added + p 70: e. g. the Sawflies -> Saw-flies + p 71: Moanting -> Mounting + p 73: glue or shell-lac -> shellac + p 75: After Kiesenvetter -> Kiesenwetter + p 75: shown in the accompaying -> accompanying + p 76: FIG. 105. Spreading -> FIG. 105.--Spreading + p 76: FIG. 106. Needle -> FIG. 106.--Needle + p 83: they almost invariable -> invariably + p 83: spirit or petroleum lamp. -> period added + p 89: the external chytinous -> chitinous + p 91: pieces of clean card-board -> cardboard + p 91: beveled on all sides: -> sides; + p 93: bored with a bitt -> bit + p 94: Many larvae -> larvae + p 98: Myriopoda -> Myriapoda + p 99: keeping off musuem -> museum + p 106: all lateral movemnts -> movements + p 106: After Marse -> Morse + p 110: The two particuliarly -> particularly + p 112: endophytous Ienthredinidae -> Tenthredinidae + p 114: (See Figure 124.) -> (See Figure 124) + p 118: Gall-flies Cynipidae -> Cynipidae + p 119: brooded, the larvae -> larvae + p 129: FIG. 125 -> FIG. 125. + p 121: Bakhaus, of Leipsic -> Leipzig + p 132: of the published synoposes -> synopses + p 134: species of each genius -> genus + p 136: HENRI DE SAUSSURE. -> period added + p 136: Amer. Philos. -> period added + p 137: 1874 to 1883 -> 1883) + p 137: 1875 to 1879 -> 1879) + p 138: See Mittheil. -> period added + p 142: plates 2., -> plates 2, + p 143: it or counteractering -> counteracting + p 143: for general distribution -> distribution) + p 144: of the Entomlogist -> Entomologist + p 144: [pp. 46, figs. 8.)-> [pp. 46, figs. 8.] + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Directions for Collecting and +Preserving Insects, by C. V. 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