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diff --git a/39275-h/39275-h.htm b/39275-h/39275-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6cdf24b --- /dev/null +++ b/39275-h/39275-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,8831 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<!-- $Id: header.txt 236 2009-12-07 18:57:00Z vlsimpson $ --> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Directions for Collecting and Preserving Insects, by C. V. Riley. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + body {margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + h1 {text-align: center; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + font-weight: bold; + font-size: 3em; + clear: both; + } + + h2 {text-align: center; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + font-size: 2em; + clear: both; + } + + h3 {text-align: center; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 0.5em; + font-weight: bold; + font-size: 1.5em; + clear: both; + } + + p {margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 0em; + text-align: justify; + font-size: 1em; + line-height: 1.4em; + text-indent: 1em; + } + + p.title {text-align: center; + text-indent: 0; + line-height: 1.4em; + margin-bottom: 3em; + } + + p.books {text-indent: 0em; + line-height: 1em; + margin-left: 2em; + margin-top: 0em; + margin-bottom: 0.5em; + } + + hr.hr65 { width: 65%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + margin-top: 1em; + empty-cells: show; + } + + table#p11 {margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; border-collapse: collapse;} + + table#p11 td.one {border-top: 1px solid black; + border-left: 1px solid black;} + + table#p11 td.two {border-left: 1px solid black; + border-bottom: 1px solid black;} + + table#p11 td.three {border-top: 1px solid black; + border-right: 1px solid black;} + + table#p11 td.four {border-right: 1px solid black; + border-bottom: 1px solid black;} + + table#p11 td.five {border-left: 1px solid black;} + + table#p11 td.six {border-right: 1px solid black;} + + table#p73 {margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid black;} + + .pagenum {/* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: 75%; + text-align: right; + } + + .blockquote {margin-left: 5%; + margin-right: 5%; + } + + ul {list-style-type: none; font-size: 1em;} + + em.gesperrt { + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + letter-spacing: 0.2em; + margin-right: -0.2em;} + + div.center {text-align: center;} + + div.left {text-align: left;} + + div.right {text-align: right;} + + div.note {border-right: black 1px dashed; + padding-right: 0.5em; + border-top: black 1px dashed; + padding-left: 0.5em; + font-size: smaller; + padding-bottom: 0.5em; + margin: 4em 10% 0px; + border-left: black 1px dashed; + color: black; + padding-top: 0px; + border-bottom: black 1px dashed; + background-color: rgb(204,255,204); + margin-bottom: 5em;} + + a:link {text-decoration: none; + color: rgb(10%,30%,60%); + background-color: inherit; + } + + a:visited {text-decoration: none; + color: rgb(60%,20%,20%); + background-color: inherit; + } + + .center {text-align: center;} + + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em;} + + /* Images */ + .figcenter {margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + text-align: center; + } + + .figleft {float: left; + clear: left; + margin-left: 0; + margin-bottom: 0.5em; + margin-top: 0.5em; + margin-right: 1em; + padding: 0; + text-align: center; + } + + .figright {float: right; + clear: right; + margin-left: 1em; + margin-bottom: 0.5em; + margin-top: 0.5em; + margin-right: 0; + padding: 0; + text-align: center; + } + + /* Footnotes */ + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px; + margin-top: 1em; + padding: 1em; + } + + .footnote {margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%; font-size: 0.9em;} + + .footnote.label {position: absolute; right: 90%; text-align: right;} + + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; + font-size: 0.8em; + text-decoration: none; + background-color: #DDD + } + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Directions for Collecting and Preserving +Insects, by C. V. Riley + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Directions for Collecting and Preserving Insects + +Author: C. V. Riley + +Release Date: March 26, 2012 [EBook #39275] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Jens Nordmann and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="note"> +<p class="center"><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p> +<p style="text-indent: 0;">The original spelling and minor inconsistencies +in the spelling and formatting have been maintained. Obvious misprints were corrected +and <ins title="like this">marked-up</ins>. The original text will be +displayed as a mouse-over pop-up.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 150%;">SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.</span><br /><br /> +<span style="font-size: 125%;">UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM.</span></p> + +<h1>DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND +PRESERVING INSECTS.</h1> + +<p class="title">BY<br /><br /><br /><br /> +<span style="font-size: 150%;">C. V. RILEY, M. A., <span class="smcap">Ph.</span> D.,</span><br /><br /> +<i>Honorary Curator of the Department of Insects, U. S. National Museum.</i><br /><br /><br /><br /></p> + +<p class="title">Part F of Bulletin of the United States National Museum, No. 39<br /> +(with one plate).</p> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 125%;">WASHINGTON:</span><br /><br /> +GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.<br /><br /> +1892.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p> + +<p style="text-align: center;"><em class="gesperrt">CONTENTS.</em></p> + +<table summary="ToC"> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td align="right">Page.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#INTRODUCTORY"><span class="smcap">Introductory</span></a></td> + <td align="right">3</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#MANUAL_OF_INSTRUCTIONS_FOR_COLLECTING_AND_PRESERVING_INSECTS"><span class="smcap">Manual of instructions for collecting and preserving insects</span></a></td> + <td align="right">5</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#CHARACTERISTICS_OF_INSECTS"><span class="smcap">Characteristics of insects</span></a></td> + <td align="right">5</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#SCOPE_AND_IMPORTANCE_OF_ENTOMOLOGY"><span class="smcap">Scope and importance of entomology</span></a></td> + <td align="right">6</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#CLASSIFICATION_OF_HEXAPODS"><span class="smcap">Classification of hexapods</span></a></td> + <td align="right">8</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#HYMENOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Order Hymenoptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">12</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COLEOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Order Coleoptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">14</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#LEPIDOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Order Lepidoptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">16</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#HEMIPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Order Hemiptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">17</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#THYSANOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suborder Thysanoptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">18</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#DIPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Order Diptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">19</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#APHANIPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suborder Aphaniptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">20</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#ORTHOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Order Orthoptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">21</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#DERMAPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suborder Dermaptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">22</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#NEUROPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Order Neuroptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">22</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#TRICHOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suborder Trichoptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">23</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#MECOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suborder Mecoptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">23</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#NEUROPTERA_2"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suborder Neuroptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">23</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#PLATYPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suborder Platyptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">24</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#PLECOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suborder Plecoptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">25</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#ODONATA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suborder Odonata</span></a></td> + <td align="right">25</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#EPHEMEROPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suborder Ephemeroptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">25</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#THYSANURA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suborder Thysanura</span></a></td> + <td align="right">26</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COLLECTING"><span class="smcap">Collecting</span></a></td> + <td align="right">26</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#GEN_CONS"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">General considerations</span></a></td> + <td align="right">26</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_APPS"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collecting apparatus</span></a></td> + <td align="right">29</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#SWEEP_NET"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The sweeping net</span></a></td> + <td align="right">29</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#WATER_NET"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The water net</span></a></td> + <td align="right">31</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#DIP_NET"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Water dip-net</span></a></td> + <td align="right">32</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#UMBRELLA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The umbrella</span></a></td> + <td align="right">32</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#BEATING_CLOTH"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The beating cloth</span></a></td> + <td align="right">33</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#UMBRELLA_NET"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The umbrella net</span></a></td> + <td align="right">34</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#SIEVE"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The sieve</span></a></td> + <td align="right">35</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#CHISEL"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The chisel</span></a></td> + <td align="right">36</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#TROWEL"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The trowel</span></a></td> + <td align="right">36</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_TWEEZERS"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The collecting tweezers</span></a></td> + <td align="right">36</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#BRUSH"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The brush</span></a></td> + <td align="right">37</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#FUMIGATOR"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The fumigator</span></a></td> + <td align="right">38</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#HAVERSACK"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The haversack</span></a></td> + <td align="right">38</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#LENS_MICRO"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The lens and microscope</span></a></td> + <td align="right">39</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_HYMENOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collecting Hymenoptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">39</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_COLEOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collecting Coleoptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">42</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#GEN_DIR"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">General directions</span></a></td> + <td align="right">42</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#WINTER_COLL"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Winter collecting</span></a></td> + <td align="right">43</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#SPRING_COLL"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Spring collecting</span></a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></td> + <td align="right">44</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#MYRM_TERM"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Myrmecophilous and Termetophilous species</span></a></td> + <td align="right">44</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#SPRING_COLEOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Spring flights of Coleoptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">44</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#BEACH_COLL"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Beach collecting</span></a></td> + <td align="right">45</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#ATTR_LIGHT"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Attracting by lights</span></a></td> + <td align="right">45</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#TRAPS"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Traps</span></a></td> + <td align="right">45</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#FRESHET"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Freshet</span></a></td> + <td align="right">45</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#SUMMER_COLL"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Summer collecting</span></a></td> + <td align="right">46</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_STONE"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Collecting under stones</span></a></td> + <td align="right">46</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_LOGS"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Collecting in rotten stumps and logs</span></a></td> + <td align="right">46</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_TREES"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Collecting in dying or dead trees</span></a></td> + <td align="right">47</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#BEAT_VINES"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Beating living trees, shrubs, and vines</span></a></td> + <td align="right">47</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#SWEEPING"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Sweeping</span></a></td> + <td align="right">47</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_BANKS"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Collecting on mud and gravel banks</span></a></td> + <td align="right">48</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#AQUA_BEETLE"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Collecting aquatic beetles</span></a></td> + <td align="right">49</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_PLACES"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Collecting at the seashore and on sandy places</span></a></td> + <td align="right">49</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#DUNG_BEETLE"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Collecting dung beetles</span></a></td> + <td align="right">49</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#NIGHT_COLL"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Night collecting</span></a></td> + <td align="right">50</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#FALL_COLL"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fall collecting</span></a></td> + <td align="right">50</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_LEPIDOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collecting Lepidoptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">50</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_ADULT"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Collecting the adults</span></a></td> + <td align="right">50</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_EARLY"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Collecting the early states</span></a></td> + <td align="right">53</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_HEMIPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collecting Hemiptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">54</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_DIPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collecting Diptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">55</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_ORTHOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collecting Orthoptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">57</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_NEUROPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collecting Neuroptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">58</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#PSEUDONEUROPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Pseudoneuroptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">58</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#NEUROPTERA_3"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Neuroptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">59</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#KILLING_AND_PRESERVING_INSECTS"><span class="smcap">Killing and preserving insects</span></a></td> + <td align="right">60</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#PRESERVE_SPEC"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">First preservation of living specimens</span></a></td> + <td align="right">60</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#KILL_SPEC"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Killing specimens</span></a></td> + <td align="right">61</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#ALCOHOL"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Alcohol</span></a></td> + <td align="right">61</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#ETHER"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Chloroform and ether</span></a></td> + <td align="right">62</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#CYANIDE"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Cyanide of potassium</span></a></td> + <td align="right">63</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#OTHER_AGENTS"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Other agents</span></a></td> + <td align="right">65</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#SPEC_ORDERS"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Special directions for different orders</span></a></td> + <td align="right">66</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#ENTOMOTAXY"><span class="smcap">Entomotaxy</span></a></td> + <td align="right">67</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#MOUNTED_SPEC"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Care of pinned and mounted specimens</span></a></td> + <td align="right">67</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#INSECT_PINS"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Insect pins</span></a></td> + <td align="right">67</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#PREP_SPEC"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Preparation of specimens</span></a></td> + <td align="right">68</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#PINNING"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pinning</span></a></td> + <td align="right">69</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#MOUNT_POINT"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mounting on points</span></a></td> + <td align="right">70</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#MOUNT_DUPL"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mounting duplicates</span></a></td> + <td align="right">73</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#TEMP_SPEC"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Temporary storage of specimens</span></a></td> + <td align="right">74</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#ENV_LEPI"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Envelopes for Lepidoptera, etc.</span></a></td> + <td align="right">74</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#DIR_INSECTS"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Directions for spreading insects</span></a></td> + <td align="right">75</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#NEW_APP"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">A new apparatus for spreading Microlepidoptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">76</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#SPREAD_MICROLEP"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Spreading Microlepidoptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">77</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#RELAXING"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Relaxing</span></a></td> + <td align="right">79</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#INFLA_LEPI"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Inflation of the larvæ of Lepidoptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">80</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#STUFF_INSECTS"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Stuffing insects</span></a></td> + <td align="right">82</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#DRY_APHIDES"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dry preservation of Aphides and other soft-bodied insects</span></a></td> + <td align="right">82</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#MOUNT_MICRO"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mounting specimens for the microscope</span></a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></td> + <td align="right">84</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#PREP_LEPI"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Preparing and mounting the wings of Lepidoptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">86</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#PRE_SPEC"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Preservation of alcoholic specimens</span></a></td> + <td align="right">88</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#APP_METH"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Apparatus and methods</span></a></td> + <td align="right">88</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#STOP_HOLD"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Vials, stoppers, and holders</span></a></td> + <td align="right">89</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#PRES_ALCO"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Preserving micro-larvæ in alcohol</span></a></td> + <td align="right">92</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#PRES_FLUIDS"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Preservative fluids</span></a></td> + <td align="right">93</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#ALCOHOL_2"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Alcohol</span></a></td> + <td align="right">93</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#ARSENIC"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Alcohol and white arsenic</span></a></td> + <td align="right">93</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#SUBLIMATE"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Alcohol and corrosive sublimate</span></a></td> + <td align="right">94</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#FORM_COLOR"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Two fluids to preserve form and color</span></a></td> + <td align="right">94</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#GLYCERIN"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Glycerin</span></a></td> + <td align="right">94</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#WICKERSHEIM"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">The Wickersheim preserving fluid</span></a></td> + <td align="right">94</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#LAB_SPEC"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Labeling specimens</span></a></td> + <td align="right">95</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#GEN_DIR_2"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">General directions</span></a></td> + <td align="right">95</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#PIN_SPEC"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Labels for pinned specimens</span></a></td> + <td align="right">95</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#ALCO_SPEC"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Labeling alcoholic specimens</span></a></td> + <td align="right">97</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#CAB_APP"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cabinet for apparatus</span></a></td> + <td align="right">98</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#INSECT_BOXES_AND_CABINETS"><span class="smcap">Insect boxes and cabinets</span></a></td> + <td align="right">98</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#GEN_DIR_3"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">General directions</span></a></td> + <td align="right">98</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#FOLD_BOX"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The folding box</span></a></td> + <td align="right">98</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#CABINET"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The cabinet</span></a></td> + <td align="right">100</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#LINTNER_BOX"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The Lintner display box</span></a></td> + <td align="right">101</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#MARTIN_BOX"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The Martindale box for Lepidoptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">104</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#HORIZONTAL_BOX"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Horizontal <i>versus</i> vertical arrangement of boxes</span></a></td> + <td align="right">104</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#LINING_BOX"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lining for insect boxes</span></a></td> + <td align="right">104</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#ARRANGEMENT_OF_INSECTS_IN_THE_CABINET"><span class="smcap">Arrangement of insects in the cabinet</span></a></td> + <td align="right">106</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#SYST_COLL"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Systematic and biologic collections</span></a></td> + <td align="right">106</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#ECO_DISP"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Economic displays</span></a></td> + <td align="right">106</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#LAB_COLL"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Labeling collections</span></a></td> + <td align="right">107</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#MUSEUM_PESTS_MOLD_ETC"><span class="smcap">Museum pests, mold, etc</span></a></td> + <td align="right">108</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#PESTS"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Museum pests</span></a></td> + <td align="right">108</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#REMEDIES"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Remedies</span></a></td> + <td align="right">109</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#NAPHTHALINE"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Naphthaline</span></a></td> + <td align="right">109</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#BISULPHIDE"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Bisulphide of carbon</span></a></td> + <td align="right">110</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#MERCURY"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Mercury pellets</span></a></td> + <td align="right">110</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#CARBOLIC"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Carbolic acid</span></a></td> + <td align="right">110</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#HOT_COUNT"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">A means of preserving insects in dry, hot countries</span></a></td> + <td align="right">110</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#MOLD"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mold</span></a></td> + <td align="right">111</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#GREASING"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Verdigrising and greasing</span></a></td> + <td align="right">111</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#THE_REARING_OF_INSECTS"><span class="smcap">The rearing of insects</span></a></td> + <td align="right">112</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#GEN_DIR_4"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">General directions</span></a></td> + <td align="right">112</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#CAGE"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The breeding cage, or vivarium</span></a></td> + <td align="right">112</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#REARING"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Detailed instructions for <ins title="breeding">rearing</ins></span></a></td> + <td align="right">115</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#ROOT_CAGE"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The root cage</span></a></td> + <td align="right">118</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#OTHER_APPS"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Other apparatus</span></a></td> + <td align="right">119</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#INSECTARY"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The insectary</span></a></td> + <td align="right">120</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#DIRECTIONS_FOR_TRANSMITTING_INSECTS"><span class="smcap">Directions for packing and transmitting insects</span></a></td> + <td align="right">121</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#NOTES_AND_MEMORANDA"><span class="smcap">Notes and memoranda</span></a></td> + <td align="right">123</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#INSTRUCTIONS_FOR_COLLECTING_AND_PRESERVING_ARACHNIDS_AND_MYRIAPODS"><span class="smcap">Instructions for collecting and preserving Arachnids and Myriapods</span></a></td> + <td align="right">124</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#DIR_SPIDER"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Directions for collecting spiders</span></a></td> + <td align="right">124</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#APPARATUS"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Apparatus</span></a></td> + <td align="right">124</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#TIME_LOC"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Time and locality for collecting</span></a></td> + <td align="right">125</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_ARACH"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collecting other Arachnids, mites, ticks, scorpions, etc</span></a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></td> + <td align="right">126</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_MYRI"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collecting Myriapoda</span></a></td> + <td align="right">130</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#TEXT_BOOKS_ENTOMOLOGICAL_WORKS"><span class="smcap">Text books and entomological works</span></a></td> + <td align="right">131</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COMP_WORK"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Comprehensive works most useful for the student of North American insects</span></a></td> + <td align="right">132</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#GEN_WORK"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">General works on classification</span></a></td> + <td align="right">132</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#HYMENOPTERA_2"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hymenoptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">132</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COLEOPTERA_2"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Coleoptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">132</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#LEPIDOPTERA_2"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lepidoptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">133</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#HEMIPTERA_2"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hemiptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">134</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#DIPTERA_2"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Diptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">134</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#ORTHOPTERA_2"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Orthoptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">135</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#NEUROPTERA_4"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Neuroptera</span></a></td> + <td align="right">135</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#MYRIAPODA_2"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Myriapoda</span></a></td> + <td align="right">135</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#ARACHNIDA_2"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arachnida</span></a></td> + <td align="right">136</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#AM_PERI"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">American periodicals</span></a></td> + <td align="right">136</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#FOR_PERI"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Foreign periodicals</span></a></td> + <td align="right">138</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#MORE_USE"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The more useful works on economic entomology</span></a></td> + <td align="right">140</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#ENTO_WORK"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Entomological works published by the United States Entomological Commission and by the United States Department of Agriculture</span></a></td> + <td align="right">141</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#WORK_USEC"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Works by the United States Entomological Commission</span></a></td> + <td align="right">141</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#BULL_USDA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bulletins of the Division of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture</span></a></td> + <td align="right">142</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#SPEC_REPS"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Special reports and bulletins</span></a></td> + <td align="right">144</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#HOW_TO_OBTAIN_ENTOMOLOGICAL_BOOKS_AND_PAMPHLETS"><span class="smcap">How to obtain entomological books and pamphlets</span></a></td> + <td align="right">145</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="INTRODUCTORY" id="INTRODUCTORY"></a>INTRODUCTORY.</h2> + +<p>There is a constant demand, especially from correspondents of the Museum +and also of the Department of Agriculture, for information as to how to +collect, preserve, and mount insects. There is also great need of some +simple directions on a great many other points connected with the proper +packing of insects for transmission through the mails or otherwise; +labeling; methods of rearing; boxes and cabinets; text-books, etc. +Interest in the subject of entomology has, in fact, made rapid growth in +the last few years, and now that nearly every State has an official +entomologist connected with its State Agricultural Experiment Station, +the number of persons interested in the subject may be expected to +increase largely in the near future. I have hitherto made use of the +Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, No. 261, which is a pamphlet on +collecting and preserving insects prepared by Dr. A. S. Packard. This is +out of print, and I have been requested by Prof. Goode to prepare for +Bulletin 39, U. S. N. M., something that would cover the whole ground +and give the more essential information needed for collectors and +students of insect life. I have deemed it unnecessary to go too much +into detail, but have studied not to omit anything essential. Customs +and methods vary in different countries and with different individuals, +but the recommendations contained in the following pages are based upon +my own experience and that of my assistants and many acquaintances, and +embrace the methods which the large majority of American entomologists +have found most satisfactory.</p> + +<p>Much of the matter is repeated bodily from the directions for collecting +and preserving insects published in my Fifth Report on the Insects of +Missouri (1872) and quotations not otherwise credited are from that +Report. The illustrations, also, when not otherwise credited or not +originally made for this paper, are from my previous writings. Some are +taken from Dr. Packard's pamphlet, already mentioned; others, with the +permission of Assistant Secretary Willits, from the publications of the +Department of Agriculture, while a number have been especially made for +the occasion, either from photographs, or from drawings by Miss L. Sullivan +or Dr. Geo. Marx or Mr. C. L. Marlatt. When enlarged, the +natural size is indicated in hair-line. In the preparation of the +pamphlet I have had the assistance of Mr. E. A. Schwarz, and more +particularly of Mr. C. L. Marlatt, to both of whom I desire here to +express my obligations.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right; margin-right: 5em;">C. V. R.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/img_013_h.png"> + <img src="images/img_013.png" width="116" height="200" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + </a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Pl. 1.—Illustration of Biologic Series.</span></p> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="MANUAL_OF_INSTRUCTIONS_FOR_COLLECTING_AND_PRESERVING_INSECTS" id="MANUAL_OF_INSTRUCTIONS_FOR_COLLECTING_AND_PRESERVING_INSECTS"></a>MANUAL OF INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS.</h2> + +<p class="title">By <span class="smcap">C. V. Riley</span>,<br /><br /> +<i>Honorary Curator of the Department of Insects, U. S. National Museum.</i></p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<h2><a name="CHARACTERISTICS_OF_INSECTS" id="CHARACTERISTICS_OF_INSECTS"></a>CHARACTERISTICS OF INSECTS.</h2> + +<p>The term “insect” comes from the Latin <i>insectum</i>, and +signifies “cut into.” It expresses one of the prime +characteristics of this class of animals, namely, that of segmentation. +This feature of having the body divided into rings or segments by +transverse incisions is possessed by other large groups of animals, and +was considered of sufficient importance by Cuvier to lead him, in his +system of classification, to group with Insects, under the general term +Articulata, Worms, Crustacea, Spiders, and <ins title="Myriopods">Myriapods</ins>. Worms differ from +the other four groups in having no articulated appendages, and in having +a soft body-wall or integument instead of a dense chitinous covering, +and are separated as a special class <i>Vermes</i>. The other four groups of +segmented animals possess in common the feature of jointed appendages +and a covering of chitinous plates, and are brought together under the +term <i>Arthropoda</i>. The division of the body into a series of segments by +transverse incisions, characteristic of these animals and these only, +justifies the use of Cuvier's old name, Articulates, as this segmented +feature represents a definite relationship and a natural division—as +much so as the vertebral column in Vertebrates. The Cuvierian name +should be retained as a coördinate of Vertebrates, Molluscs, etc., and +the terms Vermes and Arthropods may be conveniently used to designate +the two natural divisions of the Articulates.</p> + +<p>The term “insect” has been employed by authors in two +different senses—one to apply to the tracheated animals or those that +breathe through a system of air tubes (tracheæ), comprising Spiders, +<ins title="Myriopods">Myriapods</ins>, and insects proper or Hexapods,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> and the other in its +restricted sense as applied to the Hexapods only. To avoid confusion, +the latter signification only should be used, and it will be thus used +in this article.</p> + +<p>We see, then, that insects share, in common with many other animals, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +jointed or articulated structure. Wherein, then, do they differ? +<i>Briefly, in having the body divided into thirteen joints and a +subjoint</i>, including the head as a joint, and in the adult having six +true, jointed legs, and usually, though not always, wings. The five +classes of Articulates differ from each other in the number of legs they +possess in the adult form, as follows: Hexapoda, 6 legs; Arachnida, 8 +legs; Crustacea, 10–14 legs; Myriapoda, more than 14 legs; Vermes, none. +This system holds for the adult form only, because some mites +(Arachnida) when young have only 6 legs, and many true insects in the +larva state either have no legs at all, or have additional abdominal +legs which are not jointed, but membranous, and are lost in the perfect +or adult state. These are called false or prolegs.</p> + +<p>It will serve to make these instructions clear if I at once explain that +the life of an insect is marked by four distinct states, viz., the egg, +the larva, the pupa, and the imago, and that the last three words will +constantly recur. We have no English equivalent for the words larva and +pupa, for while some authors have written them with the terminal <i>e</i>, so +as to get the English plural, yet “larves” and +“pupes” so shock the ear that the terms have not been (and +deserve not to be) generally adopted.</p> + +<p>We have seen that an insect in the final state has six true legs. Yet +even here many species depart from the rule, as there are many in which +the perfect insect, especially in the female sex, is apodous or without +legs, just as there are also other cases where they are without wings. +Sometimes the legs seem to be reduced in number by the partial or total +atrophy of one or the other pair, but in all these exceptional cases +there is no difficulty in realizing that we have to deal with a true +insect, because of the other characters pertaining to the class, some of +which it will be well to allude to.</p> + +<p>Insects are further characterized by having usually three distinct +divisions of the body, viz.: head, thorax, and abdomen, and by +undergoing certain metamorphoses or transformations. Now, while a number +of other animals outside of the insect world go through similar +transformations, those in the Crustacea being equally remarkable, yet, +from the ease with which they are observed and the completeness of the +transformations in most insects, the metamorphoses of this class have, +from time immemorial, excited the greatest curiosity.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"> +<p style="font-size: 125%; text-indent: 0em;">Footnote:</p> +<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> From the Greek εξαπους, having 6 feet.</p> +</div></div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<h2><a name="SCOPE_AND_IMPORTANCE_OF_ENTOMOLOGY" id="SCOPE_AND_IMPORTANCE_OF_ENTOMOLOGY"></a>SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF ENTOMOLOGY.</h2> + +<p>But few words are necessary to indicate the importance of entomology, +especially to the farming community; for while insects play a most +important part in the economy of nature and furnish us some valuable +products and otherwise do us a great deal of indirect good, yet they are +chiefly known by the annoyances they cause and by the great injury they +do to our crops and domestic animals. Hence some knowledge of insects +and how to study them becomes important, almost necessary, to every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +farmer.</p> + +<p>The scope of the science may best be indicated by a statement of the +number of species existing, as compared with other animals. The +omnipresence of insects is known and felt by all; yet few have any +accurate idea of the actual numbers existing, so that some figures will +not prove uninteresting in this connection. Taking the lists of +described species, and the estimates of specialists in the different +orders, it is safe to say that about thirty thousand species have +already been described from North America, while the number of species +already described or to be described in the Biologia Centrali-Americana, +i. e., for Central America, foot up just about the same number, Lord +Walsingham having estimated them at 30,114 in his address as president +of the London Entomological Society two years ago, neither the +Orthoptera nor the Neuroptera being included in this estimate. By way of +contrast the number of mammals, birds, and reptiles to be described from +the same region, is interesting. It foots up 1,937, as follows:</p> + +<p>Mammals, 180; birds, 1,600; reptiles, 157.</p> + +<p>If we <ins title="endevor">endeavor</ins> to get some estimate of the number of insects that occur +in the whole world, the most satisfactory estimates will be found in the +address just alluded to, and in that of Dr. David Sharp before the same +society. Linnæus knew nearly 3,000 species, of which more than 2,000 +were European and over 800 exotic. The estimate of Dr. John Day, in +1853, of the number of species on the globe, was 250,000. Dr. Sharp's +estimate thirty years later was between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Sharp's +and Walsingham's estimates in 1889 reached nearly 2,000,000, and the +average number of insects annually described since the publication of +the Zoölogical Record, deducting 8 per cent for synonyms, is 6,500 +species. I think the estimate of 2,000,000 species in the world is +extremely low, and if we take into consideration the fact that species +have been best worked up in the more temperate portions of the globe, +and that in the more tropical portions a vast number of species still +remain to be characterized and named, and if we take further into +consideration the fact that many portions of the globe are yet +unexplored, entomologically, that even in the best worked up regions by +far the larger portion of the Micro-Hymenoptera and Micro-Diptera remain +absolutely undescribed in our collections, and have been but very +partially collected, it will be safe to estimate that not one-fifth of +the species extant have yet been characterized or enumerated. In this +view of the case the species in our collections, whether described or +undescribed, do not represent perhaps more than one-fifth of the whole. +In other words, to say that there are 10,000,000 species of insects in +the world, would be, in my judgment, a moderate estimate.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CLASSIFICATION_OF_HEXAPODS" id="CLASSIFICATION_OF_HEXAPODS"></a>CLASSIFICATION OF HEXAPODS.</h2> + +<p>Seven orders of insects were originally recognized by Linnæus, namely, +Neuroptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, +and Aptera. This classification was based on the organs of flight only, +and while in the main resulting in natural divisions which still furnish +the basis of more modern classifications, was faulty in several +particulars. For instance, the Aptera, which included all wingless +insects, was soon found to be a very unnatural assemblage and its +components were distributed among the other orders. The establishment of +the order Orthoptera by Olivier to include a large and well-defined +group of insects associated with the Hemiptera by Linnæus, restored the +original seven orders, and this classification has, in the main, been +followed by entomologists up to the present time.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_017.png" width="600" height="578" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="fig_001"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1.—Pyramid showing the nature of the mouth, and +relative rank of the Orders, and the affinities of the <ins title="Sub-orders">Suborders</ins> of +Insects.</p> +</div> + +<p>All insects are, in a broad way, referable to one or the other of these +seven primary orders by the structure of the wings and the character of +the mouth-parts in the imago, and by the nature of their +transformations.</p> + +<p>Some of these orders are connected by aberrant and osculant families or +groups, which have by other authors been variously ranked as independent +orders, but which, following Westwood substantially, I have considered, +for convenience, as suborders. (<i>See</i> Fifth Report, Insects of Missouri, +etc., 1872.)</p> + +<p>In the article just cited, I made use of the accompanying diagram in the +form of a pyramid (<a href="#fig_001">Fig. 1</a>), which gives a graphic representation of the +distinguishing characters and the relative rank as usually accepted, of +the orders and suborders.</p> + +<p>Full discussion of the different classifications is unnecessary in this +connection. Authors have differed in the past and will differ in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +future as to what constitutes a natural system, and it would require +many pages to give even a brief survey of the various schemes that have +been proposed. As I have elsewhere said, “We must remember that +classifications are but a means to an end—appliances to facilitate our +thought and study—and that, to use Spencer's words, ‘we cannot, +by any logical dichotomies, actually express relations which in nature +graduate into each other insensibly.’”</p> + +<p>The most philosophical, perhaps, of the more modern systems of +classification is that of Friedrich Brauer, who has carefully studied +the subject, and has given us an arrangement consisting of sixteen +orders. This has many merits and has been adopted, with slight +modifications, by Packard in his “Entomology for Beginners,” +and by Hyatt and Arms in their recent and valuable text-book +“Insecta.” Comstock, in his “Introduction to +Entomology” strongly recommends Brauer's classification, but for +reasons of simplicity and convenience adheres to a modification of the +old classification of Westwood.</p> + +<p>For purposes of comparison the classification by Hyatt and Arms, which +is substantially that of Brauer, may be introduced.</p> + +<p>In linear arrangement it is as follows:</p> + +<table id="linear_arrangement" summary="classification"> + <tr> + <td align="right">I.</td> + <td align="left">Thysanura (<ins title="Springtails"><i>Spring-tails</i></ins>, etc.).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">II.</td> + <td align="left">Ephemeroptera (<i>Ephemeridæ</i>; May-flies). (=<ins title="Plectoptera"><i>Plecoptera</i></ins> Pack.)</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">III.</td> + <td align="left">Odonata (<i>Libellulidæ</i>; Dragon-flies).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">IV.</td> + <td align="left">Plecoptera (<i>Perlidæ</i>; Stone-flies).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">V.</td> + <td align="left">Platyptera (<i>Termites</i>, <i>Mallophaga</i>, etc.).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">VI.</td> + <td align="left">Dermaptera (<i>Forficulidæ</i>; Earwigs).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">VII.</td> + <td align="left">Orthoptera (Locusts, Grasshoppers, etc.).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">VIII.</td> + <td align="left">Thysanoptera (<i>Thripidæ</i>; Fringe-wings).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">IX.</td> + <td align="left">Hemiptera (Bugs).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">X.</td> + <td align="left">Coleoptera (Beetles).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">XI.</td> + <td align="left">Neuroptera (<i>Sialidæ</i>, <i>Hemerobiidæ</i>; Lace-wings, etc.).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">XII.</td> + <td align="left">Mecoptera (<i>Panorpidæ</i>; Scorpion-flies).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">XIII.</td> + <td align="left">Trichoptera (<i>Phryganeidæ</i>; Caddis-flies).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">XIV.</td> + <td align="left">Lepidoptera (Butterflies and Moths).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">XV.</td> + <td align="left">Hymenoptera (Bees, Wasps, etc.).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">XV.</td> + <td align="left">Diptera (Two-winged flies).</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The relationship of these orders cannot be indicated in a linear +arrangement, and is admirably shown by Hyatt and Arms by means of +diagrams which I reproduce (Figs. 2, 3.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_019.png" width="375" height="600" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2.—Scheme illustrating origin and relationship of +Orders. (After Hyatt.)</p> +</div> + +<p>The relation of these sixteen orders to the older, septenary scheme is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +shown by the following arrangement:</p> + +<table id="p11" summary="Insect_Orders"> + <tr> + <td>1. Hymenoptera</td> + <td> </td> + <td>Hymenoptera XV.</td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>2. Coleoptera</td> + <td> </td> + <td>Coleoptera X.</td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>3. Lepidoptera</td> + <td> </td> + <td>Lepidoptera XIV.</td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td class="one"> </td> + <td>Homoptera.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td rowspan="2">4. Hemiptera</td> + <td class="one"> </td> + <td>Hemiptera IX.</td> + <td class="two"> </td> + <td>Heteroptera.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="two"> </td> + <td>Thysanoptera VIII.</td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>5. Diptera</td> + <td> </td> + <td>Diptera XVI.</td> + <td> </td> + <td>Including Aphaniptera or Siphonaptera of some authors.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td rowspan="2">6. Orthoptera</td> + <td class="one"> </td> + <td>Orthoptera VII.</td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="two"> </td> + <td>Dermaptera VI.</td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td rowspan="8">7. Neuroptera</td> + <td class="one"> </td> + <td>Trichoptera XIII</td> + <td class="three"> </td> + <td rowspan="3">Neuroptera.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="five"> </td> + <td>Mecoptera XII</td> + <td class="six"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="five"> </td> + <td>Neuroptera XI</td> + <td class="four"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="five"> </td> + <td>Platyptera V</td> + <td class="three"> </td> + <td rowspan="5">Pseudo-neuroptera.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="five"> </td> + <td>Plecoptera IV</td> + <td class="six"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="five"> </td> + <td>Odonata III</td> + <td class="six"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="five"> </td> + <td>Ephemeroptera II</td> + <td class="six"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="two"> </td> + <td>Thysanura I</td> + <td class="four"> </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_020.png" width="399" height="400" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 3.—Cross section of Fig. 2.</p> +</div> + +<p>It will be seen that the changes are not so great as would at first +appear. The three more important orders, namely, the Hymenoptera, +Coleoptera, and Lepidoptera, remain substantially the same in all +classifications, and so with the three orders next in importance—the +Hemiptera, Diptera, and Orthoptera. All that has been done with these +three has been to rank as separate orders what by former authors were +preferably considered as either families or suborders. The principal +change is in the Neuroptera, of which no less than eight orders have +been made. This is not to be wondered at, because the order, as formerly +construed, was conceded to be that which represents the lowest forms +and more synthetic types of insects, and as such necessarily contained +forms which it is difficult to classify definitely.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the discussion of the characteristics, habits, number of species, and +importance of the several groups, I follow, with such changes as the +advances in the science of entomology have made necessary, the +arrangement shown in <a href="#fig_001">Fig. 1.</a></p> + +<p>“Order <a name="HYMENOPTERA" id="HYMENOPTERA">HYMENOPTERA</a> υμην, a membrane; πτερον, wing). Clear or +Membrane-winged Flies: Bees, Wasps, Ants, Saw-flies, etc. Characterized +by having four membranous wings with comparatively few veins, the hind +part smallest. The transformations are complete: <i>i. e.</i>, the larva +bears no resemblance to the perfect insect.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_021a.png" width="200" height="162" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 4.—Bold-faced Hornet,<br /><i>Vespa maculata</i>.<br />(After +Sanborn).</p> +</div> + +<p>“Some of the insects of this order are highly specialized, and +their mouth-parts are fitted both for biting and sucking, and in this respect +they connect the mandibulate and haustellate insects. The common +Honey-bee has this complex structure of the mouth, and if the editors of +our agricultural papers would bear the fact in mind, we should have less +of the never-ending discussion as to whether bees are capable of +injuring fruit at first hand. The lower lip (<i>labium</i>) is modified into +a long tongue, sheathed by the lower jaws (<i>maxillæ</i>), and they can sip, +or, more properly speaking, lap up nectar; while the upper jaws +(<i>mandibulæ</i>), though not generally used for purposes of manducation, +are fitted for biting and cutting. The Hymenoptera are terrestrial, +there existing only a very few degraded, swimming forms.</p> + +<p>“This order is very naturally divided into two sections—the +<span class="smcap">Aculeata</span> and <span class="smcap">Terebrantia</span>. The aculeate Hymenoptera, or Stingers, +comprise all the families in which the abdomen in the female is armed +with a sting connected with a poison reservoir, and may be considered +the typical form of the order, including all the social and fossorial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +species.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_021b.png" width="600" height="331" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<table width="800" summary="caption"> + <tr> + <td align="left"><p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 5.—An Ichneumon Parasite, <i>Pimpla annulipes</i>,<br /> + showing male and female abdomen.</p></td> + <td align="left" valign="top"><p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 6.—A Chalcid Parasite, <i>Chalcis flavipes</i>.</p></td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>The insects of this section must be considered essentially +beneficial to man, notwithstanding the occasional sting of a bee or +wasp, the boring of a carpenter bee, or the importunities of the +omnipresent ant. Not only do they furnish us with honey and wax, but +they play so important a part in the destruction of insects injurious to +vegetation that they may be looked upon as God-appointed guards over the +vegetal kingdom—carrying the pollen from plant to plant, and insuring +the fertilization of diœcious species, and the cross-fertilization of +others; and being ever ready to clear them of herbivorous worms which +gnaw and destroy. The whole section is well characterized by the +uniformly maggot-like nature of the larva. The transformations are +complete, but the chitinous larval covering is often so very thin and +delicate that the budding of the members, or gradual growth of the pupa +underneath, is quite plainly visible, and the skin often peels off in +delicate flakes, so that the transition from larva to pupa is not so +marked and sudden as in those insects which have thicker skins.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_022.png" width="401" height="400" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 7.—A Horn-tail, <i>Tremex columba</i>. <i>a</i>, larva, +showing Thalessa larva attached to its side; <i>b</i>, head of larva, front +view, enlarged; <i>c</i>, female pupa, ventral view; <i>d</i>, male pupa, ventral +view; <i>e</i>, adult female—all slightly enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_023a.png" width="400" height="232" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 8.—<ins title="Sawfly">Saw-fly</ins> and Larva. <i>Pristiphora +grossulariæ</i>;<br /><i>a</i>, larva; <i>b</i>, imago, Walsh.</p> +</div> + +<p>“The terebrantine Hymenoptera, or Piercers, are again divisible +into two subsections: first, the <span class="smcap">Entomophaga</span>, which are, likewise, with +the exception of a few gall-makers, beneficial to man, and include the +parasitic families, and the gall-flies; second, the <span class="smcap">Phytophaga</span>, +comprising the Horn-tails (<i>Uroceridæ</i>), and the Saw-flies +(<i>Tenthredinidæ</i>), all of which are vegetable feeders in the larval<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +state, those of the first family boring into trees, and those of the +second either feeding externally on leaves or inclosed in galls. They +are at once distinguished from the other Hymenoptera by the larvæ having +true legs, which, however, in the case of the <ins title="Horntails">Horn-tails</ins>, are very small +and exarticulate. The larvæ of many Saw-flies have, besides, prolegs, +which are, however, always distinguishable from those of Lepidopterous +larvæ by being more numerous and by having no hooks.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_023b.png" width="172" height="200" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 9.—A Chafer,<br /><i>Cotalpa lanigera</i>. (After Packard.)</p> +</div> + +<p>“Order <a name="COLEOPTERA" id="COLEOPTERA">COLEOPTERA</a> (κολεος, a sheath; πτερον, wing). <ins title="Beetles or or">Beetles or</ins> +Shield-winged Insects. Characterized by having four +wings, the front pair (called <i>elytra</i>) horny or leathery, and usually +united down the back with a straight suture when at rest, the hind ones +membranous and folded up under the elytra when at rest. Transformations +complete.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_023c.png" width="400" height="184" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 10.—A Longicorn, <i>Saperda candida</i>. <i>a</i>, larva; +<i>b</i>, pupa; <i>c</i>, beetle.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_024a.png" width="250" height="218" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 11.—The Plum Curculio, <i>Conotrachelus<br />nenuphar</i>. +<i>a</i>, larva; <i>b</i>, pupa; <i>c</i>, beetle;<br /><i>d</i>, plum showing egg-puncture<br />and +crescent.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_024b.png" width="300" height="143" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 12.—A Soldier-beetle, <i>Chauliognathus<br /> +pennsylvanicus</i>. <i>a</i>, larva; <i>b–h</i>, parts of<br />larva enlarged; <i>i</i>, +beetle.</p> +</div> + +<p>“This is an order of great importance, and in the vast number and +diversity of the species comprised in it outranks any of the others. The +ease with which the insects of this order are obtained and preserved +make it one of the most attractive to the amateur, and beetles are, +perhaps, of all insects, the best known and understood in the popular +mind. For the same reason they have, in the perfect state, received most +attention from the entomologists, but their transformations and +preparatory forms yet offer a wide and inviting field for the student. +The simplest and best-known classification of the beetles is the tarsal +system, founded on the number of joints to the tarsi, by which we get +four great sections: (1) <span class="smcap">Pentamera</span>, in which all the tarsi are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +5-jointed; (2) <span class="smcap">Heteromera</span>, with the four anterior 5-jointed and the two +posterior 4-jointed; (3) <span class="smcap">Pseudo-tetramera</span>, with apparently only four +joints to all the tarsi, though, in reality, there is a fifth +penultimate joint, diminutive and concealed; (4) <span class="smcap">Pseudo-trimera</span>, with +apparently only three joints to all the tarsi. This system, like most +others, is not perfect, as there are numerous species not possessing +five joints to the tarsi belonging to the first section; and for +practical purposes beetles may be very well arranged according to habit. +We thus get, first, the <span class="smcap">Adephaga</span>, or carnivorous species, including all +those which prey on other living insects, and to which, following Mr. Walsh, I have, for obvious reasons, applied the suggestive term +‘Cannibal’; second, the <span class="smcap">Necrophaga</span>, comprising those which +feed on carrion, dung, fungi, and decaying vegetation; third, the +<span class="smcap">Phytophaga</span>, embracing all those feeding on living vegetation. This +arrangement is by no means perfect, for there are beetles which are +carnivorous in the larva and herbivorous in the imago state; while some +of the <span class="smcap">Necrophaga</span> are actually parasitic. Yet, it is not more artificial +than others which have been proposed. The carnivorous species, broadly +speaking, are <i>Pentamerous</i>, the only striking exception being the +Coccinellidæ (Lady-birds), which are <i>Pseudo-trimerous</i>. The +carrion-feeders are also <i>Pentamerous</i>; but vegetable-feeders are found +in all the tarsal divisions, though the <i>Pseudo-tetramera</i> are the more +essentially herbivorous, and consequently the most injurious.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_024c.png" width="600" height="320" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 13.—The Bogus Potato-beetle, <i>Doryphora juncta</i>. +<i>a</i>, eggs; <i>b</i>, larvæ; <i>c</i>, beetle; <i>d</i> and <i>e</i>, parts of beetle +enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<p>“Order <a name="LEPIDOPTERA" id="LEPIDOPTERA">LEPIDOPTERA</a> (λεπις, a scale; πτερον, wing). Butterflies and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +Moths, or scaly-winged insects. Characterized by having four +branching-veined membranous wings, each more or less densely covered on +both sides with minute imbricated scales which are attached by a stalk, +but which easily rub off, and appear to the unaided eye like minute +particles of glistening dust or powder. Transformations complete.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_025a.png" width="250" height="201" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 14.—A Butterfly,<br /><i>Pieris oleracea</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_025b.png" width="350" height="184" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 15.—A Sphingid,<br /><i>Ampelophaga myron</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>“Next to the Lepidoptera, the Coleoptera are, perhaps, most +familiar to the popular mind. Every one admires the beauty of these +frail creatures, dressed in every conceivable pattern, and adorned with +every conceivable color, so as to rival the delicate hues of the +rainbow, and eclipse the most fantastic and elaborate designs of man. +When magnified, the scales, to which this beauty of pattern and color is +entirely due, present all manner of shapes, according to the particular +species or the particular part of the individual from which they are +taken. According to Lewenhoeck, there are 400,000 of these scales on the +wing of the common <ins title="silk-worm">silkworm</ins>.</p> + +<p>“The transformations of these insects are complete, and the +changes are usually so sudden and striking as to have excited the wonder +and admiration of observers from earliest times.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_025c.png" width="250" height="126" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 16.—A Moth,<br /><i>Utetheisa bella</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>“The more common form of the larva is exampled in the ordinary +caterpillar—a cylindrical worm with a head, twelve joints and a +sub-joint; six thoracic or true legs, four abdominal and two anal +prolegs. But there is a great variety of these <ins title="larvae">larvæ</ins>, some +having no legs whatever, some having only the jointed legs, and others +having either four, six, eight, or ten, but never more than ten prolegs. +With few exceptions they are all vegetable-feeders, and with still fewer +exceptions, terrestrial. The perfect insects make free use of their +ample wings, but walk little; and their legs are weak, and not modified +in the various ways so noticeable in other orders, while the front pair +in some butterflies are impotent.</p> + +<p>“As an order this must be considered the most injurious of the +seven.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_026a.png" width="400" height="228" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 17.—A Clothes-moth (<i>Tinea pellionella</i>)—enlarged.<br /> +<i>a</i>, adult; <i>b</i>, larva; <i>c</i>, larva in case.</p> +</div> + +<p>“A convenient system of classification for the Lepidoptera is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +based on the structure of the <ins title="antennae">antennæ</ins>. By it we get +two great sections: 1st, Butterflies (<span class="smcap">Rhopalocera</span>); 2d, Moths +(<span class="smcap">Heterocera</span>), which latter may again be divided into Crepuscular and +Nocturnal Moths. Butterflies are at once distinguished from moths by +their antennæ being straight, stiff and <i>knobbed</i>, and by being +day-fliers or diurnal; while moths have the antennæ tapering to a point, +and are, for the most part, night-flyers or nocturnal. The crepuscular +moths, composed mostly of the Sphinges or Hawk-moths, hover over flowers +at eve, and connect the two sections not only in habit, but in the +character of the antennæ which first thicken toward the end, and then +suddenly terminate in a point or hook.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_026b.png" width="181" height="200" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 18.—A Plant-bug<br />(<ins title="Euschistes punctipes"><i>Euschistus punctipes</i></ins>).</p> +</div> + +<p>“Order <a name="HEMIPTERA" id="HEMIPTERA">HEMIPTERA</a> (ἡμι, half; πτερον, wing), Bugs. The insects of +this order are naturally separated into two great sections; 1st, +Half-winged Bugs, or <span class="smcap">Heteroptera</span> (<ins title="ἑτερος">ἑτερος,</ins> different; πτερον, +wing) having the basal half of the front wings (called <i>hemelytra</i>) +coriaceous or leathery, while the apical part is membranous. The wings +cross flatly over the back when at rest; 2d, Whole-winged Bugs, or +<span class="smcap">Homoptera</span> (ὁμος, equal; πτερον, wing), having all four wings of a +uniform membranous nature and folding straight down the back when at +rest. The latter, if separated, may be looked upon as a +<ins title="Sub-order">Suborder</ins>.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_026c.png" width="250" height="225" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 19.—A Soldier-bug<br />(<i>Milyas cinctus</i>). +<br /><i>b</i>, beak enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<p>“Transformations incomplete; <i>i. e.</i>, the larvæ and pupæ have more +or less the image of the perfect insect, and differ little from it +except in lacking wings.</p> + +<p>“The genuine or half-winged Bugs (Figs. 18 and 19) are usually +flattened in form, when mature; though more rounded in the adolescent +stages. They may be divided into Land Bugs (<i>Aurocorisa</i>) and Water Bugs +(<i>Hydrocorisa</i>). The species of the first division very generally +possess the power of emitting, when disturbed or alarmed, a nauseous, +bed-buggy odor, which comes from a fluid secreted from two pores,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +situated on the under side of the metathorax. Such well-known insects as +the Bed-bug and Chinch-bug belong here. The habits of the species are +varied, and while some are beneficial, others are quite injurious to +man.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_027a.png" width="150" height="110" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 20.—A Tree-hopper<br />(<i>Ceresa bubalus</i>).<br /><i>a</i>, side; +<i>b</i>, top view.</p> +</div> + +<p>“The Whole-winged Bugs (Figs. 20 and 21), on the contrary, are all +plant-feeders, and with the exception of a few, such as the Cochineal +and Lac insects, are injurious. The secretion of a white, or bluish, +waxy, or farinose substance from the surface of the body is as +characteristic of this section as the nauseous odor is of the first. It +forms three natural divisions, arranged according to the number of +joints to the tarsi—namely <span class="smcap">Trimera</span>, with three joints; <span class="smcap">Dimera</span>, with two +<ins title="joints,">joints;</ins>, and <span class="smcap">Monomera</span>, with one joint to the tarsi.”</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_027b.png" width="300" height="232" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 21.—A Plant-louse (<i>Schizoneura lanigera</i>). <i>a</i>, +infested<br />root; <i>b</i>, larva; <i>c</i>, winged insect; <i>d–g</i>, parts of perfect<br /> +insect enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<p>Suborder <a name="THYSANOPTERA" id="THYSANOPTERA"><span class="smcap">Thysanoptera</span></a> (ϑυσανος, a fringe; πτερον, wing): This suborder +contains the single family <i>Thripidæ</i>, which comprises minute insects +commonly known as Thrips, and of which a common species, <i>Thrips +striatus</i>, is shown in the accompanying figure. (See <a href="#fig_22">Fig. 22.</a>) They bear +strong relations to both the Pseudoneuroptera and the Hemiptera and by +later writers are generally associated with the latter order. They feed +on plants, puncturing and killing the leaves, or on other plant-feeding +species of their own class, and are characterized by having narrow wings +crossed on the back when at rest, and beautifully fringed, from which +latter feature the name of the suborder is derived.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_027c.png" width="300" height="209" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="fig_22"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 22.—<i>Thrips striatus</i>, with wings enlarged<br />at +side.</p> +</div> + +<p>The mouth parts are peculiar in that they are intermediate in form +between the sucking beak of Hemiptera and the biting mouth parts of +other insects.</p> + +<p>Their eggs resemble those of Hemiptera; the larvæ and pupæ are active, +and in form resemble the adult, except in the absence of wings. Some +species, also, are wingless in the adult stage.</p> + +<p>The pupæ are somewhat sluggish and the limbs and wings are enclosed in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +thin membrane which is expanded about the feet into bulbous +enlargements, giving rise to the name “bladder-footed” +(Physopoda) applied to these insects by Burmeister.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_028a.png" width="250" height="205" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 23.—A Mosquito (<i>Culex pipiens</i>).<br /><i>a</i>, adult; <i>b</i>, +head of same enlarged; <i>e</i>, portion<br />of antenna of same; <i>f</i>, larva; <i>g</i>, +pupa.<br />(After Westwood.)</p> +</div> + +<p>“Order <a name="DIPTERA" id="DIPTERA">DIPTERA</a> (δις, twice; πτερον, wing) or Two-winged Flies. The +only order having but two wings, the hind pair replaced by a pair of +small, slender filaments clubbed at tip, and called halteres, poisers, +or balancers.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_028b.png" width="200" height="207" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 24.—A Hawk-fly (<i>Erax bastardi</i>).<br /><i>a</i>, perfect +insect; <i>b</i>, pupa; larva shown at side.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_028c.png" width="250" height="135" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 25.—A Flesh-fly (<i>Sarcophaga carnaria</i>,<br />var. +<i>saracenæ</i>). <i>a</i>, larva; <i>b</i>, puparium;<br /><i>c</i>, adult insect with enlarged +parts.</p> +</div> + +<p>“No order surpasses this in the number of species or in the +immense swarms of individuals belonging to the same species which are +frequently met with. The wings, which are variously veined, though +appearing naked to the unaided eye, are often thickly covered with very +minute hairs or hooks. As an order the Diptera are decidedly injurious +to man, whether we consider the annoyances to ourselves or our animals +of the Mosquito, Buffalo-gnat, Gad-fly, Breeze-fly, Zimb or Stomoxys, or +the injury to our crops of the Hessian-fly, Wheat-midge, Cabbage-maggot, +Onion-maggot, etc. There are, in fact, but two families, Syrphidæ and +Tachinidæ, which can be looked upon as beneficial to the cultivator, +though many act the part of scavengers. No insects, not even the +Lepidoptera, furnish such a variety of curious larval characters, and +none, perhaps, offer a wider or more interesting field of investigation +to the biologist. It is difficult to give any very satisfactory +arrangement of these Two-winged flies, though they easily fall into two +rather artificial sections. These are: 1st, <span class="smcap">Nemocera</span>, or those with long +antennæ, having more than six joints, and palpi having four or five +<ins title="joints">joints.</ins> The pupa is naked, as in the Lepidoptera, with the limbs +exposed. This kind of pupa is called <i>obtected</i>. 2d, <span class="smcap">Brachocera</span>, or +those with short antennæ, not having more than three distinct joints, +and palpi with one or two joints. The pupa is mostly <i>coarctate</i>, <i>i. e.</i>, +is formed within, and more or less completely connected with, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +hardened and shrunken skin of the larva.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_029a.png" width="300" height="259" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 26.—The Sheep Bot (<i>Œstrus ovis</i>). 1, 2, flies;<br /> +3, puparium; 4, 5, and 6, larvæ or bots.</p> +</div> + +<p>“The most anomalous of the Diptera are the Forest-flies and +Sheep-ticks (<i>Hippoboscidæ</i>). They have a horny and flattened body, and +resemble lice in their parasitic habits, living beneath the hair of bats +and birds. Their mode of development has always attracted the attention +of entomologists. The larvæ are hatched in the <ins title="abodmen">abdomen</ins> of the +female, which is capable of distention. There it remains and, after +assuming the pupa state, is deposited in the form of a short, white, +egg-like object, without trace of articulation, and nearly as large as +the abdomen of the female fly. Closely allied to these are the Bat-ticks +(<i>Nycteribidæ</i>), which possess neither wings nor balancers, and remind +one strongly of spiders.</p> + +<p>“In this order we may also place certain wingless lice (such as +<i>Braula cœca</i>, Nitzch), which infests the Honey-bee in Europe, +northern Africa, and western Asia, but which has not yet been detected +in this country.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_029b.png" width="300" height="187" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 27.—A Flea (<i>Pulex</i>). (From Packard.)</p> +</div> + +<p>“Suborder <a name="APHANIPTERA" id="APHANIPTERA"><span class="smcap">Aphaniptera</span></a> (αϕανης, inconspicuous; πτερον, wing) or +Fleas, comprising the single family Pulicidæ, now placed with the +Diptera. Everybody is supposed to be familiar with the appearance of the +Flea—its bloodthirsty propensities and amazing muscular power; and +while everyone may not have the leisure and means to experience the +exhilarating influence of the chase after larger animals, there is no +one—be he never so humble—who may not indulge in the hunt after this +smaller game! In place of wings the flea has four small, scaly plates. +The minute eggs—about a dozen to each female—are laid in obscure +places, such as the cracks of a floor, the hair of rugs, etc., and the +larva is worm-like and feeds upon whatever animal matter—as grease and +blood—or decaying vegetable matter it can find.</p> + +<p>“Order <a name="ORTHOPTERA" id="ORTHOPTERA">ORTHOPTERA</a> (ορθος, straight; πτερον, wing), or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> +Straight-winged Insects. Characterized by having the front wings (called +<i>tegmina</i>) straight and usually narrow, pergameneous or parchment-like, +thickly veined, and overlapping at tips when closed; the hind wings +large and folding longitudinally like a fan. Transformations incomplete.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_030a.png" width="400" height="169" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 28.—A Locust (<ins title="Acrideum americanum"><i>Acridium americanum</i></ins>).</p> +</div> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_030b.png" width="300" height="240" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 29.—A Tree-cricket (<ins title="Ocharis saltator"><i>Orocharis saltator</i></ins>).<br /><i>a</i>, female; <i>b</i>, male.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_030c.png" width="400" height="198" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 30.—The Croton Bug or German Cockroach<br /> +<ins title="(Phyllodromia germanica.)">(<i>Phyllodromia germanica</i>).</ins> <i>a</i>, first stage; <i>b</i>, second stage;<br /> +<i>c</i>, third stage; <i>d</i>, fourth stage; <i>e</i>, adult; <i>f</i>, adult female with<br /> +egg-case; <i>g</i>, egg-case—enlarged; <i>h</i>, adult with wings<br />spread—all +natural size except <i>g</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>“The insects of this order have a lengthened body and very robust +jaws, with a correspondingly large head. The legs are strong, and +fashioned either for grasping, running, climbing, jumping, or burrowing. +As in the other orders, where the transformations are incomplete, the +young differ little from the parent, except in the want of wings; and in +many instances even this difference does not exist, as there are +numerous species which never acquire wings. There are no aquatic +Orthoptera. Some are omnivorous, others carnivorous, but most of them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +herbivorous. They form four distinct sections: 1st, <span class="smcap">Cursoria</span>, +Cockroaches; 2d, <span class="smcap">Raptatoria</span>, Mantes; 3d, <span class="smcap">Ambulatoria</span>, Walking-sticks; +4th, <span class="smcap">Saltatoria</span>, Crickets, Grasshoppers, and Locusts.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_031a.png" width="150" height="88" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 31.—Hind wing of Earwig.<br />(From Comstock.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_031b.png" width="100" height="199" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 32.—An Earwig.<br />(From Packard.)</p> +</div> + +<p>“Suborder <a name="DERMAPTERA" id="DERMAPTERA"><span class="smcap">Dermaptera</span></a><a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> (δερμα, skin; πτερον, wing), or +<ins title="Earwigs">Earwigs</ins>, consisting of the single family Forficulidæ, which may be +placed with the Orthoptera. They are rare insects with us, but very +common in Europe, where there prevails a superstition that they get into +the ear and cause all sorts of trouble. The front wings are small and +leathery; the hind ones have the form of a quadrant, and look like a fan +when opened; and the characteristic feature is a pair of forceps-like +appendages at the end of the body, best developed in the males. They are +nocturnal in habit, hiding during the day in any available recess. The +female lays her eggs in the ground, and singularly enough, broods over +them and over her young, the latter crowding under her like chicks under +a hen.”</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_031c.png" width="300" height="201" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_033"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 33.—A Dragon-fly (<i>Libellula trimaculata</i>).<br />(From +Packard.)</p> +</div> + +<p>“Order <a name="NEUROPTERA" id="NEUROPTERA">NEUROPTERA</a> (νευρον, nerve; πτερον, wing), or Nerve-winged +insects. Characterized by having the wings reticulate with numerous +veins so as to look like net-work. The order forms two natural +divisions, the first including all those which undergo a complete, and +the second, called Pseudo-neuroptera (Dictyotoptera, Burmeister), those +which undergo an incomplete metamorphosis. * * * The insects of this +order are, as a whole, more lowly organized, and more generally aquatic, +than either of the others. A natural arrangement of them is difficult on +account of their degradational character. They present forms which are +synthetic and closely approach the other orders, and the evolutionist +naturally looks upon them as furnishing an idea of what the archetypal +forms of our present insects may have been. They are, as a rule, large +and sluggish, with the body parts soft and little specialized, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +muscles weak. Their remains are found in the Devonian and Carboniferous +deposits.</p> + +<p>“They are mostly carnivorous, and with the exception of the +White-ants and certain Book-lice they none of them affect man +injuriously, while some are quite beneficial.”</p> + +<p>The first division of this order, or the Neuroptera proper, +characterized by having incomplete metamorphoses, may be considered +under the three following suborders:</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_032a.png" width="300" height="198" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 34.—Caddis-fly, larva and its case.<br />(From +Packard.)</p> +</div> + +<p>“Suborder <a name="TRICHOPTERA" id="TRICHOPTERA"><span class="smcap">Trichoptera</span></a> (θριξ, hair; πτερον, wing), or Caddis-flies, +containing the single family Phryganeidæ, and placed with the +Neuroptera, though bearing great affinities with the Lepidoptera. Every +good disciple of Walton and lover of the “gentle art” knows +the value of the Caddis-fly, or Water-moth, as bait. These flies very +much resemble certain small moths, the scales on the wings of the latter +being replaced in the former with simple hairs. The larvæ live in the +water and inhabit silken cases, which are usually cylindrical and +covered with various substances, according to the species, or the +material most conveniently obtained by the individual.”</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_032b.png" width="150" height="97" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 35.—Panorpa or Scorpion-fly.<br />(From Packard.)</p> +</div> + +<p>Suborder <a name="MECOPTERA" id="MECOPTERA"><span class="smcap">Mecoptera</span></a> (μηκος, length; πτερον, wing). This suborder includes +a peculiar group of insects, the most striking characteristics of which +are the mouth-parts, which are prolonged into a rostrum or beak. The +wings are long and narrow, and of nearly equal size. The abdomen of the +male is constricted near its posterior end and terminates in long +clasping organs from which these insects obtain the common name of +Scorpion-flies.</p> + +<p>The larvæ of one genus (<i>Panorpa</i>) are remarkable for their great +resemblance to the larvæ of Lepidoptera. They have, however, eight pairs +of abdominal legs. The habits of these insects are not well known, but +they are supposed to be generally.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_033a.png" width="300" height="123" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 36.—Lace-wing fly. <i>a</i>, eggs, <i>b</i>, larva,<br /><i>c</i>, +cocoons, <i>d</i>, fly with left wings removed.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_033b.png" width="300" height="142" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 37.—An Ant-lion (<i>Myrmeleon</i>).<br />(From Packard.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_033c.png" width="50" height="75" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 38.—Myrmeleon<br />larva.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_033d.png" width="200" height="174" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 39.—<i>Mantispa</i> with<br />side view beneath.<br />(From +Packard.)</p> +</div> + +<p>Suborder <a name="NEUROPTERA_2" id="NEUROPTERA_2"><span class="smcap">Neuroptera</span></a>. This group as restricted by modern authors is a +small one, including the largest species, as in the Hellgrammite, the +Lace-wing Flies, the Ant-lions, and the Mantispas representing the +families, Sialidæ and Hemerobiidæ, with their subfamilies. The first +includes the so-called Hellgrammite Fly (<i>Corydalus cornutus</i>), one of +our largest and most striking insects, the larvæ of which is known as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +Dobsons by anglers, and is aquatic and carnivorous in habit. The +Hemerobiidæ is a large family, comprising, as a rule, delicate insects +with rather ample gauzy wings. The larvæ are predaceous. The common +Lace-wing flies are among our most beneficial insects, destroying +plant-lice and other soft-bodied species. To the same family belongs the +Ant-lion (<i>Myrmeleon</i>), the larvæ of which have the curious habit of +constructing a funnel-shaped burrow in the sand, in the bottom of which +they conceal themselves and wait for any soft-bodied insects which may +fall into the trap. This family also includes the peculiar Mantis-like +insects belonging to the genus <i>Mantispa</i>. As in the true Mantis, the +prothorax of these insects is greatly elongated and the first pair of +legs are fitted for grasping. The larvæ are parasitic in the egg-sacs of +certain large spiders (genera <i>Licosa</i>, <i>Dolomedes</i>, etc.), and undergo +a remarkable change in form after the first molt. In the first stage the +larvæ are very agile, with slender bodies and long legs. After molting +the body becomes much swollen and the legs are much shortened, as are +also the antennæ, the head becoming small and the general appearance +reminding one of the larva of a bee.</p> + +<p>The second section of the Neuroptera, characterized by complete +metamorphosis, comprises the following suborders:</p> + +<p>Suborder <a name="PLATYPTERA" id="PLATYPTERA"><span class="smcap">Platyptera</span></a> (πλατυς, flat; πτερον, wing). Under this head are +grouped the White-ants (<i>Termitidæ</i>), the Bird-lice (<i>Mallophaga</i>), and +the Book-mites (<i>Psocidæ</i>). The suborder receives its name from the fact +that in the case of the winged forms the wings, when at rest, are +usually laid flat upon the back of the insect. The Mallophaga, or +Bird-lice, are degraded wingless insects, and are parasitic chiefly on +birds, but also on mammals. In shape of body and character of the +mouth-parts they are most nearly allied to the Psocidæ. The latter +family includes both winged and wingless forms, the Book-mites belonging +to the latter category. The winged forms may be illustrated by the +common species, <i>Psocus venosus</i> (see <a href="#fig_040">Fig. 40</a>). The legs and antennæ are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +long and slender and the wings are folded roof-like over the body when +the insect is at rest. They feed on lichens and dry vegetation.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_034a.png" width="150" height="119" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="fig_040"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 40.—<i>Psocus venosus.</i><br />(From Comstock.)</p> +</div> + +<p>The Termitidæ are represented in this country by the White-ant (<i>Termes +flavipes</i>), which is frequently so destructive to woodwork, books, etc. +The term White-ant applied to these insects is unfortunate, as in +structure they are widely separated from ants and resemble them only in +general appearance and also in their social habits. Like the ants they +live in colonies and have a number of distinct forms, as winged and +wingless, males and females, and workers and soldiers.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_034b.png" width="250" height="225" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 41.—A Stone-fly (<i>Pteronarcys regalis</i>).<br />(From +Comstock.)</p> +</div> + +<p>Suborder <a name="PLECOPTERA" id="PLECOPTERA"><span class="smcap">Plecoptera</span></a> (πλεκτος, plaited; πτερον, wing). Closely allied to +the latter suborder is the suborder Plecoptera, which includes the +single family Perlidæ or Stone-flies. The larvæ and pupæ of these +insects are aquatic, being often found under stones in water, whence the +name. The adults are long, flattened insects, with long antennæ. The +wings are ample and are somewhat folded or plaited, from which character +the suborder takes its name.</p> + +<p>Suborder <a name="ODONATA" id="ODONATA"><span class="smcap">Odonata</span></a> (οϑους, tooth). This includes the Dragon-flies or +Libellulidæ, the most common and the best known of the Neuroptera. The +larva and the active pupa or nymph are aquatic and are predaceous, as is +also the adult. A common species is represented at see <a href="#img_033">Fig. 33</a></p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_034c.png" width="150" height="176" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_042"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 42.—A May-fly<br />(<ins title="Protamanthus marginatus"><i>Potamanthus +marginatus</i></ins>).<br />(From Packard.)</p> +</div> + +<p>The Suborder <a name="EPHEMEROPTERA" id="EPHEMEROPTERA"><span class="smcap">Ephemeroptera</span></a> (εϕημερον, a day-fly; πτερον, wing) comprises +the May-flies, or Ephemeridæ (see <a href="#img_042">Fig. 42</a>). These insects are very +fragile and are often attracted in enormous numbers to electric lights. +They have large front wings, while the hind wings are small, +rudimentary, or wanting. They are furnished with two or three very long, +jointed, threadlike caudal appendages. The larval and nymphal stages are +passed in the water and aquatic vegetation furnishes the food, although +some species may be predaceous. The adults have very rudimentary mouths +and eat nothing; their term of life is also very limited, not exceeding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +2–4 days.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_035.png" width="94" height="150" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 43.—(<i>Lepisma 4-seriata</i>).<br />(After Packard.)</p> +</div> + +<p>Suborder <a name="THYSANURA" id="THYSANURA"><span class="smcap">Thysanura</span></a> θυσανος, tassel; ουρα, tail). This suborder comprises +minute, degraded insects commonly known as Spring-tails, Bristle-tails, +Fish-moths, Snow-fleas, etc. They occur in damp situations and also +infest books, wall-paper, etc., eating the starch paste in the +book-bindings, or beneath the wall paper. They comprise very primitive +forms and are interesting because they are supposed to represent the +original stock from which the higher orders of insects have sprung. They +are wingless, usually with simple eyes, and clothed with scales, and +undergo no metamorphosis. Some of them, as the Fish-moth (<i>Lepisma +sp.</i>), run very rapidly and are furnished at the end of the body with a +number of long bristles. In other forms these anal bristles or stylets +are united at the base and bent under the body and become a powerful +jumping organ, giving them the very appropriate name of Spring-tails.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"> +<p style="font-size: 125%; text-indent: 0em;">Footnote:</p> +<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Euplexoptera of some authors from ευ, well; πλεχω, folded, +referring to the folded wings.</p> +</div></div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<h2><a name="COLLECTING" id="COLLECTING"></a>COLLECTING.</h2> + +<p><a name="GEN_CONS" id="GEN_CONS"><span class="smcap">General Considerations.</span></a>—“Few departments of natural history offer +greater inducements or facilities to the student than Entomology. He +need not pass his threshold for material, for it may be found on every +hand and at all seasons. The directions for collecting, preserving, and +studying insects might be extended indefinitely in detail, as volumes +have already been written on the subject; but the more general and +important instructions are soon given.</p> + +<p>“Beginners are very apt to supply themselves with all sorts of +appliances advertised by natural history furnishing stores. Many of +these appliances, when it comes to real, practical field-work, are soon +abandoned as useless incumbrances; and the greater the experience, the +simpler will be the paraphernalia. My own equipment, on a collecting +trip, consists chiefly of a cotton umbrella, a strong and narrow steel +trowel or digger, a haversack slung across the shoulders, a cigar box +lined with sheet cork, and a small knapsack attached to a waistbelt +which girts a coat, not of many colors, but of many pockets, so made +that in stooping nothing falls out of them. The umbrella is one of the +indispensables. It shields, when necessary, from old Sol's scorching +rays and from the pelting, drenching storm; brings within reach, by its +hooked handle, many a larva-freighted bough which would otherwise remain +undisturbed; and forms an excellent receptacle for all insects that may +be dislodged from bush or branch. Opened and held inverted under a bough +with the left hand, while the right manipulates a beating-stick, cut for +the occasion, it will be the recipient of many a choice specimen that +would never have been espied amid its protective surroundings. Some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +collectors use an umbrella painted or lined on the inside with white, to +facilitate the detection of any object that drops into it; but as there +are fully as many, if not more, pale and white insects as there are dark +or black ones, the common dark umbrella is good enough for all ordinary +purposes; and if any improvement on the ordinary cotton umbrella is +desired, it should be in the way of a joint or knuckle about the middle +of the handle, which will facilitate its packing and using. The trowel +is valuable for prying off the loosened bark from old trees, whether +felled or standing, and for digging into the ground or into decaying +stumps and logs. The haversack is for the carriage of different kinds of +boxes (those made of tin being best) intended for larval and other forms +which it is necessary to bring home alive for breeding purposes; and if +made with a partition so that the filled and empty boxes may be +separated, all the better; it may also be used for nets and other +apparatus to be mentioned, and for such provender as is necessary on the +trip. The knapsack may be made on the plan of a cartridge box, of stout +canvas or leather, and should be of moderate size and slung onto the +belt so as to be slipped to any part of the waist and not hinder free +bodily motion. It may be used to carry bottles, phials, and other small +appliances, and should be accordingly partitioned and furnished with +loops or pockets on the inside. The cigar-box is for the reception of +pinned specimens, and may be slipped onto the belt, or buttoned to the +trousers by means of leather.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_036.png" width="285" height="300" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_044"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 44.—The Butterfly net-frame.</p> +</div> + +<p>“The greatest requisites in collecting are a pair of sharp eyes +and ready hands, with coolness and self-possession; but a few traps will +materially aid. One of the most important is the hand-net, which may be +made so as to subserve the two purposes of a sweeping and an +air-net.”</p> + +<p>“The frame of the net which I use is illustrated herewith (see <a href="#img_044">Fig. 44</a>), +and will be found strong and serviceable and conveniently portable. +It is constructed as follows: Take two pieces of stout brass wire, each +about 20 inches long; bend them half-circularly and at one end by a +folding hinge having a check on one side, <i>b</i>. The other ends are bent +and beaten into two square sockets, <i>f</i>, which fit to a nut sunk and +soldered into one end of a brass tube, <i>d</i>. When so fitted, they are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +secured by a large-headed screw, <i>e</i>, threaded to fit into the +nut-socket, and with a groove wide enough to receive the back of a +common pocket-knife blade. The wire hoop is easily detached and folded, +as at <i>c</i>, for convenient carriage; and the handle may be made of any +desired length by cutting a stick and fitting it into the hollow tube +<i>a</i>, which should be about 6 inches long. It is well to have two +separate hoops, one of lighter wire, furnished with silk gauze or some +other light material, for catching flying insects, and one which is +stouter and furnished with a net of stronger material for sweeping +non-flying specimens.</p> + +<p>“Another still more simple, but less convenient frame, is thus +described by my friend F. G. Sanborn, of Boston, Mass.:</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_037a.png" width="75" height="137" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_045"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 45.—The<br />Sanborn net-frame.</p> +</div> + +<p>‘Make a loop of strong iron or brass wire, of about 3-16ths of an +inch in thickness, so that the diameter of the loop or circle will not +exceed 12 inches, leaving an inch to an inch and a half of wire at each +end bent at nearly right angles. Bind the two extremities of the wire +together with smaller wire (see <a href="#img_045">Fig. 45</a>, <i>a</i>), and tin them by applying a +drop of muriate of zinc, then holding it in the fire or over a gas flame +until nearly red hot, when a few grains of block tin or soft solder +placed upon them will flow evenly over the whole surface and join them +firmly together. Take a Maynard rifle cartridge tube, or other brass +tube of similar dimensions; if the former, file off the closed end or +perforate it for the admission of the wire, and having tinned it in the +same manner on the inside, push a tight-fitting cork half way through +<ins title="(Fig. c)">(Fig. 45, <i>c</i>)</ins> and pour into it melted tin or soft solder, and +insert the wires; if carefully done, you will have a firmly constructed +and very durable foundation for a collecting net. The cork being +extracted will leave a convenient socket for inserting a stick or +walking cane to serve as a handle.’</p> + +<p>“My friend, J. A. Lintner, of Albany, N. Y., makes very good use, +in his ordinary promenades, of a telescopic fish-rod, with a head (<a href="#img_046">Fig. 46</a>) +screwed on to one end, in which to fasten an elastic brass coil on +which the net is drawn, but which when not in use sits snugly inside his +silk hat.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_037b.png" width="75" height="209" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_046"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 46.—<br />Clamp of the<br />Lintner net.</p> +</div> + +<p>“The bag should taper to the bottom, and in any case its length +should be fully twice the diameter of the hoop, so that by giving the +net a twist, the mouth may be closed and the contents thus secured. The +sweeping-net may be protected around the hoop with leather, and in use +should be kept in a steady and continued back-and-forth motion, over and +touching the plants, until the contents are to be examined; when, by +placing the head at the opening and quietly surveying the restless +inmates, the desiderata may be secured and the rest turned out. A sudden +dash of the air-net will usually lay any flying object at the bottom. A +net for aquatic insects may be made on the same principle, but should be +stout, with the meshes open enough to allow free passage of water, and +the bag not quite as deep as the diameter of the hoop. A forceps net,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +which consists of two gauze or bobbinet covered frames, having riveted +handles, so as to close like a pair of scissors, is employed for small +insects; but I find little use for it. A coarse sieve, together with a +white towel or sheet, will be found of great service for special +occasions, particularly in the spring, when the search for minute +insects found under old leaves, or for pupæ around the butts of trees, +is contemplated. With the sheet spread on the ground, and a few handfuls +of leaves and leafy mold sifted over it, many a minute specimen will be +separated from the coarser particles and drop to the sheet, where the +eye may readily detect it. Conversely, the earth taken from around trees +may be sifted so as to leave in the sieve such larger objects as pupæ, +etc. Another favorite plan, with some collectors, of obtaining +specimens, especially night-flying moths, is by +‘sugaring.’ This consists of applying to the trunks of +trees or to strips of cloth attached to the trees some sweet, +attractive, and stupefying preparation. Diluted molasses or dissolved +brown sugar, mixed with rum or beer, is most frequently employed. I have +found sugaring of little use till after the blossoming season, and it is +almost impossible to so stupefy or intoxicate an insect that it will +remain upon the sugared tree till the next morning. I generally sugar at +eve, and visit the tree several times between sundown and midnight, +armed with wide-mouthed killing-bottles and accompanied by a second +person, who carries a dark-lantern. Isolated trees, on the edges of +woods, give the best results. Everybody knows how some poor moths will +persist in flitting around a light until they singe their wings; and, as +many insects are strongly attracted to bright artificial light, it may +be employed with good results, especially during warm and damp evenings. +The collector should never go unprovided with a small box or tube full +of different sized pins (a corked cartridge-tube makes a good box,) a +pair or two of forceps, a pair of scissors, a little mucilage, and the +killing apparatus to be described.”</p> + +<p>With these general remarks, it will be well to consider some of the +important paraphernalia more in detail.</p> + +<h3><a name="COLL_APPS" id="COLL_APPS">COLLECTING APPARATUS.</a></h3> + +<p><a name="SWEEP_NET" id="SWEEP_NET"><i>The Sweeping Net.</i></a>—A multitude of insects of all orders feed or rest +on grasses and other low plants. Upon close inspection of these plants a +careful observer will be able to secure, without any instruments, not +only many mature insects, but also many larvæ in connection with their +food-plants. This is laborious and slow work, only necessary on special +occasions. The beating net, which is constructed on the same general +plan as the butterfly net, is valuable here as a time saver. By holding +the handle of the net firmly in one hand and quickly sweeping over the +plants first from right to left, and then, after quickly turning the net +again, sweeping from left to right, most insects coming within reach of +the sweep will fall into the bag and may be easily taken out and put +into the collecting-vials. From this mode of operation it is evident<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +that the sweeping net must be stronger in all its parts than the +butterfly net, but otherwise it may be made on the same plan.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_039.png" width="400" height="205" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 47.—The Deyrolle Sweeping Net. <i>a</i>, net entire; +<i>b</i>, frame; <i>c</i> and <i>d</i>, attachment of frame and handle (original).</p> +</div> + +<p>The ring should be rigid, made of brass or iron, either of one piece or +of two pieces, and fastened to the handle or stick in the same way as +the butterfly net. The bag need not be as long as in the butterfly net, +about 18 inches being sufficient, but it should be of stout cotton or +linen and the bottom should preferably be sewed in as a round piece, so +as to avoid corners. Care needs to be bestowed on the fastening of the +bag on the ring, for by the use of the net the part of the bag sewed +around the ring is soon chafed through. To prevent this a strip of +leather is sewed over the cotton along the rim, but since even this must +be frequently renewed some other devices are used to give greater +durability to the net. In the pattern of a beating-net originally sold +by Deyrolle in Paris, the metal ring was flattened, with the narrow edge +pointing upwards and the broad side pierced with holes at suitable +intervals and grooved on the outer surface between the holes. The bag is +sewed on to the inner side of the ring by stout twine, which passes from +one hole to the next and is thus prevented from coming in contact with +obstructive objects, and only the bottom of the bag wears and will need +to be occasionally mended or renewed.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_040a.png" width="300" height="268" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 48.—Beating net, opened and attached to handle, +<br />with frame of same folded.<br />(After Kiesenwetter.)</p> +</div> + +<p>Another method of preventing the tearing of the upper rim of the bag is +described and illustrated in Kiesenwetter's useful volume “Der +Naturaliensammler” from which I shall frequently have <ins title="occassion"> +occasion</ins> to quote. In this net the main ring is of rounded iron +wire on which a number of brass rings are slipped. These must be but +little larger than the diameter of the wire. These little brass rings<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +should not be more than 30 mm. or at most 40 mm., distant from each +other, and to them the upper rim of the bag is sewed with very strong +twine and is thus protected from wear and tear. The handle or stick of +the net should be firmly and solidly attached to the ring and should be +stout and not liable to break. I prefer a rather short stick, say not +longer than two feet.</p> + +<p>I figure herewith the ring of a very convenient net for sweeping or +beating purposes. It has the advantage of being for sale on the market, +and in fact is an ordinary fishing dip net of small size. It is hinged +in three places, as shown in the figure, and folds into very small +compass. When unfolded and brought together, it screws into a ferrule +which may be attached to a cane or a special handle.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_040b.png" width="100" height="182" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 49.—Folding ring<br />for beating net (original).</p> +</div> + +<p>The beating net can be successfully used at almost every season of the +year. Even on warm days in winter time many specimens can be swept from +the dead grass. So long as the dew is on the plants or in rainy weather +no beating should be attempted, as the more delicate species are more or +less spoiled by the moisture. After one or two minutes' sweeping the +contents should be examined. Those insects which are quick to take wing +or which are good runners should first receive attention; the less +active can then be examined more at leisure. The desiderata are then +disposed of, the rest thrown away, and the beating renewed.</p> + +<p>The beating net is an important instrument for collecting all insects +excepting mature Lepidoptera, which are apt to get rubbed. Many larvæ, +especially of Lepidoptera, are caught by beating and are mostly in good +condition, but it is usually difficult to ascertain the food plant.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_041a.png" width="150" height="75" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 50.—The Water Net.<br />(After Packard.)</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="WATER_NET" id="WATER_NET"><i>The Water Net.</i></a>—The numerous insects or insect larvæ which live in the +water can not be conveniently collected without the use of a net, except +where they live in small shallow streams or creeks with gravelly or +stony bottoms. A suitable water net can readily be made by using the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +frame of the beating net and attaching to it a rather short bag of some +coarse material, <i>e. g.</i>, “grass cloth,” coarse millinet. +The mode of operation with this net is very simple: if some insect is +seen swimming in the water, the net is carefully brought beneath the +specimen, which is thus lifted out of the water. Most water insects are, +however, not seen swimming about freely, but hide amid the various +plants, mosses, etc., or in the mud at the base of the plants, and they +can best be captured by dragging the net through these plants. When +taken from the water the net is more or less filled with mud and parts +of plants, and the water must be allowed to run out and the contents of +the net spread out on a cloth or on a flat stone, if such be at hand. +The insects are at first not readily seen, but after a short while they +begin to emerge from the mud and crawl about, and can readily be taken +up with a forceps.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_041b.png" width="150" height="122" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_051"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 51.—Small Water<br />Dip Net (original).</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="DIP_NET" id="DIP_NET"><i>Water Dip Net.</i></a>—The small water sieve, shown in the accompanying +illustration (<a href="#img_051">Fig. 51</a>), and somewhat resembling in appearance a jockey +cap, is frequently of service in collecting the larvæ of aquatic +insects, especially where it is necessary to scrape submerged stones or +timbers. In use it is fastened on the end of a cane or stick, and can be +easily made by any tinsmith.</p> + +<p><a name="UMBRELLA" id="UMBRELLA"><i>The Umbrella.</i></a>—The umbrella, as already stated, is one of the most +useful instruments of the collector, since it enables him to obtain all +those numerous insects which live on the branches of trees, on shrubs, +and on other large plants. A common stout cotton umbrella is +sufficiently large, but is liable to get out of joint, and moreover the +specimens hide themselves under the ribs. It is well, therefore, to have +the inside of such umbrella lined along the ribs with muslin, or some +other material, preferably of a light color. An umbrella specially +constructed for entomological purposes is offered for sale by E. +Deyrolle, in Paris. It resembles a stoutly built common umbrella, but +has the inside lined with white linen and the handle has a joint near +the middle, so that the umbrella can be more conveniently held and more +readily packed away. The opened and inverted umbrella is held with the +left hand under the branch which the collector intends to relieve of its +entomological inhabitants, while the right hand, armed with a heavy +stick, is free to properly jar the branch. Care must be taken in the +jarring, lest the insects are knocked beyond the circumference of the +umbrella. The larger the umbrella the greater are the chances of making +rich captures, but the more difficult it becomes to manipulate, +especially where the woods are dense or where there are many vines, etc. +In the absence of an umbrella the butterfly net or the beating net can +be used.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_042.png" width="400" height="480" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_052"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 52.—The Umbrella and its mode of use. (After +Kiesenwetter.)</p> +</div> + +<p>A drawback to collecting with the umbrella is that many insects take<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +wing and escape before being secured. This can hardly be avoided, and +experienced collectors, in southern countries more particularly, have +found it advisable to discard the umbrella and to use in its stead a +very large butterfly net, 2 feet or more in diameter.</p> + +<p><a name="BEATING_CLOTH" id="BEATING_CLOTH"><i>The Beating Cloth.</i></a>—A very simple substitute for the umbrella, and one +which can always be carried without inconvenience, may here be +described. It consists of a piece of common unbleached cotton cloth (1 +yard square), to each corner of which a loop of stout twine is sewed. +Upon reaching the woods, two straight sticks, each about 5 feet in +length and not too heavy, but also not so small as to be liable to break +or to bend too easily, are cut from a convenient bush. The sticks are +placed crosswise over the cloth and fastened to the loops at the four +ends. This is easily and quickly done by making sliding loops of the +simple loops. The cloth is thus kept spread out between the sticks, and +forms a very good substitute for an umbrella. In beating, the sticks are +held at their intersecting points. When not in use one of the loops is +detached from the stick and the instrument can be rolled up and carried +under one arm without seriously interfering with other operations of the +collector. When laid on the ground, with the sticks on the underside, +this simple instrument may be advantageously used as a cloth on which +to sift or examine fungi, moss, pieces of bark, etc., and since the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +cloth is always tightly expanded, it offers a smooth and level surface, +where examination of various objects can be made with ease and accuracy.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_043.png" width="400" height="422" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_053"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 53.—The umbrella beating and sweeping net +(original).</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="UMBRELLA_NET" id="UMBRELLA_NET"><i>The Umbrella Net.</i></a>—A very convenient form of net for both sweeping and +for use in place of an umbrella for beating has been devised by Dr. George +Marx. (See <a href="#img_053">Fig. 53</a>) It is constructed from an old umbrella, as +follows: To the handle of the umbrella are attached two steel rods +working on hinges at the apex of the umbrella, as do the ordinary +umbrella ribs, and attached to the sliding piece of the umbrella in the +same manner, as shown at <i>a</i>. These rods should be about 2½ feet long. +When the sliding piece is pushed up and caught behind the spring clip, +as shown at <i>b</i>, a circular loop is formed giving the framework for the +net. The latter, which should be comparatively shallow, is made of stout +muslin and sewed to the frame, as in the ordinary sweeping net. The +enlarged drawings <i>c</i> and <i>d</i> illustrate clearly the manner of +constructing the frame. The advantage of this net is its convenience in +carrying and its general usefulness, taking the place of both the +umbrella and the sweeping net. When not in use the frame is allowed to +assume the position shown at A, and the net may be wrapped about the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +frame and the whole inserted in an ordinary umbrella cover.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_044.png" width="200" height="342" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_054"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 54.—The sieve. <i>a</i>, wire netting<br />(original).</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="SIEVE" id="SIEVE"><i>The Sieve.</i></a>—This useful aid to good collecting has not been generally +employed by American entomologists. It facilitates the finding of small +insects living under old leaves, in moss, in decayed trees, in fungi, in +ants' nests, or in the ground. Any ordinary sieve about a foot in +diameter and with meshes of about one-fifth of an inch will answer, +though for durability and convenience of carriage one made of two wire +or brass rings and muslin (<a href="#img_054">Fig. 54</a>), as follows, is the best. The ends +of the wire netting should be bent around the ring so as not to project. +A piece of common muslin about 1 foot wide and long enough to go around +the circumference of one of the rings is then sewed together so as to +form a kind of cylinder or bag without bottom, and the upper and lower +rims of this bag are then sewed on around the two rings. The whole +instrument thus forms a bag, the top of which is kept open by the simple +wire ring, and the bottom is closed by the second ring covered with the +wire netting. After choosing a suitable locality a white cloth is spread +as evenly as possible on the ground; the collector then takes the sieve, +places therein two or three handfuls of the material to be sifted, +returns to his cloth, and, holding with his right hand the lower ring +and with the left hand the upper ring, shakes the sieve over the cloth. +The larger particles and specimens are retained in the sieve while the +smaller fall through the meshes on to the cloth. Care must be taken that +the siftings form an even and thin layer on the surface of the cloth, so +as to be easily examined from time to time. If the locality is favorable +many insects will be seen at the first glance crawling or running about, +and these can easily be picked up by means of a moistened brush, or with +the forceps. Many other insects, however, either feign death or, at any +rate, do not move until after the lapse of several minutes, and the +proper investigation of a single sifting often requires much time, and +patience will be more fully rewarded here than in any other mode of +collecting.</p> + +<p>The size of the wire meshes given above is best adapted for sifting the +fragments of old decayed trees, which furnish the most frequent material +for the use of the sieve, but for sifting ants' nests, soil, etc., a +sieve with smaller meshes is desirable.</p> + +<p>The sieve is indispensable to the Coleopterist, the Arachnologist, and +to the specialist in the smaller Hemiptera and Hymenoptera, but it is +also useful for most other orders, many interesting species existing +which can be secured in numbers only by this mode of collecting. Many +Tineidæ and even Noctuidæ hide under old leaves, but the specimens are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +usually rubbed and rendered useless in the process of sifting. Many +larvæ and pupæ can, however, thus be obtained.</p> + +<p>If the locality chosen for sifting prove to be a good one, it pays to +put the sifted material in a small sack and to carry it home where it +can be investigated at leisure, and with a greater thoroughness than is +usually possible outdoors. This sack can be easily arranged to be +attached to or drawn over the lower ring of the sieve, so that the +sifting can be done directly into the sack.</p> + +<p>As a rule it may be said that very dry places are least productive, +while more or less moist places are apt to furnish a rich harvest. Old +wet leaves lying immediately along the edges of swamps, or wet moss, +harbor many interesting insects, but such wet material is sifted with +difficulty.</p> + +<p>The sieve can be used with great advantage at all seasons of the year, +but more especially late in fall or early in spring, when so many +species are still hibernating.</p> + +<p><a name="CHISEL" id="CHISEL"><i>The Chisel.</i></a>—For securing the many insects living or hiding under bark +of dying or dead trees an instrument of some sort is indispensable, as, +in most cases, the bark so firmly adheres to the wood that it cannot be +torn off with the hand. A stout pocket-knife will do good service, but +far better is a common chisel of medium size and with a short handle. +This chisel is also useful as an instrument for digging in the ground or +for investigating the interior of partly decayed logs.</p> + +<p><a name="TROWEL" id="TROWEL"><i>The Trowel.</i></a>—Aside from the fact that many insects enter the ground +for the purpose of hibernation in various stages, there is a rich +subterranean life to be found during the summer. There are many +burrowing Coleoptera; many, if not most, ants construct subterranean +nests; the number of other fossorial Hymenoptera is very large, and +there are also various burrowing Orthoptera and many Lepidopterous larvæ +which hide in the ground during the day. Some instrument for digging in +the ground is therefore of great importance, and while, as stated above, +the chisel will answer this purpose if nothing else be at hand, yet +there are other instruments which perform the work much quicker and more +thoroughly. The most available instrument is a rather small steel +trowel, such as can be had at the hardware stores in a great variety of +patterns, and which can be carried on excursions without much +inconvenience. One with a long and narrow blade, made very stout, I have +found very useful, though somewhat awkward to carry.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_045.png" width="500" height="60" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_055"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 55.—The collecting tweezers.</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="COLL_TWEEZERS" id="COLL_TWEEZERS"><i>The collecting Tweezers.</i></a>—In the picking up of specimens and +transferring them into the various bottles, vials, or boxes, the trained +collector will gather by hand the most delicate specimens without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +injuring them. Yet this labor will be greatly facilitated by the use of +the tweezers or the brush. The former is a small, light pair of forceps, +made of steel or brass. It should be as pliable as possible, and the tip +should be narrow and rounded off and not pointed. It may be either +straight or curved at tip, according to individual preference.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_046a.png" width="500" height="89" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 56.—Pinning forceps.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_046b.png" width="500" height="118" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 57.—Pinning forceps.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_046c.png" width="300" height="184" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 58.—Pinning forceps for Lepidoptera.</p> +</div> + +<p>Suitable tweezers may be obtained at the larger hardware stores or of +watchmakers. Excellent tweezers made of steel (see <a href="#img_055">Fig. 55</a> are sold for +about 40 cents a pair by Codman, Shurtleff & Co., Tremont street, +Boston, Mass. Aside from their utility in picking up specimens from the +collecting cloth or the umbrella, the tweezers are indispensable for +extracting insects from cracks, or holes in timber, or from their +burrows in branches and stems of plants, or from places whence it is +impossible to dislodge them by hand. The larger “collecting +forceps,” sold by various dealers, do good service in certain +emergencies, as when large scorpions or other very large and ferocious +insects are to be secured.</p> + +<p>For the handling of mounted insects various special forceps are +employed, a number of styles of which are shown at Figs. 56–8.</p> + +<p><a name="BRUSH" id="BRUSH"><i>The Brush.</i></a>—A common camel's hair brush, of smaller or larger size +according to individual preference, is useful for picking up very small +or soft-bodied insects. For this purpose the brush is slightly moistened +with saliva, and the tip brought in contact with the specimen, which +then adheres to the brush, so that it can readily and without injury be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +transferred to the collecting bottle or box. The brush is indispensable +also for preparing small specimens for the cabinet. If taken into the +field the handle of the brush should be of a bright color, otherwise the +brush is often lost.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_047.png" width="300" height="449" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_059"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 59.—The Fumigator. (After Kiesenwetter).</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="FUMIGATOR" id="FUMIGATOR"><i>The Fumigator.</i></a>—This is not used by American collectors, but there are +several patterns sold by European dealers. It is intended to smoke out +specimens that hide in otherwise inaccessible places, <i>e. g.</i>, cracks in +the ground, holes in hard wood, etc. The accompanying figure and the +following description of a fumigator are taken from Kiesenwetter. A +common smoking-pipe mouthpiece (<a href="#img_059">Fig. 59</a>, <i>a</i>) with flexible rubber joint +(<i>b</i>) is attached to the cover (<i>c</i>) of a very large smoking-pipe head +(<i>d</i>). To the mouth (<i>e</i>) of the latter a rubber hose (<i>f</i>) is attached, +which has a convenient discharge at its end (<i>g</i>). The pipe is then +filled with tobacco, and the latter ignited by means of a piece of +burning tinder placed on top; the cover is then screwed on, and the +smoke can be directed to any desired point by blowing air through the +mouthpiece. The smoke from a common pipe or cigar is often useful. In +sifting in cold weather a puff of tobacco smoke gently blown over the +débris on the collecting cloth will induce many specimens to move, which +otherwise “play possum” and could not be observed; and, +further, tobacco smoke blown into holes and cracks in timber by means of +an improvised funnel made of a piece of paper will be the means of +securing many rare specimens.</p> + +<p><a name="HAVERSACK" id="HAVERSACK"><i>The Haversack.</i></a>—In order that the above-mentioned instruments and the +various bottles, vials, and boxes which are needed for the preservation +of specimens may most conveniently and with the least impediment to the +collector be carried along on excursions, a haversack is indispensable. +This is made either of leather or, still better, of some waterproof +cloth, and should contain various compartments of different sizes; one +for stowing away the nets, the sieve, and the larger instruments, and +several smaller ones for boxes and vials—the whole so arranged that +each desired object can readily be taken out and that nothing will drop +out and get lost. The haversack is slung across the shoulders by means +of a leather strap, and a full field outfit need not be very heavy nor +seriously interfere with free bodily movements.</p> + +<p>Many of the smaller objects are most conveniently carried in the pockets<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +of the coat, which acquires, therefore, some importance to the +collector. The coat should be of some durable stuff and provided with +many pockets, so arranged that in stooping nothing falls out of them.</p> + +<p><a name="LENS_MICRO" id="LENS_MICRO"><i>The Lens and Microscope.</i></a>—In the examination of the minuter forms of +insect life the naked eye is not sufficient, and a hand-lens, or, for +more delicate work, the compound microscope will be found necessary. I +had, in my early experience, some difficulty in getting a satisfactory +hand-lens, and the use of a poor hand-lens in time injures the eyesight, +as I know by a year's rather disagreeable experience. For a hand-lens +the achromatic lenses formerly manufactured by A. K. Eaton, of Brooklyn, +N. Y., and now made by John Green, 35 Liverpool street, East Boston, +Mass., are most excellent in workmanship and are satisfactory in every +respect. A very good lens can also be purchased of any of the leading +manufacturers of microscopical apparatus in this country. The kind of +compound microscope to be purchased will depend upon the nature of the +work of the investigator. Very serviceable instruments are made by J. W. +Queen & Co., Philadelphia, Pa., and by the Bausch & Lomb +Optical Company, of Rochester, N. Y., and others. The German microscopes +are in many respects superior to those of American make, and if one has +sufficient means, I would recommend the purchase of one of the better +instruments of Zeiss's manufacture, which may be obtained either direct +from the manufacturers or through Queen & Co., or from the Boston +Educational Supply Company. Microscopic material, including slides, +cover glasses, instruments for mounting, mounting media, staining +fluids, etc., may be obtained of either of the firms named above.</p> + +<p>Having thus indicated somewhat fully the general methods of collecting, +and the paraphernalia most desirable in collecting, it will be well to +go still further into detail, and in connection with the different +orders give some more specific information that will be valuable as a +guide not only to the general collector, but to the specialist.</p> + +<h3><a name="COLL_HYMENOPTERA" id="COLL_HYMENOPTERA">COLLECTING HYMENOPTERA.</a></h3> + +<p>The insects of this order, including Bees, Wasps, Ants, Ichneumon-flies, +Gall-flies, Saw-flies, and allied insects have always been of unusual +interest both to entomologists and non-entomologists on account of their +diversified and peculiar habits. In abundance of species they exceed +perhaps even the Coleoptera. In general they are day fliers and always +to be found in abundance on bright days about flowers. The best season +for collecting is in early spring, on the bloom of the Willow, Alder, +and other trees. They may also be found at any season of the year, but +the males of many species are only to be taken in fall. In this order, +species of many groups can be most easily obtained by breeding. This +includes the gall-making family, Cynipidæ, and the parasitic families +Chalcididæ, Proctotrypidæ, Ichneumonidæ and Braconidæ. The Chrysididæ +and certain other less important families are also parasitic, but are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +more easily obtained by general collecting. The implements necessary for +collecting Hymenoptera are the sweeping-net and the beating-net. Many +rare forms of the smaller parasitic families may be obtained by sweeping +the grass and foliage of all sorts. The Proctotrypidæ may be collected +in quantity by sifting leaves and rubbish collected in the woods. Mr. William H. Ashmead, who has made an especial study of this group, finds +winter sifting profitable. Dried leaves and rubbish are sifted, the +finer portion being retained and transferred to a bag. When a sufficient +quantity is collected it is removed to a warm room. Many hibernating +species are taken in this way, and, revived by the warmth, are easily +noticed when the material is spread on white paper.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_049.png" width="400" height="458" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 60.—A Saw-fly (Nematus ventralis). <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, +young larvæ; <i>b</i>, full-grown larva; <i>c</i>, cocoon; <i>d</i>, adult; all +slightly enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<p>On account of the interest attaching to a knowledge of the various hosts +of parasitic insects the collector should always aim to obtain the +latter by breeding as much as possible. This can easily be done by +keeping a lookout for larvæ of all sorts which give evidence of being +parasitized. The larvæ of Lepidoptera found late in the fall are very +apt to be parasitized, and should be collected and kept over the winter. +The parasites will emerge throughout the winter season and in the early +spring. Such larvæ will be found on the trunks of trees, in the crevices +of the bark, and the cocoons of parasites will also be found in similar +situations.</p> + +<p>The Tenthredinidæ (Saw-flies) are not so often found about flowers but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +usually remain in the vicinity of the food-plant of the larva, and may +many of them be collected by sweeping. The larvæ of this family are in +many cases difficult to breed, as most of them are single-brooded, and +it becomes necessary to carry the larvæ over the winter.</p> + +<p>The Gall-flies, Cynipidæ, are the easiest of the families to collect, +because of their abundance and because of the ease with which they may +be reared. Their galls occur in enormous variety on oaks of various +species and also upon brambles and certain common weeds. These should be +collected when mature and be kept in glass jars. The Gall-flies and +inquilinous and parasitic species may thus be easily obtained, the +former appearing at particular seasons and the latter emerging from the +galls at all seasons of the year, and sometimes continuing to escape for +a period exceeding two years.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_050.png" width="200" height="200" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 61.—An Ichneumon (<i>Ophion</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p>One of the most interesting families in this order is the Formicidæ, +which comprises the true ants. In the case of these insects isolated +specimens should not ordinarily be collected, and it is especially +desirable to collect the species from colonies so that the three forms +(males, females, and workers) may be obtained together. This holds also +in the case of the social wasps and bees, but the different sexes of the +latter may be collected in a season's collecting about flowers, the +females and workers in early spring and the males in the fall.</p> + +<p>The Uroceridæ or woodborers are to be found only about trees in which +the larvæ breed. They may frequently be taken about tree trunks, or +burrowing with their long gimlet-like ovipositors into the trunks of +trees to oviposit. Breeding is also a satisfactory method of obtaining +these insects.</p> + +<p>Some special methods of collecting Hymenoptera may be briefly outlined. +In the case of the social bees, particularly bumble-bees, and also the +smaller wasps and yellow-jackets, a very satisfactory method of +collecting consists in first stupefying the insects in the nest by +introducing a small amount of chloroform, benzine, or bisulphide of +carbon. This should preferably be done in the late evening, after all +the insects have come in for the night. The nest may then be opened and +examined without any danger of being stung, and the different forms may +thus easily be obtained, together with any rare parasitic or inquilinous +insects. In the case of the nests of Bombi this is the best method of +obtaining the inquilinous Apathus species.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_051.png" width="300" height="184" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 62.—The Little Red Ant (<i>Monomorium pharaonis</i>). +<br /><i>a</i>, female; <i>b</i>, worker enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<p>On account of the danger of being stung, and also on account of the +extremely quick flight of these insects, the removing of Hymenoptera<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +from the net is not always an easy task, and in many cases rare +specimens escape. One method of avoiding the danger of being stung is to +have the collecting net constructed with an opening at the bottom which, +during the sweeping, is tied with a string. When a sufficient quantity +of insects is obtained they are, by a few quick motions, driven to the +bottom of the net, and the net is then seized just above the insects +with the hand, the folds of cloth preventing the insects from getting to +the hand, so that there is little danger of being stung. The lower end +is then carefully untied and inserted into a wide-mouthed bottle, and +the contents of the net shaken out into the bottle. After the catch is +stupefied the vial may be turned out and the undesirable material +discarded. A second method consists in the use of an ordinary +sweeping-net of light material. A quantity of Hymenoptera are collected +from flowers and driven to the bottom of the net, and secured as in the +preceding method. The portion of the net containing the insects is then, +by means of a pair of forceps, thrust bodily into a large collecting +bottle. After a few minutes the insects are stupefied and may be readily +examined.</p> + +<h3><a name="COLL_COLEOPTERA" id="COLL_COLEOPTERA">COLLECTING COLEOPTERA.</a></h3> + +<p><a name="GEN_DIR" id="GEN_DIR"><span class="smcap">General Directions.</span></a>—Owing to their hard outer skeleton, Coleoptera can +be collected, handled, and preserved with greater safety and with less +trouble than most other orders of insects. From this fact, and from +their very great diversity in form, Coleoptera have, next to the +Lepidoptera, always been favorites. As a consequence, there are now more +species described in this than in any other order, and in the large +museums they are much better represented than other insects. This rich +material has been studied by numerous and competent specialists, and the +classification of Coleoptera is at present more advanced and more +accessible than that of the other orders. This fact gives stimulus to +neophytes, and though the literature of our North American fauna is much +scattered and we are still in want of comprehensive works (with the +exception of the general “Classification” by Drs. Le Conte +and Horn), yet, except in a few hitherto neglected families and smaller +groups, the species are fairly well worked up.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, our knowledge of the earlier states of Coleoptera is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +yet very imperfect as compared with the Lepidoptera. Coleopterous larvæ +are, with few exceptions (notably Coccinellidæ and some Chrysomelidæ), +much more difficult to find and rear, and their distinguishing +characters are more difficult to study. The few comprehensive works on +Coleopterous larvæ that have been published are based on rather scant +material and none of them deal with the North American fauna.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_052.png" width="150" height="152" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 63.—A Ground-beetle<br />(<i>Calosoma calidum</i>).<br /><i>a</i>, +larva; <i>b</i>, adult.</p> +</div> + +<p>Coleoptera occur in all climates and in all localities. Species are +known from the highest northern latitudes ever reached by man, and in +the tropics they occur in an embarrassing richness of forms. They are +found in the most arid desert lands, in the depths of our subterranean +caves, and on our highest mountains up to the line of eternal snow. The +open ocean and the open water of our Great Lakes are the only regions +free from them. As a rule, the number of species gradually increases +from the Arctic regions toward the tropics, but it would be difficult to +decide, speaking of North America, whether or not the fauna of the +Middle States is poorer in the number of species than that of the +Southern States; or whether the beetles of the Atlantic slope outnumber +those of the Pacific States or those of the Central region. On the +Pacific slope the influence of the seasons on insect life is greater +than on the Atlantic slope. While in the latter region a number of +species may be found the whole year round, there is, in the more arid +regions of the West, an abundance of insect life during and shortly +after the rainy season, with great scarcity during the dry season, +except, perhaps, on the high mountains.</p> + +<p>Few persons have had a more extended experience in collecting Coleoptera +than Mr. E. A. Schwarz, one of my assistants, and the following account +has been prepared by him at my request and is given <i>in extenso</i>.</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> +<p><a name="WINTER_COLL" id="WINTER_COLL"><span class="smcap">Winter Collecting.</span></a>—There are more species of Coleoptera +hibernating in the imago state<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> than in any other order and winter +collecting is therefore most profitable in many respects. For instance, +great swampy tracts which are inaccessible in the summer season harbor +an abundance of rare Coleoptera, which either can not be found in summer +time or are found at that season with the greatest difficulty. At the +approach of winter, however, all or most of these species will leave the +swamp and seek drier ground, where they hibernate under old leaves, +under bark of trees, or in rotten stumps near the edge of the swamp. +Such places will, therefore, give a rich harvest to the Coleopterist +late in the fall, during warm spells in midwinter, and in very early +spring. If the temperature is below the freezing point, or if the ground +is frozen hard, no winter collecting should be attempted, first, +on account of sanitary considerations, and also because the Coleoptera<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +then retreat more deeply into the ground and can not be found so easily +as when the ground is free from frost. Other good collecting places in +winter are the accumulated old leaves along the edges of forests or +under the shrubbery along water courses, thick layers of moss, and the +loose bark of dead or dying trees, and, finally, also under the bark of +certain living trees, <i>e. g.</i> Pines, Sycamore, Shellbark Hickory. +Digging in the ground at the base of large trees or rocks also yields +good returns. The only instruments necessary for winter collecting are +the sieve, the chisel, and the trowel.</p> + +<p><a name="SPRING_COLL" id="SPRING_COLL"><span class="smcap">Spring Collecting.</span></a>—With the first days of spring, collecting becomes a little more +varied. The methods used for winter collecting can still be continued with good +success. Certain spring flowers, notably Willow blossoms, will furnish many valuable +species, which are not seen again during the rest of the season.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_053.png" width="300" height="275" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 64.—A Lamellicorn (<i>Pelidnota punctata</i>).<br /><i>a</i>, larva; +<i>b</i>, pupa; <i>c</i>, beetle; <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, enlarged parts.</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="MYRM_TERM" id="MYRM_TERM"><i>Myrmecophilous and Termitophilous species.</i></a>—The early spring is +also the best time for collecting the Myrmecophilous and Termitophilous +Coleoptera. Termitophilous species have in North America hitherto been +found only in connection with the White-ants (<i>Termes flavipes</i>), and +the inquilinous beetles are found running among the White-ants in the +colonies under stones, loose bark of trees, and more numerously in the +interior of old infested trees. Myrmecophilous Coleoptera are by far +more numerous in species than the Termitophilous species and are found +among many species of ants which have their nests either under stones or +loose bark of trees, in stumps or logs, or which construct larger or +smaller hills. Upon uncovering a colony of ants under a stone, the +underside of the latter as well as the galleries of the ants in the +ground should be carefully examined for inquilines, which from their +greater or slighter resemblance to the ants are liable to be overlooked +by an inexperienced collector. If such colony of ants harbors a rare +beetle the subterranean part of the colony itself should be dug out and +sifted, but since from the stony nature of the ground this is not always +practicable it is to be recommended to carefully replace the stone under +which the colony has been found. Upon revisiting the spot again the next +day or even a few hours after the first visit additional specimens of +the inquilines are usually to be obtained on the stone or in the +superficial galleries of the ants. Ant colonies in hollow trees and in +rotten logs should be sifted and there is no particular difficulty +connected with this operation. Owing to the pugnacious character of the +hill-constructing ants it would seem to be a rather unpleasant task to +examine a strong and vigorous colony for inquilinous beetles, but the +collector must not mind being bitten and stung by the infuriated ants, +and after a little experience he will find that it is not such a +difficult thing after all to attack even the largest ant-hill. The only +thorough way of investigating such ant-hills is to sieve the same, which +can be easily done if the hill is composed of sticks and other vegetable +débris. If it is built of earth or sand the process of sifting is more +difficult and tedious. Another method of securing specimens of these +inquilinous beetles is to place flat stones or similar objects on the +surface of the ant-hill and to examine them occasionally, when the +beetles will be found on the underside of the traps.</p> + +<p><a name="SPRING_COLEOPTERA" id="SPRING_COLEOPTERA"><i>Spring Flights of Coleoptera.</i></a>—On the first really warm days of +spring commences the “swarming” season of +Coleoptera, when all winged species are flying about, especially toward +evening. On favorable days the number of specimens and species that can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +thus be found is astonishingly great, and this is one of the few +occasions when the Coleopterist can advantageously use a light butterfly +net. The flying beetles preferably alight and rest on the top of wooden +fences (especially newly made ones), on the railings of bridges, etc., +where they can be easily seen and secured, or they are attracted in +great numbers by the white-painted surface of buildings. This flying +season lasts in the latitude of Washington from the end of April to the +middle of June, but favorable days are not of frequent occurrence, since +a peculiar combination of atmospheric conditions appears to be necessary +to induce the Coleoptera to fly about in great numbers.</p> + +<p><a name="BEACH_COLL" id="BEACH_COLL"><i>Beach collecting.</i></a>—Along the shores of the ocean and the Great +Lakes untold numbers of Coleoptera and other insects fall at this season +into the water, and, if the tides, the currents, and the winds be +favorable, they are washed ashore by the waves on the sandy beaches, +where they often form windrows several inches in height and width. If +the collector is happy enough to be at the right place on the right day +he has then the opportunity to pick up hundreds of rare species within a +very short time and without any trouble. Many of the specimens thus +washed ashore are dead and decayed, but the majority are alive and in +excellent condition. This “beach collecting” affords also an +excellent opportunity for the Hymenopterist and Hemipterist to secure +large numbers of rare species, but favorable days are also here of rare +occurrence.</p> + +<p><a name="ATTR_LIGHT" id="ATTR_LIGHT"><i>Attracting by Lights.</i></a>—On the beaches, day and night flying +insects can thus be captured. Away from the beach night-flying +Coleoptera can best be collected at the electric lights of our cities; +but, as in the Lepidoptera, not all night-flying species are attracted +by the light. Gas and other lights also attract Coleoptera, and the +various “light traps” that have been devised and described +can advantageously be used for collecting these insects.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_054.png" width="100" height="222" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 65.—An Elaterid<br />(<i>Pyrophorus noctilucus</i>). +<br />(From Packard.)</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="TRAPS" id="TRAPS"><i>Traps.</i></a>—The method of “sugaring,” so important to the Lepidopterist, is by far less +favorable for collecting Coleoptera. Still, certain rare Carabidæ, Elateridæ, and +Cerambycidæ are attracted by this bait, and the Coleopterist +should not entirely ignore this mode of collecting. There are +a few other methods of trapping certain Coleoptera. By laying +out dead mammals, birds, fishes, snakes, etc., on suitable places +and so that they are protected from dogs, rats, etc., the carrion-feeding +Coleoptera can be found in great abundance, but a cleaner +and less disagreeable method of obtaining them is to bury in +the ground tin cans or glass jars so that the top is even with +the surrounding ground and to bait them with pieces of meat, +fried fish, boiled eggs, etc. Many Curculionidæ, Scolytidæ, and +numerous other wood-inhabiting species can be successfully +trapped in the following way: A number of branches, preferably +of only one kind of tree, are cut and tied up into bundles of convenient +size. The bundles are then laid on the ground in a +shady place or firmly fastened on trunks of trees. When the +cut branches begin to get dry they will attract many of these +Coleoptera, which can then be readily collected by shaking the +bundles out over the collecting cloth.</p> + +<p><a name="FRESHET" id="FRESHET"><i>Freshets.</i></a>—Freshets usually take place in springtime in most of +our rivers and creeks, and furnish the means of obtaining a multitude of +Coleoptera, among which there will be many species which can not, or +only accidentally, be found otherwise. These freshets, sweeping over the +low banks or inundating wide stretches of low land, carry with them all +insects that have been caught by the inundation. Intermingled with, and +usually clinging to, the various floating débris, these insects are +eventually washed ashore by the current at various points and +the Coleopterist should not miss this rare opportunity, but go out to +the river bank at a time when the water is still rising, or at least<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +when it has attained its highest point. Among, or on the washed up +débris, a multitude of Coleoptera of various families can be found, and +the specimens can either be gathered up on the spot or a quantity of the +débris be put in sacks and taken home, where it can be examined more +thoroughly and with greater leisure than out of doors. A day or so after +the floods have receded the washed up specimens will have dispersed and +only a few will remain in the débris for a longer period. Still more +profitable than the spring floods are the summer freshets, because a +larger and more diversified lot of Coleoptera is then brought down by +the water. A similar opportunity for collecting is offered near the +seashore if unusually high tides inundate the low marshes along the +bayous and inlets.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_055.png" width="100" height="132" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 66.—A Longicorn<br />(<i>Prionus +laticollis</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="SUMMER_COLL" id="SUMMER_COLL"><span class="smcap">Summer Collecting.</span></a>—During the latter part of spring and throughout +the whole summer, when the vegetation is fully developed, every possible +collecting method can be carried on with success, so that the beginner +hardly knows what particular method to use. There are stones to be +turned over; old logs, stumps, and hollow trees to be investigated; +newly felled or wounded trees to be carefully inspected; here a spot +favorable for sifting claims attention; promising meadows and low +herbage in the woods invite the use of the sweeping net; living or dead +branches of all sorts of trees and shrubs to be worked with the +umbrella; the mud or gravel banks of ponds, lakes, rivers, and creeks +afford excellent collecting places; the numerous aquatic beetles are to +be collected in the water itself; the dung beetles to be extracted from +their unsavory habitations; in the evening the electric and other lights +are to be visited, the lightning beetles chased on meadows and in the +woods, or the wingless but luminous females of some species of this +family to be looked for on the ground, and the trees and shrubs are to +be beaten after dark in search of May beetles and other nocturnal +leaf-feeding species which can not be obtained at daytime; and, finally, +some of the rarest Scarabæidæ and some other species fly only late at +night or again only before sunrise.</p> + +<p>In view of this embarrassing multitude of collecting opportunities in a +good locality, the beginner is apt to be at a loss what course to +pursue. Experience alone can teach here, and only an expert collector is +able to decide, at a glance at the locality before him, what collecting +method is likely to produce the best results, and his judgment will +rarely be at fault.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to go into details regarding the various collecting +methods, just mentioned, and only a few general directions can be given +regarding those methods which have not previously been alluded to.</p> + +<p><a name="COLL_STONE" id="COLL_STONE"><i>Collecting under Stones.</i></a>—Turning over stones is a favorite +method among beginners multitude of species of other families. Stones on +very dry ground are productive, only early in spring or in the fall, +while those on moist ground, in the shade of woods, are good at all +seasons. In the Alpine regions of our mountainous districts, especially +above the timber line, collecting under stones becomes the most +important method, and is especially favorable along the edges of snow +fields. In often frequented localities the collector should carefully +replace the stones, especially those under which he has found rare +specimens. The neglect of this rule is one of the principal causes for +certain rare species having become extinct in the vicinity of our +cities.</p> + +<p><a name="COLL_LOGS" id="COLL_LOGS"><i>Collecting in rotten Stumps and Logs.</i></a>—Success in collecting in +rotten stumps depends much upon the more or less advanced stage +of decay as well as upon the situation of the log and upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +particular kind of wood. If the decay is very much advanced neither the +loose bark nor the interior of the log will harbor many Coleoptera +excepting a multitude of <i>Passalus cornutus</i> and its larvæ. If the decay +is less advanced, but if such log is exposed to the scorching rays of +the sun, it will be far less productive than a log in a shady situation. +The investigation of the bark of a favorably situated log in the right +stage of decay does not need any special instruction, but the decayed +wood itself should be pried off with a chisel or trowel, put in the <ins +title="seive">sieve</ins> and sifted on the collecting cloth. This is the best +way of obtaining the numerous species of rare Micro-coleoptera of +various families that inhabit such places. A “red rotten” +oak or beech log is more favorable for this mode of collecting than a +“white rotten” of the same or other kinds of trees.</p> + +<p><a name="COLL_TREES" id="COLL_TREES"><i>Collecting in dying or dead Trees.</i></a>—Dying or dead trees almost +always harbor a large number of Coleoptera and offer an excellent +collecting opportunity until the wood becomes thoroughly dry, which +usually takes place in large trees two or three years after the death of +the tree, and in less time with smaller ones. The bark of such trees is +the best collecting place for Cucujidæ, Colydiidæ, Scolytidæ, Histeridæ, +etc., and it will be found that the shady side of the tree is more +profitable than the side exposed to the sun. The numerous Buprestidæ, +Elateridæ, Ptinidæ, Cerambycidæ, Melandryidæ, etc., which breed in the +wood can be obtained only with difficulty. Some specimens may be cut out +from their holes by a skillful use of the knife or hatchet; others +(especially the Buprestidæ) may be found resting on or crawling over the +trunk in the bright sunshine, while the more nocturnal species may be +found on the tree toward evening or after dark, when, of course, a +lantern must be used. A large proportion of the species living in the +trunks of dead trees also breed in the dead branches of otherwise +healthy trees from which they can be beaten into the umbrella, or where +the use of the knife is more practicable than in the large trunks. The +trunks of freshly felled trees attract numbers of Cerambycidæ and +Buprestidæ and have to be carefully looked over, while the drying +foliage of such trees affords an excellent opportunity for the use of +the umbrella.</p> + +<p><a name="BEAT_VINES" id="BEAT_VINES"><i>Beating living Trees, Shrubs, and Vines.</i></a>—The success of beating +into the umbrella branches of living trees and shrubs depends on the +particular kind of tree or shrub, on the condition and situation of +these, and largely also upon the season. Pine trees are very productive +from early in the spring to early in the summer, but much less so in +midsummer and later on. Young Oak trees or Oak shrubs are much more +preferred by the leaf-eating Coleoptera peculiar to this tree than the +older trees. The Beech, which, next to the Oak, is the best tree for +wood-boring species, harbors but few leaf-eating species. The leaves of +the Chestnut are also generally not attacked by Coleoptera; still a +surprising number of species can be beaten from this tree when it is in +blossom. There is not a single species of Coleoptera known to live in +the wood or to feed on the leaves of the Holly (<i>Ilex glabra</i>); still it +will pay the Coleopterist to beat this tree when it is in bloom. Trees, +shrubs, and vines in the interior of unbroken forest districts are, as a +rule, unproductive, while the edges of the woods, narrow strips of +hedges, and especially solitary trees are excellent collecting places. +In the Rocky Mountains, especially in the more southern sections, long +stretches of mountain slopes are occasionally perfectly bare of +vegetation with the exception of a few solitary, sickly-looking, and +dwarfed trees, but every one of these is a veritable gold mine to the +Coleopterist with his umbrella.</p> + +<p><a name="SWEEPING" id="SWEEPING"><i>Sweeping.</i></a>—The use of the beating net continues profitable from +spring till fall, a different set of species appearing with each season. +Low and swampy meadows, meadows on the slopes of mountains or surrounded +by woods, low underbrush, and herbage in smaller patches of woods are +very good beating grounds. Dry and sandy meadows are less productive, +but harbor usually a different set of species on account of the +difference in the flora. Pastures and meadows much frequented by cattle +and horses are much less productive, and where a large number of sheep +are kept there is usually no chance for using the beating net, +since neither grass nor specimens are left. The lawns in our parks and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +gardens are usually poor collecting ground on account of the limited +variety of plants in such places; but the few species found there occur +in enormous number of specimens. The endless stretches of our western +prairies swarm at the right season (in June) with numerous Coleoptera +(mostly Malachiidæ, Chrysomelidæ, Mordellidæ, Curculionidæ, etc.), +provided prairie fires have not swept too frequently over the place. +Fires and cattle produce a remarkable change in the flora and fauna of +the prairies; many indigenous species disappear or become scarce and are +replaced by a much smaller number of imported species.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_057.png" width="400" height="199" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_067"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 67.—A Dermestid (<i>Anthrenus scrophulariæ</i>). +<i>a</i>, larva, dorsal view; <i>b</i>, larva, ventral view; <i>c</i>, pupa; <i>d</i>, +adult—all enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<p>Sweeping may commence in the forenoon as soon as the dew has +disappeared; it is less profitable in the heat of the midday, but +produces the best results late in the afternoon and more especially in +the short interval from just before sunset until dark. At this time many +rare Pselaphidæ and Scydmænidæ, species of the genera <i>Colon</i> and +<i>Anisotoma</i>, and other small Silphidæ can be beaten from the tips of +grasses, all being species which can not, or only accidentally, be found +during daytime, when they hide between the roots of plants.</p> + +<p><a name="COLL_BANKS" id="COLL_BANKS"><i>Collecting on mud and gravel Banks.</i></a>—The mud or gravel banks of +rivers, creeks, and stagnant bodies of water are inhabited, especially +early in summer, with an astonishing multitude of Coleoptera. Countless +specimens of smaller Carabidæ (<i>Dyschirius</i>, <i>Clivina</i>, <i>Bembidium</i>, +<i>Tachys</i>, etc.) and Staphylinidæ (<i>Tachyusa</i>, <i>Philonthus</i>, <i>Actobius</i>, +<i>Stenus</i>, <i>Lathrobium</i>, <i>Trogophlæus</i> and many other genera) will be +seen actively running over the mud or sand; many other specimens are +hiding under the pebbles in company with other species (<i>Cryptohypnus</i>, +<i>Georyssus</i>, etc.) or in little subterranean galleries (<i>Dyschirius</i>, +<i>Bledius</i>, <i>Heterocerus</i>). All these beetles must be collected by +picking them up with the fingers, an operation which, owing to the +activity of the specimens, requires some little practice. The beginner +will at first crush or otherwise injure many of the delicate specimens, +the capture of which is moreover by no means facilitated by the rapidity +with which most of them are able to take wing. The collector must +necessarily kneel down and he must not mind getting covered with mud. A +good device for driving these species out of their galleries or from +their hiding places under stones or in cracks of the ground is to pour +water over the banks, and this can in most cases be done with the hand. +Larger stones and pieces of wood or bark lying on the bank are favorite +hiding places of certain larger Carabidæ (<i>Nebria</i>, <i>Chlænius</i>, +<i>Platynus</i>, etc.), and should of course be turned over. Finally, the +moss growing on rocks and logs close to the water's edge, and in which, +besides other beetles, some rare Staphylinidæ and the Byrrhid genus +<i>Limnichus</i> can be found, should be scraped off and investigated on the +collecting cloth or on the surface of a flat rock, if such be +conveniently at hand.</p> + +<p><a name="AQUA_BEETLE" id="AQUA_BEETLE"><i>Collecting aquatic Beetles.</i></a>—The fishing for water beetles in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +deeper water by means of the water net has already been alluded to (p. +<a href="#Page_32">[32]</a>), but many species live in shallow brooks with stony or gravelly +bottom, where the water net can not be used. The Dytiscidæ and +Hydrophilidæ living in such places usually hide under stones, and can in +most cases be easily picked up with the hand, or a little tin dipper or +a spoon will be found convenient for catching them. The species of the +family Parnidæ are found on the underside of rough stones or logs which +are either partially or entirely submerged. They are more numerous, +however, in the moss or among the roots of other plants that grow in the +water. Such plants have to be pulled out and examined over the +collecting cloth.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_058a.png" width="100" height="212" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 68.—A Tiger Beetle<br /> +(<i>Cicindela limbata</i>), drawn<br /> +by Miss Sullivan—enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="COLL_PLACES" id="COLL_PLACES"><i>Collecting at the Seashore and on sandy Places.</i></a>—A large number +of species belonging to various families live exclusively in the +vicinity of the ocean, some on the open beach, others along the inlets, +bayous, or salt marshes, and still others on the dry sand dunes. The +Cicindelæ are actively running or flying about close to the water's edge +and have to be captured with the butterfly net. The remaining maritime +species live hidden under the seaweed and other débris cast up by the +waves, or in the sand (sometimes quite deep below the surface) beneath +the débris or between the roots of the plants growing on the dunes. The +majority of the maritime species do not appear before June (in the +Middle States), but the collecting remains good until September.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_058b.png" width="200" height="268" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 69.—The Beaver Parasite<br />(<i>Platypsyllus castoris</i>), +<br />adult—greatly enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<p>In dry sandy places away from the seashore, the collecting at the roots +of plants is especially to be recommended, and the plants, and more +especially the bunches of coarse grasses usually growing in such places, +should be pulled up and shaken out over the collecting cloth. This mode +of collecting acquires a great importance in the arid regions of the +West and Southwest, where, in the warm season, nearly all Coleoptera are +hiding during daytime in the ground at the roots of plants.</p> + +<p><a name="DUNG_BEETLE" id="DUNG_BEETLE"><i>Collecting Dung-beetles.</i></a>—The collecting of the numerous species +(<i>Hydrophilidæ</i>, <i>Staphylinidæ</i>, <i>Histeridæ</i>, <i>Scarabæidæ</i>, etc.) which +live in the droppings of various animals is by no means an agreeable +task. The collector should provide himself with a pointed stick and +collecting tweezers, and must manage to pick up the specimens as best he +can. The larger specimens are best collected in alcohol, while the more +delicate species can be collected in a cleaner condition by removing the +droppings and sifting the ground beneath the same. Some species hide +deep in the ground beneath the droppings and have to be dug out. Summer +freshets, when pasture lands are inundated, offer an excellent +opportunity for collecting the dung-inhabitingspecies in a +clean condition.</p> + +<p><a name="NIGHT_COLL" id="NIGHT_COLL"><i>Night Collecting.</i></a>—The beating of trees and shrubs after dark is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +a good method of obtaining Lachnosternas and other species, and here the +collector will do well to secure the assistance of a companion, who +takes charge of the lantern and the collecting bottles, while the +collector himself works the umbrella.</p> + +<p><a name="FALL_COLL" id="FALL_COLL"><span class="smcap">Fall Collecting.</span></a>—From the first of August the number of species +gradually diminishes, but late in the summer or early in fall quite a +number of other species make their appearance, <i>e. g.</i>, some +Chrysomelidæ, Cerambycidæ, and many Meloidæ. Many of these frequent the +blossoms of Golden-rods, umbelliferous and other late-flowering plants. +The fall is also the best season for collecting Coleoptera living in +fungi. Although puff-balls, toadstools, and the numerous fungi and +moulds growing on old trees, etc., furnish many species of Coleoptera +also earlier in the season, yet most fungi, and more especially the +toadstools, flourish best in the fall, and consequently there is then +the greatest abundance of certain species of Coleoptera. Decaying +toadstools are especially rich, and should be sifted, and the collector +should also not omit to examine the soil beneath them.</p> + +<p>During the “Indian summer” there is usually a repetition of +the “spring flight” of Coleoptera, though on a smaller +scale, and collecting on the tops of fence posts and on whitewashed +walls again becomes good. The first really sharp frost causes these late +species to disappear, and winter collecting commences again.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"> +<p style="font-size: 125%; text-indent: 0em;">Footnote:</p> +<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> There are a few species of Coleoptera known in Europe which belong to the true +“winter insects,” <i>i. e.</i> such as appear in the imago state only during winter time, +but whether or not we have such species in our own fauna has not yet been ascertained.</p> +</div></div> + +<h3><a name="COLL_LEPIDOPTERA" id="COLL_LEPIDOPTERA">COLLECTING LEPIDOPTERA.</a></h3> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_059.png" width="200" height="185" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 70.—The Eight-spotted Forester<br />(<i>Alypia +octomaculata</i>). <i>a</i>, larva; <i>b</i>,<br />enlarged segment of same; <i>c</i>, moth.</p> +</div> + +<p>In this order the importance of collecting the early states and of +rearing the adult insects rather than of catching the latter should, if +the collector has the advancement of knowledge and the greatest pleasure +in mind, be insisted upon. Collected specimens, in the majority of +cases, will be more or less rubbed or damaged and unfit for permanent +keeping, and will always be far inferior to freshly reared specimens. +All Lepidopterists, therefore, rely to a great extent upon breeding +rather than upon field collecting. There are, however, many species of +which the early states are still unknown, and these can only be taken by +field collecting, and by attracting to various lights or traps. This +subject, therefore, naturally falls into two categories—(1) the general +collecting of the adult, and (2) collecting the early stages and rearing +the perfect insects.</p> + +<p><a name="COLL_ADULT" id="COLL_ADULT"><i>Collecting the Adult.</i></a>—The implements for the general collecting of +butterflies comprise the collecting net, and in some cases the beating +net, although the use of the latter will not often be called for. The +Rhopalocera or Diurnals may be taken about flowers, and the best season +is in the early spring. Most of them are double-brooded, and the second +brood will be in the greatest abundance during July and August. They +are, however, to be found throughout the summer. They are also to be +looked for in the neighborhood of the food-plants of their larvæ, and in +the case of many species, examination of such plants affords the most +satisfactory means of collecting. The food of butterflies is almost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +exclusively the nectar of flowers, but strangely enough they are also +attracted to decaying animal matter, and many species, including rare +forms, may be taken about decaying animal matter or resting on spots +where dead animals have lain, or beneath which they have been buried. +Moist spots of earth are also frequented by them, especially in dry +seasons. Many of the larger butterflies, whose <ins title="larvae">larvæ</ins> feed +on the taller shrubs and the foliage of trees, will be found fluttering +about the open spaces in forests, but by far the larger number, as the +Browns, the Blues, the Yellows, and the Whites, which develop on the +lower herbaceous and succulent plants, will be found flying over fields, +prairies, and gardens. Crepuscular and nocturnal Lepidoptera, comprising +most of the Heterocera, the Sphingidæ, Bombycids, Noctuids, etc., have +different habits. The Sphingidæ or Hawk Moths fly in early evening, and +may be collected in quantity about such plants as the Honeysuckle, +Thistle, Verbena, Petunia, etc. The Bombycids and many Noctuids also fly +in the early evening, but mostly at night. The former, however, do not +frequent flowers, except such as are the food-plants of their larvæ, as +their <ins title="mouthparts">mouth-parts</ins> are rudimentary, and they take no nourishment.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_060a.png" width="100" height="107" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 71.—Collecting Pill-box.<br /><i>a</i>, glass bottom +(original).</p> +</div> + +<p>Collecting by the aid of strong light is a favorite means for moths as +well as other insects, and nowadays the electric lights in all large +cities furnish the best collecting places, and hundreds of species may +be taken in almost any desired quantity. In woods or in other situations +they may be attracted to a lantern or to a light placed in an open +window. Various traps have been devised, which comprise a lamp with +apparatus for retaining and stupefying the insects attracted to the +light. The common form is made by providing a lantern with a strong +reflector. Under the light a funnel several inches larger than the +lantern reaches down into a box or bottle containing the fumes of +chloroform, ether, or benzine.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_060b.png" width="200" height="160" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 72.—Method of holding and manipulating<br />collecting +pill-box in capturing (original).</p> +</div> + +<p>Mr. Jerome McNeill describes at length and figures in the <i>American +Naturalist</i>, Vol. <span class="smcap">xxiii</span>, p. 268–270, an insect trap to be used in +connection with electric lights. It consists of a tin pail or can +charged with cyanide after the manner of a collecting bottle, which is +attached beneath the globe of the electric light.</p> + +<p>The insects attracted by the light strike against a vertical tin screen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +fixed above the can and fall into a tin funnel the small end of which +enters and closes the mouth of the can, and they are thus conducted into +the last. A support or post in the center of the can bears a hollow tin +cone, the apex of which is pierced with a number of small holes to admit +light, and enters and partly closes the lower end of the funnel. The +entire interior of the can is painted black and the chief light comes +through the holes in the apex of the interior cone. The entrapped +insects endeavor to escape by crawling up the central post towards the +light coming through the small holes in the end of the cone rather than +by the entrance slit about the latter and fall back repeatedly until +overcome by the cyanide.</p> + +<p>Many of the Lepidoptera will be ruined by the beetles and other insects +or by their own ineffectual attempts to escape, but Coleoptera, +Hymenoptera, Neuroptera, and Hemiptera are secured in satisfactory +condition.</p> + +<p>Many of the devices are very complicated and can not be described in +this connection. The nocturnal species, also, fly into our houses, and +this is especially the case in the country, and an open window, with a +strong light reflected onto a table covered with either a white paper or +a white cloth will keep one busy, on favorable nights, in properly +taking care of the specimens thus attracted.</p> + +<p>Another favorite method of collecting moths early in the evening, or as +late as or later than midnight, is by sugaring. This consists in +smearing a mixture of sugar and vinegar, or some similar compound, on +the bark of trees or on the boards of fences, and visiting the spot from +time to time to collect the moths attracted to the bait. It has been +found that the use of beer or some other alcoholic liquor, as rum or +brandy, with the sugar or molasses water, greatly adds to its efficiency +in attracting the moths. This method of collecting moths will be found +especially efficient on warm, moist, cloudy nights. The collector should +be provided with a dark lantern and a good net, and a number of +wide-mouthed cyanide collecting bottles. The smearing should be done +just before dark, and I have always found that better success attends +this method of collecting when two are engaged in it—one to hold a +bull's eye lantern while the other bottles the specimens. Experience +will soon teach the surest way of approaching and capturing the +specimens.</p> + +<p>For collecting Microlepidoptera, in addition to the ordinary net, some +special apparatus will be found very essential. Lord Walsingham makes +use of a special glass-bottomed pill-box, with which to capture +specimens, and the satisfactory nature of the work done with this box, +and the dexterity acquired by practice with it, I can vouch for by +personal experience. These glass pill-boxes are useful, also, in +admitting of the examination of specimens, so that worthless or common +species can be discarded and only desired forms kept. The method of +holding these boxes is illustrated in the accompanying illustrations. +(Figs. 72, 73.) A drop of chloroform on the bottom of the box at once<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +stupefies the capture so that it can be taken out and <ins title="otherwiise dsposed">otherwise disposed</ins> of.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_062.png" width="250" height="158" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 73.—Same, showing method of closing pill-box<br />after +the specimen is secured (original).</p> +</div> + +<p>The necessity of rearing to obtain perfect specimens is even more +important in the case of the Microlepidoptera than with the larger +forms, and many species are very easily reared and can thus be obtained +in quantity. The Micros are abundant from early spring to late fall +about shrubbery, in open fields, and along the edges of woods. They are, +for the most part, day fliers, being on the wing chiefly in the latter +part of the day and early evening. As soon as collected they should be +transferred to pill-boxes and the greatest care should be exercised to +avoid mutilating them, as the slightest touch will denude them of a +portion of their scales or break their limbs or antennæ. Lord Walsingham +thus gives his experience in collecting Micros:</p> + +<div class="blockquote"><p>I go out with a coat provided with large pockets inside and out, +containing an assortment of pill-boxes, generally of three sizes, +glass-bottomed pill-boxes preferred, a bag slung over my shoulder, +and a net. Unless searching for particular day-flying species, I +prefer the last three hours before dark. As the sun goes down many +species move which do not stir at other times. I watch the tops of +the grass, the stems of the flowers, the twigs of the trees; I +disturb leaves and low-growing plants with a short switch and +secure each little moth that moves, taking each out of the net in a +separate pill-box, selected according to the size of the insect, as +he runs up the net to escape. Transferring the full boxes to the +bag I continue the process until moths cease flying or night sets +in. Many species can be taken with a lamp after dark.</p></div> + +<p><a name="COLL_EARLY" id="COLL_EARLY"><i>Collecting the early States.</i></a>—The careful entomologist who prides +himself on the appearance of his specimens, will, as stated above, rely +largely on collecting the early states and on rearing the insects, for +his material. The Macrolepidoptera have either a single or two broods, +or more, in a season, and the collection of the early states will be +greatly facilitated if a knowledge of the insect's life-habits is first +obtained. The eggs are often found on the food plants of the species, +and where they are deposited in masses they afford a very easy method of +getting the larvæ in numbers. In many cases, however, the eggs are +deposited singly and their discovery then becomes a difficult matter.</p> + +<p>More satisfactory in some respects is the method of obtaining the eggs +from captured gravid females, and the general collector should always be +on the lookout for females of rare species from which he may be able to +obtain eggs. A single battered female may, in this way, be the source of +large numbers of excellent reared specimens. Many rare Lepidopterous +larvæ may be obtained by the use of the beating net and by beating +foliage over an umbrella. A very satisfactory method consists in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +collecting pupæ, which may frequently be found in numbers about the +bases of the trees on which the larvæ feed. Many larvæ of the large +family of Owlet Moths (<i>Noctuidæ</i>) are found either on the surface of +the ground or under various substances, while others burrow into the +stems of the different herbaceous plants, some being subaquatic and +feeding on the underside of leaves or in the stems of aquatic plants. In +the case of Microlepidoptera, their habit as larvæ, of mining leaves or +tying or webbing them together, affords an easy means of detecting their +presence in most cases. The miners are easily noticed by the discolored +spots on the leaves or the wavy, pale, or brown lines marking their +burrows. The presence of others is indicated by the leaves being drawn +together and united with webs, or withered and brown from being +skeletonized by the larvæ. Many species are case-bearers, and live upon +the leaves and branches of trees and plants, dragging their cases along +with them. Others burrow in grasses or in the stems of plants or the +trunks of trees, or in fungi. In the case of the leaf-miners and +leaf-tiers, little difficulty is experienced in rearing the imagoes.</p> + +<p>The care of the larvæ, the outfit required, and the methods of breeding +will be described in later sections.</p> + +<h3><a name="COLL_HEMIPTERA" id="COLL_HEMIPTERA">COLLECTING HEMIPTERA.</a></h3> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_063a.png" width="100" height="119" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 74.—A Pentatomid<br />(<i>Stiretrus anchoraga</i>).</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_063b.png" width="250" height="123" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 75.—The Blood-sucking Cone-nose<br />(<i>Conorhinus +sanguisuga</i>).<br /><i>a</i>, mature bug; <i>b</i>, pupa.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_064a.png" width="180" height="125" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 76.—The Bed-bug (<i>Acanthia lectularia</i>).<br /><i>a</i>, +young; <i>b</i>, adult—enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<p>For the most part the directions for collecting Coleoptera will apply to +this order of insects equally well, especially so far as concerns the +first section of the order (Heteroptera), and the higher families of the +second section (Homoptera). A few directions may be given for the lower +forms, including the Aphididæ, Coccidæ, Aleurodidæ, and Psyllidæ, and +the suborder Parasita, including the degraded forms which infest man and +the lower animals. The <ins title="Plantlice">Plant-lice</ins> or Aphides should always be collected +in connection with their food-plants, and it is very essential also to +collect the same species at different seasons of the year to obtain the +different forms or generations, which frequently present very marked +differences. It is also very necessary to secure the winged forms, which +are usually produced toward autumn, and without which the species are +not easily identified. The Bark lice or Scale-insects should also be +collected in connection with the leaves or twigs which they infest. The +males of these insects are minute and, as a rule, two-winged, resembling +small gnats, and may be bred from the male scales. The females are for +the most part stationary, being fixed to the plant by the protecting,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +waxy, excretion or scale. The Flea-lice (<i>Psyllidæ</i>) frequently produce +galls, and these should always be collected with the insect architects. +Some species do not produce galls, and may be collected by sweeping. The +Hackberry is infested by large numbers of species of Psyllids, and these +produce a great variety of interesting galls. The Aleurodidæ +(Fringe-scales) are delicate insects, and easily injured in the taking; +they are therefore best reared from their stationary and fringed larvæ +and pupæ, which occur on the leaves of many plants. Leaves bearing the +latter should also be collected and pinned or preserved in alcohol. The +Parasita, the lowest representatives of the order, may be obtained from +the domestic and wild animals which they infest.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_064b.png" width="400" height="250" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 77.—The Short-nosed Ox-louse (<i>Hæmatopinus +eurysternus</i>). <i>a</i>, female; <i>b</i>, rostrum; <i>c</i>, ventral surface, last +segments of male; <i>d</i>, female; <i>e</i>, egg; <i>f</i>, surface of egg greatly +enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<h3><a name="COLL_DIPTERA" id="COLL_DIPTERA">COLLECTING DIPTERA.</a></h3> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_065a.png" width="200" height="228" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 78.—Ox Bot-fly (<i>Hypoderma bovis</i>)<br />enlarged.<br />(After +Brauer.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_065b.png" width="100" height="183" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 79.—The Collecting Shears.<br />(After Kiesenwetter.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_065c.png" width="400" height="212" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 80.—A Bee-fly (<i>Anthrax hypomelas</i>). <i>a</i>, larva +from side;<br /><i>b</i>, pupal skin protruding from cutworm chrysalis; <i>c</i>, pupa; +<br /><i>d</i>, imago—all <ins title="enlarged)">enlarged</ins>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_066a.png" width="150" height="144" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 81.—A Syrphus-fly.</p> +</div> + +<p>Most Diptera frequent flowers and may be collected with a sweeping net +without much difficulty. The best season is from April to June, and the +bloom of the Willow, Alder, Plum, Cherry, Dogwood, Blackberry, etc., +will ordinarily yield a bountiful supply of specimens and species. +Parasitic and saprophytic forms may also readily be obtained by +breeding, the former as in the case of the parasitic Hymenoptera, and +the latter from decaying vegetable matter and fungi. The Diptera +require the most delicate treatment, and the greatest care must be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +exercised both in collecting and handling. A light sweep net is the best +implement for collecting and the contents of the net should frequently +be emptied into bottles provided with blotting paper to absorb the +excess of moisture. Very small Diptera should not be killed when they +can not be immediately pinned, and hairy flies should never be taken +from the net with the hand, but should be handled with fine forceps. A +pair of special collecting shears has been used by Lord Walsingham very +successfully. It is represented in the accompanying figure, and consists +of a pair of screen-covered disks, between which the fly is caught. The +insect is at once pinned through the screen and may be removed and +transferred to a box containing a sponge soaked in chloroform. The use +of this implement is especially advisable in the case of the Bee-flies +(<i>Bombiliidæ</i>) and other hairy forms which are liable to be rubbed when +collected in the ordinary net. The Gall-making Diptera (<i>Cecidomyidæ</i>) +are of little value unless accompanied with their galls, and the aim +should always be to collect the galls and rear the insects rather than +the keeping of specimens taken in the course of general collecting with +a sweep net. The rearing of Cecidomyidæ is, however, a delicate task, +and requires considerable experience. Some knowledge of the habits of +the species is very essential to success. From immature galls no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +rearings need be expected. A good plan is to examine the galls from time +to time and collect them when it is found that the larvæ are beginning +to abandon them. In the case of species like the common Cone Gall-gnat +of the Willow, the larvæ of which do not leave the gall to undergo +transformation in the earth, it is advisable not to gather the galls +until the transformation to the pupa state takes place, which, in this +species, occurs in early spring. The various leaf-mining and seed +inhabiting species can be treated as in the case of the +Microlepidoptera.</p> + +<h3><a name="COLL_ORTHOPTERA" id="COLL_ORTHOPTERA">COLLECTING ORTHOPTERA.</a></h3> + +<p>The insects of this order may all be collected by the use of the +sweeping net. Some of the families are attracted to light, as certain of +the roaches and green locusts, or Katydids (<i>Locustidæ</i>). Our common +roaches (<i>Blattidæ</i>) are cosmopolitan insects, and infest dwellings. +Certain species are also found about ponds, under rotten logs, the bark +of trees, and particularly in decaying vegetable matter. In the tropics +the species are very abundant, but aside from the domestic forms, they +occur rarely in northern latitudes. The collection of the egg-cases +(oötheca) is important as they furnish many interesting characters. The +Mantidæ, of which the Preying Mantis (<i>Phasmomantis carolina</i>) is a +type, are sluggish, carnivorous insects frequently found about houses +and may best be collected by general sweeping of vegetation. The +Phasmidæ or Walking-sticks are herbivorous and may be collected in the +midst of vegetation by sweeping or by the hand. The crickets +(<i>Gryllidæ</i>) frequent, for the most part, moist situations. Certain +forms, like the Mole-cricket and the Jumping Water-crickets +(<i>Trydactylus</i> spp.), burrow in moist soil and occur in numbers near the +edges of ponds and water courses. The katydids and locusts are abundant +on low shrubs or trees and in pasture and meadow land, but are most +numerous in the somewhat dry, arid regions of the West. Most of these +insects mature in late summer and fall and should be collected at this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +season. The Forficulidæ or Earwigs are very odd-looking insects, +resembling somewhat the Rove-beetles (<ins title="Staphilinidæ"><i>Staphylinidæ</i></ins>), +and are provided with a prominent anal forceps. They are very rare in +the United States, are nocturnal in habit; and, flying about at dusk, +may be attracted to light or may be secured by sweeping after nightfall. +They feed on flowers and fruit.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_066b.png" width="400" height="194" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 82.—A blind Cricket (<i>Hadenalcus</i>) from Mammoth +Cave. (From Packard.)</p> +</div> + +<h3><a name="COLL_NEUROPTERA" id="COLL_NEUROPTERA">COLLECTING NEUROPTERA.</a></h3> + +<p>As indicated in the preliminary outline of classification, this large +order has been divided into many orders by later entomologists. It has +also been divided, as indicated, into two grand divisions, the +Pseudoneuroptera, comprising those insects with incomplete +transformations, and the Neuroptera proper, comprising those insects +whose metamorphoses are complete. It will be convenient to discuss these +insects under these two heads.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_067a.png" width="75" height="158" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 83.<ins title="A">—A</ins> Spring-tail<br />(<i>Degeeria lanuginosa</i>).</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_067b.png" width="100" height="140" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 84.—A Mallophagan<br />(<i>Trichodectes latus</i>).<br />(After +Denny.)</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="PSEUDONEUROPTERA" id="PSEUDONEUROPTERA"><i>Pseudoneuroptera.</i></a>—Spring-tails, Bird-lice, Stone-flies, White-ants, +Dragon-flies, May-flies.</p> + +<p>The Spring-tails, Fish-moths, etc., representing the primitive stock +from which the higher forms have developed, have a varied habit and +hence are to be found in divers situations. The Spring-tails +(<i>Collembola</i>, etc.), occur in damp and moist places, usually in immense +numbers. The Fish-moths and Book-mites are common household pests, but +also occur outdoors under logs, boards, bricks, and rubbish of all +sorts. In houses they feed on the starch paste beneath wall-paper and +also on the starch in bookbindings and other domestic articles. They may +be collected at all seasons and a sieve is the only implement necessary.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_068a.png" width="100" height="256" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 85.—<i>b</i>, a May-fly<br />(<ins title="Palingenia bilneata"><i>Palingenia +bilineata</i></ins>);<br /><i>c</i>, its larva; <i>a</i>, a Caddis-fly<br />(<i>Macronema +zebratum</i>).</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_068b.png" width="150" height="96" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 86.—A Dragon-fly (<i>Libellula</i>).<br />(From Packard.)</p> +</div> + +<p>The Bird-lice or Mallophaga may be collected at all seasons on birds and +mammals. A number of species infest domestic animals, horses, cattle, +etc., but the majority of them can be found only by the examination of +domestic fowls and wild birds. The Stone-flies (<i>Perlidæ</i>) are found in +the neighborhood of water courses and ponds, are very sluggish in +flight, and easily captured with the sweep-net. They are also attracted +to light. The Psocidæ are a small family of certain degraded wingless +forms, comprising the Book-lice, which, as the name implies, infest +books, feeding on the starch of the binding. Others have ample wings and +closely resemble large Aphides. They occur on the trunks of trees and on +foliage, and feed on lichens and other dried vegetable matter. They are +gregarious in habit and frequently occur in immense numbers together. In +the case of the Termitidæ or White-ants, their abundance renders their +collection an easy matter. Effort, however, should be made to discover<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +the different forms, the females and soldiers as well as the workers. +The former may be found in rotten tree trunks, but are very rarely met +with. In the tropics many species occur and construct curious nests, +either attaching them to the boughs of trees or building them in the +form of pyramids on the ground. The Dragon-flies (<i>Libellulidæ</i>,) are +collected in the same way as the Diurnal Lepidoptera. They are very +swift flyers, and are practically always on the wing. Their collection +requires some degree of skill in the use of the net. A good method +consists in visiting, in the early morning, water courses in which the +larval and pupal states are passed, and capturing the adults just as +they issue from their pupal skins at the edges of the pond or stream. In +cold weather they are less active and may frequently be found clinging +to trees and plants, particularly in the vicinity of their breeding +places. May-flies (<i>Ephemeridæ</i>) occur in immense numbers near their +breeding places in ponds and streams and are also attracted in large +quantities to electric lights. Their collection is therefore an easy +matter, but on account of the very fragile nature of these insects the +utmost care must be employed in handling them. The early states of all +the aquatic forms mentioned above may be obtained for breeding by the +use of the dip net by dragging it forcibly against water plants.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_068c.png" width="100" height="83" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 87.—A Dragon-fly (<i>Agrion</i>).<br />(From Packard.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_069.png" width="200" height="102" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 88.—An Ant-lion, adult (<i>Myrmeleon</i>).<br />(From +Packard.)</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="NEUROPTERA_3" id="NEUROPTERA_3"><i>Neuroptera proper</i></a> (Hellgrammites, Lace-wings, Ant-lions, Caddis-flies, +etc.)—Among the largest insects of this order are the Sialidæ, which +includes the enormous Hellgrammite Fly, <i>Corydalus cornutus</i>. The larvæ +of this insect are carnivorous and occur in streams, under stones, etc. +The adults may be collected in neighboring situations and are also +attracted to light. The Lace-wing flies (<i>Chrysopa</i>), Ant-lions, etc., +are carnivorous as larvæ, and occur, the former among the Aphides which +infest various plants and the latter at the bottom of pits in loose,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +sandy soil. The adults may be obtained by general sweeping and are also +attracted to light. The most interesting insects of this order are the +Caddis-flies, on account of the peculiar and frequently very beautiful +cases constructed by their larvæ, which it is important to collect. The +Caddis-flies breed in ponds and lakes and the adults may be collected in +such situations or at light. The larvæ may easily be reared, and should +be collected for this purpose. Most of the insects named in this order +are extremely delicate and require great care in handling.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<h2><a name="KILLING_AND_PRESERVING_INSECTS" id="KILLING_AND_PRESERVING_INSECTS"></a>KILLING AND PRESERVING INSECTS.</h2> + +<p>Between the collecting of the specimens and their final disposition in a +well-arranged cabinet, a good deal of mechanical work is necessary, +involving a skill and dexterity which can be thoroughly acquired only by +practice.</p> + +<p><a name="PRESERVE_SPEC" id="PRESERVE_SPEC"><span class="smcap">First Preservation of living Specimens.</span></a>—Larvæ, pupæ, or imagoes, +intended for rearing purposes, must be kept alive, and are best placed, +after capture, in tin boxes of various sizes, according to the number of +specimens to be put in each and according to the size or nature of the +food plant, etc., on or in which the specimens are found, and of which a +quantity must always be taken home. For larger tin boxes those known as +“Seidlitz powder boxes,” described and figured below, which +can be made to order at any tinner's shop, are well adapted, and smaller +tin boxes of a convenient round form can be obtained of the watchmaker. +The collector will find it advisable to take with him on his longer +jaunts a larger tin collecting box as well as the smaller boxes, and for +this purpose nothing is better than a good botanist's collecting can or +vasculum. All tin boxes used for entomological purposes should be tight, +and the cover should so fit that it neither drops off too readily nor +closes too tightly. Larvæ of Lepidoptera and Tenthredinidæ should be +placed in a box with a quantity of the leaves of the plant on which they +were found. Larvæ, especially of Coleoptera, found in the earth or in +decayed wood, should be placed in a box filled with such earth or wood, +so as to prevent shaking or rattling about. Larvæ found in roots or +stems of living plants can generally be reared to maturity only if the +whole plant with a quantity of the surrounding soil is taken home, and +for this purpose the large collecting box, just mentioned, is very +useful. Most Coleopterous or other larvæ found under bark or in solid +wood can be reared only if large sections of the wood are obtained and +the larvæ are full grown or nearly so. This holds true, also, of species<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +breeding in seeds and with most leaf-mining species. The greatest +difficulty is experienced with carnivorous Coleopterous larvæ, and care +should be taken with such not to inclose two or more specimens in one +box. Most larvæ die quickly if placed in an empty box, and this is +especially true of predaceous species; so that it is always advisable to +pack the box with moist soil, decaying wood, leaves or other similar +substance. Aquatic larvæ should be carried in tin boxes filled with wet +moss or some water plant, for, if placed in corked vials with water, +they die quickly.</p> + +<p><a name="KILL_SPEC" id="KILL_SPEC"><span class="smcap">Killing Specimens.</span></a>—Specimens not intended for rearing should be killed +immediately after capture unless for each specimen a separate vial or +box can be provided. If a number of miscellaneous insects are put in the +same vial the stronger specimens will, in a short time, crush or +otherwise injure the more delicate ones or the predaceous species will +devour any others they can master. But even where the specimens are +killed immediately the following rule should be observed: Do not put +large and small specimens in the same vial, but provide a larger bottle +for the larger specimens, and one, or still better, several, smaller +vials for the medium-sized and very small specimens. The importance of +this rule is recognized by all experienced collectors.</p> + +<p>There are several methods of killing insects, each having its own +peculiar advantages and drawbacks.</p> + +<p><a name="ALCOHOL" id="ALCOHOL"><i>Alcohol.</i></a>—The use of alcohol will, on the whole, prove the most +satisfactory method of killing Coleoptera, many Hemiptera, some +Neuroptera, and larvæ of all sorts. Only the best quality of alcohol +should be used, but it should be diluted with from 30 to 40 per cent of +pure water, the greatest care being taken to keep the alcohol as clean +as possible. During the collecting a mass of débris and dirt is apt to +be thrown into the bottle, and when this is the case the alcohol should +be changed even during short excursions. At any rate, upon the return +from the excursion, the specimens should be at once taken from the +bottle and washed in pure alcohol in a shallow vessel. The larvæ and +other material intended for permanent preservation in alcohol should be +transferred to suitable vials and the material to be mounted cleansed +with chloroform or acetic ether and then prepared for the cabinet. If it +is inconvenient or impossible to mount the Coleoptera, etc., soon after +the return from the excursion they should be washed, dried, and placed +in pill boxes between layers of soft paper, or they may be replaced in a +vial with pure alcohol. On longer collecting trips, lasting several days +or weeks, specimens will keep thus very well, provided they are not +shaken up, and this can be prevented by filling the empty space in the +vial with cotton or soft paper. If the bottle is a large one and +contains many large specimens the alcohol should be renewed three or +four times at intervals of eight or ten days; otherwise the specimens +are liable to decompose. Small and delicate specimens, if they are to +be kept in alcohol, should be treated with still greater care. Upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +return from the excursion they should also be cleaned in pure alcohol +and placed in small vials into which a very few drops of alcohol, just +sufficient to keep the contents moist, are poured. The vial should be +corked as tightly as possible and the specimens will keep pretty well +for an indefinite time.</p> + +<p>The drawbacks to the use of alcohol are: 1st, that all hairy specimens +are liable to spoil; 2ndly, that all Coleoptera with soft integuments +spread the wing-cases apart if kept too long in it. The advantage of the +alcohol is that it is the simplest and least troublesome fluid for +naturalists traveling in distant countries who are not specialists in +entomology. Specimens killed in alcohol are also less liable to be +attacked by verdigris when pinned than those killed by some other +method. Rum, whisky, or similar strong alcoholic liquors may be used as +substitutes where no pure alcohol can be obtained, but are not +especially to be recommended.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_071.png" width="150" height="339" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_089"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 89.—Chloroform bottle<br />with brush.</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="ETHER" id="ETHER"><i>Chloroform and Ether.</i></a>—Killing with the fumes of <i>chloroform</i> or +<i>ether</i> (sulphuric or acetic) or <i>benzine</i>, or some other etheric oil, +is often practiced and advocated by those who, for any reason, dislike +the use of alcohol or object, on account of its poisonous nature, to the +use of cyanide of potassium, and they are of especial value in the case +of butterflies and moths, Hymenoptera and Diptera. “A small and +stout bottle of chloroform or ether, with a brush securely inserted into +the cork (<a href="#img_089">Fig. 89</a>), will be found very serviceable. A slight moistening +through the air net will stupefy most insects caught in it, and +facilitate their removal to the cyanide bottle; while a touch or two +with the wet brush under the head and thorax, will kill the more +delicate specimens outright, without in the least injuring them. Another +way of using chloroform is by means of a small, hollow tube passed +through the cork, what is called jeweler's hollow wire answering the +purpose. The liquid evaporates more readily in such a bottle, and I +altogether prefer the first mentioned. Some large insects, and +especially female moths, whose size prevents the use of the ordinary +cyanide bottles, are difficult to kill. With these, fluttering may be +prevented by the use of chloroform, or they may be killed by puncturing +the thorax or piercing the body longitudinally, with a needle dipped in +liquid cyanide, or oxalic acid. A long bottle with a needle thrust into +the cork may be kept for this purpose; but the needle must be of ivory +or bone, as those of metal are corroded and eaten by the liquids. * * *</p> + +<p>“For killing small and delicate moths which have been bred, I find +nothing more handy than chloroform. They may be caught in turned wooden +boxes which are kept by every druggist; and a touch of the chloroform on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +the outside of the box immediately stupefies them. It has a tendency to +stiffen them, however, and they are best set immediately after +death.”</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_072a.png" width="50" height="157" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 90.—Bottle with<br />liquid cyanide.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_072b.png" width="125" height="326" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_091"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 91.—The Cyanide bottle<br />with paper strips to give +support<br />to the insects.</p> +</div> + +<p>A piece of heavy blotting paper or heavy cloth soaked with chloroform or +ether or benzine and placed at the bottom of a jar or bottle makes an +excellent killing bottle for large-sized insects. For smaller specimens +the collecting vial should be half filled loosely with narrow strips of +soft paper, upon which a few drops of the liquid are poured, not so +much, however, as to wet the paper. While collecting, the vial must be +kept closed as much as possible. Some collectors prefer chloroform, +others ether. If this method of killing is practiced with the necessary +care, there is no objection whatever to it; the specimens are not wetted +as they are in alcohol, and remain cleaner than those killed by any +other method. The drawback is that the substances mentioned evaporate +very rapidly and have to be renewed even on short excursions. On account +of this great volatility, one can never be certain that all the +specimens in the collecting bottle are dead after a given time and there +is always some danger that one or the other of the hardier insects may +regain activity. What mischief such revived specimens are capable of +doing, many collectors have experienced to their sorrow. Another +disadvantage of these volatile substances is that if used in too large +quantities they will, in delicate specimens, especially beetles, cause +an extension of the soft ligaments between the head and prothorax or +between the latter and the mesothorax, and thus bring the specimen into +an unnatural position, or cause the head, or head and thorax to drop +off.</p> + +<p><a name="CYANIDE" id="CYANIDE"><i>Cyanide of Potassium.</i></a>—The method of killing which, of late years, has +found most favor with collectors, is the use of cyanide of potassium. +For killing large sized specimens they are simply put in what is now +universally known as the “cyanide bottle.” This may be +constructed as follows:</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_073.png" width="100" height="374" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_092"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 92.—Pocket<br />cyanide bottle.</p> +</div> + +<p>Take a 2-ounce quinine bottle, or still better a shorter bottle with a +wide mouth; break up a quantity of cyanide of potassium into pieces of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +convenient size (about a cubic centimeter); put these pieces in the +bottle so that they form an even layer at the bottom; mix in a +convenient vessel a quantity of plaster of Paris with water just +sufficient to make the mixture semifluid and then pour it over the +cyanide so as to cover this last to a depth of about 5 millimeters. The +bottle is then left open for an hour or two until the plaster is +thoroughly dry. The walls of the bottle are then cleansed from particles +of the plaster which may have splashed on them, and the bottle is ready +for use. If not used too frequently, especially in warm weather, it will +last for an entire year or longer. Bottles or vials of different sizes +can be prepared in the same way, and a very small cyanide vial which can +be carried in the vest pocket will be found most convenient for use on +all occasions. <a href="#img_092">Fig. 92</a> represents a medium-sized chemist's test tube, +converted into a very convenient cyanide bottle, in which, however, a +cotton wad has been used to keep the poison in place. When the collected +specimens have been removed from the bottle the latter should be +carefully wiped clean with a piece of cloth or paper. The surface of the +plaster soon becomes dirty and, on account of the hygroscopic property +of the cyanide, more or less moist, especially during warm weather. The +cyanide bottle is, therefore, not well adapted for the killing and +temporary preservation of small and delicate specimens. This difficulty +can be altogether obviated by placing a circular piece of blotting +paper, cut to neatly fit the interior of the bottle, on the surface of +the plaster. This can be renewed once a week or so, or oftener if it +becomes necessary. It will frequently be advisable, also, especially in +the collection of Diptera, Hymenoptera, and other delicate insects, to +put a strip of blotting paper partially round the inner side of the +bottle. This will absorb any moisture which may gather on the inside of +the bottle and which would otherwise wet and injure the specimens. The +accompanying figure (<a href="#img_093">Fig. 93</a>) illustrates a bottle arranged as described +above. A similar result is attained by some collectors by partially +filling the bottle with narrow strips of bibulous paper to support and +separate the insects as shown at <a href="#img_091">Fig. 91</a>.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_074.png" width="125" height="357" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_093"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 93.—The cyanide bottle<br />with blotting-paper lining +(original).</p> +</div> + +<p>For delicate specimens, also, the collecting bottle may consist of a +test-tube of about the size of <a href="#img_092">Fig. 92</a>. This is half filled with loose, +thin strips of soft white paper. A piece of cyanide about the size of a +pea is then wrapped carefully in paper and so placed in the middle of +the strips that it can not come in contact with the sides of the +glass. Some prefer to pin the paper containing the cyanide to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +lower surface of the cork. The latter should be rather short and +tapering toward its lower end. It is longitudinally perforated through +its center by a round hole just large enough to insert a goose-quill, +which is cut straight at the lower end and obliquely at its upper end. +By means of this goose-quill the specimens may be introduced into the +bottle without taking off the cork. This form of cyanide bottle lasts +for only one day's collecting, except in cold weather, and in very warm +weather it is advisable to take two prepared bottles along, so that the +first used can be stowed away as soon as the cyanide begins to moisten +the paper strips. Most insects are quickly killed in such a bottle, but +some Coleoptera must be left in for five or six hours, while others +resist death for a still longer time. This is especially true of the +Coleopterous families Curculionidæ, Trogositidæ, and Tenebrionidæ.</p> + +<p>Submersion in alcohol will prove a satisfactory method of killing these +or other beetles with similar vitality.</p> + +<p><a name="OTHER_AGENTS" id="OTHER_AGENTS"><i>Other Agents.</i></a>—Prof. E. W. Claypole has found the use of benzine or +gasoline very cheap and satisfactory for killing Lepidoptera, as the +largest are at once killed thereby without injury to their scales. +(<i>Can. Ent.</i>, <span class="smcap">xix</span>, p. 136.) He squirts it onto the specimen within the +net or in the open air by means of a druggist's dropping tube. Hot water +kills rapidly and leaves the specimens in good flexible condition for +mounting. The heads of large insects may be held for a few moments in +the water, while smaller specimens should first be thrown into a corked +bottle and the bottle submitted to heat. Where the laurel grows its +bruised leaves may be used in place of cyanide; they kill less quickly. +The leaves of the Laurel-cherry (<i>Prunus laurocerasus</i>), a plant +commonly grown in England for screens and hedges, are also used for this +purpose.</p> + +<p>Some collectors, with indifferent olfactory sense, moisten the cork of +their boxes with creosote. Its killing power lasts for several days. A +few whiffs from a cigar, when nothing else is at hand, will also kill +many of the more tender insects.</p> + +<p><a name="SPEC_ORDERS" id="SPEC_ORDERS"><span class="smcap">Special directions for different orders.</span></a>—A few brief directions for the +special treatment of different orders may be given. Certain Coleoptera, +notably those of the Curculionid genus Lixus, are covered with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +yellowish pruinosity resembling pollen, which is of an evanescent +nature, so that if the specimens are collected and killed by the +ordinary methods, the pruinosity is completely lost. To preserve the +natural beauty of such species it is necessary to put each specimen +alive in a small vial and to kill it at once by means of a lighted match +held under the vial for a few seconds. In pinning or otherwise mounting +the specimen it should not be handled between the fingers.</p> + +<p>Many Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera, especially species with yellow +markings, if kept for any length of time in a cyanide bottle, will +become discolored, the yellow changing to reddish, and hence such +insects should not be left longer than necessary in the bottle. If care +is exercised in this respect, no danger of discoloration need ordinarily +be feared. The chloroform collecting bottle may be used with these +insects if discoloration is anticipated. All the more delicate insects, +including Hymenoptera, Diptera, the smaller Lepidoptera, and the +Neuroptera, require special care in killing. Large numbers should not be +thrown into a killing bottle together, and plenty of bibulous paper +should be kept in the bottle to prevent moisture from accumulating and +wetting and ruining the specimens. It is frequently advisable to pin +Diptera, especially the hairy forms (as the Bee-flies), in the net and +transfer them at once to a cigar box containing a sponge moistened with +chloroform. When the collecting shears are used, the insects are always +thus pinned at once, which is, in fact, the only method of securing +them. This is also necessary in the case of many Lepidoptera. Delicate +Neuroptera may be killed by the use of the cyanide bottle, or, +preferably, placed at once in a vial of alcohol, as these insects, in +many instances, cannot be kept securely if pinned or mounted. Large +Lepidoptera, as the Bombycids, may be killed by pouring benzine, +naphtha, or chloroform over the thorax and abdomen. These substances +evaporate rapidly and do not appreciably injure the vestiture of the +insects. Some collectors, in the case of butterflies, seize them +dexterously between the thumb and finger, and give a sharp pinch on the +sides of the thorax. This will prevent the fluttering of the insect when +transferred to the cyanide bottle, and, if carefully done, the scales +need not be rubbed off. It is objectionable, however, because the thorax +is distorted and subsequent anatomical study interfered with, and, in +the case of moths, should never be practiced, as the thorax affords +important characters used in classification. Orthoptera may be killed by +the use of the cyanide bottle but should be transferred at once to the +vials of alcohol. If placed in a cyanide bottle, especially in the case +of Locusts (<i>Acrididæ</i>), they are apt to exude colored juices from the +mouth, so that the specimens become soiled. Hence the use of vials of +alcohol is preferable, and these insects should never be thrown into +vials containing delicate insects of other orders. Plant-lice, together +with the plant which they infest, should be placed at once in vials of +alcohol, and specimens of the Aphides, representing all the forms<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +present, should be mounted on slides for microscopic examination. The +fixed forms of Coccids, comprising the majority of the species, require +no special treatment, and the leaves, twigs, or bark on which they occur +may be pinned at once and placed in the collection. The free forms are +treated as in the case of plant-lice.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<h2><a name="ENTOMOTAXY" id="ENTOMOTAXY"></a>ENTOMOTAXY.</h2> + +<p>Under this term may be considered the preparation of insects for the +cabinet.</p> + +<h3><a name="MOUNTED_SPEC" id="MOUNTED_SPEC">CARE OF PINNED AND MOUNTED SPECIMENS.</a></h3> + +<p><a name="INSECT_PINS" id="INSECT_PINS"><i>Insect Pins.</i></a>—In mounting insects for the cabinet, expressly made +entomological pins should be used. These come from three different +sources: Kläger pins, made by Hermann Kläger, Berlin, Germany; Karlsbad +pins, made by one or several firms in Karlsbad, Bohemia, Austria; and +Vienna pins, made by Miller, Vienna, Austria.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> These three kinds of +pins have each their own slight advantages and disadvantages, so that it +is difficult to say which is the best. All have the disadvantage that +the pinned specimens are liable to be ruined by verdigris, and to +obviate this japanned (“black”) insect pins are made by +Kläger and Miller. These black pins are, however, much softer than the +“white” pins, and therefore more difficult to handle. A pin +of 35 millimeters in length will be found most convenient for pinning +all insects excepting the larger Lepidoptera and other heavy-bodied +insects, for which a longer pin may advantageously be used. According to +the different degrees of fineness, the pins are numbered from No. 00 +(the finest in the trade) to No. 7 or 8, but the numbers used by the +different manufacturers do not correspond with each other. In +experience, pins of Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 (Kläger numbers) are more often +needed than the others. The long pins of the finer numbers (Nos. 0 and +00) are difficult to handle in the collection and, for this reason, not +to be recommended.</p> + +<p>For many small insects, especially Microlepidoptera and Microdiptera, +which <i>must</i> be pinned, even the finest ordinary insect-pins are too +large, and two special makes of pins are in use for this purpose. The +“elbow pin” (formerly made and sold by Dr. Kuenow, of +Königsberg, Prussia, Germany) consists of a piece of fine silver wire, +pointed at one end, and with a coil loop at the other end, into which a +longer pin (No. 3 or No. 4) is thrust. This pin is illustrated in <a href="#img_094">Fig. 94</a>. +Still more satisfactory are the “Minutien-Nadeln” (pins +for minute insects) manufactured by Mr. Miller, of Vienna, Austria, and +which consist of a straight piece (about 14<sup>mm</sup>. long) of extremely +fine steel wire which is pointed at one end, and which is used in +connection with a piece of pith or cork. The mode of using this pin is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +shown in Fig. 101. These fine and elbow pins may be obtained either +“white” or japanned.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_077.png" width="100" height="171" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_094"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 94.—Insect<br />mounted on<br />“elbow-pin.”</p> +</div> + +<p>“Many English entomologists use short pins, very much like those +of ordinary make, and my late friend Walsh never gave up the custom, and +most vehemently opposed the use of what he ridiculed as ‘long +German skewers.’ But the only advantage that can possibly be +claimed for the short pins is that they are less apt to bend, +consequently more easily stuck into the bottoms of boxes, and require +less room; while, compared with the long pins, they have numerous +disadvantages. Long pins admit of the very important advantage of +attaching notes and labels to the specimen; render it more secure from +injury when handled, and from museum pests in the cabinet; and on them +several rows of carded duplicates may be fastened, one under the other, +so as to economize room.”</p> + +<p>I have seen few old collections in better condition than that of the +late E. Mulsant, of Lyons, France; and he used iron wire, cut +slantingly, of the requisite length—a common custom in France. These +wires bend so easily and have such dull points that they require much +more careful manipulation than the pins, and the claim made for them +that they do not verdigris would, perhaps, be offset by their rusting in +moist climates or near the sea. Silver wire or silver-plated wire is +also used.</p> + +<p><a name="PREP_SPEC" id="PREP_SPEC"><i>Preparation of Specimens.</i></a>—Upon the return from an excursion the +specimens should be prepared for the collection as soon as practicable. +If they have been collected in the forenoon they should be mounted the +same evening, and those collected during an afternoon or evening +excursion should be mounted the following morning, or, at any rate, +before they get dry and brittle. Even specimens collected in alcohol +should be attended to as soon as possible.</p> + +<p>Specimens are taken from the collecting bottle, spread out on a sheet of +white blotting paper and cleaned from adhering impurities either with a +soft dry brush, or, in the case of species with hard covering, by +washing them with chloroform or ether or benzine where necessary. +Theoretically the best way of mounting would be to pin all specimens, +since the under side with its important characters then remains free for +examination. Pins adapted for pinning even the smallest insects have +been described above, but this pinning is such a delicate operation and +requires so much time that considering the large number of small +specimens that may be collected on a single short excursion it is next +to impossible to carry out this method, and therefore only the larger +specimens need be pinned and the smaller may be glued onto the paper +points described later. If the work is done with proper care all +insects can be prepared for the cabinet so that both the upper and under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +surface of the specimen may be examined without further manipulation.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_078a.png" width="250" height="249" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_095"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 95.—Method of pinning and<br />labeling Coleoptera +(original).</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="PINNING" id="PINNING"><i>Pinning.</i></a>—“Insects should be pinned through the middle of the +thorax, when, as is more generally the case, this portion (the +mesothorax) is largely developed. Beetles (<i>Coleoptera</i>) and Bugs +(<i>Hemiptera</i>), should, however, be pinned, the former through the right +elytron or wing-cover (<a href="#img_095">Fig. 95</a>), and the latter through the scutel or +triangular piece behind the thorax, the pin issuing between the middle +and hind legs (<a href="#img_096">Fig. 96</a>). The specimens look very pretty with all the +legs neatly spread out, but for practical purposes it is better to let +them dry in the natural, partly bent position. It is a saving of time +and space, and the limbs are not so apt to break. The legs must also not +reach too far downward or they will interfere with the proper labeling +and the secure pinning of the specimen in the <ins title="cabinet">cabinet.</ins> +Moreover, the antennæ and legs must be brought into such position that +they will not obstruct the view of any important part of the +undersurface. The pin should always project about half an inch above the +insect to facilitate handling, and uniformity in this regard will have +much to do with the neat appearance of the collection. In pinning very +large and heavy insects on a No. 4 or No. 5 pin, it is a good plan to +first flatten the pin by a few blows of a hammer, in order to prevent +the specimen from subsequently turning round on the pin.”</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_078b.png" width="100" height="179" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_096"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 96.—Method<br />of pinning<br />Hemiptera (original).</p> +</div> + +<p>In pinning specimens which have a flat or nearly flat undersurface and +short legs (as in many Coleoptera and Hemiptera and some Hymenoptera, +<i>e. g.</i> the <ins title="Sawflies">Saw-flies</ins>) the specimens are laid on a piece of +cork and held in place there with the fingers or with a forceps. The pin +is then pushed through the insect at the proper point, care being taken +not to strike one of the legs or coxæ, and that the pin passes through +the specimen in a vertical direction.</p> + +<p>After the pin has been pushed through the specimen it is taken out of +the cork and the specimen is pushed up to its proper height. This can be +done either by holding the specimen between the fingers or by placing it +on the upper edge of a thick book. A piece of cardboard provided with a +small hole may also be used for this purpose. The perforations in +ordinary sheet-cork, or the lapel of one's coat, will answer the same +purpose. In pinning Lepidoptera or Hymenoptera the specimen should lie +lightly in the angle formed by the thumb and first two fingers of the +left hand and the pin be carefully thrust through at the proper angle.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +In pinning all insects the pin should be so inserted that the insect is +nearly at right angles with the pin, the posterior end being slightly +depressed.</p> + +<p><a name="MOUNT_POINT" id="MOUNT_POINT"><i><ins title="Moanting">Mounting</ins> on Points.</i></a>—Most insects which are too +small to be pinned on a No. 2 pin may be fastened to cardboard by means +of gum tragacanth, gum shellac, or any good glue. It is not always easy +to determine whether to pin a medium specimen or to glue it to a +triangle. Pinned specimens are more secure, and not so apt to fall or be +knocked off, but they are liable to become corroded by verdigris and +ultimately lost, especially in families the larvæ of which are +endophytous or internal feeders. It is better to glue wherever there is +doubt. A drop of corrosive sublimate added to the water in which the gum +tragacanth is dissolved will indefinitely prevent its souring, but +should not be used where the gum is to come in contact with the pin, as +it inclines the latter to verdigris. In such cases a little spirits of +camphor mixed with the gum tragacanth is best. Shellac should be +dissolved in alcohol and this requires some time. This glue is not +affected by moisture, and if it is desired to remove the specimens, they +must be immersed in alcohol until the shellac is again dissolved.</p> + +<p>A number of different kinds of glue are used by entomologists. The +requirements of a good glue are that it be colorless, and, what is of +greater importance, that the specimens adhere firmly to the paper points +so that there is little or no danger of their being jarred off. Those +glues which are readily soluble in cold or lukewarm water are perhaps +more convenient than those which require alcohol or chloroform for +dissolving. Gum arabic and gum tragacanth have the disadvantage that +they are more liable to attract mites and are more brittle, so that they +do not hold specimens as well as some of the liquid glues that are on +the market. Spalding's glue answers a very good purpose, as also the +preparation known to European entomologists as Leprieur's gum. White +bleached shellac, while requiring alcohol to dissolve it, has the +advantage that a very minute quantity suffices. In olden times the +method employed was simply to glue the specimen by the ventral side to +the middle of a quadrangular piece of cardboard, which was then pinned +on a No. 3 or No. 4 insect pin. This method is still in vogue with +English entomologists, but can not be recommended except for mounting +duplicates. Much better are the small isosceles triangles which, before +mounting the specimen, are pinned through near the base on a No. 2 or +No. 3 insect pin. Only the best and finest cardboard should be used for +this purpose, since that of poor quality is liable to be broken while +passing the pin through it and will yellow with age. “Reynolds's +Superfine Board,” which may be ordered through any dealer in +artist's supplies of Devoe & Co., Fulton street, New York City, is +perhaps the best for this purpose. Some of the neatest mounting which I +have had done by any of my agents or assistants is by Mr. Albert +Koebele, who has used mica or gelatine instead of cardboard, the object<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +being not only to show the whole of the under side of the specimen, but +to obscure less of the light from the labels and to render the triangles +less conspicuous in the cabinet. These have been in use in the museum +collection only for the last two or three years, and whether they will +eventually tend to corrode the pins is not yet settled. Mica and +isinglass are also used for the same purpose. The points used in +mounting may easily be cut by hand to a convenient size, say one-fourth +of an inch (6–8<sup>mm</sup>) long by one-sixteenth or less at the base, and +tapering to a point. The point may be narrower or wider to accommodate +insects of different sizes.</p> + +<p>For cutting these triangles or points, various forms of punches similar +to the appended figure (<a href="#img_097">Fig. 97</a>) known to the trade as conductor's +punches may be used, and points thus cut are to be preferred to those +made by other means, on account of the greater uniformity secured.</p> + +<p>An experienced hand, however, will cut these points very rapidly and +accurately with a pair of shears, and most collectors use no special +instrument for this purpose.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_080a.png" width="250" height="145" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_097"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 97.—Insect punch for cutting triangles<br />or points +(original).</p> +</div> + +<p>The punches mentioned may be obtained of the manufacturers<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> of such +instruments at from $2 to $3. Care should be observed in ordering to +state explicitly the length, width at base and point, or, what is +better, to inclose sample of the size of point it is desired to cut; but +above all, to state that the block of paper to be cut out is the result +desired, and that the instrument should cut clean and even, with no +ragged edges.</p> + +<p>For mounting different forms and sizes the fastidious collector uses +four or five sizes of points, but for all practical purposes one to cut +a card point not less than 1.3<sup>mm</sup> at the base and prolonged as nearly +as possible to a point, and another a trifle wider at the base, say 1½ +or 1⅔<sup>mm</sup> and with a point about 1½<sup>mm</sup> in width will suffice.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_080b.png" width="171" height="75" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 98.—Points for mounting insects (original).</p> +</div> + +<p>For mounting most long-bodied insects, <i>e. g.</i>, Staphylinidæ and +Elateridæ, an oblong card say 1½<sup>mm</sup> in width is desirable. With a +little care these may be cut with sufficient uniformity with scissors. +Seven and one-half millimeters may be taken as a standard of length, as +this is about the size used by the majority of our best collectors. +Shorter points, say 6<sup>mm</sup> or one-quarter inch long, are sometimes +preferred, where economy of space is a desideratum.</p> + +<p>A series of four points of different sizes for mounting insects is shown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +in the accompanying illustration. The sharp-pointed one, <i>a</i>, is +designed for the minutest forms and the larger points for large insects. +The largest should be mounted on points of a nearly rectangular shape, +shown at <i>d</i>. The dimensions of these points as adopted by most +entomologists, are as follows:—</p> + +<table id="p73" border="1" summary="dimensions" width="200"> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td align="center">Length.</td> + <td align="center">Breadth.</td> + <td align="center">Point.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>a</i></td> + <td align="right">7.5mm.</td> + <td align="right">1.5mm.</td> + <td align="right">.0mm.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>b</i></td> + <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.6em;">7.5</span></td> + <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.6em;">1.5</span></td> + <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.6em;">.4</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>c</i></td> + <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.6em;">7.5</span></td> + <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.6em;">1.5</span></td> + <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.6em;">.6</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>d</i></td> + <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.6em;">7.5</span></td> + <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.6em;">1.6</span></td> + <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.6em;">1.6</span></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_081a.png" width="150" height="201" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_099"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 99.—Insect mounted<br />on cardboard triangle.</p> +</div> + +<p>The point or triangle should be mounted on the pin and directed to the +left, the height from the top of the pin varying somewhat with the +specimen, but averaging about one-half an inch. The insect is then glued +to the point with the head pointed forward. In the case of Coleoptera +and Hymenoptera, and in fact of most insects, the specimen is mounted +with the back uppermost, but in the case of the smaller Hymenoptera it +is advisable to mount some of the specimens, at least, on the left side +(see <a href="#img_099">Fig. 99</a>). This directs the legs toward the pin, as a matter of +safety, prevents their being broken in handling, and also gives +opportunity for subsequent examination of the back, side, and venter of +the specimen. Coleopterists always mount specimens on the venter, and in +the case of a correctly mounted specimen the whole underside of the body +should be available for examination except the right half of the +metasternum, as shown in figure 100.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_081b.png" width="150" height="145" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 100.—Method of gluing<br />beetle on paper point<br />(original).</p> +</div> + +<p>In mounting minute insects a few precautions are necessary. The beginner +usually uses too much glue or <ins title="shell-lac">shellac</ins>, and the result is that the +mounted specimens are more or less covered with the fluid, so as to +render them unfit for examination. If, on the other hand, too little of +the glue is used, the specimens are not securely fastened to the paper +point, and are liable to be jolted off by the slightest jar. Before +mounting specimens the legs and antennæ must be brought into the proper +position by means of a brush or with a dissecting needle, so that they +may easily be seen. A supply of paper points should always be at hand, +and after selecting one of the proper size for the specimen, with an +acute tip for a very small specimen and with a more obtuse point for a +larger one, a small quantity of glue is applied to the tip by means of a +pointed stick, such as a toothpick, the amount varying with the size of +the specimen. The tip of a moistened brush may be used to transfer the +specimen to the point, or one will soon become dextrous enough to do<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> +this without the aid of the brush. The specimens are then allowed to dry +in a horizontally placed box. If the drying box is placed in a vertical +position the specimens, especially long-bodied ones, are liable to +topple over before the glue has become firm.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_082a.png" width="150" height="221" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 101.—Cecidomyiid<br />mounted on pith<br />(original).</p> +</div> + +<p>Delicate flies and Microlepidoptera, which it will not do to fasten with +mucilage, may first be mounted on the fine pins described above and +these thrust into oblong or triangular bits of pith or cork, which are +mounted on larger pins as shown in Figures 101 and 102. This affords a +very satisfactory method of mounting, particularly as the different +sexes may be brought together on the same bit of pith, or the adult and +puparium in Diptera, as shown at Figure 101. Strips of stout cardboard +with the pins run through the narrow edge may also be used. The method +of mounting minute Hymenoptera and Diptera and other insects on a bent +wire, mentioned above, is illustrated at Figure 94. This method has not +proved so satisfactory, as the wires are apt to become loose on the pin.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_082b.png" width="150" height="192" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 102.—Microlepidoptera<br />mounted on pith<br />(original).</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_082c.png" width="150" height="242" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_103"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 103.—Method of<br />mounting duplicates<br />(original).</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="MOUNT_DUPL" id="MOUNT_DUPL"><i>Mounting Duplicates.</i></a>—If the collector finds more specimens of a rare +species than he cares to have in his collection, the excess may be +mounted as duplicates. If the species happens to be of a large size the +specimens are pinned in the ordinary way, but if small enough to be +gummed, there is a most convenient method of rapidly mounting the +specimens so that they may be sent through the mail with much less risk +of getting broken or knocked off than if glued on paper points, and will +also take up very little room in the duplicate boxes. It consists in +gluing the specimens in a transverse row on a strip of white card paper +with one of the glues soluble in water, care being taken that between +the individual specimens some space be left, and further that the heads +and antennæ do not project beyond the edge of the paper. The width of +the paper strip must be somewhat greater than the length of the +specimen, so that below the latter there is sufficient room for +inserting a pin through the paper. After the glue has become dry the row +of specimens is cut with scissors into several smaller rows of +convenient size, so that on each of these rows there are two or three or +more specimens, according to the size of the species. A locality label +is pushed high up on a No. 3 or No. 4 pin, and one of the mounted rows +of specimens is then pinned and pushed up near the locality label; a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +second row is then pinned and pushed near the first row, and the same +process continued with the third row and so on. A single pin will thus +bear five or six rows, and in giving away or sending away specimens the +lowest row is taken from the pin and repinned for mailing. The +accompanying figure (<a href="#img_103">Fig. 103</a>) illustrates the mounting of a +moderate-sized species in rows of two specimens each. This method of +mounting duplicates may be adopted not only for Coleoptera, but also for +Heteroptera, Homoptera (excepting Aphididæ and allied families), smaller +Orthoptera, and Hymenoptera. It is, however, impracticable for +Lepidoptera, Diptera, and most Neuroptera.</p> + +<p><a name="TEMP_SPEC" id="TEMP_SPEC"><i>Temporary Storage of Specimens.</i></a>—If the entomologist is prevented from +mounting his captures soon after returning from an expedition, or if, on +extended collecting trips, time does not offer for this purpose, +specimens of almost all orders except the Lepidoptera, Orthoptera, and +Neuroptera may be placed in a small, tightly closing pill box, care +being taken to keep the larger specimens apart from the small ones. In +this way specimens will keep for an indefinite period, provided they are +properly packed. In the case of the traveling collector, where the +material is to be carried from point to point at great risk of breaking, +specimens should be packed very carefully to prevent any shaking or +rattling about in the boxes. This may be done by placing a round piece +of soft paper on the top of the specimens in the pill box. This paper +should be gently pressed down and the empty space above filled with +other layers of paper or with cotton. The packing of specimens between +cotton is not recommended, as it is a difficult and tedious task to +afterwards free them from the adhering fibers. Layers of soft paper or, +yet better, velvet, are preferable.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_083.png" width="200" height="183" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 104.—Method of preserving Diurnal<br />Lepidoptera in +paper envelopes.<br />(After <ins title="Kiesenvetter">Kiesenwetter</ins>.)</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="ENV_LEPI" id="ENV_LEPI"><i>Envelopes for Lepidoptera, etc.</i></a>—On an extended trip, it will be found +impracticable to mount and prepare insects requiring cumbersome +apparatus for spreading, as Lepidoptera or Neuroptera, and a very +excellent plan consists in folding the wings of the insect so that the +lower surfaces come together and then placing it in a triangular +envelope, as shown in the <ins title="accompaying">accompanying</ins> illustration. The +collector should be provided with a quantity of paper of the requisite +dimensions for making these envelopes, and specimens, as they are taken +from the collecting bottle, may be rapidly inclosed in them, labeled, +and packed away in a tight wooden (not tin) box containing a supply of +naphthaline, the specimens thus occupying the minimum of space. +Specimens secured in this way may be kept without further manipulation +indefinitely or until time is found to relax and set them. This is also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +an excellent method of sending diurnal Lepidoptera and Dragon-flies +through the mails and is preferable in some respects to mailing spread +specimens.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_084a.png" width="250" height="190" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_105"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 105.<ins title="Spreading">—Spreading</ins> board for Lepidoptera.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_084b.png" width="25" height="217" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_106"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 106.<ins title="Needle">—Needle</ins><br />for spreading<br />insects.</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="DIR_INSECTS" id="DIR_INSECTS"><i>Directions for Spreading Insects.</i></a>—“For the proper spreading of +insects with broad and flattened wings, such as butterflies and moths, a +spreading board or stretcher is necessary. One that is simple and +answers every purpose is shown at <a href="#img_105">Fig. 105</a>. It may be made of two pieces +of thin whitewood or pine board, fastened together by braces at the +ends, but left wide enough apart to admit the bodies of the insects to +be spread; strips of cork or pith, in which to fasten the pins, may then +be tacked or glued below so as to cover the intervening space. The +braces must be deep enough to prevent the pins from touching anything +the stretcher may be laid on, and by attaching a ring or loop to one of +them the stretcher may be hung against a wall, out of the way. For +ordinary-sized specimens I use boards 2 feet long, 3 inches wide, and +⅓ inch thick, with three braces (one in the middle and one at each +end) 1½ inches deep at the ends, but narrowing from each end to 1<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>6</sub> +inches at the middle. This slight rising from the middle is to +counteract the tendency of the wings, however well dried, to drop a +little after the insect is placed in the cabinet. The wings are held in +position by means of strips of paper (<a href="#img_105">Fig. 105</a>) until dry. For +stretching the wings and for many other purposes, a handled needle will +be found useful. Split off, with the grain, a piece of pine wood 3 or 4 +inches long; hold it in the right hand; take a medium-sized needle in +the left hand; hold it upright with the point touching a walnut table, +or other hard-grained wood, and bring a steady pressure to bear on the +pine. The head of the needle will sink to any required distance into the +pine, which may then be whittled off, and you have just the thing you +want (<a href="#img_106">Fig. 106</a>). To obtain uniformity in the position of the wings, a +good rule is to have the inner margins of the front wings as nearly as +possible on a straight line. When the specimens are thoroughly stiff and +dry, they should be taken from the stretcher and kept for several weeks +in the drying box before being permanently placed in the cabinet. The +drying box is simply a box of any required dimensions, containing a +series of shelves on which to pin the specimens, and without a solid +back or front. The back is covered on the inside with fine gauze and on +the outside with coarser wire, and the door in front consists of a +close-fitting frame of the same material, the object being to allow free +passage of air, but at the same time to keep out dust and prevent the +gnawings of mice and other animals. The shelves should be not less than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +2 inches deep, and if made in the form of a quadrangular frame, braced +with two cross-pieces on which to tack sheet cork, they will serve for +the double purpose of drying spread specimens and for the spreading of +others, as there are many insects with long legs which are more +conveniently spread on such a board, by means of triangular pieces of +stiff cardboard braces or ‘saddles,’ than on the stretcher +already described. Two of these braces are fixed on the setting board, +by means of stout pins, at sufficient distances apart to receive the +body between them. The wings are then spread upon them and kept in place +until dry by means of additional braces. In the case of bees, wasps, +etc., the pin may be thrust well into the cork or pith so that the wings +may be arranged in the proper position and braced and supported by +strips of stout cardboard. This method is especially recommended in the +case of the Fossorial wasps, the legs of which, if mounted in an +ordinary spreading board, can not be properly arranged.</p> + +<p>In spreading Lepidoptera I have used, in the place of a number of paper +strips pinned across the wings, blocks of glass of various sizes to hold +the wings in position. My method of mounting, with a large amount of +material on hand to be attended to, consists in pinning a row on the +spreading-board and fixing the wings in position with spreading needles, +fastening them with a single narrow strip of paper placed next the body. +The entire spreading-board is filled with specimens in this way, a +single long strip of paper on either side answering to keep the wings of +all the specimens in position. Then, instead of pinning additional +strips to hold the wings flat and securely in position, the pieces of +glass referred to are used, placing them on the wings of the insect. +With the use of glass the spreading-board must always be kept in a +horizontal position and must never be disturbed. The advantage of the +glass is that the wings can be seen through it and more truly adjusted.</p> + +<p>Spreading-boards may be made as described above, or it may be of +advantage, when a good deal of work is to be done, to adopt a somewhat +different method. Five or six spreading-boards may be made together, +forming a sort of shelf. A number of these shelves may be constructed +and the whole combined in a case with a screen cover to exclude insects. +The individual shelves may be arranged with grooves to slide on tongues +in the side of the case. A screen-covered case for spreading-boards is +always desirable, as the insects are otherwise very liable to be eaten +by roaches or other insects. A spreading-case of the form described is +shown at <a href="#img_107">Fig. 107</a>.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_086a.png" width="300" height="225" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_107"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 107.—Spreading-case (original).</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_086b.png" width="300" height="251" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 108.—Spreading apparatus for Microlepidoptera +<br />(original).</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="NEW_APP" id="NEW_APP"><i>A new Apparatus for Spreading Microlepidoptera.</i></a>—For the spreading of +Microlepidoptera my assistant, Mr. Theo. Pergande, has devised an +apparatus, represented in the accompanying illustration, which he finds +very convenient. It consists of a small spreading-block represented at +<i>B</i> and the support with attachment shown at <i>A</i>. The former is made in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> +a long strip of the shape shown in the illustration, having a square +groove, <i>c</i>, cut in the top. Over this is glued a thin strip of wood, +<i>b</i>, say ⅛ inch thick, and a narrow slit is sawed in the center of +this above, cutting through into the groove <i>c</i>. This is then sawed up +into pieces of uniform length, say 1½ to 2 inches, and the block is +completed by the insertion of a rectangular strip of pith or cork into +the groove. The Micro is pinned on a short black pin, and the pin is +thrust down into the narrow opening made by the saw and is held firmly +by the pith or cork. This block is then slid into the groove in the +setting-board <i>A</i>, which narrows slightly from <i>e</i>, and pushed along +until firmly secured (<i>d</i>). The operator can then rest his hands and +arms on either side of the support, and, if necessary, bring a large +hand lens over the object by means of a support with ball-and-socket +joint shown at <i>e</i>. The wings may thus be easily and accurately arranged +and fixed in position with pins or strips of paper, as in the ordinary +mounting of such insects. Two or three specimens may be mounted on each +of these blocks. The construction of the support is indicated in the +annexed drawing. One side is attached by clamps, shown enlarged at <i>f</i>, +which afford means of adjusting the width of the slit in which the small +sawed blocks slide and correct the shrinking or swelling which may take +place in moist or dry seasons. The advantage of the apparatus is that +the operator has the setting block firmly fixed before him and has both +hands free to manipulate the wings of the insect in addition to having +the lens in a convenient position, the use of which is necessary in the +preparation of the very minute forms.</p> + +<p><a name="SPREAD_MICROLEP" id="SPREAD_MICROLEP"><i>Spreading Microlepidoptera.</i></a>—The mounting of Microlepidoptera is about +the most delicate work in entomotaxy, and I can not do better than +quote the explicit directions given by Lord Walsingham on the subject.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p> + +<blockquote><p>Returning to camp I put a few drops of liquid ammonia on a small +piece of sponge and place it in a tin canister with such of the +boxes as do not contain the smallest species, and put these and the +remainder away until morning in a cool place. In the morning I +prepare for work by getting out a pair of scissors, a pair of +forceps, my drying-box containing setting-boards, a sheet of white +paper, and some pins.</p> + +<p>First, I cut two or three narrow pieces of paper from 3 to 6 lines +wide, or rather wider, according to the size of the largest and +smallest specimens I have to set. I then double each of these +strips and cut it up into braces by a number of oblique cuts. Now I +turn out the contents of the canister and damp the sponge with a +few drops of fresh ammonia, refilling with boxes containing live +insects. Those which have been taken out will be found to be all +dead and in a beautifully relaxed condition for setting. Had the +smallest specimens been placed in the canister over night there +would have been some fear of their drying up, owing to the small +amount of moisture in their bodies.</p> + +<p>If the weather is very hot there is some danger of killed insects +becoming stiff while others are being set, in which case it is +better to pin at once into a damp cork box all that have been taken +out of the canister, but under ordinary circumstances I prefer to +pin them one by one as I set them.</p> + +<p>Taking the lid off a box, and taking the box between the finger and +thumb of the right hand, I roll out the insect on the top of the +left thumb, supporting it with the top of the forefinger and so +manipulating it as to bring the head pointing toward my right hand +and the thorax uppermost. Now I take a pin in the right hand and +resting the first joint of the middle finger of the right against +the projecting point of the middle finger of the left hand to avoid +unsteadiness, I pin the insect obliquely through the thickest part +of the thorax, so that the head of the pin leans very slightly +forward over the head of the insect. After passing the pin far +enough through to bring about one-fourth of an inch out below,<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> I +pin the insect into the middle of the groove of a setting board so +that the edge of the groove will just support the under sides of +the wings close up to the body when they are raised upon it. The +board should be chosen of such a size as will permit of the +extension of the wings nearly to its outer edge. The position of +the pin should still be slanting a little forward. The wings should +now be raised into the position in which they are intended to rest, +with especial care in doing so not to remove any scales from the +surface or cilia of the wings. Each wing should be fastened with a +brace long enough to extend across both, the braces being pinned at +the thick end, so that the head of the pin slopes away from the +point of the brace; this causes the braces to press more firmly +down on the wing when fixed. The insect should be braced thus: The +two braces next the body should have the points upwards, the two +outer ones pointing downwards and slightly inwards towards the +body, and covering the main portion of the wings beyond the middle. +Antennæ should be carefully laid back above the wings, and braces +should lie flat, exercising an even pressure at all points of their +surface. The fore wings should slope slightly forwards so that a +line drawn from the point of one to the point of the other will +just miss the head and palpi. The hind wings should be close up, +leaving no intervening space, but just showing the upper angle of +the wing evenly on each side. I can give no more precise directions +as to how this desirable result may most simply and speedily be +attained; no two people set alike. Speed is an object; for I have +often had to set twelve dozen insects before breakfast. A simple +process is essential, for a man who is always pinning and moving +pins, and rearranging wings and legs, is sure to remove a certain +number of scales and spoil the appearance of the insect, besides +utterly destroying its value. I raise each of the fore wings with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +a pin, and fix the pin against the inner margin so as to keep them +in position while I apply the braces. Half the battle is really in +the pinning. When an insect is pinned through the exact center of +the thorax, with the pin properly sloped forward, the body appears +to fall naturally into its position on the setting board, and the +muscles of the wings being left free are easily directed and +secured; but if the pin is not put exactly in the middle it +interferes with the play of the wings. Legs must be placed close +against the body or they will project and interfere with the set of +the wings. Practice, care, and a steady hand will succeed. When all +the insects that have been killed are set the contents of the +canister will be found again ready, twenty minutes being amply +sufficient to expose to the fumes of ammonia. Very bright green or +pale pink insects should be killed by some other process, say +chloroform, as ammonia will affect their colors.</p> + +<p>Insects should be left on the setting boards a full week to dry; +then the braces may be carefully removed and they may be +transferred to the store box.</p></blockquote> + +<p>In my own experience I have found that a touch or two of the chloroform +brush on the pill-box containing small moths is sufficient to either +kill or so asphyxiate them that they can easily be mounted. I have also +found that strips of corn pith or even of soft cork, with grooves cut +into them, are very handy for the pinning and spreading, and that by +means of a small, broad-tipped, and pliable forceps the smallest +specimens can be deftly arranged in the groove and kept in place until +pinned. In fact, for all persons who have not very great experience and +dexterity this method is perhaps more to be recommended than that of +holding them between the thumb and fingers. Where chloroform is used +either to kill or deaden specimens, it is important that after they are +once spread and in the drying box they should be subjected to an +additional asphyxiation, as the larger species may revive and are apt to +pull away from the holding strips, and thus rub off their scales.</p> + +<p>Microlepidoptera, together with Microhymenoptera and Diptera may be +conveniently pinned on fine, short pins, and these thrust into an oblong +bit of cork or pith. This form of mounting has already been described +and is represented in figure 102. The neatest mounting of +Microlepidoptera which I have seen is the work of my assistant, Mr. Albert +Koebele, who mounts these insects on an oblong strip of pith. +This is very light and presents no difficulty in pinning. The strips may +be made of considerable length and both sexes may be pinned on the same +block (see <a href="#img_103">Fig. 103</a>). Most Lepidoptera present on the under surface an +entirely different aspect from that on the upper surface, and, in such +cases, it is a good plan to mount a number of specimens obversely.</p> + +<p><a name="RELAXING" id="RELAXING"><i>Relaxing.</i></a>—It will frequently be desirable to re-spread insects which +have been incorrectly mounted, or to spread specimens which have been +collected and stored in papers, or pinned and allowed to dry without +being prepared for the cabinet. Such specimens may be relaxed by placing +them in a tight tin vessel half filled with moist sand to which a little +carbolic acid has been added to prevent molding. Small specimens will be +sufficiently relaxed to spread in twenty-four hours. Larger specimens +require from two to three days. More rapid relaxing may be caused by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +use of steam, and a flat piece of cork with the specimens laid or pinned +thereon and floated on the top of hot water in a closed vessel +constitutes an excellent relaxing arrangement.</p> + +<p><a name="INFLA_LEPI" id="INFLA_LEPI"><i>Inflation of the Larvæ of Lepidoptera.</i></a>—The larvæ of Lepidoptera +preserved in alcohol are excellent for anatomical and general study, but +are not very suitable for use in economic displays. This means of +preservation also has the disadvantage of not generally preserving the +natural color and appearance of the specimens. These objections may be +avoided, however, by the dry method of preserving larvæ, viz, by blowing +or inflation. The process may be described as follows: The larva may be +operated upon alive, but should preferably be first killed by dipping in +chloroform or alcohol, or in the cyanide bottle. It is then placed on a +piece of blotting paper and the alimentary canal caused to protrude from +one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch, by rolling a pencil over the larva +from the head to the posterior extremity. The protruding tip is then +severed with a sharp knife or pair of dissecting scissors, and the +contents of the abdomen are forced out by passing a pencil, as before, a +number of times over the larva. Great care should be exercised in +expressing the fluids not to press the pencil too strongly against the +larva or to continue the operation too long, as this will, especially in +delicate larvæ, remove the pigment from the skin, and the specimen when +dried will show discolored spots and be more or less distorted. The +larva should be moved from place to place on the blotting paper during +the operation, so as not to become soiled by its own juices. A straw, or +a glass tube drawn to a point at the tip, is then inserted in the +protruding portion of the alimentary canal. If a straw is used the larva +may be fastened to it by thrusting a pin through the wall of the canal +and the straw. In the case of the glass tube the alimentary canal can be +caused to adhere by drying for a few minutes and this operation may be +hastened and the fastening made more secure by touching the point of +union with a drop of glue. The straw or glass tube is then attached to a +small rubber bag, previously inflated with air, the ordinary dentist's +or chemist's gas bag answering admirably for this purpose. The larva is +now ready for drying, and for this purpose a drying oven is required +into which it is thrust and manipulated by turning it from side to side, +to keep it in proper shape and dry it uniformly until the moisture has +been thoroughly expelled. An apparatus which I have found very +convenient for this purpose is represented at <a href="#img_109">Fig. 109</a>. It consists of a +tin box with mica or glass slides, <i>e</i>, to allow the larva to be +constantly in sight. It has also a hinged top, <i>b</i>, which may be kept +closed or partly open, or entirely open, as may be necessary, during the +operation. The ends of the box are prolonged downward about 5 inches, +forming supports for it, <i>g</i>. Beneath it is placed an alcohol lamp, <i>f</i>, +which furnishes the heat. In the end of the box is a circular opening, +<i>d</i>, for the introduction of the larva, and this may be entirely or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +partly closed by a sliding door, <i>a</i>. It will be found of advantage to +line the bottom of the box (inside) with a brass screen of very fine +mesh to distribute and equalize the heat. This apparatus can be very +easily made by any tinsmith and will answer every purpose.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_090.png" width="350" height="467" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_109"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 109.—Drying oven for the inflation of larvæ +(original).</p> +</div> + +<p>The larvæ of Microlepidoptera or young larvæ may be dried without +expressing the body contents, and will keep, to a great extent, their +normal shape and appearance. The method consists in placing them on a +sand bath, heated by an alcohol lamp. The vapor generated by the heat in +the larvæ inflates them and keeps the skin taut until the juices are +entirely evaporated. They may then be glued at once to cardboard and +pinned in the cases.</p> + +<p>In the mounting of large inflated larvæ I have adopted the plan of +supporting them on covered copper wire of a size varying with the size +of the larva. A pin is first thrust through a square bit of cork and the +wire brought tightly about it and wrapped once or twice, compressing the +cork and giving a firm attachment to the pin. The wire is then neatly +bent to form a diamond-shaped loop about one-sixth of an inch in length +and again twisted loosely to the end—the length of the twisted portion +about equalling that of the larva to be mounted. This is then either +thrust into the blown skin of the larva through the anal opening, the +larva being glued to the wire by the posterior extremity, or the larva +is glued to the wire by the abdominal legs and venter, thus resting on +the wire as on a twig. This style of mounting is illustrated in Pl. I. +With a little experience the operator will soon be able to inflate the +most delicate larvæ and also the very hairy forms, as for instance +<i>Orgyia leucostigma</i>, without the least injury, so that the natural +colors and appearance will be preserved.</p> + +<p>Another very good method, and still safer, is to blow with straw, cut +the straw square off at the anus, and then preserve the thoroughly dried +and blown specimen in a glass tube of about the same length and diameter +as the larva. This arrangement in conjunction with the tube holder, +which will be described further on, is one of the most satisfactory for +the preservation of inflated larvæ.</p> + +<p>For the biological-display collection, larvæ may be blown in various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +natural positions, to be subsequently fastened on leaf or twig or in +burrows which they have occupied. Fastened to artificial foliage in +which nature is imitated as much as possible, such blown larvæ are quite +effective.</p> + +<p><a name="STUFF_INSECTS" id="STUFF_INSECTS"><i>Stuffing Insects.</i></a>—Large larvæ may sometimes be satisfactorily +preserved for exhibition purposes by stuffing them with cotton. The +method consists simply in making a small slit with the dissecting +scissors or a short scalpel between the abdominal prolegs, and removing +the body contents. Powdered arsenic or some other preservative should be +put in the body of the larva with the cotton used in stuffing it, and +the slit closed by a few stitches, when the larva may be dried and +mounted on a twig or leaf. This method of stuffing with cotton is also +applicable in the case of certain large-bodied insects which, if mounted +and put away without preparation, would be liable to decompose, as, for +instance, the larger moths, grasshoppers, etc. A slit can be made in the +center of the abdomen or near the anus beneath, and the body contents +removed and replaced with cotton. Stuffing in this way with cotton is of +especial advantage in the case of certain of the large endophytous +insects which grease badly. The cut will not be noticed after the insect +has dried, or it may be closed by a stitch or two.</p> + +<p><a name="DRY_APHIDES" id="DRY_APHIDES"><i>Dry Preservation of Aphides and other soft-bodied Insects.</i></a>—Difficulty +has always been experienced in preserving soft-bodied insects, +particularly Aphides, in a condition serviceable for subsequent +scientific study. Kept in alcohol or other antiseptic fluid, they almost +<ins title="invariable">invariably</ins> lose much of their normal appearance, and +many of the important characteristics, especially of color, are obscured +or lost. The balsam mount is also unsatisfactory in many respects, as +the body is always more or less distorted and little can be relied upon +except the venation and the jointed appendages. A method of preserving +soft-bodied insects by means of the sudden application of intense heat +was communicated to the <i>Entomologische Nachrichten</i>, Vol. <span class="smcap">iv</span>, page 155, +by Herr D. H. R. von Schlechtendal. It is claimed for this method that +the Aphides and other soft-bodied insects can be satisfactorily +preserved in form and coloring, the success of the method being vouched +for by a number of well-known German entomologists, Kaltenbach, Giebel, +Taschenberg, Mayr, and Rudow. A condensed translation of the method +employed by Schlechtendal is given by J. W. Douglas in the +<i>Entomologists' Monthly Magazine</i> for December, 1878, which I quote:</p> + +<blockquote><p>The heat is derived from the flame of a spirit or petroleum +<ins title="lamp">lamp.</ins> Above this is placed a piece of sheet-tin, and over this +the roasting proceeds. A bulging lamp cylinder, laid horizontally, +serves as a roasting oven. In this the insect to be dried, when +prepared as directed, and stuck on a piece of pith, is to be held +over the flame; or the cylinder may be closed at the lower end with +a cork, which should extend far inwards, and on this the insect +should be fastened; the latter mode being preferable because the +heat is more concentrated, and one hand is left free. The mode of +procedure varies according to the nature of the objects to be +treated. For the class of larger objects, such as Hemiptera, +Cicadina, and Orthoptera, in their young stages of existence, the +heat must not be slight, but a little practice shows the proper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +temperature required. If the heat be insufficient, a drying up +instead of a natural distention ensues. The insect to be roasted is +to be pierced by a piece of silver wire on the under side of the +thorax, but it is not to be inserted so far as to damage the upper +side, and the wire should then be carried through a disk of pith, +placed beneath the insect, on which the legs should be set out in +the desired position. But with some objects, such, for instance, as +a young <i>Strachia</i>, the drying proceeds very quickly, so that if +distention be not observed then the heat is too great, for the +expansion of the air inside will force off the head with a loud +report; also, with softer, thicker Pentatomidæ care must be taken +to begin with a heat only so strong that the internal juices do not +boil, for in such case the preparation would be spoiled. It is of +advantage to remove the cylinder from time to time, and test, by +means of a lens, if a contraction of the skin has taken place on +any part; if so, the roasting is to be continued. The desired +hardness may be tested with a bristle or wire.</p> + +<p>For <i>Aphides</i> the <i>living Aphis</i> is to be put on a piece of white +paper, and at the moment when it is in the desired position it is +to be held over the flame, and in an instant it will be dead and +will retain the attitude. Then put it, still on the paper, into the +oven; or, still better, hold it over the heated tin, carefully +watching the drying and moving the paper about in order to prevent +it getting singed. The roasting is quickly accomplished in either +way, but somewhat slower out of the oven especially in the larger +kinds, such as Lachnus. If the paper turn brown it is a sure sign +that caution is requisite. To pierce these brittle preparations for +preservation is hazardous, and it is a better way to mount them +with gum on card, placing some examples on their back.</p> + +<p>For Cecidomyidæ, Agromyzidæ, Cynipidæ, and other small insects +liable to shrink, yet containing but little moisture, such as +Poduridæ, Pediculidæ, Psyllidæ, etc., another method is adopted. +Over the insect, mounted on a wire, etc., as above directed, a thin +chemical reagent glass or glass rod, heated strongly at one end, is +held, and the heat involved is generally sufficient to bring about +the immediate drying and distention, but if the heat be too little +the process must be repeated; and, although by this method the +danger of burning is not obviated, yet the position of the legs is +maintained much better than by the aforesaid roasting.</p> + +<p>Larvæ of all kinds, up to the size of that of <i>Astynomus ædilis</i>, +even when they have long been kept in spirits, may be treated +successfully by the roasting method; but with these objects care +must be taken that the heat is not too strong or else the form will +be distorted. For small larvæ it is preferable to use a short +glass, in order better to effect their removal without touching the +upper part, which becomes covered with steam, and contact with +which would cause the destruction of the preparation. Larvæ of +Coleoptera, which contain much moisture or have a mucous surface, +must lie on a bed of paper or pith in order to prevent adhesion and +burning, and these may be further avoided if the cylinder be +slightly shaken during the process, and the position of the object +be thereby changed.</p></blockquote> + +<p>Many Aphides and Coccids are covered with a waxy secretion which +interferes very materially with their easy examination. Mr. Howard has +overcome this difficulty by the following treatment:</p> + +<p>“With Aphides and Coccids which are covered with an abundant waxy +secretion which can not be readily brushed away, we have adopted the +plan of melting the wax. We place the insect on a bit of platinum foil +and pass it once over the flame of the alcohol lamp. The wax melts at a +surprisingly low temperature and leaves the insect perfectly clean for +study. This method is particularly of use in the removal of the waxy +cocoon of the pupæ of male Coccidæ, and is quicker and more thorough +than the use of any of the chemical wax solvents which we have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +tried.” (<i>Insect Life</i>, I, p. 152.)</p> + +<p><a name="MOUNT_MICRO" id="MOUNT_MICRO"><i>Mounting Specimens for the Microscope.</i></a>—The study of the minuter forms +of insect life, including Parasites, Thysanura, Mallophaga, the newly +hatched of most insects, etc., requires the use of the microscope, and +some little knowledge of the essentials of preparing and mounting +specimens is needed. The subject of mounting the different organs of +insects and the preparation for histological study of the soft parts of +insects opens up the immense field of microscopy, the use of the +innumerable mounting media, the special treatment of the objects to be +mounted, staining, section-cutting, and many other like topics, a full +description of which is altogether out of place in the present work. +Anyone desiring to become thoroughly versed in the subject should +consult some of the larger manuals for the microscopist, of which there +are many. For the practical working entomologist, however, a knowledge +of all these methods and processes is not essential, and in my long +experience I have found that mounting in Canada balsam will answer for +almost every purpose. The softer-bodied forms will shrink more or less +in this substance, and it is frequently necessary to make studies or +drawings of them when freshly mounted; or, if additional specimens are +preserved in alcohol, they will supplement the mounted specimens and the +material may be worked up at the convenience of the student. The +materials for the balsam mounts may be obtained of any dealer in +microscopical supplies. They consist of glass slides, 3 inches by 1 +inch, thin cover-glasses of different dimensions, and the prepared +balsam. The balsam is put up very conveniently for use in tin tubes. A +sufficient quantity is pressed out on the center of the glass slide, +which has previously been made thoroughly clean and dry, the insect is +removed from the alcohol, and when the excess of liquor has been removed +with bibulous paper, it is placed in the balsam, the limbs and antennæ +being arranged as desired by the use of fine mounting-needles. A +cover-glass, also made thoroughly clean and dry, is then placed over the +specimen and pressed gently until the balsam entirely fills the space +between the cover and the glass slide. The slide should then be properly +labeled with a number referring to the notes on the insect, preferably +placed on the upper edge of the slide above the cover-glass, and also a +label giving the number of the slide and the number of the slide box. On +the opposite end of the slide may be placed the label giving the name of +the specimen mounted and the date. If a revolving slide table is +employed to center the mounts, the appearance of the slide may be +improved by adding a circle of asphalt or Brunswick black. With the +balsam mounts, however, this sealing is not necessary. The slide (<a href="#img_110">Fig. 110</a>) +should then be placed in a slide case with the mount uppermost, and +should be kept in a horizontal position to prevent sliding of the +cover-glass and specimen until the balsam is thoroughly dried. For +storing slides I have found very convenient the box shown at <a href="#img_111">Fig. 111</a>. +It is constructed of strong pasteboard and is arranged for holding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +twenty-six slides. The cover bears numbers from 1 to 26, opposite which +the name of each insect mounted, or the label on the slide, may be +written. This box when not in use is kept in a pasteboard case, on which +may be placed the number of the box. These slide cases may be stored in +drawers or on shelves made for the purpose. In mounting specimens taken +from alcohol it is advisable to put a drop of oil of cloves upon them, +which unites with the balsam and ultimately evaporates. The occurrence +of minute air bubbles under the cover-glass need occasion no uneasiness, +for these will disappear on the drying of the balsam.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_094a.png" width="400" height="144" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_110"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 110.—Balsam mount, showing method of labeling, etc. +(original).</p> +</div> + +<p>In mounting minute Acarids or mites it has been found best to kill the +insects in hot water, which causes them to expand their legs, so that +when mounted these appendages can readily be studied. If mounted living,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> +the legs are almost invariably curled up under the body and can not be +seen. This method may also be used in the case of other minute insects. +Some insects, such as minute Diptera, are injured by the use of hot +water, and for these dipping in hot spirits is recommended.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_094b.png" width="400" height="337" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_111"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 111.—Slide case, showing method of labeling case +and of numbering and labeling slides (original).</p> +</div> + +<p>In the mounting of Aphides the same difficulty is avoided in a measure +by Mr. G. B. Buckton, author of “A Monograph of the British +Aphides,” by first placing a few dots of balsam on the glass +slide, to which the insect is transferred by means of a moistened +camel's-hair brush. The efforts of the insect to escape will cause it to +spread out its legs in a natural position and a cover glass may then be +placed in position and a drop of the balsam placed at the side, when, by +capillarity, it will fill the space between the slide and cover glass +and the limbs will be found to have remained extended. If three or four +drops of the balsam are put on the glass the wings may also be brought +down and caught to them so that they will remain expanded in shape for +examination.</p> + +<p><a name="PREP_LEPI" id="PREP_LEPI"><i>Preparing and Mounting the Wings of Lepidoptera.</i></a>—The student of +Lepidoptera will frequently find it necessary in the study of the +venation of wings to bleach them or denude them of their scales in some +way. Various methods of bleaching and mounting the wings of these +insects have been given, and a few of them may be briefly outlined.</p> + +<p>The simplest and quickest, but perhaps the least satisfactory, method is +to remove the scales with a camel's-hair brush. This will answer for the +larger forms and where a very careful examination is not required. For +more careful examination and study the wings are first bleached by the +action of some caustic solution and then mounted in balsam for permanent +preservation. Chambers's method for Tineina, Tortricina, Pyralidina, and +the smaller moths generally, is as follows: The wing is placed on a +microscopic slide in from 3 to 4 drops of a strong solution of potash, +the amount varying according to the size of the wing. A cover of glass +is then placed in position on the wing as in ordinary mounting.</p> + +<p>The quantity of liquid should be sufficient to fill the space beneath, +but not sufficient to float the cover glass. The mount is then placed +over an alcohol flame, removing it at the first sign of ebullition, when +the wing will be found denuded, if it be a fresh specimen. An old +specimen, or a larger wing, will require somewhat more prolonged +boiling. The fluid is drawn off by tilting the glass or with bibulous +paper, and the potash removed by washing with a few drops of water. The +cover glass is then removed and the wing mounted either on the same +slide in balsam or floated to another slide, or at once accurately +sketched with the camera lucida. Permanent mounting, however, is always +to be recommended.</p> + +<p>The Dimmock method of bleaching the wings of Lepidoptera, given in +Psyche, Vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>, pp. 97–99, is as follows: He uses for bleaching a +modification of the chlorine bleaching process commonly employed in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> +cotton bleacheries, the material for which is sold by druggists as +chlorate of lime. The wings are first soaked in pure alcohol to dissolve +out the oily matter, which will act as a repellant to the aqueous +chlorine solution. The chlorate of lime is dissolved in 10 parts of +water and filtered. The wings are transferred to a small quantity of +this solution and in an hour or two are thoroughly bleached, the veins, +however, retaining a light brown color. If the bleaching does not +commence readily in the chlorine solution the action may be hastened by +previously dipping them in dilute hydrochloric acid. When sufficiently +decolorized the wings should be washed in dilute hydrochloric acid to +remove the deposit of calcic carbonate, which forms by the union of the +calcic hydrate solution with the carbonic dioxide of the air. The wings +are then thoroughly washed in pure water and may be gummed to cards or +mounted on glass slides in Canada balsam, first washing them in alcohol +and chloroform to remove the moisture. If either of the solutions known +as <i>eau de labaraque</i> and <i>eau de javelle</i> are used in place of the +bleaching powder, no deposit is left on the wings and the washing with +acid is obviated. This process does not dissolve or remove the scales, +but merely renders them transparent, so that they do not interfere with +the study of the venation.</p> + +<p>Prof. C. H. Fernald (<i>American Monthly Microscopical Journal</i>, <span class="smcap">i</span>, p. +172, 1880), mounts the wings of Lepidoptera in glycerin, after having +first cleared them by the Dimmock process. After bleaching and washing, +the wings are dried by holding the slides over an alcohol flame, and a +drop of glycerin is then applied and a cover glass put on at once. By +holding the slide again over the flame until ebullition takes place the +glycerin will replace the air under the wings and no injury to the +structure of the wings will result, even if, in refractory cases, the +wing is boiled for some little time. The mount in this method must be +sealed with some microscopic cement, as asphalt or Brunswick black.</p> + +<p>A method of mounting wings of small Lepidoptera for studying venation, +which I have found very convenient, is thus described by Mr. Howard in +<i>Insect Life</i>, Vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>, p. 151:</p> + +<p>“Some years ago we used the following method for studying the +venation of the wings of small Lepidoptera. We have told it since to +many friends, but believe it has not been published. It is in some +respects preferable to the so-called ‘Dimmock process,’ +and particularly as a time-saver. It is also in this respect preferable +to denudation with a brush. The wing is removed and mounted upon a slide +in Canada balsam, which should be preferably rather thick. The slide is +then held over the flame of an alcohol lamp until the balsam spreads +well over the wing. Just as it is about to enter the veins, however, the +slide is placed upon ice, or, if in the winter time, outside the window +for a few moments. This thickens the balsam immediately and prevents it +from entering the veins, which remain permanently filled with air and +appear black with transmitted light. With a little practice one soon +becomes expert enough to remove the slide and cool it at just the right<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +time, when the scales will have been rendered nearly transparent by the +balsam, while the veins remain filled with air. We have done this +satisfactorily not only with Tortricidæ and Tineidæ, but with Noctuids +of the size of <i>Aletia</i> and <i>Leucania</i>. The mounts are permanent, and we +have some which have remained unchanged since 1880. Prof. Riley had for +some years before this been in the habit of mounting wings in balsam, in +which of course the scales cleared after a time.”</p> + +<p>Prof. John B. Smith recommends a modification of the Dimmock process of +bleaching the wings of Lepidoptera, publishing it in Insect Life, Vol. +<span class="smcap">i</span>, pp. 291, 292, as follows:</p> + +<p>“By the Dimmock process the wings are first acted upon by a +saturated solution of the chloride of lime, chlorine being, of course, +the bleaching agent. Afterward they are washed in water to which +hydrochloric acid has been added, to get rid of the slight deposit of +lime. The process is a slow one for thickly scaled, dark-colored +insects, and it occurred to me to try a mixture of the chloride and +acid, liberating the chlorine gas. The method was absolutely successful, +the wings decolorizing immediately and being ready for the slide within +two minutes. In fact, very delicate wings can scarcely be taken out +quick enough, and need very little acid. The advantage is the rapidity +of work and the certainty of retaining the wings entire, the chloride of +lime sometimes destroying the membrane in part before the bleaching is +complete. The disadvantage is the vile smell of the chlorine gas when +liberated by the combination of the two liquids. For quick work this +must be endured, and the beauty and completeness of the result are also +advantages to counterbalance the discomfort to the senses.”</p> + +<p>For further special directions for mounting, for microscopic purposes, +different insects and the different parts of insects, representing both +the external <ins title="chytinous">chitinous</ins> covering and the internal anatomy, +the student is referred to special works.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"> +<p style="font-size: 125%; text-indent: 0em;">Footnotes:</p> +<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> In North America, Kläger pins and Karlsbad pins can be +obtained through Mr. John Ackhurst, 78 Ashland Place, Brooklyn, N. Y., +and possibly also through Messrs. Blake & Co., 55 North Seventh +street, Philadelphia, Pa. The Vienna pins and the Minutien-Nadeln have +to be ordered direct through the manufacturer, Mr. Miller.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> +Montgomery & Co., 105 Fulton street, New York City.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>This applies to the use of short pins, which should +subsequently be connected through strips of pith with longer pins. +For some of the larger micros the long pins may be used directly +and a different spreading board employed.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<h3><a name="PRE_SPEC" id="PRE_SPEC">PRESERVATION OF ALCOHOLIC SPECIMENS.</a></h3> + +<p><a name="APP_METH" id="APP_METH"><span class="smcap">Apparatus and Methods.</span></a>—The collections of most value, especially to our +various agricultural colleges and experiment stations will be largely of +a biologic and economic character, and the interest attaching to a +knowledge of the life history of insects will induce many collectors to +build up independent biologic collections. Very much of this biological +material will be alcoholic, and though many immature states of insects +may be preserved by dry processes, still the bulk must needs be kept in +liquid. This material may, when not abundant, be kept with the general +systematic collection, but experience has shown that it is better to +make a separate biological collection, and this is recommended +especially for State institutions where the collections may be expected +to attain some considerable proportions. In the case of such collections +it is very desirable to adopt some method of securing the vials in such +a manner that they can easily be transferred from one place to another<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +and fastened in the boxes or drawers employed for pinned insects. For +directions in this regard I reproduce from an article on the subject in +<i>Insect Life</i>, Vol. <span class="smcap">ii</span>, pp. 345, 346, which was republished, with slight +changes, from my annual report for 1886 as Honorary Curator.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> + +<p><a name="STOP_HOLD" id="STOP_HOLD"><i>Vials, Stoppers and Holders.</i></a>—The vials in use to preserve such +specimens as must be left in alcohol or other liquids are straight glass +tubes of varying diameters and lengths, with round bottom and smooth +even mouth. The stoppers in use are of rubber, which, when tightly put +into the vial, the air being nearly all expelled, keep the contents of +the vial intact and safe for years.</p> + +<p>Various forms of bottles are used in museums for the preservation of +minute alcoholic material. I have tried the flattened and the square and +have studied various other forms of these vials; but I am satisfied that +those just described, which are in use by Dr. Hagen in the Cambridge +Museum, are, all things considered, the most convenient and economical. +A more difficult problem to solve was a convenient and satisfactory +method of holding these vials and of fastening them into drawers or +cases held at all angles, from perpendicular to horizontal. Most +alcoholic collections are simply kept standing, either in tubes with +broad bases or in tubes held in wooden or other receptacles; but for a +biologic collection of insects something that could be used in +connection with the pinned specimens and that could be easily removed, +as above set forth, was desirable. After trying many different +contrivances I finally prepared a block, with Mr. Hawley's assistance, +which answers every purpose of simplicity, neatness, security, and +convenience. It is, so far as I know, unique, and will be of advantage +for the same purpose to other museums. It has been in use now for the +past six years, and has been of great help and satisfaction in the +arrangement and preservation of the alcoholic specimens, surpassing all +other methods for ease of handling and classifying.</p> + +<p>The blocks are oblong, one-fourth of an inch thick, the ends (<i>c c</i>, +<a href="#img_112">Fig. 112</a>) beveled, the sides either beveled or straight, the latter +preferable. They vary in length and breadth according to the different +sizes of the vials, and are painted white. Upon the upper side of these +blocks are fastened two curved clamps of music wire (<i>b b</i>), forming +about two-thirds of a complete circle. The fastening to the block is +simple and secure. A bit of the wire of proper length is first doubled +and then by a special contrivance the two ends are bent around a mandrel +so as to form an insertion point or loop. A brad awl is used to make a +slot in the block, into which this loop is forced (<i>e</i>, <a href="#img_112">Fig. 112</a>, 5), a +drop of warm water being first put into the slot to soften the wood, +which swells and closes so firmly around the wire that considerable +force is required to pull it out. Four pointed wire nails (<i>d d d d</i>), +set into the bottom so as to project about one-fourth inch, serve to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +hold the block to the cork bottom of the case or drawer in which it is +to be placed. The method of use is simple and readily seen from the +accompanying figures, which represent the block from all sides.</p> + +<p>The advantages of this system are the ease and security with which the +block can be placed in or removed from a box; the ease with which a vial +can be slipped into or removed from the wire clamps; the security with +which it is held, and the fact that practically no part of the contents +of the vial is obscured by the holder—the whole being visible from +above.</p> + +<p>The beveled ends of the block may be used for labeling, or pieces of +clean <ins title="card-board">cardboard</ins> cut so as to project somewhat on all sides may be used +for this purpose, and will be held secure by the pins between the block +and the cork of the drawers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_099.png" width="500" height="320" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_112"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 112.—Vial holder; 1, block, with vial, beveled on +all <ins title="sides:">sides;</ins> 2, do., beveled only on ends; 3, block, end view; 5, +do., section; 4, 6, do., side views; <i>a</i>, block; <i>b</i>, spring-wire +clamps; <i>c</i>, beveled ends of block; <i>d</i>, pointed wire nails; <i>e</i>, point +of insertion of clamp. (Lettering on all figures corresponds.)</p> +</div> + +<p>The use of rubber stoppers in this country was first instituted by Dr. H. A. Hagen +in connection with the Cambridge biological collection, and +he has made some very careful records to determine the durability of +such stoppers. From an examination of some seven thousand vials with +rubber stoppers, two-thirds of which had been in use for from ten to +twelve years, he comes to the conclusion that less than one in a +thousand gives out every year after twelve years' use, and in the first +six years probably only one out of two thousand. Stoppers of large size +keep much longer than those of small size. American rubber stoppers are +all made of vulcanized India rubber and have the disadvantage of forming +small crystals of sulphur about the stopper, which become loosened and +attach themselves to the specimens. It is supposed that pure +rubber-stoppers used for chemical purposes would not present this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +disadvantage, which may be obviated, however, or very much reduced, if +the stoppers are washed or soaked, preferably in hot water, for an hour +or two at least.</p> + +<p>If stoppers are stored for a considerable time and exposed to the air +they become very hard and unfit for use, and Dr. Hagen has drawn +attention to a method recommended by Professor W. Hemple, of Dresden, +Saxony, of preventing them from becoming thus hardened. He says that to +keep rubber stoppers or rubber apparatus of any sort elastic, they +should be stored in large glass jars in which an open vessel containing +petroleum is placed. This treatment prevents the evaporation of the +fluids which are fixed in the rubber in the process of vulcanization. It +is better also to keep the light from the jar. To soften stoppers which +have already become hardened, they should be brought together in a jar +with sulphuret of carbon until they are pliable and afterward kept as +recommended above.</p> + +<p>In the use of the rubber stopper the novice may find some difficulty in +inserting it in a vial filled with alcohol. The compression of the +alcohol, or alcohol and air when the vial is not completely filled, +forces the stopper out, and this is true whether of rubber or cork. If a +fine insect pin is placed beside the cork when this is thrust into the +bottle, the air or liquid displaced by the cork will escape along the +pin and the latter may then be removed and the cork remains securely in +position.</p> + +<p>If cork stoppers have been used the vials may be stored in large +quantities together in jars filled with alcohol. This will prevent +evaporation of the alcohol from the vials, and the specimens may be +preserved indefinitely. This is only desirable in the storage of +duplicate specimens and unarranged material and is not recommended as a +substitute for the use of the rubber stopper. With cork stoppers +evaporation can be in a measure prevented if the cork is first anointed +with the petroleum preparation known as vaseline. This substance is +practically unaffected at ordinary temperature and is sparingly soluble +in cold alcohol. Experiments with it have shown that at ordinary spring +and summer temperatures there is no appreciable loss of alcohol from +vials and jars.</p> + +<p>My old method of keeping alcoholic specimens, which I abandoned for the +method outlined above, was fairly serviceable, inexpensive, and warrants +description.</p> + +<p>I had special folding boxes constructed resembling in exterior +appearance a large insect box. The bottom of the box was solid and was +made by gluing together two 1½-inch planks.</p> + +<p>Holes extending nearly through the lower plank and of various sizes to +accommodate vials of different diameters were bored as closely together +as the wood justified without splitting or breaking.</p> + +<p>The holes were numbered consecutively and the vials when placed in them +were numbered to correspond; the box also had its number, and in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +notes the vial was referred to by number of box and vial thus, <sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>73</sub> (box +3, vial 73). The vial should project one-half to 1 inch above the hole, +and should be loose enough to provide for the swelling of the wood in +moist weather.</p> + +<p>To protect the vials a cover having a depth of about 1½ inch was hinged +to the back and secured in front by hook-and-eye fastenings.</p> + +<p>This method of storing vials is satisfactory enough for private +collections, but for larger public collections is not so suitable.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_101a.png" width="600" height="144" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_113"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 113.—The Marx tray for alcoholic specimens +(original.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_101b.png" width="150" height="186" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_114"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 114.—Vials used<br />in the Marx tray (original.)</p> +</div> + +<p>A rather convenient and inexpensive method of storing vials is that used +by Dr. Marx. In this method the vials are stored in a wooden frame, +shown at <a href="#img_113">Fig. 113</a>. The top piece of the tray into which the vials are +thrust has a cork center, in which holes corresponding to the size of +the vials are made with a gun-wad punch. The outer end of the tray bears +a label or labels describing the material in the tray. The vials used by +Dr. Marx are of thinner glass than those which I recommend and flare +slightly at the top, as shown in the accompanying illustrations. They +are made in various sizes to accommodate larger and smaller specimens. A +vial thrust into the hole punched in the cork rests on the bottom piece +of the tray, the flange or neck preventing it from sliding through. +These trays are arranged on shallow shelves in a case or cabinet, +especially constructed for the purpose and a large quantity of +material may be stored by their use in small compass. The use of the +cork center piece in the upper part of the tray is not a necessity, and +a wooden piece may be used in which holes are bored with a <ins title="bitt">bit</ins> +of proper size.</p> + +<p><a name="PRES_ALCO" id="PRES_ALCO"><i>Preserving Micro-larvæ in Alcohol.</i></a>—The following is quoted from +Packard's “Entomology for Beginners,” for which it was +translated from the “<i>Deutsche Ent. Zeitg.</i>,” 1887, Heft I:</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_102.png" width="300" height="100" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 115.—Method of preserving minute larvæ etc.<br />(After +Dewitz.)</p> +</div> + +<p>“Dr. H. Dewitz mounts the larvæ and pupæ of Microlepidoptera, and +also the early stages of other small insects, in the following way: The +insects are put into a bottle with 95 per cent alcohol. Many +<ins title="larvae">larvæ</ins> turn black in alcohol, but boiling them in alcohol in a +test tube will bleach them. They may then be finally placed in glass +tubes as small and thin as possible, varying from 0.003 to 0.006 meter +in diameter, according to the size of the insects. About 0.07 meter's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +length of a tube is melted over a spirit lamp, and the tube filled +three-quarters full with 95 per cent alcohol, the insects placed within +and the contents of the tube heated at the end still open, and then +closed by being pulled out with another piece of glass tubing. After the +glass has been held a few minutes in the hand until it is slightly +cooled off, the end closed last is once more held over the lamp so that +the points may be melted together, and this end of the glass may be +finished. During the whole time from the closure of the tube until the +complete cooling of the glass it should be held obliquely in the hand, +so that the alcohol may not wet the upper end, for if the tube is too +full it is difficult to melt it, as the steam quickly expanding breaks +through the softened mass of glass. The tube may be mounted by boring a +hole through a cork stopper of the same diameter as the glass. The +stopper is cut into the shape of a cube, a strong insect pin put through +it, and the glass tube inserted into the hole. It can then be pinned in +the insect box or drawer, near the imago, so that the free end of the +glass may touch the bottom, while the other end stands up somewhat; +while to keep the tube in place the free end resting on the bottom may +be fastened with two strong insect pins. The specimens thus put up can +easily be examined with a lens, and if they need to be taken out for +closer examination the tube can be opened and closed again after a +little practice.”</p> + +<p><a name="PRES_FLUIDS" id="PRES_FLUIDS"><span class="smcap">Preservative Fluids.</span></a>—The principal liquids in which soft-bodied insects +may be successfully preserved are the following:</p> + +<p><a name="ALCOHOL_2" id="ALCOHOL_2"><i>Alcohol.</i></a>—As indicated in the foregoing portions of this work, alcohol +is the standard preservative used for soft-bodied specimens, and may be +used either full strength or diluted with water. Diluted alcohol should +always be first used with larvæ, since the pure alcohol shrivels them +up. The weak spirits can afterwards be replaced by strong, for permanent +preservation.</p> + +<p><a name="ARSENIC" id="ARSENIC"><i>Alcohol and White Arsenic.</i></a>—The method of preserving insects +recommended by Laboulbène and quoted in Packard's Entomology for +Beginners, consists in plunging the insects in the fresh state into a +preservative liquid, consisting of alcohol with an excess of the common +white arsenic of commerce. The larva placed in this mixture absorbs .003 +of its own weight, and when removed and pinned is safe from the attacks +of museum pests. This liquid is said not to change the colors, blue, +green or red of beetles, if they are not immersed for more than +twenty-four hours. This treatment is applicable to the orders +Coleoptera, Hemiptera, and Orthoptera. If the insect is allowed to stay +in this mixture for a considerable time, say three or four weeks, and +then removed and dried, it becomes very hard and brittle and can not be +used for dissection or study, but makes a good cabinet specimen. The +white deposit of arsenic which will appear on drying can be washed off<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +with alcohol.</p> + +<p><a name="SUBLIMATE" id="SUBLIMATE"><i>Alcohol and Corrosive Sublimate.</i></a>—The same author recommends another +preparation consisting of alcohol with a variable quantity of corrosive +sublimate added, the strength of the solution varying from 100 parts of +alcohol to 1 part of corrosive sublimate for the strongest, to one-tenth +of 1 part of sublimate in 100 parts of alcohol for the weakest. The +insects are allowed to remain in this mixture not longer than two hours +before drying. The last-described preparation is said to preserve the +specimens from mold. Both of these solutions are very poisonous and +should be used with care.</p> + +<p><a name="FORM_COLOR" id="FORM_COLOR"><i>Two Liquids to preserve Form and Color.</i></a>—Professor Packard also quotes +the formula of A. E. Verrill for preserving insects in their natural +color and form. Two formulas are given; the first consists of 2½ pounds +of common salt and 4 ounces of niter dissolved in a gallon of water and +filtered. The specimens should be prepared for permanent preservation in +this solution by being previously immersed in a solution consisting of a +quart of the first solution and 2 ounces of arsenite of potash in a +gallon of water. Professor Packard gives also the formula of M. H. Trois +for preserving caterpillars, for which it is claimed that the colors of +the caterpillars are preserved perfectly, even when exposed to strong +light. The formula for this solution is as follows:</p> + +<table summary="liquid_formula" width="250"> + <tr> + <td align="left">Common salt</td> + <td align="right">grams</td> + <td align="right">2.35</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Alum</td> + <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 0.5em;">do.</span></td> + <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.2em;">55</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Corrosive sublimate</td> + <td align="right">centigrams</td> + <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.2em;">18</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Boiling water </td> + <td align="right">liters</td> + <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.2em;">5</span></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Allow the liquid to cool and add 50 grains of carbolic acid, and filter +after standing five or six days.</p> + +<p><a name="GLYCERIN" id="GLYCERIN"><i>Glycerin.</i></a>—Glycerin, either pure or mixed with water or alcohol, is +frequently used to preserve the larvæ of delicate insects. It preserves +the color and form better than alcohol, but particularly in the case of +larvæ, it causes a softening of the tissues which renders them unfit for +study.</p> + +<p><a name="WICKERSHEIM" id="WICKERSHEIM"><i>The Wickersheim Preserving Fluid.</i></a>—This valuable preserving fluid has +been known for some time, but is not very commonly used, on account of +frequent disappointment due to the difficulty attending its preparation. +It is claimed for it that animal or vegetable bodies impregnated with it +will retain their form, color, and flexibility in the most perfect +manner. The objects to be preserved are put in the fluid for from six to +twelve days, according to their size, and then taken out and dried in +the air. The ligaments remain soft and movable, and the animals or +plants remain fit for anatomical dissection and study for long periods, +even years. It is said to be especially valuable for the preservation of +larvæ and soft-bodied insects. In order to perfectly preserve the +colors, it is necessary to leave the specimens in the fluid, or, if they +are taken out, they should be sealed up in air-tight vials or vessels. +The formula for the fluid is as follows:</p> + +<p>Dissolve 100 grams alum, 25 grams common salt, 12 grams saltpeter, 60<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +grams potash, 10 grams arsenious acid in 3,000 grams boiling water. +Filter the solution, and when cold add 10 liters of the liquid to 4 +liters of glycerin and 1 liter of methyl alcohol.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"> +<p style="font-size: 125%; text-indent: 0em;">Footnote:</p> +<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1886, Part + II, Report of the National Museum, pp. 182–186. Washington, 1890.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<h3><a name="LAB_SPEC" id="LAB_SPEC">LABELING SPECIMENS.</a></h3> + +<p><a name="GEN_DIR_2" id="GEN_DIR_2"><i>General Directions.</i></a>—It matters little how much care and pains have +been taken in the preparation and mounting of specimens, they will have +little value unless accompanied by proper labels giving information as +to locality and date of collection, name of collector, and a label or +number referring to notebooks, if any biological or other facts +concerning them have been ascertained. There should be pinned to the +specimen labels referring to, or giving all the information obtainable +or of interest concerning it. A somewhat different style of label will +be found necessary in the case of the two forms of collections described +in the foregoing pages, namely, the biological or economic collection, +and the systematic collection. For the former, numbers may be attached +to the specimens which will refer to the notes relating to the specimen +or species. For the latter, in most cases, all necessary information may +be recorded and made available by written or printed labels attached +directly to the specimens. In most cases, however, I find a combination +of these two systems convenient and desirable. The numbering system is +very simple, and is the one which I have followed in all the species for +which I have biological or other notes. It consists in giving each +species, as it comes under observation, a serial number which refers to +a record in a notebook. With this number may be combined, if convenient, +the date of rearing or collection of the specimen, and also the locality +and food-plant if known. The vast number of species represented in a +systematic collection renders the numbering system entirely out of place +and inadequate, and the labeling system alone is generally available. If +it becomes necessary in the systematic collection to refer to +food-plants or life-history or any other fact of interest, the numbering +system should be used, and I recommend that the numbers be written in +red ink on the labels, to distinguish at a glance the numbers referring +to biological notes from other numbers that will occur in the +collection.</p> + +<p><a name="PIN_SPEC" id="PIN_SPEC"><i>Labels for pinned Specimens.</i></a>—The following labels should be employed +in the collection: (1) <i>Locality label</i>, which should be as explicit as +possible. (2) <i>Date of capture</i>, which is very useful and sometimes +quite important in various ways. It indicates at what time additional +specimens of some rare species may be secured, and greatly assists in +elaborating the life history of the species, and in other cases assists +in the correct determination of closely allied insects, which differ +chiefly in habit or date of appearance. (3) <i>A label to indicate the +sex</i>. This label has recently acquired greater importance than formerly, +on account of the value of the sexual differences in the distinction of +species. The well-known signs for male, female, and worker, printed in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +convenient form, are well adapted for collections. (4) <i>The name of the +collector</i>. This label is of less value, but sometimes becomes important +in determining the history of the specimen or the exact place of +capture. The name of the species is not necessarily attached to all the +specimens in a collection, and ordinarily will be placed with the first +specimen in a series in the cabinet. This and other labeling of insects +in cabinet is discussed in another place. Other labels are useful to +indicate type specimens, namely, those of which descriptions have been +drawn up and published, and which should be designated by a special +label written by the author himself. Determinations by an authority in a +special group should be indicated, and the labels placed on specimens by +such an authority should not be removed.</p> + +<p>It will not be found necessary to use a separate label for each of the +data indicated above, and a single label may be made to combine many of +them, as, except for the specific names of the insects themselves (which +should always be on the lowermost label), most other words will bear +abbreviation, especially localities and dates. “A combination +label, which has given general satisfaction to all to whom it has been +communicated, is a two-line label printed in diamond type, on heavy +writing paper. The upper line consists of the name of the locality, <i>e. g.</i>, +‘Washngtn’ (a name consisting of more than eight +letters to be abbreviated), and the lower line has at the right-hand +corner ‘DC’ (interpunctuation and spacing to be avoided so +as to save space). This leaves on the second line sufficient room for +inserting the date, which can be quickly and neatly written with ink if +the labels are printed in columns of ten or more repetitions. The label +thus combines locality with date of capture. Or the upper line reads +‘Arizona’ and the lower line ‘Morrison,’ the +label thus combining locality with the name of the collector.”<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> + +<p>In general I indorse the system of labeling suggested in the above +condensation from Mr. Schwarz, but there is no particular disadvantage, +and in fact many advantages, in special cases, in a larger label or in +folded labels. Particularly in visiting large foreign collections I have +found it convenient to use large labels of thin paper which will contain +a good deal of information closely written in pencil and bear folding +several times, so as not to occupy more than the ordinary label space +when pinned to the specimens. This involves detaching the label when the +specimen or species comes to be studied, but this additional labor is +insignificant compared with the large amount of valuable information +which in time is thus brought together in condensed availability for the +student; for brief notes of opinions of experts, of comparison with +types, of special studies, of reference to descriptions, etc., may thus +be all brought together. Where there is not room to indicate the +authority for a determination on the upper side of a label, I also find +it convenient to do so on the lower side.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_106.png" width="400" height="385" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_116"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 116.—Cabinet for apparatus used in mounting and +labeling. (Original).</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="ALCO_SPEC" id="ALCO_SPEC"><i>Labeling alcoholic Specimens.</i></a>—Alcoholic specimens, including<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> +alcoholic biologic material and collections of Arachnida and <ins title="Myriopoda">Myriapoda</ins>, +are well adapted to the labeling system, as the vials are always of +sufficient size to allow the insertion of one or more labels large +enough to contain a pretty full record of the specimen. The label may +consist of a number referring to notes, or of a number together with the +other data indicated for the systematic collection. The label in my +experience is preferably written in pencil, which, in alcohol, is +practically permanent. Waterproof inks are sometimes used, and of these +the oak-gall ink is undoubtedly the best. Dr. George Marx, in labeling +his Arachnida, uses onion-skin paper and waterproof ink, such as +Higgins's drawing ink. There is some danger, in placing a label in a +vial, of its settling against the specimen and injuring it. This, +however, can generally be avoided if a little care is used. The label +may be long and narrow and folded lengthwise so as to occupy one side +only of the vial, or short and inserted in such manner that it will pass +around the inside of the vial, where it will be held by the natural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> +adhesion to the glass in the upper portion of the vial, as shown at <a href="#img_114">Fig. 114</a>.</p> + +<p><a name="CAB_APP" id="CAB_APP"><i>Cabinet for Apparatus.</i></a>—The work of preparation of insects for the +cabinet may be greatly facilitated if a convenient case is provided with +drawers and compartments for the keeping of pins of different sizes, +labels, braces, implements, tweezers, dissecting apparatus, and the +like, with microscopical supplies—slides, cover glasses, mounting +media, etc. I present a photograph of a cabinet of this sort used in my +earlier work and found very convenient and serviceable (<a href="#img_116">Fig. 116</a>).</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"> +<p style="font-size: 125%; text-indent: 0em;">Footnote:</p> +<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> E. A. Schwarz, Proc. Ent. Soc., Wash., II, No. 1, 1891.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<h2><a name="INSECT_BOXES_AND_CABINETS" id="INSECT_BOXES_AND_CABINETS"></a>INSECT BOXES AND CABINETS.</h2> + +<p><a name="GEN_DIR_3" id="GEN_DIR_3"><i>General Directions.</i></a>—The boxes or cases which are used to keep insects +in permanently may be made of any dimensions to suit the fancy, 12 by 16 +inches inside being a convenient size and allowing economic use of cork. +They must, however, be perfectly tight and should not be more than 2½ +inches deep on the inside. The bottoms should be lined with something +which will hold the pins, and the whole inside covered with white paper, +which, if delicately cross ruled, will facilitate the regular pinning of +specimens. While the size and style of the box and cabinet may be left +to individual taste, some choice must be had of material. <i>Red cedar +should never be used.</i> I have learned, to my sorrow, the baneful effects +of this wood, notwithstanding it is recommended—evidently by those who +are guiltless of having used it—as having the advantage over other wood +of keeping off <ins title="musuem">museum</ins> pests. It seems impossible to +get this wood so seasoned but that a certain amount of resin will +continually exude from it; and insects in boxes of this material are +very apt to soften and become greasy. Paper boxes are also bad, as they +attract moisture and cause the specimens to mold. Well-seasoned pine and +whitewood are the most satisfactory; and, in such boxes as have glass +covers and are intended to form part of a neat cabinet for parlor +ornament, the fronts may be of walnut or cherry.</p> + +<p>The character of the boxes and cabinets used for storing insects will +depend largely on the nature and extent of the collection and the object +of the collector. For temporary use, nothing is more convenient and +economical than a cigar box lined with cork or pith. Such boxes, +however, should be employed only for the temporary storage of fresh +specimens, as they afford free access to museum pests, and insects kept +in them for any length of time are apt to be destroyed or rendered +useless.</p> + +<p><a name="FOLD_BOX" id="FOLD_BOX"><i>The Folding-box.</i></a>—The use of folding-boxes for the working collector +is to be especially recommended in the case of those orders comprising +small insects like Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, etc. These boxes have the +great advantage of being readily rearranged on the shelves and of being +very easily used in study. The boxes of this type now manufactured by +John Schmidt, of Brooklyn, N. Y., and John Burr, of Camden, N. J., based +on the experience which I have had, have proved so serviceable and +satisfactory in this respect that I have employed them for the bulk of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> +the collection in the National Museum. These boxes (<a href="#img_117">Fig. 117</a>) are +constructed as follows:</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_108.png" width="400" height="453" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_117"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 117.—The Schmidt folding insect box, opened and +showing arrangement of insects (original).</p> +</div> + +<p>They are of white pine, shellacked and varnished, the bottom and top +double and crossgrained, to prevent warping, and projecting slightly at +all sides except the hinged back. They are 13 by 8¼ inches outside +measurement. The inside measurement is 11¾ by 7. The sides, back, and +front are five-sixteenths of an inch thick, with a machine joint, which +is neat and very secure. The boxes are 2⅝ inches in outside depth, +unequally divided, the lower portion 1½ inches outside depth, lined +inside with a thin whitewood strip, projecting three-fourths of an inch +above the rim of the outside box. Over this projecting lining the lid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +closes as tightly as practicable and is kept from springing by hooks and +eyes. The bottom is cork-lined and covered with a fine, white, glazed +paper.</p> + +<p>Similar folding boxes with both sides of equal depth and both lined with +cork, when properly covered, may be made to look like books and be set +on end in an ordinary bookcase, but the single lining is preferable, as +there is less danger of the breakage of specimens and the boxes may +either be laid flat one on the other on shelves, or, what is more +convenient, placed side by side resting on the front edge, so that the +label is attached to one of the narrow ends. The rows of insects are +then pinned crosswise, not lengthwise, of the box, with the abdomens +turned toward the front which rests on the shelf.</p> + +<p>All the boxes are furnished with neat brass label-holders, in which a +card containing a list of the contents can readily be placed and removed +at pleasure. The chief demerit of this box which I have endeavored to +overcome by the above details is the tendency to warp and crack in the +trying steam heat of our Government buildings.</p> + +<p><a name="CABINET" id="CABINET"><i>The Cabinet.</i></a>—For larger insects, such as Lepidoptera, Neuroptera, +etc., a larger box is desirable, and for these orders I have adopted for +use in the National Museum a cabinet which resulted from a careful study +in person of the different forms and patterns used for entomological +collections both in this country and Europe, whether by private +individuals or public institutions. The drawer and cabinet are +essentially after the pattern of those used in the British (South +Kensington) Museum, but adapted in size to our own requirements. In the +use of the National Museum these cabinets have proved eminently well +adapted to their object.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_109.png" width="400" height="228" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_118"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 118.—Construction of insect cabinet drawer of the +National Museum. A, cross-section <i>f</i> front; B, same <i>f</i> side; C, view +of front end of side, ⅔ natural size (original).</p> +</div> + +<p>The drawers (<a href="#img_118">Fig. 118</a>, A, B, C) are square, with an outside measurement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +of 18 inches and an outside depth of 3 inches. The sides and back have a +thickness of three-eighths of an inch, while the front is five-eighths +of an inch thick. The pieces are firmly dovetailed together, the front +being clean and the dovetailing blind. The bottom, <i>a</i>, is of three-ply +crossgrained veneer, run into a groove at the sides, leaving a clear +inside depth of 2<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>16</sub> inches to the frame of the cover. The bottoms are +lined in all but forty of the drawers with first quality cork, <i>b</i>, +one-fourth of an inch thick. At a distance of one-fourth of an inch from +the sides and back and three-eighths of an inch from the front there is +an inside box of one-eighth inch whitewood, <i>c</i>, closely fitted, and +held in place by blocks between it and the outer box. There is thus +between the inner and outer box a clear space, <i>d</i>, all round, in which +insecticides or disinfectants can be placed to keep out Museum pests, +making it impossible for such to get into the inner box containing the +specimens without first passing through this poison chamber. The entire +inside is lined with white paper, or, in the case of the uncorked boxes, +painted with zinc white. The front is furnished with a plain knob. The +cover is of glass, set into a frame, <i>f</i>, three-fourths of an inch wide, +three-eighths of an inch thick, with a one-fourth inch tongue fitting +closely into the space between the inner lining and outer box, which +here serves as a groove. This arrangement furnishes a perfectly tight +drawer of convenient size and not unwieldy for handling when studying +the collection.</p> + +<p>The material of which these drawers are made is California red wood, +except the cover frame, which is mahogany. The cabinets containing these +drawers are 36 inches high, 40 inches wide, 21 inches deep (all outside +measurements), and are closed by two paneled doors. Each cabinet +contains twenty drawers in two rows of ten each, and the drawers slide +by means of a groove, <i>g</i>, on either side, on hard-wood tongues, and are +designed to be interchangeable.</p> + +<p><a name="LINTNER_BOX" id="LINTNER_BOX"><i>The Lintner display Box.</i></a>—For beauty and security and the perfect +display of the larger <i>Lepidoptera</i>, I have seen nothing superior to a +box used by Mr. J. A. Lintner, of Albany, N. Y. It is a frame made in +the form of a folio volume, with glass set in for sides and bound in an +ordinary book cover. The insects are pinned onto pieces of cork fastened +to the inside of one of the glass plates and the boxes may be stood on +ends, in library shape, like ordinary books. For the benefit of those +who wish to make small collections of showy insects, I give Mr. Lintner's +method, of which he has been kind enough to furnish me the +following description:</p> + +<blockquote><p>Figs. A, B, and C represent, in section, the framework of the +volume, <i>a</i> showing the ends, <i>b</i> the front, and <i>c</i> the back. The +material can be prepared in long strips of some soft wood by a +cabinet-maker (if the collector has the necessary skill and leisure +for framing it) at a cost of 60 cents a frame, if a number +sufficient for a dozen boxes be ordered. Or, if it be preferred to +order them made, the cost should not exceed 80 cents each.</p> + +<p>Before being placed in the hands of the binder the mitering should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +be carefully examined and any defect in fitting remedied, so that +the glass, when placed in position, may have accurate bearings on +all the sides. The interior of the frame is covered with tin foil, +made as smooth as possible before application, to be applied with +thoroughly boiled flour paste (in which a small proportion of +arsenic may be mixed) and rubbed smoothly down till the removal of +the blisters, which are apt to appear. The tin foil can be +purchased, by weight, at druggists', and the sheets marked off and +cut by a rule in strips of proper width, allowing for a trifle of +overlapping on the sides. Its cost per volume is merely nominal.</p> + +<p>First-quality single-thick glass for sides must be selected, wholly +free from rust, veins, air-bubbles, or any blemish. Such glass can +be purchased at 15 cents a pane. The lower glass, after thorough +cleaning, especially of its inner surface, with an alkaline wash, +and a final polishing with slightly wetted white printing paper, is +to be firmly secured in its place by a proper number of tin points; +the upper glass is but temporarily fastened. The binder must be +directed to cover the exposed sides of the frame with +“combed” paper, bringing it over the border of the +permanent lower glass and beneath the removable upper glass.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_111.png" width="400" height="305" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 119.—Construction of the Lintner box.</p> +</div> + +<p>The covers of the volume are of heavy binders' board (No. 18), +neatly lined within with glazed white paper. On one of the insides +of the lids may be attached, by its corners, a sheet with the +numbers and names of the species contained in the volume, or these +may be placed on the pin bearing the insect. If bound in best +quality of imitation morocco, with cloth covers, lettered and +gilded on the back, the cost (for a dozen volumes) need not exceed +$1 each. If in turkey morocco, it will be $1.50.</p> + +<p>The lettering and ornamentation of the back will vary with the +taste of the individual. The family designations may be permanently +lettered, or they may be pasted on the back, on a slip of paper or +gum label, as are the generic names, thus permitting the change of +the contents of a volume at any time if desired.</p> + +<p>The bits of cork to which the insects are to be pinned are cut in +quarter-inch squares from sheet-cork of one-fourth of an inch in +thickness. If the trouble be taken to trim off the corners, giving +them an octagonal form, their appearance will be materially +improved and much less care will be required in adjusting them on +the glass.</p> + +<p>The cement usually recommended for attaching the cork to the glass +is composed of equal parts of white wax and resin. My experience +with this has not been favorable, for, after the lapse of a few +years, I have invariably been subjected to the serious annoyance of +being compelled to renew the entire contents of the volume, clean +the glass, and replace the corks with new cement. From some cause,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> +inexplicable to me, a gradual separation takes place of the cork +with its cement from the glass, first appearing at the angles of +the cork, and its progress indicated by an increasing number of +iridescent rings which form within until the center is reached, +when, if not previously detached, the insect falls with the cork, +usually to its injury and that of others beneath it.</p> + +<p>A number of years ago I happened to employ, in attaching a single +piece of cork in one of my cases, a cement originally made for +other purposes, consisting of six parts of resin, one of wax, and +one of Venetian red. Several years thereafter my attention was +drawn to this piece by finding it as firmly united as when at first +applied, and at the present time (after the lapse of twelve years) +it is without the slightest indication of separation. Acting upon +this hint, I have, of late, used this cement in the restoration of +a number of my cases, and with the most satisfactory results. It is +important that the cement, when used, should be heated (by a spirit +lamp or gas flame) to as high a degree as it will bear without +burning. An amount sufficient to cover the bottom of the small, +flat metal vessel containing it to the depth of an eighth of an +inch will suffice and prevent the cork from taking up more than its +requisite quantity. It should be occasionally stirred to prevent +the precipitation of its heavier portions. The cork may be +conveniently dipped by the aid of a needle inserted in a handle, +when, as quickly as possible, it should be transferred to the +glass, for the degree of adhesion seems to depend upon the degree +of fluidity of the cement. From some experiments made by me, after +the corks had been attached as above, in heating the entire glass +to such a degree as thoroughly to melt the cement until it spreads +outward from beneath the weight of the cork, and then permitted to +cool—the glass meanwhile held horizontally, that the corks might +not be displaced—the results appear to indicate that the above +cement, applied in this manner on glass properly cleaned, will +prove a permanent one. It is scarcely necessary to state that this +method is not available where the glass has been bound as above.</p> + +<p>Preparatory to corking the glass for the specimens assigned to it, +the spaces required for them are to be ascertained by arranging +them in order on a cork surface or otherwise. On a sheet of paper +of the size of the glass, perpendicular lines, of the number of the +rows and at their proper distances, are to be drawn, and cross +lines equal in number to the insects contained in the rows. The +distances of these lines will be uniform, unless smaller specimens +are to occupy some portion of the case, when they may be graduated +to the required proportion. With the sheet ruled in this manner and +placed beneath the glass, the points where the corks are to be +applied are indicated by the intersections of the lines. The sheet, +marked with the family of the insects for which it was used and +with the numbers designating its divisions, may be laid aside for +future use in the preparation of other cases for which it may be +suitable. In a series of unbound cases in my collection, in which +the glasses measure 11 by 14½ inches, I have used for my +Lepidoptera and laid aside the following scales, the citation of +which will also serve to show the capacity of the cases: 3 by 8, +Catocalas; 2 by 7 and 3 by 9, Sphingidæ; 4 by 11 to 4 by 14, +Bombycidæ; 5 by 13 to 6 by 16, Noctuidæ; 8 by 16 and 8 by 20, +Lycænidæ and Tortricidæ.</p> + +<p>The unbound cases above referred to are inexpensive frames, made by +myself, of quarter-inch white wood or pine, the corners mitered, +glued, and nailed with three-quarter inch brads, lined within with +white paper (better with tin foil), and covered without with stout +manila paper. The glasses are cut of the size of the frame, and +when placed in position thereon are appressed closely to it by +laying upon them, near each corner, a heavy weight, and strips of +an enameled green paper, cut to the width of 1 inch, are pasted +over their edges, extending a little beyond the thickness of the +frame, and brought downward over the outside of the frame. On its +back two gum labels, indicating the insects inclosed, are placed at +uniform heights (7 and 12 inches), when, if all has been neatly +done, they present a tasteful appearance upon a shelf. When there +is reason to believe that the case will need to be opened for the +change or addition of specimens, it will be found convenient to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> +employ, for the fastening of the left-hand side of the upper glass, +paper lined with a thin muslin, to serve as a hinge when the other +sides have been cut.</p> + +<p>Should it become desirable to bind these cases, outside frames may +be constructed after the plans above given, with the omission of +the inside quarter inch (the equivalent of these frames), in which +these may be placed and held in position by two or three screws +inserted in their sides.</p></blockquote> + +<p><a name="MARTIN_BOX" id="MARTIN_BOX"><i>The Martindale Box for Lepidoptera.</i></a>—Mr. Isaac C. Martindale, in the +October, 1891, number of <i>Entomological News</i>, pp. 126, 127, describes a +new form of cabinet for butterflies, the drawers of which present some +new features. They are for the same end as the Lintner box described +above—namely, for the display of the upper and under surface of the +wings of Lepidoptera, and promise to be more useful. The drawer is +described as follows:</p> + +<blockquote><p>The especial feature is the drawer itself, which, instead of having +a cork bottom, as is usually the case, has both the top and bottom +of glass. The top part of the drawer frame fits tightly over a +ledge one inch in height, effectually preventing the intrusion of +destructive insects, the pest of the entomologist; but it is +readily lifted when it is desirable to add to the contents or +change the location of the specimens. For the inside arrangement I +have taken a strip of common tin, one inch wide, and turned up each +side five-sixteenths of an inch, thus leaving three-eighths of an +inch for the bottom. The length of the strip of tin, being about +two inches longer than the width of the drawer, admits of each end +being turned up one inch. Into this tin trough is tightly fitted a +cork strip three-eighths of an inch square. The whole being covered +with white paper, such as is usually used for lining drawers, +conceals the inequalities of the cork and makes a fine finish. They +should be made to fit neatly in the drawer, and can be readily +moved about to suit large or small specimens. For <i>Lycænas</i>, +<i>Pamphilas</i>, etc., as many as fifteen of these strips may be used +in one drawer, and as few as five for <i>Morphos</i>, <i>Caligos</i>, etc. +The upturned ends are fastened in place by using the ordinary thumb +tacks that can be procured at any stationer's. The frame work of +the drawers should be of white pine, well seasoned. Into this the +thumb tacks are readily inserted and as easily withdrawn when a +change in the position of the cork strips is needed.</p></blockquote> + +<p><a name="HORIZONTAL_BOX" id="HORIZONTAL_BOX"><i>Horizontal vs. vertical Arrangement of Boxes.</i></a>—I have elsewhere +discussed the availability of the upright vs. the horizontal arrangement +of insect boxes.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> In the case of Lepidoptera and large-bodied insects +I have found the horizontal drawer or box to be preferable. If +large-bodied insects are placed in a vertical position they are very +liable to become loose on the pins, swing from side to side, and damage +themselves and other specimens; but for the smaller insects of all +orders, the vertical arrangement is quite safe and satisfactory. If the +pin is slightly flattened, as described on p. 69, the danger of large +specimens becoming loose is to a great extent avoided.</p> + +<p><a name="LINING_BOX" id="LINING_BOX"><i>Lining for Insect Boxes.</i></a>—The old lining of insect boxes was the +ordinary sheet cork of commerce, and if a good quality of cork is +procurable it will answer the purpose. A better substance, however, for +the lining of insect boxes is the prepared or ground cork, which is now +almost exclusively used. It is simply ground cork mixed with a small<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> +amount of glue, compressed into sheets and covered with paper. This +gives a very homogenous composition, and is much better than the +ordinary cork, having a more uniform and neat appearance, and admitting +the insertion of the pins more freely. It may be purchased from H. +Herpers, 18 Crawford street, Newark, N. J.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_114.png" width="200" height="163" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_120"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 120.—Paper lining for insect box.<br />(After <ins title="Marse">Morse</ins>.)</p> +</div> + +<p>A less expensive substitute is paper stretched upon a frame. Prof. E. S. +Morse has given in the “American Naturalist” (Vol. i, p. +156) a plan which is very neat and useful for lining boxes in a large +museum, which are designed to be placed in horizontal show-cases (<a href="#img_120">Fig. 120</a>). +“A box is made of the required depth, and a light frame is +fitted to its interior. Upon the upper and under surfaces of this frame +a sheet of white paper (drawing or log paper answers the purpose) is +securely glued. The paper, having been previously damped, in drying +contracts and tightens like a drumhead. The frame is then secured about +one-fourth of an inch from the bottom of the box, and the pin is forced +down through the thicknesses of paper, and if the bottom of the box be +of soft pine, the point of the pin may be slightly forced into it. It is +thus firmly held at two or three different points, and all lateral +<ins title="movemnts">movements</ins> are +prevented. Other advantages are secured by this arrangement besides +firmness: when the box needs cleaning or fumigation, the entire +collection may be removed by taking out the frame; or camphor, tobacco, +or other material can be placed on the bottom of the box, and concealed +from sight. The annexed figure represents a transverse section of a +portion of the side and bottom of the box with the frame. A A, box; B, +frame; P P, upper and under sheets of paper; C, space between lower +sheets of paper and bottom of box.”</p> + +<p>Other substitutes are the pith of various plants, especially of corn. +Palm wood and “inodorous felt” are also used, being cut to +fit the bottom of the box.</p> + +<p>Pita wood or the light porous wood of the Agave or Century plant when +cut into proper strips also makes a very light and satisfactory lining, +while good close bog-peat cut into proper thicknesses is not +infrequently used in France and Germany. Druce & Co., 68 Baker +street, London, W., England, have lately been manufacturing what is +known as cork carpet, which seems to be a combination of ground cork and +rubber. It comes in various colors and of the proper thickness, and +makes a very smooth and desirable lining, holding the pins very firmly. +It cost 90 cents per square yard in England, and I have had one cabinet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> +lined with it as an experiment, as there is a probability that the pins +may corrode in contact with the rubber.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"> +<p style="font-size: 125%; text-indent: 0em;">Footnote:</p> +<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> <i>American Naturalist</i>, Vol. XV, p. 401, 1881.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<h2><a name="ARRANGEMENT_OF_INSECTS_IN_THE_CABINET" id="ARRANGEMENT_OF_INSECTS_IN_THE_CABINET"></a>ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS IN THE CABINET.</h2> + +<p><a name="SYST_COLL" id="SYST_COLL"><i>Systematic and biologic Collections.</i></a>—The permanent arrangement of +specimens in boxes and drawers will vary somewhat with the nature of the +insects. The almost universal custom of collectors, however, is to +arrange the insects in vertical columns. In the case of the smaller +forms, as Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, 2½ to 3 inches in width is +allowed for the columns; and for the larger insects, as Lepidoptera, +Orthoptera, for which larger drawers are recommended, a greater width of +column is needed and 4½ to 5 inches will be found necessary. With +alcoholic material, a similar arrangement in columns may be followed.</p> + +<p>In spacing or dividing insect boxes into columns for the arrangement of +specimens, I have followed the plan of pinning narrow strips of colored +paper in the boxes at regular distances to divide the columns of +insects. A fine line made with a medium pencil will answer the same +purpose and will not materially disfigure the box.</p> + +<p>The appearance of the collection will largely depend on the care used in +the alignment of the specimens, both vertically and horizontally. It is +advisable to have at least four specimens of a species, which, +entomologically speaking, constitute a set. The collector, however, +should not limit the number of his specimens to four, as it is +frequently necessary to have a larger number to represent, firstly, the +sexes; secondly, varieties; and thirdly, geographical distribution.</p> + +<p>In the systematic collection the species should be arranged serially in +accordance with the latest catalogue or monograph, and if the collector +intends making a complete study of the group, space should be left for +the subsequent insertion of species not at present in his possession and +also for new species. This will avoid the rearrangement of the entire +collection at brief intervals.</p> + +<p><a name="ECO_DISP" id="ECO_DISP"><i>Economic Displays.</i></a>—In the case of economic displays, which will +include pinned specimens, alcoholic material, early states and specimens +illustrating the work of the insect—also the parasitic and predaceous +enemies—the horizontal arrangement can be followed, and I have found it +advisable, in making such displays, to arrange them in this manner, so +that any needed width for the display of particular species may be had. +A good idea of the system of arrangement adopted for an economic exhibit +may be obtained from the accompanying illustration (Pl. <span class="smcap">i</span>). Every insect +will require a somewhat different treatment, owing to its different +habit, but the plan indicated in the illustration should, in the main, +be followed. Prof. J. H. Comstock uses and recommends a sort of block +system, which consists in pinning the insects and specimens showing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> +their work, and alcoholic material, to blocks of soft wood. These are +then arranged in the display cases. The advantage claimed for the system +is facility in transferring and rearranging the exhibits. This method is +somewhat cumbersome, and in making and handling economic exhibits I have +found pinning specimens directly to the cork lining of the box, as +already described, to be entirely satisfactory. A biologic exhibit +should be carefully planned beforehand, and when once completed is +permanent and does not require rearrangement, as is frequently necessary +in a systematic collection, owing to the constant changes in +classification. The only alteration necessary is a renewal of specimens +which have become injured, or faded by exposure to light.</p> + +<p><a name="LAB_COLL" id="LAB_COLL"><i>Labeling Collections.</i></a>—I have already fully discussed the subject of +labeling insects before placing them in their final resting place in the +collection. In the collection certain additional labels are required, +viz, labels for the order, family, subfamily, genus, species, and +sometimes variety. The label for the order should be placed above the +first species in the collection, and should be in large type, as should +also be the name of the family, which is to be placed above the first +species in the family. The genus label should be in prominent type, +somewhat smaller than the family label, and should be placed at the head +of the genus. Custom varies as to placing the label of the species. In +my practice I have adopted the plan of placing the label below the +series of specimens representing the species. Some entomologists reverse +this plan and place the label above the series of specimens. Others +recommend pinning the label to the first and best-determined specimen of +the series. This has the advantage of always keeping the label with the +species and preventing the danger of mistake or confusion of the latter. +In the case of large insects, however, this plan has the disadvantage +that the label can not be seen except by taking out the specimen, and, +on the whole, the plan which I have adopted of placing the label below +the series of specimens is preferable, but may be supplemented by the +other, as in addition to the independent label, one of the specimens +should have a label pinned with it. The labels should be neatly written +on blanks printed for the purpose; but a better plan, perhaps, and one +which I have followed, where possible, in labeling the national +collection, is to cut the names neatly from a catalogue of the insects, +which will furnish all the labels from order to species, and fasten them +with short, inconspicuous pins in their proper places in the collection. +Where it is not desired to keep the collection as compact as possible, +or where one has limited space, I would advise labeling the species, not +only with the recognized name, but also with the synonyms. This requires +some space, and will hardly be followed except in public collections. It +is also desirable to arrange together, and label as such, the varieties +of any given species. The appearance of the collection will depend +largely on the uniformity of the labeling, and too much care can not be +exercised in this respect.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="MUSEUM_PESTS_MOLD_ETC" id="MUSEUM_PESTS_MOLD_ETC"></a>MUSEUM PESTS, MOLD, ETC.</h2> + +<p><a name="PESTS" id="PESTS"></a>Unfortunately for the well-being of collections, dried insects are +liable to the attacks of various museum pests, the most troublesome of +which are themselves insects, but altogether out of their proper place +and rôle in the general collection. Unless constant precautions are +taken, the collector will discover after a few months that instead of +the rare specimens with the preparations of which he has taken no little +pains there remains only a series of fragmentary specimens, which a few +years' neglect will reduce to little more than a mass of dust or powder. +The price, then, of a good collection is eternal vigilance. Most +insects, when exposed for any length of time to strong light, fade or +lose color, and the only way to prevent such achromatism is to exclude +the light.</p> + +<p>Insect pests affecting collections include Psocidæ, Mites, Tineidæ, +Coleoptera of the families Ptinidæ and Dermestidæ, these last being the +most injurious.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_117.png" width="200" height="140" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_121"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 121.—<i>Tineola biselliella</i>: <i>a</i>, adult; <i>b</i>, larva; +<br /><i>c</i>, cocoon and empty pupa—skin enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<p>The Psocidæ—degraded wingless insects already referred to in the +classification (p. 24)—will find their way into the tightest boxes, but +ordinarily do little if any damage, except in the case of delicate +insects, such as Ephemerids, Microlepidoptera, and Microdiptera. The +common forms found in collections are <i>Atropos divinatorius</i> and +<i>Clothilla pulsatoria</i>. Mites or Acari are rarely troublesome in +collections, though Dr. H. A. Hagen reports having found a species +(probably of Tyroglyphus) with imported insects, and considers them as +liable to become dangerous enemies. Tineid larvæ are rarely found in +collections, and only affect the larger moths. They are not easily +discovered, since they make no dust, as do most other pests. Some +persons have been considerably annoyed by one of the common clothes +moths, <i>Tineola biselliella</i> (<a href="#img_121">Fig. 121</a>). Dr. Hagen found that it +attacked freshly collected or newly spread insects, where the +spreading-boards were left uncovered, but Mr. F. M. Webster has found it +injurious to the general collections at Columbus, Ohio.</p> + +<p>Of beetles, the Ptinidæ are sometimes found in collections but are not +common. Two species are known to attack entomological specimens, namely, +<i>Ptinus fur</i>, which is quite rare, in this country, but much more +abundant in Europe, and <i>Tribolium ferrugineum</i>, a cosmopolitan species +which, however, has several times been associated in injurious numbers +with large collections of insects imported from the East Indies.</p> + +<p>But by far the most dangerous enemies of insect collections are the +larvæ of some half dozen or more species of Dermestidæ belonging to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +genera Anthrenus, Attagenus, Trogoderma, and Dermestes. Of these +<i>Anthrenus varius</i> is the more common pest, in museums, especially in +the North and East. In the South and West <i>Trogoderma tarsale</i> and <i>T. +ornatum</i> (?) replace Anthrenus. The European species <i>Anthrenus +musæorum</i>, is, on the authority of Hagen, rare in this country, and +probably occurs chiefly in collections of imported insects. It is the +common injurious species of Europe. <i>Anthrenus scrophulariæ</i> (see <a href="#img_067">Fig. 67</a>) +occurs also in collections, Dr. Hagen stating that he has found it +nearly as common as <i>A. varius</i>, and certainly more dangerous. In my own +experience it is rarely found in insect collections. Two species of +Attagenus (<i>A. pellio</i> and <i>A. megatoma</i>) have also been found in +collections. <i>A. megatoma</i> has been found by Dr. Hagen to do not a +little damage to insect collections in Cambridge, as well as to equal if +not exceed the Carpet Beetle in its disastrous attacks upon carpets and +household furniture. The other species, <i>A. pellio</i>, is rarely found in +this country, but is much more common and obnoxious in Europe than <i>A. +megatoma</i>. <i>Dermestes lardarius</i> is sometimes found in collections, and +is attracted by the presence of animal matter such as skins, etc. The +two <ins title="particuliarly">particularly</ins> destructive pests, as pointed +out, are <i>Anthrenus varius</i> and <i>Trogoderma tarsale</i>. These species, +together with most of the others, have no definite breeding period, but, +in the uniform temperature of the laboratory or museum, breed all the +year round and present no definite broods. It is the experience at the +Museum that the boxes on the lower tier of shelves are very much more +subject to attack than those on the upper tiers, from which it would +seem that the parent beetle deposits her eggs outside the boxes on the +floor of the cases and that the young larvæ work their way into the +smallest crevices. The danger of infection by these pests is greater in +warm climates like that of Washington than in regions further north, as +the warm season begins earlier, lasts longer, and furnishes better +conditions for breeding and multiplication.</p> + +<p><a name="REMEDIES" id="REMEDIES"><span class="smcap">Remedies.</span></a>—The following remedies and preventives will prove efficient +in checking or preventing the work of these pests.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_118.png" width="75" height="236" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_122"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 122.—A naphthaline<br />cone.</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="NAPHTHALINE" id="NAPHTHALINE"><i>Naphthaline.</i></a>—Where tight boxes are employed little fear of the work +of these destructive agents need arise, especially if the boxes are kept +supplied with repellent naphthaline cones. These are hard cones of +naphthaline, mounted on pins for convenient placing in the boxes (see +<a href="#img_122">Fig. 122</a>), and may be obtained of dealers in entomological supplies. +Naphthaline cones act as repellents to these insects and also to some +extent retard the development of the larvæ in all stages and +particularly of the eggs.</p> + +<p>Mr. Schwarz states (<i>Proc. Ent. Soc. of Washington</i>, Vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>, page 63) +that in place of these cones a form of naphthaline may be used which is +known in commerce as “white carbon,” and is put up in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +form of small square rods for use in intensifying the flames of +gaslight. The material is very cheap, costing only 8 cents per pound +wholesale, and may be broken up into small pieces, wrapped in paper, and +pinned. The use of naphthaline cones is not advisable in boxes +containing delicate specimens, as it leaves a deposit which dulls the +colors and encourages greasing. The deliquescence of the naphthaline +cones produces a blackish, oily residuum which will soil the lining of +the box, and it is always advisable either to pin a piece of blotting +paper beneath the cone or to wrap this in paper.</p> + +<p>Constant watchfulness is necessary to see that the eggs which have been +deposited and checked in development by the application of this +insecticide do not ultimately hatch and start a new generation in the +insect box.</p> + +<p><a name="BISULPHIDE" id="BISULPHIDE"><i>Bisulphide of Carbon.</i></a>—If the collection is found to be infested with +insect pests, it may be renovated by pouring a little bisulphide of +carbon into the boxes and closing them at once. This substance +evaporates rapidly and will destroy all insect life, and does not injure +specimens or pins nor stain the boxes. If infested specimens are +received, these should be inclosed in a tight box and treated with +bisulphide of carbon before being added to the general collection, and +it is always well for those who are receiving pinned specimens by +exchange or otherwise to keep a quarantine box of this kind on hand.</p> + +<p><a name="MERCURY" id="MERCURY"><i>Mercury Pellets.</i></a>—The use of mercury pellets is recommended to free +boxes from Mites, Psoci, etc., and also to collect any particles of dust +which may gain entrance. A few small pellets of mercury, placed free in +the bottom of the horizontal box will, by the movement of the box, be +caused to roll to and fro and accomplish the desired end.</p> + +<p><a name="CARBOLIC" id="CARBOLIC"><i>Carbolic Acid.</i></a>—Mr. A. T. Marshall (<i>Entomologist's Monthly Magazine</i>, +Dec., 1873, p. 176) records that he washes the paper of his boxes with +the common disinfecting solution of carbolic acid in two-thirds water, +which dries without staining and protects the specimens from Psoci.</p> + +<p><a name="HOT_COUNT" id="HOT_COUNT"><i>A Means of preserving Insects in dry hot Countries.</i></a>—In the +“<i>Horæ Societatis Entomologicæ Rossicæ</i>,” XXIV, pp. 233, 234 +(1889), M. A. Wilkins, writing from Tachkent in Turkestan, alludes to +the inefficiency of ordinary preservatives in Central Asia, on account +of their rapid volatilization through the hot dry air, so that if a +collection be neglected for only two or three months <i>Anthreni</i> are sure +to be found in the boxes. He has hit upon a plan which he finds +effective, and at the same time very simple. He employs India-rubber +bands about 1½ inches in width and less than the length of the boxes to +which they are to be applied. These bands are stretched over the opening +line of the boxes, and effectually prevent the entrance of the most +minute destroyers. Possibly a similar plan might be adopted in other +countries with a like climate. At any rate, the method has the merit of +extreme simplicity. (The <i>Ent. Mo. Mag.</i>, Apr., 1891, p. 107.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="MOLD" id="MOLD"></a>MOLD.</h3> + +<p>Collections kept in damp places or in a moist climate are very liable to +mold, and under such conditions it is difficult to avoid this evil. +Carbolic acid is recommended, but Mr. Ashmead, who has kept a large +collection in the moist climate of Florida, has found the use of +naphthaline much more satisfactory. Mr. Herbert H. Smith who has had +more extensive experience in the tropics prefers the carbolic acid. +Moldy specimens may be cleansed by washing with carbolic acid applied +with a fine camel's hair brush.</p> + +<h3><a name="GREASING" id="GREASING">VERDIGRISING AND GREASING.</a></h3> + +<p>The action of the acid juices in the bodies of certain specimens—as +many of the Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera—will cause the +formation of verdigris about the pin, which in time accumulates and +disfigures and distorts the specimen, and ultimately corrodes the pin, +so that the slightest touch causes it to bend or break. There is no +preventive yet known for this trouble other than the use of pins which +have no brass to be corroded. Japanned pins are made for this purpose, +and are, on the whole, satisfactory, but they bend easily and some +caution is required in handling them. In place of these pins, which are +somewhat more expensive than the steel pins, iron pins may be used. +These are very soft and bend too easily for satisfactory use. The steel +pins may be rendered available for use by an immersion in a silver bath, +which is comparatively inexpensive.</p> + +<p>Insects the larvæ of which live in wood are particularly subject to +verdigris, as the Cerambycidæ and Elateridæ in Coleoptera, the Uroceridæ +in Hymenoptera and Sesiidæ in Lepidoptera. In Hymenoptera the families +Formicidæ, Mutillidæ, and the endophytous <ins title="Ienthredinidæ">Tenthredinidæ</ins> +verdigris very rapidly, and most Diptera also. With all these insects +japanned or silvered pins should be used, or when not too large the +insects should be mounted on triangles. This verdigrising is associated +with what is known as greasing, and this, as just indicated, is also +associated with endophytous larval life. The verdigris may be prevented +by the methods indicated, and I would strongly advise, as a good general +rule to be followed, the rejection of the ordinary pins for all species +which, in the larva state, are internal feeders. But there is no way of +preventing greasing or decomposition of the fats of the body, which may +affect a specimen years after it has been in the cabinet. If the +specimen is valuable the grease may be absorbed by immersion in ether or +benzine, or by a longer treatment with powdered pipe-clay or plaster of +Paris. Insects collected on seabeaches, and saturated with salt water, +also corrode the common steel pin very quickly and should be mounted on +japanned pins. It is also advisable to rinse such specimens thoroughly +in fresh water before mounting.</p> + +<p>The conviction has been forcing itself on my mind for some time that the +naphthaline cones tend to promote greasing and verdigris, and carbolic +acid in some small vessel secured to the cork, were, perhaps, +preferable.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="THE_REARING_OF_INSECTS" id="THE_REARING_OF_INSECTS"></a>THE REARING OF INSECTS.</h2> + +<p><a name="GEN_DIR_4" id="GEN_DIR_4"><i>General Directions.</i></a>—The importance, even to the mere collector, of +rearing insects to obtain specimens for the cabinet has been referred to +from time to time in these pages. The philosophic study of entomology, +however, requires much more than the mere collecting of specimens, and +one of the most profitable and, at the same time, most fascinating +phases of the study relates to the life-history and habits. In no branch +of natural history are biologic studies more easily carried on, or the +biologic facts more remarkable or interesting. The systematist by such +study will be saved from the narrow and hair-splitting tendencies which +study of slight difference of characters tends to, while to the economic +entomologist it is most essential.</p> + +<p>In the rearing of insects success will be attained in proportion to the +extent to which the conditions of nature in the matters of temperature, +moisture, food-supply, and conditions for pupation, are observed.</p> + +<p>“In the hands of the careful breeder an insect may be secured +against its numerous natural enemies and against vicissitudes of +climate, and will, consequently, be more apt to mature than in a state +of nature. The breeding of aquatic insects requires aquaria, and is +always attended with the difficulty of furnishing a proper supply of +food. The transformations of many others, both aquatic and terrestrial, +can be studied only by close and careful outdoor observation. But the +great majority of insect larvæ may be reared to the perfect state +indoors, where their maneuverings may be constantly and conveniently +watched. For the feeding of small species, glass jars and wide-mouthed +bottles will be found useful. The mouths should be covered with gauze or +old linen, fastened either by thread or rubber, and a few inches of +moist earth at the bottom will furnish a retreat for those which enter +it to transform and keep the atmosphere in a moist and fit condition.</p> + +<p><a name="CAGE" id="CAGE"><i>The Breeding Cage or Vivarium.</i></a>—“For larger insects I use a +breeding cage or vivarium which answers the purpose admirably. It is +represented in figure 123, and comprises three distinct parts: First, +the bottom board <i>a</i>, consisting of a square piece of inch thick walnut +with a rectangular zinc pan <i>ff</i>, 4 inches deep, fastened to it above, +and with two cross pieces <i>gg</i> below, to prevent cracking or warping, +facilitate lifting, and allow the air to pass underneath the cage. +Second, a box <i>b</i> with three glass sides and a glass door in front, to +fit over the zinc pan. Third, a cap <i>c</i>, which fits closely on to the +box, and has a top of fine wire gauze. To the center of the zinc pan is +soldered a zinc tube <i>d</i> just large enough to contain an ordinary +quinine bottle. The zinc pan is filled with clean sifted earth or sand +<i>e</i>, and the quinine bottle is for the reception of the food plant. The +cage admits of abundant light and air, and also of the easy removal of +excrement or frass which falls to the ground; while the insects in +transforming enter the ground or attach themselves to the sides or the +cap, according to their habits. The most convenient dimensions I find<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> +to be 12 inches square and 18 inches high: the cap and the door fit +closely by means of rabbets, and the former has a depth of about 4 +inches to admit of the largest cocoon being spun in it without touching +the box on which it rests. The zinc pan might be made 6 or 8 inches +deep, and the lower half filled with sand, so as to keep the whole moist +for a greater length of time.”</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_122.png" width="250" height="349" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 123.—Insect breeding-cage or vivarium.</p> +</div> + +<p>The sand or earth in the zinc pan at the bottom of the breeding cage +should be kept constantly moistened, and in the case of hibernating pupæ +the constant adding of water to the top of the earth or sand causes it +to become very hard and compact. To overcome this objection it was +suggested in the <i>Entomologists' Monthly Magazine</i> for June, 1876, page +17, that the base should be made with an inner perforated side, the +water to be applied between it and the outer side, and I have for some +years employed a similar double-sided base, which answers the purpose +admirably (See Figure <ins title="124.">124</ins>). It is substantially the +same as that made for the Department by Prof. J. H. Comstock in 1879. It +consists of a zinc tray <i>a</i>, of two or three inches greater diameter +than the breeding cage, which surrounds the zinc pan proper containing +the earth, and the tube <i>d</i> for the reception of the food-plant. The +lower portion of the inner pan <i>b</i> is of perforated zinc. Zinc supports, +<i>c c</i>, are constructed about halfway between the bottom and the top of +this pan, on which the breeding cage rests. In moistening the earth in +the cage, water is poured into the tray, which enters the soil slowly, +through the perforations in the zinc pan. I have found this modification +of very decided advantage and use it altogether in the work of the +Division, and heartily recommend it.</p> + +<p>The base of the vivarium or breeding cage should never be made of tin, +but always of zinc. If made of tin, it will soon rust out. Galvanized +iron may be used in place of the zinc, and will doubtless prove equally +satisfactory.</p> + +<p>“A dozen such cages will furnish room for the annual breeding of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +great number of species, as several having different habits and +appearance, and which there is no danger of confounding, may be +simultaneously fed in the same cage. I number each of the three parts of +each cage to prevent misplacement and to facilitate reference, and aside +from the notes made in the notebook, it will aid the memory and expedite +matters to keep a short open record of the species contained in each +cage, by means of slips of paper pasted on the glass door. As fast as +the different specimens complete their transformations and are taken +from the cage the notes may be altered or erased, or the slips wetted +and removed entirely. To prevent possible confounding of the different +species which enter the ground, it is well, from time to time, to sift +the earth, separate the pupæ and place them in what I call ‘imago +cages,’ used for this purpose alone and not for feeding. Here +they may be arranged with references to their exact whereabouts.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_123.png" width="500" height="218" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 124.—Improved base for breeding-cage (original).</p> +</div> + +<p>“A continued supply of fresh food must be given to those insects +which are feeding, and a bit of moist sponge thrust into the mouth of +the bottle will prevent drowning, and furnish moisture to such as need +it. By means of a broad paste brush and spoon the frass may be daily +removed from the earth, which should be kept in a fit and moist +condition—neither too wet nor too dry. In the winter, when insect life +is dormant, the earth may be covered with a layer of clean moss, and the +cages put away in the cellar, where they will need only occasional +inspection, but where the moss must nevertheless be kept damp. Cages +made after the same plan, but with the sides of wire gauze instead of +glass, may be used for insects which do not well bear confinement +indoors, the cages to be placed on a platform on the north side of a +house, where they will receive only the early morning and late evening +sun.”</p> + +<p><a name="REARING" id="REARING"><i>Detailed Instructions for Rearing.</i></a>—In the rearing of insects every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> +worker will develop a number of methods of value, and it is only by +careful study and comparison of the experiences of all that the best +system can be elaborated. For this reason I have, in what follows, +quoted, in a more or less fragmentary way, the experiences of different +entomologists.</p> + +<p>As is remarked by Miss Murtfeldt, in an interesting paper read before +the Entomological Club of the American Association for the Advancement +of Science, August 20, 1890, “there is a great individuality, or +rather specificality, in insects, and not infrequently specimens of +larvæ are found for which the collector taxes his ingenuity in vain to +provide. Not the freshest leaves, the cleanest swept earth, or the most +well-aired cages will seem to promote their development.”</p> + +<p>The greatest care and watchfulness, therefore, are necessary to insure +success in the rearing of larvæ. In many cases such larvæ can only be +successfully reared by inclosing them in netting on their food-plant out +of doors. It is a frequent device of Lepidopterists also to inclose a +rare female in netting placed on the food plant of the species, where +the male may be attracted and may be caught and placed in the bag with +the female, when copulation usually takes place successfully, or a male +may be caught in the field and inclosed with such female. Mr. W. H. Edwards, +where the plant is a small one, uses for this purpose a +headless keg covered at one end with gauze, which he places over the +plant inclosing the female.</p> + +<p>Mr. James Fletcher, of Ottawa, Canada, one of our most enthusiastic +rearers of insects, has given some details of his methods in a recent +very interesting account of “A Trip to Nepigon.” One style +of cage used by him in securing the eggs of large Lepidoptera “is +made by cutting two flexible twigs from the willow or any other shrub +and bending them into the shape of two arches, which are put one over +the other at right angles and the ends pushed into the ground. Over the +penthouse thus formed a piece of gauze is placed, and the cage is +complete. The edges of the gauze may be kept down either with pegs or +with earth placed upon them.” This kind of cage is used for all +the larger species which lay upon low plants. The species which oviposit +on larger plants or trees are inclosed in a gauze bag tied over the +branch. This is applicable to insects like <i>Papilio</i>, <i>Limenitis</i>, +<i>Grapta</i>, etc. Care must be taken, however, that the leaves of the plant +inside the net are in a natural position, for some species are very +particular about where they lay their eggs, some ovipositing on the top +of the leaves, others near the tip, and many others on the under +surface. “When a bag made beforehand is used, the points must be +rounded, and in tying the piece of gauze over the branch care must be +taken to pull out all creases and folds, or the insect will be sure to +get into them and either die or be killed by spiders from the outside of +the bag. It is better to put more than one female in the same cage. I +have frequently noticed that one specimen alone is apt to crawl about<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> +and settle on the top of the cage, and not go near the food plant. When +there are two or three they disturb each other and are frequently moving +and falling on the food plant, when they will stop for a moment and lay +an egg. A stubborn female of <i>Coleus eurytheme</i> was only induced to lay +by having a male placed in the cage with her, and by his impatient +fluttering and efforts to escape she was frequently knocked down from +the top, and every time she fell upon the clover plant beneath, she laid +an egg before crawling to the top again.” Some insects, even with +all care in making their surroundings as natural as possible, will +persistently refuse to lay. Mr. Fletcher has successfully obtained eggs +from some of these by a method which he says one of his correspondents +styles “Egg-laying extraordinary.” It consists simply in +“gently pressing the abdomen of a female which has died without +laying eggs, until one and sometimes two perfect eggs are passed from +the ovipositor.” Mr. Fletcher has secured a number of eggs from +rare species in this way, and successfully reared the larvæ. The +following directions for obtaining the eggs and rearing the larvæ of +Lepidoptera, given in this paper by Mr. Fletcher, are excellent, and I +quote them entire:</p> + +<p>“There are one or two points which should be remembered when +obtaining eggs and rearing larvæ. In the first place, the females should +not be left exposed to the direct rays of the sun; but it will be found +sometimes that if a butterfly is sluggish, putting her in the sun for a +short time will revive her and make her lay eggs. Confined females, +whether over branches or potted plants, should always be in the open +air. If females do not lay in two or three days they must be fed. This +is easily done. Take them from the cage and hold near them a piece of +sponge (or, Mr. Edwards suggests, evaporated apple), saturated with a +weak solution of sugar and water. As soon as it is placed near them they +will generally move their antennæ towards it, and, uncoiling their +tongues, suck up the liquid. If they take no notice of it the tongue can +be gently uncoiled with the tip of a pin, when they will nearly always +begin to feed. It is better to feed them away from the plant they are +wanted to lay upon, for if any of the sirup be spilled over the +flowerpot or plant it is almost sure to attract ants. I kept one female +<i>Colias interior</i> in this way for ten days before eggs were laid. When +eggs are laid they should, as a rule, be collected at short intervals. +They are subject to the attacks of various enemies—spiders, ants, +crickets, and minute hymenopterous parasites. They may be kept easily in +small boxes, but do better if not kept in too hot or dry a place. When +the young caterpillars hatch they must be removed with great care to the +food plant; a fine paint brush is the most convenient instrument. With +small larvæ or those which it is desired to examine often, glass tubes +or jelly glasses with a tight-fitting tin cover are best. These must be +tightly closed and in a cool place. Light is not at all necessary, and +the sun should never be allowed to shine directly upon them. If moisture +gathers inside the glasses the top should be removed for a short time.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +Larvæ may also be placed upon growing plants. These can be planted in +flowerpots and the young caterpillars kept from wandering either by a +cage of wire netting or, by what I have found very satisfactory, glass +lamp chimneys. These can be placed over the plant, with the bottom +pushed into the earth, and then should have a loose wad of cotton +batting in the top. This has the double effect of preventing too great +evaporation of moisture and keeping its occupants within bounds. Some +larvæ wander very much and climb with the greatest ease over glass, +spinning a silken path for themselves as they go. When caterpillars are +bred in the study it must not be forgotten that the air inside a house +is much drier than it is out of doors amongst the trees and low herbage, +where caterpillars live naturally. The amateur will require some +experience in keeping the air at a right degree of moisture when +breeding upon growing plants. In close tin boxes or jars, where the +leaves must be changed every day, there is not so much trouble. An +important thing to remember with larvæ in jars is to thoroughly wash out +the jars with cold water every day. If, however, a caterpillar has spun +a web on the side and is hung up to moult, it must not be disturbed. In +changing the food it is better not to remove the caterpillars from the +old food, but having placed a new supply in the jar, cut off the piece +of leaf upon which they are and drop it into the jar. If they are not +near the moult a little puff of breath will generally dislodge them. +Some caterpillars, as <i>Papilio turnus</i>, which spins a platform to which +it retires after feeding, can best be fed upon a living tree out of +doors, but must be covered with a gauze bag to keep off enemies. A piece +of paper should be kept <i>attached</i> to each breeding jar or cage, upon +which regular notes must be taken <i>at the time</i>, giving the dates of +every noticeable feature, particularly the dates of the moults and the +changes which take place in the form and color at that time.”</p> + +<p>The necessity of outdoor work is further felt in the determination of +the facts in the life-history of some insects which have an alternation +of generations, as some Gall-flies (<ins title="Cynipidae"><i>Cynipidæ</i></ins>), and most +Aphides. To successfully study these insects constant outdoor +observation is necessary, or the species must be inclosed in screens of +wire or netting outdoors on their food-plant. Many insects which breed +on the ground or on low herbage may be very successfully watched and +controlled by covering the soil containing them or the plant on which +they feed with a wire screen or netting. The use of wire screens is also +advisable in the case of wintering pupæ or larvæ out of doors. Many +species can be more easily carried through the winter by placing them +outdoors under such screens during the winter, which insures their being +subjected to the natural conditions of climate, and then transferring +them to the breeding cage again early in the spring. This is advisable +in the case of Microlarvæ and pupæ. Species which bore in the stems of +plants may be easily cared for and leaf-mining and leaf-webbing forms +can be secured under screens or covers out of doors for the winter in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> +sheltered situations. Many species which, if kept in a warm room can not +be reared, will, if subjected to freezing weather under slight +protection in the open air, emerge successfully the following spring.</p> + +<p>The greatest care is necessary in the breeding of Tenthredinidæ, as most +of them transform under ground and are single brooded, the <ins title="larvae">larvæ</ins> +remaining in the ground from midsummer until the following +spring. Nothing but constant care in maintaining uniform moisture and +temperature of the soil will insure the success of such breeding. Some +species bore into rotten wood or the stems of plants to undergo their +transformations, as for instance the Dogwood Saw-fly (<i>Harpiphorus +varianus</i>). This species, unless supplied with soft or rotten wood in +which to bore, will wander ceaselessly round the cage, and in most cases +eventually perish.</p> + +<p>Where a small room can be devoted to the purpose, an excellent wholesale +method of obtaining wood-boring insects (<i>Coleoptera</i>, <i>Lepidoptera</i>, +etc.) is to collect large quantities of dead or dying wood of all sorts +or any that indicates the presence of the early states of insects, and +store it in such apartment. The following spring and summer the escaping +insects will be attracted to the windows and may be easily secured. The +objection to this method is that, in many cases, it will be impossible +to determine the food habit of the insect secured, owing to the variety +of material brought together.</p> + +<p><a name="ROOT_CAGE" id="ROOT_CAGE"><i>The Root Cage.</i></a>—For the study of insects which affect the roots of +plants a root cage has been devised by Prof. J. H. Comstock which is of +sufficient importance to warrant full description. It consists of a zinc +frame (<a href="#img_125">Fig. 125</a><i>a</i>) holding two plates of glass in a vertical position +and only a short distance apart, the space between the plates being +filled with soil in which seeds are planted or small plants set. Outside +of each glass is a piece of zinc or sheet iron (<i>b</i>) which slips into +grooves and which can be easily removed. When these zincs are in place +the soil is kept dark.</p> + +<p>The idea of the cages is, that the space between the glasses being very +narrow, a large part of the roots will ramify close to the surface of +the glass, so that by removing the zinc slides the roots may be easily +seen, and any root-inhabiting insects which it maybe desirable to breed +may thus be studied in their natural conditions without disturbing them. +Prof. Comstock has used this cage very successfully in studying the +habits of wire-worms, and its availability for many of the underground +insects, such as the Cicadas, root-lice, larvæ, etc., is apparent. These +frames may be made of various sizes, to accommodate particular insects. +It will be of advantage in many cases, in order to secure the natural +conditions as nearly as possible, to sink the cage in the soil, and for +this purpose Prof. Comstock has had constructed a pit lined with brick +for the reception of his cages, and employs a small portable crane to +lift them out of the ground when it is desirable to examine them.</p> + +<p><a name="OTHER_APPS" id="OTHER_APPS"><i>Other Apparatus.</i></a>—Much of the breeding of insects can be done with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> +simplest apparatus, and for the rearing of Microlepidoptera, +Gall-insects, and the keeping of cocoons and chrysalides of small +species, nothing is more convenient than a medium sized test-tube, the +end of which may be plugged with cotton. I have recently successfully +carried over the winter the larva of <i>Sphecius speciosus</i>, which had +been removed early in the fall from its earthen pod or cocoon, the larva +transforming to a perfect pupa in the spring. In this case the test tube +was plugged with cotton and inserted in a wooden mailing tube to exclude +the light. Smaller jars with glass covers or with a covering of gauze +may be employed for most insects, with the advantage of occupying +comparatively little space and of isolating the species under study.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_128.png" width="500" height="369" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_125"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> <ins title="125">125.</ins>—Root cage: <i>a</i>, frame with slide removed; <i>b</i>, +movable slide; <i>c</i>, top view (original).</p> +</div> + +<p>Long glass tubes, open at both ends, are useful in many other ways, +especially in the rearing and study of the smaller hypogean insects or +those which bore and live in the stems of plants. An infested stem cut +open on one side and placed in such a tube will generally carry any +insect that has ceased feeding, or any species like the wood-boring bees +which feed upon stored food, successfully through their transformations; +while root-lice may be kept for a lengthy period upon the roots in such +tube, providing a portion of the root extends outside of the tube and is +kept in moistened ground or water. In all such cases these tubes, with +their contents, should be kept in the dark, either in a drawer or else +covered with some dark material which can be wound around or slipped +over them, and the ends must be closed with cotton or cork.</p> + +<p>The rearer of insects will frequently experience difficulty in carrying +his pupæ through the winter, and, even though ordinary precautions are +taken, the mortality will frequently amount to 50 per cent of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +specimens. Mr. H. Bakhaus, of <ins title="Leipsic">Leipzig</ins>, thus describes a device which is +substantially the base of the vivarium shown on page 114.</p> + +<p>“The base consists of a round plate of strong zinc, with two +vertical rims, an inch high, placed one within the other, an inch apart, +and soldered to the basal plate so that the outer one is water-tight. +The inner rim must be perforated with small holes as close to the bottom +as possible. The space inside the inner rim must be filled with fine +sand, on which the pupæ should be laid. The space between the two rims +is then filled with water, which, finding its way through the holes in +the inner rim to the sand, causes the necessary moisture. Over the whole +is put a bell-shaped cover of wire gauze, which must fit tightly over +the outer rim. In this receptacle the pupæ remain untouched, and receive +fresh moisture, as above indicated, if required by the drying of the +sand.”</p> + +<p>The hardy pupæ of most Noctuids and Bombycids, as well as those of many +Rophalocera, may be handled with little danger, but other species, if +handled at all, or if the cocoons which they make for themselves are +broken, can seldom be reared. Constant precautions also must be +exercised in the care of the soil and the breeding cages. One of the +great drawbacks is the presence of mites and thread worms (Entozoöns), +etc., which affect dying or dead pupæ and larvæ in the soil. They also +affect living specimens and are capable of doing very considerable +damage. To free the soil of them it is necessary at times to allow the +earth to become dry enough to be sifted, and then after removing the +pupæ submit it to heat sufficient to destroy any undesired life there +may be in it.</p> + +<p><a name="INSECTARY" id="INSECTARY"><i>The Insectary.</i></a>—Up to the present time the work of rearing insects has +been largely confined to the breeding cage and breeding jar, already +described, which have been kept in the rooms of the investigator. The +advantages of having a special building for this purpose are at once +apparent and need not be insisted upon. One of the best establishments +of this kind is that of the Cornell University Experiment Station, which +was fully described in Bulletin No. 3, of that station, November, 1888. +The Kansas Experiment Station has a similar building, and one has +recently been built for the use of the Entomological Division of the +United States Department of Agriculture. The insect-breeding house, or +insectary, should comprise a building having workrooms, or laboratories, +for microscopic and general work in the study and preparation of +specimens, and also a conservatory for the rearing of specimens and the +growth of plants, and, where applied entomology is concerned, special +rooms for the preparation and the test of insecticides. The building +proper should also have a basement storage room for hibernating insects. +The laboratory should be fitted with all the apparatus used in the study +of insects, including microscopes and accessories and a dark-room for +photographic purposes.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="DIRECTIONS_FOR_TRANSMITTING_INSECTS" id="DIRECTIONS_FOR_TRANSMITTING_INSECTS"></a>DIRECTIONS FOR TRANSMITTING INSECTS.</h2> + +<p>It is very desirable in transmitting insects from the field of +exploration, or from one entomologist to another, for information, +exchange, or other purpose, that they be properly secured and packed. +Pinned and mounted specimens should be firmly fixed in a cigar box, or a +special box for mailing, and this should be carefully but not too +tightly wrapped with cotton or other loose packing material to a depth +of perhaps an inch, and the whole then inclosed in stiff wrapping paper. +It is preferable, however, to inclose the box containing the specimens +in a larger box, filling the intervening space, not too firmly, with +cotton or other packing material. Where specimens are to be sent to a +considerable distance it is advisable also to line the box in which they +are placed with cotton, which serves to catch and hold any specimens +which may become loose in transit. In the case of alcoholic specimens +each vial should be wrapped separately in cotton and placed in a strong +wooden or tin box. Special mailing boxes for alcoholic specimens have +been devised, and a very convenient form is herewith figured. It is an +ordinary tube of wood, with a metal screw top, and the interior lined +with rough cork. These tubes are made in various sizes to accommodate +vials of different dimensions.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_130.png" width="400" height="320" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 126.—Wooden-tube mailing-box: <i>a</i>, tube; <i>b</i>, cover +(original.)</p> +</div> + +<p>In mailing living specimens the essential thing is a strong box, +preferably tin, made as nearly air-tight as possible. I have found it +very convenient on long trips to carry with me a number of tin boxes in +the flat (<a href="#img_127">Fig. 127</a>), combined in convenient packages, ready to be bent +and improvised in the field. For this purpose get any tinsmith to make +out of good tin a number of pieces cut of the requisite dimensions both +for the bottoms and the covers, carefully cutting the corners to permit +the proper bending of the sides. These improvised boxes will prove +useful for keeping living larvæ with their food-plants, especially if<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> +tied up in stout brown paper to prevent any exit from the unsoldered +angles. They will also answer admirably for mailing or otherwise sending +specimens to their ultimate destination. In the case of larvæ a quantity +of the food-plant should always be inclosed in the box.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_131a.png" width="400" height="270" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_127"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 127.—Tin mailing-box in the flat: <i>a</i>, box; <i>b</i>, +cover (original).</p> +</div> + +<p>In transmitting insects for information the greatest care should be +taken to relieve the person of whom information is sought of as much +unnecessary work as possible. It is easy for any beginner to collect +more in a single day than an experienced entomologist can well mount, +study, and determine in a week, and as those who have the means and +information to give determinations or otherwise to assist beginners are +generally very much occupied, and their time is valuable, they are +justified in ignoring miscellaneous collectings where the sender has +made no effort to either properly mount or otherwise study and care for +his specimens.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_131b.png" width="250" height="93" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 128.—Tin mailing-box, bent into shape<br />for use +(original.)</p> +</div> + +<p>Living specimens, especially larvæ, should be packed in tin, with a +supply of their appropriate food. The tighter the box the fresher will +the food as well as the specimens keep. Insects do not easily suffocate, +and it is worse than useless, in the majority of cases, to punch +air-holes in such boxes. Dead specimens, when not pinned, may be sent in +a variety of ways. Small ones may be dropped into a quill and inclosed +in a letter, or a small vial fitted into a piece of bored wood. Those +which do not spoil by wetting may be sent in alcohol, provided the +bottle is absolutely filled, or, what is better, in sawdust moistened<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> +with alcohol, or between layers of cotton saturated with alcohol.</p> + +<p>The postal regulations permit the sending by mail of “dried +insects * * * when properly put up, so as not to injure the persons of +those handling the mails, nor soil the mail bags or their +contents.” Specimens in alcohol may also be sent by mail, provided +that the containing vial be strong enough to resist the shock of +handling in the mail, and that it be inclosed in a wooden or +papier-maché tube not less than three-sixteenths of an inch thick in the +thinnest part, lined with cork or other soft material, and with a screw +top so adjusted as to prevent the leakage of the contents in case of +breakage. Entomological specimens are of the fourth class of mail +matter, the postage on which is 1 cent an ounce or fraction thereof, the +limit of weight for a single package being 4 pounds, and the limit as to +bulk 18 inches in any direction. Saleable matter is also non-mailable at +fourth-class rates; so that the safer method, with small packages, is to +send under letter postage. It is far better, however, for long journeys, +and especially for transatlantic shipment, to send by express.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<h2><a name="NOTES_AND_MEMORANDA" id="NOTES_AND_MEMORANDA"></a>NOTES AND MEMORANDA.</h2> + +<p>In the foregoing pages are given some of the more useful directions for +those wishing to commence to collect and study insects. Experience will +soon teach many other important facts not mentioned here, and the best +closing advice I can give the novice is, to get acquainted, if possible, +with some one who has already had large experience. He will be very apt +to find such a person pleasant and instructive company whether in the +field or in the closet. One important habit, however, I wish to strongly +inculcate and emphasize: The collector should never be without his +memorandum or note book. More profitless work can scarcely be imagined +than collecting natural-history specimens without some specific aim or +object. Every observation made should be carefully recorded, and the +date of capture, locality, and food-plant should always be attached to +the specimens when these are mounted. More extended notes may be made in +a field memorandum book carried in the pocket or in larger record books +at home. For field memoranda I advise the use of a stylographic pen, as +pencil is apt to rub and efface in time by the motions of the body. The +larger record book is especially necessary for biologic notes. Notes on +adolescent states which it is intended to rear to the imago can not be +too carefully made or in too much detail. The relative size, details of +ornamentation and structure, dates of moulting or transformation from +one state to another—indeed, everything that pertains to the biography +of the species—should be noted down, and little or nothing trusted to +mere memory where exact data are so essential. Many insects, +particularly dragon-flies, have brilliant coloring when fresh from the +pupa, which is largely lost afterward. The time of laying and hatching<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> +of eggs, the number from a single female, the character of the eggs, +general habits, records of parasites and their mode of attack—all +should be entered as observed. A great many species have the most +curious life histories, which can not be ascertained except by continued +and persevering observation, not only in the vivarium or insectary but +in the field. It is almost impossible to follow, under artificial +conditions, the full life cycle of many species like the Aphididæ, or +the Gall-flies, etc., which involve alternation of generations, +dimorphism, heteromorphism, migration from one plant to another, and +various other curious departures from the normal mode of development, +without careful field study and experiment. These studies are possible +only to those who are able to frequent the same localities throughout +the whole year, and can hardly be carried on by the traveling naturalist +or collector.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<h2><a name="INSTRUCTIONS_FOR_COLLECTING_AND_PRESERVING_ARACHNIDS_AND_MYRIAPODS" id="INSTRUCTIONS_FOR_COLLECTING_AND_PRESERVING_ARACHNIDS_AND_MYRIAPODS"></a>INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING ARACHNIDS AND MYRIAPODS.</h2> + +<p>The foregoing portions of this manual have dealt almost exclusively with +the subject of the securing and preservation of Hexapods, but it is +deemed advisable to include brief instructions for the collection and +care of the near allies of the true insect, Spiders and Myriapods, the +study of which will in most cases be associated with that of Hexapods.</p> + +<h3><a name="DIR_SPIDER" id="DIR_SPIDER">DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING SPIDERS.</a></h3> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_134a.png" width="250" height="164" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 129.—A ground Spider (<i>Oxyopes viridans</i>).<br />(After +Comstock.)</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="APPARATUS" id="APPARATUS"><i>Apparatus.</i></a>—Many of the directions and methods given in the foregoing +pages for the collection of Hexapods apply also to the animals named +above. Little apparatus is necessary in the collection of spiders and +other Arachnids. The essentials are vials containing alcohol, an insect +net, a sieve, and forceps. Narrow vials without necks are best for +collecting purposes, as the corks can be more quickly inserted. They +should be of different sizes, from 1 dram to 4 or 6 drams, and the +alcohol used should be at least 50 per cent strong and in some cases it +is advisable to use it at a strength of 70 or 80 per cent. The net may +be of the same construction as that used to collect insects and is used +in the same way. Some arachnologists, however, use a net of a somewhat +different make, which is much stronger. The iron ring is heavier and +larger than in the case of the insect net, resembling in this respect +the ring of the Deyrolle net. The bag is short and the handle is +fastened to both sides of the ring. This net is used for beating the +leaves of trees, bushes, and grass. Dr. Marx uses a net which is already +described and figured under the name of the Umbrella Net (see p. <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, +<a href="#img_052">Fig. 52</a>). The sieve is the same as that described on p. <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#img_054">Fig. 54</a>, and +is used to sift the spiders from leaves and rubbish, especially during +winter. A mass of leaves and other material is thrown into the sieve and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> +then shaken, the spiders falling through on a piece of white cloth, +which is spread under the sieve on the ground. Many hibernating species +can be readily secured in this manner. A forceps similar to that +described for the collecting of hexapods should be used to capture or +pick up specimens, for if handled with the fingers they are apt to be +crushed, especially the smaller forms. As soon as the collecting is +finished or the vial is filled a label should be placed in this last +indicating place and date of collection. Egg sacs and cocoons should be +collected in pill boxes and properly labeled, and if possible the adults +should be reared. Both sexes should be collected and descriptive notes +or drawings made of the webs as found in nature.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_134b.png" width="250" height="174" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 130.—An orb-weaver<br />(<i>Argiope argyraspides</i> Walck): +<br /><i>a</i>, male; <i>b</i>, female; <i>c</i> and <i>d</i>,<br />enlarged parts.</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="TIME_LOC" id="TIME_LOC"><i>Time and Locality for Collecting.</i></a>—The best time to collect spiders is +in the early fall, during the months of September and October. The great +majority of the species are then mature. Many forms, however, occur in +the adult state in late spring and early summer. Numerous species may +also be collected during winter, some of these hibernating under stones, +the bark of dead trees, etc., and others, more particularly the small +forms, under dead leaves and rubbish on the ground in woods. Other +species which have hibernated may be found about the earliest flowers in +spring. No particular localities can be indicated for the collection of +spiders, since they occur in all sorts of places, in wooded or open +regions and also in and about dwellings. Many Lycosidæ are found in dry +and rocky situations and quite a number in open fields. Thomisidæ may be +found on flowers. The Therididæ affect shady places, and many Epeiridæ +will be found in similar situations. The Attidæ love the sun and are +found very actively engaged in hunting insects on plants and dead +leaves. Many species of this family will be found in cases under loose +bark in winter. Evergreen trees are also quite good collecting grounds +for Attidæ. The Drassidæ are ground spiders and are mostly nocturnal, +hiding during the day under leaves and stones; a few forms, however, +disport in the hottest sunshine. Some genera are found most frequently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +near water or in damp places, as Dolomedes and Tetragnatha; others in +sandy places, as Micaria, Targalia.</p> + +<h3><a name="COLL_ARACH" id="COLL_ARACH">COLLECTING OTHER ARACHNIDS: MITES, TICKS, SCORPIONS, ETC.</a></h3> + +<p>Other Arachnids—as mites, ticks, scorpions, daddy longlegs or +harvest-men—may be collected in the same way as spiders.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_135a.png" width="150" height="239" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 131.—A Harvest-man<br />(<i>Phalangium +ventricosum</i>).<br />—From Packard.</p> +</div> + +<p>The Phalangidæ (Harvest-men) somewhat resemble spiders, and are at once +recognized by their extremely long legs. They occur about houses, +especially in shady places, under the eaves, etc., and in the woods and +fields. They are carnivorous and feed on small insects, especially +Aphides. They should be pressed a little when captured to extrude the +genital apparatus, if possible, and are best collected in the early +fall.</p> + +<p>The Phrynidæ are very peculiar looking animals, the anterior legs being +very long and slender and the maxillary palpi very large. The genus +<i>Thelyphonus</i> is not uncommon in the South, and is known by its oblong +body, ending usually with a long, slender, many-jointed filament, from +which they are called Whip-tailed Scorpions. <i>T. giganteus</i> is the +common species. They occur in moist situations, and are carnivorous, +feeding on insects and small animals.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_135b.png" width="150" height="187" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 132.—False Scorpion<br />(<i>Chelifer cancroides</i> +L.).<br />—From Packard.</p> +</div> + +<p>The false scorpions, Chermetidæ, may at once be recognized by their +large maxillary palpi, resembling the maxillæ of the true scorpion. They +are small insects, rarely exceeding a quarter of an inch in length, and +are found in dark shady places and feed upon mites, Psoci, and other +small insects. A common species is represented at figure 132.</p> + +<p>The true scorpions, Scorpionidæ, are well-known forms, and are easily +recognized by their large, powerful, forceps-like maxillæ, and the long +slender tail continuous with the thorax and ending with a sting, which +is, in most cases, quite poisonous. They are found mostly in the Western +and Southwestern States, and are dangerous in proportion to their size. +The poisonous nature of the sting of these animals is, however, +generally overrated, and the wounds, even of the larger species, are +rarely fatal.</p> + +<p>The Acarina or true mites are the lowest representatives of the +Arachnida and include many genera and species differing very widely in +habit and characters. Some of them are mere sacs, on which the mouth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> +parts or other organs are scarcely discernible. In general they resemble +spiders. The young, however, when they leave the egg, almost invariably +have but three pairs of feet, resembling in this respect the Hexapods. +The fourth pair is added in the later stages. They are parasitic on +insects and other animals, and some of them are vegetable feeders or +live in decaying vegetable and animal matter.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_136a.png" width="150" height="189" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_134"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 134.—The Cattle-tick.<br />(After Packard.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_136b.png" width="150" height="254" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 133.—A true Scorpion<br />(<i>Buthus carolinianus</i>).<br />—From +Packard.</p> +</div> + +<p>A very interesting group is comprised in the family Phytoptidæ or +gall-making mites which occur on the leaves of various trees and shrubs +and produce curious galls or abnormal growths. These mites are elongate +in form, have rudimentary mouth-parts and but four legs. A common form, +<i>Phytoptus quadripes</i>, produces a gall on the leaves of the soft maple. +The galls of all species should be collected and pinned and also +preserved in alcohol, and specimens of the mites should be mounted in +balsam.</p> + +<p>The members of the genus Sarcoptes are very minute and are the active +source of the itch in the lower animals and man. Another common genus is +Tyroglyphus, which includes the common cheese mite, <i>T. siro</i>. Other +species of this genus also sometimes occur in enormous numbers in +grocers' supplies. Still others are parasitic on insects, and one +species, <i>T. phylloxeræ</i> Riley, is very beneficial, since, as its name +indicates, it feeds on the Phylloxera of the grapevine.</p> + +<p>The Ixodidæ comprise the ticks which attach themselves to cattle, hogs, +and man, and are not at all uncommon objects. These insects can be found +on the animals they infest, and distinct species will be found to occur +on most wild mammals. The common Cattle tick <i>Boophilus bovis</i> Riley, is +represented at <a href="#img_134">Fig. 134</a>.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_137a.png" width="100" height="111" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 135.—<i>Nothrus ovivorus</i><br />Packard.</p> +</div> + +<p>The family Orobatidæ includes a number of small terrestrial mites, which +occur on the moss on trees and stones. Some species are known to feed on +the eggs of insects, and the one shown in the accompanying figure, +<i>Nothrus ovivorus</i> has been observed, by Dr. Packard to eat the eggs of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> +the Canker Worm.</p> + +<p>The members of the family Gamasidæ are parasitic upon animals, but +chiefly upon insects. The Hydrachnidæ are parasitic also upon the +aquatic insects, and also affect fish or mussels or occur on fresh-water +plants.</p> + +<p>One of the most important families of mites is the Trombidiidiæ which +includes a large number of species, some of which occur in immense +numbers. Most of them are vegetable feeders, but some species feed on +the eggs of insects.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_137b.png" width="500" height="274" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_136"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 136.—<i>Trombidium locustarum</i>: <i>a</i>, female with her +batch of eggs; <i>b</i>, newly hatched larva—natural size indicated by the +dot within the circle; <i>c</i>, egg; <i>d e</i>, vacated egg-shells.</p> +</div> + +<p>The genus Trombidium includes a number of the Red Mites which feed on +insects in all their stages. The Locust Mite, <i>Trombidium locustarum</i> +Riley, is one of the most interesting as well as one of the most +important of our locust enemies, and will serve to illustrate the habits +of the group. It differs so much in infancy and maturity that it has +been referred to different genera and is known under different names. +The mature form lives on the ground and feeds on all sorts of animal or +decomposing vegetable matter, and wherever the ground is filled with +locust eggs these afford an abundance of food and the mites flourish and +multiply rapidly. In the spring the female lays 300 or 400 minute +spherical orange-red eggs in the ground (<a href="#img_136">Fig. 136</a><i>a</i>). From these eggs, +as shown enlarged at <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, and <i>e</i> (the two latter being the vacated +egg shells) emerge the six-legged larva shown at <i>b</i>. These are mere +specks and crawl actively about, fastening themselves to the locusts +mostly at the base of the wings or along the upper veins. They subsist +on the juices of their host. They firmly attach themselves by the mouth +and increase rapidly in size, the legs not growing and becoming mere +rudiments. In this form they are shown at <a href="#img_137">Fig. 137</a><i>a</i>. When fully +developed they let go their hold, drop to the ground, and crawl under +the shelter afforded by holes in the earth or under sticks. Here, in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> +course of two or three weeks, they transform within the larval skin to +the pupal stage shown at <i>b</i>, and eventually break through the old +larval skin and escape in the form shown at <i>c</i> and <i>d</i>. This mature +form passes the winter in the ground and is active whenever the +temperature is a few degrees above the freezing point. A larger species +<i>T. giganteum</i> Riley, also attacks locusts, while a third species +attacks the common House-fly. This was formerly known in the larva state +only and was referred to the genus Astoma, to which also the larval form +of Trombidium was referred. I have described the adult together with the +larva and pupa as <i>Trombidium muscarum</i>. An allied mite, <i>Hydrachna +belostomæ</i>, attacks the large aquatic water bug, Belostoma, and has a +mode of development precisely similar to that of Trombidium.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_138a.png" width="500" height="210" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_137"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 137.—<i>Trombidium locustarum</i>. <i>a</i>, mature larva +when about to leave the wing of a locust; <i>b</i>, pupa; <i>c</i>, male adult +when just from the pupa; <i>d</i>, female—the natural sizes indicated to the +right; <i>e</i>, palpal claw and thumb; <i>f</i>, pedal claw; <i>g</i>, one of the +barbed hairs; <i>h</i>, the striations on the larval skin.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_138b.png" width="200" height="300" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 138.—The Six-spotted Mite of the Orange<br /> +(<i>Tetranychus 6-maculatus</i>): <i>a</i>, from above—enlarged;<br /><i>b</i>, tarsus; +<i>c</i>, rostrum and palpus—still more enlarged;<br /><i>d</i>, tip of palpus—still +more enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<p>To this family also belong the common greenhouse mite, <i>Tetranychus +telarius</i>, and also the Bryobia mite, <i>B. pratensis</i>, which of late +years has attracted very considerable attention by its appearance in +immense numbers about dwellings, coming from the adjoining fields of +clover or grass. Generically allied to the greenhouse mite is the +Six-spotted Mite of the Orange (<i>T. 6-maculatus</i> Riley), which is shown +in the accompanying figure.</p> + +<p>Spiders and mites thus collected may be transferred to alcohol. Dr. Marx,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +who has had a very considerable experience in the preservation of +spiders, recommends the use of the following mixture: Glycerin and +Wickersheim's fluid, 1½ ounces of each, and distilled water 3 ounces, +the whole to be shaken and thoroughly mixed and added to 30 ounces of 95 +per cent alcohol. Alcohol which has previously been used for preserving +spiders, and which has therefore dissolved some of the fatty matters +from the specimens, he prefers to pure alcohol, using with this, +however, somewhat less of the distilled water. The liquid thus composed +answers all demands and keeps the specimens flexible and preserves their +coloring. Should the stopper become loose and the liquid evaporate, +there is always sufficient liquid, water or glycerine, left in the vial +to keep the specimens from drying and thus save them from destruction. +Dr. Marx also prefers to use cork stoppers rather than the rubber +stoppers recommended for other alcoholic material. His objection to the +rubber stopper is that, in a collection in which the specimens are often +used and the stoppers are frequently removed, he finds that small +particles of the rubber stopper come off and settle upon the specimens +as a white dust, which it is difficult to remove. This objection applies +only to a poor quality of rubber, and in all other respects the rubber +is much to be preferred. The colors of spiders are apt to fade somewhat +if exposed to light, and the collection should therefore be kept in +closed boxes or in the dark.</p> + +<h3><a name="COLL_MYRI" id="COLL_MYRI">COLLECTING MYRIAPODA.</a></h3> + +<p>Centipedes and Millipedes are collected in the same manner as spiders. +They live in damp places, under sticks and stones, and in decaying +vegetation. They should be preserved in alcohol, and on account of their +usually strong chitinous covering, precautions as to the strength of the +alcohol are less necessary here than with softer-bodied specimens.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img_139.png" width="200" height="46" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 139.—A Milliped. (<i>Cambula +annulata</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p>The members of this subclass comprise a number of well-marked groups. +The Iulidæ are cylindrical insects and occur in moist places, as do most +of the representatives of this subclass. A common form is represented in +the accompanying figure. The Chiliopodæ comprise the flattened forms +having many-jointed antennæ and but a single pair of limbs to each +segment of the body, and are the forms to which the name centipede may +properly be applied. They are predaceous in habit, live largely on +living animal matter, and are very quick in their movements. Some forms +are poisonous, having poison glands at the base of the first pair of +legs, but the majority of the species are entirely harmless. A number<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> +of common species belong to the genus Geophilus and occur under stones +and logs. The genus Scolopendra includes some of the larger species of +the order. The largest known species, <i>S. gigantea</i>, occurs in the East +Indies and attains a length of from 9 inches to more than a foot. +Several species found within the limits of the United States attain a +length of 5 inches or more. The family Cermatiidæ includes the very +common species <i>Cermatia forceps</i>, which, while abundant in the South +and West, occurs somewhat more rarely in the North. It is commonly found +in moist situations, in houses or conservatories, and on account of its +long legs and agile movements frequently creates considerable +consternation. It is, however, an entirely harmless and very beneficial +species, since it feeds on various household pests, including flies, +roaches, etc.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<h2><a name="TEXT_BOOKS_ENTOMOLOGICAL_WORKS" id="TEXT_BOOKS_ENTOMOLOGICAL_WORKS"></a>TEXT BOOKS—ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS.</h2> + +<p>Bulletin No. 19 of the Division of Entomology, U. S. Department of +Agriculture, contains an enumeration of the published +<ins title="synoposes">synopses</ins>, catalogues, and lists of North American insects, +together with other information intended to assist the student of +American entomology. This can be had upon application, and I would refer +the student to it for specific information as to synopses, catalogues, +and lists. I have deemed it advisable, however, to include here an +enumeration of the more useful works of a general character; a list of +the entomological periodicals, both home and foreign; and the +entomological works published by the different departments of the +Government, with some information as to how and of whom they can be +obtained. Many of these publications are no longer to be had except as +they may be picked up through book-dealers; but the titles even of those +which are out of print will be useful to the student as a guide to what +he should find in every good library. Requests for this kind of +information are constantly received at the Department of Agriculture and +at the National Museum. The most useful general works are given first, +and, while a great many others in foreign languages might be cited, I +would strongly advise the beginner in America to confine himself to +these, and especially to read Harris's Insects Injurious to Vegetation, +Kirby & Spence's Introduction, and Westwood's Introduction. This +last, though published over half a century ago, is still one of the most +useful entomological works in the English language. While these +Introductions will be of great service in arranging and classifying +material and in giving a knowledge of the relationships of species, +there is no better text-book than the great book of nature, which is +always ready to unfold its truths to every earnest inquirer. In field +and wood alone can he become familiar with the insects in all their +wondrous life habits, instincts, and intelligence. There alone will he +receive the fullest inspiration and pleasure in his work or find the +highest reward for his efforts.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="COMP_WORK" id="COMP_WORK"></a>COMPREHENSIVE WORKS MOST USEFUL FOR THE STUDY OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS.</h3> + +<div class="left"> +<ul> + <li><span class="smcap">H. C. C. Burmeister.</span>—Handbuch der Entomologie. Berlin, 1832–1855. 5 vols.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Manual of Entomology.</span>—A translation of the above, by W. E. Shuckard. London, 1836.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">J. O. Westwood.</span>—An introduction to the modern classification of +insects, founded on the natural habits and corresponding organization of +the different families. 2 vols. London, 1839–‘40.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Thomas Say.</span>—Complete writings on the Entomology of North America; +edited by John L. Le Conte. New York, 1859.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">H. A. Hagen.</span>—Bibliotheca Entomologica. Die Litteratur über das ganze +Gebiet der Entomologie bis zum Jahre 1862. Leipzig, 1862.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">A. S. Packard.</span>—Guide to the Study of Insects. Henry Holt & Co., +Philadelphia and New York. (First edition, Salem, 1869.)</li> + <li>—— Entomology for Beginners. Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1888.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">The Standard Natural History.</span>—Edited by John Sterling Kingsley. S. E. +Cassino & Co., Boston, 1884–‘85.</li> + <li><p class="books">Volume <span class="smcap">ii</span> contains the insects, which are treated by the following +authors: <i>Hymenoptera</i>, J. H. Comstock and L. O. Howard; +<i>Coleoptera</i>, George Dimmock; <i>Lepidoptera</i>, H'y Edwards and C. H. +Fernald; <i>Diptera</i>, S. W. Williston; <i>Orthoptera</i>, C. V. Riley; +<i>Hemiptera</i>, P. R. Uhler; <i>Neuroptera</i>, A. S. Packard; <i>Arachnida</i>, +J. H. Emerton.</p></li> + <li><span class="smcap">J. H. Comstock.</span>—An Introduction to Entomology. Published by the author. +Ithaca, N. Y. 2 parts. Part <span class="smcap">i</span>, 1888.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Alpheus Hyatt and J. M. Arms.</span>—Guides for Science Teaching, No. <span class="smcap">iii</span>. +Insecta. Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, 1890.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<h3><a name="GEN_WORK" id="GEN_WORK">GENERAL WORKS ON CLASSIFICATION.</a></h3> + +<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="HYMENOPTERA_2" id="HYMENOPTERA_2">HYMENOPTERA.</a></p> + +<div class="left"> +<ul> + <li><span class="smcap">E. T. Cresson.</span>—Synopsis of the Families and Genera of the Hymenoptera +of America, north of Mexico, together with a Catalogue of the described +Species and Bibliography. Transactions Am. Entom. Society, Supplementary +volume. 2 parts. Philadelphia, 1887.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="COLEOPTERA_2" id="COLEOPTERA_2">COLEOPTERA.</a></p> + +<div class="left"> +<ul> + <li><span class="smcap">John L. Le Conte and George H. Horn.</span>—Classification of the Coleoptera +of North America. Prepared for the Smithsonian Institution. Washington, +Smithsonian Institution, 1883.</li> + <li><p class="books">This is the most recent and the only complete classification of +North American Coleoptera. It contains also Appendix <span class="smcap">ii</span>, a +“list of bibliographical references to memoirs, in which more +or less complete synopses of the families, genera, and species of +the Coleoptera of the United States have been published.”</p></li> + <li><span class="smcap">J. T. Lacordaire.</span>—Histoire naturelle des Insectes. Genera des +Coléoptères, ou exposé méthodique et critique de tous les genres +proposés jusqu'ici dans cet ordre d'insectes. [Completed by J. Chapuis.] +Paris, France, 1854–1876. 12 vols, and 1 vol. plates.</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><span class="smcap">William Le Baron.</span>—Outlines of Entomology, published in connection<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +with the author's Annual Reports upon injurious insects. Part first. +Including the Order of Coleoptera. Fourth Annual Report on the Noxious +and Beneficial Insects of the State of Illinois. Sep. Edit. Springfield, +1874.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="LEPIDOPTERA_2" id="LEPIDOPTERA_2">LEPIDOPTERA.</a></p> + +<div class="left"> +<ul> + <li><span class="smcap">G. A. W. Herrich-Schaeffer.</span>—Sammlung neuer oder wenig bekannter +aussereuropäischer Schmetterlinge. Vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>. Regensburg, 1850–'58; Vol. +<span class="smcap">ii</span>, Pt. 1, 1869.</li> + <li><p class="books">Contains a classification of the Lepidoptera, which forms the basis +of our present arrangement.</p></li> + <li><span class="smcap">John G. Morris.</span>—Synopsis of the described Lepidoptera of North America. +Part <span class="smcap">i</span>. Diurnal and Crepuscular Lepidoptera. Washington, Smithsonian +Institution, 1862.</li> + <li><p class="books">Compiled descriptions of the North American Lepidoptera, from the +Rhopalocera to the Bombycidæ.</p></li> + <li><span class="smcap">H. Strecker.</span>—Lepidoptera, Rhopaloceres et Heteroceres, indigenous and +exotic; with descriptions and colored illustrations. Reading, Pa., +1872–'77.</li> + <li><p class="books">Fifteen parts of this work have been published containing figures +and descriptions of many North American species.</p></li> + <li><span class="smcap">John B. Smith.</span>—An Introduction to a Classification of the North +American Lepidoptera. <Bull. Brookl. Ent. Soc., Vol. <span class="smcap">vii</span>, 1884, pp. 70–74 and 81–83.</li> + <li><p class="books">A synopsis of the families of Lepidoptera based on +Herrich-Schaeffer's classification.</p></li> + <li>——Synopsis of the Genera of the North American Rhopalocera. <Bull. +Brookl. Ent. Soc, Vol. <span class="smcap">vi</span>, 1883, pp. 37–45.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">E. Doubleday and W. C. Hewitson.</span>—The genera of diurnal Lepidoptera, +comprising their generic characters, a notice of their transformations, +and a catalogue of the species of each <ins title="genius">genus</ins>; +illustrated, with 86 colored plates from drawings by W. C. Hewitson. 2 +vols., London, 1846–'52.</li> + <li><p class="books">This work was completed by Westwood after the death of Doubleday.</p></li> + <li><span class="smcap">S. H. Scudder.</span>—Butterflies: Their structures, changes, and +life-histories, with special reference to American forms. Being an +application of the “Doctrine of descent” to the study of +Butterflies, with an appendix of practical instructions. 321 pp. and 201 +text figs. New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1881.</li> + <li>——The Butterflies of the Eastern United States and Canada with +special reference to New England. 3 vols., Cambridge, Mass., 1889; pp. +1958, plates 59. (Published by the author. Cost about $75 for 3 vols.)</li> + <li><span class="smcap">G. H. French.</span>—The Butterflies of the Eastern United States. For the use<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> +of classes in Zoölogy and private students. Philadelphia, +Lippincott & Co., 1886.</li> + <li><p class="books">Gives synopses of the genera and species, and description of the +species.</p></li> + <li><span class="smcap">W. H. Edwards.</span>—Butterflies of North America. Boston, Houghton, +Mifflin & Co.</li> + <li><p class="books">Two volumes are completed and the third is in course of +publication.</p></li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="HEMIPTERA_2" id="HEMIPTERA_2">HEMIPTERA.</a></p> + +<div class="left"> +<ul> + <li><span class="smcap">Herbert Osborn.</span>—Classification of Hemiptera. <Entomologica Amer., Vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>, 1885, pp. 21–27.</li> + <li><p class="books">Short characterization of the whole order, with tables of suborders +and families.</p></li> + <li>——Pediculi and Mallophaga affecting Man and the Lower Animals. +Constituting Bulletin No. 7 of the Division of Entomology, U. S. +Department of Agriculture. Washington, 1891.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">P. R. Uhler.</span>—List of Hemiptera of the region west of the Mississippi +River, including those collected during the Hayden explorations of 1873. +<Bull. U. S. Geolog. and Geogr. Survey of the Terr., Vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>, 1875, pp. 267–361, Pl. <span class="smcap">xix–xxi</span>.</li> + <li>——Report upon the insects collected by P. R. Uhler during the +exploration of 1875, including monographs of the families Cynidæ and +Saldæ, and the Hemiptera collected by A. S. Packard, jr., M. D. <U. S. +Geolog. and Geogr. Survey, Bulletin, Vol. <span class="smcap">iii</span>, No. 2, 1877, pp. 355–475.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Townend Glover.</span>—Report of the Entomologist. <Report of the Commissioner +of Agriculture for the year 1877, pp. 17–46.</li> + <li><p class="books">A popular treatise on the Homoptera, with illustrations.</p></li> + <li><span class="smcap">A. H. Haliday.</span>—An Epitome of the British genera in the Order +Thysanoptera, with indications of a few of the species. <Entomol. Mag., +Vol. <span class="smcap">iii</span>, 1836, pp. 439–451.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="DIPTERA_2" id="DIPTERA_2">DIPTERA.</a></p> + +<div class="left"> +<ul> + <li><span class="smcap">H. Loew and C. R. Osten-Sacken.</span>—Monographs of the Diptera of North +America. (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.) 4 parts. Washington, +Smithsonian Institution, 1862–'72.</li> + <li><p class="books">The several monographs will be found enumerated under the +respective families.</p></li> + <li><span class="smcap">H. Loew.</span>—Diptera Americæ septentrionalis indigena. 2 parts. Berlin, +1861–'72. (Originally published in 10 centuriæ in the Berliner Entomol. +Zeitschrift.)</li> + <li><p class="books">Descriptions of 1,000 North American Diptera, but without synoptic +arrangement.</p></li> + <li><span class="smcap">C. R. Osten-Sacken.</span>—Western Diptera: Descriptions of new genera and +species of Diptera from the region west of the Mississippi and +especially from California. <Bull. U. S. Geolog. and Geogr. Survey of +the Territories, Vol. <span class="smcap">iii</span>, 1877, pp. 189–354.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">F. Brauer.</span>—Die Zweiflügler des Kaiserlichen Museums zu Wien. <span class="smcap">i–iii.</span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> +Wien, 1880–'83.</li> + <li><p class="books">Important contributions to the classification of the Diptera.</p></li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="ORTHOPTERA_2" id="ORTHOPTERA_2">ORTHOPTERA.</a></p> + +<div class="left"> +<ul> + <li><span class="smcap">Henri de <ins title="Saussure">Saussure.</ins></span>—Orthoptera nova Americana (Diagnoses +præliminares). Series <span class="smcap">i–iii</span>. <Revue et Mag. de Zool., 1859–'61.</li> + <li><p class="books">Contains synoptical tables of species, besides descriptions of +numerous North American Orthoptera.</p></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Samuel H. Scudder.</span>—Materials for a monograph of the North American +Orthoptera. <Boston Journal of Nat. Hist., Vol. <span class="smcap">vii</span>, 1862, pp. 409–480.</li> + <li><p class="books">Contains synoptical tables and a review of the system used for +classification.</p></li> + <li>——Remarks upon the arrangement of the families of Orthoptera. <Proc. +Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. <span class="smcap">xii</span>, 1868–'69; also separate under the +title: Entomological Notes, Vol. <span class="smcap">ii</span>, pp. 7–14.</li> + <li>——Synoptical tables for determining North American insects. +Orthoptera. <Psyche, Vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>, 1876, pp. 169–171.</li> + <li><p class="books">Synopsis of families; also list of useful works in the study of +North American Orthoptera.</p></li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="NEUROPTERA_4" id="NEUROPTERA_4">NEUROPTERA.</a></p> + +<div class="left"> +<ul> + <li><span class="smcap">Hermann Hagen.</span>—Synopsis of the Neuroptera of North America, with a list +of the South American species. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, +Washington, 1861.</li> + <li>——Synopsis of the Odonata of America. <Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., +Vol. <span class="smcap">xviii</span>, 1875, pp. 20–96.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Sir John Lubbock.</span>—Monograph of the Collembola and Thysanura. London, +Ray Society, 1873.</li> + <li><p class="books">The introduction gives the full bibliography up to date.</p></li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="MYRIAPODA_2" id="MYRIAPODA_2">MYRIAPODA.</a></p> + +<div class="left"> +<ul> + <li><span class="smcap">Thomas Say.</span>—Descriptions of the Myriapoda of the United States. +<Journ. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil., Vol. <span class="smcap">ii</span>, 1821, pp. 102–114; Say's Entom. Writings, ed. Le Conte, Vol. <span class="smcap">ii</span>, pp. +24–32.</li> + <li><p class="books">This is the first paper of importance on the North American +Myriapoda.</p></li> + <li><span class="smcap">George Newport.</span>—Monograph of the class Myriapoda, Order Chilopoda. +<Trans. Linnean Soc. of London, Vol. <span class="smcap">xix</span>, 1845, pp. 265–302 and 349–439.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Horatio C. Wood</span>, Jr.—On the Chilopoda of North America, with Catalogue +of all the specimens in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution. +<Journ. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil., New Ser., Vol. <span class="smcap">v</span>, 1863, pp. 5–42.</li> + <li>——The Myriapoda of North America. <Trans. Amer.<ins title="Philos">Philos.</ins> +Soc., Vol. <span class="smcap">xiii</span>, 1865, pp. 137–248, 3 pl.</li> + <li><p class="books">This is the first and only monograph of the Myriapoda published in +this country.</p></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Robert Latzel.</span>—Die Myriapoden der Oesterreichisch-Ungarischen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> +Monarchie. Erste Hälfte: Die Chilopoden, Wien, 1880. Zweite Hälfte: Die +Symphylen, Pauropoden und Diplopoden, Wien, 1884.</li> + <li><p class="books">The most recent comprehensive work on this order, and very +important from a classificatory standpoint.</p></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Lucien M. Underwood.</span>—The North American Myriapoda. <Entomol. Amer., +Vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>, 1885, pp. 141–151.</li> + <li><p class="books">A complete bibliographical review of the subject, with tables of +families and genera.</p></li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="ARACHNIDA_2" id="ARACHNIDA_2">ARACHNIDA.</a></p> + +<div class="left"> +<ul> + <li><span class="smcap">N. M. Hentz.</span>—Descriptions and figures of the Araneides of the United +States. <Journ. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vols, <span class="smcap">iv–vi</span>, 1842–'50.</li> + <li><p class="books">These papers form the basis of the study of American arachnology. +Numerous species are described, but not in synoptic form.</p></li> + <li><span class="smcap">T. Thorell.</span>—On European Spiders. Part I. Review of the European genera +of Spiders. Upsala, 1869–'70.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">N. M. Hentz.</span>—Araneæ Americæ septentrionalis. The Spiders of the United +States. Edited by J. H. Emerton and E. Burgess. <“Occasional +Papers” of the Boston Society of Natural History, 1875.</li> + <li><p class="books">A reprint of Hentz's papers on North American spiders.</p></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Graf Eugen Keyserling.</span>—Amerikanische Spinnen aus den Familien +Pholcoidæ, Scytodoidæ und Dysderoidæ. <Verh. k. k. zool.-bot. Ges. in +Wien, Vol. <span class="smcap">xxvii</span>, 1877, pp. 205–234.</li> + <li>——Neue Spinnen aus Amerika. (Six parts.) <Verh. k. k. Zool.-bot. Ges. +in Wien, Vols. <span class="smcap">xxix–xxxiv</span>, 1879–'84.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">E. Simon.</span>—Les Arachnides de France. Paris, Vols. <span class="smcap">i–v</span>, 1874–'84.</li> + <li><p class="books">These two works represent the most recent systems of +classification, and are therefore of great general value, although +they deal only with the European fauna.</p></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Lucien M. Underwood.</span>—The Progress of Arachnology in America. <Amer. +Natur., Vol. <span class="smcap">xxi</span>, 1887, pp. 963–975.</li> + <li><p class="books">A very useful review of the bibliography, with synoptic table of +the families of the Araneæ.</p></li> +</ul> +</div> + +<h3><a name="AM_PERI" id="AM_PERI">AMERICAN PERIODICALS.</a></h3> + +<div class="left"> +<ul> + <li><span class="smcap">The American Naturalist.</span> A monthly journal devoted to the natural +sciences in their widest sense (24 volumes published up to date. Now +published at Philadelphia).</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York</span> (8 volumes, +1824–'67. Continued since 1876 as Annals of the New York Academy of +Sciences).</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">Bulletin of the Brooklyn Entomological Society</span> (7 volumes, 1878–'85. +Continued as Entomologica Americana).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural History</span> (4 volumes completed; +1874 to <ins title="1883">1883)</ins>.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Bulletins of the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the +Territories</span>, F. V. Hayden in charge (Department of the Interior; 1875 to +<ins title="1879">1879)</ins>.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Bulletins of the United States Geological Survey</span>, J. M. Powell,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +director; beginning with 1883.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Bulletins of the United States National Museum</span> (Department of the +Interior; beginning with 1875).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">The Canadian Entomologist.</span> (Published by the Entomological Society of +Ontario; 22 volumes issued up to the end of 1890. Published at London, +Ontario.)</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">Entomologica Americana.</span> (Published by the Brooklyn Entomological +Society at Brooklyn, N. Y. 1885 to 1890.)</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Entomological News</span> [and Proceedings of the Entomological Section of the +Academy of Natural Sciences] (Vol. <span class="smcap">i</span> issued in 1890. Published at +Philadelphia).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia</span> (commencing +with 1817).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History</span> (commencing with 1866).</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">North American Entomologist.</span> (Published by the Buffalo Society of +Natural Sciences, 1 volume, Buffalo, N. Y. 1879–'80.)</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">Papilio.</span> Devoted exclusively to Lepidoptera. Organ of the New York +Entomological Club (4 volumes, 1881–'84).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Psyche.</span> Organ of the Cambridge Entomological Club (5 volumes issued up +to date. Published at Cambridge, Mass. Publication begun in 1874).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia</span> +(beginning with 1841).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia</span> +(beginning with 1860).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History</span> (commencing with +1841).</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia</span> (6 volumes, +1861–'67).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia</span> (2 volumes, +beginning with 1884).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington</span> (2 volumes, +beginning with 1884).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Proceedings of the United States National Museum</span> (Department of the +Interior; beginning with 1878).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Reports of the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the +Territories</span> (Department of the Interior; beginning with 1867).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections</span> (Smithsonian Institution, +Washington, D. C.; beginning 1862).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis</span> (4 volumes hitherto +published).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Transactions of the American Entomological Society</span> and Proceedings of +the Entomological Section of the Academy of Natural Sciences (beginning +with 1868; published at Philadelphia).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Transactions of the American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia</span> (2d +series beginning with 1818).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span></li> + <li><p>Papers on entomology are also published occasionally in other American +periodicals, among which the following might be mentioned:</p></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society.</span> Chapel Hill, N. C.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Journal of the New York Microscopical Society.</span></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Naturaliste Canadien.</span> Edited by Abbé Provancher, Cap Rouge, Quebec.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences</span>, San Francisco, Cal.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<h3><a name="FOR_PERI" id="FOR_PERI">FOREIGN PERIODICALS.</a></h3> + +<div class="left"> +<ul> + <li><span class="smcap">Annales de la Société entomologique de Belgique.</span> Publication begun in +1857. Brussels.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Annales de la Société entomologique de France.</span> Publication begun in +1832. Paris.</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">Berliner entomologische Zeitschrift.</span> 18 volumes, Berlin, 1857–1874.</li> + <li><p class="books">Succeeded by the Deutsche Entomologische Zeitung.</p></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Bulletin de la Société entomologique de France.</span></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Bulletin de la Société entomologique Suisse.</span> (See <ins title="Mittheil">Mittheil.</ins> d. Schweiz. +Entom. Gesell.)</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Bulletino della Società entomologica Italiana.</span> Florence. (Publication +commenced in 1869.)</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Deutsche Entomologische Zeitschrift.</span> Published by the Entomological +Society of Berlin. (Publication begun in 1875.)</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Entomologische Nachrichten.</span> (Now edited by Dr. F. Karsch. Berlin. +Publication commenced in 1875.)</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Entomologisk Tidskrift, på föranstaltande af Entomologiska Föreningen i +Stockholm.</span> (Commenced with 1880.)</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">Entomologische Zeitung. Herausgegeben von dem Entomologischen Verein +zu Stettin.</span> 36 volumes. Stettin. 1840–'75.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Entomologiske Meddelelser udgivne of Entomologisk Forening.</span> Edited by +Fr. Meinert, Copenhagen (beginning with 1887).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">The Entomologist.</span> A popular monthly journal of British entomology. Vol. +I, 1840–'42. (Publication resumed in 1864. London.)</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">The Entomologist's Annual.</span> Edited by H. T. Stainton. London. +(Publication begun in 1855; 22 vols. published up to 1876.)</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Entomologist's Monthly Magazine.</span> London (beginning with 1864).</li> + <li>Horae ... Variis sermonibus rossiæ usitatis. Societas Entomologica +Rossica. (Publication begun in 1861.)</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">Linnæa Entomologica. Herausgegeben vom entomologischen Vereine zu +Stettin</span> (16 volumes, Berlin, 1846–'66).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Mittheilungen der schweizerischen entomologischen Gesellschaft.</span> Bulletin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +de la Société entomologique suisse. (Publication begun at Schaffhausen, +Switz., in 1862. Afterward published at Geneva.)</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Revue d'Entomologie.</span> (Published by the Société Française d'Entomologie, +Caën, France. Publication begun in 1882.)</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Tijdschrift voor Entomologie. Nederlandsche Entomologische Vereeniging</span>, +Leiden, Holland (beginning with 1857. Published by the Dutch +Entomological Society).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Transactions of the Entomological Society of London.</span> (Begun in 1834.)</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">Wiener entomologische Monatsschrift</span> (8 volumes, Vienna, 1857–'64).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Wiener entomologische Zeitung.</span> Vienna. (Commenced 1882.)</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">Zeitschrift für die Entomologie.</span> Edited by E. F. Germar (5 volumes. +Leipzig, 1839–'44).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Zeitschrift für Entomologie. Verein für schlesische Inseckten-Kunde zu +Breslau.</span> (Publication begun at Breslau in 1847).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Zoologie.</span> Leipzig. (Begun in 1848).</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p>A large number of other periodicals devoted to entomology have been +issued, principally in Europe, but after continuing for a year or more +their publication has been abandoned, and they are not included here. +Important entomological papers have also been published in many serials +devoted to zoölogy or the natural sciences generally. Among them may be +mentioned the following:</p> + +<div class="left"> +<ul> + <li><span class="smcap">Annals and Magazine of Natural History.</span> London (beginning with 1838).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Archiv für Naturgeschichte.</span> Berlin (beginning with 1835).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Öfversigt af Kongl. Svenska Vetenskaps Academiens Förhandlingar</span> +(beginning with 1844. Published at Stockholm).</li> + <li><p class="books">Proceedings of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.</p></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Proceedings of the Zoölogical Society of London.</span></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Revue et magasin de zoologie pure et appliquée.</span> Paris (beginning with +1839).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Sitzungsberichte der mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Classe der +kaiserlichen Academie der Wissenschaften zu Wien</span> (beginning with 1848).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Transactions of the Linnean Society of London</span> (beginning with 1791).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute.</span> Wellington, +New Zealand.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Verhandlungen der zoologisch-botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien</span> (beginning +with 1852).</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<h3><a name="MORE_USE" id="MORE_USE">LIST OF MORE USEFUL WORKS ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY.</a></h3> + +<div class="left"> +<ul> + <li><span class="smcap">T. W. Harris</span>, Insects Injurious to Vegetation. (Flint edition.) New<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> +York, Orange Judd Co. $4 or $6. (First edition, Cambridge, 1841.)</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><span class="smcap">Asa Fitch</span>, Reports of the State Entomologist of New York, <span class="smcap">i–xiv</span>, +Albany, 1855–'70. (For a full account of these, see First Annual Report, +by J. A. Lintner, State Entomologist of New York, pp. 294–297.)</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>The Practical Entomologist. Vols. <span class="smcap">i</span> and <span class="smcap">ii</span>. Published by the +Entomological Society of Philadelphia, 1865–'67.</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>The American Entomologist, edited by B. D. Walsh and C. V. Riley. +Vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>. St. Louis, Mo., 1868. (Out of print.)</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>The American Entomologist and Botanist, edited by C. V. Riley and Dr. +George Vasey. Vol. <span class="smcap">ii</span>. St. Louis, Mo., 1870.</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>The American Entomologist, edited by C. V. Riley. Vol. <span class="smcap">iii</span>. [Second +series, Vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>.] New York, Hub Publishing Co., 1880.</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><span class="smcap">B. D. Walsh</span>, Annual Report on the Noxious Insects of the State of +Illinois. Chicago, Prairie Farmer Co., 1868.</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><span class="smcap">C. V. Riley</span>, Reports of the State Entomologist of Missouri, <span class="smcap">i–ix</span>, +Jefferson City, 1869–'77.</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><span class="smcap">William Le Baron</span>, Reports of the State Entomologist of Illinois. +<span class="smcap">i–iv</span>, Springfield, 1871–'74.</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><span class="smcap">Cyrus Thomas</span>, Reports of the State Entomologist of Illinois, <span class="smcap">i–vi</span>, +Springfield, 1876–'81.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">J. A. Lintner</span>, Reports of the State Entomologist of New York. Albany +(beginning with 1882).</li> + <li><span class="smcap">S. A. Forbes</span>, Reports of the State Entomologist of Illinois. Springfield +(beginning with 1883).</li> + <li><p class="books">——Miscellaneous Essays on Economic Entomology. Springfield, Ill., +1886. (Published instead of Annual Report.)</p></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Mary Treat</span>, Injurious Insects of the Farm and Garden. New York, Orange +Judd Co., 1882. (A small work compiled from Riley's reports.)</li> + <li><span class="smcap">William Saunders</span>, Insects Injurious to Fruits. Philadelphia, J. B. +Lippincott & Co., 1883.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Matthew Cooke</span>, Injurious Insects of the Orchard, Vineyard, etc. +Sacramento, 1883. (8vo., pp. 472.)</li> + <li><span class="smcap">P. J. Van Beneden</span>, Animal Parasites and Messmates. New York, D. +Appleton & Co., 1876. International Scientific Series.</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>Reports of the Entomologists of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, +T. Glover (1863–1878), J. H. Comstock (1879–1880), and C. V. Riley +(1878–1879, 1880 to date).<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></li> + <li>Bulletins of the Division of Entomology of the U. S. Department of +Agriculture, C. V. Riley, Entomologist (1883 to date).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span></li> + <li>Reports and Bulletins of the U. S. Entomological Commission.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">John Curtis</span>, Farm Insects. London, Blackie & Son, 1860.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Eleanor A. Ormerod</span>, Manual of Injurious Insects, and Methods of +Prevention, etc. London and Edinburgh, 1881. (A small work, costing +about $1.50.)</li> + <li>——Reports of Observations of Injurious Insects and Common Farm Pests, +with Methods of Prevention and Remedy. London. Simpkin, Marshall, +Hamilton, Kent & Co., limited. (Fourteen reports issued up to +1891.)</li> + <li><span class="smcap">J. H. Kaltenbach.</span>—Die Pflanzenfeinde aus der Classe der Insekten. 8vo. +Stuttgart, 1874. (A useful work for determining what insects infest +plants in Europe.)</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Insect Life.</span> Periodical Bulletin.—Devoted to the economy and the +life-habits of insects, especially in their relations to agriculture. +Edited by C. V. Riley, entomologist, and L. O. Howard, first assistant, +with the assistance of other members of the divisional force +(Publication begun in 1888.)</li> + <li><span class="smcap">E. L. Taschenberg.</span>—Praktische Insekten-Kunde. Parts <span class="smcap">i–v</span>. Bremen, 1879.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Felice Franceschini.</span>—Gli Insetti Nocivi. Milan, 1891.</li> + <li><span class="smcap">J. T. C. Ratzeburg.</span>—Die Waldverderbniss, oder dauernder Schade, welcher +durch Insektenfrass, Schälen, Schlagen, und Verbeissen an lebenden +Waldbäumen entsteht. Two parts. Berlin, 1866–'68.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<h3><a name="ENTO_WORK" id="ENTO_WORK">ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS PUBLISHED BY THE UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL +COMMISSION AND BY THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.</a></h3> + +<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="WORK_USEC" id="WORK_USEC">UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.</a></p> + +<blockquote><p>(Members of the Commission: C. V. Riley, A. S. Packard, jr., and +Cyrus Thomas.)</p></blockquote> + +<div class="left"> +<ul> + <li><a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a><span class="smcap">Bulletin No. 1.</span>—Destruction of the young or unfledged Locusts +(<i>Caloptenus spretus</i>). (1877.) [pp. 15.]</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Bulletin No. 2.</span>—On the Natural History of the Rocky Mountain Locust and +on the habits of the young or unfledged insects as they occur in the +more fertile country in which they will hatch the present year. (1877.) +[pp. 14, figs. 10.]</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Bulletin No. 3.</span>—The Cotton Worm. Summary of its Natural History, with +an Account of its Enemies, and the best Means of controlling it; being a +Report of Progress of the Work of the Commission. By Chas. V. Riley, M. +A., Ph. D. (1880.) [pp. 144, figs. 84, plates 1.]</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Bulletin No. 4.</span>—The Hessian Fly. Its Ravages, Habits, Enemies, and +Means of preventing its Increase. By A. S. Packard, jr., M. D. (1880.) +[pp. 43, figs. 1, <ins title="plates 2.,">plates 2,</ins> maps 1.]</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Bulletin No. 5.</span>—The Chinch Bug. Its History, Characters, and Habits,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> +and the Means of destroying it or <ins title="counteractering">counteracting</ins> +its Injuries. By Cyrus Thomas, Ph. D. (1879.) [pp. 44, figs. 10, maps +1.]</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Bulletin No. 6.</span>—General Index and Supplement to the nine Reports on the +Insects of Missouri. By Charles V. Riley, M. A., Ph. D. (1881.) [pp. +177.]</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Bulletin No. 7.</span>—Insects injurious to Forest and Shade Trees. By A. S. +Packard, jr., M. D. (1881.) [pp. 275, figs. 100.]</li> + <li>First Annual Report for the year 1877, relating to the Rocky Mountain +Locust and the best Methods of preventing its Injuries and of guarding +against its Invasions, in pursuance of an Appropriation made by Congress +for this purpose. With maps and illustrations. (1878.) [pp. 477+294, +figs. 111, plates 5, maps 1.]</li> + <li>Second Report for the years 1878 and 1879, relating to the Rocky +Mountain Locust and the Western Cricket, and treating of the best Means +of subduing the Locust in its permanent Breeding grounds, with a view of +preventing its Migrations into the more fertile Portions of the +trans-Mississippi country, in pursuance of Appropriations made by +Congress for this purpose. With Maps and Illustrations. (1880.) [pp. +<span class="smcap">xviii</span>+322+22, figs. 10, plates 17, maps 7.]</li> + <li>Third Report relating to the Rocky Mountain Locust, the Western Cricket, +the Army Worm, Canker Worms, and the Hessian Fly; together with +Descriptions of Larvæ of injurious Forest Insects, Studies on the +embryological Development of the Locust and of other Insects, and on the +systematic Position of the Orthoptera in Relation to other Orders of +Insects. With Maps and Illustrations. (1883.) [pp. <span class="smcap">xviii</span>+347+91, figs. +14, plates 64, maps 3.]</li> + <li>Fourth Report, being a revised Edition of Bulletin No. 3, and the Final +Report on the Cotton Worm and Bollworm. By Charles V. Riley, Ph. D. +(1885.) [pp. <span class="smcap">xxxviii</span>+399+147, figs. 45, plates 64, maps 2.]</li> + <li>Fifth Report, being a revised and enlarged edition of Bulletin No. 7, on +Insects Injurious to Forest and Shade Trees. By Alpheus S. Packard, M. +D., Ph. D., with woodcuts and 40 plates. (1890 (1). Small edition; only +a few for general <ins title="distribution]">distribution)</ins>.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="BULL_USDA" id="BULL_USDA">BULLETINS OF THE DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF +AGRICULTURE, UNDER DIRECTION OF C. V. RILEY, ENTOMOLOGIST.</a></p> + +<div class="left"> +<ul> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 1.—Reports of Experiments, chiefly with Kerosene, upon the +Insects injuriously affecting the Orange Tree and the Cotton Plant, made +under the Direction of the Entomologist. (1883.) [pp. 62.]</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 2.—Reports of Observations on the Rocky Mountain Locust and +Chinch Bug, together with Extracts from the Correspondence of the +Division on Miscellaneous Insects. (1883.) [pp. 36.]</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 3.—Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical Work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> +of the Division, made under the Direction of the <ins title="Entomlogist">Entomologist</ins>. With plates. (1883.) [pp. 75, plates III.]</li> + <li>No. 4.—Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical Work of +the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist, together +with Extracts from Correspondence on miscellaneous Insects. (1884.) [pp. +102, figs. 4.]</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 5.—Descriptions of North American Chalcididæ from the +Collections of the U. S. Department of Agriculture and of Dr. C. V. +Riley, with biological Notes. [First paper.] Together with a list of the +described North American species of the family. By L. O. Howard, M. Sc., +Assistant, Bureau of Entomology. (1885.) [pp. 47.]</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 6.—The imported Elm-leaf Beetle. Its Habits and Natural History, +and Means of counteracting its Injuries. (1885.) [pp. 18, figs. 1, +plates I.]</li> + <li>No. 7.—The Pediculi and Mallophaga affecting Man and the lower Animals. +By Prof. Herbert Osborn. (1891.) [pp. 54, figs. 42.]</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 8.—The Periodical Cicada. An account of <i>Cicada septendecim</i> and +its tredicim race, with a chronology of all of the broods known. By +Charles V. Riley, Ph. D. (1885.) [pp. 46, figs. <ins title="8.)">8.]</ins></li> + <li>No. 9.—The Mulberry Silk-worm; being a Manual of Instructions in Silk +culture. By Charles V. Riley, M. A., Ph. D. (1886.) [pp. 65, figs. 29, +plates II.]</li> + <li>No. 10.—Our Shade Trees and their Insect Defoliators. Being a +consideration of the four most injurious species which affect the trees +of the capital, with means of destroying them. By Charles V. Riley, +Entomologist. (1887.) [pp. 75, figs. 27.]</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 11.—Reports of Experiments with various Insecticide Substances, +chiefly upon Insects affecting garden Crops, made under the Direction of +the Entomologist. (1886.) [pp. 34.]</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 12.—Miscellaneous Notes on the work of the Division of +Entomology for the Season of 1885; prepared by the Entomologist. (1886.) +[pp. 45, plates I.]</li> +<li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 13.—Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical +Work of the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist. +(With illustrations.) (1887.) [pp. 78, figs. 4.]</li> + <li>No. 14.—Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical Work +of the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist. (1887.) +[pp. 62, figs. 2, plates I.]</li> + <li>No. 15.—The Icerya, or Fluted Scale, otherwise known as the Cottony +Cushion-scale. (Reprint of some recent Articles by the Entomologist and +of a Report from the Agricultural Experiment Station, University of +California.) (1887.) [pp. 40.]</li> + <li>No. 16.—The Entomological Writings of Dr. Alpheus Spring Packard. By +Samuel Henshaw. (1887.) [pp. 49.]</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 17.—The Chinch Bug: A general Summary of its History, Habits,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> +Enemies, and of the Remedies and Preventives to be used against it. By +L. O. Howard M. S., Assistant Entomologist. (1888.) [pp. 48, figs. 10.]</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 18.—The Life and Entomological Work of the late Townend Glover, +first Entomologist of the United States Department of Agriculture. +Prepared under the Direction of the Entomologist, by C. R. Dodge. +(1888.) [pp. 68, figs. 6, plates I.]</li> + <li>No. 19.—An enumeration of the published Synopses, Catalogues, and Lists +of North American Insects; together with other information intended to +assist the student of American Entomology. (1888.) [pp. 77.]</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 20.—The Root Knot Disease of the Peach, Orange, and other Plants +in Florida, due to the Work of Anguillula. Prepared under the Direction +of the Entomologist, by J. C. Neal, Ph. D., M. D. (1889.) [pp. 31, +plates 21.]</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 21.—Report of a Trip to Australia, made under the Direction of +the Entomologist to investigate the Natural Enemies of the Fluted Scale, +by Albert Koebele. (1890.) [pp. 32, figs. 16.]</li> + <li>No. 22.—Reports of the Observations and Experiments in the practical +Work of the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist. +(1890.) [pp. 110.]</li> + <li>No. 23.—Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical Work +of the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist. (1891.) +[pp. 83.]</li> + <li>No. 24.—The Boll Worm. Preliminary Report, made under the Direction of +the Entomologist. By F. W. Mally. (1891.) [pp. 50.]</li> + <li>No. 25.—Destructive Locusts. A popular consideration of a few of the +more injurious Locusts or “Grasshoppers” of the United +States, together with the best means of destroying them. By C. V. Riley, +Ph. D. (1891.) [pp. 62, figs. 11, plates 12.]</li> + <li><a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>No. 26.—Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical +Work of the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist. +(1892.)</li> + <li><a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>No. 27.—Reports on the Damage by destructive Locusts during the +season of 1891, made under the Direction of the Entomologist. (1892.) +[pp. 64.]</li> + <li><a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>No. 28.—The more destructive Locusts of America, north of Mexico, +by Lawrence Bruner, prepared under Direction of the Entomologist. +(1892.)</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="SPEC_REPS" id="SPEC_REPS">SPECIAL REPORTS AND BULLETINS.</a></p> + +<div class="left"> +<ul> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><span class="smcap">Report on Cotton Insects.</span>—By J. Henry Comstock. (1879.) [pp. 511, +figs. 77, plates III.]</li> + <li><a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a><span class="smcap">Special Report, No. 11.</span>—The Silkworm; being a brief Manual of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> +Instructions for the Production of Silk. Prepared, by direction of the +Commissioner of Agriculture, by C. V. Riley, M. A., Ph. D., +Entomologist. (First ed., 1879; fifth ed., 1885.) [pp. 37, figs. 8.]</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><span class="smcap">Special Report, No. 35.</span>—Report on Insects injurious to Sugar Cane. +Prepared, under Direction of the Commissioner of Agriculture, by J. +Henry Comstock, Entomologist. (1881.) [pp. 11, figs. 3.]</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><span class="smcap">Division of Entomology.—Insects Affecting the Orange.</span>—Report on the +Insects affecting the Culture of the Orange and other plants of the +Citrus Family, with practical Suggestions for their Control or +Extermination. By H. G. Hubbard. (1885.) [pp. x+227, figs. 95, plates +XIV.]</li> + <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><span class="smcap">Special Report.</span>—Catalogue of the Exhibit of Economic Entomology at +the World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition, New Orleans, +1884–'85. (1888.) [pp. 95.]</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Special Bulletin.</span>—The Horn Fly (Hæmatobia serrata), being an account of +its Life-history and the means to be used against it. By C. V. Riley and +L. O. Howard. (Reprinted from Insect Life, Vol. II, No. 4, October +1889.) (1889.) [pp. 11, figs. 5.]</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Bibliography of the more important Contributions to American Economic +Entomology.</span> By Samuel Henshaw. Parts I, II, and III. The more important +writings of Benjamin Dann Walsh and Charles Valentine Riley, Washington, +1890.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"> +<p style="font-size: 125%; text-indent: 0em;">Footnotes:</p> +<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><span class="label">[10]</span> Out of print.</p> +<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><span class="label">[11]</span> Publication discontinued.</p> +<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> The annual reports of the Entomologist are contained in +the corresponding annual reports of the Department of Agriculture. A +limited author's edition, separately bound, and with table of contents +and index, is published each year.</p> +<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> All of these bulletins and reports, with the exception of +the fifth report, are out of print.</p> +<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Bulletin 26 is in press.</p> +<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Bulletin 27 is in press.</p> +<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Bulletin 28 is in +course of preparation.</p> +<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Bull. No. 9 of the Division of Entomology covers this +subject.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<h2><a name="HOW_TO_OBTAIN_ENTOMOLOGICAL_BOOKS_AND_PAMPHLETS" id="HOW_TO_OBTAIN_ENTOMOLOGICAL_BOOKS_AND_PAMPHLETS"></a>HOW TO OBTAIN ENTOMOLOGICAL BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.</h2> + +<p>Comparatively few of the works treating of the classification of North +American insects have been published as separate books; but such as have +been so published, if of comparatively recent date, can be obtained +through the regular book trade. By far the greater number of the +monographs and synopses mentioned in the preceding pages have been +published in scientific periodicals and in the proceedings or +transactions of scientific societies. These may be obtained either +through the societies or through the publishers; but single volumes of +transactions or proceedings, and more especially single papers, are +seldom sold, and the older volumes are liable to be out of print. +Moreover, the expense attending the purchase of all of the periodicals +containing the publications on a given order of insects will be so great +as to put them beyond the reach of most entomologists. The custom of +placing at the disposal of authors a number of separate copies of their +papers overcomes this difficulty to some extent and creates a small +supply. Thus it often happens that a person interested can obtain a copy +of a scientific paper by addressing the author personally. Many of +these separate copies also fall into the possession of dealers in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> +second-hand books, and may be purchased from them. The American +Entomological Society of Philadelphia, and also a few other societies +here and in Europe, offer for sale from their duplicates many of these +authors' extras, and in some cases publish lists. There are, moreover, +certain business establishments which make a specialty of the sale of +works and pamphlets on natural history, including entomology, and it is +chiefly through such establishments that the student is enabled to +secure the larger portion of the works needed.</p> + +<p>By subscribing to the entomological periodicals published in this +country (a matter of but slight expense) the student may keep abreast of +the current literature. Short book reviews or notes published therein +call attention to the more important publications in other countries. +Moreover, the Zoölogischer Anzeiger, edited by Prof. J. Victor Carus, in +Leipzig, Germany, and published every fortnight, gives a tolerably +complete bibliography of the current entomological literature at +intervals of about six or eight weeks. The “Naturæ +Novitates,” published every fortnight by R. +Friedlaender & Sohn, Carlstrasse, 11, Berlin, Germany, gives the +titles of most recent works and pamphlets.</p> + +<p>There are also three great annual publications, viz: “Die +Fortschritte auf dem Gebiet der Entomologie,” published in +Wiegmann's “Archiv für Naturgeschichte;” “The +Zoölogical Record,” published by the Zoölogical Record Society, in +London, England; and the “Zoölogische Jahresberichte,” +published by the Zoölogical Station at Naples, Italy, which give the +full literature of the previous year, discussing the more important +papers and giving a list of the new species, besides other information. +These three publications are almost indispensable to the student in any +branch of zoölogy, and some one of them at least ought to be found in +every public library in the country. The volumes of the +“Zoölogische Jahresberichte” since 1887 contain no titles +upon systematic and classificatory zoölogy, but only such as refer to +biology.</p> + +<p>A not inconsiderable portion of the North American literature on the +classification of insects has been published by the Government of the +United States through various channels, foremost among which are the +Smithsonian Institution, the U. S. Department of Agriculture, the U. S. +National Museum, the U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey, and the +various surveys of the Territories. Some of these publications are +distributed free of cost; while others, like certain of the publications +of the Smithsonian Institution and the Geological Survey, are sold at a +moderate price to cover the cost of publication. Many of them are out of +print, and can only be obtained through natural history book-dealers.</p> + +<p>Of the more general works, some may be obtained direct from the +publishers, and in such cases the publishers are mentioned in the +general list. The older works are mostly out of print and can only be +obtained from second-hand dealers. The current State reports of Lintner +and Forbes may be obtained from the secretaries of the respective State +agricultural societies at Albany, N. Y., and Springfield, Ill., while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> +the bulletins and reports of the entomologists of the various State +experiment stations, of which a large number are being published, may be +obtained from the directors of the respective stations. The older +reports of the State entomologist of Missouri and the State +entomologists of Illinois (Walsh, Le Baron, and Thomas) are all out of +print and can only be obtained by purchase from second-hand dealers. The +same may be said of the well-known and oft-quoted reports of Dr. Fitch, +which were published with the old volumes of the Transactions of the New +York State Agricultural Society.</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Directions for Collecting and +Preserving Insects, by C. V. 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