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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Directions for Collecting and Preserving
+Insects, by C. V. Riley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Directions for Collecting and Preserving Insects
+
+Author: C. V. Riley
+
+Release Date: March 26, 2012 [EBook #39275]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Jens Nordmann and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
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+
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+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and
+formatting have been maintained.
+
+Corrections applied to the original text have been listed at the end of
+the text.
+
+
+The ligature oe and OE has been marked as [oe] and [OE].
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+Formatting:
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+Text in italics has been marked with underscores (_text_) and spaced text
+with equal signs (=text=).
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+
+
+                         SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
+                      UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM.
+
+
+
+             DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS.
+
+                                    BY
+
+                        C. V. RILEY, M. A., PH. D.,
+  _Honorary Curator of the Department of Insects, U. S. National Museum._
+
+
+
+      Part F of Bulletin of the United States National Museum, No. 39
+                             (with one plate).
+
+
+
+                                WASHINGTON:
+
+                        GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
+
+                                   1892.
+
+
+
+
+                                =CONTENTS.=
+
+                                                                   Page.
+  INTRODUCTORY                                                         3
+  MANUAL OF INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS         5
+  CHARACTERISTICS OF INSECTS                                           5
+  SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF ENTOMOLOGY                                   6
+  CLASSIFICATION OF HEXAPODS                                           8
+    Order Hymenoptera                                                 12
+    Order Coleoptera                                                  14
+    Order Lepidoptera                                                 16
+    Order Hemiptera                                                   17
+      Suborder Thysanoptera                                           18
+    Order Diptera                                                     19
+      Suborder Aphaniptera                                            20
+    Order Orthoptera                                                  21
+      Suborder Dermaptera                                             22
+    Order Neuroptera                                                  22
+      Suborder Trichoptera                                            23
+      Suborder Mecoptera                                              23
+      Suborder Neuroptera                                             23
+      Suborder Platyptera                                             24
+      Suborder Plecoptera                                             25
+      Suborder Odonata                                                25
+      Suborder Ephemeroptera                                          25
+      Suborder Thysanura                                              26
+  COLLECTING                                                          26
+    General considerations                                            26
+    Collecting apparatus                                              29
+      The sweeping net                                                29
+      The water net                                                   31
+      Water dip-net                                                   32
+      The umbrella                                                    32
+      The beating cloth                                               33
+      The umbrella net                                                34
+      The sieve                                                       35
+      The chisel                                                      36
+      The trowel                                                      36
+      The collecting tweezers                                         36
+      The brush                                                       37
+      The fumigator                                                   38
+      The haversack                                                   38
+      The lens and microscope                                         39
+    Collecting Hymenoptera                                            39
+    Collecting Coleoptera                                             42
+      General directions                                              42
+      Winter collecting                                               43
+      Spring collecting                                               44
+        Myrmecophilous and Termetophilous species                     44
+        Spring flights of Coleoptera                                  44
+        Beach collecting                                              45
+        Attracting by lights                                          45
+        Traps                                                         45
+        Freshet                                                       45
+      Summer collecting                                               46
+        Collecting under stones                                       46
+        Collecting in rotten stumps and logs                          46
+        Collecting in dying or dead trees                             47
+        Beating living trees, shrubs, and vines                       47
+        Sweeping                                                      47
+        Collecting on mud and gravel banks                            48
+        Collecting aquatic beetles                                    49
+        Collecting at the seashore and on sandy places                49
+        Collecting dung beetles                                       49
+        Night collecting                                              50
+      Fall collecting                                                 50
+    Collecting Lepidoptera                                            50
+        Collecting the adults                                         50
+        Collecting the early states                                   53
+    Collecting Hemiptera                                              54
+    Collecting Diptera                                                55
+    Collecting Orthoptera                                             57
+    Collecting Neuroptera                                             58
+        Pseudoneuroptera                                              58
+        Neuroptera                                                    59
+  KILLING AND PRESERVING INSECTS                                      60
+    First preservation of living specimens                            60
+    Killing specimens                                                 61
+        Alcohol                                                       61
+        Chloroform and ether                                          62
+        Cyanide of potassium                                          63
+        Other agents                                                  65
+    Special directions for different orders                           66
+  ENTOMOTAXY                                                          67
+    Care of pinned and mounted specimens                              67
+      Insect pins                                                     67
+      Preparation of specimens                                        68
+      Pinning                                                         69
+      Mounting on points                                              70
+      Mounting duplicates                                             73
+      Temporary storage of specimens                                  74
+      Envelopes for Lepidoptera, etc.                                 74
+      Directions for spreading insects                                75
+      A new apparatus for spreading Microlepidoptera                  76
+      Spreading Microlepidoptera                                      77
+      Relaxing                                                        79
+      Inflation of the larv� of Lepidoptera                           80
+      Stuffing insects                                                82
+      Dry preservation of Aphides and other soft-bodied insects       82
+      Mounting specimens for the microscope                           84
+      Preparing and mounting the wings of Lepidoptera                 86
+    Preservation of alcoholic specimens                               88
+      Apparatus and methods                                           88
+        Vials, stoppers, and holders                                  89
+        Preserving micro-larv� in alcohol                             92
+      Preservative fluids                                             93
+        Alcohol                                                       93
+        Alcohol and white arsenic                                     93
+        Alcohol and corrosive sublimate                               94
+        Two fluids to preserve form and color                         94
+        Glycerin                                                      94
+        The Wickersheim preserving fluid                              94
+    Labeling specimens                                                95
+        General directions                                            95
+        Labels for pinned specimens                                   95
+        Labeling alcoholic specimens                                  97
+    Cabinet for apparatus                                             98
+  INSECT BOXES AND CABINETS                                           98
+    General directions                                                98
+    The folding box                                                   98
+    The cabinet                                                      100
+    The Lintner display box                                          101
+    The Martindale box for Lepidoptera                               104
+    Horizontal _versus_ vertical arrangement of boxes                104
+    Lining for insect boxes                                          104
+  ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS IN THE CABINET                              106
+    Systematic and biologic collections                              106
+    Economic displays                                                106
+    Labeling collections                                             107
+  MUSEUM PESTS, MOLD, ETC                                            108
+    Museum pests                                                     108
+      Remedies                                                       109
+        Naphthaline                                                  109
+        Bisulphide of carbon                                         110
+        Mercury pellets                                              110
+        Carbolic acid                                                110
+        A means of preserving insects in dry, hot countries          110
+    Mold                                                             111
+    Verdigrising and greasing                                        111
+  THE REARING OF INSECTS                                             112
+    General directions                                               112
+    The breeding cage, or vivarium                                   112
+    Detailed instructions for rearing                                115
+    The root cage                                                    118
+    Other apparatus                                                  119
+    The insectary                                                    120
+  DIRECTIONS FOR PACKING AND TRANSMITTING INSECTS                    121
+  NOTES AND MEMORANDA                                                123
+  INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING ARACHNIDS AND MYRIAPODS 124
+    Directions for collecting spiders                                124
+      Apparatus                                                      124
+      Time and locality for collecting                               125
+    Collecting other Arachnids, mites, ticks, scorpions, etc         126
+    Collecting Myriapoda                                             130
+  TEXT BOOKS AND ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS                                 131
+    Comprehensive works most useful for the student of North
+    American insects                                                 132
+    General works on classification                                  132
+      Hymenoptera                                                    132
+      Coleoptera                                                     132
+      Lepidoptera                                                    133
+      Hemiptera                                                      134
+      Diptera                                                        134
+      Orthoptera                                                     135
+      Neuroptera                                                     135
+      Myriapoda                                                      135
+      Arachnida                                                      136
+    American periodicals                                             136
+    Foreign periodicals                                              138
+    The more useful works on economic entomology                     140
+    Entomological works published by the United States Entomological
+    Commission and by the United States Department of Agriculture    141
+      Works by the United States Entomological Commission            141
+      Bulletins of the Division of Entomology, U. S. Department of
+      Agriculture                                                    142
+      Special reports and bulletins                                  144
+  HOW TO OBTAIN ENTOMOLOGICAL BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS                    145
+
+
+
+
+                               INTRODUCTORY.
+
+
+There is a constant demand, especially from correspondents of the Museum
+and also of the Department of Agriculture, for information as to how to
+collect, preserve, and mount insects. There is also great need of some
+simple directions on a great many other points connected with the proper
+packing of insects for transmission through the mails or otherwise;
+labeling; methods of rearing; boxes and cabinets; text-books, etc.
+Interest in the subject of entomology has, in fact, made rapid growth in
+the last few years, and now that nearly every State has an official
+entomologist connected with its State Agricultural Experiment Station,
+the number of persons interested in the subject may be expected to
+increase largely in the near future. I have hitherto made use of the
+Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, No. 261, which is a pamphlet on
+collecting and preserving insects prepared by Dr. A. S. Packard. This is
+out of print, and I have been requested by Prof. Goode to prepare for
+Bulletin 39, U. S. N. M., something that would cover the whole ground
+and give the more essential information needed for collectors and
+students of insect life. I have deemed it unnecessary to go too much
+into detail, but have studied not to omit anything essential. Customs
+and methods vary in different countries and with different individuals,
+but the recommendations contained in the following pages are based upon
+my own experience and that of my assistants and many acquaintances, and
+embrace the methods which the large majority of American entomologists
+have found most satisfactory.
+
+Much of the matter is repeated bodily from the directions for collecting
+and preserving insects published in my Fifth Report on the Insects of
+Missouri (1872) and quotations not otherwise credited are from that
+Report. The illustrations, also, when not otherwise credited or not
+originally made for this paper, are from my previous writings. Some are
+taken from Dr. Packard's pamphlet, already mentioned; others, with the
+permission of Assistant Secretary Willits, from the publications of the
+Department of Agriculture, while a number have been especially made for
+the occasion, either from photographs, or from drawings by Miss L.
+Sullivan or Dr. Geo. Marx or Mr. C. L. Marlatt. When enlarged, the
+natural size is indicated in hair-line. In the preparation of the
+pamphlet I have had the assistance of Mr. E. A. Schwarz, and more
+particularly of Mr. C. L. Marlatt, to both of whom I desire here to
+express my obligations.
+
+                                                             C. V. R.
+
+
+[Illustration: Pl. 1.--ILLUSTRATION OF BIOLOGIC SERIES.]
+
+
+
+
+       MANUAL OF INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS.
+
+                     *       *       *       *       *
+
+                              By C. V. RILEY,
+  _Honorary Curator of the Department of Insects, U. S. National Museum._
+
+                     *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+                        CHARACTERISTICS OF INSECTS.
+
+
+The term "insect" comes from the Latin _insectum_, and signifies "cut
+into." It expresses one of the prime characteristics of this class of
+animals, namely, that of segmentation. This feature of having the body
+divided into rings or segments by transverse incisions is possessed by
+other large groups of animals, and was considered of sufficient
+importance by Cuvier to lead him, in his system of classification, to
+group with Insects, under the general term Articulata, Worms, Crustacea,
+Spiders, and Myriapods. Worms differ from the other four groups in
+having no articulated appendages, and in having a soft body-wall or
+integument instead of a dense chitinous covering, and are separated as a
+special class _Vermes_. The other four groups of segmented animals
+possess in common the feature of jointed appendages and a covering of
+chitinous plates, and are brought together under the term _Arthropoda_.
+The division of the body into a series of segments by transverse
+incisions, characteristic of these animals and these only, justifies the
+use of Cuvier's old name, Articulates, as this segmented feature
+represents a definite relationship and a natural division--as much so as
+the vertebral column in Vertebrates. The Cuvierian name should be
+retained as a co�rdinate of Vertebrates, Molluscs, etc., and the terms
+Vermes and Arthropods may be conveniently used to designate the two
+natural divisions of the Articulates.
+
+The term "insect" has been employed by authors in two different
+senses--one to apply to the tracheated animals or those that breathe
+through a system of air tubes (trache�), comprising Spiders, Myriapods,
+and insects proper or Hexapods,[1] and the other in its restricted sense
+as applied to the Hexapods only. To avoid confusion, the latter
+signification only should be used, and it will be thus used in this
+article.
+
+  [1] From the Greek [Greek: exapous], having 6 feet.
+
+We see, then, that insects share, in common with many other animals, the
+jointed or articulated structure. Wherein, then, do they differ?
+_Briefly, in having the body divided into thirteen joints and a
+subjoint_, including the head as a joint, and in the adult having six
+true, jointed legs, and usually, though not always, wings. The five
+classes of Articulates differ from each other in the number of legs they
+possess in the adult form, as follows: Hexapoda, 6 legs; Arachnida, 8
+legs; Crustacea, 10-14 legs; Myriapoda, more than 14 legs; Vermes, none.
+This system holds for the adult form only, because some mites
+(Arachnida) when young have only 6 legs, and many true insects in the
+larva state either have no legs at all, or have additional abdominal
+legs which are not jointed, but membranous, and are lost in the perfect
+or adult state. These are called false or prolegs.
+
+It will serve to make these instructions clear if I at once explain that
+the life of an insect is marked by four distinct states, viz., the egg,
+the larva, the pupa, and the imago, and that the last three words will
+constantly recur. We have no English equivalent for the words larva and
+pupa, for while some authors have written them with the terminal _e_, so
+as to get the English plural, yet "larves" and "pupes" so shock the ear
+that the terms have not been (and deserve not to be) generally adopted.
+
+We have seen that an insect in the final state has six true legs. Yet
+even here many species depart from the rule, as there are many in which
+the perfect insect, especially in the female sex, is apodous or without
+legs, just as there are also other cases where they are without wings.
+Sometimes the legs seem to be reduced in number by the partial or total
+atrophy of one or the other pair, but in all these exceptional cases
+there is no difficulty in realizing that we have to deal with a true
+insect, because of the other characters pertaining to the class, some of
+which it will be well to allude to.
+
+Insects are further characterized by having usually three distinct
+divisions of the body, viz.: head, thorax, and abdomen, and by
+undergoing certain metamorphoses or transformations. Now, while a number
+of other animals outside of the insect world go through similar
+transformations, those in the Crustacea being equally remarkable, yet,
+from the ease with which they are observed and the completeness of the
+transformations in most insects, the metamorphoses of this class have,
+from time immemorial, excited the greatest curiosity.
+
+
+
+
+                    SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF ENTOMOLOGY.
+
+
+But few words are necessary to indicate the importance of entomology,
+especially to the farming community; for while insects play a most
+important part in the economy of nature and furnish us some valuable
+products and otherwise do us a great deal of indirect good, yet they are
+chiefly known by the annoyances they cause and by the great injury they
+do to our crops and domestic animals. Hence some knowledge of insects
+and how to study them becomes important, almost necessary, to every
+farmer.
+
+The scope of the science may best be indicated by a statement of the
+number of species existing, as compared with other animals. The
+omnipresence of insects is known and felt by all; yet few have any
+accurate idea of the actual numbers existing, so that some figures will
+not prove uninteresting in this connection. Taking the lists of
+described species, and the estimates of specialists in the different
+orders, it is safe to say that about thirty thousand species have
+already been described from North America, while the number of species
+already described or to be described in the Biologia Centrali-Americana,
+i. e., for Central America, foot up just about the same number, Lord
+Walsingham having estimated them at 30,114 in his address as president
+of the London Entomological Society two years ago, neither the
+Orthoptera nor the Neuroptera being included in this estimate. By way of
+contrast the number of mammals, birds, and reptiles to be described from
+the same region, is interesting. It foots up 1,937, as follows:
+
+Mammals, 180; birds, 1,600; reptiles, 157.
+
+If we endeavor to get some estimate of the number of insects that occur
+in the whole world, the most satisfactory estimates will be found in the
+address just alluded to, and in that of Dr. David Sharp before the same
+society. Linn�us knew nearly 3,000 species, of which more than 2,000
+were European and over 800 exotic. The estimate of Dr. John Day, in
+1853, of the number of species on the globe, was 250,000. Dr. Sharp's
+estimate thirty years later was between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Sharp's
+and Walsingham's estimates in 1889 reached nearly 2,000,000, and the
+average number of insects annually described since the publication of
+the Zo�logical Record, deducting 8 per cent for synonyms, is 6,500
+species. I think the estimate of 2,000,000 species in the world is
+extremely low, and if we take into consideration the fact that species
+have been best worked up in the more temperate portions of the globe,
+and that in the more tropical portions a vast number of species still
+remain to be characterized and named, and if we take further into
+consideration the fact that many portions of the globe are yet
+unexplored, entomologically, that even in the best worked up regions by
+far the larger portion of the Micro-Hymenoptera and Micro-Diptera remain
+absolutely undescribed in our collections, and have been but very
+partially collected, it will be safe to estimate that not one-fifth of
+the species extant have yet been characterized or enumerated. In this
+view of the case the species in our collections, whether described or
+undescribed, do not represent perhaps more than one-fifth of the whole.
+In other words, to say that there are 10,000,000 species of insects in
+the world, would be, in my judgment, a moderate estimate.
+
+
+
+
+                        CLASSIFICATION OF HEXAPODS.
+
+
+Seven orders of insects were originally recognized by Linn�us, namely,
+Neuroptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera,
+and Aptera. This classification was based on the organs of flight only,
+and while in the main resulting in natural divisions which still furnish
+the basis of more modern classifications, was faulty in several
+particulars. For instance, the Aptera, which included all wingless
+insects, was soon found to be a very unnatural assemblage and its
+components were distributed among the other orders. The establishment of
+the order Orthoptera by Olivier to include a large and well-defined
+group of insects associated with the Hemiptera by Linn�us, restored the
+original seven orders, and this classification has, in the main, been
+followed by entomologists up to the present time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Pyramid showing the nature of the mouth, and
+relative rank of the Orders, and the affinities of the Suborders of
+Insects.]
+
+All insects are, in a broad way, referable to one or the other of these
+seven primary orders by the structure of the wings and the character of
+the mouth-parts in the imago, and by the nature of their
+transformations.
+
+Some of these orders are connected by aberrant and osculant families or
+groups, which have by other authors been variously ranked as independent
+orders, but which, following Westwood substantially, I have considered,
+for convenience, as suborders. (_See_ Fifth Report, Insects of Missouri,
+etc., 1872.)
+
+In the article just cited, I made use of the accompanying diagram in the
+form of a pyramid (Fig. 1), which gives a graphic representation of the
+distinguishing characters and the relative rank as usually accepted, of
+the orders and suborders.
+
+Full discussion of the different classifications is unnecessary in this
+connection. Authors have differed in the past and will differ in the
+future as to what constitutes a natural system, and it would require
+many pages to give even a brief survey of the various schemes that have
+been proposed. As I have elsewhere said, "We must remember that
+classifications are but a means to an end--appliances to facilitate our
+thought and study--and that, to use Spencer's words, 'we cannot, by any
+logical dichotomies, actually express relations which in nature graduate
+into each other insensibly.'"
+
+The most philosophical, perhaps, of the more modern systems of
+classification is that of Friedrich Brauer, who has carefully studied
+the subject, and has given us an arrangement consisting of sixteen
+orders. This has many merits and has been adopted, with slight
+modifications, by Packard in his "Entomology for Beginners," and by
+Hyatt and Arms in their recent and valuable text-book "Insecta."
+Comstock, in his "Introduction to Entomology" strongly recommends
+Brauer's classification, but for reasons of simplicity and convenience
+adheres to a modification of the old classification of Westwood.
+
+For purposes of comparison the classification by Hyatt and Arms, which
+is substantially that of Brauer, may be introduced.
+
+In linear arrangement it is as follows:
+
+     I. Thysanura (_Spring-tails_, etc.).
+    II. Ephemeroptera (_Ephemerid�_; May-flies). (=_Plectoptera_ Pack.)
+   III. Odonata (_Libellulid�_; Dragon-flies).
+    IV. Plecoptera (_Perlid�_; Stone-flies).
+     V. Platyptera (_Termites_, _Mallophaga_, etc.).
+    VI. Dermaptera (_Forficulid�_; Earwigs).
+   VII. Orthoptera (Locusts, Grasshoppers, etc.).
+  VIII. Thysanoptera (_Thripid�_; Fringe-wings).
+    IX. Hemiptera (Bugs).
+     X. Coleoptera (Beetles).
+    XI. Neuroptera (_Sialid�_, _Hemerobiid�_; Lace-wings, etc.).
+   XII. Mecoptera (_Panorpid�_; Scorpion-flies).
+  XIII. Trichoptera (_Phryganeid�_; Caddis-flies).
+   XIV. Lepidoptera (Butterflies and Moths).
+    XV. Hymenoptera (Bees, Wasps, etc.).
+   XVI. Diptera (Two-winged flies).
+
+The relationship of these orders cannot be indicated in a linear
+arrangement, and is admirably shown by Hyatt and Arms by means of
+diagrams which I reproduce (Figs. 2, 3.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Scheme illustrating origin and relationship of
+Orders. (After Hyatt.)]
+
+The relation of these sixteen orders to the older, septenary scheme is
+shown by the following arrangement:
+
+  1. Hymenoptera  Hymenoptera XV.
+
+  2. Coleoptera   Coleoptera X.
+
+  3. Lepidoptera  Lepidoptera XIV.
+
+                                      {Homoptera.
+  4. Hemiptera    {Hemiptera IX.      {Heteroptera.
+                  {Thysanoptera VIII.
+
+  5. Diptera      {Diptera XVI. {Including Aphaniptera or Siphonaptera
+                                {of some authors.
+
+  6. Orthoptera   {Orthoptera VII.
+                  {Dermaptera VI.
+
+                  {Trichoptera XIII  }
+                  {Mecoptera XII     }Neuroptera.
+                  {Neuroptera XI     }
+  7. Neuroptera   {Platyptera V      }
+                  {Plecoptera IV     }
+                  {Odonata III       }Pseudo-neuroptera.
+                  {Ephemeroptera II  }
+                  {Thysanura I       }
+
+It will be seen that the changes are not so great as would at first
+appear. The three more important orders, namely, the Hymenoptera,
+Coleoptera, and Lepidoptera, remain substantially the same in all
+classifications, and so with the three orders next in importance--the
+Hemiptera, Diptera, and Orthoptera. All that has been done with these
+three has been to rank as separate orders what by former authors were
+preferably considered as either families or suborders. The principal
+change is in the Neuroptera, of which no less than eight orders have
+been made. This is not to be wondered at, because the order, as formerly
+construed, was conceded to be that which represents the lowest forms
+and more synthetic types of insects, and as such necessarily contained
+forms which it is difficult to classify definitely.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Cross section of Fig. 2.]
+
+In the discussion of the characteristics, habits, number of species, and
+importance of the several groups, I follow, with such changes as the
+advances in the science of entomology have made necessary, the
+arrangement shown in Fig. 1.
+
+"Order HYMENOPTERA ([Greek: ym�n], a membrane; [Greek: pteron], wing).
+Clear or Membrane-winged Flies: Bees, Wasps, Ants, Saw-flies, etc.
+Characterized by having four membranous wings with comparatively few
+veins, the hind part smallest. The transformations are complete: _i.
+e._, the larva bears no resemblance to the perfect insect.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Bold-faced Hornet, _Vespa maculata_. (After
+Sanborn).]
+
+"Some of the insects of this order are highly specialized, and their
+mouth-parts are fitted both for biting and sucking, and in this respect
+they connect the mandibulate and haustellate insects. The common
+Honey-bee has this complex structure of the mouth, and if the editors of
+our agricultural papers would bear the fact in mind, we should have less
+of the never-ending discussion as to whether bees are capable of
+injuring fruit at first hand. The lower lip (_labium_) is modified into
+a long tongue, sheathed by the lower jaws (_maxill�_), and they can sip,
+or, more properly speaking, lap up nectar; while the upper jaws
+(_mandibul�_), though not generally used for purposes of manducation,
+are fitted for biting and cutting. The Hymenoptera are terrestrial,
+there existing only a very few degraded, swimming forms.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--An Ichneumon Parasite, _Pimpla annulipes_,
+showing male and female abdomen.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--A Chalcid Parasite, _Chalcis flavipes_.]
+
+"This order is very naturally divided into two sections--the ACULEATA
+and TEREBRANTIA. The aculeate Hymenoptera, or Stingers, comprise all the
+families in which the abdomen in the female is armed with a sting
+connected with a poison reservoir, and may be considered the typical
+form of the order, including all the social and fossorial species. The
+insects of this section must be considered essentially beneficial to
+man, notwithstanding the occasional sting of a bee or wasp, the boring
+of a carpenter bee, or the importunities of the omnipresent ant. Not
+only do they furnish us with honey and wax, but they play so important a
+part in the destruction of insects injurious to vegetation that they may
+be looked upon as God-appointed guards over the vegetal
+kingdom--carrying the pollen from plant to plant, and insuring the
+fertilization of di[oe]cious species, and the cross-fertilization of
+others; and being ever ready to clear them of herbivorous worms which
+gnaw and destroy. The whole section is well characterized by the
+uniformly maggot-like nature of the larva. The transformations are
+complete, but the chitinous larval covering is often so very thin and
+delicate that the budding of the members, or gradual growth of the pupa
+underneath, is quite plainly visible, and the skin often peels off in
+delicate flakes, so that the transition from larva to pupa is not so
+marked and sudden as in those insects which have thicker skins.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--A Horn-tail, _Tremex columba_. _a_, larva,
+showing Thalessa larva attached to its side; _b_, head of larva, front
+view, enlarged; _c_, female pupa, ventral view; _d_, male pupa, ventral
+view; _e_, adult female--all slightly enlarged.]
+
+"The terebrantine Hymenoptera, or Piercers, are again divisible into two
+subsections: first, the ENTOMOPHAGA, which are, likewise, with the
+exception of a few gall-makers, beneficial to man, and include the
+parasitic families, and the gall-flies; second, the PHYTOPHAGA,
+comprising the Horn-tails (_Urocerid�_), and the Saw-flies
+(_Tenthredinid�_), all of which are vegetable feeders in the larval
+state, those of the first family boring into trees, and those of the
+second either feeding externally on leaves or inclosed in galls. They
+are at once distinguished from the other Hymenoptera by the larv�
+having true legs, which, however, in the case of the Horntails, are very
+small and exarticulate. The larv� of many Saw-flies have, besides,
+prolegs, which are, however, always distinguishable from those of
+Lepidopterous larv� by being more numerous and by having no hooks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Saw-fly and Larva. _Pristiphora grossulari�_;
+_a_, larva; _b_, imago, Walsh.]
+
+"Order COLEOPTERA ([Greek: koleos], a sheath; [Greek: pteron], wing).
+Beetles or Shield-winged Insects. Characterized by having four wings,
+the front pair (called _elytra_) horny or leathery, and usually united
+down the back with a straight suture when at rest, the hind ones
+membranous and folded up under the elytra when at rest. Transformations
+complete.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--A Chafer, _Cotalpa lanigera_. (After Packard.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--A Longicorn, _Saperda candida_. _a_, larva;
+_b_, pupa; _c_, beetle.]
+
+"This is an order of great importance, and in the vast number and
+diversity of the species comprised in it outranks any of the others. The
+ease with which the insects of this order are obtained and preserved
+make it one of the most attractive to the amateur, and beetles are,
+perhaps, of all insects, the best known and understood in the popular
+mind. For the same reason they have, in the perfect state, received most
+attention from the entomologists, but their transformations and
+preparatory forms yet offer a wide and inviting field for the student.
+The simplest and best-known classification of the beetles is the tarsal
+system, founded on the number of joints to the tarsi, by which we get
+four great sections: (1) PENTAMERA, in which all the tarsi are
+5-jointed; (2) HETEROMERA, with the four anterior 5-jointed and the two
+posterior 4-jointed; (3) PSEUDO-TETRAMERA, with apparently only four
+joints to all the tarsi, though, in reality, there is a fifth
+penultimate joint, diminutive and concealed; (4) PSEUDO-TRIMERA, with
+apparently only three joints to all the tarsi. This system, like most
+others, is not perfect, as there are numerous species not possessing
+five joints to the tarsi belonging to the first section; and for
+practical purposes beetles may be very well arranged according to habit.
+We thus get, first, the ADEPHAGA, or carnivorous species, including all
+those which prey on other living insects, and to which, following Mr.
+Walsh, I have, for obvious reasons, applied the suggestive term
+'Cannibal'; second, the NECROPHAGA, comprising those which feed on
+carrion, dung, fungi, and decaying vegetation; third, the PHYTOPHAGA,
+embracing all those feeding on living vegetation. This arrangement is by
+no means perfect, for there are beetles which are carnivorous in the
+larva and herbivorous in the imago state; while some of the NECROPHAGA
+are actually parasitic. Yet, it is not more artificial than others which
+have been proposed. The carnivorous species, broadly speaking, are
+_Pentamerous_, the only striking exception being the Coccinellid�
+(Lady-birds), which are _Pseudo-trimerous_. The carrion-feeders are also
+_Pentamerous_; but vegetable-feeders are found in all the tarsal
+divisions, though the _Pseudo-tetramera_ are the more essentially
+herbivorous, and consequently the most injurious."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--The Plum Curculio, _Conotrachelus nenuphar_.
+_a_, larva; _b_, pupa; _c_, beetle; _d_, plum showing egg-puncture and
+crescent.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--A Soldier-beetle, _Chauliognathus
+pennsylvanicus_. _a_, larva; _b-h_, parts of larva enlarged; _i_,
+beetle.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--The Bogus Potato-beetle, _Doryphora juncta_.
+_a_, eggs; _b_, larv�; _c_, beetle; _d_ and _e_, parts of beetle
+enlarged.]
+
+"Order LEPIDOPTERA ([Greek: lepis], a scale; [Greek: pteron], wing).
+Butterflies and Moths, or scaly-winged insects. Characterized by having
+four branching-veined membranous wings, each more or less densely
+covered on both sides with minute imbricated scales which are attached
+by a stalk, but which easily rub off, and appear to the unaided eye like
+minute particles of glistening dust or powder. Transformations complete.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--A Butterfly, _Pieris oleracea_.]
+
+"Next to the Lepidoptera, the Coleoptera are, perhaps, most familiar to
+the popular mind. Every one admires the beauty of these frail creatures,
+dressed in every conceivable pattern, and adorned with every conceivable
+color, so as to rival the delicate hues of the rainbow, and eclipse the
+most fantastic and elaborate designs of man. When magnified, the scales,
+to which this beauty of pattern and color is entirely due, present all
+manner of shapes, according to the particular species or the particular
+part of the individual from which they are taken. According to
+Lewenhoeck, there are 400,000 of these scales on the wing of the common
+silkworm.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--A Sphingid, _Ampelophaga myron_.]
+
+"The transformations of these insects are complete, and the changes are
+usually so sudden and striking as to have excited the wonder and
+admiration of observers from earliest times.
+
+"The more common form of the larva is exampled in the ordinary
+caterpillar--a cylindrical worm with a head, twelve joints and a
+sub-joint; six thoracic or true legs, four abdominal and two anal
+prolegs. But there is a great variety of these larv�, some having no
+legs whatever, some having only the jointed legs, and others having
+either four, six, eight, or ten, but never more than ten prolegs. With
+few exceptions they are all vegetable-feeders, and with still fewer
+exceptions, terrestrial. The perfect insects make free use of their
+ample wings, but walk little; and their legs are weak, and not modified
+in the various ways so noticeable in other orders, while the front pair
+in some butterflies are impotent.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--A Moth, _Utetheisa bella_.]
+
+"As an order this must be considered the most injurious of the seven.
+
+"A convenient system of classification for the Lepidoptera is based on
+the structure of the antenn�. By it we get two great sections: 1st,
+Butterflies (RHOPALOCERA); 2d, Moths (HETEROCERA), which latter may
+again be divided into Crepuscular and Nocturnal Moths. Butterflies are
+at once distinguished from moths by their antenn� being straight, stiff
+and _knobbed_, and by being day-fliers or diurnal; while moths have the
+antenn� tapering to a point, and are, for the most part, night-flyers or
+nocturnal. The crepuscular moths, composed mostly of the Sphinges or
+Hawk-moths, hover over flowers at eve, and connect the two sections not
+only in habit, but in the character of the antenn� which first thicken
+toward the end, and then suddenly terminate in a point or hook.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--A Clothes-moth (_Tinea pellionella_)--enlarged.
+_a_, adult; _b_, larva; _c_, larva in case.]
+
+"Order HEMIPTERA ([Greek: h�mi], half; [Greek: pteron], wing), Bugs. The
+insects of this order are naturally separated into two great sections;
+1st, Half-winged Bugs, or HETEROPTERA ([Greek: heteros], different;
+[Greek: pteron], wing) having the basal half of the front wings (called
+_hemelytra_) coriaceous or leathery, while the apical part is
+membranous. The wings cross flatly over the back when at rest; 2d,
+Whole-winged Bugs, or HOMOPTERA ([Greek: homos], equal; [Greek: pteron],
+wing), having all four wings of a uniform membranous nature and folding
+straight down the back when at rest. The latter, if separated, may be
+looked upon as a Suborder.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--A Plant-bug (_Euschistus punctipes_).]
+
+"Transformations incomplete; _i. e._, the larv� and pup� have more or
+less the image of the perfect insect, and differ little from it except
+in lacking wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--A Soldier-bug (_Milyas cinctus_). _b_, beak
+enlarged.]
+
+"The genuine or half-winged Bugs (Figs. 18 and 19) are usually flattened
+in form, when mature; though more rounded in the adolescent stages. They
+may be divided into Land Bugs (_Aurocorisa_) and Water Bugs
+(_Hydrocorisa_). The species of the first division very generally
+possess the power of emitting, when disturbed or alarmed, a nauseous,
+bed-buggy odor, which comes from a fluid secreted from two pores,
+situated on the under side of the metathorax. Such well-known insects as
+the Bed-bug and Chinch-bug belong here. The habits of the species are
+varied, and while some are beneficial, others are quite injurious to
+man.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--A Tree-hopper (_Ceresa bubalus_). _a_, side;
+_b_, top view.]
+
+"The Whole-winged Bugs (Figs. 20 and 21), on the contrary, are all
+plant-feeders, and with the exception of a few, such as the Cochineal
+and Lac insects, are injurious. The secretion of a white, or bluish,
+waxy, or farinose substance from the surface of the body is as
+characteristic of this section as the nauseous odor is of the first. It
+forms three natural divisions, arranged according to the number of
+joints to the tarsi--namely TRIMERA, with three joints; DIMERA, with two
+joints; and MONOMERA, with one joint to the tarsi."
+
+Suborder THYSANOPTERA ([Greek: thysanos], a fringe; [Greek: pteron],
+wing): This suborder contains the single family _Thripid�_, which
+comprises minute insects commonly known as Thrips, and of which a common
+species, _Thrips striatus_, is shown in the accompanying figure. (See
+Fig. 22.) They bear strong relations to both the Pseudoneuroptera and
+the Hemiptera and by later writers are generally associated with the
+latter order. They feed on plants, puncturing and killing the leaves, or
+on other plant-feeding species of their own class, and are characterized
+by having narrow wings crossed on the back when at rest, and beautifully
+fringed, from which latter feature the name of the suborder is derived.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--A Plant-louse (_Schizoneura lanigera_). _a_,
+infested root; _b_, larva; _c_, winged insect; _d-g_, parts of perfect
+insect enlarged.]
+
+The mouth parts are peculiar in that they are intermediate in form
+between the sucking beak of Hemiptera and the biting mouth parts of
+other insects.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--_Thrips striatus_, with wings enlarged at
+side.]
+
+Their eggs resemble those of Hemiptera; the larv� and pup� are active,
+and in form resemble the adult, except in the absence of wings. Some
+species, also, are wingless in the adult stage.
+
+The pup� are somewhat sluggish and the limbs and wings are enclosed in a
+thin membrane which is expanded about the feet into bulbous
+enlargements, giving rise to the name "bladder-footed" (Physopoda)
+applied to these insects by Burmeister.
+
+"Order DIPTERA ([Greek: dis], twice; [Greek: pteron], wing) or
+Two-winged Flies. The only order having but two wings, the hind pair
+replaced by a pair of small, slender filaments clubbed at tip, and
+called halteres, poisers, or balancers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--A Mosquito (_Culex pipiens_). _a_, adult; _b_,
+head of same enlarged; _e_, portion of antenna of same; _f_, larva; _g_,
+pupa. (After Westwood.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--A Hawk-fly (_Erax bastardi_). _a_, perfect
+insect; _b_, pupa; larva shown at side.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--A Flesh-fly (_Sarcophaga carnaria_, var.
+_saracen�_). _a_, larva; _b_, puparium; _c_, adult insect with enlarged
+parts.]
+
+"No order surpasses this in the number of species or in the immense
+swarms of individuals belonging to the same species which are frequently
+met with. The wings, which are variously veined, though appearing naked
+to the unaided eye, are often thickly covered with very minute hairs or
+hooks. As an order the Diptera are decidedly injurious to man, whether
+we consider the annoyances to ourselves or our animals of the Mosquito,
+Buffalo-gnat, Gad-fly, Breeze-fly, Zimb or Stomoxys, or the injury to
+our crops of the Hessian-fly, Wheat-midge, Cabbage-maggot, Onion-maggot,
+etc. There are, in fact, but two families, Syrphid� and Tachinid�, which
+can be looked upon as beneficial to the cultivator, though many act the
+part of scavengers. No insects, not even the Lepidoptera, furnish such a
+variety of curious larval characters, and none, perhaps, offer a wider
+or more interesting field of investigation to the biologist. It is
+difficult to give any very satisfactory arrangement of these Two-winged
+flies, though they easily fall into two rather artificial sections.
+These are: 1st, NEMOCERA, or those with long antenn�, having more than
+six joints, and palpi having four or five joints. The pupa is naked, as
+in the Lepidoptera, with the limbs exposed. This kind of pupa is called
+_obtected_. 2d, BRACHOCERA, or those with short antenn�, not having more
+than three distinct joints, and palpi with one or two joints. The pupa
+is mostly _coarctate_, _i. e._, is formed within, and more or less
+completely connected with, the hardened and shrunken skin of the larva.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--The Sheep Bot (_[OE]strus ovis_). 1, 2, flies;
+3, puparium; 4, 5, and 6, larv� or bots.]
+
+"The most anomalous of the Diptera are the Forest-flies and Sheep-ticks
+(_Hippoboscid�_). They have a horny and flattened body, and resemble
+lice in their parasitic habits, living beneath the hair of bats and
+birds. Their mode of development has always attracted the attention of
+entomologists. The larv� are hatched in the abdomen of the female, which
+is capable of distention. There it remains and, after assuming the pupa
+state, is deposited in the form of a short, white, egg-like object,
+without trace of articulation, and nearly as large as the abdomen of the
+female fly. Closely allied to these are the Bat-ticks (_Nycteribid�_),
+which possess neither wings nor balancers, and remind one strongly of
+spiders.
+
+"In this order we may also place certain wingless lice (such as _Braula
+c[oe]ca_, Nitzch), which infests the Honey-bee in Europe, northern
+Africa, and western Asia, but which has not yet been detected in this
+country.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--A Flea (_Pulex_). (From Packard.)]
+
+"Suborder APHANIPTERA ([Greek: aphan�s], inconspicuous; [Greek: pteron],
+wing) or Fleas, comprising the single family Pulicid�, now placed with
+the Diptera. Everybody is supposed to be familiar with the appearance of
+the Flea--its bloodthirsty propensities and amazing muscular power; and
+while everyone may not have the leisure and means to experience the
+exhilarating influence of the chase after larger animals, there is no
+one--be he never so humble--who may not indulge in the hunt after this
+smaller game! In place of wings the flea has four small, scaly plates.
+The minute eggs--about a dozen to each female--are laid in obscure
+places, such as the cracks of a floor, the hair of rugs, etc., and the
+larva is worm-like and feeds upon whatever animal matter--as grease and
+blood--or decaying vegetable matter it can find.
+
+"Order ORTHOPTERA ([Greek: orthos], straight; [Greek: pteron], wing), or
+Straight-winged Insects. Characterized by having the front wings (called
+_tegmina_) straight and usually narrow, pergameneous or parchment-like,
+thickly veined, and overlapping at tips when closed; the hind wings
+large and folding longitudinally like a fan. Transformations incomplete.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--A Locust (_Acridium americanum_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--A Tree-cricket (_Orocharis saltator_). _a_,
+female; _b_, male.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--The Croton Bug or German Cockroach
+(_Phyllodromia germanica_). _a_, first stage; _b_, second stage; _c_,
+third stage; _d_, fourth stage; _e_, adult; _f_, adult female with
+egg-case; _g_, egg-case--enlarged; _h_, adult with wings spread--all
+natural size except _g_.]
+
+"The insects of this order have a lengthened body and very robust jaws,
+with a correspondingly large head. The legs are strong, and fashioned
+either for grasping, running, climbing, jumping, or burrowing. As in the
+other orders, where the transformations are incomplete, the young differ
+little from the parent, except in the want of wings; and in many
+instances even this difference does not exist, as there are numerous
+species which never acquire wings. There are no aquatic Orthoptera. Some
+are omnivorous, others carnivorous, but most of them herbivorous. They
+form four distinct sections: 1st, CURSORIA, Cockroaches; 2d, RAPTATORIA,
+Mantes; 3d, AMBULATORIA, Walking-sticks; 4th, SALTATORIA, Crickets,
+Grasshoppers, and Locusts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Hind wing of Earwig. (From Comstock.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--An Earwig. (From Packard.)]
+
+"Suborder DERMAPTERA[2] ([Greek: derma], skin; [Greek: pteron], wing),
+or Earwigs, consisting of the single family Forficulid�, which may be
+placed with the Orthoptera. They are rare insects with us, but very
+common in Europe, where there prevails a superstition that they get into
+the ear and cause all sorts of trouble. The front wings are small and
+leathery; the hind ones have the form of a quadrant, and look like a fan
+when opened; and the characteristic feature is a pair of forceps-like
+appendages at the end of the body, best developed in the males. They are
+nocturnal in habit, hiding during the day in any available recess. The
+female lays her eggs in the ground, and singularly enough, broods over
+them and over her young, the latter crowding under her like chicks under
+a hen."
+
+  [2] Euplexoptera of some authors from [Greek: eu], well;
+  [Greek: plech�], folded, referring to the folded wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--A Dragon-fly (_Libellula trimaculata_). (From
+Packard.)]
+
+"Order NEUROPTERA ([Greek: neuron], nerve; [Greek: pteron], wing), or
+Nerve-winged insects. Characterized by having the wings reticulate with
+numerous veins so as to look like net-work. The order forms two natural
+divisions, the first including all those which undergo a complete, and
+the second, called Pseudo-neuroptera (Dictyotoptera, Burmeister),
+those which undergo an incomplete metamorphosis. * * * The insects of
+this order are, as a whole, more lowly organized, and more generally
+aquatic, than either of the others. A natural arrangement of them is
+difficult on account of their degradational character. They present
+forms which are synthetic and closely approach the other orders, and the
+evolutionist naturally looks upon them as furnishing an idea of what the
+archetypal forms of our present insects may have been. They are, as a
+rule, large and sluggish, with the body parts soft and little
+specialized, and the muscles weak. Their remains are found in the
+Devonian and Carboniferous deposits.
+
+"They are mostly carnivorous, and with the exception of the White-ants
+and certain Book-lice they none of them affect man injuriously, while
+some are quite beneficial."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Caddis-fly, larva and its case. (From
+Packard.)]
+
+The first division of this order, or the Neuroptera proper,
+characterized by having incomplete metamorphoses, may be considered
+under the three following suborders:
+
+"Suborder TRICHOPTERA ([Greek: thrix], hair; [Greek: pteron], wing), or
+Caddis-flies, containing the single family Phryganeid�, and placed with
+the Neuroptera, though bearing great affinities with the Lepidoptera.
+Every good disciple of Walton and lover of the "gentle art" knows the
+value of the Caddis-fly, or Water-moth, as bait. These flies very much
+resemble certain small moths, the scales on the wings of the latter
+being replaced in the former with simple hairs. The larv� live in the
+water and inhabit silken cases, which are usually cylindrical and
+covered with various substances, according to the species, or the
+material most conveniently obtained by the individual."
+
+Suborder MECOPTERA ([Greek: m�kos], length; [Greek: pteron], wing). This
+suborder includes a peculiar group of insects, the most striking
+characteristics of which are the mouth-parts, which are prolonged into a
+rostrum or beak. The wings are long and narrow, and of nearly equal
+size. The abdomen of the male is constricted near its posterior end and
+terminates in long clasping organs from which these insects obtain the
+common name of Scorpion-flies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Panorpa or Scorpion-fly. (From Packard.)]
+
+The larv� of one genus (_Panorpa_) are remarkable for their great
+resemblance to the larv� of Lepidoptera. They have, however, eight pairs
+of abdominal legs. The habits of these insects are not well known, but
+they are supposed to be generally.
+
+Suborder NEUROPTERA. This group as restricted by modern authors is a
+small one, including the largest species, as in the Hellgrammite, the
+Lace-wing Flies, the Ant-lions, and the Mantispas representing the
+families, Sialid� and Hemerobiid�, with their subfamilies. The first
+includes the so-called Hellgrammite Fly (_Corydalus cornutus_), one of
+our largest and most striking insects, the larv� of which is known as
+Dobsons by anglers, and is aquatic and carnivorous in habit. The
+Hemerobiid� is a large family, comprising, as a rule, delicate insects
+with rather ample gauzy wings. The larv� are predaceous. The common
+Lace-wing flies are among our most beneficial insects, destroying
+plant-lice and other soft-bodied species. To the same family belongs the
+Ant-lion (_Myrmeleon_), the larv� of which have the curious habit of
+constructing a funnel-shaped burrow in the sand, in the bottom of which
+they conceal themselves and wait for any soft-bodied insects which may
+fall into the trap. This family also includes the peculiar Mantis-like
+insects belonging to the genus _Mantispa_. As in the true Mantis, the
+prothorax of these insects is greatly elongated and the first pair of
+legs are fitted for grasping. The larv� are parasitic in the egg-sacs of
+certain large spiders (genera _Licosa_, _Dolomedes_, etc.), and undergo
+a remarkable change in form after the first molt. In the first stage the
+larv� are very agile, with slender bodies and long legs. After molting
+the body becomes much swollen and the legs are much shortened, as are
+also the antenn�, the head becoming small and the general appearance
+reminding one of the larva of a bee.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Lace-wing fly. _a_, eggs, _b_, larva, _c_,
+cocoons, _d_, fly with left wings removed.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--An Ant-lion (_Myrmeleon_). (From Packard.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Myrmeleon larva.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--_Mantispa_ with side view beneath. (From
+Packard.)]
+
+The second section of the Neuroptera, characterized by complete
+metamorphosis, comprises the following suborders:
+
+Suborder PLATYPTERA ([Greek: platys], flat; [Greek: pteron], wing).
+Under this head are grouped the White-ants (_Termitid�_), the Bird-lice
+(_Mallophaga_), and the Book-mites (_Psocid�_). The suborder receives
+its name from the fact that in the case of the winged forms the wings,
+when at rest, are usually laid flat upon the back of the insect. The
+Mallophaga, or Bird-lice, are degraded wingless insects, and are
+parasitic chiefly on birds, but also on mammals. In shape of body and
+character of the mouth-parts they are most nearly allied to the Psocid�.
+The latter family includes both winged and wingless forms, the
+Book-mites belonging to the latter category. The winged forms may be
+illustrated by the common species, _Psocus venosus_ (see Fig. 40). The
+legs and antenn� are long and slender and the wings are folded roof-like
+over the body when the insect is at rest. They feed on lichens and dry
+vegetation.
+
+The Termitid� are represented in this country by the White-ant (_Termes
+flavipes_), which is frequently so destructive to woodwork, books, etc.
+The term White-ant applied to these insects is unfortunate, as in
+structure they are widely separated from ants and resemble them only in
+general appearance and also in their social habits. Like the ants they
+live in colonies and have a number of distinct forms, as winged and
+wingless, males and females, and workers and soldiers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--_Psocus venosus._ (From Comstock.)]
+
+Suborder PLECOPTERA ([Greek: plektos], plaited; [Greek: pteron], wing).
+Closely allied to the latter suborder is the suborder Plecoptera, which
+includes the single family Perlid� or Stone-flies. The larv� and pup� of
+these insects are aquatic, being often found under stones in water,
+whence the name. The adults are long, flattened insects, with long
+antenn�. The wings are ample and are somewhat folded or plaited, from
+which character the suborder takes its name.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--A Stone-fly (_Pteronarcys regalis_). (From
+Comstock.)]
+
+Suborder ODONATA ([Greek: othous], tooth). This includes
+the Dragon-flies or Libellulid�, the most common and the best known of
+the Neuroptera. The larva and the active pupa or nymph are aquatic and
+are predaceous, as is also the adult. A common species is represented at
+Fig. 33.
+
+The Suborder EPHEMEROPTERA ([Greek: eph�meron], a day-fly; [Greek:
+pteron], wing) comprises the May-flies, or Ephemerid� (see Fig. 42).
+These insects are very fragile and are often attracted in enormous
+numbers to electric lights. They have large front wings, while the hind
+wings are small, rudimentary, or wanting. They are furnished with two or
+three very long, jointed, threadlike caudal appendages. The larval and
+nymphal stages are passed in the water and aquatic vegetation furnishes
+the food, although some species may be predaceous. The adults have very
+rudimentary mouths and eat nothing; their term of life is also very
+limited, not exceeding 2-4 days.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--A May-fly (_Potamanthus marginatus_). (From
+Packard.)]
+
+Suborder THYSANURA ([Greek: thysanos], tassel; [Greek: oura], tail).
+This suborder comprises minute, degraded insects commonly known as
+Spring-tails, Bristle-tails, Fish-moths, Snow-fleas, etc. They occur in
+damp situations and also infest books, wall-paper, etc., eating the
+starch paste in the book-bindings, or beneath the wall paper. They
+comprise very primitive forms and are interesting because they are
+supposed to represent the original stock from which the higher orders of
+insects have sprung. They are wingless, usually with simple eyes, and
+clothed with scales, and undergo no metamorphosis. Some of them, as the
+Fish-moth (_Lepisma sp._), run very rapidly and are furnished at the end
+of the body with a number of long bristles. In other forms these anal
+bristles or stylets are united at the base and bent under the body and
+become a powerful jumping organ, giving them the very appropriate name
+of Spring-tails.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--(_Lepisma 4-seriata_). (After Packard.)]
+
+
+
+
+                           COLLECTING.
+
+
+GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.--"Few departments of natural history offer
+greater inducements or facilities to the student than Entomology. He
+need not pass his threshold for material, for it may be found on every
+hand and at all seasons. The directions for collecting, preserving, and
+studying insects might be extended indefinitely in detail, as volumes
+have already been written on the subject; but the more general and
+important instructions are soon given.
+
+"Beginners are very apt to supply themselves with all sorts of
+appliances advertised by natural history furnishing stores. Many of
+these appliances, when it comes to real, practical field-work, are soon
+abandoned as useless incumbrances; and the greater the experience, the
+simpler will be the paraphernalia. My own equipment, on a collecting
+trip, consists chiefly of a cotton umbrella, a strong and narrow steel
+trowel or digger, a haversack slung across the shoulders, a cigar box
+lined with sheet cork, and a small knapsack attached to a waistbelt
+which girts a coat, not of many colors, but of many pockets, so made
+that in stooping nothing falls out of them. The umbrella is one of the
+indispensables. It shields, when necessary, from old Sol's scorching
+rays and from the pelting, drenching storm; brings within reach, by its
+hooked handle, many a larva-freighted bough which would otherwise remain
+undisturbed; and forms an excellent receptacle for all insects that may
+be dislodged from bush or branch. Opened and held inverted under a bough
+with the left hand, while the right manipulates a beating-stick, cut for
+the occasion, it will be the recipient of many a choice specimen that
+would never have been espied amid its protective surroundings. Some
+collectors use an umbrella painted or lined on the inside with white, to
+facilitate the detection of any object that drops into it; but as there
+are fully as many, if not more, pale and white insects as there are dark
+or black ones, the common dark umbrella is good enough for all ordinary
+purposes; and if any improvement on the ordinary cotton umbrella is
+desired, it should be in the way of a joint or knuckle about the middle
+of the handle, which will facilitate its packing and using. The trowel
+is valuable for prying off the loosened bark from old trees, whether
+felled or standing, and for digging into the ground or into decaying
+stumps and logs. The haversack is for the carriage of different kinds of
+boxes (those made of tin being best) intended for larval and other forms
+which it is necessary to bring home alive for breeding purposes; and if
+made with a partition so that the filled and empty boxes may be
+separated, all the better; it may also be used for nets and other
+apparatus to be mentioned, and for such provender as is necessary on the
+trip. The knapsack may be made on the plan of a cartridge box, of stout
+canvas or leather, and should be of moderate size and slung onto the
+belt so as to be slipped to any part of the waist and not hinder free
+bodily motion. It may be used to carry bottles, phials, and other small
+appliances, and should be accordingly partitioned and furnished with
+loops or pockets on the inside. The cigar-box is for the reception of
+pinned specimens, and may be slipped onto the belt, or buttoned to the
+trousers by means of leather.
+
+"The greatest requisites in collecting are a pair of sharp eyes and
+ready hands, with coolness and self-possession; but a few traps will
+materially aid. One of the most important is the hand-net, which may be
+made so as to subserve the two purposes of a sweeping and an air-net."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--The Butterfly net-frame.]
+
+"The frame of the net which I use is illustrated herewith (Fig. 44), and
+will be found strong and serviceable and conveniently portable. It is
+constructed as follows: Take two pieces of stout brass wire, each about
+20 inches long; bend them half-circularly and at one end by a folding
+hinge having a check on one side, _b_. The other ends are bent and
+beaten into two square sockets, _f_, which fit to a nut sunk and
+soldered into one end of a brass tube, _d_. When so fitted, they are
+secured by a large-headed screw, _e_, threaded to fit into the
+nut-socket, and with a groove wide enough to receive the back of a
+common pocket-knife blade. The wire hoop is easily detached and folded,
+as at _c_, for convenient carriage; and the handle may be made of any
+desired length by cutting a stick and fitting it into the hollow tube
+_a_, which should be about 6 inches long. It is well to have two
+separate hoops, one of lighter wire, furnished with silk gauze or some
+other light material, for catching flying insects, and one which is
+stouter and furnished with a net of stronger material for sweeping
+non-flying specimens.
+
+"Another still more simple, but less convenient frame, is thus described
+by my friend F. G. Sanborn, of Boston, Mass.:
+
+'Make a loop of strong iron or brass wire, of about 3-16ths of an inch
+in thickness, so that the diameter of the loop or circle will not exceed
+12 inches, leaving an inch to an inch and a half of wire at each end
+bent at nearly right angles. Bind the two extremities of the wire
+together with smaller wire (Fig. 45, _a_), and tin them by applying a
+drop of muriate of zinc, then holding it in the fire or over a gas flame
+until nearly red hot, when a few grains of block tin or soft solder
+placed upon them will flow evenly over the whole surface and join them
+firmly together. Take a Maynard rifle cartridge tube, or other brass
+tube of similar dimensions; if the former, file off the closed end or
+perforate it for the admission of the wire, and having tinned it in the
+same manner on the inside, push a tight-fitting cork half way through
+(Fig. 45, _c_) and pour into it melted tin or soft solder, and insert
+the wires; if carefully done, you will have a firmly constructed and
+very durable foundation for a collecting net. The cork being extracted
+will leave a convenient socket for inserting a stick or walking cane to
+serve as a handle.'
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--The Sanborn net-frame.]
+
+"My friend, J. A. Lintner, of Albany, N. Y., makes very good use, in his
+ordinary promenades, of a telescopic fish-rod, with a head (Fig. 46)
+screwed on to one end, in which to fasten an elastic brass coil on which
+the net is drawn, but which when not in use sits snugly inside his silk
+hat.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Clamp of the Lintner net.]
+
+"The bag should taper to the bottom, and in any case its length should
+be fully twice the diameter of the hoop, so that by giving the net a
+twist, the mouth may be closed and the contents thus secured. The
+sweeping-net may be protected around the hoop with leather, and in use
+should be kept in a steady and continued back-and-forth motion, over and
+touching the plants, until the contents are to be examined; when, by
+placing the head at the opening and quietly surveying the restless
+inmates, the desiderata may be secured and the rest turned out. A sudden
+dash of the air-net will usually lay any flying object at the bottom. A
+net for aquatic insects may be made on the same principle, but should be
+stout, with the meshes open enough to allow free passage of water, and
+the bag not quite as deep as the diameter of the hoop. A forceps net,
+which consists of two gauze or bobbinet covered frames, having riveted
+handles, so as to close like a pair of scissors, is employed for small
+insects; but I find little use for it. A coarse sieve, together with a
+white towel or sheet, will be found of great service for special
+occasions, particularly in the spring, when the search for minute
+insects found under old leaves, or for pup� around the butts of trees,
+is contemplated. With the sheet spread on the ground, and a few handfuls
+of leaves and leafy mold sifted over it, many a minute specimen will be
+separated from the coarser particles and drop to the sheet, where the
+eye may readily detect it. Conversely, the earth taken from around trees
+may be sifted so as to leave in the sieve such larger objects as pup�,
+etc. Another favorite plan, with some collectors, of obtaining
+specimens, especially night-flying moths, is by 'sugaring.' This
+consists of applying to the trunks of trees or to strips of cloth
+attached to the trees some sweet, attractive, and stupefying
+preparation. Diluted molasses or dissolved brown sugar, mixed with rum
+or beer, is most frequently employed. I have found sugaring of little
+use till after the blossoming season, and it is almost impossible to so
+stupefy or intoxicate an insect that it will remain upon the sugared
+tree till the next morning. I generally sugar at eve, and visit the tree
+several times between sundown and midnight, armed with wide-mouthed
+killing-bottles and accompanied by a second person, who carries a
+dark-lantern. Isolated trees, on the edges of woods, give the best
+results. Everybody knows how some poor moths will persist in flitting
+around a light until they singe their wings; and, as many insects are
+strongly attracted to bright artificial light, it may be employed with
+good results, especially during warm and damp evenings. The collector
+should never go unprovided with a small box or tube full of different
+sized pins (a corked cartridge-tube makes a good box,) a pair or two of
+forceps, a pair of scissors, a little mucilage, and the killing
+apparatus to be described."
+
+With these general remarks, it will be well to consider some of the
+important paraphernalia more in detail.
+
+
+                           COLLECTING APPARATUS.
+
+_The Sweeping Net._--A multitude of insects of all orders feed or rest
+on grasses and other low plants. Upon close inspection of these plants a
+careful observer will be able to secure, without any instruments, not
+only many mature insects, but also many larv� in connection with their
+food-plants. This is laborious and slow work, only necessary on special
+occasions. The beating net, which is constructed on the same general
+plan as the butterfly net, is valuable here as a time saver. By holding
+the handle of the net firmly in one hand and quickly sweeping over the
+plants first from right to left, and then, after quickly turning the net
+again, sweeping from left to right, most insects coming within reach of
+the sweep will fall into the bag and may be easily taken out and put
+into the collecting-vials. From this mode of operation it is evident
+that the sweeping net must be stronger in all its parts than the
+butterfly net, but otherwise it may be made on the same plan.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--The Deyrolle Sweeping Net. _a_, net entire;
+_b_, frame; _c_ and _d_, attachment of frame and handle (original).]
+
+The ring should be rigid, made of brass or iron, either of one piece or
+of two pieces, and fastened to the handle or stick in the same way as
+the butterfly net. The bag need not be as long as in the butterfly net,
+about 18 inches being sufficient, but it should be of stout cotton or
+linen and the bottom should preferably be sewed in as a round piece, so
+as to avoid corners. Care needs to be bestowed on the fastening of the
+bag on the ring, for by the use of the net the part of the bag sewed
+around the ring is soon chafed through. To prevent this a strip of
+leather is sewed over the cotton along the rim, but since even this must
+be frequently renewed some other devices are used to give greater
+durability to the net. In the pattern of a beating-net originally sold
+by Deyrolle in Paris, the metal ring was flattened, with the narrow edge
+pointing upwards and the broad side pierced with holes at suitable
+intervals and grooved on the outer surface between the holes. The bag is
+sewed on to the inner side of the ring by stout twine, which passes from
+one hole to the next and is thus prevented from coming in contact with
+obstructive objects, and only the bottom of the bag wears and will need
+to be occasionally mended or renewed.
+
+Another method of preventing the tearing of the upper rim of the bag is
+described and illustrated in Kiesenwetter's useful volume "Der
+Naturaliensammler" from which I shall frequently have occasion to quote.
+In this net the main ring is of rounded iron wire on which a number of
+brass rings are slipped. These must be but little larger than the
+diameter of the wire. These little brass rings should not be more than
+30 mm. or at most 40 mm., distant from each other, and to them the upper
+rim of the bag is sewed with very strong twine and is thus protected
+from wear and tear. The handle or stick of the net should be firmly and
+solidly attached to the ring and should be stout and not liable to
+break. I prefer a rather short stick, say not longer than two feet.
+
+I figure herewith the ring of a very convenient net for sweeping or
+beating purposes. It has the advantage of being for sale on the market,
+and in fact is an ordinary fishing dip net of small size. It is hinged
+in three places, as shown in the figure, and folds into very small
+compass. When unfolded and brought together, it screws into a ferrule
+which may be attached to a cane or a special handle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Beating net, opened and attached to handle,
+with frame of same folded. (After Kiesenwetter.)]
+
+The beating net can be successfully used at almost every season of the
+year. Even on warm days in winter time many specimens can be swept from
+the dead grass. So long as the dew is on the plants or in rainy weather
+no beating should be attempted, as the more delicate species are more or
+less spoiled by the moisture. After one or two minutes' sweeping the
+contents should be examined. Those insects which are quick to take wing
+or which are good runners should first receive attention; the less
+active can then be examined more at leisure. The desiderata are then
+disposed of, the rest thrown away, and the beating renewed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Folding ring for beating net (original).]
+
+The beating net is an important instrument for collecting all insects
+excepting mature Lepidoptera, which are apt to get rubbed. Many larv�,
+especially of Lepidoptera, are caught by beating and are mostly in good
+condition, but it is usually difficult to ascertain the food plant.
+
+_The Water Net._--The numerous insects or insect larv� which live in the
+water can not be conveniently collected without the use of a net, except
+where they live in small shallow streams or creeks with gravelly or
+stony bottoms. A suitable water net can readily be made by using the
+frame of the beating net and attaching to it a rather short bag of some
+coarse material, _e. g._, "grass cloth," coarse millinet. The mode of
+operation with this net is very simple: if some insect is seen swimming
+in the water, the net is carefully brought beneath the specimen, which
+is thus lifted out of the water. Most water insects are, however, not
+seen swimming about freely, but hide amid the various plants, mosses,
+etc., or in the mud at the base of the plants, and they can best be
+captured by dragging the net through these plants. When taken from the
+water the net is more or less filled with mud and parts of plants, and
+the water must be allowed to run out and the contents of the net spread
+out on a cloth or on a flat stone, if such be at hand. The insects are
+at first not readily seen, but after a short while they begin to emerge
+from the mud and crawl about, and can readily be taken up with a
+forceps.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--The Water Net. (After Packard.)]
+
+_Water Dip Net._--The small water sieve, shown in the accompanying
+illustration (Fig. 51), and somewhat resembling in appearance a jockey
+cap, is frequently of service in collecting the larv� of aquatic
+insects, especially where it is necessary to scrape submerged stones or
+timbers. In use it is fastened on the end of a cane or stick, and can be
+easily made by any tinsmith.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Small Water Dip Net (original).]
+
+_The Umbrella._--The umbrella, as already stated, is one of the most
+useful instruments of the collector, since it enables him to obtain all
+those numerous insects which live on the branches of trees, on shrubs,
+and on other large plants. A common stout cotton umbrella is
+sufficiently large, but is liable to get out of joint, and moreover the
+specimens hide themselves under the ribs. It is well, therefore, to have
+the inside of such umbrella lined along the ribs with muslin, or some
+other material, preferably of a light color. An umbrella specially
+constructed for entomological purposes is offered for sale by E.
+Deyrolle, in Paris. It resembles a stoutly built common umbrella, but
+has the inside lined with white linen and the handle has a joint near
+the middle, so that the umbrella can be more conveniently held and more
+readily packed away. The opened and inverted umbrella is held with the
+left hand under the branch which the collector intends to relieve of its
+entomological inhabitants, while the right hand, armed with a heavy
+stick, is free to properly jar the branch. Care must be taken in the
+jarring, lest the insects are knocked beyond the circumference of the
+umbrella. The larger the umbrella the greater are the chances of making
+rich captures, but the more difficult it becomes to manipulate,
+especially where the woods are dense or where there are many vines, etc.
+In the absence of an umbrella the butterfly net or the beating net can
+be used.
+
+A drawback to collecting with the umbrella is that many insects take
+wing and escape before being secured. This can hardly be avoided, and
+experienced collectors, in southern countries more particularly, have
+found it advisable to discard the umbrella and to use in its stead a
+very large butterfly net, 2 feet or more in diameter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--The Umbrella and its mode of use. (After
+Kiesenwetter.)]
+
+_The Beating Cloth._--A very simple substitute for the umbrella, and one
+which can always be carried without inconvenience, may here be
+described. It consists of a piece of common unbleached cotton cloth (1
+yard square), to each corner of which a loop of stout twine is sewed.
+Upon reaching the woods, two straight sticks, each about 5 feet in
+length and not too heavy, but also not so small as to be liable to break
+or to bend too easily, are cut from a convenient bush. The sticks are
+placed crosswise over the cloth and fastened to the loops at the four
+ends. This is easily and quickly done by making sliding loops of the
+simple loops. The cloth is thus kept spread out between the sticks, and
+forms a very good substitute for an umbrella. In beating, the sticks are
+held at their intersecting points. When not in use one of the loops is
+detached from the stick and the instrument can be rolled up and carried
+under one arm without seriously interfering with other operations of the
+collector. When laid on the ground, with the sticks on the underside,
+this simple instrument may be advantageously used as a cloth on which
+to sift or examine fungi, moss, pieces of bark, etc., and since the
+cloth is always tightly expanded, it offers a smooth and level surface,
+where examination of various objects can be made with ease and accuracy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--The umbrella beating and sweeping net
+(original).]
+
+_The Umbrella Net._--A very convenient form of net for both sweeping and
+for use in place of an umbrella for beating has been devised by Dr.
+George Marx. (See Fig. 53.) It is constructed from an old umbrella, as
+follows: To the handle of the umbrella are attached two steel rods
+working on hinges at the apex of the umbrella, as do the ordinary
+umbrella ribs, and attached to the sliding piece of the umbrella in the
+same manner, as shown at _a_. These rods should be about 2� feet long.
+When the sliding piece is pushed up and caught behind the spring clip,
+as shown at _b_, a circular loop is formed giving the framework for the
+net. The latter, which should be comparatively shallow, is made of stout
+muslin and sewed to the frame, as in the ordinary sweeping net. The
+enlarged drawings _c_ and _d_ illustrate clearly the manner of
+constructing the frame. The advantage of this net is its convenience in
+carrying and its general usefulness, taking the place of both the
+umbrella and the sweeping net. When not in use the frame is allowed to
+assume the position shown at A, and the net may be wrapped about the
+frame and the whole inserted in an ordinary umbrella cover.
+
+_The Sieve._--This useful aid to good collecting has not been generally
+employed by American entomologists. It facilitates the finding of small
+insects living under old leaves, in moss, in decayed trees, in fungi, in
+ants' nests, or in the ground. Any ordinary sieve about a foot in
+diameter and with meshes of about one-fifth of an inch will answer,
+though for durability and convenience of carriage one made of two wire
+or brass rings and muslin (Fig. 54), as follows, is the best. The ends
+of the wire netting should be bent around the ring so as not to project.
+A piece of common muslin about 1 foot wide and long enough to go around
+the circumference of one of the rings is then sewed together so as to
+form a kind of cylinder or bag without bottom, and the upper and lower
+rims of this bag are then sewed on around the two rings. The whole
+instrument thus forms a bag, the top of which is kept open by the simple
+wire ring, and the bottom is closed by the second ring covered with the
+wire netting. After choosing a suitable locality a white cloth is spread
+as evenly as possible on the ground; the collector then takes the sieve,
+places therein two or three handfuls of the material to be sifted,
+returns to his cloth, and, holding with his right hand the lower ring
+and with the left hand the upper ring, shakes the sieve over the cloth.
+The larger particles and specimens are retained in the sieve while the
+smaller fall through the meshes on to the cloth. Care must be taken that
+the siftings form an even and thin layer on the surface of the cloth, so
+as to be easily examined from time to time. If the locality is favorable
+many insects will be seen at the first glance crawling or running about,
+and these can easily be picked up by means of a moistened brush, or with
+the forceps. Many other insects, however, either feign death or, at any
+rate, do not move until after the lapse of several minutes, and the
+proper investigation of a single sifting often requires much time, and
+patience will be more fully rewarded here than in any other mode of
+collecting.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--The sieve. _a_, wire netting (original).]
+
+The size of the wire meshes given above is best adapted for sifting the
+fragments of old decayed trees, which furnish the most frequent material
+for the use of the sieve, but for sifting ants' nests, soil, etc., a
+sieve with smaller meshes is desirable.
+
+The sieve is indispensable to the Coleopterist, the Arachnologist, and
+to the specialist in the smaller Hemiptera and Hymenoptera, but it is
+also useful for most other orders, many interesting species existing
+which can be secured in numbers only by this mode of collecting. Many
+Tineid� and even Noctuid� hide under old leaves, but the specimens are
+usually rubbed and rendered useless in the process of sifting. Many
+larv� and pup� can, however, thus be obtained.
+
+If the locality chosen for sifting prove to be a good one, it pays to
+put the sifted material in a small sack and to carry it home where it
+can be investigated at leisure, and with a greater thoroughness than is
+usually possible outdoors. This sack can be easily arranged to be
+attached to or drawn over the lower ring of the sieve, so that the
+sifting can be done directly into the sack.
+
+As a rule it may be said that very dry places are least productive,
+while more or less moist places are apt to furnish a rich harvest. Old
+wet leaves lying immediately along the edges of swamps, or wet moss,
+harbor many interesting insects, but such wet material is sifted with
+difficulty.
+
+The sieve can be used with great advantage at all seasons of the year,
+but more especially late in fall or early in spring, when so many
+species are still hibernating.
+
+_The Chisel._--For securing the many insects living or hiding under bark
+of dying or dead trees an instrument of some sort is indispensable, as,
+in most cases, the bark so firmly adheres to the wood that it cannot be
+torn off with the hand. A stout pocket-knife will do good service, but
+far better is a common chisel of medium size and with a short handle.
+This chisel is also useful as an instrument for digging in the ground or
+for investigating the interior of partly decayed logs.
+
+_The Trowel._--Aside from the fact that many insects enter the ground
+for the purpose of hibernation in various stages, there is a rich
+subterranean life to be found during the summer. There are many
+burrowing Coleoptera; many, if not most, ants construct subterranean
+nests; the number of other fossorial Hymenoptera is very large, and
+there are also various burrowing Orthoptera and many Lepidopterous larv�
+which hide in the ground during the day. Some instrument for digging in
+the ground is therefore of great importance, and while, as stated above,
+the chisel will answer this purpose if nothing else be at hand, yet
+there are other instruments which perform the work much quicker and more
+thoroughly. The most available instrument is a rather small steel
+trowel, such as can be had at the hardware stores in a great variety of
+patterns, and which can be carried on excursions without much
+inconvenience. One with a long and narrow blade, made very stout, I have
+found very useful, though somewhat awkward to carry.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--The collecting tweezers.]
+
+_The collecting Tweezers._--In the picking up of specimens and
+transferring them into the various bottles, vials, or boxes, the trained
+collector will gather by hand the most delicate specimens without
+injuring them. Yet this labor will be greatly facilitated by the use of
+the tweezers or the brush. The former is a small, light pair of forceps,
+made of steel or brass. It should be as pliable as possible, and the tip
+should be narrow and rounded off and not pointed. It may be either
+straight or curved at tip, according to individual preference.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Pinning forceps.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Pinning forceps.]
+
+Suitable tweezers may be obtained at the larger hardware stores or of
+watchmakers. Excellent tweezers made of steel (see Fig. 55) are sold for
+about 40 cents a pair by Codman, Shurtleff & Co., Tremont street,
+Boston, Mass. Aside from their utility in picking up specimens from the
+collecting cloth or the umbrella, the tweezers are indispensable for
+extracting insects from cracks, or holes in timber, or from their
+burrows in branches and stems of plants, or from places whence it is
+impossible to dislodge them by hand. The larger "collecting forceps,"
+sold by various dealers, do good service in certain emergencies, as when
+large scorpions or other very large and ferocious insects are to be
+secured.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Pinning forceps for Lepidoptera.]
+
+For the handling of mounted insects various special forceps are
+employed, a number of styles of which are shown at Figs. 56-8.
+
+_The Brush._--A common camel's hair brush, of smaller or larger size
+according to individual preference, is useful for picking up very small
+or soft-bodied insects. For this purpose the brush is slightly moistened
+with saliva, and the tip brought in contact with the specimen, which
+then adheres to the brush, so that it can readily and without injury be
+transferred to the collecting bottle or box. The brush is indispensable
+also for preparing small specimens for the cabinet. If taken into the
+field the handle of the brush should be of a bright color, otherwise the
+brush is often lost.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--The Fumigator. (After Kiesenwetter).]
+
+_The Fumigator._--This is not used by American collectors, but there are
+several patterns sold by European dealers. It is intended to smoke out
+specimens that hide in otherwise inaccessible places, _e. g._, cracks in
+the ground, holes in hard wood, etc. The accompanying figure and the
+following description of a fumigator are taken from Kiesenwetter. A
+common smoking-pipe mouthpiece (Fig. 59, _a_) with flexible rubber joint
+(_b_) is attached to the cover (_c_) of a very large smoking-pipe head
+(_d_). To the mouth (_e_) of the latter a rubber hose (_f_) is attached,
+which has a convenient discharge at its end (_g_). The pipe is then
+filled with tobacco, and the latter ignited by means of a piece of
+burning tinder placed on top; the cover is then screwed on, and the
+smoke can be directed to any desired point by blowing air through the
+mouthpiece. The smoke from a common pipe or cigar is often useful. In
+sifting in cold weather a puff of tobacco smoke gently blown over the
+d�bris on the collecting cloth will induce many specimens to move, which
+otherwise "play possum" and could not be observed; and, further, tobacco
+smoke blown into holes and cracks in timber by means of an improvised
+funnel made of a piece of paper will be the means of securing many rare
+specimens.
+
+_The Haversack._--In order that the above-mentioned instruments and the
+various bottles, vials, and boxes which are needed for the preservation
+of specimens may most conveniently and with the least impediment to the
+collector be carried along on excursions, a haversack is indispensable.
+This is made either of leather or, still better, of some waterproof
+cloth, and should contain various compartments of different sizes; one
+for stowing away the nets, the sieve, and the larger instruments, and
+several smaller ones for boxes and vials--the whole so arranged that
+each desired object can readily be taken out and that nothing will drop
+out and get lost. The haversack is slung across the shoulders by means
+of a leather strap, and a full field outfit need not be very heavy nor
+seriously interfere with free bodily movements.
+
+Many of the smaller objects are most conveniently carried in the pockets
+of the coat, which acquires, therefore, some importance to the
+collector. The coat should be of some durable stuff and provided with
+many pockets, so arranged that in stooping nothing falls out of them.
+
+_The Lens and Microscope._--In the examination of the minuter forms of
+insect life the naked eye is not sufficient, and a hand-lens, or, for
+more delicate work, the compound microscope will be found necessary. I
+had, in my early experience, some difficulty in getting a satisfactory
+hand-lens, and the use of a poor hand-lens in time injures the eyesight,
+as I know by a year's rather disagreeable experience. For a hand-lens
+the achromatic lenses formerly manufactured by A. K. Eaton, of Brooklyn,
+N. Y., and now made by John Green, 35 Liverpool street, East Boston,
+Mass., are most excellent in workmanship and are satisfactory in every
+respect. A very good lens can also be purchased of any of the leading
+manufacturers of microscopical apparatus in this country. The kind of
+compound microscope to be purchased will depend upon the nature of the
+work of the investigator. Very serviceable instruments are made by J. W.
+Queen & Co., Philadelphia, Pa., and by the Bausch & Lomb Optical
+Company, of Rochester, N. Y., and others. The German microscopes are in
+many respects superior to those of American make, and if one has
+sufficient means, I would recommend the purchase of one of the better
+instruments of Zeiss's manufacture, which may be obtained either direct
+from the manufacturers or through Queen & Co., or from the Boston
+Educational Supply Company. Microscopic material, including slides,
+cover glasses, instruments for mounting, mounting media, staining
+fluids, etc., may be obtained of either of the firms named above.
+
+Having thus indicated somewhat fully the general methods of collecting,
+and the paraphernalia most desirable in collecting, it will be well to
+go still further into detail, and in connection with the different
+orders give some more specific information that will be valuable as a
+guide not only to the general collector, but to the specialist.
+
+
+                          COLLECTING HYMENOPTERA.
+
+The insects of this order, including Bees, Wasps, Ants, Ichneumon-flies,
+Gall-flies, Saw-flies, and allied insects have always been of unusual
+interest both to entomologists and non-entomologists on account of their
+diversified and peculiar habits. In abundance of species they exceed
+perhaps even the Coleoptera. In general they are day fliers and always
+to be found in abundance on bright days about flowers. The best season
+for collecting is in early spring, on the bloom of the Willow, Alder,
+and other trees. They may also be found at any season of the year, but
+the males of many species are only to be taken in fall. In this order,
+species of many groups can be most easily obtained by breeding. This
+includes the gall-making family, Cynipid�, and the parasitic families
+Chalcidid�, Proctotrypid�, Ichneumonid� and Braconid�. The Chrysidid�
+and certain other less important families are also parasitic, but are
+more easily obtained by general collecting. The implements necessary for
+collecting Hymenoptera are the sweeping-net and the beating-net. Many
+rare forms of the smaller parasitic families may be obtained by sweeping
+the grass and foliage of all sorts. The Proctotrypid� may be collected
+in quantity by sifting leaves and rubbish collected in the woods. Mr.
+William H. Ashmead, who has made an especial study of this group, finds
+winter sifting profitable. Dried leaves and rubbish are sifted, the
+finer portion being retained and transferred to a bag. When a sufficient
+quantity is collected it is removed to a warm room. Many hibernating
+species are taken in this way, and, revived by the warmth, are easily
+noticed when the material is spread on white paper.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--A Saw-fly (Nematus ventralis). _a_, _a_, _a_,
+young larv�; _b_, full-grown larva; _c_, cocoon; _d_, adult; all
+slightly enlarged.]
+
+On account of the interest attaching to a knowledge of the various hosts
+of parasitic insects the collector should always aim to obtain the
+latter by breeding as much as possible. This can easily be done by
+keeping a lookout for larv� of all sorts which give evidence of being
+parasitized. The larv� of Lepidoptera found late in the fall are very
+apt to be parasitized, and should be collected and kept over the winter.
+The parasites will emerge throughout the winter season and in the early
+spring. Such larv� will be found on the trunks of trees, in the crevices
+of the bark, and the cocoons of parasites will also be found in similar
+situations.
+
+The Tenthredinid� (Saw-flies) are not so often found about flowers but
+usually remain in the vicinity of the food-plant of the larva, and may
+many of them be collected by sweeping. The larv� of this family are in
+many cases difficult to breed, as most of them are single-brooded, and
+it becomes necessary to carry the larv� over the winter.
+
+The Gall-flies, Cynipid�, are the easiest of the families to collect,
+because of their abundance and because of the ease with which they may
+be reared. Their galls occur in enormous variety on oaks of various
+species and also upon brambles and certain common weeds. These should be
+collected when mature and be kept in glass jars. The Gall-flies and
+inquilinous and parasitic species may thus be easily obtained, the
+former appearing at particular seasons and the latter emerging from the
+galls at all seasons of the year, and sometimes continuing to escape for
+a period exceeding two years.
+
+One of the most interesting families in this order is the Formicid�,
+which comprises the true ants. In the case of these insects isolated
+specimens should not ordinarily be collected, and it is especially
+desirable to collect the species from colonies so that the three forms
+(males, females, and workers) may be obtained together. This holds also
+in the case of the social wasps and bees, but the different sexes of the
+latter may be collected in a season's collecting about flowers, the
+females and workers in early spring and the males in the fall.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--An Ichneumon (_Ophion_).]
+
+The Urocerid� or woodborers are to be found only about trees in which
+the larv� breed. They may frequently be taken about tree trunks, or
+burrowing with their long gimlet-like ovipositors into the trunks of
+trees to oviposit. Breeding is also a satisfactory method of obtaining
+these insects.
+
+Some special methods of collecting Hymenoptera may be briefly outlined.
+In the case of the social bees, particularly bumble-bees, and also the
+smaller wasps and yellow-jackets, a very satisfactory method of
+collecting consists in first stupefying the insects in the nest by
+introducing a small amount of chloroform, benzine, or bisulphide of
+carbon. This should preferably be done in the late evening, after all
+the insects have come in for the night. The nest may then be opened and
+examined without any danger of being stung, and the different forms may
+thus easily be obtained, together with any rare parasitic or inquilinous
+insects. In the case of the nests of Bombi this is the best method of
+obtaining the inquilinous Apathus species.
+
+On account of the danger of being stung, and also on account of the
+extremely quick flight of these insects, the removing of Hymenoptera
+from the net is not always an easy task, and in many cases rare
+specimens escape. One method of avoiding the danger of being stung is to
+have the collecting net constructed with an opening at the bottom which,
+during the sweeping, is tied with a string. When a sufficient quantity
+of insects is obtained they are, by a few quick motions, driven to the
+bottom of the net, and the net is then seized just above the insects
+with the hand, the folds of cloth preventing the insects from getting
+to the hand, so that there is little danger of being stung. The lower
+end is then carefully untied and inserted into a wide-mouthed bottle,
+and the contents of the net shaken out into the bottle. After the catch
+is stupefied the vial may be turned out and the undesirable material
+discarded. A second method consists in the use of an ordinary
+sweeping-net of light material. A quantity of Hymenoptera are collected
+from flowers and driven to the bottom of the net, and secured as in the
+preceding method. The portion of the net containing the insects is then,
+by means of a pair of forceps, thrust bodily into a large collecting
+bottle. After a few minutes the insects are stupefied and may be readily
+examined.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--The Little Red Ant (_Monomorium pharaonis_).
+_a_, female; _b_, worker enlarged.]
+
+
+                          COLLECTING COLEOPTERA.
+
+GENERAL DIRECTIONS.--Owing to their hard outer skeleton, Coleoptera can
+be collected, handled, and preserved with greater safety and with less
+trouble than most other orders of insects. From this fact, and from
+their very great diversity in form, Coleoptera have, next to the
+Lepidoptera, always been favorites. As a consequence, there are now more
+species described in this than in any other order, and in the large
+museums they are much better represented than other insects. This rich
+material has been studied by numerous and competent specialists, and the
+classification of Coleoptera is at present more advanced and more
+accessible than that of the other orders. This fact gives stimulus to
+neophytes, and though the literature of our North American fauna is much
+scattered and we are still in want of comprehensive works (with the
+exception of the general "Classification" by Drs. Le Conte and Horn),
+yet, except in a few hitherto neglected families and smaller groups, the
+species are fairly well worked up.
+
+On the other hand, our knowledge of the earlier states of Coleoptera is
+yet very imperfect as compared with the Lepidoptera. Coleopterous larv�
+are, with few exceptions (notably Coccinellid� and some Chrysomelid�),
+much more difficult to find and rear, and their distinguishing
+characters are more difficult to study. The few comprehensive works on
+Coleopterous larv� that have been published are based on rather scant
+material and none of them deal with the North American fauna.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--A Ground-beetle (_Calosoma calidum_). _a_,
+larva; _b_, adult.]
+
+Coleoptera occur in all climates and in all localities. Species are
+known from the highest northern latitudes ever reached by man, and in
+the tropics they occur in an embarrassing richness of forms. They are
+found in the most arid desert lands, in the depths of our subterranean
+caves, and on our highest mountains up to the line of eternal snow. The
+open ocean and the open water of our Great Lakes are the only regions
+free from them. As a rule, the number of species gradually increases
+from the Arctic regions toward the tropics, but it would be difficult to
+decide, speaking of North America, whether or not the fauna of the
+Middle States is poorer in the number of species than that of the
+Southern States; or whether the beetles of the Atlantic slope outnumber
+those of the Pacific States or those of the Central region. On the
+Pacific slope the influence of the seasons on insect life is greater
+than on the Atlantic slope. While in the latter region a number of
+species may be found the whole year round, there is, in the more arid
+regions of the West, an abundance of insect life during and shortly
+after the rainy season, with great scarcity during the dry season,
+except, perhaps, on the high mountains.
+
+Few persons have had a more extended experience in collecting Coleoptera
+than Mr. E. A. Schwarz, one of my assistants, and the following account
+has been prepared by him at my request and is given _in extenso_.
+
+WINTER COLLECTING.--There are more species of Coleoptera hibernating in
+the imago state[3] than in any other order and winter collecting is
+therefore most profitable in many respects. For instance, great swampy
+tracts which are inaccessible in the summer season harbor an abundance
+of rare Coleoptera, which either can not be found in summer time or are
+found at that season with the greatest difficulty. At the approach of
+winter, however, all or most of these species will leave the swamp and
+seek drier ground, where they hibernate under old leaves, under bark of
+trees, or in rotten stumps near the edge of the swamp. Such places will,
+therefore, give a rich harvest to the Coleopterist late in the fall,
+during warm spells in midwinter, and in very early spring. If the
+temperature is below the freezing point, or if the ground is frozen
+hard, no winter collecting should be attempted, first, on account of
+sanitary considerations, and also because the Coleoptera then retreat
+more deeply into the ground and can not be found so easily as when the
+ground is free from frost. Other good collecting places in winter are
+the accumulated old leaves along the edges of forests or under the
+shrubbery along water courses, thick layers of moss, and the loose bark
+of dead or dying trees, and, finally, also under the bark of certain
+living trees, _e. g._ Pines, Sycamore, Shellbark Hickory. Digging in the
+ground at the base of large trees or rocks also yields good returns. The
+only instruments necessary for winter collecting are the sieve, the
+chisel, and the trowel.
+
+  [3] There are a few species of Coleoptera known in Europe which belong
+  to the true "winter insects," _i. e._ such as appear in the imago state
+  only during winter time, but whether or not we have such species in our
+  own fauna has not yet been ascertained.
+
+SPRING COLLECTING.--With the first days of spring, collecting becomes a
+little more varied. The methods used for winter collecting can still be
+continued with good success. Certain spring flowers, notably Willow
+blossoms, will furnish many valuable species, which are not seen again
+during the rest of the season.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.--A Lamellicorn (_Pelidnota punctata_). _a_,
+larva; _b_, pupa; _c_, beetle; _d_, _e_, _f_, enlarged parts.]
+
+_Myrmecophilous and Termitophilous species._--The early spring is also
+the best time for collecting the Myrmecophilous and Termitophilous
+Coleoptera. Termitophilous species have in North America hitherto been
+found only in connection with the White-ants (_Termes flavipes_), and
+the inquilinous beetles are found running among the White-ants in the
+colonies under stones, loose bark of trees, and more numerously in the
+interior of old infested trees. Myrmecophilous Coleoptera are by far
+more numerous in species than the Termitophilous species and are found
+among many species of ants which have their nests either under stones or
+loose bark of trees, in stumps or logs, or which construct larger or
+smaller hills. Upon uncovering a colony of ants under a stone, the
+underside of the latter as well as the galleries of the ants in the
+ground should be carefully examined for inquilines, which from their
+greater or slighter resemblance to the ants are liable to be overlooked
+by an inexperienced collector. If such colony of ants harbors a rare
+beetle the subterranean part of the colony itself should be dug out and
+sifted, but since from the stony nature of the ground this is not always
+practicable it is to be recommended to carefully replace the stone under
+which the colony has been found. Upon revisiting the spot again the next
+day or even a few hours after the first visit additional specimens of
+the inquilines are usually to be obtained on the stone or in the
+superficial galleries of the ants. Ant colonies in hollow trees and in
+rotten logs should be sifted and there is no particular difficulty
+connected with this operation. Owing to the pugnacious character of the
+hill-constructing ants it would seem to be a rather unpleasant task to
+examine a strong and vigorous colony for inquilinous beetles, but the
+collector must not mind being bitten and stung by the infuriated ants,
+and after a little experience he will find that it is not such a
+difficult thing after all to attack even the largest ant-hill. The only
+thorough way of investigating such ant-hills is to sieve the same, which
+can be easily done if the hill is composed of sticks and other vegetable
+d�bris. If it is built of earth or sand the process of sifting is more
+difficult and tedious. Another method of securing specimens of these
+inquilinous beetles is to place flat stones or similar objects on the
+surface of the ant-hill and to examine them occasionally, when the
+beetles will be found on the underside of the traps.
+
+_Spring Flights of Coleoptera._--On the first really warm days of spring
+commences the "swarming" season of Coleoptera, when all winged species
+are flying about, especially toward evening. On favorable days the
+number of specimens and species that can thus be found is astonishingly
+great, and this is one of the few occasions when the Coleopterist can
+advantageously use a light butterfly net. The flying beetles preferably
+alight and rest on the top of wooden fences (especially newly made
+ones), on the railings of bridges, etc., where they can be easily seen
+and secured, or they are attracted in great numbers by the white-painted
+surface of buildings. This flying season lasts in the latitude of
+Washington from the end of April to the middle of June, but favorable
+days are not of frequent occurrence, since a peculiar combination of
+atmospheric conditions appears to be necessary to induce the Coleoptera
+to fly about in great numbers.
+
+_Beach collecting._--Along the shores of the ocean and the Great Lakes
+untold numbers of Coleoptera and other insects fall at this season into
+the water, and, if the tides, the currents, and the winds be favorable,
+they are washed ashore by the waves on the sandy beaches, where they
+often form windrows several inches in height and width. If the collector
+is happy enough to be at the right place on the right day he has then
+the opportunity to pick up hundreds of rare species within a very short
+time and without any trouble. Many of the specimens thus washed ashore
+are dead and decayed, but the majority are alive and in excellent
+condition. This "beach collecting" affords also an excellent opportunity
+for the Hymenopterist and Hemipterist to secure large numbers of rare
+species, but favorable days are also here of rare occurrence.
+
+_Attracting by Lights._--On the beaches, day and night flying insects
+can thus be captured. Away from the beach night-flying Coleoptera can
+best be collected at the electric lights of our cities; but, as in the
+Lepidoptera, not all night-flying species are attracted by the light.
+Gas and other lights also attract Coleoptera, and the various "light
+traps" that have been devised and described can advantageously be used
+for collecting these insects.
+
+_Traps._--The method of "sugaring," so important to the Lepidopterist,
+is by far less favorable for collecting Coleoptera. Still, certain rare
+Carabid�, Elaterid�, and Cerambycid� are attracted by this bait, and the
+Coleopterist should not entirely ignore this mode of collecting. There
+are a few other methods of trapping certain Coleoptera. By laying out
+dead mammals, birds, fishes, snakes, etc., on suitable places and so
+that they are protected from dogs, rats, etc., the carrion-feeding
+Coleoptera can be found in great abundance, but a cleaner and less
+disagreeable method of obtaining them is to bury in the ground tin cans
+or glass jars so that the top is even with the surrounding ground and to
+bait them with pieces of meat, fried fish, boiled eggs, etc. Many
+Curculionid�, Scolytid�, and numerous other wood-inhabiting species can
+be successfully trapped in the following way: A number of branches,
+preferably of only one kind of tree, are cut and tied up into bundles of
+convenient size. The bundles are then laid on the ground in a shady
+place or firmly fastened on trunks of trees. When the cut branches begin
+to get dry they will attract many of these Coleoptera, which can then be
+readily collected by shaking the bundles out over the collecting cloth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.--An Elaterid (_Pyrophorus noctilucus_). (From
+Packard.)]
+
+_Freshets._--Freshets usually take place in springtime in most of our
+rivers and creeks, and furnish the means of obtaining a multitude of
+Coleoptera, among which there will be many species which can not, or
+only accidentally, be found otherwise. These freshets, sweeping over the
+low banks or inundating wide stretches of low land, carry with them all
+insects that have been caught by the inundation. Intermingled with, and
+usually clinging to, the various floating d�bris, these insects are
+eventually washed ashore by the current at various points and the
+Coleopterist should not miss this rare opportunity, but go out to the
+river bank at a time when the water is still rising, or at least when it
+has attained its highest point. Among, or on the washed up d�bris, a
+multitude of Coleoptera of various families can be found, and the
+specimens can either be gathered up on the spot or a quantity of the
+d�bris be put in sacks and taken home, where it can be examined more
+thoroughly and with greater leisure than out of doors. A day or so after
+the floods have receded the washed up specimens will have dispersed and
+only a few will remain in the d�bris for a longer period. Still more
+profitable than the spring floods are the summer freshets, because a
+larger and more diversified lot of Coleoptera is then brought down by
+the water. A similar opportunity for collecting is offered near the
+seashore if unusually high tides inundate the low marshes along the
+bayous and inlets.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.--A Longicorn (_Prionus laticollis_).]
+
+SUMMER COLLECTING.--During the latter part of spring and throughout the
+whole summer, when the vegetation is fully developed, every possible
+collecting method can be carried on with success, so that the beginner
+hardly knows what particular method to use. There are stones to be
+turned over; old logs, stumps, and hollow trees to be investigated;
+newly felled or wounded trees to be carefully inspected; here a spot
+favorable for sifting claims attention; promising meadows and low
+herbage in the woods invite the use of the sweeping net; living or dead
+branches of all sorts of trees and shrubs to be worked with the
+umbrella; the mud or gravel banks of ponds, lakes, rivers, and creeks
+afford excellent collecting places; the numerous aquatic beetles are to
+be collected in the water itself; the dung beetles to be extracted from
+their unsavory habitations; in the evening the electric and other lights
+are to be visited, the lightning beetles chased on meadows and in the
+woods, or the wingless but luminous females of some species of this
+family to be looked for on the ground, and the trees and shrubs are to
+be beaten after dark in search of May beetles and other nocturnal
+leaf-feeding species which can not be obtained at daytime; and, finally,
+some of the rarest Scarab�id� and some other species fly only late at
+night or again only before sunrise.
+
+In view of this embarrassing multitude of collecting opportunities in a
+good locality, the beginner is apt to be at a loss what course to
+pursue. Experience alone can teach here, and only an expert collector is
+able to decide, at a glance at the locality before him, what collecting
+method is likely to produce the best results, and his judgment will
+rarely be at fault.
+
+It is impossible to go into details regarding the various collecting
+methods, just mentioned, and only a few general directions can be given
+regarding those methods which have not previously been alluded to.
+
+_Collecting under Stones._--Turning over stones is a favorite method
+among beginners and yields chiefly Carabid�, the larger Staphylinid�,
+certain Curculionid�, and a multitude of species of other families.
+Stones on very dry ground are productive, only early in spring or in the
+fall, while those on moist ground, in the shade of woods, are good at
+all seasons. In the Alpine regions of our mountainous districts,
+especially above the timber line, collecting under stones becomes the
+most important method, and is especially favorable along the edges of
+snow fields. In often frequented localities the collector should
+carefully replace the stones, especially those under which he has found
+rare specimens. The neglect of this rule is one of the principal causes
+for certain rare species having become extinct in the vicinity of our
+cities.
+
+_Collecting in rotten Stumps and Logs._--Success in collecting in rotten
+stumps depends much upon the more or less advanced stage of decay as
+well as upon the situation of the log and upon the particular kind of
+wood. If the decay is very much advanced neither the loose bark nor the
+interior of the log will harbor many Coleoptera excepting a multitude of
+_Passalus cornutus_ and its larv�. If the decay is less advanced, but if
+such log is exposed to the scorching rays of the sun, it will be far
+less productive than a log in a shady situation. The investigation of
+the bark of a favorably situated log in the right stage of decay does
+not need any special instruction, but the decayed wood itself should be
+pried off with a chisel or trowel, put in the sieve and sifted on the
+collecting cloth. This is the best way of obtaining the numerous species
+of rare Micro-coleoptera of various families that inhabit such places. A
+"red rotten" oak or beech log is more favorable for this mode of
+collecting than a "white rotten" of the same or other kinds of trees.
+
+_Collecting in dying or dead Trees._--Dying or dead trees almost always
+harbor a large number of Coleoptera and offer an excellent collecting
+opportunity until the wood becomes thoroughly dry, which usually takes
+place in large trees two or three years after the death of the tree, and
+in less time with smaller ones. The bark of such trees is the best
+collecting place for Cucujid�, Colydiid�, Scolytid�, Histerid�, etc.,
+and it will be found that the shady side of the tree is more profitable
+than the side exposed to the sun. The numerous Buprestid�, Elaterid�,
+Ptinid�, Cerambycid�, Melandryid�, etc., which breed in the wood can be
+obtained only with difficulty. Some specimens may be cut out from their
+holes by a skillful use of the knife or hatchet; others (especially the
+Buprestid�) may be found resting on or crawling over the trunk in the
+bright sunshine, while the more nocturnal species may be found on the
+tree toward evening or after dark, when, of course, a lantern must be
+used. A large proportion of the species living in the trunks of dead
+trees also breed in the dead branches of otherwise healthy trees from
+which they can be beaten into the umbrella, or where the use of the
+knife is more practicable than in the large trunks. The trunks of
+freshly felled trees attract numbers of Cerambycid� and Buprestid� and
+have to be carefully looked over, while the drying foliage of such trees
+affords an excellent opportunity for the use of the umbrella.
+
+_Beating living Trees, Shrubs, and Vines._--The success of beating into
+the umbrella branches of living trees and shrubs depends on the
+particular kind of tree or shrub, on the condition and situation of
+these, and largely also upon the season. Pine trees are very productive
+from early in the spring to early in the summer, but much less so in
+midsummer and later on. Young Oak trees or Oak shrubs are much more
+preferred by the leaf-eating Coleoptera peculiar to this tree than the
+older trees. The Beech, which, next to the Oak, is the best tree for
+wood-boring species, harbors but few leaf-eating species. The leaves of
+the Chestnut are also generally not attacked by Coleoptera; still a
+surprising number of species can be beaten from this tree when it is in
+blossom. There is not a single species of Coleoptera known to live in
+the wood or to feed on the leaves of the Holly (_Ilex glabra_); still it
+will pay the Coleopterist to beat this tree when it is in bloom. Trees,
+shrubs, and vines in the interior of unbroken forest districts are, as a
+rule, unproductive, while the edges of the woods, narrow strips of
+hedges, and especially solitary trees are excellent collecting places.
+In the Rocky Mountains, especially in the more southern sections, long
+stretches of mountain slopes are occasionally perfectly bare of
+vegetation with the exception of a few solitary, sickly-looking, and
+dwarfed trees, but every one of these is a veritable gold mine to the
+Coleopterist with his umbrella.
+
+_Sweeping._--The use of the beating net continues profitable from spring
+till fall, a different set of species appearing with each season. Low
+and swampy meadows, meadows on the slopes of mountains or surrounded by
+woods, low underbrush, and herbage in smaller patches of woods are very
+good beating grounds. Dry and sandy meadows are less productive, but
+harbor usually a different set of species on account of the difference
+in the flora. Pastures and meadows much frequented by cattle and horses
+are much less productive, and where a large number of sheep are kept
+there is usually no chance for using the beating net, since neither
+grass nor specimens are left. The lawns in our parks and gardens are
+usually poor collecting ground on account of the limited variety of
+plants in such places; but the few species found there occur in enormous
+number of specimens. The endless stretches of our western prairies swarm
+at the right season (in June) with numerous Coleoptera (mostly
+Malachiid�, Chrysomelid�, Mordellid�, Curculionid�, etc.), provided
+prairie fires have not swept too frequently over the place. Fires and
+cattle produce a remarkable change in the flora and fauna of the
+prairies; many indigenous species disappear or become scarce and are
+replaced by a much smaller number of imported species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.--A Dermestid (_Anthrenus scrophulari�_). _a_,
+larva, dorsal view; _b_, larva, ventral view; _c_, pupa; _d_, adult--all
+enlarged.]
+
+Sweeping may commence in the forenoon as soon as the dew has
+disappeared; it is less profitable in the heat of the midday, but
+produces the best results late in the afternoon and more especially in
+the short interval from just before sunset until dark. At this time many
+rare Pselaphid� and Scydm�nid�, species of the genera _Colon_ and
+_Anisotoma_, and other small Silphid� can be beaten from the tips of
+grasses, all being species which can not, or only accidentally, be found
+during daytime, when they hide between the roots of plants.
+
+_Collecting on mud and gravel Banks._--The mud or gravel banks of
+rivers, creeks, and stagnant bodies of water are inhabited, especially
+early in summer, with an astonishing multitude of Coleoptera. Countless
+specimens of smaller Carabid� (_Dyschirius_, _Clivina_, _Bembidium_,
+_Tachys_, etc.) and Staphylinid� (_Tachyusa_, _Philonthus_, _Actobius_,
+_Stenus_, _Lathrobium_, _Trogophl�us_ and many other genera) will be
+seen actively running over the mud or sand; many other specimens are
+hiding under the pebbles in company with other species (_Cryptohypnus_,
+_Georyssus_, etc.) or in little subterranean galleries (_Dyschirius_,
+_Bledius_, _Heterocerus_). All these beetles must be collected by
+picking them up with the fingers, an operation which, owing to the
+activity of the specimens, requires some little practice. The beginner
+will at first crush or otherwise injure many of the delicate specimens,
+the capture of which is moreover by no means facilitated by the rapidity
+with which most of them are able to take wing. The collector must
+necessarily kneel down and he must not mind getting covered with mud. A
+good device for driving these species out of their galleries or from
+their hiding places under stones or in cracks of the ground is to pour
+water over the banks, and this can in most cases be done with the hand.
+Larger stones and pieces of wood or bark lying on the bank are favorite
+hiding places of certain larger Carabid� (_Nebria_, _Chl�nius_,
+_Platynus_, etc.), and should of course be turned over. Finally, the
+moss growing on rocks and logs close to the water's edge, and in which,
+besides other beetles, some rare Staphylinid� and the Byrrhid genus
+_Limnichus_ can be found, should be scraped off and investigated on the
+collecting cloth or on the surface of a flat rock, if such be
+conveniently at hand.
+
+_Collecting aquatic Beetles._--The fishing for water beetles in deeper
+water by means of the water net has already been alluded to (p. [32]),
+but many species live in shallow brooks with stony or gravelly bottom,
+where the water net can not be used. The Dytiscid� and Hydrophilid�
+living in such places usually hide under stones, and can in most cases
+be easily picked up with the hand, or a little tin dipper or a spoon
+will be found convenient for catching them. The species of the family
+Parnid� are found on the underside of rough stones or logs which are
+either partially or entirely submerged. They are more numerous, however,
+in the moss or among the roots of other plants that grow in the water.
+Such plants have to be pulled out and examined over the collecting
+cloth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.--A Tiger Beetle (_Cicindela limbata_), drawn by
+Miss Sullivan--enlarged.]
+
+_Collecting at the Seashore and on sandy Places._--A large number of
+species belonging to various families live exclusively in the vicinity
+of the ocean, some on the open beach, others along the inlets, bayous,
+or salt marshes, and still others on the dry sand dunes. The Cicindel�
+are actively running or flying about close to the water's edge and have
+to be captured with the butterfly net. The remaining maritime species
+live hidden under the seaweed and other d�bris cast up by the waves, or
+in the sand (sometimes quite deep below the surface) beneath the d�bris
+or between the roots of the plants growing on the dunes. The majority of
+the maritime species do not appear before June (in the Middle States),
+but the collecting remains good until September.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.--The Beaver Parasite (_Platypsyllus castoris_),
+adult--greatly enlarged.]
+
+In dry sandy places away from the seashore, the collecting at the roots
+of plants is especially to be recommended, and the plants, and more
+especially the bunches of coarse grasses usually growing in such places,
+should be pulled up and shaken out over the collecting cloth. This mode
+of collecting acquires a great importance in the arid regions of the
+West and Southwest, where, in the warm season, nearly all Coleoptera are
+hiding during daytime in the ground at the roots of plants.
+
+_Collecting Dung-beetles._--The collecting of the numerous species
+(_Hydrophilid�_, _Staphylinid�_, _Histerid�_, _Scarab�id�_, etc.) which
+live in the droppings of various animals is by no means an agreeable
+task. The collector should provide himself with a pointed stick and
+collecting tweezers, and must manage to pick up the specimens as best he
+can. The larger specimens are best collected in alcohol, while the more
+delicate species can be collected in a cleaner condition by removing the
+droppings and sifting the ground beneath the same. Some species hide
+deep in the ground beneath the droppings and have to be dug out. Summer
+freshets, when pasture lands are inundated, offer an excellent
+opportunity for collecting the dung-inhabiting species in a clean
+condition.
+
+_Night Collecting._--The beating of trees and shrubs after dark is a
+good method of obtaining Lachnosternas and other species, and here the
+collector will do well to secure the assistance of a companion, who
+takes charge of the lantern and the collecting bottles, while the
+collector himself works the umbrella.
+
+FALL COLLECTING.--From the first of August the number of species
+gradually diminishes, but late in the summer or early in fall quite a
+number of other species make their appearance, _e. g._, some
+Chrysomelid�, Cerambycid�, and many Meloid�. Many of these frequent the
+blossoms of Golden-rods, umbelliferous and other late-flowering plants.
+The fall is also the best season for collecting Coleoptera living in
+fungi. Although puff-balls, toadstools, and the numerous fungi and
+moulds growing on old trees, etc., furnish many species of Coleoptera
+also earlier in the season, yet most fungi, and more especially the
+toadstools, flourish best in the fall, and consequently there is then
+the greatest abundance of certain species of Coleoptera. Decaying
+toadstools are especially rich, and should be sifted, and the collector
+should also not omit to examine the soil beneath them.
+
+During the "Indian summer" there is usually a repetition of the "spring
+flight" of Coleoptera, though on a smaller scale, and collecting on the
+tops of fence posts and on whitewashed walls again becomes good. The
+first really sharp frost causes these late species to disappear, and
+winter collecting commences again.
+
+
+                          COLLECTING LEPIDOPTERA.
+
+In this order the importance of collecting the early states and of
+rearing the adult insects rather than of catching the latter should, if
+the collector has the advancement of knowledge and the greatest pleasure
+in mind, be insisted upon. Collected specimens, in the majority of
+cases, will be more or less rubbed or damaged and unfit for permanent
+keeping, and will always be far inferior to freshly reared specimens.
+All Lepidopterists, therefore, rely to a great extent upon breeding
+rather than upon field collecting. There are, however, many species of
+which the early states are still unknown, and these can only be taken by
+field collecting, and by attracting to various lights or traps. This
+subject, therefore, naturally falls into two categories--(1) the general
+collecting of the adult, and (2) collecting the early stages and rearing
+the perfect insects.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.--The Eight-spotted Forester (_Alypia
+octomaculata_). _a_, larva; _b_, enlarged segment of same; _c_, moth.]
+
+_Collecting the Adult._--The implements for the general collecting of
+butterflies comprise the collecting net, and in some cases the beating
+net, although the use of the latter will not often be called for. The
+Rhopalocera or Diurnals may be taken about flowers, and the best season
+is in the early spring. Most of them are double-brooded, and the second
+brood will be in the greatest abundance during July and August. They
+are, however, to be found throughout the summer. They are also to be
+looked for in the neighborhood of the food-plants of their larv�, and in
+the case of many species, examination of such plants affords the most
+satisfactory means of collecting. The food of butterflies is almost
+exclusively the nectar of flowers, but strangely enough they are also
+attracted to decaying animal matter, and many species, including rare
+forms, may be taken about decaying animal matter or resting on spots
+where dead animals have lain, or beneath which they have been buried.
+Moist spots of earth are also frequented by them, especially in dry
+seasons. Many of the larger butterflies, whose larv� feed on the taller
+shrubs and the foliage of trees, will be found fluttering about the open
+spaces in forests, but by far the larger number, as the Browns, the
+Blues, the Yellows, and the Whites, which develop on the lower
+herbaceous and succulent plants, will be found flying over fields,
+prairies, and gardens. Crepuscular and nocturnal Lepidoptera, comprising
+most of the Heterocera, the Sphingid�, Bombycids, Noctuids, etc., have
+different habits. The Sphingid� or Hawk Moths fly in early evening, and
+may be collected in quantity about such plants as the Honeysuckle,
+Thistle, Verbena, Petunia, etc. The Bombycids and many Noctuids also fly
+in the early evening, but mostly at night. The former, however, do not
+frequent flowers, except such as are the food-plants of their larv�, as
+their mouth-parts are rudimentary, and they take no nourishment.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Collecting Pill-box. _a_, glass bottom
+(original).]
+
+Collecting by the aid of strong light is a favorite means for moths as
+well as other insects, and nowadays the electric lights in all large
+cities furnish the best collecting places, and hundreds of species may
+be taken in almost any desired quantity. In woods or in other situations
+they may be attracted to a lantern or to a light placed in an open
+window. Various traps have been devised, which comprise a lamp with
+apparatus for retaining and stupefying the insects attracted to the
+light. The common form is made by providing a lantern with a strong
+reflector. Under the light a funnel several inches larger than the
+lantern reaches down into a box or bottle containing the fumes of
+chloroform, ether, or benzine.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.--Method of holding and manipulating collecting
+pill-box in capturing (original).]
+
+Mr. Jerome McNeill describes at length and figures in the _American
+Naturalist_, Vol. XXIII, p. 268-270, an insect trap to be used in
+connection with electric lights. It consists of a tin pail or can
+charged with cyanide after the manner of a collecting bottle, which is
+attached beneath the globe of the electric light.
+
+The insects attracted by the light strike against a vertical tin screen
+fixed above the can and fall into a tin funnel the small end of which
+enters and closes the mouth of the can, and they are thus conducted into
+the last. A support or post in the center of the can bears a hollow tin
+cone, the apex of which is pierced with a number of small holes to admit
+light, and enters and partly closes the lower end of the funnel. The
+entire interior of the can is painted black and the chief light comes
+through the holes in the apex of the interior cone. The entrapped
+insects endeavor to escape by crawling up the central post towards the
+light coming through the small holes in the end of the cone rather than
+by the entrance slit about the latter and fall back repeatedly until
+overcome by the cyanide.
+
+Many of the Lepidoptera will be ruined by the beetles and other insects
+or by their own ineffectual attempts to escape, but Coleoptera,
+Hymenoptera, Neuroptera, and Hemiptera are secured in satisfactory
+condition.
+
+Many of the devices are very complicated and can not be described in
+this connection. The nocturnal species, also, fly into our houses, and
+this is especially the case in the country, and an open window, with a
+strong light reflected onto a table covered with either a white paper or
+a white cloth will keep one busy, on favorable nights, in properly
+taking care of the specimens thus attracted.
+
+Another favorite method of collecting moths early in the evening, or as
+late as or later than midnight, is by sugaring. This consists in
+smearing a mixture of sugar and vinegar, or some similar compound, on
+the bark of trees or on the boards of fences, and visiting the spot from
+time to time to collect the moths attracted to the bait. It has been
+found that the use of beer or some other alcoholic liquor, as rum or
+brandy, with the sugar or molasses water, greatly adds to its efficiency
+in attracting the moths. This method of collecting moths will be found
+especially efficient on warm, moist, cloudy nights. The collector should
+be provided with a dark lantern and a good net, and a number of
+wide-mouthed cyanide collecting bottles. The smearing should be done
+just before dark, and I have always found that better success attends
+this method of collecting when two are engaged in it--one to hold a
+bull's eye lantern while the other bottles the specimens. Experience
+will soon teach the surest way of approaching and capturing the
+specimens.
+
+For collecting Microlepidoptera, in addition to the ordinary net, some
+special apparatus will be found very essential. Lord Walsingham makes
+use of a special glass-bottomed pill-box, with which to capture
+specimens, and the satisfactory nature of the work done with this box,
+and the dexterity acquired by practice with it, I can vouch for by
+personal experience. These glass pill-boxes are useful, also, in
+admitting of the examination of specimens, so that worthless or common
+species can be discarded and only desired forms kept. The method of
+holding these boxes is illustrated in the accompanying illustrations.
+(Figs. 72, 73.) A drop of chloroform on the bottom of the box at once
+stupefies the capture so that it can be taken out and otherwise disposed
+of.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.--Same, showing method of closing pill-box after
+the specimen is secured (original).]
+
+The necessity of rearing to obtain perfect specimens is even more
+important in the case of the Microlepidoptera than with the larger
+forms, and many species are very easily reared and can thus be obtained
+in quantity. The Micros are abundant from early spring to late fall
+about shrubbery, in open fields, and along the edges of woods. They are,
+for the most part, day fliers, being on the wing chiefly in the latter
+part of the day and early evening. As soon as collected they should be
+transferred to pill-boxes and the greatest care should be exercised to
+avoid mutilating them, as the slightest touch will denude them of a
+portion of their scales or break their limbs or antenn�. Lord Walsingham
+thus gives his experience in collecting Micros:
+
+I go out with a coat provided with large pockets inside and out,
+containing an assortment of pill-boxes, generally of three sizes,
+glass-bottomed pill-boxes preferred, a bag slung over my shoulder, and a
+net. Unless searching for particular day-flying species, I prefer the
+last three hours before dark. As the sun goes down many species move
+which do not stir at other times. I watch the tops of the grass, the
+stems of the flowers, the twigs of the trees; I disturb leaves and
+low-growing plants with a short switch and secure each little moth that
+moves, taking each out of the net in a separate pill-box, selected
+according to the size of the insect, as he runs up the net to escape.
+Transferring the full boxes to the bag I continue the process until
+moths cease flying or night sets in. Many species can be taken with a
+lamp after dark.
+
+_Collecting the early States._--The careful entomologist who prides
+himself on the appearance of his specimens, will, as stated above, rely
+largely on collecting the early states and on rearing the insects, for
+his material. The Macrolepidoptera have either a single or two broods,
+or more, in a season, and the collection of the early states will be
+greatly facilitated if a knowledge of the insect's life-habits is first
+obtained. The eggs are often found on the food plants of the species,
+and where they are deposited in masses they afford a very easy method of
+getting the larv� in numbers. In many cases, however, the eggs are
+deposited singly and their discovery then becomes a difficult matter.
+
+More satisfactory in some respects is the method of obtaining the eggs
+from captured gravid females, and the general collector should always be
+on the lookout for females of rare species from which he may be able to
+obtain eggs. A single battered female may, in this way, be the source of
+large numbers of excellent reared specimens. Many rare Lepidopterous
+larv� may be obtained by the use of the beating net and by beating
+foliage over an umbrella. A very satisfactory method consists in
+collecting pup�, which may frequently be found in numbers about the
+bases of the trees on which the larv� feed. Many larv� of the large
+family of Owlet Moths (_Noctuid�_) are found either on the surface of
+the ground or under various substances, while others burrow into the
+stems of the different herbaceous plants, some being subaquatic and
+feeding on the underside of leaves or in the stems of aquatic plants. In
+the case of Microlepidoptera, their habit as larv�, of mining leaves or
+tying or webbing them together, affords an easy means of detecting their
+presence in most cases. The miners are easily noticed by the discolored
+spots on the leaves or the wavy, pale, or brown lines marking their
+burrows. The presence of others is indicated by the leaves being drawn
+together and united with webs, or withered and brown from being
+skeletonized by the larv�. Many species are case-bearers, and live upon
+the leaves and branches of trees and plants, dragging their cases along
+with them. Others burrow in grasses or in the stems of plants or the
+trunks of trees, or in fungi. In the case of the leaf-miners and
+leaf-tiers, little difficulty is experienced in rearing the imagoes.
+
+The care of the larv�, the outfit required, and the methods of breeding
+will be described in later sections.
+
+
+                           COLLECTING HEMIPTERA.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.--A Pentatomid (_Stiretrus anchoraga_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.--The Blood-sucking Cone-nose (_Conorhinus
+sanguisuga_). _a_, mature bug; _b_, pupa.]
+
+For the most part the directions for collecting Coleoptera will apply to
+this order of insects equally well, especially so far as concerns the
+first section of the order (Heteroptera), and the higher families of the
+second section (Homoptera). A few directions may be given for the lower
+forms, including the Aphidid�, Coccid�, Aleurodid�, and Psyllid�, and
+the suborder Parasita, including the degraded forms which infest man and
+the lower animals. The Plant-lice or Aphides should always be collected
+in connection with their food-plants, and it is very essential also to
+collect the same species at different seasons of the year to obtain the
+different forms or generations, which frequently present very marked
+differences. It is also very necessary to secure the winged forms, which
+are usually produced toward autumn, and without which the species are
+not easily identified. The Bark lice or Scale-insects should also be
+collected in connection with the leaves or twigs which they infest. The
+males of these insects are minute and, as a rule, two-winged, resembling
+small gnats, and may be bred from the male scales. The females are for
+the most part stationary, being fixed to the plant by the protecting,
+waxy, excretion or scale. The Flea-lice (_Psyllid�_) frequently produce
+galls, and these should always be collected with the insect architects.
+Some species do not produce galls, and may be collected by sweeping. The
+Hackberry is infested by large numbers of species of Psyllids, and these
+produce a great variety of interesting galls. The Aleurodid�
+(Fringe-scales) are delicate insects, and easily injured in the
+taking; they are therefore best reared from their stationary and
+fringed larv� and pup�, which occur on the leaves of many plants. Leaves
+bearing the latter should also be collected and pinned or preserved in
+alcohol. The Parasita, the lowest representatives of the order, may be
+obtained from the domestic and wild animals which they infest.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.--The Bed-bug (_Acanthia lectularia_). _a_,
+young; _b_, adult--enlarged.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.--The Short-nosed Ox-louse (_H�matopinus
+eurysternus_). _a_, female; _b_, rostrum; _c_, ventral surface, last
+segments of male; _d_, female; _e_, egg; _f_, surface of egg greatly
+enlarged.]
+
+
+                            COLLECTING DIPTERA.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78.--Ox Bot-fly (_Hypoderma bovis_) enlarged. (After
+Brauer.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79.--The Collecting Shears. (After Kiesenwetter.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80.--A Bee-fly (_Anthrax hypomelas_). _a_, larva
+from side; _b_, pupal skin protruding from cutworm chrysalis; _c_, pupa;
+_d_, imago--all enlarged.]
+
+Most Diptera frequent flowers and may be collected with a sweeping net
+without much difficulty. The best season is from April to June, and the
+bloom of the Willow, Alder, Plum, Cherry, Dogwood, Blackberry, etc.,
+will ordinarily yield a bountiful supply of specimens and species.
+Parasitic and saprophytic forms may also readily be obtained by
+breeding, the former as in the case of the parasitic Hymenoptera, and
+the latter from decaying vegetable matter and fungi. The Diptera
+require the most delicate treatment, and the greatest care must be
+exercised both in collecting and handling. A light sweep net is the best
+implement for collecting and the contents of the net should frequently
+be emptied into bottles provided with blotting paper to absorb the
+excess of moisture. Very small Diptera should not be killed when they
+can not be immediately pinned, and hairy flies should never be taken
+from the net with the hand, but should be handled with fine forceps. A
+pair of special collecting shears has been used by Lord Walsingham very
+successfully. It is represented in the accompanying figure, and consists
+of a pair of screen-covered disks, between which the fly is caught. The
+insect is at once pinned through the screen and may be removed and
+transferred to a box containing a sponge soaked in chloroform. The use
+of this implement is especially advisable in the case of the Bee-flies
+(_Bombiliid�_) and other hairy forms which are liable to be rubbed when
+collected in the ordinary net. The Gall-making Diptera (_Cecidomyid�_)
+are of little value unless accompanied with their galls, and the aim
+should always be to collect the galls and rear the insects rather than
+the keeping of specimens taken in the course of general collecting with
+a sweep net. The rearing of Cecidomyid� is, however, a delicate task,
+and requires considerable experience. Some knowledge of the habits of
+the species is very essential to success. From immature galls no
+rearings need be expected. A good plan is to examine the galls from time
+to time and collect them when it is found that the larv� are beginning
+to abandon them. In the case of species like the common Cone Gall-gnat
+of the Willow, the larv� of which do not leave the gall to undergo
+transformation in the earth, it is advisable not to gather the galls
+until the transformation to the pupa state takes place, which, in this
+species, occurs in early spring. The various leaf-mining and seed
+inhabiting species can be treated as in the case of the
+Microlepidoptera.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.--A Syrphus-fly.]
+
+
+                          COLLECTING ORTHOPTERA.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.--A blind Cricket (_Hadenalcus_) from Mammoth
+Cave. (From Packard.)]
+
+The insects of this order may all be collected by the use of the
+sweeping net. Some of the families are attracted to light, as certain of
+the roaches and green locusts, or Katydids (_Locustid�_). Our common
+roaches (_Blattid�_) are cosmopolitan insects, and infest dwellings.
+Certain species are also found about ponds, under rotten logs, the bark
+of trees, and particularly in decaying vegetable matter. In the tropics
+the species are very abundant, but aside from the domestic forms, they
+occur rarely in northern latitudes. The collection of the egg-cases
+(o�theca) is important as they furnish many interesting characters. The
+Mantid�, of which the Preying Mantis (_Phasmomantis carolina_) is a
+type, are sluggish, carnivorous insects frequently found about houses
+and may best be collected by general sweeping of vegetation. The
+Phasmid� or Walking-sticks are herbivorous and may be collected in the
+midst of vegetation by sweeping or by the hand. The crickets
+(_Gryllid�_) frequent, for the most part, moist situations. Certain
+forms, like the Mole-cricket and the Jumping Water-crickets
+(_Trydactylus_ spp.), burrow in moist soil and occur in numbers near the
+edges of ponds and water courses. The katydids and locusts are abundant
+on low shrubs or trees and in pasture and meadow land, but are most
+numerous in the somewhat dry, arid regions of the West. Most of these
+insects mature in late summer and fall and should be collected at this
+season. The Forficulid� or Earwigs are very odd-looking insects,
+resembling somewhat the Rove-beetles (_Staphylinid�_), and are provided
+with a prominent anal forceps. They are very rare in the United States,
+are nocturnal in habit; and, flying about at dusk, may be attracted to
+light or may be secured by sweeping after nightfall. They feed on
+flowers and fruit.
+
+
+                          COLLECTING NEUROPTERA.
+
+As indicated in the preliminary outline of classification, this large
+order has been divided into many orders by later entomologists. It has
+also been divided, as indicated, into two grand divisions, the
+Pseudoneuroptera, comprising those insects with incomplete
+transformations, and the Neuroptera proper, comprising those insects
+whose metamorphoses are complete. It will be convenient to discuss these
+insects under these two heads.
+
+_Pseudoneuroptera._--Spring-tails, Bird-lice, Stone-flies, White-ants,
+Dragon-flies, May-flies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.--A Spring-tail (_Degeeria lanuginosa_).]
+
+The Spring-tails, Fish-moths, etc., representing the primitive stock
+from which the higher forms have developed, have a varied habit and
+hence are to be found in divers situations. The Spring-tails
+(_Collembola_, etc.), occur in damp and moist places, usually in immense
+numbers. The Fish-moths and Book-mites are common household pests, but
+also occur outdoors under logs, boards, bricks, and rubbish of all
+sorts. In houses they feed on the starch paste beneath wall-paper and
+also on the starch in bookbindings and other domestic articles. They may
+be collected at all seasons and a sieve is the only implement necessary.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.--A Mallophagan (_Trichodectes latus_). (After
+Denny.)]
+
+The Bird-lice or Mallophaga may be collected at all seasons on birds and
+mammals. A number of species infest domestic animals, horses, cattle,
+etc., but the majority of them can be found only by the examination of
+domestic fowls and wild birds. The Stone-flies (_Perlid�_) are found in
+the neighborhood of water courses and ponds, are very sluggish in
+flight, and easily captured with the sweep-net. They are also attracted
+to light. The Psocid� are a small family of certain degraded wingless
+forms, comprising the Book-lice, which, as the name implies, infest
+books, feeding on the starch of the binding. Others have ample wings and
+closely resemble large Aphides. They occur on the trunks of trees and on
+foliage, and feed on lichens and other dried vegetable matter. They are
+gregarious in habit and frequently occur in immense numbers together. In
+the case of the Termitid� or White-ants, their abundance renders their
+collection an easy matter. Effort, however, should be made to discover
+the different forms, the females and soldiers as well as the workers.
+The former may be found in rotten tree trunks, but are very rarely met
+with. In the tropics many species occur and construct curious nests,
+either attaching them to the boughs of trees or building them in the
+form of pyramids on the ground. The Dragon-flies (_Libellulid�_,) are
+collected in the same way as the Diurnal Lepidoptera. They are very
+swift flyers, and are practically always on the wing. Their collection
+requires some degree of skill in the use of the net. A good method
+consists in visiting, in the early morning, water courses in which the
+larval and pupal states are passed, and capturing the adults just as
+they issue from their pupal skins at the edges of the pond or stream. In
+cold weather they are less active and may frequently be found clinging
+to trees and plants, particularly in the vicinity of their breeding
+places. May-flies (_Ephemerid�_) occur in immense numbers near their
+breeding places in ponds and streams and are also attracted in large
+quantities to electric lights. Their collection is therefore an easy
+matter, but on account of the very fragile nature of these insects the
+utmost care must be employed in handling them. The early states of all
+the aquatic forms mentioned above may be obtained for breeding by the
+use of the dip net by dragging it forcibly against water plants.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85.--_b_, a May-fly (_Palingenia bilineata_); _c_,
+its larva; _a_, a Caddis-fly (_Macronema zebratum_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86.--A Dragon-fly (_Libellula_). (From Packard.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87.--A Dragon-fly (_Agrion_). (From Packard.)]
+
+_Neuroptera proper_ (Hellgrammites, Lace-wings, Ant-lions, Caddis-flies,
+etc.)--Among the largest insects of this order are the Sialid�, which
+includes the enormous Hellgrammite Fly, _Corydalus cornutus_. The larv�
+of this insect are carnivorous and occur in streams, under stones, etc.
+The adults may be collected in neighboring situations and are also
+attracted to light. The Lace-wing flies (_Chrysopa_), Ant-lions, etc.,
+are carnivorous as larv�, and occur, the former among the Aphides which
+infest various plants and the latter at the bottom of pits in loose,
+sandy soil. The adults may be obtained by general sweeping and are also
+attracted to light. The most interesting insects of this order are the
+Caddis-flies, on account of the peculiar and frequently very beautiful
+cases constructed by their larv�, which it is important to collect. The
+Caddis-flies breed in ponds and lakes and the adults may be collected in
+such situations or at light. The larv� may easily be reared, and should
+be collected for this purpose. Most of the insects named in this order
+are extremely delicate and require great care in handling.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88.--An Ant-lion, adult (_Myrmeleon_). (From
+Packard.)]
+
+
+
+
+                      KILLING AND PRESERVING INSECTS.
+
+
+Between the collecting of the specimens and their final disposition in a
+well-arranged cabinet, a good deal of mechanical work is necessary,
+involving a skill and dexterity which can be thoroughly acquired only by
+practice.
+
+FIRST PRESERVATION OF LIVING SPECIMENS.--Larv�, pup�, or imagoes,
+intended for rearing purposes, must be kept alive, and are best placed,
+after capture, in tin boxes of various sizes, according to the number of
+specimens to be put in each and according to the size or nature of the
+food plant, etc., on or in which the specimens are found, and of which a
+quantity must always be taken home. For larger tin boxes those known as
+"Seidlitz powder boxes," described and figured below, which can be made
+to order at any tinner's shop, are well adapted, and smaller tin boxes
+of a convenient round form can be obtained of the watchmaker. The
+collector will find it advisable to take with him on his longer jaunts a
+larger tin collecting box as well as the smaller boxes, and for this
+purpose nothing is better than a good botanist's collecting can or
+vasculum. All tin boxes used for entomological purposes should be tight,
+and the cover should so fit that it neither drops off too readily nor
+closes too tightly. Larv� of Lepidoptera and Tenthredinid� should be
+placed in a box with a quantity of the leaves of the plant on which they
+were found. Larv�, especially of Coleoptera, found in the earth or in
+decayed wood, should be placed in a box filled with such earth or wood,
+so as to prevent shaking or rattling about. Larv� found in roots or
+stems of living plants can generally be reared to maturity only if the
+whole plant with a quantity of the surrounding soil is taken home, and
+for this purpose the large collecting box, just mentioned, is very
+useful. Most Coleopterous or other larv� found under bark or in solid
+wood can be reared only if large sections of the wood are obtained and
+the larv� are full grown or nearly so. This holds true, also, of species
+breeding in seeds and with most leaf-mining species. The greatest
+difficulty is experienced with carnivorous Coleopterous larv�, and care
+should be taken with such not to inclose two or more specimens in one
+box. Most larv� die quickly if placed in an empty box, and this is
+especially true of predaceous species; so that it is always advisable to
+pack the box with moist soil, decaying wood, leaves or other similar
+substance. Aquatic larv� should be carried in tin boxes filled with wet
+moss or some water plant, for, if placed in corked vials with water,
+they die quickly.
+
+KILLING SPECIMENS.--Specimens not intended for rearing should be killed
+immediately after capture unless for each specimen a separate vial or
+box can be provided. If a number of miscellaneous insects are put in the
+same vial the stronger specimens will, in a short time, crush or
+otherwise injure the more delicate ones or the predaceous species will
+devour any others they can master. But even where the specimens are
+killed immediately the following rule should be observed: Do not put
+large and small specimens in the same vial, but provide a larger bottle
+for the larger specimens, and one, or still better, several, smaller
+vials for the medium-sized and very small specimens. The importance of
+this rule is recognized by all experienced collectors.
+
+There are several methods of killing insects, each having its own
+peculiar advantages and drawbacks.
+
+_Alcohol._--The use of alcohol will, on the whole, prove the most
+satisfactory method of killing Coleoptera, many Hemiptera, some
+Neuroptera, and larv� of all sorts. Only the best quality of alcohol
+should be used, but it should be diluted with from 30 to 40 per cent of
+pure water, the greatest care being taken to keep the alcohol as clean
+as possible. During the collecting a mass of d�bris and dirt is apt to
+be thrown into the bottle, and when this is the case the alcohol should
+be changed even during short excursions. At any rate, upon the return
+from the excursion, the specimens should be at once taken from the
+bottle and washed in pure alcohol in a shallow vessel. The larv� and
+other material intended for permanent preservation in alcohol should be
+transferred to suitable vials and the material to be mounted cleansed
+with chloroform or acetic ether and then prepared for the cabinet. If it
+is inconvenient or impossible to mount the Coleoptera, etc., soon after
+the return from the excursion they should be washed, dried, and placed
+in pill boxes between layers of soft paper, or they may be replaced in a
+vial with pure alcohol. On longer collecting trips, lasting several days
+or weeks, specimens will keep thus very well, provided they are not
+shaken up, and this can be prevented by filling the empty space in the
+vial with cotton or soft paper. If the bottle is a large one and
+contains many large specimens the alcohol should be renewed three or
+four times at intervals of eight or ten days; otherwise the specimens
+are liable to decompose. Small and delicate specimens, if they are to
+be kept in alcohol, should be treated with still greater care. Upon the
+return from the excursion they should also be cleaned in pure alcohol
+and placed in small vials into which a very few drops of alcohol, just
+sufficient to keep the contents moist, are poured. The vial should be
+corked as tightly as possible and the specimens will keep pretty well
+for an indefinite time.
+
+The drawbacks to the use of alcohol are: 1st, that all hairy specimens
+are liable to spoil; 2ndly, that all Coleoptera with soft integuments
+spread the wing-cases apart if kept too long in it. The advantage of the
+alcohol is that it is the simplest and least troublesome fluid for
+naturalists traveling in distant countries who are not specialists in
+entomology. Specimens killed in alcohol are also less liable to be
+attacked by verdigris when pinned than those killed by some other
+method. Rum, whisky, or similar strong alcoholic liquors may be used as
+substitutes where no pure alcohol can be obtained, but are not
+especially to be recommended.
+
+_Chloroform and Ether._--Killing with the fumes of _chloroform_ or
+_ether_ (sulphuric or acetic) or _benzine_, or some other etheric oil,
+is often practiced and advocated by those who, for any reason, dislike
+the use of alcohol or object, on account of its poisonous nature, to the
+use of cyanide of potassium, and they are of especial value in the case
+of butterflies and moths, Hymenoptera and Diptera. "A small and stout
+bottle of chloroform or ether, with a brush securely inserted into the
+cork (Fig. 89), will be found very serviceable. A slight moistening
+through the air net will stupefy most insects caught in it, and
+facilitate their removal to the cyanide bottle; while a touch or two
+with the wet brush under the head and thorax, will kill the more
+delicate specimens outright, without in the least injuring them. Another
+way of using chloroform is by means of a small, hollow tube passed
+through the cork, what is called jeweler's hollow wire answering the
+purpose. The liquid evaporates more readily in such a bottle, and I
+altogether prefer the first mentioned. Some large insects, and
+especially female moths, whose size prevents the use of the ordinary
+cyanide bottles, are difficult to kill. With these, fluttering may be
+prevented by the use of chloroform, or they may be killed by puncturing
+the thorax or piercing the body longitudinally, with a needle dipped in
+liquid cyanide, or oxalic acid. A long bottle with a needle thrust into
+the cork may be kept for this purpose; but the needle must be of ivory
+or bone, as those of metal are corroded and eaten by the liquids. * * *
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89.--Chloroform bottle with brush.]
+
+"For killing small and delicate moths which have been bred, I find
+nothing more handy than chloroform. They may be caught in turned wooden
+boxes which are kept by every druggist; and a touch of the chloroform on
+the outside of the box immediately stupefies them. It has a tendency to
+stiffen them, however, and they are best set immediately after death."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90.--Bottle with liquid cyanide.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.--The Cyanide bottle with paper strips to give
+support to the insects.]
+
+A piece of heavy blotting paper or heavy cloth soaked with chloroform or
+ether or benzine and placed at the bottom of a jar or bottle makes an
+excellent killing bottle for large-sized insects. For smaller specimens
+the collecting vial should be half filled loosely with narrow strips of
+soft paper, upon which a few drops of the liquid are poured, not so
+much, however, as to wet the paper. While collecting, the vial must be
+kept closed as much as possible. Some collectors prefer chloroform,
+others ether. If this method of killing is practiced with the necessary
+care, there is no objection whatever to it; the specimens are not wetted
+as they are in alcohol, and remain cleaner than those killed by any
+other method. The drawback is that the substances mentioned evaporate
+very rapidly and have to be renewed even on short excursions. On account
+of this great volatility, one can never be certain that all the
+specimens in the collecting bottle are dead after a given time and there
+is always some danger that one or the other of the hardier insects may
+regain activity. What mischief such revived specimens are capable of
+doing, many collectors have experienced to their sorrow. Another
+disadvantage of these volatile substances is that if used in too large
+quantities they will, in delicate specimens, especially beetles, cause
+an extension of the soft ligaments between the head and prothorax or
+between the latter and the mesothorax, and thus bring the specimen into
+an unnatural position, or cause the head, or head and thorax to drop
+off.
+
+_Cyanide of Potassium._--The method of killing which, of late years, has
+found most favor with collectors, is the use of cyanide of potassium.
+For killing large sized specimens they are simply put in what is now
+universally known as the "cyanide bottle." This may be constructed as
+follows:
+
+Take a 2-ounce quinine bottle, or still better a shorter bottle with a
+wide mouth; break up a quantity of cyanide of potassium into pieces of
+convenient size (about a cubic centimeter); put these pieces in the
+bottle so that they form an even layer at the bottom; mix in a
+convenient vessel a quantity of plaster of Paris with water just
+sufficient to make the mixture semifluid and then pour it over the
+cyanide so as to cover this last to a depth of about 5 millimeters. The
+bottle is then left open for an hour or two until the plaster is
+thoroughly dry. The walls of the bottle are then cleansed from particles
+of the plaster which may have splashed on them, and the bottle is ready
+for use. If not used too frequently, especially in warm weather, it will
+last for an entire year or longer. Bottles or vials of different sizes
+can be prepared in the same way, and a very small cyanide vial which can
+be carried in the vest pocket will be found most convenient for use on
+all occasions. Fig. 92 represents a medium-sized chemist's test tube,
+converted into a very convenient cyanide bottle, in which, however, a
+cotton wad has been used to keep the poison in place. When the collected
+specimens have been removed from the bottle the latter should be
+carefully wiped clean with a piece of cloth or paper. The surface of the
+plaster soon becomes dirty and, on account of the hygroscopic property
+of the cyanide, more or less moist, especially during warm weather. The
+cyanide bottle is, therefore, not well adapted for the killing and
+temporary preservation of small and delicate specimens. This difficulty
+can be altogether obviated by placing a circular piece of blotting
+paper, cut to neatly fit the interior of the bottle, on the surface of
+the plaster. This can be renewed once a week or so, or oftener if it
+becomes necessary. It will frequently be advisable, also, especially in
+the collection of Diptera, Hymenoptera, and other delicate insects, to
+put a strip of blotting paper partially round the inner side of the
+bottle. This will absorb any moisture which may gather on the inside of
+the bottle and which would otherwise wet and injure the specimens. The
+accompanying figure (Fig. 93) illustrates a bottle arranged as described
+above. A similar result is attained by some collectors by partially
+filling the bottle with narrow strips of bibulous paper to support and
+separate the insects as shown at Fig. 91.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92.--Pocket cyanide bottle.]
+
+For delicate specimens, also, the collecting bottle may consist of a
+test-tube of about the size of Fig. 92. This is half filled with loose,
+thin strips of soft white paper. A piece of cyanide about the size of a
+pea is then wrapped carefully in paper and so placed in the middle of
+the strips that it can not come in contact with the sides of the
+glass. Some prefer to pin the paper containing the cyanide to the
+lower surface of the cork. The latter should be rather short and
+tapering toward its lower end. It is longitudinally perforated through
+its center by a round hole just large enough to insert a goose-quill,
+which is cut straight at the lower end and obliquely at its upper end.
+By means of this goose-quill the specimens may be introduced into the
+bottle without taking off the cork. This form of cyanide bottle lasts
+for only one day's collecting, except in cold weather, and in very warm
+weather it is advisable to take two prepared bottles along, so that the
+first used can be stowed away as soon as the cyanide begins to moisten
+the paper strips. Most insects are quickly killed in such a bottle, but
+some Coleoptera must be left in for five or six hours, while others
+resist death for a still longer time. This is especially true of the
+Coleopterous families Curculionid�, Trogositid�, and Tenebrionid�.
+
+Submersion in alcohol will prove a satisfactory method of killing these
+or other beetles with similar vitality.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93.--The cyanide bottle with blotting-paper lining
+(original).]
+
+_Other Agents._--Prof. E. W. Claypole has found the use of benzine or
+gasoline very cheap and satisfactory for killing Lepidoptera, as the
+largest are at once killed thereby without injury to their scales.
+(_Can. Ent._, XIX, p. 136.) He squirts it onto the specimen within the
+net or in the open air by means of a druggist's dropping tube. Hot water
+kills rapidly and leaves the specimens in good flexible condition for
+mounting. The heads of large insects may be held for a few moments in
+the water, while smaller specimens should first be thrown into a corked
+bottle and the bottle submitted to heat. Where the laurel grows its
+bruised leaves may be used in place of cyanide; they kill less quickly.
+The leaves of the Laurel-cherry (_Prunus laurocerasus_), a plant
+commonly grown in England for screens and hedges, are also used for this
+purpose.
+
+Some collectors, with indifferent olfactory sense, moisten the cork of
+their boxes with creosote. Its killing power lasts for several days. A
+few whiffs from a cigar, when nothing else is at hand, will also kill
+many of the more tender insects.
+
+SPECIAL DIRECTIONS FOR DIFFERENT ORDERS.--A few brief directions for the
+special treatment of different orders may be given. Certain Coleoptera,
+notably those of the Curculionid genus Lixus, are covered with a
+yellowish pruinosity resembling pollen, which is of an evanescent
+nature, so that if the specimens are collected and killed by the
+ordinary methods, the pruinosity is completely lost. To preserve the
+natural beauty of such species it is necessary to put each specimen
+alive in a small vial and to kill it at once by means of a lighted match
+held under the vial for a few seconds. In pinning or otherwise mounting
+the specimen it should not be handled between the fingers.
+
+Many Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera, especially species with yellow
+markings, if kept for any length of time in a cyanide bottle, will
+become discolored, the yellow changing to reddish, and hence such
+insects should not be left longer than necessary in the bottle. If care
+is exercised in this respect, no danger of discoloration need ordinarily
+be feared. The chloroform collecting bottle may be used with these
+insects if discoloration is anticipated. All the more delicate insects,
+including Hymenoptera, Diptera, the smaller Lepidoptera, and the
+Neuroptera, require special care in killing. Large numbers should not be
+thrown into a killing bottle together, and plenty of bibulous paper
+should be kept in the bottle to prevent moisture from accumulating and
+wetting and ruining the specimens. It is frequently advisable to pin
+Diptera, especially the hairy forms (as the Bee-flies), in the net and
+transfer them at once to a cigar box containing a sponge moistened with
+chloroform. When the collecting shears are used, the insects are always
+thus pinned at once, which is, in fact, the only method of securing
+them. This is also necessary in the case of many Lepidoptera. Delicate
+Neuroptera may be killed by the use of the cyanide bottle, or,
+preferably, placed at once in a vial of alcohol, as these insects, in
+many instances, cannot be kept securely if pinned or mounted. Large
+Lepidoptera, as the Bombycids, may be killed by pouring benzine,
+naphtha, or chloroform over the thorax and abdomen. These substances
+evaporate rapidly and do not appreciably injure the vestiture of the
+insects. Some collectors, in the case of butterflies, seize them
+dexterously between the thumb and finger, and give a sharp pinch on the
+sides of the thorax. This will prevent the fluttering of the insect when
+transferred to the cyanide bottle, and, if carefully done, the scales
+need not be rubbed off. It is objectionable, however, because the thorax
+is distorted and subsequent anatomical study interfered with, and, in
+the case of moths, should never be practiced, as the thorax affords
+important characters used in classification. Orthoptera may be killed by
+the use of the cyanide bottle but should be transferred at once to the
+vials of alcohol. If placed in a cyanide bottle, especially in the case
+of Locusts (_Acridid�_), they are apt to exude colored juices from the
+mouth, so that the specimens become soiled. Hence the use of vials of
+alcohol is preferable, and these insects should never be thrown into
+vials containing delicate insects of other orders. Plant-lice, together
+with the plant which they infest, should be placed at once in vials of
+alcohol, and specimens of the Aphides, representing all the forms
+present, should be mounted on slides for microscopic examination. The
+fixed forms of Coccids, comprising the majority of the species, require
+no special treatment, and the leaves, twigs, or bark on which they occur
+may be pinned at once and placed in the collection. The free forms are
+treated as in the case of plant-lice.
+
+
+
+
+                                ENTOMOTAXY.
+
+
+Under this term may be considered the preparation of insects for the
+cabinet.
+
+
+                   CARE OF PINNED AND MOUNTED SPECIMENS.
+
+_Insect Pins._--In mounting insects for the cabinet, expressly made
+entomological pins should be used. These come from three different
+sources: Kl�ger pins, made by Hermann Kl�ger, Berlin, Germany; Karlsbad
+pins, made by one or several firms in Karlsbad, Bohemia, Austria; and
+Vienna pins, made by Miller, Vienna, Austria.[4] These three kinds of
+pins have each their own slight advantages and disadvantages, so that it
+is difficult to say which is the best. All have the disadvantage that
+the pinned specimens are liable to be ruined by verdigris, and to
+obviate this japanned ("black") insect pins are made by Kl�ger and
+Miller. These black pins are, however, much softer than the "white"
+pins, and therefore more difficult to handle. A pin of 35 millimeters in
+length will be found most convenient for pinning all insects excepting
+the larger Lepidoptera and other heavy-bodied insects, for which a
+longer pin may advantageously be used. According to the different
+degrees of fineness, the pins are numbered from No. 00 (the finest in
+the trade) to No. 7 or 8, but the numbers used by the different
+manufacturers do not correspond with each other. In experience, pins of
+Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 (Kl�ger numbers) are more often needed than the
+others. The long pins of the finer numbers (Nos. 0 and 00) are difficult
+to handle in the collection and, for this reason, not to be recommended.
+
+  [4] In North America, Kl�ger pins and Karlsbad pins can be obtained
+  through Mr. John Ackhurst, 78 Ashland Place, Brooklyn, N. Y., and
+  possibly also through Messrs. Blake & Co., 55 North Seventh street,
+  Philadelphia, Pa. The Vienna pins and the Minutien-Nadeln have to be
+  ordered direct through the manufacturer, Mr. Miller.
+
+For many small insects, especially Microlepidoptera and Microdiptera,
+which _must_ be pinned, even the finest ordinary insect-pins are too
+large, and two special makes of pins are in use for this purpose. The
+"elbow pin" (formerly made and sold by Dr. Kuenow, of K�nigsberg,
+Prussia, Germany) consists of a piece of fine silver wire, pointed at
+one end, and with a coil loop at the other end, into which a longer pin
+(No. 3 or No. 4) is thrust. This pin is illustrated in Fig. 94. Still
+more satisfactory are the "Minutien-Nadeln" (pins for minute insects)
+manufactured by Mr. Miller, of Vienna, Austria, and which consist of a
+straight piece (about 14 mm. long) of extremely fine steel wire which is
+pointed at one end, and which is used in connection with a piece of
+pith or cork. The mode of using this pin is shown in Fig. 101. These
+fine and elbow pins may be obtained either "white" or japanned.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94.--Insect mounted on "elbow-pin."]
+
+"Many English entomologists use short pins, very much like those of
+ordinary make, and my late friend Walsh never gave up the custom, and
+most vehemently opposed the use of what he ridiculed as 'long German
+skewers.' But the only advantage that can possibly be claimed for the
+short pins is that they are less apt to bend, consequently more easily
+stuck into the bottoms of boxes, and require less room; while, compared
+with the long pins, they have numerous disadvantages. Long pins admit of
+the very important advantage of attaching notes and labels to the
+specimen; render it more secure from injury when handled, and from
+museum pests in the cabinet; and on them several rows of carded
+duplicates may be fastened, one under the other, so as to economize
+room."
+
+I have seen few old collections in better condition than that of the
+late E. Mulsant, of Lyons, France; and he used iron wire, cut
+slantingly, of the requisite length--a common custom in France. These
+wires bend so easily and have such dull points that they require much
+more careful manipulation than the pins, and the claim made for them
+that they do not verdigris would, perhaps, be offset by their rusting in
+moist climates or near the sea. Silver wire or silver-plated wire is
+also used.
+
+_Preparation of Specimens._--Upon the return from an excursion the
+specimens should be prepared for the collection as soon as practicable.
+If they have been collected in the forenoon they should be mounted the
+same evening, and those collected during an afternoon or evening
+excursion should be mounted the following morning, or, at any rate,
+before they get dry and brittle. Even specimens collected in alcohol
+should be attended to as soon as possible.
+
+Specimens are taken from the collecting bottle, spread out on a sheet of
+white blotting paper and cleaned from adhering impurities either with a
+soft dry brush, or, in the case of species with hard covering, by
+washing them with chloroform or ether or benzine where necessary.
+Theoretically the best way of mounting would be to pin all specimens,
+since the under side with its important characters then remains free for
+examination. Pins adapted for pinning even the smallest insects have
+been described above, but this pinning is such a delicate operation and
+requires so much time that considering the large number of small
+specimens that may be collected on a single short excursion it is next
+to impossible to carry out this method, and therefore only the larger
+specimens need be pinned and the smaller may be glued onto the paper
+points described later. If the work is done with proper care all
+insects can be prepared for the cabinet so that both the upper and under
+surface of the specimen may be examined without further manipulation.
+
+_Pinning._--"Insects should be pinned through the middle of the thorax,
+when, as is more generally the case, this portion (the mesothorax) is
+largely developed. Beetles (_Coleoptera_) and Bugs (_Hemiptera_),
+should, however, be pinned, the former through the right elytron or
+wing-cover (Fig. 95), and the latter through the scutel or triangular
+piece behind the thorax, the pin issuing between the middle and hind
+legs (Fig. 96). The specimens look very pretty with all the legs neatly
+spread out, but for practical purposes it is better to let them dry in
+the natural, partly bent position. It is a saving of time and space, and
+the limbs are not so apt to break. The legs must also not reach too far
+downward or they will interfere with the proper labeling and the secure
+pinning of the specimen in the cabinet. Moreover, the antenn� and legs
+must be brought into such position that they will not obstruct the view
+of any important part of the undersurface. The pin should always project
+about half an inch above the insect to facilitate handling, and
+uniformity in this regard will have much to do with the neat appearance
+of the collection. In pinning very large and heavy insects on a No. 4 or
+No. 5 pin, it is a good plan to first flatten the pin by a few blows of
+a hammer, in order to prevent the specimen from subsequently turning
+round on the pin."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95.--Method of pinning and labeling Coleoptera
+(original).]
+
+In pinning specimens which have a flat or nearly flat undersurface and
+short legs (as in many Coleoptera and Hemiptera and some Hymenoptera,
+_e. g._ the Saw-flies) the specimens are laid on a piece of cork and
+held in place there with the fingers or with a forceps. The pin is then
+pushed through the insect at the proper point, care being taken not to
+strike one of the legs or cox�, and that the pin passes through the
+specimen in a vertical direction.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96.--Method of pinning Hemiptera (original).]
+
+After the pin has been pushed through the specimen it is taken out of
+the cork and the specimen is pushed up to its proper height. This can be
+done either by holding the specimen between the fingers or by placing it
+on the upper edge of a thick book. A piece of cardboard provided with a
+small hole may also be used for this purpose. The perforations in
+ordinary sheet-cork, or the lapel of one's coat, will answer the same
+purpose. In pinning Lepidoptera or Hymenoptera the specimen should lie
+lightly in the angle formed by the thumb and first two fingers of the
+left hand and the pin be carefully thrust through at the proper angle.
+In pinning all insects the pin should be so inserted that the insect is
+nearly at right angles with the pin, the posterior end being slightly
+depressed.
+
+_Mounting on Points._--Most insects which are too small to be pinned on
+a No. 2 pin may be fastened to cardboard by means of gum tragacanth, gum
+shellac, or any good glue. It is not always easy to determine whether to
+pin a medium specimen or to glue it to a triangle. Pinned specimens are
+more secure, and not so apt to fall or be knocked off, but they are
+liable to become corroded by verdigris and ultimately lost, especially
+in families the larv� of which are endophytous or internal feeders. It
+is better to glue wherever there is doubt. A drop of corrosive sublimate
+added to the water in which the gum tragacanth is dissolved will
+indefinitely prevent its souring, but should not be used where the gum
+is to come in contact with the pin, as it inclines the latter to
+verdigris. In such cases a little spirits of camphor mixed with the gum
+tragacanth is best. Shellac should be dissolved in alcohol and this
+requires some time. This glue is not affected by moisture, and if it is
+desired to remove the specimens, they must be immersed in alcohol until
+the shellac is again dissolved.
+
+A number of different kinds of glue are used by entomologists. The
+requirements of a good glue are that it be colorless, and, what is of
+greater importance, that the specimens adhere firmly to the paper points
+so that there is little or no danger of their being jarred off. Those
+glues which are readily soluble in cold or lukewarm water are perhaps
+more convenient than those which require alcohol or chloroform for
+dissolving. Gum arabic and gum tragacanth have the disadvantage that
+they are more liable to attract mites and are more brittle, so that they
+do not hold specimens as well as some of the liquid glues that are on
+the market. Spalding's glue answers a very good purpose, as also the
+preparation known to European entomologists as Leprieur's gum. White
+bleached shellac, while requiring alcohol to dissolve it, has the
+advantage that a very minute quantity suffices. In olden times the
+method employed was simply to glue the specimen by the ventral side to
+the middle of a quadrangular piece of cardboard, which was then pinned
+on a No. 3 or No. 4 insect pin. This method is still in vogue with
+English entomologists, but can not be recommended except for mounting
+duplicates. Much better are the small isosceles triangles which, before
+mounting the specimen, are pinned through near the base on a No. 2 or
+No. 3 insect pin. Only the best and finest cardboard should be used for
+this purpose, since that of poor quality is liable to be broken while
+passing the pin through it and will yellow with age. "Reynolds's
+Superfine Board," which may be ordered through any dealer in artist's
+supplies of Devoe & Co., Fulton street, New York City, is perhaps the
+best for this purpose. Some of the neatest mounting which I have had
+done by any of my agents or assistants is by Mr. Albert Koebele, who
+has used mica or gelatine instead of cardboard, the object being not
+only to show the whole of the under side of the specimen, but to obscure
+less of the light from the labels and to render the triangles less
+conspicuous in the cabinet. These have been in use in the museum
+collection only for the last two or three years, and whether they will
+eventually tend to corrode the pins is not yet settled. Mica and
+isinglass are also used for the same purpose. The points used in
+mounting may easily be cut by hand to a convenient size, say one-fourth
+of an inch (6-8 mm) long by one-sixteenth or less at the base, and
+tapering to a point. The point may be narrower or wider to accommodate
+insects of different sizes.
+
+For cutting these triangles or points, various forms of punches similar
+to the appended figure (Fig. 97) known to the trade as conductor's
+punches may be used, and points thus cut are to be preferred to those
+made by other means, on account of the greater uniformity secured.
+
+An experienced hand, however, will cut these points very rapidly and
+accurately with a pair of shears, and most collectors use no special
+instrument for this purpose.
+
+The punches mentioned may be obtained of the manufacturers[5] of such
+instruments at from $2 to $3. Care should be observed in ordering to
+state explicitly the length, width at base and point, or, what is
+better, to inclose sample of the size of point it is desired to cut; but
+above all, to state that the block of paper to be cut out is the result
+desired, and that the instrument should cut clean and even, with no
+ragged edges.
+
+  [5] Montgomery & Co., 105 Fulton street, New York City.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97.--Insect punch for cutting triangles or points
+(original).]
+
+For mounting different forms and sizes the fastidious collector uses
+four or five sizes of points, but for all practical purposes one to cut
+a card point not less than 1.3 mm at the base and prolonged as nearly as
+possible to a point, and another a trifle wider at the base, say 1� or 1
+2/3 mm and with a point about 1� mm in width will suffice.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98.--Points for mounting insects (original).]
+
+For mounting most long-bodied insects, _e. g._, Staphylinid� and
+Elaterid�, an oblong card say 1� mm in width is desirable. With a little
+care these may be cut with sufficient uniformity with scissors. Seven
+and one-half millimeters may be taken as a standard of length, as this
+is about the size used by the majority of our best collectors. Shorter
+points, say 6 mm or one-quarter inch long, are sometimes preferred,
+where economy of space is a desideratum.
+
+A series of four points of different sizes for mounting insects is shown
+in the accompanying illustration. The sharp-pointed one, _a_, is
+designed for the minutest forms and the larger points for large insects.
+The largest should be mounted on points of a nearly rectangular shape,
+shown at _d_. The dimensions of these points as adopted by most
+entomologists, are as follows:--
+
+                  +------+---------+----------+--------+
+                  |      | Length. | Breadth. | Point. |
+                  +------+---------+----------+--------+
+                  | _a_  |  7.5mm. |  1.5mm.  |  .0mm. |
+                  | _b_  |  7.5    |  1.5     |  .4    |
+                  | _c_  |  7.5    |  1.5     |  .6    |
+                  | _d_  |  7.5    |  1.6     | 1.6    |
+                  +------+---------+----------+--------+
+
+The point or triangle should be mounted on the pin and directed to the
+left, the height from the top of the pin varying somewhat with the
+specimen, but averaging about one-half an inch. The insect is then glued
+to the point with the head pointed forward. In the case of Coleoptera
+and Hymenoptera, and in fact of most insects, the specimen is mounted
+with the back uppermost, but in the case of the smaller Hymenoptera it
+is advisable to mount some of the specimens, at least, on the left side
+(see Fig. 99). This directs the legs toward the pin, as a matter of
+safety, prevents their being broken in handling, and also gives
+opportunity for subsequent examination of the back, side, and venter of
+the specimen. Coleopterists always mount specimens on the venter, and in
+the case of a correctly mounted specimen the whole underside of the body
+should be available for examination except the right half of the
+metasternum, as shown in figure 100.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 99.--Insect mounted on cardboard triangle.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 100.--Method of gluing beetle on paper point
+(original).]
+
+In mounting minute insects a few precautions are necessary. The beginner
+usually uses too much glue or shellac, and the result is that the
+mounted specimens are more or less covered with the fluid, so as to
+render them unfit for examination. If, on the other hand, too little of
+the glue is used, the specimens are not securely fastened to the paper
+point, and are liable to be jolted off by the slightest jar. Before
+mounting specimens the legs and antenn� must be brought into the proper
+position by means of a brush or with a dissecting needle, so that they
+may easily be seen. A supply of paper points should always be at hand,
+and after selecting one of the proper size for the specimen, with an
+acute tip for a very small specimen and with a more obtuse point for a
+larger one, a small quantity of glue is applied to the tip by means of a
+pointed stick, such as a toothpick, the amount varying with the size of
+the specimen. The tip of a moistened brush may be used to transfer the
+specimen to the point, or one will soon become dextrous enough to do
+this without the aid of the brush. The specimens are then allowed to dry
+in a horizontally placed box. If the drying box is placed in a vertical
+position the specimens, especially long-bodied ones, are liable to
+topple over before the glue has become firm.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 101.--Cecidomyiid mounted on pith (original).]
+
+Delicate flies and Microlepidoptera, which it will not do to fasten with
+mucilage, may first be mounted on the fine pins described above and
+these thrust into oblong or triangular bits of pith or cork, which are
+mounted on larger pins as shown in Figures 101 and 102. This affords a
+very satisfactory method of mounting, particularly as the different
+sexes may be brought together on the same bit of pith, or the adult and
+puparium in Diptera, as shown at Figure 101. Strips of stout cardboard
+with the pins run through the narrow edge may also be used. The method
+of mounting minute Hymenoptera and Diptera and other insects on a bent
+wire, mentioned above, is illustrated at Figure 94. This method has not
+proved so satisfactory, as the wires are apt to become loose on the pin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 102.--Microlepidoptera mounted on pith (original).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 103.--Method of mounting duplicates (original).]
+
+_Mounting Duplicates._--If the collector finds more specimens of a rare
+species than he cares to have in his collection, the excess may be
+mounted as duplicates. If the species happens to be of a large size the
+specimens are pinned in the ordinary way, but if small enough to be
+gummed, there is a most convenient method of rapidly mounting the
+specimens so that they may be sent through the mail with much less risk
+of getting broken or knocked off than if glued on paper points, and will
+also take up very little room in the duplicate boxes. It consists in
+gluing the specimens in a transverse row on a strip of white card paper
+with one of the glues soluble in water, care being taken that between
+the individual specimens some space be left, and further that the heads
+and antenn� do not project beyond the edge of the paper. The width of
+the paper strip must be somewhat greater than the length of the
+specimen, so that below the latter there is sufficient room for
+inserting a pin through the paper. After the glue has become dry the row
+of specimens is cut with scissors into several smaller rows of
+convenient size, so that on each of these rows there are two or three or
+more specimens, according to the size of the species. A locality label
+is pushed high up on a No. 3 or No. 4 pin, and one of the mounted rows
+of specimens is then pinned and pushed up near the locality label; a
+second row is then pinned and pushed near the first row, and the same
+process continued with the third row and so on. A single pin will thus
+bear five or six rows, and in giving away or sending away specimens the
+lowest row is taken from the pin and repinned for mailing. The
+accompanying figure (Fig. 103) illustrates the mounting of a
+moderate-sized species in rows of two specimens each. This method of
+mounting duplicates may be adopted not only for Coleoptera, but also for
+Heteroptera, Homoptera (excepting Aphidid� and allied families), smaller
+Orthoptera, and Hymenoptera. It is, however, impracticable for
+Lepidoptera, Diptera, and most Neuroptera.
+
+_Temporary Storage of Specimens._--If the entomologist is prevented from
+mounting his captures soon after returning from an expedition, or if, on
+extended collecting trips, time does not offer for this purpose,
+specimens of almost all orders except the Lepidoptera, Orthoptera, and
+Neuroptera may be placed in a small, tightly closing pill box, care
+being taken to keep the larger specimens apart from the small ones. In
+this way specimens will keep for an indefinite period, provided they are
+properly packed. In the case of the traveling collector, where the
+material is to be carried from point to point at great risk of breaking,
+specimens should be packed very carefully to prevent any shaking or
+rattling about in the boxes. This may be done by placing a round piece
+of soft paper on the top of the specimens in the pill box. This paper
+should be gently pressed down and the empty space above filled with
+other layers of paper or with cotton. The packing of specimens between
+cotton is not recommended, as it is a difficult and tedious task to
+afterwards free them from the adhering fibers. Layers of soft paper or,
+yet better, velvet, are preferable.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 104.--Method of preserving Diurnal Lepidoptera in
+paper envelopes. (After Kiesenwetter.)]
+
+_Envelopes for Lepidoptera, etc._--On an extended trip, it will be found
+impracticable to mount and prepare insects requiring cumbersome
+apparatus for spreading, as Lepidoptera or Neuroptera, and a very
+excellent plan consists in folding the wings of the insect so that the
+lower surfaces come together and then placing it in a triangular
+envelope, as shown in the accompanying illustration. The collector
+should be provided with a quantity of paper of the requisite dimensions
+for making these envelopes, and specimens, as they are taken from the
+collecting bottle, may be rapidly inclosed in them, labeled, and packed
+away in a tight wooden (not tin) box containing a supply of naphthaline,
+the specimens thus occupying the minimum of space. Specimens secured in
+this way may be kept without further manipulation indefinitely or until
+time is found to relax and set them. This is also an excellent method
+of sending diurnal Lepidoptera and Dragon-flies through the mails and is
+preferable in some respects to mailing spread specimens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 105.--Spreading board for Lepidoptera.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 106.--Needle for spreading insects.]
+
+_Directions for Spreading Insects._--"For the proper spreading of
+insects with broad and flattened wings, such as butterflies and moths, a
+spreading board or stretcher is necessary. One that is simple and
+answers every purpose is shown at Fig. 105. It may be made of two pieces
+of thin whitewood or pine board, fastened together by braces at the
+ends, but left wide enough apart to admit the bodies of the insects to
+be spread; strips of cork or pith, in which to fasten the pins, may then
+be tacked or glued below so as to cover the intervening space. The
+braces must be deep enough to prevent the pins from touching anything
+the stretcher may be laid on, and by attaching a ring or loop to one of
+them the stretcher may be hung against a wall, out of the way. For
+ordinary-sized specimens I use boards 2 feet long, 3 inches wide, and
+1/3 inch thick, with three braces (one in the middle and one at each
+end) 1� inches deep at the ends, but narrowing from each end to 1 1/6
+inches at the middle. This slight rising from the middle is to
+counteract the tendency of the wings, however well dried, to drop a
+little after the insect is placed in the cabinet. The wings are held in
+position by means of strips of paper (Fig. 105) until dry. For
+stretching the wings and for many other purposes, a handled needle will
+be found useful. Split off, with the grain, a piece of pine wood 3 or 4
+inches long; hold it in the right hand; take a medium-sized needle in
+the left hand; hold it upright with the point touching a walnut table,
+or other hard-grained wood, and bring a steady pressure to bear on the
+pine. The head of the needle will sink to any required distance into the
+pine, which may then be whittled off, and you have just the thing you
+want (Fig. 106). To obtain uniformity in the position of the wings, a
+good rule is to have the inner margins of the front wings as nearly as
+possible on a straight line. When the specimens are thoroughly stiff and
+dry, they should be taken from the stretcher and kept for several weeks
+in the drying box before being permanently placed in the cabinet. The
+drying box is simply a box of any required dimensions, containing a
+series of shelves on which to pin the specimens, and without a solid
+back or front. The back is covered on the inside with fine gauze and on
+the outside with coarser wire, and the door in front consists of a
+close-fitting frame of the same material, the object being to allow free
+passage of air, but at the same time to keep out dust and prevent the
+gnawings of mice and other animals. The shelves should be not less than
+2 inches deep, and if made in the form of a quadrangular frame, braced
+with two cross-pieces on which to tack sheet cork, they will serve for
+the double purpose of drying spread specimens and for the spreading of
+others, as there are many insects with long legs which are more
+conveniently spread on such a board, by means of triangular pieces of
+stiff cardboard braces or 'saddles,' than on the stretcher already
+described. Two of these braces are fixed on the setting board, by means
+of stout pins, at sufficient distances apart to receive the body between
+them. The wings are then spread upon them and kept in place until dry by
+means of additional braces. In the case of bees, wasps, etc., the pin
+may be thrust well into the cork or pith so that the wings may be
+arranged in the proper position and braced and supported by strips of
+stout cardboard. This method is especially recommended in the case of
+the Fossorial wasps, the legs of which, if mounted in an ordinary
+spreading board, can not be properly arranged.
+
+In spreading Lepidoptera I have used, in the place of a number of paper
+strips pinned across the wings, blocks of glass of various sizes to hold
+the wings in position. My method of mounting, with a large amount of
+material on hand to be attended to, consists in pinning a row on the
+spreading-board and fixing the wings in position with spreading needles,
+fastening them with a single narrow strip of paper placed next the body.
+The entire spreading-board is filled with specimens in this way, a
+single long strip of paper on either side answering to keep the wings of
+all the specimens in position. Then, instead of pinning additional
+strips to hold the wings flat and securely in position, the pieces of
+glass referred to are used, placing them on the wings of the insect.
+With the use of glass the spreading-board must always be kept in a
+horizontal position and must never be disturbed. The advantage of the
+glass is that the wings can be seen through it and more truly adjusted.
+
+Spreading-boards may be made as described above, or it may be of
+advantage, when a good deal of work is to be done, to adopt a somewhat
+different method. Five or six spreading-boards may be made together,
+forming a sort of shelf. A number of these shelves may be constructed
+and the whole combined in a case with a screen cover to exclude insects.
+The individual shelves may be arranged with grooves to slide on tongues
+in the side of the case. A screen-covered case for spreading-boards is
+always desirable, as the insects are otherwise very liable to be eaten
+by roaches or other insects. A spreading-case of the form described is
+shown at Fig. 107.
+
+_A new Apparatus for Spreading Microlepidoptera._--For the spreading of
+Microlepidoptera my assistant, Mr. Theo. Pergande, has devised an
+apparatus, represented in the accompanying illustration, which he finds
+very convenient. It consists of a small spreading-block represented at
+_B_ and the support with attachment shown at _A_. The former is made in
+a long strip of the shape shown in the illustration, having a square
+groove, _c_, cut in the top. Over this is glued a thin strip of wood,
+_b_, say 1/8 inch thick, and a narrow slit is sawed in the center of
+this above, cutting through into the groove _c_. This is then sawed up
+into pieces of uniform length, say 1� to 2 inches, and the block is
+completed by the insertion of a rectangular strip of pith or cork into
+the groove. The Micro is pinned on a short black pin, and the pin is
+thrust down into the narrow opening made by the saw and is held firmly
+by the pith or cork. This block is then slid into the groove in the
+setting-board _A_, which narrows slightly from _e_, and pushed along
+until firmly secured (_d_). The operator can then rest his hands and
+arms on either side of the support, and, if necessary, bring a large
+hand lens over the object by means of a support with ball-and-socket
+joint shown at _e_. The wings may thus be easily and accurately arranged
+and fixed in position with pins or strips of paper, as in the ordinary
+mounting of such insects. Two or three specimens may be mounted on each
+of these blocks. The construction of the support is indicated in the
+annexed drawing. One side is attached by clamps, shown enlarged at
+_f_, which afford means of adjusting the width of the slit in which the
+small sawed blocks slide and correct the shrinking or swelling which may
+take place in moist or dry seasons. The advantage of the apparatus is
+that the operator has the setting block firmly fixed before him and
+has both hands free to manipulate the wings of the insect in addition to
+having the lens in a convenient position, the use of which is necessary
+in the preparation of the very minute forms.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 107.--Spreading-case (original).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 108.--Spreading apparatus for Microlepidoptera
+(original).]
+
+_Spreading Microlepidoptera._--The mounting of Microlepidoptera is about
+the most delicate work in entomotaxy, and I can not do better than
+quote the explicit directions given by Lord Walsingham on the subject.
+
+Returning to camp I put a few drops of liquid ammonia on a small piece
+of sponge and place it in a tin canister with such of the boxes as do
+not contain the smallest species, and put these and the remainder away
+until morning in a cool place. In the morning I prepare for work by
+getting out a pair of scissors, a pair of forceps, my drying-box
+containing setting-boards, a sheet of white paper, and some pins.
+
+First, I cut two or three narrow pieces of paper from 3 to 6 lines wide,
+or rather wider, according to the size of the largest and smallest
+specimens I have to set. I then double each of these strips and cut it
+up into braces by a number of oblique cuts. Now I turn out the contents
+of the canister and damp the sponge with a few drops of fresh ammonia,
+refilling with boxes containing live insects. Those which have been
+taken out will be found to be all dead and in a beautifully relaxed
+condition for setting. Had the smallest specimens been placed in the
+canister over night there would have been some fear of their drying up,
+owing to the small amount of moisture in their bodies.
+
+If the weather is very hot there is some danger of killed insects
+becoming stiff while others are being set, in which case it is better to
+pin at once into a damp cork box all that have been taken out of the
+canister, but under ordinary circumstances I prefer to pin them one by
+one as I set them.
+
+Taking the lid off a box, and taking the box between the finger and
+thumb of the right hand, I roll out the insect on the top of the left
+thumb, supporting it with the top of the forefinger and so manipulating
+it as to bring the head pointing toward my right hand and the thorax
+uppermost. Now I take a pin in the right hand and resting the first
+joint of the middle finger of the right against the projecting point of
+the middle finger of the left hand to avoid unsteadiness, I pin the
+insect obliquely through the thickest part of the thorax, so that the
+head of the pin leans very slightly forward over the head of the insect.
+After passing the pin far enough through to bring about one-fourth of an
+inch out below,[6] I pin the insect into the middle of the groove of a
+setting board so that the edge of the groove will just support the under
+sides of the wings close up to the body when they are raised upon it.
+The board should be chosen of such a size as will permit of the
+extension of the wings nearly to its outer edge. The position of the pin
+should still be slanting a little forward. The wings should now be
+raised into the position in which they are intended to rest, with
+especial care in doing so not to remove any scales from the surface or
+cilia of the wings. Each wing should be fastened with a brace long
+enough to extend across both, the braces being pinned at the thick end,
+so that the head of the pin slopes away from the point of the brace;
+this causes the braces to press more firmly down on the wing when fixed.
+The insect should be braced thus: The two braces next the body should
+have the points upwards, the two outer ones pointing downwards and
+slightly inwards towards the body, and covering the main portion of the
+wings beyond the middle. Antenn� should be carefully laid back above the
+wings, and braces should lie flat, exercising an even pressure at all
+points of their surface. The fore wings should slope slightly forwards
+so that a line drawn from the point of one to the point of the other
+will just miss the head and palpi. The hind wings should be close up,
+leaving no intervening space, but just showing the upper angle of the
+wing evenly on each side. I can give no more precise directions as to
+how this desirable result may most simply and speedily be attained; no
+two people set alike. Speed is an object; for I have often had to set
+twelve dozen insects before breakfast. A simple process is essential,
+for a man who is always pinning and moving pins, and rearranging wings
+and legs, is sure to remove a certain number of scales and spoil the
+appearance of the insect, besides utterly destroying its value. I raise
+each of the fore wings with a pin, and fix the pin against the inner
+margin so as to keep them in position while I apply the braces. Half the
+battle is really in the pinning. When an insect is pinned through the
+exact center of the thorax, with the pin properly sloped forward, the
+body appears to fall naturally into its position on the setting board,
+and the muscles of the wings being left free are easily directed and
+secured; but if the pin is not put exactly in the middle it interferes
+with the play of the wings. Legs must be placed close against the body
+or they will project and interfere with the set of the wings. Practice,
+care, and a steady hand will succeed. When all the insects that have
+been killed are set the contents of the canister will be found again
+ready, twenty minutes being amply sufficient to expose to the fumes of
+ammonia. Very bright green or pale pink insects should be killed by some
+other process, say chloroform, as ammonia will affect their colors.
+
+  [6] This applies to the use of short pins, which should subsequently be
+  connected through strips of pith with longer pins. For some of the
+  larger micros the long pins may be used directly and a different
+  spreading board employed.
+
+Insects should be left on the setting boards a full week to dry; then
+the braces may be carefully removed and they may be transferred to the
+store box.
+
+In my own experience I have found that a touch or two of the chloroform
+brush on the pill-box containing small moths is sufficient to either
+kill or so asphyxiate them that they can easily be mounted. I have also
+found that strips of corn pith or even of soft cork, with grooves cut
+into them, are very handy for the pinning and spreading, and that by
+means of a small, broad-tipped, and pliable forceps the smallest
+specimens can be deftly arranged in the groove and kept in place until
+pinned. In fact, for all persons who have not very great experience and
+dexterity this method is perhaps more to be recommended than that of
+holding them between the thumb and fingers. Where chloroform is used
+either to kill or deaden specimens, it is important that after they are
+once spread and in the drying box they should be subjected to an
+additional asphyxiation, as the larger species may revive and are apt to
+pull away from the holding strips, and thus rub off their scales.
+
+Microlepidoptera, together with Microhymenoptera and Diptera may be
+conveniently pinned on fine, short pins, and these thrust into an oblong
+bit of cork or pith. This form of mounting has already been described
+and is represented in figure 102. The neatest mounting of
+Microlepidoptera which I have seen is the work of my assistant, Mr.
+Albert Koebele, who mounts these insects on an oblong strip of pith.
+This is very light and presents no difficulty in pinning. The strips may
+be made of considerable length and both sexes may be pinned on the same
+block (see Fig. 103). Most Lepidoptera present on the under surface an
+entirely different aspect from that on the upper surface, and, in such
+cases, it is a good plan to mount a number of specimens obversely.
+
+_Relaxing._--It will frequently be desirable to re-spread insects which
+have been incorrectly mounted, or to spread specimens which have been
+collected and stored in papers, or pinned and allowed to dry without
+being prepared for the cabinet. Such specimens may be relaxed by placing
+them in a tight tin vessel half filled with moist sand to which a little
+carbolic acid has been added to prevent molding. Small specimens will be
+sufficiently relaxed to spread in twenty-four hours. Larger specimens
+require from two to three days. More rapid relaxing may be caused by the
+use of steam, and a flat piece of cork with the specimens laid or pinned
+thereon and floated on the top of hot water in a closed vessel
+constitutes an excellent relaxing arrangement.
+
+_Inflation of the Larv� of Lepidoptera._--The larv� of Lepidoptera
+preserved in alcohol are excellent for anatomical and general study, but
+are not very suitable for use in economic displays. This means of
+preservation also has the disadvantage of not generally preserving the
+natural color and appearance of the specimens. These objections may be
+avoided, however, by the dry method of preserving larv�, viz, by blowing
+or inflation. The process may be described as follows: The larva may be
+operated upon alive, but should preferably be first killed by dipping in
+chloroform or alcohol, or in the cyanide bottle. It is then placed on a
+piece of blotting paper and the alimentary canal caused to protrude from
+one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch, by rolling a pencil over the larva
+from the head to the posterior extremity. The protruding tip is then
+severed with a sharp knife or pair of dissecting scissors, and the
+contents of the abdomen are forced out by passing a pencil, as before, a
+number of times over the larva. Great care should be exercised in
+expressing the fluids not to press the pencil too strongly against the
+larva or to continue the operation too long, as this will, especially in
+delicate larv�, remove the pigment from the skin, and the specimen when
+dried will show discolored spots and be more or less distorted. The
+larva should be moved from place to place on the blotting paper during
+the operation, so as not to become soiled by its own juices. A straw, or
+a glass tube drawn to a point at the tip, is then inserted in the
+protruding portion of the alimentary canal. If a straw is used the larva
+may be fastened to it by thrusting a pin through the wall of the canal
+and the straw. In the case of the glass tube the alimentary canal can be
+caused to adhere by drying for a few minutes and this operation may be
+hastened and the fastening made more secure by touching the point of
+union with a drop of glue. The straw or glass tube is then attached to a
+small rubber bag, previously inflated with air, the ordinary dentist's
+or chemist's gas bag answering admirably for this purpose. The larva is
+now ready for drying, and for this purpose a drying oven is required
+into which it is thrust and manipulated by turning it from side to side,
+to keep it in proper shape and dry it uniformly until the moisture has
+been thoroughly expelled. An apparatus which I have found very
+convenient for this purpose is represented at Fig. 109. It consists of a
+tin box with mica or glass slides, _e_, to allow the larva to be
+constantly in sight. It has also a hinged top, _b_, which may be kept
+closed or partly open, or entirely open, as may be necessary, during the
+operation. The ends of the box are prolonged downward about 5 inches,
+forming supports for it, _g_. Beneath it is placed an alcohol lamp, _f_,
+which furnishes the heat. In the end of the box is a circular opening,
+_d_, for the introduction of the larva, and this may be entirely or
+partly closed by a sliding door, _a_. It will be found of advantage to
+line the bottom of the box (inside) with a brass screen of very fine
+mesh to distribute and equalize the heat. This apparatus can be very
+easily made by any tinsmith and will answer every purpose.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 109.--Drying oven for the inflation of larv�
+(original).]
+
+The larv� of Microlepidoptera or young larv� may be dried without
+expressing the body contents, and will keep, to a great extent, their
+normal shape and appearance. The method consists in placing them on a
+sand bath, heated by an alcohol lamp. The vapor generated by the heat in
+the larv� inflates them and keeps the skin taut until the juices are
+entirely evaporated. They may then be glued at once to cardboard and
+pinned in the cases.
+
+In the mounting of large inflated larv� I have adopted the plan of
+supporting them on covered copper wire of a size varying with the size
+of the larva. A pin is first thrust through a square bit of cork and the
+wire brought tightly about it and wrapped once or twice, compressing the
+cork and giving a firm attachment to the pin. The wire is then neatly
+bent to form a diamond-shaped loop about one-sixth of an inch in length
+and again twisted loosely to the end--the length of the twisted portion
+about equalling that of the larva to be mounted. This is then either
+thrust into the blown skin of the larva through the anal opening, the
+larva being glued to the wire by the posterior extremity, or the larva
+is glued to the wire by the abdominal legs and venter, thus resting on
+the wire as on a twig. This style of mounting is illustrated in Pl. I.
+With a little experience the operator will soon be able to inflate the
+most delicate larv� and also the very hairy forms, as for instance
+_Orgyia leucostigma_, without the least injury, so that the natural
+colors and appearance will be preserved.
+
+Another very good method, and still safer, is to blow with straw, cut
+the straw square off at the anus, and then preserve the thoroughly dried
+and blown specimen in a glass tube of about the same length and diameter
+as the larva. This arrangement in conjunction with the tube holder,
+which will be described further on, is one of the most satisfactory for
+the preservation of inflated larv�.
+
+For the biological-display collection, larv� may be blown in various
+natural positions, to be subsequently fastened on leaf or twig or in
+burrows which they have occupied. Fastened to artificial foliage in
+which nature is imitated as much as possible, such blown larv� are quite
+effective.
+
+_Stuffing Insects._--Large larv� may sometimes be satisfactorily
+preserved for exhibition purposes by stuffing them with cotton. The
+method consists simply in making a small slit with the dissecting
+scissors or a short scalpel between the abdominal prolegs, and removing
+the body contents. Powdered arsenic or some other preservative should be
+put in the body of the larva with the cotton used in stuffing it, and
+the slit closed by a few stitches, when the larva may be dried and
+mounted on a twig or leaf. This method of stuffing with cotton is also
+applicable in the case of certain large-bodied insects which, if mounted
+and put away without preparation, would be liable to decompose, as, for
+instance, the larger moths, grasshoppers, etc. A slit can be made in the
+center of the abdomen or near the anus beneath, and the body contents
+removed and replaced with cotton. Stuffing in this way with cotton is of
+especial advantage in the case of certain of the large endophytous
+insects which grease badly. The cut will not be noticed after the insect
+has dried, or it may be closed by a stitch or two.
+
+_Dry Preservation of Aphides and other soft-bodied Insects._--Difficulty
+has always been experienced in preserving soft-bodied insects,
+particularly Aphides, in a condition serviceable for subsequent
+scientific study. Kept in alcohol or other antiseptic fluid, they almost
+invariably lose much of their normal appearance, and many of the
+important characteristics, especially of color, are obscured or lost.
+The balsam mount is also unsatisfactory in many respects, as the body is
+always more or less distorted and little can be relied upon except the
+venation and the jointed appendages. A method of preserving soft-bodied
+insects by means of the sudden application of intense heat was
+communicated to the _Entomologische Nachrichten_, Vol. IV, page 155, by
+Herr D. H. R. von Schlechtendal. It is claimed for this method that the
+Aphides and other soft-bodied insects can be satisfactorily preserved in
+form and coloring, the success of the method being vouched for by a
+number of well-known German entomologists, Kaltenbach, Giebel,
+Taschenberg, Mayr, and Rudow. A condensed translation of the method
+employed by Schlechtendal is given by J. W. Douglas in the
+_Entomologists' Monthly Magazine_ for December, 1878, which I quote:
+
+The heat is derived from the flame of a spirit or petroleum lamp. Above
+this is placed a piece of sheet-tin, and over this the roasting
+proceeds. A bulging lamp cylinder, laid horizontally, serves as a
+roasting oven. In this the insect to be dried, when prepared as
+directed, and stuck on a piece of pith, is to be held over the flame; or
+the cylinder may be closed at the lower end with a cork, which should
+extend far inwards, and on this the insect should be fastened; the
+latter mode being preferable because the heat is more concentrated, and
+one hand is left free. The mode of procedure varies according to the
+nature of the objects to be treated. For the class of larger objects,
+such as Hemiptera, Cicadina, and Orthoptera, in their young stages of
+existence, the heat must not be slight, but a little practice shows the
+proper temperature required. If the heat be insufficient, a drying up
+instead of a natural distention ensues. The insect to be roasted is to
+be pierced by a piece of silver wire on the under side of the thorax,
+but it is not to be inserted so far as to damage the upper side, and the
+wire should then be carried through a disk of pith, placed beneath the
+insect, on which the legs should be set out in the desired position. But
+with some objects, such, for instance, as a young _Strachia_, the drying
+proceeds very quickly, so that if distention be not observed then the
+heat is too great, for the expansion of the air inside will force off
+the head with a loud report; also, with softer, thicker Pentatomid� care
+must be taken to begin with a heat only so strong that the internal
+juices do not boil, for in such case the preparation would be spoiled.
+It is of advantage to remove the cylinder from time to time, and test,
+by means of a lens, if a contraction of the skin has taken place on any
+part; if so, the roasting is to be continued. The desired hardness may
+be tested with a bristle or wire. For _Aphides_ the _living Aphis_ is to
+be put on a piece of white paper, and at the moment when it is in the
+desired position it is to be held over the flame, and in an instant it
+will be dead and will retain the attitude. Then put it, still on the
+paper, into the oven; or, still better, hold it over the heated tin,
+carefully watching the drying and moving the paper about in order to
+prevent it getting singed. The roasting is quickly accomplished in
+either way, but somewhat slower out of the oven especially in the larger
+kinds, such as Lachnus. If the paper turn brown it is a sure sign that
+caution is requisite. To pierce these brittle preparations for
+preservation is hazardous, and it is a better way to mount them with gum
+on card, placing some examples on their back.
+
+For Cecidomyid�, Agromyzid�, Cynipid�, and other small insects liable to
+shrink, yet containing but little moisture, such as Podurid�,
+Pediculid�, Psyllid�, etc., another method is adopted. Over the insect,
+mounted on a wire, etc., as above directed, a thin chemical reagent
+glass or glass rod, heated strongly at one end, is held, and the heat
+involved is generally sufficient to bring about the immediate drying and
+distention, but if the heat be too little the process must be repeated;
+and, although by this method the danger of burning is not obviated, yet
+the position of the legs is maintained much better than by the aforesaid
+roasting.
+
+Larv� of all kinds, up to the size of that of _Astynomus �dilis_, even
+when they have long been kept in spirits, may be treated successfully by
+the roasting method; but with these objects care must be taken that the
+heat is not too strong or else the form will be distorted. For small
+larv� it is preferable to use a short glass, in order better to effect
+their removal without touching the upper part, which becomes covered
+with steam, and contact with which would cause the destruction of the
+preparation. Larv� of Coleoptera, which contain much moisture or have a
+mucous surface, must lie on a bed of paper or pith in order to prevent
+adhesion and burning, and these may be further avoided if the cylinder
+be slightly shaken during the process, and the position of the object be
+thereby changed.
+
+Many Aphides and Coccids are covered with a waxy secretion which
+interferes very materially with their easy examination. Mr. Howard has
+overcome this difficulty by the following treatment:
+
+"With Aphides and Coccids which are covered with an abundant waxy
+secretion which can not be readily brushed away, we have adopted the
+plan of melting the wax. We place the insect on a bit of platinum foil
+and pass it once over the flame of the alcohol lamp. The wax melts at a
+surprisingly low temperature and leaves the insect perfectly clean for
+study. This method is particularly of use in the removal of the waxy
+cocoon of the pup� of male Coccid�, and is quicker and more thorough
+than the use of any of the chemical wax solvents which we have tried."
+(_Insect Life_, I, p. 152.)
+
+_Mounting Specimens for the Microscope._--The study of the minuter forms
+of insect life, including Parasites, Thysanura, Mallophaga, the newly
+hatched of most insects, etc., requires the use of the microscope, and
+some little knowledge of the essentials of preparing and mounting
+specimens is needed. The subject of mounting the different organs of
+insects and the preparation for histological study of the soft parts of
+insects opens up the immense field of microscopy, the use of the
+innumerable mounting media, the special treatment of the objects to be
+mounted, staining, section-cutting, and many other like topics, a full
+description of which is altogether out of place in the present work.
+Anyone desiring to become thoroughly versed in the subject should
+consult some of the larger manuals for the microscopist, of which there
+are many. For the practical working entomologist, however, a knowledge
+of all these methods and processes is not essential, and in my long
+experience I have found that mounting in Canada balsam will answer for
+almost every purpose. The softer-bodied forms will shrink more or less
+in this substance, and it is frequently necessary to make studies or
+drawings of them when freshly mounted; or, if additional specimens are
+preserved in alcohol, they will supplement the mounted specimens and the
+material may be worked up at the convenience of the student. The
+materials for the balsam mounts may be obtained of any dealer in
+microscopical supplies. They consist of glass slides, 3 inches by 1
+inch, thin cover-glasses of different dimensions, and the prepared
+balsam. The balsam is put up very conveniently for use in tin tubes. A
+sufficient quantity is pressed out on the center of the glass slide,
+which has previously been made thoroughly clean and dry, the insect is
+removed from the alcohol, and when the excess of liquor has been removed
+with bibulous paper, it is placed in the balsam, the limbs and antenn�
+being arranged as desired by the use of fine mounting-needles. A
+cover-glass, also made thoroughly clean and dry, is then placed over the
+specimen and pressed gently until the balsam entirely fills the space
+between the cover and the glass slide. The slide should then be properly
+labeled with a number referring to the notes on the insect, preferably
+placed on the upper edge of the slide above the cover-glass, and also a
+label giving the number of the slide and the number of the slide box. On
+the opposite end of the slide may be placed the label giving the name of
+the specimen mounted and the date. If a revolving slide table is
+employed to center the mounts, the appearance of the slide may be
+improved by adding a circle of asphalt or Brunswick black. With the
+balsam mounts, however, this sealing is not necessary. The slide (Fig.
+110) should then be placed in a slide case with the mount uppermost, and
+should be kept in a horizontal position to prevent sliding of the
+cover-glass and specimen until the balsam is thoroughly dried. For
+storing slides I have found very convenient the box shown at Fig. 111.
+It is constructed of strong pasteboard and is arranged for holding
+twenty-six slides. The cover bears numbers from 1 to 26, opposite which
+the name of each insect mounted, or the label on the slide, may be
+written. This box when not in use is kept in a pasteboard case, on which
+may be placed the number of the box. These slide cases may be stored in
+drawers or on shelves made for the purpose. In mounting specimens taken
+from alcohol it is advisable to put a drop of oil of cloves upon them,
+which unites with the balsam and ultimately evaporates. The occurrence
+of minute air bubbles under the cover-glass need occasion no uneasiness,
+for these will disappear on the drying of the balsam.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 110.--Balsam mount, showing method of labeling, etc.
+(original).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 111.--Slide case, showing method of labeling case
+and of numbering and labeling slides (original).]
+
+In mounting minute Acarids or mites it has been found best to kill the
+insects in hot water, which causes them to expand their legs, so that
+when mounted these appendages can readily be studied. If mounted living,
+the legs are almost invariably curled up under the body and can not be
+seen. This method may also be used in the case of other minute insects.
+Some insects, such as minute Diptera, are injured by the use of hot
+water, and for these dipping in hot spirits is recommended.
+
+In the mounting of Aphides the same difficulty is avoided in a measure
+by Mr. G. B. Buckton, author of "A Monograph of the British Aphides," by
+first placing a few dots of balsam on the glass slide, to which the
+insect is transferred by means of a moistened camel's-hair brush. The
+efforts of the insect to escape will cause it to spread out its legs in
+a natural position and a cover glass may then be placed in position and
+a drop of the balsam placed at the side, when, by capillarity, it will
+fill the space between the slide and cover glass and the limbs will be
+found to have remained extended. If three or four drops of the balsam
+are put on the glass the wings may also be brought down and caught to
+them so that they will remain expanded in shape for examination.
+
+_Preparing and Mounting the Wings of Lepidoptera._--The student of
+Lepidoptera will frequently find it necessary in the study of the
+venation of wings to bleach them or denude them of their scales in some
+way. Various methods of bleaching and mounting the wings of these
+insects have been given, and a few of them may be briefly outlined.
+
+The simplest and quickest, but perhaps the least satisfactory, method is
+to remove the scales with a camel's-hair brush. This will answer for the
+larger forms and where a very careful examination is not required. For
+more careful examination and study the wings are first bleached by the
+action of some caustic solution and then mounted in balsam for permanent
+preservation. Chambers's method for Tineina, Tortricina, Pyralidina, and
+the smaller moths generally, is as follows: The wing is placed on a
+microscopic slide in from 3 to 4 drops of a strong solution of potash,
+the amount varying according to the size of the wing. A cover of glass
+is then placed in position on the wing as in ordinary mounting.
+
+The quantity of liquid should be sufficient to fill the space beneath,
+but not sufficient to float the cover glass. The mount is then placed
+over an alcohol flame, removing it at the first sign of ebullition, when
+the wing will be found denuded, if it be a fresh specimen. An old
+specimen, or a larger wing, will require somewhat more prolonged
+boiling. The fluid is drawn off by tilting the glass or with bibulous
+paper, and the potash removed by washing with a few drops of water. The
+cover glass is then removed and the wing mounted either on the same
+slide in balsam or floated to another slide, or at once accurately
+sketched with the camera lucida. Permanent mounting, however, is always
+to be recommended.
+
+The Dimmock method of bleaching the wings of Lepidoptera, given in
+Psyche, Vol. I, pp. 97-99, is as follows: He uses for bleaching a
+modification of the chlorine bleaching process commonly employed in
+cotton bleacheries, the material for which is sold by druggists as
+chlorate of lime. The wings are first soaked in pure alcohol to dissolve
+out the oily matter, which will act as a repellant to the aqueous
+chlorine solution. The chlorate of lime is dissolved in 10 parts of
+water and filtered. The wings are transferred to a small quantity of
+this solution and in an hour or two are thoroughly bleached, the veins,
+however, retaining a light brown color. If the bleaching does not
+commence readily in the chlorine solution the action may be hastened by
+previously dipping them in dilute hydrochloric acid. When sufficiently
+decolorized the wings should be washed in dilute hydrochloric acid to
+remove the deposit of calcic carbonate, which forms by the union of the
+calcic hydrate solution with the carbonic dioxide of the air. The wings
+are then thoroughly washed in pure water and may be gummed to cards or
+mounted on glass slides in Canada balsam, first washing them in alcohol
+and chloroform to remove the moisture. If either of the solutions known
+as _eau de labaraque_ and _eau de javelle_ are used in place of the
+bleaching powder, no deposit is left on the wings and the washing with
+acid is obviated. This process does not dissolve or remove the scales,
+but merely renders them transparent, so that they do not interfere with
+the study of the venation.
+
+Prof. C. H. Fernald (_American Monthly Microscopical Journal_, I, p.
+172, 1880), mounts the wings of Lepidoptera in glycerin, after having
+first cleared them by the Dimmock process. After bleaching and washing,
+the wings are dried by holding the slides over an alcohol flame, and a
+drop of glycerin is then applied and a cover glass put on at once. By
+holding the slide again over the flame until ebullition takes place the
+glycerin will replace the air under the wings and no injury to the
+structure of the wings will result, even if, in refractory cases, the
+wing is boiled for some little time. The mount in this method must be
+sealed with some microscopic cement, as asphalt or Brunswick black.
+
+A method of mounting wings of small Lepidoptera for studying venation,
+which I have found very convenient, is thus described by Mr. Howard in
+_Insect Life_, Vol. I, p. 151:
+
+"Some years ago we used the following method for studying the venation
+of the wings of small Lepidoptera. We have told it since to many
+friends, but believe it has not been published. It is in some respects
+preferable to the so-called 'Dimmock process,' and particularly as a
+time-saver. It is also in this respect preferable to denudation with a
+brush. The wing is removed and mounted upon a slide in Canada balsam,
+which should be preferably rather thick. The slide is then held over the
+flame of an alcohol lamp until the balsam spreads well over the wing.
+Just as it is about to enter the veins, however, the slide is placed
+upon ice, or, if in the winter time, outside the window for a few
+moments. This thickens the balsam immediately and prevents it from
+entering the veins, which remain permanently filled with air and appear
+black with transmitted light. With a little practice one soon becomes
+expert enough to remove the slide and cool it at just the right time,
+when the scales will have been rendered nearly transparent by the
+balsam, while the veins remain filled with air. We have done this
+satisfactorily not only with Tortricid� and Tineid�, but with Noctuids
+of the size of _Aletia_ and _Leucania_. The mounts are permanent, and we
+have some which have remained unchanged since 1880. Prof. Riley had for
+some years before this been in the habit of mounting wings in balsam, in
+which of course the scales cleared after a time."
+
+Prof. John B. Smith recommends a modification of the Dimmock process of
+bleaching the wings of Lepidoptera, publishing it in Insect Life, Vol.
+I, pp. 291, 292, as follows:
+
+"By the Dimmock process the wings are first acted upon by a saturated
+solution of the chloride of lime, chlorine being, of course, the
+bleaching agent. Afterward they are washed in water to which
+hydrochloric acid has been added, to get rid of the slight deposit of
+lime. The process is a slow one for thickly scaled, dark-colored
+insects, and it occurred to me to try a mixture of the chloride and
+acid, liberating the chlorine gas. The method was absolutely successful,
+the wings decolorizing immediately and being ready for the slide within
+two minutes. In fact, very delicate wings can scarcely be taken out
+quick enough, and need very little acid. The advantage is the rapidity
+of work and the certainty of retaining the wings entire, the chloride of
+lime sometimes destroying the membrane in part before the bleaching is
+complete. The disadvantage is the vile smell of the chlorine gas when
+liberated by the combination of the two liquids. For quick work this
+must be endured, and the beauty and completeness of the result are also
+advantages to counterbalance the discomfort to the senses."
+
+For further special directions for mounting, for microscopic purposes,
+different insects and the different parts of insects, representing both
+the external chitinous covering and the internal anatomy, the student is
+referred to special works.
+
+
+                   PRESERVATION OF ALCOHOLIC SPECIMENS.
+
+APPARATUS AND METHODS.--The collections of most value, especially to our
+various agricultural colleges and experiment stations will be largely of
+a biologic and economic character, and the interest attaching to a
+knowledge of the life history of insects will induce many collectors to
+build up independent biologic collections. Very much of this biological
+material will be alcoholic, and though many immature states of insects
+may be preserved by dry processes, still the bulk must needs be kept in
+liquid. This material may, when not abundant, be kept with the general
+systematic collection, but experience has shown that it is better to
+make a separate biological collection, and this is recommended
+especially for State institutions where the collections may be expected
+to attain some considerable proportions. In the case of such collections
+it is very desirable to adopt some method of securing the vials in such
+a manner that they can easily be transferred from one place to another
+and fastened in the boxes or drawers employed for pinned insects. For
+directions in this regard I reproduce from an article on the subject in
+_Insect Life_, Vol. II, pp. 345, 346, which was republished, with slight
+changes, from my annual report for 1886 as Honorary Curator.[7]
+
+  [7] Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1886, Part II,
+  Report of the National Museum, pp. 182-186. Washington, 1890.
+
+_Vials, Stoppers and Holders._--The vials in use to preserve such
+specimens as must be left in alcohol or other liquids are straight glass
+tubes of varying diameters and lengths, with round bottom and smooth
+even mouth. The stoppers in use are of rubber, which, when tightly put
+into the vial, the air being nearly all expelled, keep the contents of
+the vial intact and safe for years.
+
+Various forms of bottles are used in museums for the preservation of
+minute alcoholic material. I have tried the flattened and the square and
+have studied various other forms of these vials; but I am satisfied that
+those just described, which are in use by Dr. Hagen in the Cambridge
+Museum, are, all things considered, the most convenient and economical.
+A more difficult problem to solve was a convenient and satisfactory
+method of holding these vials and of fastening them into drawers or
+cases held at all angles, from perpendicular to horizontal. Most
+alcoholic collections are simply kept standing, either in tubes with
+broad bases or in tubes held in wooden or other receptacles; but for a
+biologic collection of insects something that could be used in
+connection with the pinned specimens and that could be easily removed,
+as above set forth, was desirable. After trying many different
+contrivances I finally prepared a block, with Mr. Hawley's assistance,
+which answers every purpose of simplicity, neatness, security, and
+convenience. It is, so far as I know, unique, and will be of advantage
+for the same purpose to other museums. It has been in use now for the
+past six years, and has been of great help and satisfaction in the
+arrangement and preservation of the alcoholic specimens, surpassing all
+other methods for ease of handling and classifying.
+
+The blocks are oblong, one-fourth of an inch thick, the ends (_c c_,
+Fig. 112) beveled, the sides either beveled or straight, the latter
+preferable. They vary in length and breadth according to the different
+sizes of the vials, and are painted white. Upon the upper side of these
+blocks are fastened two curved clamps of music wire (_b b_), forming
+about two-thirds of a complete circle. The fastening to the block is
+simple and secure. A bit of the wire of proper length is first doubled
+and then by a special contrivance the two ends are bent around a mandrel
+so as to form an insertion point or loop. A brad awl is used to make a
+slot in the block, into which this loop is forced (_e_, Fig. 112, 5), a
+drop of warm water being first put into the slot to soften the wood,
+which swells and closes so firmly around the wire that considerable
+force is required to pull it out. Four pointed wire nails (_d d d d_),
+set into the bottom so as to project about one-fourth inch, serve to
+hold the block to the cork bottom of the case or drawer in which it is
+to be placed. The method of use is simple and readily seen from the
+accompanying figures, which represent the block from all sides.
+
+The advantages of this system are the ease and security with which the
+block can be placed in or removed from a box; the ease with which a vial
+can be slipped into or removed from the wire clamps; the security with
+which it is held, and the fact that practically no part of the contents
+of the vial is obscured by the holder--the whole being visible from
+above.
+
+The beveled ends of the block may be used for labeling, or pieces of
+clean cardboard cut so as to project somewhat on all sides may be used
+for this purpose, and will be held secure by the pins between the block
+and the cork of the drawers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 112.--Vial holder; 1, block, with vial, beveled on
+all sides; 2, do., beveled only on ends; 3, block, end view; 5, do.,
+section; 4, 6, do., side views; _a_, block; _b_, spring-wire clamps;
+_c_, beveled ends of block; _d_, pointed wire nails; _e_, point of
+insertion of clamp. (Lettering on all figures corresponds.)]
+
+The use of rubber stoppers in this country was first instituted by Dr.
+H. A. Hagen in connection with the Cambridge biological collection, and
+he has made some very careful records to determine the durability of
+such stoppers. From an examination of some seven thousand vials with
+rubber stoppers, two-thirds of which had been in use for from ten to
+twelve years, he comes to the conclusion that less than one in a
+thousand gives out every year after twelve years' use, and in the first
+six years probably only one out of two thousand. Stoppers of large size
+keep much longer than those of small size. American rubber stoppers are
+all made of vulcanized India rubber and have the disadvantage of forming
+small crystals of sulphur about the stopper, which become loosened and
+attach themselves to the specimens. It is supposed that pure
+rubber-stoppers used for chemical purposes would not present this
+disadvantage, which may be obviated, however, or very much reduced, if
+the stoppers are washed or soaked, preferably in hot water, for an hour
+or two at least.
+
+If stoppers are stored for a considerable time and exposed to the air
+they become very hard and unfit for use, and Dr. Hagen has drawn
+attention to a method recommended by Professor W. Hemple, of Dresden,
+Saxony, of preventing them from becoming thus hardened. He says that to
+keep rubber stoppers or rubber apparatus of any sort elastic, they
+should be stored in large glass jars in which an open vessel containing
+petroleum is placed. This treatment prevents the evaporation of the
+fluids which are fixed in the rubber in the process of vulcanization. It
+is better also to keep the light from the jar. To soften stoppers which
+have already become hardened, they should be brought together in a jar
+with sulphuret of carbon until they are pliable and afterward kept as
+recommended above.
+
+In the use of the rubber stopper the novice may find some difficulty in
+inserting it in a vial filled with alcohol. The compression of the
+alcohol, or alcohol and air when the vial is not completely filled,
+forces the stopper out, and this is true whether of rubber or cork. If a
+fine insect pin is placed beside the cork when this is thrust into the
+bottle, the air or liquid displaced by the cork will escape along the
+pin and the latter may then be removed and the cork remains securely in
+position.
+
+If cork stoppers have been used the vials may be stored in large
+quantities together in jars filled with alcohol. This will prevent
+evaporation of the alcohol from the vials, and the specimens may be
+preserved indefinitely. This is only desirable in the storage of
+duplicate specimens and unarranged material and is not recommended as a
+substitute for the use of the rubber stopper. With cork stoppers
+evaporation can be in a measure prevented if the cork is first anointed
+with the petroleum preparation known as vaseline. This substance is
+practically unaffected at ordinary temperature and is sparingly soluble
+in cold alcohol. Experiments with it have shown that at ordinary spring
+and summer temperatures there is no appreciable loss of alcohol from
+vials and jars.
+
+My old method of keeping alcoholic specimens, which I abandoned for the
+method outlined above, was fairly serviceable, inexpensive, and warrants
+description.
+
+I had special folding boxes constructed resembling in exterior
+appearance a large insect box. The bottom of the box was solid and was
+made by gluing together two 1�-inch planks.
+
+Holes extending nearly through the lower plank and of various sizes to
+accommodate vials of different diameters were bored as closely together
+as the wood justified without splitting or breaking.
+
+The holes were numbered consecutively and the vials when placed in them
+were numbered to correspond; the box also had its number, and in the
+notes the vial was referred to by number of box and vial thus, 3/73 (box
+3, vial 73). The vial should project one-half to 1 inch above the hole,
+and should be loose enough to provide for the swelling of the wood in
+moist weather.
+
+To protect the vials a cover having a depth of about 1� inch was hinged
+to the back and secured in front by hook-and-eye fastenings.
+
+This method of storing vials is satisfactory enough for private
+collections, but for larger public collections is not so suitable.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 113.--The Marx tray for alcoholic specimens
+(original.)]
+
+A rather convenient and inexpensive method of storing vials is that used
+by Dr. Marx. In this method the vials are stored in a wooden frame,
+shown at Fig. 113. The top piece of the tray into which the vials are
+thrust has a cork center, in which holes corresponding to the size of
+the vials are made with a gun-wad punch. The outer end of the tray bears
+a label or labels describing the material in the tray. The vials used by
+Dr. Marx are of thinner glass than those which I recommend and flare
+slightly at the top, as shown in the accompanying illustrations. They
+are made in various sizes to accommodate larger and smaller specimens. A
+vial thrust into the hole punched in the cork rests on the bottom piece
+of the tray, the flange or neck preventing it from sliding through.
+These trays are arranged on shallow shelves in a case or cabinet,
+especially constructed for the purpose and a large quantity of material
+may be stored by their use in small compass. The use of the cork center
+piece in the upper part of the tray is not a necessity, and a wooden
+piece may be used in which holes are bored with a bit of proper size.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 114.--Vials used in the Marx tray (original.)]
+
+_Preserving Micro-larv� in Alcohol._--The following is quoted from
+Packard's "Entomology for Beginners," for which it was translated from
+the "_Deutsche Ent. Zeitg._," 1887, Heft I:
+
+"Dr. H. Dewitz mounts the larv� and pup� of Microlepidoptera, and also
+the early stages of other small insects, in the following way: The
+insects are put into a bottle with 95 per cent alcohol. Many larv� turn
+black in alcohol, but boiling them in alcohol in a test tube will bleach
+them. They may then be finally placed in glass tubes as small and thin
+as possible, varying from 0.003 to 0.006 meter in diameter, according
+to the size of the insects. About 0.07 meter's length of a tube is
+melted over a spirit lamp, and the tube filled three-quarters full with
+95 per cent alcohol, the insects placed within and the contents of the
+tube heated at the end still open, and then closed by being pulled out
+with another piece of glass tubing. After the glass has been held a few
+minutes in the hand until it is slightly cooled off, the end closed last
+is once more held over the lamp so that the points may be melted
+together, and this end of the glass may be finished. During the whole
+time from the closure of the tube until the complete cooling of the
+glass it should be held obliquely in the hand, so that the alcohol may
+not wet the upper end, for if the tube is too full it is difficult to
+melt it, as the steam quickly expanding breaks through the softened mass
+of glass. The tube may be mounted by boring a hole through a cork
+stopper of the same diameter as the glass. The stopper is cut into the
+shape of a cube, a strong insect pin put through it, and the glass tube
+inserted into the hole. It can then be pinned in the insect box or
+drawer, near the imago, so that the free end of the glass may touch the
+bottom, while the other end stands up somewhat; while to keep the tube
+in place the free end resting on the bottom may be fastened with two
+strong insect pins. The specimens thus put up can easily be examined
+with a lens, and if they need to be taken out for closer examination the
+tube can be opened and closed again after a little practice."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 115.--Method of preserving minute larv� etc. (After
+Dewitz.)]
+
+PRESERVATIVE FLUIDS.--The principal liquids in which soft-bodied insects
+may be successfully preserved are the following:
+
+_Alcohol._--As indicated in the foregoing portions of this work, alcohol
+is the standard preservative used for soft-bodied specimens, and may be
+used either full strength or diluted with water. Diluted alcohol should
+always be first used with larv�, since the pure alcohol shrivels them
+up. The weak spirits can afterwards be replaced by strong, for permanent
+preservation.
+
+_Alcohol and White Arsenic._--The method of preserving insects
+recommended by Laboulb�ne and quoted in Packard's Entomology for
+Beginners, consists in plunging the insects in the fresh state into a
+preservative liquid, consisting of alcohol with an excess of the common
+white arsenic of commerce. The larva placed in this mixture absorbs .003
+of its own weight, and when removed and pinned is safe from the attacks
+of museum pests. This liquid is said not to change the colors, blue,
+green or red of beetles, if they are not immersed for more than
+twenty-four hours. This treatment is applicable to the orders
+Coleoptera, Hemiptera, and Orthoptera. If the insect is allowed to stay
+in this mixture for a considerable time, say three or four weeks, and
+then removed and dried, it becomes very hard and brittle and can not be
+used for dissection or study, but makes a good cabinet specimen. The
+white deposit of arsenic which will appear on drying can be washed off
+with alcohol.
+
+_Alcohol and Corrosive Sublimate._--The same author recommends another
+preparation consisting of alcohol with a variable quantity of corrosive
+sublimate added, the strength of the solution varying from 100 parts of
+alcohol to 1 part of corrosive sublimate for the strongest, to one-tenth
+of 1 part of sublimate in 100 parts of alcohol for the weakest. The
+insects are allowed to remain in this mixture not longer than two hours
+before drying. The last-described preparation is said to preserve the
+specimens from mold. Both of these solutions are very poisonous and
+should be used with care.
+
+_Two Liquids to preserve Form and Color._--Professor Packard also quotes
+the formula of A. E. Verrill for preserving insects in their natural
+color and form. Two formulas are given; the first consists of 2� pounds
+of common salt and 4 ounces of niter dissolved in a gallon of water and
+filtered. The specimens should be prepared for permanent preservation in
+this solution by being previously immersed in a solution consisting of a
+quart of the first solution and 2 ounces of arsenite of potash in a
+gallon of water. Professor Packard gives also the formula of M. H. Trois
+for preserving caterpillars, for which it is claimed that the colors of
+the caterpillars are preserved perfectly, even when exposed to strong
+light. The formula for this solution is as follows:
+
+                 Common salt                  grams   2.35
+                 Alum                           do.  55
+                 Corrosive sublimate     centigrams  18
+                 Boiling water               liters   5
+
+Allow the liquid to cool and add 50 grains of carbolic acid, and filter
+after standing five or six days.
+
+_Glycerin._--Glycerin, either pure or mixed with water or alcohol, is
+frequently used to preserve the larv� of delicate insects. It preserves
+the color and form better than alcohol, but particularly in the case of
+larv�, it causes a softening of the tissues which renders them unfit for
+study.
+
+_The Wickersheim Preserving Fluid._--This valuable preserving fluid has
+been known for some time, but is not very commonly used, on account of
+frequent disappointment due to the difficulty attending its preparation.
+It is claimed for it that animal or vegetable bodies impregnated with it
+will retain their form, color, and flexibility in the most perfect
+manner. The objects to be preserved are put in the fluid for from six to
+twelve days, according to their size, and then taken out and dried in
+the air. The ligaments remain soft and movable, and the animals or
+plants remain fit for anatomical dissection and study for long periods,
+even years. It is said to be especially valuable for the preservation of
+larv� and soft-bodied insects. In order to perfectly preserve the
+colors, it is necessary to leave the specimens in the fluid, or, if they
+are taken out, they should be sealed up in air-tight vials or vessels.
+The formula for the fluid is as follows:
+
+Dissolve 100 grams alum, 25 grams common salt, 12 grams saltpeter, 60
+grams potash, 10 grams arsenious acid in 3,000 grams boiling water.
+Filter the solution, and when cold add 10 liters of the liquid to 4
+liters of glycerin and 1 liter of methyl alcohol.
+
+
+                            LABELING SPECIMENS.
+
+_General Directions._--It matters little how much care and pains have
+been taken in the preparation and mounting of specimens, they will have
+little value unless accompanied by proper labels giving information as
+to locality and date of collection, name of collector, and a label or
+number referring to notebooks, if any biological or other facts
+concerning them have been ascertained. There should be pinned to the
+specimen labels referring to, or giving all the information obtainable
+or of interest concerning it. A somewhat different style of label will
+be found necessary in the case of the two forms of collections described
+in the foregoing pages, namely, the biological or economic collection,
+and the systematic collection. For the former, numbers may be attached
+to the specimens which will refer to the notes relating to the specimen
+or species. For the latter, in most cases, all necessary information may
+be recorded and made available by written or printed labels attached
+directly to the specimens. In most cases, however, I find a combination
+of these two systems convenient and desirable. The numbering system is
+very simple, and is the one which I have followed in all the species for
+which I have biological or other notes. It consists in giving each
+species, as it comes under observation, a serial number which refers to
+a record in a notebook. With this number may be combined, if convenient,
+the date of rearing or collection of the specimen, and also the locality
+and food-plant if known. The vast number of species represented in a
+systematic collection renders the numbering system entirely out of place
+and inadequate, and the labeling system alone is generally available. If
+it becomes necessary in the systematic collection to refer to
+food-plants or life-history or any other fact of interest, the numbering
+system should be used, and I recommend that the numbers be written in
+red ink on the labels, to distinguish at a glance the numbers referring
+to biological notes from other numbers that will occur in the
+collection.
+
+_Labels for pinned Specimens._--The following labels should be employed
+in the collection: (1) _Locality label_, which should be as explicit as
+possible. (2) _Date of capture_, which is very useful and sometimes
+quite important in various ways. It indicates at what time additional
+specimens of some rare species may be secured, and greatly assists in
+elaborating the life history of the species, and in other cases assists
+in the correct determination of closely allied insects, which differ
+chiefly in habit or date of appearance. (3) _A label to indicate the
+sex_. This label has recently acquired greater importance than formerly,
+on account of the value of the sexual differences in the distinction of
+species. The well-known signs for male, female, and worker, printed in
+convenient form, are well adapted for collections. (4) _The name of the
+collector_. This label is of less value, but sometimes becomes important
+in determining the history of the specimen or the exact place of
+capture. The name of the species is not necessarily attached to all the
+specimens in a collection, and ordinarily will be placed with the first
+specimen in a series in the cabinet. This and other labeling of insects
+in cabinet is discussed in another place. Other labels are useful to
+indicate type specimens, namely, those of which descriptions have been
+drawn up and published, and which should be designated by a special
+label written by the author himself. Determinations by an authority in a
+special group should be indicated, and the labels placed on specimens by
+such an authority should not be removed.
+
+It will not be found necessary to use a separate label for each of the
+data indicated above, and a single label may be made to combine many of
+them, as, except for the specific names of the insects themselves (which
+should always be on the lowermost label), most other words will bear
+abbreviation, especially localities and dates. "A combination label,
+which has given general satisfaction to all to whom it has been
+communicated, is a two-line label printed in diamond type, on heavy
+writing paper. The upper line consists of the name of the locality, _e.
+g._, 'Washngtn' (a name consisting of more than eight letters to be
+abbreviated), and the lower line has at the right-hand corner 'DC'
+(interpunctuation and spacing to be avoided so as to save space). This
+leaves on the second line sufficient room for inserting the date, which
+can be quickly and neatly written with ink if the labels are printed in
+columns of ten or more repetitions. The label thus combines locality
+with date of capture. Or the upper line reads 'Arizona' and the lower
+line 'Morrison,' the label thus combining locality with the name of the
+collector."[8]
+
+  [8] E. A. Schwarz, Proc. Ent. Soc., Wash., II, No. 1, 1891.
+
+In general I indorse the system of labeling suggested in the above
+condensation from Mr. Schwarz, but there is no particular disadvantage,
+and in fact many advantages, in special cases, in a larger label or in
+folded labels. Particularly in visiting large foreign collections I have
+found it convenient to use large labels of thin paper which will contain
+a good deal of information closely written in pencil and bear folding
+several times, so as not to occupy more than the ordinary label space
+when pinned to the specimens. This involves detaching the label when the
+specimen or species comes to be studied, but this additional labor is
+insignificant compared with the large amount of valuable information
+which in time is thus brought together in condensed availability for the
+student; for brief notes of opinions of experts, of comparison with
+types, of special studies, of reference to descriptions, etc., may thus
+be all brought together. Where there is not room to indicate the
+authority for a determination on the upper side of a label, I also find
+it convenient to do so on the lower side.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 116.--Cabinet for apparatus used in mounting and
+labeling. (Original).]
+
+_Labeling alcoholic Specimens._--Alcoholic specimens, including
+alcoholic biologic material and collections of Arachnida and Myriapoda,
+are well adapted to the labeling system, as the vials are always of
+sufficient size to allow the insertion of one or more labels large
+enough to contain a pretty full record of the specimen. The label may
+consist of a number referring to notes, or of a number together with the
+other data indicated for the systematic collection. The label in my
+experience is preferably written in pencil, which, in alcohol, is
+practically permanent. Waterproof inks are sometimes used, and of these
+the oak-gall ink is undoubtedly the best. Dr. George Marx, in labeling
+his Arachnida, uses onion-skin paper and waterproof ink, such as
+Higgins's drawing ink. There is some danger, in placing a label in a
+vial, of its settling against the specimen and injuring it. This,
+however, can generally be avoided if a little care is used. The label
+may be long and narrow and folded lengthwise so as to occupy one side
+only of the vial, or short and inserted in such manner that it will pass
+around the inside of the vial, where it will be held by the natural
+adhesion to the glass in the upper portion of the vial, as shown at Fig.
+114.
+
+_Cabinet for Apparatus._--The work of preparation of insects for the
+cabinet may be greatly facilitated if a convenient case is provided with
+drawers and compartments for the keeping of pins of different sizes,
+labels, braces, implements, tweezers, dissecting apparatus, and the
+like, with microscopical supplies--slides, cover glasses, mounting
+media, etc. I present a photograph of a cabinet of this sort used in my
+earlier work and found very convenient and serviceable (Fig. 116).
+
+
+
+
+                        INSECT BOXES AND CABINETS.
+
+
+_General Directions._--The boxes or cases which are used to keep insects
+in permanently may be made of any dimensions to suit the fancy, 12 by 16
+inches inside being a convenient size and allowing economic use of cork.
+They must, however, be perfectly tight and should not be more than 2�
+inches deep on the inside. The bottoms should be lined with something
+which will hold the pins, and the whole inside covered with white paper,
+which, if delicately cross ruled, will facilitate the regular pinning of
+specimens. While the size and style of the box and cabinet may be left
+to individual taste, some choice must be had of material. _Red cedar
+should never be used._ I have learned, to my sorrow, the baneful effects
+of this wood, notwithstanding it is recommended--evidently by those who
+are guiltless of having used it--as having the advantage over other wood
+of keeping off museum pests. It seems impossible to get this wood so
+seasoned but that a certain amount of resin will continually exude from
+it; and insects in boxes of this material are very apt to soften and
+become greasy. Paper boxes are also bad, as they attract moisture and
+cause the specimens to mold. Well-seasoned pine and whitewood are the
+most satisfactory; and, in such boxes as have glass covers and are
+intended to form part of a neat cabinet for parlor ornament, the fronts
+may be of walnut or cherry.
+
+The character of the boxes and cabinets used for storing insects will
+depend largely on the nature and extent of the collection and the object
+of the collector. For temporary use, nothing is more convenient and
+economical than a cigar box lined with cork or pith. Such boxes,
+however, should be employed only for the temporary storage of fresh
+specimens, as they afford free access to museum pests, and insects kept
+in them for any length of time are apt to be destroyed or rendered
+useless.
+
+_The Folding-box._--The use of folding-boxes for the working collector
+is to be especially recommended in the case of those orders comprising
+small insects like Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, etc. These boxes have the
+great advantage of being readily rearranged on the shelves and of being
+very easily used in study. The boxes of this type now manufactured by
+John Schmidt, of Brooklyn, N. Y., and John Burr, of Camden, N. J., based
+on the experience which I have had, have proved so serviceable and
+satisfactory in this respect that I have employed them for the bulk of
+the collection in the National Museum. These boxes (Fig. 117) are
+constructed as follows:
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 117.--The Schmidt folding insect box, opened and
+showing arrangement of insects (original).]
+
+They are of white pine, shellacked and varnished, the bottom and top
+double and crossgrained, to prevent warping, and projecting slightly at
+all sides except the hinged back. They are 13 by 8� inches outside
+measurement. The inside measurement is 11� by 7. The sides, back, and
+front are five-sixteenths of an inch thick, with a machine joint, which
+is neat and very secure. The boxes are 2 5/8 inches in outside depth,
+unequally divided, the lower portion 1� inches outside depth, lined
+inside with a thin whitewood strip, projecting three-fourths of an inch
+above the rim of the outside box. Over this projecting lining the lid
+closes as tightly as practicable and is kept from springing by hooks and
+eyes. The bottom is cork-lined and covered with a fine, white, glazed
+paper.
+
+Similar folding boxes with both sides of equal depth and both lined with
+cork, when properly covered, may be made to look like books and be set
+on end in an ordinary bookcase, but the single lining is preferable, as
+there is less danger of the breakage of specimens and the boxes may
+either be laid flat one on the other on shelves, or, what is more
+convenient, placed side by side resting on the front edge, so that the
+label is attached to one of the narrow ends. The rows of insects are
+then pinned crosswise, not lengthwise, of the box, with the abdomens
+turned toward the front which rests on the shelf.
+
+All the boxes are furnished with neat brass label-holders, in which a
+card containing a list of the contents can readily be placed and removed
+at pleasure. The chief demerit of this box which I have endeavored to
+overcome by the above details is the tendency to warp and crack in the
+trying steam heat of our Government buildings.
+
+_The Cabinet._--For larger insects, such as Lepidoptera, Neuroptera,
+etc., a larger box is desirable, and for these orders I have adopted for
+use in the National Museum a cabinet which resulted from a careful study
+in person of the different forms and patterns used for entomological
+collections both in this country and Europe, whether by private
+individuals or public institutions. The drawer and cabinet are
+essentially after the pattern of those used in the British (South
+Kensington) Museum, but adapted in size to our own requirements. In the
+use of the National Museum these cabinets have proved eminently well
+adapted to their object.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 118.--Construction of insect cabinet drawer of the
+National Museum. A, cross-section _f_ front; B, same _f_ side; C, view
+of front end of side, 2/3 natural size (original).]
+
+The drawers (Fig. 118, A, B, C) are square, with an outside measurement
+of 18 inches and an outside depth of 3 inches. The sides and back have a
+thickness of three-eighths of an inch, while the front is five-eighths
+of an inch thick. The pieces are firmly dovetailed together, the front
+being clean and the dovetailing blind. The bottom, _a_, is of three-ply
+crossgrained veneer, run into a groove at the sides, leaving a clear
+inside depth of 2 1/16 inches to the frame of the cover. The bottoms are
+lined in all but forty of the drawers with first quality cork, _b_,
+one-fourth of an inch thick. At a distance of one-fourth of an inch from
+the sides and back and three-eighths of an inch from the front there is
+an inside box of one-eighth inch whitewood, _c_, closely fitted, and
+held in place by blocks between it and the outer box. There is thus
+between the inner and outer box a clear space, _d_, all round, in which
+insecticides or disinfectants can be placed to keep out Museum pests,
+making it impossible for such to get into the inner box containing the
+specimens without first passing through this poison chamber. The entire
+inside is lined with white paper, or, in the case of the uncorked boxes,
+painted with zinc white. The front is furnished with a plain knob. The
+cover is of glass, set into a frame, _f_, three-fourths of an inch wide,
+three-eighths of an inch thick, with a one-fourth inch tongue fitting
+closely into the space between the inner lining and outer box, which
+here serves as a groove. This arrangement furnishes a perfectly tight
+drawer of convenient size and not unwieldy for handling when studying
+the collection.
+
+The material of which these drawers are made is California red wood,
+except the cover frame, which is mahogany. The cabinets containing these
+drawers are 36 inches high, 40 inches wide, 21 inches deep (all outside
+measurements), and are closed by two paneled doors. Each cabinet
+contains twenty drawers in two rows of ten each, and the drawers slide
+by means of a groove, _g_, on either side, on hard-wood tongues, and are
+designed to be interchangeable.
+
+_The Lintner display Box._--For beauty and security and the perfect
+display of the larger _Lepidoptera_, I have seen nothing superior to a
+box used by Mr. J. A. Lintner, of Albany, N. Y. It is a frame made in
+the form of a folio volume, with glass set in for sides and bound in an
+ordinary book cover. The insects are pinned onto pieces of cork fastened
+to the inside of one of the glass plates and the boxes may be stood on
+ends, in library shape, like ordinary books. For the benefit of those
+who wish to make small collections of showy insects, I give Mr.
+Lintner's method, of which he has been kind enough to furnish me the
+following description:
+
+Figs. A, B, and C represent, in section, the framework of the volume,
+_a_ showing the ends, _b_ the front, and _c_ the back. The material can
+be prepared in long strips of some soft wood by a cabinet-maker (if the
+collector has the necessary skill and leisure for framing it) at a cost
+of 60 cents a frame, if a number sufficient for a dozen boxes be
+ordered. Or, if it be preferred to order them made, the cost should not
+exceed 80 cents each.
+
+Before being placed in the hands of the binder the mitering should be
+carefully examined and any defect in fitting remedied, so that the
+glass, when placed in position, may have accurate bearings on all the
+sides. The interior of the frame is covered with tin foil, made as
+smooth as possible before application, to be applied with thoroughly
+boiled flour paste (in which a small proportion of arsenic may be mixed)
+and rubbed smoothly down till the removal of the blisters, which are apt
+to appear. The tin foil can be purchased, by weight, at druggists', and
+the sheets marked off and cut by a rule in strips of proper width,
+allowing for a trifle of overlapping on the sides. Its cost per volume
+is merely nominal.
+
+First-quality single-thick glass for sides must be selected, wholly free
+from rust, veins, air-bubbles, or any blemish. Such glass can be
+purchased at 15 cents a pane. The lower glass, after thorough cleaning,
+especially of its inner surface, with an alkaline wash, and a final
+polishing with slightly wetted white printing paper, is to be firmly
+secured in its place by a proper number of tin points; the upper glass
+is but temporarily fastened. The binder must be directed to cover the
+exposed sides of the frame with "combed" paper, bringing it over the
+border of the permanent lower glass and beneath the removable upper
+glass.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 119.--Construction of the Lintner box.]
+
+The covers of the volume are of heavy binders' board (No. 18), neatly
+lined within with glazed white paper. On one of the insides of the lids
+may be attached, by its corners, a sheet with the numbers and names of
+the species contained in the volume, or these may be placed on the pin
+bearing the insect. If bound in best quality of imitation morocco, with
+cloth covers, lettered and gilded on the back, the cost (for a dozen
+volumes) need not exceed $1 each. If in turkey morocco, it will be
+$1.50.
+
+The lettering and ornamentation of the back will vary with the taste of
+the individual. The family designations may be permanently lettered, or
+they may be pasted on the back, on a slip of paper or gum label, as are
+the generic names, thus permitting the change of the contents of a
+volume at any time if desired.
+
+The bits of cork to which the insects are to be pinned are cut in
+quarter-inch squares from sheet-cork of one-fourth of an inch in
+thickness. If the trouble be taken to trim off the corners, giving them
+an octagonal form, their appearance will be materially improved and much
+less care will be required in adjusting them on the glass.
+
+The cement usually recommended for attaching the cork to the glass is
+composed of equal parts of white wax and resin. My experience with this
+has not been favorable, for, after the lapse of a few years, I have
+invariably been subjected to the serious annoyance of being compelled to
+renew the entire contents of the volume, clean the glass, and replace
+the corks with new cement. From some cause, inexplicable to me, a
+gradual separation takes place of the cork with its cement from the
+glass, first appearing at the angles of the cork, and its progress
+indicated by an increasing number of iridescent rings which form within
+until the center is reached, when, if not previously detached, the
+insect falls with the cork, usually to its injury and that of others
+beneath it.
+
+A number of years ago I happened to employ, in attaching a single piece
+of cork in one of my cases, a cement originally made for other purposes,
+consisting of six parts of resin, one of wax, and one of Venetian red.
+Several years thereafter my attention was drawn to this piece by finding
+it as firmly united as when at first applied, and at the present time
+(after the lapse of twelve years) it is without the slightest indication
+of separation. Acting upon this hint, I have, of late, used this cement
+in the restoration of a number of my cases, and with the most
+satisfactory results. It is important that the cement, when used, should
+be heated (by a spirit lamp or gas flame) to as high a degree as it will
+bear without burning. An amount sufficient to cover the bottom of the
+small, flat metal vessel containing it to the depth of an eighth of an
+inch will suffice and prevent the cork from taking up more than its
+requisite quantity. It should be occasionally stirred to prevent the
+precipitation of its heavier portions. The cork may be conveniently
+dipped by the aid of a needle inserted in a handle, when, as quickly as
+possible, it should be transferred to the glass, for the degree of
+adhesion seems to depend upon the degree of fluidity of the cement. From
+some experiments made by me, after the corks had been attached as above,
+in heating the entire glass to such a degree as thoroughly to melt the
+cement until it spreads outward from beneath the weight of the cork, and
+then permitted to cool--the glass meanwhile held horizontally, that the
+corks might not be displaced--the results appear to indicate that the
+above cement, applied in this manner on glass properly cleaned, will
+prove a permanent one. It is scarcely necessary to state that this
+method is not available where the glass has been bound as above.
+
+Preparatory to corking the glass for the specimens assigned to it, the
+spaces required for them are to be ascertained by arranging them in
+order on a cork surface or otherwise. On a sheet of paper of the size of
+the glass, perpendicular lines, of the number of the rows and at their
+proper distances, are to be drawn, and cross lines equal in number to
+the insects contained in the rows. The distances of these lines will be
+uniform, unless smaller specimens are to occupy some portion of the
+case, when they may be graduated to the required proportion. With the
+sheet ruled in this manner and placed beneath the glass, the points
+where the corks are to be applied are indicated by the intersections of
+the lines. The sheet, marked with the family of the insects for which it
+was used and with the numbers designating its divisions, may be laid
+aside for future use in the preparation of other cases for which it may
+be suitable. In a series of unbound cases in my collection, in which the
+glasses measure 11 by 14� inches, I have used for my Lepidoptera and
+laid aside the following scales, the citation of which will also serve
+to show the capacity of the cases: 3 by 8, Catocalas; 2 by 7 and 3 by 9,
+Sphingid�; 4 by 11 to 4 by 14, Bombycid�; 5 by 13 to 6 by 16, Noctuid�;
+8 by 16 and 8 by 20, Lyc�nid� and Tortricid�.
+
+The unbound cases above referred to are inexpensive frames, made by
+myself, of quarter-inch white wood or pine, the corners mitered, glued,
+and nailed with three-quarter inch brads, lined within with white paper
+(better with tin foil), and covered without with stout manila paper. The
+glasses are cut of the size of the frame, and when placed in position
+thereon are appressed closely to it by laying upon them, near each
+corner, a heavy weight, and strips of an enameled green paper, cut to
+the width of 1 inch, are pasted over their edges, extending a little
+beyond the thickness of the frame, and brought downward over the outside
+of the frame. On its back two gum labels, indicating the insects
+inclosed, are placed at uniform heights (7 and 12 inches), when, if all
+has been neatly done, they present a tasteful appearance upon a shelf.
+When there is reason to believe that the case will need to be opened
+for the change or addition of specimens, it will be found convenient to
+employ, for the fastening of the left-hand side of the upper glass,
+paper lined with a thin muslin, to serve as a hinge when the other sides
+have been cut.
+
+Should it become desirable to bind these cases, outside frames may be
+constructed after the plans above given, with the omission of the inside
+quarter inch (the equivalent of these frames), in which these may be
+placed and held in position by two or three screws inserted in their
+sides.
+
+_The Martindale Box for Lepidoptera._--Mr. Isaac C. Martindale, in the
+October, 1891, number of _Entomological News_, pp. 126, 127, describes a
+new form of cabinet for butterflies, the drawers of which present some
+new features. They are for the same end as the Lintner box described
+above--namely, for the display of the upper and under surface of the
+wings of Lepidoptera, and promise to be more useful. The drawer is
+described as follows:
+
+The especial feature is the drawer itself, which, instead of having a
+cork bottom, as is usually the case, has both the top and bottom of
+glass. The top part of the drawer frame fits tightly over a ledge one
+inch in height, effectually preventing the intrusion of destructive
+insects, the pest of the entomologist; but it is readily lifted when it
+is desirable to add to the contents or change the location of the
+specimens. For the inside arrangement I have taken a strip of common
+tin, one inch wide, and turned up each side five-sixteenths of an inch,
+thus leaving three-eighths of an inch for the bottom. The length of the
+strip of tin, being about two inches longer than the width of the
+drawer, admits of each end being turned up one inch. Into this tin
+trough is tightly fitted a cork strip three-eighths of an inch square.
+The whole being covered with white paper, such as is usually used for
+lining drawers, conceals the inequalities of the cork and makes a fine
+finish. They should be made to fit neatly in the drawer, and can be
+readily moved about to suit large or small specimens. For _Lyc�nas_,
+_Pamphilas_, etc., as many as fifteen of these strips may be used in one
+drawer, and as few as five for _Morphos_, _Caligos_, etc. The upturned
+ends are fastened in place by using the ordinary thumb tacks that can be
+procured at any stationer's. The frame work of the drawers should be of
+white pine, well seasoned. Into this the thumb tacks are readily
+inserted and as easily withdrawn when a change in the position of the
+cork strips is needed.
+
+_Horizontal vs. vertical Arrangement of Boxes._--I have elsewhere
+discussed the availability of the upright vs. the horizontal arrangement
+of insect boxes.[9] In the case of Lepidoptera and large-bodied insects
+I have found the horizontal drawer or box to be preferable. If
+large-bodied insects are placed in a vertical position they are very
+liable to become loose on the pins, swing from side to side, and damage
+themselves and other specimens; but for the smaller insects of all
+orders, the vertical arrangement is quite safe and satisfactory. If the
+pin is slightly flattened, as described on p. 69, the danger of large
+specimens becoming loose is to a great extent avoided.
+
+  [9] _American Naturalist_, Vol. XV, p. 401, 1881.
+
+_Lining for Insect Boxes._--The old lining of insect boxes was the
+ordinary sheet cork of commerce, and if a good quality of cork is
+procurable it will answer the purpose. A better substance, however, for
+the lining of insect boxes is the prepared or ground cork, which is now
+almost exclusively used. It is simply ground cork mixed with a small
+amount of glue, compressed into sheets and covered with paper. This
+gives a very homogenous composition, and is much better than the
+ordinary cork, having a more uniform and neat appearance, and admitting
+the insertion of the pins more freely. It may be purchased from H.
+Herpers, 18 Crawford street, Newark, N. J.
+
+A less expensive substitute is paper stretched upon a frame. Prof. E. S.
+Morse has given in the "American Naturalist" (Vol. i, p. 156) a plan
+which is very neat and useful for lining boxes in a large museum, which
+are designed to be placed in horizontal show-cases (Fig. 120). "A box is
+made of the required depth, and a light frame is fitted to its interior.
+Upon the upper and under surfaces of this frame a sheet of white paper
+(drawing or log paper answers the purpose) is securely glued. The paper,
+having been previously damped, in drying contracts and tightens like a
+drumhead. The frame is then secured about one-fourth of an inch from the
+bottom of the box, and the pin is forced down through the thicknesses of
+paper, and if the bottom of the box be of soft pine, the point of the
+pin may be slightly forced into it. It is thus firmly held at two or
+three different points, and all lateral movements are prevented. Other
+advantages are secured by this arrangement besides firmness: when the
+box needs cleaning or fumigation, the entire collection may be removed
+by taking out the frame; or camphor, tobacco, or other material can be
+placed on the bottom of the box, and concealed from sight. The annexed
+figure represents a transverse section of a portion of the side and
+bottom of the box with the frame. A A, box; B, frame; P P, upper and
+under sheets of paper; C, space between lower sheets of paper and bottom
+of box."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 120.--Paper lining for insect box. (After Morse.)]
+
+Other substitutes are the pith of various plants, especially of corn.
+Palm wood and "inodorous felt" are also used, being cut to fit the
+bottom of the box.
+
+Pita wood or the light porous wood of the Agave or Century plant when
+cut into proper strips also makes a very light and satisfactory lining,
+while good close bog-peat cut into proper thicknesses is not
+infrequently used in France and Germany. Druce & Co., 68 Baker street,
+London, W., England, have lately been manufacturing what is known as
+cork carpet, which seems to be a combination of ground cork and rubber.
+It comes in various colors and of the proper thickness, and makes a very
+smooth and desirable lining, holding the pins very firmly. It cost 90
+cents per square yard in England, and I have had one cabinet lined with
+it as an experiment, as there is a probability that the pins may corrode
+in contact with the rubber.
+
+
+
+
+                  ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS IN THE CABINET.
+
+
+_Systematic and biologic Collections._--The permanent arrangement of
+specimens in boxes and drawers will vary somewhat with the nature of the
+insects. The almost universal custom of collectors, however, is to
+arrange the insects in vertical columns. In the case of the smaller
+forms, as Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, 2� to 3 inches in width is
+allowed for the columns; and for the larger insects, as Lepidoptera,
+Orthoptera, for which larger drawers are recommended, a greater width of
+column is needed and 4� to 5 inches will be found necessary. With
+alcoholic material, a similar arrangement in columns may be followed.
+
+In spacing or dividing insect boxes into columns for the arrangement of
+specimens, I have followed the plan of pinning narrow strips of colored
+paper in the boxes at regular distances to divide the columns of
+insects. A fine line made with a medium pencil will answer the same
+purpose and will not materially disfigure the box.
+
+The appearance of the collection will largely depend on the care used in
+the alignment of the specimens, both vertically and horizontally. It is
+advisable to have at least four specimens of a species, which,
+entomologically speaking, constitute a set. The collector, however,
+should not limit the number of his specimens to four, as it is
+frequently necessary to have a larger number to represent, firstly, the
+sexes; secondly, varieties; and thirdly, geographical distribution.
+
+In the systematic collection the species should be arranged serially in
+accordance with the latest catalogue or monograph, and if the collector
+intends making a complete study of the group, space should be left for
+the subsequent insertion of species not at present in his possession and
+also for new species. This will avoid the rearrangement of the entire
+collection at brief intervals.
+
+_Economic Displays._--In the case of economic displays, which will
+include pinned specimens, alcoholic material, early states and specimens
+illustrating the work of the insect--also the parasitic and predaceous
+enemies--the horizontal arrangement can be followed, and I have found it
+advisable, in making such displays, to arrange them in this manner, so
+that any needed width for the display of particular species may be had.
+A good idea of the system of arrangement adopted for an economic exhibit
+may be obtained from the accompanying illustration (Pl. I). Every insect
+will require a somewhat different treatment, owing to its different
+habit, but the plan indicated in the illustration should, in the main,
+be followed. Prof. J. H. Comstock uses and recommends a sort of block
+system, which consists in pinning the insects and specimens showing
+their work, and alcoholic material, to blocks of soft wood. These are
+then arranged in the display cases. The advantage claimed for the system
+is facility in transferring and rearranging the exhibits. This method is
+somewhat cumbersome, and in making and handling economic exhibits I have
+found pinning specimens directly to the cork lining of the box, as
+already described, to be entirely satisfactory. A biologic exhibit
+should be carefully planned beforehand, and when once completed is
+permanent and does not require rearrangement, as is frequently necessary
+in a systematic collection, owing to the constant changes in
+classification. The only alteration necessary is a renewal of specimens
+which have become injured, or faded by exposure to light.
+
+_Labeling Collections._--I have already fully discussed the subject of
+labeling insects before placing them in their final resting place in the
+collection. In the collection certain additional labels are required,
+viz, labels for the order, family, subfamily, genus, species, and
+sometimes variety. The label for the order should be placed above the
+first species in the collection, and should be in large type, as should
+also be the name of the family, which is to be placed above the first
+species in the family. The genus label should be in prominent type,
+somewhat smaller than the family label, and should be placed at the head
+of the genus. Custom varies as to placing the label of the species. In
+my practice I have adopted the plan of placing the label below the
+series of specimens representing the species. Some entomologists reverse
+this plan and place the label above the series of specimens. Others
+recommend pinning the label to the first and best-determined specimen of
+the series. This has the advantage of always keeping the label with the
+species and preventing the danger of mistake or confusion of the latter.
+In the case of large insects, however, this plan has the disadvantage
+that the label can not be seen except by taking out the specimen, and,
+on the whole, the plan which I have adopted of placing the label below
+the series of specimens is preferable, but may be supplemented by the
+other, as in addition to the independent label, one of the specimens
+should have a label pinned with it. The labels should be neatly written
+on blanks printed for the purpose; but a better plan, perhaps, and one
+which I have followed, where possible, in labeling the national
+collection, is to cut the names neatly from a catalogue of the insects,
+which will furnish all the labels from order to species, and fasten them
+with short, inconspicuous pins in their proper places in the collection.
+Where it is not desired to keep the collection as compact as possible,
+or where one has limited space, I would advise labeling the species, not
+only with the recognized name, but also with the synonyms. This requires
+some space, and will hardly be followed except in public collections. It
+is also desirable to arrange together, and label as such, the varieties
+of any given species. The appearance of the collection will depend
+largely on the uniformity of the labeling, and too much care can not be
+exercised in this respect.
+
+
+
+
+                         MUSEUM PESTS, MOLD, ETC.
+
+
+Unfortunately for the well-being of collections, dried insects are
+liable to the attacks of various museum pests, the most troublesome of
+which are themselves insects, but altogether out of their proper place
+and r�le in the general collection. Unless constant precautions are
+taken, the collector will discover after a few months that instead of
+the rare specimens with the preparations of which he has taken no little
+pains there remains only a series of fragmentary specimens, which a few
+years' neglect will reduce to little more than a mass of dust or powder.
+The price, then, of a good collection is eternal vigilance. Most
+insects, when exposed for any length of time to strong light, fade or
+lose color, and the only way to prevent such achromatism is to exclude
+the light.
+
+Insect pests affecting collections include Psocid�, Mites, Tineid�,
+Coleoptera of the families Ptinid� and Dermestid�, these last being the
+most injurious.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 121.--_Tineola biselliella_: _a_, adult; _b_, larva;
+_c_, cocoon and empty pupa--skin enlarged.]
+
+The Psocid�--degraded wingless insects already referred to in the
+classification (p. 24)--will find their way into the tightest boxes, but
+ordinarily do little if any damage, except in the case of delicate
+insects, such as Ephemerids, Microlepidoptera, and Microdiptera. The
+common forms found in collections are _Atropos divinatorius_ and
+_Clothilla pulsatoria_. Mites or Acari are rarely troublesome in
+collections, though Dr. H. A. Hagen reports having found a species
+(probably of Tyroglyphus) with imported insects, and considers them as
+liable to become dangerous enemies. Tineid larv� are rarely found in
+collections, and only affect the larger moths. They are not easily
+discovered, since they make no dust, as do most other pests. Some
+persons have been considerably annoyed by one of the common clothes
+moths, _Tineola biselliella_ (Fig. 121). Dr. Hagen found that it
+attacked freshly collected or newly spread insects, where the
+spreading-boards were left uncovered, but Mr. F. M. Webster has found it
+injurious to the general collections at Columbus, Ohio.
+
+Of beetles, the Ptinid� are sometimes found in collections but are not
+common. Two species are known to attack entomological specimens, namely,
+_Ptinus fur_, which is quite rare, in this country, but much more
+abundant in Europe, and _Tribolium ferrugineum_, a cosmopolitan species
+which, however, has several times been associated in injurious numbers
+with large collections of insects imported from the East Indies.
+
+But by far the most dangerous enemies of insect collections are the
+larv� of some half dozen or more species of Dermestid� belonging to the
+genera Anthrenus, Attagenus, Trogoderma, and Dermestes. Of these
+_Anthrenus varius_ is the more common pest, in museums, especially in
+the North and East. In the South and West _Trogoderma tarsale_ and _T.
+ornatum_ (?) replace Anthrenus. The European species _Anthrenus
+mus�orum_, is, on the authority of Hagen, rare in this country, and
+probably occurs chiefly in collections of imported insects. It is the
+common injurious species of Europe. _Anthrenus scrophulari�_ (see Fig.
+67) occurs also in collections, Dr. Hagen stating that he has found it
+nearly as common as _A. varius_, and certainly more dangerous. In my own
+experience it is rarely found in insect collections. Two species of
+Attagenus (_A. pellio_ and _A. megatoma_) have also been found in
+collections. _A. megatoma_ has been found by Dr. Hagen to do not a
+little damage to insect collections in Cambridge, as well as to equal if
+not exceed the Carpet Beetle in its disastrous attacks upon carpets and
+household furniture. The other species, _A. pellio_, is rarely found in
+this country, but is much more common and obnoxious in Europe than _A.
+megatoma_. _Dermestes lardarius_ is sometimes found in collections, and
+is attracted by the presence of animal matter such as skins, etc. The
+two particularly destructive pests, as pointed out, are _Anthrenus
+varius_ and _Trogoderma tarsale_. These species, together with most of
+the others, have no definite breeding period, but, in the uniform
+temperature of the laboratory or museum, breed all the year round and
+present no definite broods. It is the experience at the Museum that the
+boxes on the lower tier of shelves are very much more subject to attack
+than those on the upper tiers, from which it would seem that the parent
+beetle deposits her eggs outside the boxes on the floor of the cases and
+that the young larv� work their way into the smallest crevices. The
+danger of infection by these pests is greater in warm climates like that
+of Washington than in regions further north, as the warm season begins
+earlier, lasts longer, and furnishes better conditions for breeding and
+multiplication.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122.--A naphthaline cone.]
+
+REMEDIES.--The following remedies and preventives will prove efficient
+in checking or preventing the work of these pests.
+
+_Naphthaline._--Where tight boxes are employed little fear of the work
+of these destructive agents need arise, especially if the boxes are kept
+supplied with repellent naphthaline cones. These are hard cones of
+naphthaline, mounted on pins for convenient placing in the boxes (see
+Fig. 122), and may be obtained of dealers in entomological supplies.
+Naphthaline cones act as repellents to these insects and also to some
+extent retard the development of the larv� in all stages and
+particularly of the eggs.
+
+Mr. Schwarz states (_Proc. Ent. Soc. of Washington_, Vol. I, page 63)
+that in place of these cones a form of naphthaline may be used which is
+known in commerce as "white carbon," and is put up in the form of small
+square rods for use in intensifying the flames of gaslight. The material
+is very cheap, costing only 8 cents per pound wholesale, and may be
+broken up into small pieces, wrapped in paper, and pinned. The use of
+naphthaline cones is not advisable in boxes containing delicate
+specimens, as it leaves a deposit which dulls the colors and encourages
+greasing. The deliquescence of the naphthaline cones produces a
+blackish, oily residuum which will soil the lining of the box, and it is
+always advisable either to pin a piece of blotting paper beneath the
+cone or to wrap this in paper.
+
+Constant watchfulness is necessary to see that the eggs which have been
+deposited and checked in development by the application of this
+insecticide do not ultimately hatch and start a new generation in the
+insect box.
+
+_Bisulphide of Carbon._--If the collection is found to be infested with
+insect pests, it may be renovated by pouring a little bisulphide of
+carbon into the boxes and closing them at once. This substance
+evaporates rapidly and will destroy all insect life, and does not injure
+specimens or pins nor stain the boxes. If infested specimens are
+received, these should be inclosed in a tight box and treated with
+bisulphide of carbon before being added to the general collection, and
+it is always well for those who are receiving pinned specimens by
+exchange or otherwise to keep a quarantine box of this kind on hand.
+
+_Mercury Pellets._--The use of mercury pellets is recommended to free
+boxes from Mites, Psoci, etc., and also to collect any particles of dust
+which may gain entrance. A few small pellets of mercury, placed free in
+the bottom of the horizontal box will, by the movement of the box, be
+caused to roll to and fro and accomplish the desired end.
+
+_Carbolic Acid._--Mr. A. T. Marshall (_Entomologist's Monthly Magazine_,
+Dec., 1873, p. 176) records that he washes the paper of his boxes with
+the common disinfecting solution of carbolic acid in two-thirds water,
+which dries without staining and protects the specimens from Psoci.
+
+_A Means of preserving Insects in dry hot Countries._--In the "_Hor�
+Societatis Entomologic� Rossic�_," XXIV, pp. 233, 234 (1889), M. A.
+Wilkins, writing from Tachkent in Turkestan, alludes to the inefficiency
+of ordinary preservatives in Central Asia, on account of their rapid
+volatilization through the hot dry air, so that if a collection be
+neglected for only two or three months _Anthreni_ are sure to be found
+in the boxes. He has hit upon a plan which he finds effective, and at
+the same time very simple. He employs India-rubber bands about 1� inches
+in width and less than the length of the boxes to which they are to be
+applied. These bands are stretched over the opening line of the boxes,
+and effectually prevent the entrance of the most minute destroyers.
+Possibly a similar plan might be adopted in other countries with a like
+climate. At any rate, the method has the merit of extreme simplicity.
+(The _Ent. Mo. Mag._, Apr., 1891, p. 107.)
+
+
+                                   MOLD.
+
+Collections kept in damp places or in a moist climate are very liable to
+mold, and under such conditions it is difficult to avoid this evil.
+Carbolic acid is recommended, but Mr. Ashmead, who has kept a large
+collection in the moist climate of Florida, has found the use of
+naphthaline much more satisfactory. Mr. Herbert H. Smith who has had
+more extensive experience in the tropics prefers the carbolic acid.
+Moldy specimens may be cleansed by washing with carbolic acid applied
+with a fine camel's hair brush.
+
+
+                        VERDIGRISING AND GREASING.
+
+The action of the acid juices in the bodies of certain specimens--as
+many of the Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera--will cause the
+formation of verdigris about the pin, which in time accumulates and
+disfigures and distorts the specimen, and ultimately corrodes the pin,
+so that the slightest touch causes it to bend or break. There is no
+preventive yet known for this trouble other than the use of pins which
+have no brass to be corroded. Japanned pins are made for this purpose,
+and are, on the whole, satisfactory, but they bend easily and some
+caution is required in handling them. In place of these pins, which are
+somewhat more expensive than the steel pins, iron pins may be used.
+These are very soft and bend too easily for satisfactory use. The steel
+pins may be rendered available for use by an immersion in a silver bath,
+which is comparatively inexpensive.
+
+Insects the larv� of which live in wood are particularly subject to
+verdigris, as the Cerambycid� and Elaterid� in Coleoptera, the Urocerid�
+in Hymenoptera and Sesiid� in Lepidoptera. In Hymenoptera the families
+Formicid�, Mutillid�, and the endophytous Tenthredinid� verdigris very
+rapidly, and most Diptera also. With all these insects japanned or
+silvered pins should be used, or when not too large the insects should
+be mounted on triangles. This verdigrising is associated with what is
+known as greasing, and this, as just indicated, is also associated with
+endophytous larval life. The verdigris may be prevented by the methods
+indicated, and I would strongly advise, as a good general rule to be
+followed, the rejection of the ordinary pins for all species which, in
+the larva state, are internal feeders. But there is no way of preventing
+greasing or decomposition of the fats of the body, which may affect a
+specimen years after it has been in the cabinet. If the specimen is
+valuable the grease may be absorbed by immersion in ether or benzine, or
+by a longer treatment with powdered pipe-clay or plaster of Paris.
+Insects collected on seabeaches, and saturated with salt water, also
+corrode the common steel pin very quickly and should be mounted on
+japanned pins. It is also advisable to rinse such specimens thoroughly
+in fresh water before mounting.
+
+The conviction has been forcing itself on my mind for some time that the
+naphthaline cones tend to promote greasing and verdigris, and carbolic
+acid in some small vessel secured to the cork, were, perhaps,
+preferable.
+
+
+
+
+                          THE REARING OF INSECTS.
+
+
+_General Directions._--The importance, even to the mere collector, of
+rearing insects to obtain specimens for the cabinet has been referred to
+from time to time in these pages. The philosophic study of entomology,
+however, requires much more than the mere collecting of specimens, and
+one of the most profitable and, at the same time, most fascinating
+phases of the study relates to the life-history and habits. In no branch
+of natural history are biologic studies more easily carried on, or the
+biologic facts more remarkable or interesting. The systematist by such
+study will be saved from the narrow and hair-splitting tendencies which
+study of slight difference of characters tends to, while to the economic
+entomologist it is most essential.
+
+In the rearing of insects success will be attained in proportion to the
+extent to which the conditions of nature in the matters of temperature,
+moisture, food-supply, and conditions for pupation, are observed.
+
+"In the hands of the careful breeder an insect may be secured against
+its numerous natural enemies and against vicissitudes of climate, and
+will, consequently, be more apt to mature than in a state of nature. The
+breeding of aquatic insects requires aquaria, and is always attended
+with the difficulty of furnishing a proper supply of food. The
+transformations of many others, both aquatic and terrestrial, can be
+studied only by close and careful outdoor observation. But the great
+majority of insect larv� may be reared to the perfect state indoors,
+where their maneuverings may be constantly and conveniently watched. For
+the feeding of small species, glass jars and wide-mouthed bottles will
+be found useful. The mouths should be covered with gauze or old linen,
+fastened either by thread or rubber, and a few inches of moist earth at
+the bottom will furnish a retreat for those which enter it to transform
+and keep the atmosphere in a moist and fit condition.
+
+_The Breeding Cage or Vivarium._--"For larger insects I use a breeding
+cage or vivarium which answers the purpose admirably. It is represented
+in figure 123, and comprises three distinct parts: First, the bottom
+board _a_, consisting of a square piece of inch thick walnut with a
+rectangular zinc pan _ff_, 4 inches deep, fastened to it above, and with
+two cross pieces _gg_ below, to prevent cracking or warping, facilitate
+lifting, and allow the air to pass underneath the cage. Second, a box
+_b_ with three glass sides and a glass door in front, to fit over the
+zinc pan. Third, a cap _c_, which fits closely on to the box, and has a
+top of fine wire gauze. To the center of the zinc pan is soldered a zinc
+tube _d_ just large enough to contain an ordinary quinine bottle. The
+zinc pan is filled with clean sifted earth or sand _e_, and the quinine
+bottle is for the reception of the food plant. The cage admits of
+abundant light and air, and also of the easy removal of excrement or
+frass which falls to the ground; while the insects in transforming enter
+the ground or attach themselves to the sides or the cap, according to
+their habits. The most convenient dimensions I find to be 12 inches
+square and 18 inches high: the cap and the door fit closely by means of
+rabbets, and the former has a depth of about 4 inches to admit of the
+largest cocoon being spun in it without touching the box on which it
+rests. The zinc pan might be made 6 or 8 inches deep, and the lower half
+filled with sand, so as to keep the whole moist for a greater length of
+time."
+
+The sand or earth in the zinc pan at the bottom of the breeding cage
+should be kept constantly moistened, and in the case of hibernating pup�
+the constant adding of water to the top of the earth or sand causes it
+to become very hard and compact. To overcome this objection it was
+suggested in the _Entomologists' Monthly Magazine_ for June, 1876, page
+17, that the base should be made with an inner perforated side, the
+water to be applied between it and the outer side, and I have for some
+years employed a similar double-sided base, which answers the purpose
+admirably (See Figure 124). It is substantially the same as that made
+for the Department by Prof. J. H. Comstock in 1879. It consists of a
+zinc tray _a_, of two or three inches greater diameter than the breeding
+cage, which surrounds the zinc pan proper containing the earth, and the
+tube _d_ for the reception of the food-plant. The lower portion of the
+inner pan _b_ is of perforated zinc. Zinc supports, _c c_, are
+constructed about halfway between the bottom and the top of this pan, on
+which the breeding cage rests. In moistening the earth in the cage,
+water is poured into the tray, which enters the soil slowly, through the
+perforations in the zinc pan. I have found this modification of very
+decided advantage and use it altogether in the work of the Division, and
+heartily recommend it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 123.--Insect breeding-cage or vivarium.]
+
+The base of the vivarium or breeding cage should never be made of tin,
+but always of zinc. If made of tin, it will soon rust out. Galvanized
+iron may be used in place of the zinc, and will doubtless prove equally
+satisfactory.
+
+"A dozen such cages will furnish room for the annual breeding of a great
+number of species, as several having different habits and appearance,
+and which there is no danger of confounding, may be simultaneously fed
+in the same cage. I number each of the three parts of each cage to
+prevent misplacement and to facilitate reference, and aside from the
+notes made in the notebook, it will aid the memory and expedite matters
+to keep a short open record of the species contained in each cage, by
+means of slips of paper pasted on the glass door. As fast as the
+different specimens complete their transformations and are taken from
+the cage the notes may be altered or erased, or the slips wetted and
+removed entirely. To prevent possible confounding of the different
+species which enter the ground, it is well, from time to time, to sift
+the earth, separate the pup� and place them in what I call 'imago
+cages,' used for this purpose alone and not for feeding. Here they may
+be arranged with references to their exact whereabouts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 124.--Improved base for breeding-cage (original).]
+
+"A continued supply of fresh food must be given to those insects which
+are feeding, and a bit of moist sponge thrust into the mouth of the
+bottle will prevent drowning, and furnish moisture to such as need it.
+By means of a broad paste brush and spoon the frass may be daily removed
+from the earth, which should be kept in a fit and moist
+condition--neither too wet nor too dry. In the winter, when insect life
+is dormant, the earth may be covered with a layer of clean moss, and the
+cages put away in the cellar, where they will need only occasional
+inspection, but where the moss must nevertheless be kept damp. Cages
+made after the same plan, but with the sides of wire gauze instead of
+glass, may be used for insects which do not well bear confinement
+indoors, the cages to be placed on a platform on the north side of a
+house, where they will receive only the early morning and late evening
+sun."
+
+_Detailed Instructions for Rearing._--In the rearing of insects every
+worker will develop a number of methods of value, and it is only by
+careful study and comparison of the experiences of all that the best
+system can be elaborated. For this reason I have, in what follows,
+quoted, in a more or less fragmentary way, the experiences of different
+entomologists.
+
+As is remarked by Miss Murtfeldt, in an interesting paper read before
+the Entomological Club of the American Association for the Advancement
+of Science, August 20, 1890, "there is a great individuality, or rather
+specificality, in insects, and not infrequently specimens of larv� are
+found for which the collector taxes his ingenuity in vain to provide.
+Not the freshest leaves, the cleanest swept earth, or the most
+well-aired cages will seem to promote their development."
+
+The greatest care and watchfulness, therefore, are necessary to insure
+success in the rearing of larv�. In many cases such larv� can only be
+successfully reared by inclosing them in netting on their food-plant out
+of doors. It is a frequent device of Lepidopterists also to inclose a
+rare female in netting placed on the food plant of the species, where
+the male may be attracted and may be caught and placed in the bag with
+the female, when copulation usually takes place successfully, or a male
+may be caught in the field and inclosed with such female. Mr. W. H.
+Edwards, where the plant is a small one, uses for this purpose a
+headless keg covered at one end with gauze, which he places over the
+plant inclosing the female.
+
+Mr. James Fletcher, of Ottawa, Canada, one of our most enthusiastic
+rearers of insects, has given some details of his methods in a recent
+very interesting account of "A Trip to Nepigon." One style of cage used
+by him in securing the eggs of large Lepidoptera "is made by cutting two
+flexible twigs from the willow or any other shrub and bending them into
+the shape of two arches, which are put one over the other at right
+angles and the ends pushed into the ground. Over the penthouse thus
+formed a piece of gauze is placed, and the cage is complete. The edges
+of the gauze may be kept down either with pegs or with earth placed upon
+them." This kind of cage is used for all the larger species which lay
+upon low plants. The species which oviposit on larger plants or trees
+are inclosed in a gauze bag tied over the branch. This is applicable to
+insects like _Papilio_, _Limenitis_, _Grapta_, etc. Care must be taken,
+however, that the leaves of the plant inside the net are in a natural
+position, for some species are very particular about where they lay
+their eggs, some ovipositing on the top of the leaves, others near the
+tip, and many others on the under surface. "When a bag made beforehand
+is used, the points must be rounded, and in tying the piece of gauze
+over the branch care must be taken to pull out all creases and folds, or
+the insect will be sure to get into them and either die or be killed by
+spiders from the outside of the bag. It is better to put more than one
+female in the same cage. I have frequently noticed that one specimen
+alone is apt to crawl about and settle on the top of the cage, and not
+go near the food plant. When there are two or three they disturb each
+other and are frequently moving and falling on the food plant, when they
+will stop for a moment and lay an egg. A stubborn female of _Coleus
+eurytheme_ was only induced to lay by having a male placed in the cage
+with her, and by his impatient fluttering and efforts to escape she was
+frequently knocked down from the top, and every time she fell upon the
+clover plant beneath, she laid an egg before crawling to the top again."
+Some insects, even with all care in making their surroundings as natural
+as possible, will persistently refuse to lay. Mr. Fletcher has
+successfully obtained eggs from some of these by a method which he says
+one of his correspondents styles "Egg-laying extraordinary." It consists
+simply in "gently pressing the abdomen of a female which has died
+without laying eggs, until one and sometimes two perfect eggs are passed
+from the ovipositor." Mr. Fletcher has secured a number of eggs from
+rare species in this way, and successfully reared the larv�. The
+following directions for obtaining the eggs and rearing the larv� of
+Lepidoptera, given in this paper by Mr. Fletcher, are excellent, and I
+quote them entire:
+
+"There are one or two points which should be remembered when obtaining
+eggs and rearing larv�. In the first place, the females should not be
+left exposed to the direct rays of the sun; but it will be found
+sometimes that if a butterfly is sluggish, putting her in the sun for a
+short time will revive her and make her lay eggs. Confined females,
+whether over branches or potted plants, should always be in the open
+air. If females do not lay in two or three days they must be fed. This
+is easily done. Take them from the cage and hold near them a piece of
+sponge (or, Mr. Edwards suggests, evaporated apple), saturated with a
+weak solution of sugar and water. As soon as it is placed near them they
+will generally move their antenn� towards it, and, uncoiling their
+tongues, suck up the liquid. If they take no notice of it the tongue can
+be gently uncoiled with the tip of a pin, when they will nearly always
+begin to feed. It is better to feed them away from the plant they are
+wanted to lay upon, for if any of the sirup be spilled over the
+flowerpot or plant it is almost sure to attract ants. I kept one female
+_Colias interior_ in this way for ten days before eggs were laid. When
+eggs are laid they should, as a rule, be collected at short intervals.
+They are subject to the attacks of various enemies--spiders, ants,
+crickets, and minute hymenopterous parasites. They may be kept easily in
+small boxes, but do better if not kept in too hot or dry a place. When
+the young caterpillars hatch they must be removed with great care to the
+food plant; a fine paint brush is the most convenient instrument. With
+small larv� or those which it is desired to examine often, glass tubes
+or jelly glasses with a tight-fitting tin cover are best. These must be
+tightly closed and in a cool place. Light is not at all necessary, and
+the sun should never be allowed to shine directly upon them. If
+moisture gathers inside the glasses the top should be removed for a
+short time. Larv� may also be placed upon growing plants. These can be
+planted in flowerpots and the young caterpillars kept from wandering
+either by a cage of wire netting or, by what I have found very
+satisfactory, glass lamp chimneys. These can be placed over the plant,
+with the bottom pushed into the earth, and then should have a loose wad
+of cotton batting in the top. This has the double effect of preventing
+too great evaporation of moisture and keeping its occupants within
+bounds. Some larv� wander very much and climb with the greatest ease
+over glass, spinning a silken path for themselves as they go. When
+caterpillars are bred in the study it must not be forgotten that the air
+inside a house is much drier than it is out of doors amongst the trees
+and low herbage, where caterpillars live naturally. The amateur will
+require some experience in keeping the air at a right degree of moisture
+when breeding upon growing plants. In close tin boxes or jars, where the
+leaves must be changed every day, there is not so much trouble. An
+important thing to remember with larv� in jars is to thoroughly wash out
+the jars with cold water every day. If, however, a caterpillar has spun
+a web on the side and is hung up to moult, it must not be disturbed. In
+changing the food it is better not to remove the caterpillars from the
+old food, but having placed a new supply in the jar, cut off the piece
+of leaf upon which they are and drop it into the jar. If they are not
+near the moult a little puff of breath will generally dislodge them.
+Some caterpillars, as _Papilio turnus_, which spins a platform to which
+it retires after feeding, can best be fed upon a living tree out of
+doors, but must be covered with a gauze bag to keep off enemies. A piece
+of paper should be kept _attached_ to each breeding jar or cage, upon
+which regular notes must be taken _at the time_, giving the dates of
+every noticeable feature, particularly the dates of the moults and the
+changes which take place in the form and color at that time."
+
+The necessity of outdoor work is further felt in the determination of
+the facts in the life-history of some insects which have an alternation
+of generations, as some Gall-flies (_Cynipid�_), and most Aphides. To
+successfully study these insects constant outdoor observation is
+necessary, or the species must be inclosed in screens of wire or netting
+outdoors on their food-plant. Many insects which breed on the ground or
+on low herbage may be very successfully watched and controlled by
+covering the soil containing them or the plant on which they feed with a
+wire screen or netting. The use of wire screens is also advisable in the
+case of wintering pup� or larv� out of doors. Many species can be more
+easily carried through the winter by placing them outdoors under such
+screens during the winter, which insures their being subjected to the
+natural conditions of climate, and then transferring them to the
+breeding cage again early in the spring. This is advisable in the case
+of Microlarv� and pup�. Species which bore in the stems of plants may be
+easily cared for and leaf-mining and leaf-webbing forms can be secured
+under screens or covers out of doors for the winter in sheltered
+situations. Many species which, if kept in a warm room can not be
+reared, will, if subjected to freezing weather under slight protection
+in the open air, emerge successfully the following spring.
+
+The greatest care is necessary in the breeding of Tenthredinid�, as most
+of them transform under ground and are single brooded, the larv�
+remaining in the ground from midsummer until the following spring.
+Nothing but constant care in maintaining uniform moisture and
+temperature of the soil will insure the success of such breeding. Some
+species bore into rotten wood or the stems of plants to undergo their
+transformations, as for instance the Dogwood Saw-fly (_Harpiphorus
+varianus_). This species, unless supplied with soft or rotten wood in
+which to bore, will wander ceaselessly round the cage, and in most cases
+eventually perish.
+
+Where a small room can be devoted to the purpose, an excellent wholesale
+method of obtaining wood-boring insects (_Coleoptera_, _Lepidoptera_,
+etc.) is to collect large quantities of dead or dying wood of all sorts
+or any that indicates the presence of the early states of insects, and
+store it in such apartment. The following spring and summer the escaping
+insects will be attracted to the windows and may be easily secured. The
+objection to this method is that, in many cases, it will be impossible
+to determine the food habit of the insect secured, owing to the variety
+of material brought together.
+
+_The Root Cage._--For the study of insects which affect the roots of
+plants a root cage has been devised by Prof. J. H. Comstock which is of
+sufficient importance to warrant full description. It consists of a zinc
+frame (Fig. 125_a_) holding two plates of glass in a vertical position
+and only a short distance apart, the space between the plates being
+filled with soil in which seeds are planted or small plants set. Outside
+of each glass is a piece of zinc or sheet iron (_b_) which slips into
+grooves and which can be easily removed. When these zincs are in place
+the soil is kept dark.
+
+The idea of the cages is, that the space between the glasses being very
+narrow, a large part of the roots will ramify close to the surface of
+the glass, so that by removing the zinc slides the roots may be easily
+seen, and any root-inhabiting insects which it maybe desirable to breed
+may thus be studied in their natural conditions without disturbing them.
+Prof. Comstock has used this cage very successfully in studying the
+habits of wire-worms, and its availability for many of the underground
+insects, such as the Cicadas, root-lice, larv�, etc., is apparent. These
+frames may be made of various sizes, to accommodate particular insects.
+It will be of advantage in many cases, in order to secure the natural
+conditions as nearly as possible, to sink the cage in the soil, and for
+this purpose Prof. Comstock has had constructed a pit lined with brick
+for the reception of his cages, and employs a small portable crane to
+lift them out of the ground when it is desirable to examine them.
+
+_Other Apparatus._--Much of the breeding of insects can be done with the
+simplest apparatus, and for the rearing of Microlepidoptera,
+Gall-insects, and the keeping of cocoons and chrysalides of small
+species, nothing is more convenient than a medium sized test-tube, the
+end of which may be plugged with cotton. I have recently successfully
+carried over the winter the larva of _Sphecius speciosus_, which had
+been removed early in the fall from its earthen pod or cocoon, the larva
+transforming to a perfect pupa in the spring. In this case the test tube
+was plugged with cotton and inserted in a wooden mailing tube to exclude
+the light. Smaller jars with glass covers or with a covering of gauze
+may be employed for most insects, with the advantage of occupying
+comparatively little space and of isolating the species under study.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 125.--Root cage: _a_, frame with slide removed; _b_,
+movable slide; _c_, top view (original).]
+
+Long glass tubes, open at both ends, are useful in many other ways,
+especially in the rearing and study of the smaller hypogean insects or
+those which bore and live in the stems of plants. An infested stem cut
+open on one side and placed in such a tube will generally carry any
+insect that has ceased feeding, or any species like the wood-boring bees
+which feed upon stored food, successfully through their transformations;
+while root-lice may be kept for a lengthy period upon the roots in such
+tube, providing a portion of the root extends outside of the tube and is
+kept in moistened ground or water. In all such cases these tubes, with
+their contents, should be kept in the dark, either in a drawer or else
+covered with some dark material which can be wound around or slipped
+over them, and the ends must be closed with cotton or cork.
+
+The rearer of insects will frequently experience difficulty in carrying
+his pup� through the winter, and, even though ordinary precautions are
+taken, the mortality will frequently amount to 50 per cent of the
+specimens. Mr. H. Bakhaus, of Leipzig, thus describes a device which is
+substantially the base of the vivarium shown on page 114.
+
+"The base consists of a round plate of strong zinc, with two vertical
+rims, an inch high, placed one within the other, an inch apart, and
+soldered to the basal plate so that the outer one is water-tight. The
+inner rim must be perforated with small holes as close to the bottom as
+possible. The space inside the inner rim must be filled with fine sand,
+on which the pup� should be laid. The space between the two rims is then
+filled with water, which, finding its way through the holes in the inner
+rim to the sand, causes the necessary moisture. Over the whole is put a
+bell-shaped cover of wire gauze, which must fit tightly over the outer
+rim. In this receptacle the pup� remain untouched, and receive fresh
+moisture, as above indicated, if required by the drying of the sand."
+
+The hardy pup� of most Noctuids and Bombycids, as well as those of many
+Rophalocera, may be handled with little danger, but other species, if
+handled at all, or if the cocoons which they make for themselves are
+broken, can seldom be reared. Constant precautions also must be
+exercised in the care of the soil and the breeding cages. One of the
+great drawbacks is the presence of mites and thread worms (Entozo�ns),
+etc., which affect dying or dead pup� and larv� in the soil. They also
+affect living specimens and are capable of doing very considerable
+damage. To free the soil of them it is necessary at times to allow the
+earth to become dry enough to be sifted, and then after removing the
+pup� submit it to heat sufficient to destroy any undesired life there
+may be in it.
+
+_The Insectary._--Up to the present time the work of rearing insects has
+been largely confined to the breeding cage and breeding jar, already
+described, which have been kept in the rooms of the investigator. The
+advantages of having a special building for this purpose are at once
+apparent and need not be insisted upon. One of the best establishments
+of this kind is that of the Cornell University Experiment Station, which
+was fully described in Bulletin No. 3, of that station, November, 1888.
+The Kansas Experiment Station has a similar building, and one has
+recently been built for the use of the Entomological Division of the
+United States Department of Agriculture. The insect-breeding house, or
+insectary, should comprise a building having workrooms, or laboratories,
+for microscopic and general work in the study and preparation of
+specimens, and also a conservatory for the rearing of specimens and the
+growth of plants, and, where applied entomology is concerned, special
+rooms for the preparation and the test of insecticides. The building
+proper should also have a basement storage room for hibernating insects.
+The laboratory should be fitted with all the apparatus used in the study
+of insects, including microscopes and accessories and a dark-room for
+photographic purposes.
+
+
+
+
+                   DIRECTIONS FOR TRANSMITTING INSECTS.
+
+
+It is very desirable in transmitting insects from the field of
+exploration, or from one entomologist to another, for information,
+exchange, or other purpose, that they be properly secured and packed.
+Pinned and mounted specimens should be firmly fixed in a cigar box, or a
+special box for mailing, and this should be carefully but not too
+tightly wrapped with cotton or other loose packing material to a depth
+of perhaps an inch, and the whole then inclosed in stiff wrapping paper.
+It is preferable, however, to inclose the box containing the specimens
+in a larger box, filling the intervening space, not too firmly, with
+cotton or other packing material. Where specimens are to be sent to a
+considerable distance it is advisable also to line the box in which they
+are placed with cotton, which serves to catch and hold any specimens
+which may become loose in transit. In the case of alcoholic specimens
+each vial should be wrapped separately in cotton and placed in a strong
+wooden or tin box. Special mailing boxes for alcoholic specimens have
+been devised, and a very convenient form is herewith figured. It is an
+ordinary tube of wood, with a metal screw top, and the interior lined
+with rough cork. These tubes are made in various sizes to accommodate
+vials of different dimensions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 126.--Wooden-tube mailing-box: _a_, tube; _b_, cover
+(original.)]
+
+In mailing living specimens the essential thing is a strong box,
+preferably tin, made as nearly air-tight as possible. I have found it
+very convenient on long trips to carry with me a number of tin boxes in
+the flat (Fig. 127), combined in convenient packages, ready to be bent
+and improvised in the field. For this purpose get any tinsmith to make
+out of good tin a number of pieces cut of the requisite dimensions both
+for the bottoms and the covers, carefully cutting the corners to permit
+the proper bending of the sides. These improvised boxes will prove
+useful for keeping living larv� with their food-plants, especially if
+tied up in stout brown paper to prevent any exit from the unsoldered
+angles. They will also answer admirably for mailing or otherwise sending
+specimens to their ultimate destination. In the case of larv� a quantity
+of the food-plant should always be inclosed in the box.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 127.--Tin mailing-box in the flat: _a_, box; _b_,
+cover (original).]
+
+In transmitting insects for information the greatest care should be
+taken to relieve the person of whom information is sought of as much
+unnecessary work as possible. It is easy for any beginner to collect
+more in a single day than an experienced entomologist can well mount,
+study, and determine in a week, and as those who have the means and
+information to give determinations or otherwise to assist beginners are
+generally very much occupied, and their time is valuable, they are
+justified in ignoring miscellaneous collectings where the sender has
+made no effort to either properly mount or otherwise study and care for
+his specimens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 128.--Tin mailing-box, bent into shape for use
+(original.)]
+
+Living specimens, especially larv�, should be packed in tin, with a
+supply of their appropriate food. The tighter the box the fresher will
+the food as well as the specimens keep. Insects do not easily suffocate,
+and it is worse than useless, in the majority of cases, to punch
+air-holes in such boxes. Dead specimens, when not pinned, may be sent in
+a variety of ways. Small ones may be dropped into a quill and inclosed
+in a letter, or a small vial fitted into a piece of bored wood. Those
+which do not spoil by wetting may be sent in alcohol, provided the
+bottle is absolutely filled, or, what is better, in sawdust moistened
+with alcohol, or between layers of cotton saturated with alcohol.
+
+The postal regulations permit the sending by mail of "dried insects
+* * * when properly put up, so as not to injure the persons of those
+handling the mails, nor soil the mail bags or their contents." Specimens
+in alcohol may also be sent by mail, provided that the containing vial
+be strong enough to resist the shock of handling in the mail, and that
+it be inclosed in a wooden or papier-mach� tube not less than
+three-sixteenths of an inch thick in the thinnest part, lined with cork
+or other soft material, and with a screw top so adjusted as to prevent
+the leakage of the contents in case of breakage. Entomological specimens
+are of the fourth class of mail matter, the postage on which is 1 cent
+an ounce or fraction thereof, the limit of weight for a single package
+being 4 pounds, and the limit as to bulk 18 inches in any direction.
+Saleable matter is also non-mailable at fourth-class rates; so that the
+safer method, with small packages, is to send under letter postage. It
+is far better, however, for long journeys, and especially for
+transatlantic shipment, to send by express.
+
+
+
+
+                           NOTES AND MEMORANDA.
+
+
+In the foregoing pages are given some of the more useful directions for
+those wishing to commence to collect and study insects. Experience will
+soon teach many other important facts not mentioned here, and the best
+closing advice I can give the novice is, to get acquainted, if possible,
+with some one who has already had large experience. He will be very apt
+to find such a person pleasant and instructive company whether in the
+field or in the closet. One important habit, however, I wish to strongly
+inculcate and emphasize: The collector should never be without his
+memorandum or note book. More profitless work can scarcely be imagined
+than collecting natural-history specimens without some specific aim or
+object. Every observation made should be carefully recorded, and the
+date of capture, locality, and food-plant should always be attached to
+the specimens when these are mounted. More extended notes may be made in
+a field memorandum book carried in the pocket or in larger record books
+at home. For field memoranda I advise the use of a stylographic pen, as
+pencil is apt to rub and efface in time by the motions of the body. The
+larger record book is especially necessary for biologic notes. Notes on
+adolescent states which it is intended to rear to the imago can not be
+too carefully made or in too much detail. The relative size, details of
+ornamentation and structure, dates of moulting or transformation from
+one state to another--indeed, everything that pertains to the biography
+of the species--should be noted down, and little or nothing trusted to
+mere memory where exact data are so essential. Many insects,
+particularly dragon-flies, have brilliant coloring when fresh from the
+pupa, which is largely lost afterward. The time of laying and hatching
+of eggs, the number from a single female, the character of the eggs,
+general habits, records of parasites and their mode of attack--all
+should be entered as observed. A great many species have the most
+curious life histories, which can not be ascertained except by continued
+and persevering observation, not only in the vivarium or insectary but
+in the field. It is almost impossible to follow, under artificial
+conditions, the full life cycle of many species like the Aphidid�, or
+the Gall-flies, etc., which involve alternation of generations,
+dimorphism, heteromorphism, migration from one plant to another, and
+various other curious departures from the normal mode of development,
+without careful field study and experiment. These studies are possible
+only to those who are able to frequent the same localities throughout
+the whole year, and can hardly be carried on by the traveling naturalist
+or collector.
+
+
+
+
+    INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING ARACHNIDS AND MYRIAPODS.
+
+
+The foregoing portions of this manual have dealt almost exclusively with
+the subject of the securing and preservation of Hexapods, but it is
+deemed advisable to include brief instructions for the collection and
+care of the near allies of the true insect, Spiders and Myriapods, the
+study of which will in most cases be associated with that of Hexapods.
+
+
+                    DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING SPIDERS.
+
+_Apparatus._--Many of the directions and methods given in the foregoing
+pages for the collection of Hexapods apply also to the animals named
+above. Little apparatus is necessary in the collection of spiders and
+other Arachnids. The essentials are vials containing alcohol, an insect
+net, a sieve, and forceps. Narrow vials without necks are best for
+collecting purposes, as the corks can be more quickly inserted. They
+should be of different sizes, from 1 dram to 4 or 6 drams, and the
+alcohol used should be at least 50 per cent strong and in some cases it
+is advisable to use it at a strength of 70 or 80 per cent. The net may
+be of the same construction as that used to collect insects and is used
+in the same way. Some arachnologists, however, use a net of a somewhat
+different make, which is much stronger. The iron ring is heavier and
+larger than in the case of the insect net, resembling in this respect
+the ring of the Deyrolle net. The bag is short and the handle is
+fastened to both sides of the ring. This net is used for beating the
+leaves of trees, bushes, and grass. Dr. Marx uses a net which is already
+described and figured under the name of the Umbrella Net (see p. 34,
+Fig. 52). The sieve is the same as that described on p. 35, Fig. 54, and
+is used to sift the spiders from leaves and rubbish, especially during
+winter. A mass of leaves and other material is thrown into the sieve and
+then shaken, the spiders falling through on a piece of white cloth,
+which is spread under the sieve on the ground. Many hibernating
+species can be readily secured in this manner. A forceps similar to that
+described for the collecting of hexapods should be used to capture or
+pick up specimens, for if handled with the fingers they are apt to be
+crushed, especially the smaller forms. As soon as the collecting is
+finished or the vial is filled a label should be placed in this last
+indicating place and date of collection. Egg sacs and cocoons should be
+collected in pill boxes and properly labeled, and if possible the adults
+should be reared. Both sexes should be collected and descriptive notes
+or drawings made of the webs as found in nature.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 129.--A ground Spider (_Oxyopes viridans_). (After
+Comstock.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 130.--An orb-weaver (_Argiope argyraspides_ Walck):
+_a_, male; _b_, female; _c_ and _d_, enlarged parts.]
+
+_Time and Locality for Collecting._--The best time to collect spiders is
+in the early fall, during the months of September and October. The great
+majority of the species are then mature. Many forms, however, occur in
+the adult state in late spring and early summer. Numerous species may
+also be collected during winter, some of these hibernating under stones,
+the bark of dead trees, etc., and others, more particularly the small
+forms, under dead leaves and rubbish on the ground in woods. Other
+species which have hibernated may be found about the earliest flowers in
+spring. No particular localities can be indicated for the collection of
+spiders, since they occur in all sorts of places, in wooded or open
+regions and also in and about dwellings. Many Lycosid� are found in dry
+and rocky situations and quite a number in open fields. Thomisid� may be
+found on flowers. The Theridid� affect shady places, and many Epeirid�
+will be found in similar situations. The Attid� love the sun and are
+found very actively engaged in hunting insects on plants and dead
+leaves. Many species of this family will be found in cases under loose
+bark in winter. Evergreen trees are also quite good collecting grounds
+for Attid�. The Drassid� are ground spiders and are mostly nocturnal,
+hiding during the day under leaves and stones; a few forms, however,
+disport in the hottest sunshine. Some genera are found most frequently
+near water or in damp places, as Dolomedes and Tetragnatha; others in
+sandy places, as Micaria, Targalia.
+
+
+         COLLECTING OTHER ARACHNIDS: MITES, TICKS, SCORPIONS, ETC.
+
+Other Arachnids--as mites, ticks, scorpions, daddy longlegs or
+harvest-men--may be collected in the same way as spiders.
+
+The Phalangid� (Harvest-men) somewhat resemble spiders, and are at once
+recognized by their extremely long legs. They occur about houses,
+especially in shady places, under the eaves, etc., and in the woods and
+fields. They are carnivorous and feed on small insects, especially
+Aphides. They should be pressed a little when captured to extrude the
+genital apparatus, if possible, and are best collected in the early
+fall.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 131.--A Harvest-man (_Phalangium
+ventricosum_).--From Packard.]
+
+The Phrynid� are very peculiar looking animals, the anterior legs being
+very long and slender and the maxillary palpi very large. The genus
+_Thelyphonus_ is not uncommon in the South, and is known by its oblong
+body, ending usually with a long, slender, many-jointed filament, from
+which they are called Whip-tailed Scorpions. _T. giganteus_ is the
+common species. They occur in moist situations, and are carnivorous,
+feeding on insects and small animals.
+
+The false scorpions, Chermetid�, may at once be recognized by their
+large maxillary palpi, resembling the maxill� of the true scorpion. They
+are small insects, rarely exceeding a quarter of an inch in length, and
+are found in dark shady places and feed upon mites, Psoci, and other
+small insects. A common species is represented at figure 132.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 132.--False Scorpion (_Chelifer cancroides_
+L.).--From Packard.]
+
+The true scorpions, Scorpionid�, are well-known forms, and are easily
+recognized by their large, powerful, forceps-like maxill�, and the long
+slender tail continuous with the thorax and ending with a sting, which
+is, in most cases, quite poisonous. They are found mostly in the Western
+and Southwestern States, and are dangerous in proportion to their size.
+The poisonous nature of the sting of these animals is, however,
+generally overrated, and the wounds, even of the larger species, are
+rarely fatal.
+
+The Acarina or true mites are the lowest representatives of the
+Arachnida and include many genera and species differing very widely in
+habit and characters. Some of them are mere sacs, on which the mouth
+parts or other organs are scarcely discernible. In general they resemble
+spiders. The young, however, when they leave the egg, almost invariably
+have but three pairs of feet, resembling in this respect the Hexapods.
+The fourth pair is added in the later stages. They are parasitic on
+insects and other animals, and some of them are vegetable feeders or
+live in decaying vegetable and animal matter.
+
+A very interesting group is comprised in the family Phytoptid� or
+gall-making mites which occur on the leaves of various trees and shrubs
+and produce curious galls or abnormal growths. These mites are elongate
+in form, have rudimentary mouth-parts and but four legs. A common form,
+_Phytoptus quadripes_, produces a gall on the leaves of the soft maple.
+The galls of all species should be collected and pinned and also
+preserved in alcohol, and specimens of the mites should be mounted in
+balsam.
+
+The members of the genus Sarcoptes are very minute and are the active
+source of the itch in the lower animals and man. Another common genus is
+Tyroglyphus, which includes the common cheese mite, _T. siro_. Other
+species of this genus also sometimes occur in enormous numbers in
+grocers' supplies. Still others are parasitic on insects, and one
+species, _T. phylloxer�_ Riley, is very beneficial, since, as its name
+indicates, it feeds on the Phylloxera of the grapevine.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 133.--A true Scorpion (_Buthus carolinianus_).--From
+Packard.]
+
+The Ixodid� comprise the ticks which attach themselves to cattle, hogs,
+and man, and are not at all uncommon objects. These insects can be found
+on the animals they infest, and distinct species will be found to occur
+on most wild mammals. The common Cattle tick _Boophilus bovis_ Riley, is
+represented at Fig. 134.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 134.--The Cattle-tick. (After Packard.)]
+
+The family Orobatid� includes a number of small terrestrial mites, which
+occur on the moss on trees and stones. Some species are known to feed on
+the eggs of insects, and the one shown in the accompanying figure,
+_Nothrus ovivorus_ has been observed, by Dr. Packard to eat the eggs of
+the Canker Worm.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 135.--_Nothrus ovivorus_ Packard.]
+
+The members of the family Gamasid� are parasitic upon animals, but
+chiefly upon insects. The Hydrachnid� are parasitic also upon the
+aquatic insects, and also affect fish or mussels or occur on fresh-water
+plants.
+
+One of the most important families of mites is the Trombidiidi� which
+includes a large number of species, some of which occur in immense
+numbers. Most of them are vegetable feeders, but some species feed on
+the eggs of insects.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 136.--_Trombidium locustarum_: _a_, female with her
+batch of eggs; _b_, newly hatched larva--natural size indicated by the
+dot within the circle; _c_, egg; _d e_, vacated egg-shells.]
+
+The genus Trombidium includes a number of the Red Mites which feed on
+insects in all their stages. The Locust Mite, _Trombidium locustarum_
+Riley, is one of the most interesting as well as one of the most
+important of our locust enemies, and will serve to illustrate the habits
+of the group. It differs so much in infancy and maturity that it has
+been referred to different genera and is known under different names.
+The mature form lives on the ground and feeds on all sorts of animal or
+decomposing vegetable matter, and wherever the ground is filled with
+locust eggs these afford an abundance of food and the mites flourish and
+multiply rapidly. In the spring the female lays 300 or 400 minute
+spherical orange-red eggs in the ground (Fig. 136_a_). From these eggs,
+as shown enlarged at _c_, _d_, and _e_ (the two latter being the vacated
+egg shells) emerge the six-legged larva shown at _b_. These are mere
+specks and crawl actively about, fastening themselves to the locusts
+mostly at the base of the wings or along the upper veins. They subsist
+on the juices of their host. They firmly attach themselves by the mouth
+and increase rapidly in size, the legs not growing and becoming mere
+rudiments. In this form they are shown at Fig. 137_a_. When fully
+developed they let go their hold, drop to the ground, and crawl under
+the shelter afforded by holes in the earth or under sticks. Here, in the
+course of two or three weeks, they transform within the larval skin to
+the pupal stage shown at _b_, and eventually break through the old
+larval skin and escape in the form shown at _c_ and _d_. This mature
+form passes the winter in the ground and is active whenever the
+temperature is a few degrees above the freezing point. A larger species
+_T. giganteum_ Riley, also attacks locusts, while a third species
+attacks the common House-fly. This was formerly known in the larva state
+only and was referred to the genus Astoma, to which also the larval form
+of Trombidium was referred. I have described the adult together with the
+larva and pupa as _Trombidium muscarum_. An allied mite, _Hydrachna
+belostom�_, attacks the large aquatic water bug, Belostoma, and has a
+mode of development precisely similar to that of Trombidium.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 137.--_Trombidium locustarum_. _a_, mature larva
+when about to leave the wing of a locust; _b_, pupa; _c_, male adult
+when just from the pupa; _d_, female--the natural sizes indicated to the
+right; _e_, palpal claw and thumb; _f_, pedal claw; _g_, one of the
+barbed hairs; _h_, the striations on the larval skin.]
+
+To this family also belong the common greenhouse mite, _Tetranychus
+telarius_, and also the Bryobia mite, _B. pratensis_, which of late
+years has attracted very considerable attention by its appearance in
+immense numbers about dwellings, coming from the adjoining fields of
+clover or grass. Generically allied to the greenhouse mite is the
+Six-spotted Mite of the Orange (_T. 6-maculatus_ Riley), which is shown
+in the accompanying figure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 138.--The Six-spotted Mite of the Orange
+(_Tetranychus 6-maculatus_): _a_, from above--enlarged; _b_, tarsus;
+_c_, rostrum and palpus--still more enlarged; _d_, tip of palpus--still
+more enlarged.]
+
+Spiders and mites thus collected may be transferred to alcohol. Dr.
+Marx, who has had a very considerable experience in the preservation of
+spiders, recommends the use of the following mixture: Glycerin and
+Wickersheim's fluid, 1� ounces of each, and distilled water 3 ounces,
+the whole to be shaken and thoroughly mixed and added to 30 ounces of 95
+per cent alcohol. Alcohol which has previously been used for preserving
+spiders, and which has therefore dissolved some of the fatty matters
+from the specimens, he prefers to pure alcohol, using with this,
+however, somewhat less of the distilled water. The liquid thus composed
+answers all demands and keeps the specimens flexible and preserves their
+coloring. Should the stopper become loose and the liquid evaporate,
+there is always sufficient liquid, water or glycerine, left in the vial
+to keep the specimens from drying and thus save them from destruction.
+Dr. Marx also prefers to use cork stoppers rather than the rubber
+stoppers recommended for other alcoholic material. His objection to the
+rubber stopper is that, in a collection in which the specimens are often
+used and the stoppers are frequently removed, he finds that small
+particles of the rubber stopper come off and settle upon the specimens
+as a white dust, which it is difficult to remove. This objection applies
+only to a poor quality of rubber, and in all other respects the rubber
+is much to be preferred. The colors of spiders are apt to fade somewhat
+if exposed to light, and the collection should therefore be kept in
+closed boxes or in the dark.
+
+
+                           COLLECTING MYRIAPODA.
+
+Centipedes and Millipedes are collected in the same manner as spiders.
+They live in damp places, under sticks and stones, and in decaying
+vegetation. They should be preserved in alcohol, and on account of their
+usually strong chitinous covering, precautions as to the strength of the
+alcohol are less necessary here than with softer-bodied specimens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 139.--A Milliped (_Cambula annulata_).]
+
+The members of this subclass comprise a number of well-marked groups.
+The Iulid� are cylindrical insects and occur in moist places, as do most
+of the representatives of this subclass. A common form is represented in
+the accompanying figure. The Chiliopod� comprise the flattened forms
+having many-jointed antenn� and but a single pair of limbs to each
+segment of the body, and are the forms to which the name centipede may
+properly be applied. They are predaceous in habit, live largely on
+living animal matter, and are very quick in their movements. Some forms
+are poisonous, having poison glands at the base of the first pair of
+legs, but the majority of the species are entirely harmless. A number
+of common species belong to the genus Geophilus and occur under stones
+and logs. The genus Scolopendra includes some of the larger species of
+the order. The largest known species, _S. gigantea_, occurs in the East
+Indies and attains a length of from 9 inches to more than a foot.
+Several species found within the limits of the United States attain a
+length of 5 inches or more. The family Cermatiid� includes the very
+common species _Cermatia forceps_, which, while abundant in the South
+and West, occurs somewhat more rarely in the North. It is commonly found
+in moist situations, in houses or conservatories, and on account of its
+long legs and agile movements frequently creates considerable
+consternation. It is, however, an entirely harmless and very beneficial
+species, since it feeds on various household pests, including flies,
+roaches, etc.
+
+
+
+
+                     TEXT BOOKS--ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS.
+
+
+Bulletin No. 19 of the Division of Entomology, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture, contains an enumeration of the published synopses,
+catalogues, and lists of North American insects, together with other
+information intended to assist the student of American entomology. This
+can be had upon application, and I would refer the student to it for
+specific information as to synopses, catalogues, and lists. I have
+deemed it advisable, however, to include here an enumeration of the more
+useful works of a general character; a list of the entomological
+periodicals, both home and foreign; and the entomological works
+published by the different departments of the Government, with some
+information as to how and of whom they can be obtained. Many of these
+publications are no longer to be had except as they may be picked up
+through book-dealers; but the titles even of those which are out of
+print will be useful to the student as a guide to what he should find in
+every good library. Requests for this kind of information are constantly
+received at the Department of Agriculture and at the National Museum.
+The most useful general works are given first, and, while a great many
+others in foreign languages might be cited, I would strongly advise the
+beginner in America to confine himself to these, and especially to read
+Harris's Insects Injurious to Vegetation, Kirby & Spence's Introduction,
+and Westwood's Introduction. This last, though published over half a
+century ago, is still one of the most useful entomological works in the
+English language. While these Introductions will be of great service in
+arranging and classifying material and in giving a knowledge of the
+relationships of species, there is no better text-book than the great
+book of nature, which is always ready to unfold its truths to every
+earnest inquirer. In field and wood alone can he become familiar with
+the insects in all their wondrous life habits, instincts, and
+intelligence. There alone will he receive the fullest inspiration and
+pleasure in his work or find the highest reward for his efforts.
+
+
+  COMPREHENSIVE WORKS MOST USEFUL FOR THE STUDY OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS.
+
+H. C. C. BURMEISTER.--Handbuch der Entomologie. Berlin, 1832-1855.
+5 vols.
+
+MANUAL OF ENTOMOLOGY.--A translation of the above, by W. E. Shuckard.
+London, 1836.
+
+J. O. WESTWOOD.--An introduction to the modern classification of
+insects, founded on the natural habits and corresponding organization of
+the different families. 2 vols. London, 1839-'40.
+
+THOMAS SAY.--Complete writings on the Entomology of North America;
+edited by John L. Le Conte. New York, 1859.
+
+H. A. HAGEN.--Bibliotheca Entomologica. Die Litteratur �ber das ganze
+Gebiet der Entomologie bis zum Jahre 1862. Leipzig, 1862.
+
+A. S. PACKARD.--Guide to the Study of Insects. Henry Holt & Co.,
+Philadelphia and New York. (First edition, Salem, 1869.)
+
+---- Entomology for Beginners. Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1888.
+
+THE STANDARD NATURAL HISTORY.--Edited by John Sterling Kingsley. S. E.
+Cassino & Co., Boston, 1884-'85.
+
+     Volume II contains the insects, which are treated by the following
+     authors: _Hymenoptera_, J. H. Comstock and L. O. Howard;
+     _Coleoptera_, George Dimmock; _Lepidoptera_, H'y Edwards and C. H.
+     Fernald; _Diptera_, S. W. Williston; _Orthoptera_, C. V. Riley;
+     _Hemiptera_, P. R. Uhler; _Neuroptera_, A. S. Packard; _Arachnida_,
+     J. H. Emerton.
+
+J. H. COMSTOCK.--An Introduction to Entomology. Published by the author.
+Ithaca, N. Y. 2 parts. Part I, 1888.
+
+ALPHEUS HYATT AND J. M. ARMS.--Guides for Science Teaching, No. III.
+Insecta. Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, 1890.
+
+
+                     GENERAL WORKS ON CLASSIFICATION.
+
+                               HYMENOPTERA.
+
+E. T. CRESSON.--Synopsis of the Families and Genera of the Hymenoptera
+of America, north of Mexico, together with a Catalogue of the described
+Species and Bibliography. Transactions Am. Entom. Society, Supplementary
+volume. 2 parts. Philadelphia, 1887.
+
+
+                                COLEOPTERA.
+
+JOHN L. LE CONTE AND GEORGE H. HORN.--Classification of the Coleoptera
+of North America. Prepared for the Smithsonian Institution. Washington,
+Smithsonian Institution, 1883.
+
+     This is the most recent and the only complete classification of
+     North American Coleoptera. It contains also Appendix II, a "list of
+     bibliographical references to memoirs, in which more or less
+     complete synopses of the families, genera, and species of the
+     Coleoptera of the United States have been published."
+
+J. T. LACORDAIRE.--Histoire naturelle des Insectes. Genera des
+Col�opt�res, ou expos� m�thodique et critique de tous les genres
+propos�s jusqu'ici dans cet ordre d'insectes. [Completed by J. Chapuis.]
+Paris, France, 1854-1876. 12 vols, and 1 vol. plates.
+
+[Out of print.]WILLIAM LE BARON.--Outlines of Entomology, published in
+connection with the author's Annual Reports upon injurious insects. Part
+first. Including the Order of Coleoptera. Fourth Annual Report on the
+Noxious and Beneficial Insects of the State of Illinois. Sep. Edit.
+Springfield, 1874.
+
+
+                               LEPIDOPTERA.
+
+G. A. W. HERRICH-SCHAEFFER.--Sammlung neuer oder wenig bekannter
+aussereurop�ischer Schmetterlinge. Vol. I. Regensburg, 1850-'58; Vol.
+II, Pt. 1, 1869.
+
+     Contains a classification of the Lepidoptera, which forms the basis
+     of our present arrangement.
+
+JOHN G. MORRIS.--Synopsis of the described Lepidoptera of North America.
+Part I. Diurnal and Crepuscular Lepidoptera. Washington, Smithsonian
+Institution, 1862.
+
+     Compiled descriptions of the North American Lepidoptera, from the
+     Rhopalocera to the Bombycid�.
+
+H. STRECKER.--Lepidoptera, Rhopaloceres et Heteroceres, indigenous and
+exotic; with descriptions and colored illustrations. Reading, Pa.,
+1872-'77.
+
+     Fifteen parts of this work have been published containing figures
+     and descriptions of many North American species.
+
+JOHN B. SMITH.--An Introduction to a Classification of the North
+American Lepidoptera. <Bull. Brookl. Ent. Soc., Vol. VII, 1884, pp.
+70-74 and 81-83.
+
+     A synopsis of the families of Lepidoptera based on
+     Herrich-Schaeffer's classification.
+
+---- Synopsis of the Genera of the North American Rhopalocera. <Bull.
+     Brookl. Ent. Soc, Vol. VI, 1883, pp. 37-45.
+
+E. DOUBLEDAY AND W. C. HEWITSON.--The genera of diurnal Lepidoptera,
+comprising their generic characters, a notice of their transformations,
+and a catalogue of the species of each genus; illustrated, with 86
+colored plates from drawings by W. C. Hewitson. 2 vols., London,
+1846-'52.
+
+     This work was completed by Westwood after the death of Doubleday.
+
+S. H. SCUDDER.--Butterflies: Their structures, changes, and
+life-histories, with special reference to American forms. Being an
+application of the "Doctrine of descent" to the study of Butterflies,
+with an appendix of practical instructions. 321 pp. and 201 text figs.
+New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1881.
+
+---- The Butterflies of the Eastern United States and Canada with
+     special reference to New England. 3 vols., Cambridge, Mass., 1889;
+     pp. 1958, plates 59. (Published by the author. Cost about $75 for
+     3 vols.)
+
+G. H. FRENCH.--The Butterflies of the Eastern United States. For the use
+of classes in Zo�logy and private students. Philadelphia, Lippincott &
+Co., 1886.
+
+     Gives synopses of the genera and species, and description of the
+     species.
+
+W. H. EDWARDS.--Butterflies of North America. Boston, Houghton, Mifflin
+& Co.
+
+     Two volumes are completed and the third is in course of
+     publication.
+
+
+                                HEMIPTERA.
+
+HERBERT OSBORN.--Classification of Hemiptera. <Entomologica Amer., Vol.
+I, 1885, pp. 21-27.
+
+     Short characterization of the whole order, with tables of suborders
+     and families.
+
+---- Pediculi and Mallophaga affecting Man and the Lower Animals.
+     Constituting Bulletin No. 7 of the Division of Entomology, U. S.
+     Department of Agriculture. Washington, 1891.
+
+P. R. UHLER.--List of Hemiptera of the region west of the Mississippi
+River, including those collected during the Hayden explorations of 1873.
+<Bull. U. S. Geolog. and Geogr. Survey of the Terr., Vol. I, 1875, pp.
+267-361, Pl. XIX-XXI.
+
+---- Report upon the insects collected by P. R. Uhler during the
+     exploration of 1875, including monographs of the families Cynid� and
+     Sald�, and the Hemiptera collected by A. S. Packard, jr., M. D.
+     <U. S. Geolog. and Geogr. Survey, Bulletin, Vol. III, No. 2, 1877,
+     pp. 355-475.
+
+TOWNEND GLOVER.--Report of the Entomologist. <Report of the Commissioner
+of Agriculture for the year 1877, pp. 17-46.
+
+     A popular treatise on the Homoptera, with illustrations.
+
+A. H. HALIDAY.--An Epitome of the British genera in the Order
+Thysanoptera, with indications of a few of the species. <Entomol. Mag.,
+Vol. III, 1836, pp. 439-451.
+
+
+                                 DIPTERA.
+
+H. LOEW AND C. R. OSTEN-SACKEN.--Monographs of the Diptera of North
+America. (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.) 4 parts. Washington,
+Smithsonian Institution, 1862-'72.
+
+     The several monographs will be found enumerated under the
+     respective families.
+
+H. LOEW.--Diptera Americ� septentrionalis indigena. 2 parts. Berlin,
+1861-'72. (Originally published in 10 centuri� in the Berliner Entomol.
+Zeitschrift.)
+
+     Descriptions of 1,000 North American Diptera, but without synoptic
+     arrangement.
+
+C. R. OSTEN-SACKEN.--Western Diptera: Descriptions of new genera and
+species of Diptera from the region west of the Mississippi and
+especially from California. <Bull. U. S. Geolog. and Geogr. Survey of
+the Territories, Vol. III, 1877, pp. 189-354.
+
+F. BRAUER.--Die Zweifl�gler des Kaiserlichen Museums zu Wien. I-III.
+Wien, 1880-'83.
+
+     Important contributions to the classification of the Diptera.
+
+
+                                ORTHOPTERA.
+
+HENRI DE SAUSSURE.--Orthoptera nova Americana (Diagnoses pr�liminares).
+Series I-III. <Revue et Mag. de Zool., 1859-'61.
+
+     Contains synoptical tables of species, besides descriptions of
+     numerous North American Orthoptera.
+
+SAMUEL H. SCUDDER.--Materials for a monograph of the North American
+Orthoptera. <Boston Journal of Nat. Hist., Vol. VII, 1862, pp. 409-480.
+
+     Contains synoptical tables and a review of the system used for
+     classification.
+
+---- Remarks upon the arrangement of the families of Orthoptera. <Proc.
+     Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XII, 1868-'69; also separate under the
+     title: Entomological Notes, Vol. II, pp. 7-14.
+
+---- Synoptical tables for determining North American insects.
+     Orthoptera. <Psyche, Vol. I, 1876, pp. 169-171.
+
+     Synopsis of families; also list of useful works in the study of
+     North American Orthoptera.
+
+
+                                NEUROPTERA.
+
+HERMANN HAGEN.--Synopsis of the Neuroptera of North America, with a list
+of the South American species. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,
+Washington, 1861.
+
+---- Synopsis of the Odonata of America. <Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.,
+      Vol. XVIII, 1875, pp. 20-96.
+
+SIR JOHN LUBBOCK.--Monograph of the Collembola and Thysanura. London,
+Ray Society, 1873.
+
+     The introduction gives the full bibliography up to date.
+
+
+                                MYRIAPODA.
+
+THOMAS SAY.--Descriptions of the Myriapoda of the United States. <Journ.
+Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil., Vol. II, 1821, pp. 102-114; Say's Entom. Writings,
+ed. Le Conte, Vol. II, pp. 24-32.
+
+     This is the first paper of importance on the North American
+     Myriapoda.
+
+GEORGE NEWPORT.--Monograph of the class Myriapoda, Order Chilopoda.
+<Trans. Linnean Soc. of London, Vol. XIX, 1845, pp. 265-302 and 349-439.
+
+HORATIO C. WOOD, Jr.--On the Chilopoda of North America, with Catalogue
+of all the specimens in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution.
+<Journ. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil., New Ser., Vol. V, 1863, pp. 5-42.
+
+---- The Myriapoda of North America. <Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol.
+     XIII, 1865, pp. 137-248, 3 pl.
+
+     This is the first and only monograph of the Myriapoda published in
+     this country.
+
+ROBERT LATZEL.--Die Myriapoden der Oesterreichisch-Ungarischen
+Monarchie. Erste H�lfte: Die Chilopoden, Wien, 1880. Zweite H�lfte: Die
+Symphylen, Pauropoden und Diplopoden, Wien, 1884.
+
+     The most recent comprehensive work on this order, and very
+     important from a classificatory standpoint.
+
+LUCIEN M. UNDERWOOD.--The North American Myriapoda. <Entomol. Amer.,
+Vol. I, 1885, pp. 141-151.
+
+     A complete bibliographical review of the subject, with tables of
+     families and genera.
+
+
+                                ARACHNIDA.
+
+N. M. HENTZ.--Descriptions and figures of the Araneides of the United
+States. <Journ. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vols, IV-VI, 1842-'50.
+
+     These papers form the basis of the study of American arachnology.
+     Numerous species are described, but not in synoptic form.
+
+T. THORELL.--On European Spiders. Part I. Review of the European genera
+of Spiders. Upsala, 1869-'70.
+
+N. M. HENTZ.--Arane� Americ� septentrionalis. The Spiders of the United
+States. Edited by J. H. Emerton and E. Burgess. <"Occasional Papers" of
+the Boston Society of Natural History, 1875.
+
+     A reprint of Hentz's papers on North American spiders.
+
+GRAF EUGEN KEYSERLING.--Amerikanische Spinnen aus den Familien
+Pholcoid�, Scytodoid� und Dysderoid�. <Verh. k. k. zool.-bot. Ges. in
+Wien, Vol. XXVII, 1877, pp. 205-234.
+
+---- Neue Spinnen aus Amerika. (Six parts.) <Verh. k. k. Zool.-bot. Ges.
+     in Wien, Vols. XXIX-XXXIV, 1879-'84.
+
+E. SIMON.--Les Arachnides de France. Paris, Vols. I-V, 1874-'84.
+
+     These two works represent the most recent systems of
+     classification, and are therefore of great general value, although
+     they deal only with the European fauna.
+
+LUCIEN M. UNDERWOOD.--The Progress of Arachnology in America. <Amer.
+Natur., Vol. XXI, 1887, pp. 963-975.
+
+     A very useful review of the bibliography, with synoptic table of
+     the families of the Arane�.
+
+
+                           AMERICAN PERIODICALS.
+
+THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. A monthly journal devoted to the natural
+sciences in their widest sense (24 volumes published up to date. Now
+published at Philadelphia).
+
+[Publication discontinued.]ANNALS OF THE LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY OF NEW
+YORK (8 volumes, 1824-'67. Continued since 1876 as Annals of the New York
+Academy of Sciences).
+
+[Publication discontinued.]BULLETIN OF THE BROOKLYN ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
+(7 volumes, 1878-'85. Continued as Entomologica Americana).
+
+BULLETIN OF THE BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY (4 volumes completed;
+1874 to 1883).
+
+BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE
+TERRITORIES, F. V. Hayden in charge (Department of the Interior; 1875 to
+1879).
+
+BULLETINS OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, J. M. Powell,
+director; beginning with 1883.
+
+BULLETINS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM (Department of the
+Interior; beginning with 1875).
+
+THE CANADIAN ENTOMOLOGIST. (Published by the Entomological Society of
+Ontario; 22 volumes issued up to the end of 1890. Published at London,
+Ontario.)
+
+[Publication discontinued.]ENTOMOLOGICA AMERICANA. (Published by the
+Brooklyn Entomological Society at Brooklyn, N. Y. 1885 to 1890.)
+
+ENTOMOLOGICAL NEWS [and Proceedings of the Entomological Section of the
+Academy of Natural Sciences] (Vol. I issued in 1890. Published at
+Philadelphia).
+
+JOURNAL OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA (commencing
+with 1817).
+
+MEMOIRS OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY (commencing with 1866).
+
+[Publication discontinued.]NORTH AMERICAN ENTOMOLOGIST. (Published by the
+Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, 1 volume, Buffalo, N. Y. 1879-'80.)
+
+[Publication discontinued.]PAPILIO. Devoted exclusively to Lepidoptera.
+Organ of the New York Entomological Club (4 volumes, 1881-'84).
+
+PSYCHE. Organ of the Cambridge Entomological Club (5 volumes issued up
+to date. Published at Cambridge, Mass. Publication begun in 1874).
+
+PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA
+(beginning with 1841).
+
+PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF PHILADELPHIA
+(beginning with 1860).
+
+PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY (commencing with
+1841).
+
+[Publication discontinued.]PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF
+PHILADELPHIA (6 volumes, 1861-'67).
+
+PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON (2 volumes,
+beginning with 1884).
+
+PROCEEDINGS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM (Department of the
+Interior; beginning with 1878).
+
+REPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE
+TERRRITORIES (Department of the Interior; beginning with 1867).
+
+SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS (Smithsonian Institution,
+Washington, D. C.; beginning 1862).
+
+TRANSACTIONS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OF ST. LOUIS (4 volumes hitherto
+published).
+
+TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY and Proceedings of
+the Entomological Section of the Academy of Natural Sciences (beginning
+with 1868; published at Philadelphia).
+
+TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF PHILADELPHIA (2d
+series beginning with 1818).
+
+Papers on entomology are also published occasionally in other American
+periodicals, among which the following might be mentioned:
+
+JOURNAL OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. Chapel Hill, N. C.
+
+JOURNAL OF THE NEW YORK MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.
+
+NATURALISTE CANADIEN. Edited by Abb� Provancher, Cap Rouge, Quebec.
+
+PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, San Francisco, Cal.
+
+
+                           FOREIGN PERIODICALS.
+
+ANNALES DE LA SOCI�T� ENTOMOLOGIQUE DE BELGIQUE. Publication begun in
+1857. Brussels.
+
+ANNALES DE LA SOCI�T� ENTOMOLOGIQUE DE FRANCE. Publication begun in
+1832. Paris.
+
+[Publication discontinued.]BERLINER ENTOMOLOGISCHE ZEITSCHRIFT.
+18 volumes, Berlin, 1857-1874.
+
+     Succeeded by the Deutsche Entomologische Zeitung.
+
+BULLETIN DE LA SOCI�T� ENTOMOLOGIQUE DE FRANCE.
+
+BULLETIN DE LA SOCI�T� ENTOMOLOGIQUE SUISSE. (See Mittheil. d. Schweiz.
+Entom. Gesell.)
+
+BULLETINO DELLA SOCIET� ENTOMOLOGICA ITALIANA. Florence. (Publication
+commenced in 1869.)
+
+DEUTSCHE ENTOMOLOGISCHE ZEITSCHRIFT. Published by the Entomological
+Society of Berlin. (Publication begun in 1875.)
+
+ENTOMOLOGISCHE NACHRICHTEN. (Now edited by Dr. F. Karsch. Berlin.
+Publication commenced in 1875.)
+
+ENTOMOLOGISK TIDSKRIFT; P� F�RANSTALTANDE AF ENTOMOLOGISKA F�RENINGEN I
+STOCKHOLM: (Commenced with 1880.)
+
+[Publication discontinued.]ENTOMOLOGISCHE ZEITUNG: HERAUSGEGEBEN VON DEM
+ENTOMOLOGISCHEN VEREIN ZU STETTIN. 36 volumes. Stettin. 1840-'75.
+
+ENTOMOLOGISKE MEDDELELSER UDGIVNE OF ENTOMOLOGISK FORENING. Edited by
+Fr. Meinert, Copenhagen (beginning with 1887).
+
+THE ENTOMOLOGIST. A popular monthly journal of British entomology. Vol.
+I, 1840-'42. (Publication resumed in 1864. London.)
+
+[Publication discontinued.]THE ENTOMOLOGIST'S ANNUAL. Edited by
+H. T. Stainton. London. (Publication begun in 1855; 22 vols. published
+up to 1876.)
+
+ENTOMOLOGIST'S MONTHLY MAGAZINE. London (beginning with 1864).
+
+Horae ... Variis sermonibus rossi� usitatis. Societas Entomologica
+Rossica. (Publication begun in 1861.)
+
+[Publication discontinued.]LINN� ENTOMOLOGICA. HERAUSGEGEBEN VOM
+ENTOMOLOGISCHEN VEREINE ZU STETTIN (16 volumes, Berlin, 1846-'66).
+
+MITTHEILUNGEN DER SCHWEIZERISCHEN ENTOMOLOGISCHEN GESELLSCHAFT. Bulletin
+de la Soci�t� entomologique suisse. (Publication begun at Schaffhausen,
+Switz., in 1862. Afterward published at Geneva.)
+
+REVUE D'ENTOMOLOGIE. (Published by the Soci�t� Fran�aise d'Entomologie,
+Ca�n, France. Publication begun in 1882.)
+
+TIJDSCHRIFT VOOR ENTOMOLOGIE. NEDERLANDSCHE ENTOMOLOGISCHE VEREINIGUNG,
+Leiden, Holland (beginning with 1857. Published by the Dutch
+Entomological Society).
+
+TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. (Begun in 1834.)
+
+[Publication discontinued.]WIENER ENTOMOLOGISCHE MONATSSCHRIFT
+(8 volumes, Vienna, 1857-'64).
+
+WIENER ENTOMOLOGISCHE ZEITUNG. Vienna. (Commenced 1882.)
+
+[Publication discontinued.]ZEITSCHRIFT F�R DIE ENTOMOLOGIE. Edited by
+E. F. Germar (5 volumes. Leipzig, 1839-'44).
+
+ZEITSCHRIFT F�R ENTOMOLOGIE. VEREIN F�R SCHLESISCHE INSECKTEN-KUNDE ZU
+BRESLAU. (Publication begun at Breslau in 1847).
+
+ZEITSCHRIFT F�R WISSENSCHAFTLICHE ZOOLOGIE. Leipzig. (Begun in 1848).
+
+A large number of other periodicals devoted to entomology have been
+issued, principally in Europe, but after continuing for a year or more
+their publication has been abandoned, and they are not included here.
+Important entomological papers have also been published in many serials
+devoted to zo�logy or the natural sciences generally. Among them may be
+mentioned the following:
+
+ANNALS AND MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. London (beginning with 1838).
+
+ARCHIV F�R NATURGESCHICHTE. Berlin (beginning with 1835).
+
+�FVERSIGT AF KONGL. SVENSKA VETENSKAPS ACADEMIENS F�RHANDLINGAR
+(beginning with 1844. Published at Stockholm).
+
+     Proceedings of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
+
+PROCEEDINGS OF THE ZO�LOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.
+
+REVUE ET MAGASIN DE ZOOLOGIE PURE ET APPLIQU�E. Paris (beginning with
+1839).
+
+SITZUNGSBERICHTE DER MATHEMATISCH-NATURWISSENSCHAFTLICHEN CLASSE DER
+KAISERLICHEN ACADEMIE DER WISSENSCHAFTEN ZU WIEN (beginning with 1848).
+
+TRANSACTIONS OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY OF LONDON (beginning with 1791).
+
+TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. Wellington,
+New Zealand.
+
+VERHANDLUNGEN DER ZOOLOGISCH-BOTANISCHEN GESELLSCHAFT IN WIEN (beginning
+with 1852).
+
+
+             LIST OF MORE USEFUL WORKS ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY.
+
+T. W. HARRIS, Insects Injurious to Vegetation. (Flint edition.) New
+York, Orange Judd Co. $4 or $6. (First edition, Cambridge, 1841.)
+
+[Out of print.]ASA FITCH, Reports of the State Entomologist of New York,
+I-XIV, Albany, 1855-'70. (For a full account of these, see First Annual
+Report, by J. A. Lintner, State Entomologist of New York, pp. 294-297.)
+
+[Publication discontinued.]The Practical Entomologist. Vols. I and II.
+Published by the Entomological Society of Philadelphia, 1865-'67.
+
+[Publication discontinued.]The American Entomologist, edited by
+B. D. Walsh and C. V. Riley. Vol. I. St. Louis, Mo., 1868.
+(Out of print.)
+
+[Publication discontinued.]The American Entomologist and Botanist, edited
+by C. V. Riley and Dr. George Vasey. Vol. II. St. Louis, Mo., 1870.
+
+[Out of print.]The American Entomologist, edited by C. V. Riley. Vol. III.
+[Second series, Vol. I.] New York, Hub Publishing Co., 1880.
+
+[Out of print.]B. D. WALSH, Annual Report on the Noxious Insects of the
+State of Illinois. Chicago, Prairie Farmer Co., 1868.
+
+[Out of print.]C. V. RILEY, Reports of the State Entomologist of Missouri,
+I-IX, Jefferson City, 1869-'77.
+
+[Out of print.]WILLIAM LE BARON, Reports of the State Entomologist of
+Illinois. I-IV, Springfield, 1871-'74.
+
+[Out of print.]CYRUS THOMAS, Reports of the State Entomologist of
+Illinois, I-VI, Springfield, 1876-'81.
+
+J. A. LINTNER, Reports of the State Entomologist of New York. Albany
+(beginning with 1882).
+
+S. A. FORBES, Reports of the State Entomologist of Illinois. Springfield
+(beginning with 1883).
+
+---- Miscellaneous Essays on Economic Entomology. Springfield, Ill.,
+     1886. (Published instead of Annual Report.)
+
+MARY TREAT, Injurious Insects of the Farm and Garden. New York, Orange
+Judd Co., 1882. (A small work compiled from Riley's reports.)
+
+WILLIAM SAUNDERS, Insects Injurious to Fruits. Philadelphia, J. B.
+Lippincott & Co., 1883.
+
+MATTHEW COOKE, Injurious Insects of the Orchard, Vineyard, etc.
+Sacramento, 1883. (8vo., pp. 472.)
+
+P. J. VAN BENEDEN, Animal Parasites and Messmates. New York, D. Appleton
+& Co., 1876. International Scientific Series.
+
+[Out of print.]Reports of the Entomologists of the U. S. Department of
+Agriculture, T. Glover (1863-1878), J. H. Comstock (1879-1880), and
+C. V. Riley (1878-1879, 1880 to date).[10]
+
+  [10] The annual reports of the Entomologist are contained in the
+  corresponding annual reports of the Department of Agriculture. A
+  limited author's edition, separately bound, and with table of contents
+  and index, is published each year.
+
+Bulletins of the Division of Entomology of the U. S. Department of
+Agriculture, C. V. Riley, Entomologist (1883 to date).
+
+Reports and Bulletins of the U. S. Entomological Commission.
+
+JOHN CURTIS, Farm Insects. London, Blackie & Son, 1860.
+
+ELEANOR A. ORMEROD, Manual of Injurious Insects, and Methods of
+Prevention, etc. London and Edinburgh, 1881. (A small work, costing
+about $1.50.)
+
+---- Reports of Observations of Injurious Insects and Common Farm Pests,
+     with Methods of Prevention and Remedy. London. Simpkin, Marshall,
+     Hamilton, Kent & Co., limited. (Fourteen reports issued up to 1891.)
+
+J. H. KALTENBACH.--Die Pflanzenfeinde aus der Classe der Insekten. 8vo.
+Stuttgart, 1874. (A useful work for determining what insects infest
+plants in Europe.)
+
+INSECT LIFE. Periodical Bulletin.--Devoted to the economy and the
+life-habits of insects, especially in their relations to agriculture.
+Edited by C. V. Riley, entomologist, and L. O. Howard, first assistant,
+with the assistance of other members of the divisional force
+(Publication begun in 1888.)
+
+E. L. TASCHENBERG.--Praktische Insekten-Kunde. Parts I-V. Bremen, 1879.
+
+FELICE FRANCESCHINI.--Gli Insetti Nocivi. Milan, 1891.
+
+J. T. C. RATZEBURG.--Die Waldverderbniss, oder dauernder Schade, welcher
+durch Insektenfrass, Sch�len, Schlagen, und Verbeissen an lebenden
+Waldb�umen entsteht. Two parts. Berlin, 1866-'68.
+
+
+    ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS PUBLISHED BY THE UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL
+     COMMISSION AND BY THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
+
+                  UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.
+
+(Members of the Commission: C. V. Riley, A. S. Packard, jr., and Cyrus
+Thomas.)
+
+[11]BULLETIN NO. 1.--Destruction of the young or unfledged Locusts
+(_Caloptenus spretus_). (1877.) [pp. 15.]
+
+  [11] All of these bulletins and reports, with the exception of the
+  fifth report, are out of print.
+
+BULLETIN NO. 2.--On the Natural History of the Rocky Mountain Locust and
+on the habits of the young or unfledged insects as they occur in the
+more fertile country in which they will hatch the present year. (1877.)
+[pp. 14, figs. 10.]
+
+BULLETIN NO. 3.--The Cotton Worm. Summary of its Natural History, with
+an Account of its Enemies, and the best Means of controlling it; being a
+Report of Progress of the Work of the Commission. By Chas. V. Riley, M.
+A., Ph. D. (1880.) [pp. 144, figs. 84, plates 1.]
+
+BULLETIN NO. 4.--The Hessian Fly. Its Ravages, Habits, Enemies, and
+Means of preventing its Increase. By A. S. Packard, jr., M. D. (1880.)
+[pp. 43, figs. 1, plates 2, maps 1.]
+
+BULLETIN NO. 5.--The Chinch Bug. Its History, Characters, and Habits,
+and the Means of destroying it or counteracting its Injuries. By Cyrus
+Thomas, Ph. D. (1879.) [pp. 44, figs. 10, maps 1.]
+
+BULLETIN NO. 6.--General Index and Supplement to the nine Reports on the
+Insects of Missouri. By Charles V. Riley, M. A., Ph. D. (1881.) [pp.
+177.]
+
+BULLETIN NO. 7.--Insects injurious to Forest and Shade Trees. By A. S.
+Packard, jr., M. D. (1881.) [pp. 275, figs. 100.]
+
+First Annual Report for the year 1877, relating to the Rocky Mountain
+Locust and the best Methods of preventing its Injuries and of guarding
+against its Invasions, in pursuance of an Appropriation made by Congress
+for this purpose. With maps and illustrations. (1878.) [pp. 477+294,
+figs. 111, plates 5, maps 1.]
+
+Second Report for the years 1878 and 1879, relating to the Rocky
+Mountain Locust and the Western Cricket, and treating of the best Means
+of subduing the Locust in its permanent Breeding grounds, with a view of
+preventing its Migrations into the more fertile Portions of the
+trans-Mississippi country, in pursuance of Appropriations made by
+Congress for this purpose. With Maps and Illustrations. (1880.) [pp.
+XVIII+322+22, figs. 10, plates 17, maps 7.]
+
+Third Report relating to the Rocky Mountain Locust, the Western Cricket,
+the Army Worm, Canker Worms, and the Hessian Fly; together with
+Descriptions of Larv� of injurious Forest Insects, Studies on the
+embryological Development of the Locust and of other Insects, and on the
+systematic Position of the Orthoptera in Relation to other Orders of
+Insects. With Maps and Illustrations. (1883.) [pp. XVIII+347+91, figs.
+14, plates 64, maps 3.]
+
+Fourth Report, being a revised Edition of Bulletin No. 3, and the Final
+Report on the Cotton Worm and Bollworm. By Charles V. Riley, Ph. D.
+(1885.) [pp. XXXVIII+399+147, figs. 45, plates 64, maps 2.]
+
+Fifth Report, being a revised and enlarged edition of Bulletin No. 7, on
+Insects Injurious to Forest and Shade Trees. By Alpheus S. Packard, M.
+D., Ph. D., with woodcuts and 40 plates. (1890 (1). Small edition; only
+a few for general distribution).
+
+
+       BULLETINS OF THE DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF
+        AGRICULTURE, UNDER DIRECTION OF C. V. RILEY, ENTOMOLOGIST.
+
+[Out of print.]No. 1.--Reports of Experiments, chiefly with Kerosene, upon
+the Insects injuriously affecting the Orange Tree and the Cotton Plant,
+made under the Direction of the Entomologist. (1883.) [pp. 62.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 2.--Reports of Observations on the Rocky Mountain
+Locust and Chinch Bug, together with Extracts from the Correspondence of
+the Division on Miscellaneous Insects. (1883.) [pp. 36.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 3.--Reports of Observations and Experiments in the
+practical Work of the Division, made under the Direction of the
+Entomologist. With plates. (1883.) [pp. 75, plates III.]
+
+No. 4.--Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical Work of
+the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist, together
+with Extracts from Correspondence on miscellaneous Insects. (1884.) [pp.
+102, figs. 4.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 5.--Descriptions of North American Chalcidid� from
+the Collections of the U. S. Department of Agriculture and of Dr. C. V.
+Riley, with biological Notes. [First paper.] Together with a list of the
+described North American species of the family. By L. O. Howard, M. Sc.,
+Assistant, Bureau of Entomology. (1885.) [pp. 47.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 6.--The imported Elm-leaf Beetle. Its Habits and
+Natural History, and Means of counteracting its Injuries. (1885.) [pp.
+18, figs. 1, plates I.]
+
+No. 7.--The Pediculi and Mallophaga affecting Man and the lower Animals.
+By Prof. Herbert Osborn. (1891.) [pp. 54, figs. 42.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 8.--The Periodical Cicada. An account of _Cicada
+septendecim_ and its tredicim race, with a chronology of all of the
+broods known. By Charles V. Riley, Ph. D. (1885.) [pp. 46, figs. 8.]
+
+No. 9.--The Mulberry Silk-worm; being a Manual of Instructions in Silk
+culture. By Charles V. Riley, M. A., Ph. D. (1886.) [pp. 65, figs. 29,
+plates II.]
+
+No. 10.--Our Shade Trees and their Insect Defoliators. Being a
+consideration of the four most injurious species which affect the trees
+of the capital, with means of destroying them. By Charles V. Riley,
+Entomologist. (1887.) [pp. 75, figs. 27.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 11.--Reports of Experiments with various Insecticide
+Substances, chiefly upon Insects affecting garden Crops, made under the
+Direction of the Entomologist. (1886.) [pp. 34.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 12.--Miscellaneous Notes on the work of the Division
+of Entomology for the Season of 1885; prepared by the Entomologist.
+(1886.) [pp. 45, plates I.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 13.--Reports of Observations and Experiments in the
+practical Work of the Division, made under the Direction of the
+Entomologist. (With illustrations.) (1887.) [pp. 78, figs. 4.]
+
+No. 14.--Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical Work
+of the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist. (1887.)
+[pp. 62, figs. 2, plates I.]
+
+No. 15.--The Icerya, or Fluted Scale, otherwise known as the Cottony
+Cushion-scale. (Reprint of some recent Articles by the Entomologist and
+of a Report from the Agricultural Experiment Station, University of
+California.) (1887.) [pp. 40.]
+
+No. 16.--The Entomological Writings of Dr. Alpheus Spring Packard. By
+Samuel Henshaw. (1887.) [pp. 49.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 17.--The Chinch Bug: A general Summary of its
+History, Habits, Enemies, and of the Remedies and Preventives to be used
+against it. By L. O. Howard M. S., Assistant Entomologist. (1888.) [pp.
+48, figs. 10.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 18.--The Life and Entomological Work of the late
+Townend Glover, first Entomologist of the United States Department of
+Agriculture. Prepared under the Direction of the Entomologist, by C. R.
+Dodge. (1888.) [pp. 68, figs. 6, plates I.]
+
+No. 19.--An enumeration of the published Synopses, Catalogues, and Lists
+of North American Insects; together with other information intended to
+assist the student of American Entomology. (1888.) [pp. 77.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 20.--The Root Knot Disease of the Peach, Orange, and
+other Plants in Florida, due to the Work of Anguillula. Prepared under
+the Direction of the Entomologist, by J. C. Neal, Ph. D., M. D. (1889.)
+[pp. 31, plates 21.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 21.--Report of a Trip to Australia, made under the
+Direction of the Entomologist to investigate the Natural Enemies of the
+Fluted Scale, by Albert Koebele. (1890.) [pp. 32, figs. 16.]
+
+No. 22.--Reports of the Observations and Experiments in the practical
+Work of the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist.
+(1890.) [pp. 110.]
+
+No. 23.--Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical Work
+of the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist. (1891.)
+[pp. 83.]
+
+No. 24.--The Boll Worm. Preliminary Report, made under the Direction of
+the Entomologist. By F. W. Mally. (1891.) [pp. 50.]
+
+No. 25.--Destructive Locusts. A popular consideration of a few of the
+more injurious Locusts or "Grasshoppers" of the United States, together
+with the best means of destroying them. By C. V. Riley, Ph. D. (1891.)
+[pp. 62, figs. 11, plates 12.]
+
+[12]No. 26.--Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical
+Work of the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist.
+(1892.)
+
+[12]No. 27.--Reports on the Damage by destructive Locusts during the
+season of 1891, made under the Direction of the Entomologist. (1892.)
+[pp. 64.]
+
+[12]No. 28.--The more destructive Locusts of America, north of Mexico,
+by Lawrence Bruner, prepared under Direction of the Entomologist.
+(1892.)
+
+  [12] Bulletins 26 and 27 are in press, and Bulletin 28 is in course of
+  preparation.
+
+
+                     SPECIAL REPORTS AND BULLETINS.
+
+[Out of print.]REPORT ON COTTON INSECTS.--By J. Henry Comstock. (1879.)
+[pp. 511, figs. 77, plates III.]
+
+[13]SPECIAL REPORT, No. 11.--The Silkworm; being a brief Manual of
+Instructions for the Production of Silk. Prepared, by direction of the
+Commissioner of Agriculture, by C. V. Riley, M. A., Ph. D.,
+Entomologist. (First ed., 1879; fifth ed., 1885.) [pp. 37, figs. 8.]
+
+  [13] Bull. No. 9 of the Division of Entomology covers this subject.
+
+[Out of print.]SPECIAL REPORT, No. 35.--Report on Insects injurious to
+Sugar Cane. Prepared, under Direction of the Commissioner of Agriculture,
+by J. Henry Comstock, Entomologist. (1881.) [pp. 11, figs. 3.]
+
+[Out of print.]DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY.--INSECTS AFFECTING THE ORANGE.
+--Report on the Insects affecting the Culture of the Orange and other
+plants of the Citrus Family, with practical Suggestions for their
+Control or Extermination. By H. G. Hubbard. (1885.) [pp. x+227, figs.
+95, plates XIV.]
+
+[Out of print.]SPECIAL REPORT.--Catalogue of the Exhibit of Economic
+Entomology at the World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition,
+New Orleans, 1884-'85. (1888.) [pp. 95.]
+
+SPECIAL BULLETIN.--The Horn Fly (H�matobia serrata), being an account of
+its Life-history and the means to be used against it. By C. V. Riley and
+L. O. Howard. (Reprinted from Insect Life, Vol. II, No. 4, October
+1889.) (1889.) [pp. 11, figs. 5.]
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MORE IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS TO AMERICAN ENONOMIC
+ENTOMOLOGY. By Samuel Henshaw. Parts I, II, and III. The more important
+writings of Benjamin Dann Walsh and Charles Valentine Riley, Washington,
+1890.
+
+
+
+
+             HOW TO OBTAIN ENTOMOLOGICAL BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.
+
+
+Comparatively few of the works treating of the classification of North
+American insects have been published as separate books; but such as have
+been so published, if of comparatively recent date, can be obtained
+through the regular book trade. By far the greater number of the
+monographs and synopses mentioned in the preceding pages have been
+published in scientific periodicals and in the proceedings or
+transactions of scientific societies. These may be obtained either
+through the societies or through the publishers; but single volumes of
+transactions or proceedings, and more especially single papers, are
+seldom sold, and the older volumes are liable to be out of print.
+Moreover, the expense attending the purchase of all of the periodicals
+containing the publications on a given order of insects will be so great
+as to put them beyond the reach of most entomologists. The custom of
+placing at the disposal of authors a number of separate copies of their
+papers overcomes this difficulty to some extent and creates a small
+supply. Thus it often happens that a person interested can obtain a copy
+of a scientific paper by addressing the author personally. Many of
+these separate copies also fall into the possession of dealers in
+second-hand books, and may be purchased from them. The American
+Entomological Society of Philadelphia, and also a few other societies
+here and in Europe, offer for sale from their duplicates many of these
+authors' extras, and in some cases publish lists. There are, moreover,
+certain business establishments which make a specialty of the sale of
+works and pamphlets on natural history, including entomology, and it is
+chiefly through such establishments that the student is enabled to
+secure the larger portion of the works needed.
+
+By subscribing to the entomological periodicals published in this
+country (a matter of but slight expense) the student may keep abreast of
+the current literature. Short book reviews or notes published therein
+call attention to the more important publications in other countries.
+Moreover, the Zo�logischer Anzeiger, edited by Prof. J. Victor Carus, in
+Leipzig, Germany, and published every fortnight, gives a tolerably
+complete bibliography of the current entomological literature at
+intervals of about six or eight weeks. The "Natur� Novitates," published
+every fortnight by R. Friedlaender & Sohn, Carlstrasse, 11, Berlin,
+Germany, gives the titles of most recent works and pamphlets.
+
+There are also three great annual publications, viz: "Die Fortschritte
+auf dem Gebiet der Entomologie," published in Wiegmann's "Archiv f�r
+Naturgeschichte;" "The Zo�logical Record," published by the Zo�logical
+Record Society, in London, England; and the "Zo�logische
+Jahresberichte," published by the Zo�logical Station at Naples, Italy,
+which give the full literature of the previous year, discussing the more
+important papers and giving a list of the new species, besides other
+information. These three publications are almost indispensable to the
+student in any branch of zo�logy, and some one of them at least ought to
+be found in every public library in the country. The volumes of the
+"Zo�logische Jahresberichte" since 1887 contain no titles upon
+systematic and classificatory zo�logy, but only such as refer to
+biology.
+
+A not inconsiderable portion of the North American literature on the
+classification of insects has been published by the Government of the
+United States through various channels, foremost among which are the
+Smithsonian Institution, the U. S. Department of Agriculture, the U. S.
+National Museum, the U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey, and the
+various surveys of the Territories. Some of these publications are
+distributed free of cost; while others, like certain of the publications
+of the Smithsonian Institution and the Geological Survey, are sold at a
+moderate price to cover the cost of publication. Many of them are out of
+print, and can only be obtained through natural history book-dealers.
+
+Of the more general works, some may be obtained direct from the
+publishers, and in such cases the publishers are mentioned in the
+general list. The older works are mostly out of print and can only be
+obtained from second-hand dealers. The current State reports of Lintner
+and Forbes may be obtained from the secretaries of the respective State
+agricultural societies at Albany, N. Y., and Springfield, Ill., while
+the bulletins and reports of the entomologists of the various State
+experiment stations, of which a large number are being published, may be
+obtained from the directors of the respective stations. The older
+reports of the State entomologist of Missouri and the State
+entomologists of Illinois (Walsh, Le Baron, and Thomas) are all out of
+print and can only be obtained by purchase from second-hand dealers. The
+same may be said of the well-known and oft-quoted reports of Dr. Fitch,
+which were published with the old volumes of the Transactions of the New
+York State Agricultural Society.
+
+                     *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.
+
+  p iii: Detailed instructions for breeding -> rearing
+  p 5: Spiders, and Myriopods -> Myriapods
+  p 5: comprising Spiders, Myriopods -> Myriapods
+  p 7: If we endevor -> endeavor
+  p 8: of the Sub-orders-> Suborders
+  p 9: Springtails -> Spring-tails
+  p 9: Plectoptera -> Plecoptera
+  p 14: the case of the Horntails -> Horn-tails
+  p 14: FIG. 8.--Sawfly -> Saw-fly
+  p 14: Beetles or-> duplicate "or" deleted
+  p 16: of the common silk-worm -> silkworm
+  p 16: variety of these larvae -> larv�
+  p 17: structure of the antennae -> antenn�
+  p 17: HETEROPTERA ([Greek: heteros], -> comma added
+  p 17: looked upon as a Sub-order -> Suborder
+  p 17: A Plant-bug Euschistes -> Euschistus
+  p 18: DIMERA, with two joints; -> comma changed to semicolon
+  p 19: four or five joints. -> period added
+  p 20: hatched in the abodmen -> abdomen
+  p 21: A Locust Acrideum -> Acridium
+  p 21: Orthoptera -> changed from smallcaps to all capital letters
+  p 21: Tree-cricket Ocharis -> Orocharis
+  p 21: Phyllodromia germanica.) -> germanica).
+  p 22: "Earwigs, consisting -> Earwigs
+  p 26: A May-fly Protamanthus -> Potamanthus
+  p 28: (Fig. c) -> (Fig. 45, c)
+  p 30: frequently have occassion -> occasion
+  p 47: put in the seive -> sieve
+  p 51: butterflies, whose larvae -> larv�
+  p 51: as their mouthparts -> mouth-parts
+  p 53: and otherwiise dsposed -> otherwise disposed
+  p 54: animals. The Plantlice -> Plant-lice
+  p 55: imago--all enlarged -> closing round bracket deleted
+  p 58: Rove-beetles Staphilinid� -> Staphylinid�
+  p 58: A Spring-tail -> --A Spring-tail
+  p 59: Palingenia bilneata -> bilineata
+  p 70: specimen in the cabinet. -> period added
+  p 70: e. g. the Sawflies -> Saw-flies
+  p 71: Moanting -> Mounting
+  p 73: glue or shell-lac -> shellac
+  p 75: After Kiesenvetter -> Kiesenwetter
+  p 75: shown in the accompaying -> accompanying
+  p 76: FIG. 105. Spreading -> FIG. 105.--Spreading
+  p 76: FIG. 106. Needle -> FIG. 106.--Needle
+  p 83: they almost invariable -> invariably
+  p 83: spirit or petroleum lamp. -> period added
+  p 89: the external chytinous -> chitinous
+  p 91: pieces of clean card-board -> cardboard
+  p 91: beveled on all sides: -> sides;
+  p 93: bored with a bitt -> bit
+  p 94: Many larvae -> larv�
+  p 98: Myriopoda -> Myriapoda
+  p 99: keeping off musuem -> museum
+  p 106: all lateral movemnts -> movements
+  p 106: After Marse -> Morse
+  p 110: The two particuliarly -> particularly
+  p 112: endophytous Ienthredinid� -> Tenthredinid�
+  p 114: (See Figure 124.) -> (See Figure 124)
+  p 118: Gall-flies Cynipidae -> Cynipid�
+  p 119: brooded, the larvae -> larv�
+  p 129: FIG. 125 ->  FIG. 125.
+  p 121: Bakhaus, of Leipsic -> Leipzig
+  p 132: of the published synoposes -> synopses
+  p 134: species of each genius -> genus
+  p 136: HENRI DE SAUSSURE. -> period added
+  p 136: Amer. Philos. -> period added
+  p 137: 1874 to 1883 -> 1883)
+  p 137: 1875 to 1879 -> 1879)
+  p 138: See Mittheil. -> period added
+  p 142: plates 2., -> plates 2,
+  p 143: it or counteractering -> counteracting
+  p 143: for general distribution -> distribution)
+  p 144: of the Entomlogist -> Entomologist
+  p 144: [pp. 46, figs. 8.)-> [pp. 46, figs. 8.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Directions for Collecting and
+Preserving Insects, by C. V. Riley
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS ***
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+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Directions for Collecting and Preserving
+Insects, by C. V. Riley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Directions for Collecting and Preserving Insects
+
+Author: C. V. Riley
+
+Release Date: March 26, 2012 [EBook #39275]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Jens Nordmann and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="note">
+<p class="center"><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p>
+<p style="text-indent: 0;">The original spelling and minor inconsistencies
+in the spelling and formatting have been maintained. Obvious misprints were corrected
+and <ins title="like this">marked-up</ins>. The original text will be
+displayed as a mouse-over pop-up.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 150%;">SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.</span><br /><br />
+<span style="font-size: 125%;">UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM.</span></p>
+
+<h1>DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND
+PRESERVING INSECTS.</h1>
+
+<p class="title">BY<br /><br /><br /><br />
+<span style="font-size: 150%;">C. V. RILEY, M. A., <span class="smcap">Ph.</span> D.,</span><br /><br />
+<i>Honorary Curator of the Department of Insects, U. S. National Museum.</i><br /><br /><br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="title">Part F of Bulletin of the United States National Museum, No.&nbsp;39<br />
+(with one plate).</p>
+
+<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 125%;">WASHINGTON:</span><br /><br />
+GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.<br /><br />
+1892.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><em class="gesperrt">CONTENTS.</em></p>
+
+<table summary="ToC">
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="right">Page.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#INTRODUCTORY"><span class="smcap">Introductory</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">3</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#MANUAL_OF_INSTRUCTIONS_FOR_COLLECTING_AND_PRESERVING_INSECTS"><span class="smcap">Manual of instructions for collecting and preserving insects</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">5</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#CHARACTERISTICS_OF_INSECTS"><span class="smcap">Characteristics of insects</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">5</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#SCOPE_AND_IMPORTANCE_OF_ENTOMOLOGY"><span class="smcap">Scope and importance of entomology</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">6</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#CLASSIFICATION_OF_HEXAPODS"><span class="smcap">Classification of hexapods</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">8</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#HYMENOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Order Hymenoptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">12</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#COLEOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Order Coleoptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">14</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#LEPIDOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Order Lepidoptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">16</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#HEMIPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Order Hemiptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">17</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#THYSANOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suborder Thysanoptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">18</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#DIPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Order Diptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">19</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#APHANIPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suborder Aphaniptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">20</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#ORTHOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Order Orthoptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">21</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#DERMAPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suborder Dermaptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">22</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#NEUROPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Order Neuroptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">22</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#TRICHOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suborder Trichoptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">23</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#MECOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suborder Mecoptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">23</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#NEUROPTERA_2"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suborder Neuroptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">23</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#PLATYPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suborder Platyptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">24</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#PLECOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suborder Plecoptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">25</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#ODONATA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suborder Odonata</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">25</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#EPHEMEROPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suborder Ephemeroptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">25</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#THYSANURA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suborder Thysanura</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">26</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#COLLECTING"><span class="smcap">Collecting</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">26</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#GEN_CONS"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">General considerations</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">26</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_APPS"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collecting apparatus</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">29</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#SWEEP_NET"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The sweeping net</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">29</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#WATER_NET"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The water net</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">31</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#DIP_NET"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Water dip-net</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">32</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#UMBRELLA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The umbrella</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">32</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#BEATING_CLOTH"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The beating cloth</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">33</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#UMBRELLA_NET"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The umbrella net</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">34</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#SIEVE"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The sieve</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">35</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#CHISEL"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The chisel</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">36</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#TROWEL"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The trowel</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">36</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_TWEEZERS"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The collecting tweezers</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">36</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#BRUSH"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The brush</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">37</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#FUMIGATOR"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The fumigator</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">38</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#HAVERSACK"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The haversack</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">38</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#LENS_MICRO"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The lens and microscope</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">39</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_HYMENOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collecting Hymenoptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">39</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_COLEOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collecting Coleoptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">42</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#GEN_DIR"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">General directions</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">42</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#WINTER_COLL"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Winter collecting</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">43</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#SPRING_COLL"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Spring collecting</span></a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></td>
+    <td align="right">44</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#MYRM_TERM"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Myrmecophilous and Termetophilous species</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">44</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#SPRING_COLEOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Spring flights of Coleoptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">44</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#BEACH_COLL"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Beach collecting</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">45</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#ATTR_LIGHT"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Attracting by lights</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">45</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#TRAPS"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Traps</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">45</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#FRESHET"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Freshet</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">45</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#SUMMER_COLL"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Summer collecting</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">46</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_STONE"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Collecting under stones</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">46</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_LOGS"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Collecting in rotten stumps and logs</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">46</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_TREES"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Collecting in dying or dead trees</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">47</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#BEAT_VINES"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Beating living trees, shrubs, and vines</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">47</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#SWEEPING"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Sweeping</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">47</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_BANKS"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Collecting on mud and gravel banks</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">48</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#AQUA_BEETLE"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Collecting aquatic beetles</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">49</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_PLACES"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Collecting at the seashore and on sandy places</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">49</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#DUNG_BEETLE"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Collecting dung beetles</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">49</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#NIGHT_COLL"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Night collecting</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">50</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#FALL_COLL"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fall collecting</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">50</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_LEPIDOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collecting Lepidoptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">50</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_ADULT"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Collecting the adults</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">50</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_EARLY"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Collecting the early states</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">53</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_HEMIPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collecting Hemiptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">54</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_DIPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collecting Diptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">55</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_ORTHOPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collecting Orthoptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">57</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_NEUROPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collecting Neuroptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">58</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#PSEUDONEUROPTERA"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Pseudoneuroptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">58</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#NEUROPTERA_3"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Neuroptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">59</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#KILLING_AND_PRESERVING_INSECTS"><span class="smcap">Killing and preserving insects</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">60</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#PRESERVE_SPEC"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">First preservation of living specimens</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">60</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#KILL_SPEC"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Killing specimens</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">61</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#ALCOHOL"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Alcohol</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">61</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#ETHER"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Chloroform and ether</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">62</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#CYANIDE"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Cyanide of potassium</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">63</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#OTHER_AGENTS"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Other agents</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">65</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#SPEC_ORDERS"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Special directions for different orders</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">66</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#ENTOMOTAXY"><span class="smcap">Entomotaxy</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">67</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#MOUNTED_SPEC"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Care of pinned and mounted specimens</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">67</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#INSECT_PINS"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Insect pins</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">67</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#PREP_SPEC"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Preparation of specimens</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">68</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#PINNING"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pinning</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">69</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#MOUNT_POINT"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mounting on points</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">70</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#MOUNT_DUPL"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mounting duplicates</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">73</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#TEMP_SPEC"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Temporary storage of specimens</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">74</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#ENV_LEPI"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Envelopes for Lepidoptera, etc.</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">74</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#DIR_INSECTS"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Directions for spreading insects</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">75</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#NEW_APP"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">A new apparatus for spreading Microlepidoptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">76</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#SPREAD_MICROLEP"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Spreading Microlepidoptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">77</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#RELAXING"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Relaxing</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">79</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#INFLA_LEPI"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Inflation of the larvæ of Lepidoptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">80</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#STUFF_INSECTS"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Stuffing insects</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">82</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#DRY_APHIDES"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dry preservation of Aphides and other soft-bodied insects</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">82</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#MOUNT_MICRO"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mounting specimens for the microscope</span></a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></td>
+    <td align="right">84</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#PREP_LEPI"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Preparing and mounting the wings of Lepidoptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">86</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#PRE_SPEC"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Preservation of alcoholic specimens</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">88</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#APP_METH"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Apparatus and methods</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">88</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#STOP_HOLD"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Vials, stoppers, and holders</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">89</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#PRES_ALCO"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Preserving micro-larvæ in alcohol</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">92</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#PRES_FLUIDS"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Preservative fluids</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">93</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#ALCOHOL_2"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Alcohol</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">93</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#ARSENIC"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Alcohol and white arsenic</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">93</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#SUBLIMATE"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Alcohol and corrosive sublimate</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">94</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#FORM_COLOR"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Two fluids to preserve form and color</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">94</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#GLYCERIN"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Glycerin</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">94</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#WICKERSHEIM"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">The Wickersheim preserving fluid</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">94</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#LAB_SPEC"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Labeling specimens</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">95</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#GEN_DIR_2"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">General directions</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">95</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#PIN_SPEC"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Labels for pinned specimens</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">95</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#ALCO_SPEC"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Labeling alcoholic specimens</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">97</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#CAB_APP"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cabinet for apparatus</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">98</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#INSECT_BOXES_AND_CABINETS"><span class="smcap">Insect boxes and cabinets</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">98</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#GEN_DIR_3"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">General directions</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">98</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#FOLD_BOX"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The folding box</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">98</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#CABINET"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The cabinet</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">100</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#LINTNER_BOX"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The Lintner display box</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">101</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#MARTIN_BOX"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The Martindale box for Lepidoptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">104</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#HORIZONTAL_BOX"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Horizontal <i>versus</i> vertical arrangement of boxes</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">104</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#LINING_BOX"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lining for insect boxes</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">104</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#ARRANGEMENT_OF_INSECTS_IN_THE_CABINET"><span class="smcap">Arrangement of insects in the cabinet</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">106</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#SYST_COLL"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Systematic and biologic collections</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">106</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#ECO_DISP"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Economic displays</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">106</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#LAB_COLL"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Labeling collections</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">107</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#MUSEUM_PESTS_MOLD_ETC"><span class="smcap">Museum pests, mold, etc</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">108</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#PESTS"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Museum pests</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">108</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#REMEDIES"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Remedies</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">109</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#NAPHTHALINE"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Naphthaline</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">109</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#BISULPHIDE"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Bisulphide of carbon</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">110</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#MERCURY"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Mercury pellets</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">110</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#CARBOLIC"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Carbolic acid</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">110</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#HOT_COUNT"><span style="margin-left: 3em;">A means of preserving insects in dry, hot countries</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">110</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#MOLD"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mold</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">111</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#GREASING"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Verdigrising and greasing</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">111</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#THE_REARING_OF_INSECTS"><span class="smcap">The rearing of insects</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">112</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#GEN_DIR_4"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">General directions</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">112</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#CAGE"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The breeding cage, or vivarium</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">112</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#REARING"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Detailed instructions for <ins title="breeding">rearing</ins></span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">115</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#ROOT_CAGE"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The root cage</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">118</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#OTHER_APPS"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Other apparatus</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">119</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#INSECTARY"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The insectary</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">120</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#DIRECTIONS_FOR_TRANSMITTING_INSECTS"><span class="smcap">Directions for packing and transmitting insects</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">121</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#NOTES_AND_MEMORANDA"><span class="smcap">Notes and memoranda</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">123</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#INSTRUCTIONS_FOR_COLLECTING_AND_PRESERVING_ARACHNIDS_AND_MYRIAPODS"><span class="smcap">Instructions for collecting and preserving Arachnids and Myriapods</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">124</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#DIR_SPIDER"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Directions for collecting spiders</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">124</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#APPARATUS"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Apparatus</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">124</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#TIME_LOC"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Time and locality for collecting</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">125</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_ARACH"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collecting other Arachnids, mites, ticks, scorpions, etc</span></a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></td>
+    <td align="right">126</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#COLL_MYRI"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collecting Myriapoda</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">130</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#TEXT_BOOKS_ENTOMOLOGICAL_WORKS"><span class="smcap">Text books and entomological works</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">131</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#COMP_WORK"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Comprehensive works most useful for the student of North American insects</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">132</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#GEN_WORK"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">General works on classification</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">132</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#HYMENOPTERA_2"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hymenoptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">132</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#COLEOPTERA_2"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Coleoptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">132</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#LEPIDOPTERA_2"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lepidoptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">133</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#HEMIPTERA_2"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hemiptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">134</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#DIPTERA_2"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Diptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">134</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#ORTHOPTERA_2"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Orthoptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">135</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#NEUROPTERA_4"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Neuroptera</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">135</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#MYRIAPODA_2"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Myriapoda</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">135</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#ARACHNIDA_2"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arachnida</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">136</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#AM_PERI"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">American periodicals</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">136</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#FOR_PERI"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Foreign periodicals</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">138</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#MORE_USE"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The more useful works on economic entomology</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">140</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#ENTO_WORK"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Entomological works published by the United States Entomological Commission and by the United States Department of Agriculture</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">141</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#WORK_USEC"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Works by the United States Entomological Commission</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">141</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#BULL_USDA"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bulletins of the Division of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">142</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#SPEC_REPS"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Special reports and bulletins</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">144</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><a href="#HOW_TO_OBTAIN_ENTOMOLOGICAL_BOOKS_AND_PAMPHLETS"><span class="smcap">How to obtain entomological books and pamphlets</span></a></td>
+    <td align="right">145</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="INTRODUCTORY" id="INTRODUCTORY"></a>INTRODUCTORY.</h2>
+
+<p>There is a constant demand, especially from correspondents of the Museum
+and also of the Department of Agriculture, for information as to how to
+collect, preserve, and mount insects. There is also great need of some
+simple directions on a great many other points connected with the proper
+packing of insects for transmission through the mails or otherwise;
+labeling; methods of rearing; boxes and cabinets; text-books, etc.
+Interest in the subject of entomology has, in fact, made rapid growth in
+the last few years, and now that nearly every State has an official
+entomologist connected with its State Agricultural Experiment Station,
+the number of persons interested in the subject may be expected to
+increase largely in the near future. I have hitherto made use of the
+Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, No.&nbsp;261, which is a pamphlet on
+collecting and preserving insects prepared by Dr.&nbsp;A.&nbsp;S.&nbsp;Packard. This is
+out of print, and I have been requested by Prof. Goode to prepare for
+Bulletin 39, U.&nbsp;S.&nbsp;N.&nbsp;M., something that would cover the whole ground
+and give the more essential information needed for collectors and
+students of insect life. I have deemed it unnecessary to go too much
+into detail, but have studied not to omit anything essential. Customs
+and methods vary in different countries and with different individuals,
+but the recommendations contained in the following pages are based upon
+my own experience and that of my assistants and many acquaintances, and
+embrace the methods which the large majority of American entomologists
+have found most satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>Much of the matter is repeated bodily from the directions for collecting
+and preserving insects published in my Fifth Report on the Insects of
+Missouri (1872) and quotations not otherwise credited are from that
+Report. The illustrations, also, when not otherwise credited or not
+originally made for this paper, are from my previous writings. Some are
+taken from Dr.&nbsp;Packard's pamphlet, already mentioned; others, with the
+permission of Assistant Secretary Willits, from the publications of the
+Department of Agriculture, while a number have been especially made for
+the occasion, either from photographs, or from drawings by Miss L.&nbsp;Sullivan
+or Dr.&nbsp;Geo.&nbsp;Marx or Mr.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;L.&nbsp;Marlatt. When enlarged, the
+natural size is indicated in hair-line. In the preparation of the
+pamphlet I have had the assistance of Mr.&nbsp;E.&nbsp;A.&nbsp;Schwarz, and more
+particularly of Mr.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;L.&nbsp;Marlatt, to both of whom I desire here to
+express my obligations.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: right; margin-right: 5em;">C. V. R.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a href="images/img_013_h.png">
+     <img src="images/img_013.png" width="116" height="200"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+   </a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Pl. 1.&mdash;Illustration of Biologic Series.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="MANUAL_OF_INSTRUCTIONS_FOR_COLLECTING_AND_PRESERVING_INSECTS" id="MANUAL_OF_INSTRUCTIONS_FOR_COLLECTING_AND_PRESERVING_INSECTS"></a>MANUAL OF INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS.</h2>
+
+<p class="title">By <span class="smcap">C. V. Riley</span>,<br /><br />
+<i>Honorary Curator of the Department of Insects, U. S. National Museum.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<h2><a name="CHARACTERISTICS_OF_INSECTS" id="CHARACTERISTICS_OF_INSECTS"></a>CHARACTERISTICS OF INSECTS.</h2>
+
+<p>The term &ldquo;insect&rdquo; comes from the Latin <i>insectum</i>, and
+signifies &ldquo;cut into.&rdquo; It expresses one of the prime
+characteristics of this class of animals, namely, that of segmentation.
+This feature of having the body divided into rings or segments by
+transverse incisions is possessed by other large groups of animals, and
+was considered of sufficient importance by Cuvier to lead him, in his
+system of classification, to group with Insects, under the general term
+Articulata, Worms, Crustacea, Spiders, and <ins title="Myriopods">Myriapods</ins>. Worms differ from
+the other four groups in having no articulated appendages, and in having
+a soft body-wall or integument instead of a dense chitinous covering,
+and are separated as a special class <i>Vermes</i>. The other four groups of
+segmented animals possess in common the feature of jointed appendages
+and a covering of chitinous plates, and are brought together under the
+term <i>Arthropoda</i>. The division of the body into a series of segments by
+transverse incisions, characteristic of these animals and these only,
+justifies the use of Cuvier's old name, Articulates, as this segmented
+feature represents a definite relationship and a natural division&mdash;as
+much so as the vertebral column in Vertebrates. The Cuvierian name
+should be retained as a coördinate of Vertebrates, Molluscs, etc., and
+the terms Vermes and Arthropods may be conveniently used to designate
+the two natural divisions of the Articulates.</p>
+
+<p>The term &ldquo;insect&rdquo; has been employed by authors in two
+different senses&mdash;one to apply to the tracheated animals or those that
+breathe through a system of air tubes (tracheæ), comprising Spiders,
+<ins title="Myriopods">Myriapods</ins>, and insects proper or Hexapods,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> and the other in its
+restricted sense as applied to the Hexapods only. To avoid confusion,
+the latter signification only should be used, and it will be thus used
+in this article.</p>
+
+<p>We see, then, that insects share, in common with many other animals, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+jointed or articulated structure. Wherein, then, do they differ?
+<i>Briefly, in having the body divided into thirteen joints and a
+subjoint</i>, including the head as a joint, and in the adult having six
+true, jointed legs, and usually, though not always, wings. The five
+classes of Articulates differ from each other in the number of legs they
+possess in the adult form, as follows: Hexapoda, 6 legs; Arachnida, 8
+legs; Crustacea, 10&ndash;14 legs; Myriapoda, more than 14 legs; Vermes, none.
+This system holds for the adult form only, because some mites
+(Arachnida) when young have only 6 legs, and many true insects in the
+larva state either have no legs at all, or have additional abdominal
+legs which are not jointed, but membranous, and are lost in the perfect
+or adult state. These are called false or prolegs.</p>
+
+<p>It will serve to make these instructions clear if I at once explain that
+the life of an insect is marked by four distinct states, viz., the egg,
+the larva, the pupa, and the imago, and that the last three words will
+constantly recur. We have no English equivalent for the words larva and
+pupa, for while some authors have written them with the terminal <i>e</i>, so
+as to get the English plural, yet &ldquo;larves&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;pupes&rdquo; so shock the ear that the terms have not been (and
+deserve not to be) generally adopted.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that an insect in the final state has six true legs. Yet
+even here many species depart from the rule, as there are many in which
+the perfect insect, especially in the female sex, is apodous or without
+legs, just as there are also other cases where they are without wings.
+Sometimes the legs seem to be reduced in number by the partial or total
+atrophy of one or the other pair, but in all these exceptional cases
+there is no difficulty in realizing that we have to deal with a true
+insect, because of the other characters pertaining to the class, some of
+which it will be well to allude to.</p>
+
+<p>Insects are further characterized by having usually three distinct
+divisions of the body, viz.: head, thorax, and abdomen, and by
+undergoing certain metamorphoses or transformations. Now, while a number
+of other animals outside of the insect world go through similar
+transformations, those in the Crustacea being equally remarkable, yet,
+from the ease with which they are observed and the completeness of the
+transformations in most insects, the metamorphoses of this class have,
+from time immemorial, excited the greatest curiosity.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p style="font-size: 125%; text-indent: 0em;">Footnote:</p>
+<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> From the Greek εξαπους, having 6 feet.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<h2><a name="SCOPE_AND_IMPORTANCE_OF_ENTOMOLOGY" id="SCOPE_AND_IMPORTANCE_OF_ENTOMOLOGY"></a>SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF ENTOMOLOGY.</h2>
+
+<p>But few words are necessary to indicate the importance of entomology,
+especially to the farming community; for while insects play a most
+important part in the economy of nature and furnish us some valuable
+products and otherwise do us a great deal of indirect good, yet they are
+chiefly known by the annoyances they cause and by the great injury they
+do to our crops and domestic animals. Hence some knowledge of insects
+and how to study them becomes important, almost necessary, to every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+farmer.</p>
+
+<p>The scope of the science may best be indicated by a statement of the
+number of species existing, as compared with other animals. The
+omnipresence of insects is known and felt by all; yet few have any
+accurate idea of the actual numbers existing, so that some figures will
+not prove uninteresting in this connection. Taking the lists of
+described species, and the estimates of specialists in the different
+orders, it is safe to say that about thirty thousand species have
+already been described from North America, while the number of species
+already described or to be described in the Biologia Centrali-Americana,
+i.&nbsp;e., for Central America, foot up just about the same number, Lord
+Walsingham having estimated them at 30,114 in his address as president
+of the London Entomological Society two years ago, neither the
+Orthoptera nor the Neuroptera being included in this estimate. By way of
+contrast the number of mammals, birds, and reptiles to be described from
+the same region, is interesting. It foots up 1,937, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Mammals, 180; birds, 1,600; reptiles, 157.</p>
+
+<p>If we <ins title="endevor">endeavor</ins> to get some estimate of the number of insects that occur
+in the whole world, the most satisfactory estimates will be found in the
+address just alluded to, and in that of Dr.&nbsp;David Sharp before the same
+society. Linnæus knew nearly 3,000 species, of which more than 2,000
+were European and over 800 exotic. The estimate of Dr.&nbsp;John Day, in
+1853, of the number of species on the globe, was 250,000. Dr.&nbsp;Sharp's
+estimate thirty years later was between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Sharp's
+and Walsingham's estimates in 1889 reached nearly 2,000,000, and the
+average number of insects annually described since the publication of
+the Zoölogical Record, deducting 8 per cent for synonyms, is 6,500
+species. I think the estimate of 2,000,000 species in the world is
+extremely low, and if we take into consideration the fact that species
+have been best worked up in the more temperate portions of the globe,
+and that in the more tropical portions a vast number of species still
+remain to be characterized and named, and if we take further into
+consideration the fact that many portions of the globe are yet
+unexplored, entomologically, that even in the best worked up regions by
+far the larger portion of the Micro-Hymenoptera and Micro-Diptera remain
+absolutely undescribed in our collections, and have been but very
+partially collected, it will be safe to estimate that not one-fifth of
+the species extant have yet been characterized or enumerated. In this
+view of the case the species in our collections, whether described or
+undescribed, do not represent perhaps more than one-fifth of the whole.
+In other words, to say that there are 10,000,000 species of insects in
+the world, would be, in my judgment, a moderate estimate.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CLASSIFICATION_OF_HEXAPODS" id="CLASSIFICATION_OF_HEXAPODS"></a>CLASSIFICATION OF HEXAPODS.</h2>
+
+<p>Seven orders of insects were originally recognized by Linnæus, namely,
+Neuroptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera,
+and Aptera. This classification was based on the organs of flight only,
+and while in the main resulting in natural divisions which still furnish
+the basis of more modern classifications, was faulty in several
+particulars. For instance, the Aptera, which included all wingless
+insects, was soon found to be a very unnatural assemblage and its
+components were distributed among the other orders. The establishment of
+the order Orthoptera by Olivier to include a large and well-defined
+group of insects associated with the Hemiptera by Linnæus, restored the
+original seven orders, and this classification has, in the main, been
+followed by entomologists up to the present time.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_017.png" width="600" height="578"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="fig_001"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Pyramid showing the nature of the mouth, and
+relative rank of the Orders, and the affinities of the <ins title="Sub-orders">Suborders</ins> of
+Insects.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>All insects are, in a broad way, referable to one or the other of these
+seven primary orders by the structure of the wings and the character of
+the mouth-parts in the imago, and by the nature of their
+transformations.</p>
+
+<p>Some of these orders are connected by aberrant and osculant families or
+groups, which have by other authors been variously ranked as independent
+orders, but which, following Westwood substantially, I have considered,
+for convenience, as suborders. (<i>See</i> Fifth Report, Insects of Missouri,
+etc., 1872.)</p>
+
+<p>In the article just cited, I made use of the accompanying diagram in the
+form of a pyramid (<a href="#fig_001">Fig.&nbsp;1</a>), which gives a graphic representation of the
+distinguishing characters and the relative rank as usually accepted, of
+the orders and suborders.</p>
+
+<p>Full discussion of the different classifications is unnecessary in this
+connection. Authors have differed in the past and will differ in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+future as to what constitutes a natural system, and it would require
+many pages to give even a brief survey of the various schemes that have
+been proposed. As I have elsewhere said, &ldquo;We must remember that
+classifications are but a means to an end&mdash;appliances to facilitate our
+thought and study&mdash;and that, to use Spencer's words, &lsquo;we cannot,
+by any logical dichotomies, actually express relations which in nature
+graduate into each other insensibly.&rsquo;&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The most philosophical, perhaps, of the more modern systems of
+classification is that of Friedrich Brauer, who has carefully studied
+the subject, and has given us an arrangement consisting of sixteen
+orders. This has many merits and has been adopted, with slight
+modifications, by Packard in his &ldquo;Entomology for Beginners,&rdquo;
+and by Hyatt and Arms in their recent and valuable text-book
+&ldquo;Insecta.&rdquo; Comstock, in his &ldquo;Introduction to
+Entomology&rdquo; strongly recommends Brauer's classification, but for
+reasons of simplicity and convenience adheres to a modification of the
+old classification of Westwood.</p>
+
+<p>For purposes of comparison the classification by Hyatt and Arms, which
+is substantially that of Brauer, may be introduced.</p>
+
+<p>In linear arrangement it is as follows:</p>
+
+<table id="linear_arrangement" summary="classification">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="right">I.</td>
+    <td align="left">Thysanura (<ins title="Springtails"><i>Spring-tails</i></ins>, etc.).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="right">II.</td>
+    <td align="left">Ephemeroptera (<i>Ephemeridæ</i>; May-flies). (=<ins title="Plectoptera"><i>Plecoptera</i></ins> Pack.)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="right">III.</td>
+    <td align="left">Odonata (<i>Libellulidæ</i>; Dragon-flies).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="right">IV.</td>
+    <td align="left">Plecoptera (<i>Perlidæ</i>; Stone-flies).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="right">V.</td>
+    <td align="left">Platyptera (<i>Termites</i>, <i>Mallophaga</i>, etc.).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="right">VI.</td>
+    <td align="left">Dermaptera (<i>Forficulidæ</i>; Earwigs).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="right">VII.</td>
+    <td align="left">Orthoptera (Locusts, Grasshoppers, etc.).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="right">VIII.</td>
+    <td align="left">Thysanoptera (<i>Thripidæ</i>; Fringe-wings).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="right">IX.</td>
+    <td align="left">Hemiptera (Bugs).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="right">X.</td>
+    <td align="left">Coleoptera (Beetles).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="right">XI.</td>
+    <td align="left">Neuroptera (<i>Sialidæ</i>, <i>Hemerobiidæ</i>; Lace-wings, etc.).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="right">XII.</td>
+    <td align="left">Mecoptera (<i>Panorpidæ</i>; Scorpion-flies).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="right">XIII.</td>
+    <td align="left">Trichoptera (<i>Phryganeidæ</i>; Caddis-flies).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="right">XIV.</td>
+    <td align="left">Lepidoptera (Butterflies and Moths).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="right">XV.</td>
+    <td align="left">Hymenoptera (Bees, Wasps, etc.).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="right">XV.</td>
+    <td align="left">Diptera (Two-winged flies).</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The relationship of these orders cannot be indicated in a linear
+arrangement, and is admirably shown by Hyatt and Arms by means of
+diagrams which I reproduce (Figs. 2, 3.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_019.png" width="375" height="600"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Scheme illustrating origin and relationship of
+Orders. (After Hyatt.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The relation of these sixteen orders to the older, septenary scheme is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+shown by the following arrangement:</p>
+
+<table id="p11" summary="Insect_Orders">
+  <tr>
+    <td>1. Hymenoptera</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Hymenoptera XV.</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>2. Coleoptera</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Coleoptera X.</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>3. Lepidoptera</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Lepidoptera XIV.</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="one">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Homoptera.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="2">4. Hemiptera</td>
+    <td class="one">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Hemiptera IX.</td>
+    <td class="two">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Heteroptera.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="two">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Thysanoptera VIII.</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>5. Diptera</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Diptera XVI.</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Including Aphaniptera or Siphonaptera of some authors.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="2">6. Orthoptera</td>
+    <td class="one">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Orthoptera VII.</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="two">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Dermaptera VI.</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="8">7. Neuroptera</td>
+    <td class="one">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Trichoptera XIII</td>
+    <td class="three">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td rowspan="3">Neuroptera.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="five">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Mecoptera XII</td>
+    <td class="six">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="five">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Neuroptera XI</td>
+    <td class="four">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="five">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Platyptera V</td>
+    <td class="three">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td rowspan="5">Pseudo-neuroptera.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="five">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Plecoptera IV</td>
+    <td class="six">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="five">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Odonata III</td>
+    <td class="six">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="five">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Ephemeroptera II</td>
+    <td class="six">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="two">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Thysanura I</td>
+    <td class="four">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_020.png" width="399" height="400"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;Cross section of Fig.&nbsp;2.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It will be seen that the changes are not so great as would at first
+appear. The three more important orders, namely, the Hymenoptera,
+Coleoptera, and Lepidoptera, remain substantially the same in all
+classifications, and so with the three orders next in importance&mdash;the
+Hemiptera, Diptera, and Orthoptera. All that has been done with these
+three has been to rank as separate orders what by former authors were
+preferably considered as either families or suborders. The principal
+change is in the Neuroptera, of which no less than eight orders have
+been made. This is not to be wondered at, because the order, as formerly
+construed, was conceded to be that which represents the lowest forms
+and more synthetic types of insects, and as such necessarily contained
+forms which it is difficult to classify definitely.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the discussion of the characteristics, habits, number of species, and
+importance of the several groups, I follow, with such changes as the
+advances in the science of entomology have made necessary, the
+arrangement shown in <a href="#fig_001">Fig.&nbsp;1.</a></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Order <a name="HYMENOPTERA" id="HYMENOPTERA">HYMENOPTERA</a> υμην, a membrane; πτερον, wing). Clear or
+Membrane-winged Flies: Bees, Wasps, Ants, Saw-flies, etc. Characterized
+by having four membranous wings with comparatively few veins, the hind
+part smallest. The transformations are complete: <i>i.&nbsp;e.</i>, the larva
+bears no resemblance to the perfect insect.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_021a.png" width="200" height="162"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 4.&mdash;Bold-faced Hornet,<br /><i>Vespa maculata</i>.<br />(After
+Sanborn).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Some of the insects of this order are highly specialized, and
+their mouth-parts are fitted both for biting and sucking, and in this respect
+they connect the mandibulate and haustellate insects. The common
+Honey-bee has this complex structure of the mouth, and if the editors of
+our agricultural papers would bear the fact in mind, we should have less
+of the never-ending discussion as to whether bees are capable of
+injuring fruit at first hand. The lower lip (<i>labium</i>) is modified into
+a long tongue, sheathed by the lower jaws (<i>maxillæ</i>), and they can sip,
+or, more properly speaking, lap up nectar; while the upper jaws
+(<i>mandibulæ</i>), though not generally used for purposes of manducation,
+are fitted for biting and cutting. The Hymenoptera are terrestrial,
+there existing only a very few degraded, swimming forms.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;This order is very naturally divided into two sections&mdash;the
+<span class="smcap">Aculeata</span> and <span class="smcap">Terebrantia</span>. The aculeate Hymenoptera, or Stingers,
+comprise all the families in which the abdomen in the female is armed
+with a sting connected with a poison reservoir, and may be considered
+the typical form of the order, including all the social and fossorial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+species.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_021b.png" width="600" height="331"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<table width="800" summary="caption">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left"><p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash;An Ichneumon Parasite, <i>Pimpla annulipes</i>,<br />
+     showing male and female abdomen.</p></td>
+    <td align="left" valign="top"><p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 6.&mdash;A Chalcid Parasite, <i>Chalcis flavipes</i>.</p></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The insects of this section must be considered essentially
+beneficial to man, notwithstanding the occasional sting of a bee or
+wasp, the boring of a carpenter bee, or the importunities of the
+omnipresent ant. Not only do they furnish us with honey and wax, but
+they play so important a part in the destruction of insects injurious to
+vegetation that they may be looked upon as God-appointed guards over the
+vegetal kingdom&mdash;carrying the pollen from plant to plant, and insuring
+the fertilization of di&oelig;cious species, and the cross-fertilization of
+others; and being ever ready to clear them of herbivorous worms which
+gnaw and destroy. The whole section is well characterized by the
+uniformly maggot-like nature of the larva. The transformations are
+complete, but the chitinous larval covering is often so very thin and
+delicate that the budding of the members, or gradual growth of the pupa
+underneath, is quite plainly visible, and the skin often peels off in
+delicate flakes, so that the transition from larva to pupa is not so
+marked and sudden as in those insects which have thicker skins.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_022.png" width="401" height="400"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 7.&mdash;A Horn-tail, <i>Tremex columba</i>. <i>a</i>, larva,
+showing Thalessa larva attached to its side; <i>b</i>, head of larva, front
+view, enlarged; <i>c</i>, female pupa, ventral view; <i>d</i>, male pupa, ventral
+view; <i>e</i>, adult female&mdash;all slightly enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_023a.png" width="400" height="232"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 8.&mdash;<ins title="Sawfly">Saw-fly</ins> and Larva. <i>Pristiphora
+grossulariæ</i>;<br /><i>a</i>, larva; <i>b</i>, imago, Walsh.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The terebrantine Hymenoptera, or Piercers, are again divisible
+into two subsections: first, the <span class="smcap">Entomophaga</span>, which are, likewise, with
+the exception of a few gall-makers, beneficial to man, and include the
+parasitic families, and the gall-flies; second, the <span class="smcap">Phytophaga</span>,
+comprising the Horn-tails (<i>Uroceridæ</i>), and the Saw-flies
+(<i>Tenthredinidæ</i>), all of which are vegetable feeders in the larval<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+state, those of the first family boring into trees, and those of the
+second either feeding externally on leaves or inclosed in galls. They
+are at once distinguished from the other Hymenoptera by the larvæ having
+true legs, which, however, in the case of the <ins title="Horntails">Horn-tails</ins>, are very small
+and exarticulate. The larvæ of many Saw-flies have, besides, prolegs,
+which are, however, always distinguishable from those of Lepidopterous
+larvæ by being more numerous and by having no hooks.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_023b.png" width="172" height="200"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 9.&mdash;A Chafer,<br /><i>Cotalpa lanigera</i>. (After Packard.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Order <a name="COLEOPTERA" id="COLEOPTERA">COLEOPTERA</a> (κολεος, a sheath; πτερον, wing). <ins title="Beetles or or">Beetles or</ins>
+Shield-winged Insects. Characterized by having four
+wings, the front pair (called <i>elytra</i>) horny or leathery, and usually
+united down the back with a straight suture when at rest, the hind ones
+membranous and folded up under the elytra when at rest. Transformations
+complete.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_023c.png" width="400" height="184"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 10.&mdash;A Longicorn, <i>Saperda candida</i>. <i>a</i>, larva;
+<i>b</i>, pupa; <i>c</i>, beetle.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_024a.png" width="250" height="218"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 11.&mdash;The Plum Curculio, <i>Conotrachelus<br />nenuphar</i>.
+<i>a</i>, larva; <i>b</i>, pupa; <i>c</i>, beetle;<br /><i>d</i>, plum showing egg-puncture<br />and
+crescent.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_024b.png" width="300" height="143"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 12.&mdash;A Soldier-beetle, <i>Chauliognathus<br />
+pennsylvanicus</i>. <i>a</i>, larva; <i>b&ndash;h</i>, parts of<br />larva enlarged; <i>i</i>,
+beetle.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;This is an order of great importance, and in the vast number and
+diversity of the species comprised in it outranks any of the others. The
+ease with which the insects of this order are obtained and preserved
+make it one of the most attractive to the amateur, and beetles are,
+perhaps, of all insects, the best known and understood in the popular
+mind. For the same reason they have, in the perfect state, received most
+attention from the entomologists, but their transformations and
+preparatory forms yet offer a wide and inviting field for the student.
+The simplest and best-known classification of the beetles is the tarsal
+system, founded on the number of joints to the tarsi, by which we get
+four great sections: (1) <span class="smcap">Pentamera</span>, in which all the tarsi are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+5-jointed; (2) <span class="smcap">Heteromera</span>, with the four anterior 5-jointed and the two
+posterior 4-jointed; (3) <span class="smcap">Pseudo-tetramera</span>, with apparently only four
+joints to all the tarsi, though, in reality, there is a fifth
+penultimate joint, diminutive and concealed; (4) <span class="smcap">Pseudo-trimera</span>, with
+apparently only three joints to all the tarsi. This system, like most
+others, is not perfect, as there are numerous species not possessing
+five joints to the tarsi belonging to the first section; and for
+practical purposes beetles may be very well arranged according to habit.
+We thus get, first, the <span class="smcap">Adephaga</span>, or carnivorous species, including all
+those which prey on other living insects, and to which, following Mr.&nbsp;Walsh, I have, for obvious reasons, applied the suggestive term
+&lsquo;Cannibal&rsquo;; second, the <span class="smcap">Necrophaga</span>, comprising those which
+feed on carrion, dung, fungi, and decaying vegetation; third, the
+<span class="smcap">Phytophaga</span>, embracing all those feeding on living vegetation. This
+arrangement is by no means perfect, for there are beetles which are
+carnivorous in the larva and herbivorous in the imago state; while some
+of the <span class="smcap">Necrophaga</span> are actually parasitic. Yet, it is not more artificial
+than others which have been proposed. The carnivorous species, broadly
+speaking, are <i>Pentamerous</i>, the only striking exception being the
+Coccinellidæ (Lady-birds), which are <i>Pseudo-trimerous</i>. The
+carrion-feeders are also <i>Pentamerous</i>; but vegetable-feeders are found
+in all the tarsal divisions, though the <i>Pseudo-tetramera</i> are the more
+essentially herbivorous, and consequently the most injurious.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_024c.png" width="600" height="320"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 13.&mdash;The Bogus Potato-beetle, <i>Doryphora juncta</i>.
+<i>a</i>, eggs; <i>b</i>, larvæ; <i>c</i>, beetle; <i>d</i> and <i>e</i>, parts of beetle
+enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Order <a name="LEPIDOPTERA" id="LEPIDOPTERA">LEPIDOPTERA</a> (λεπις, a scale; πτερον, wing). Butterflies and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+Moths, or scaly-winged insects. Characterized by having four
+branching-veined membranous wings, each more or less densely covered on
+both sides with minute imbricated scales which are attached by a stalk,
+but which easily rub off, and appear to the unaided eye like minute
+particles of glistening dust or powder. Transformations complete.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_025a.png" width="250" height="201"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 14.&mdash;A Butterfly,<br /><i>Pieris oleracea</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_025b.png" width="350" height="184"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 15.&mdash;A Sphingid,<br /><i>Ampelophaga myron</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Next to the Lepidoptera, the Coleoptera are, perhaps, most
+familiar to the popular mind. Every one admires the beauty of these
+frail creatures, dressed in every conceivable pattern, and adorned with
+every conceivable color, so as to rival the delicate hues of the
+rainbow, and eclipse the most fantastic and elaborate designs of man.
+When magnified, the scales, to which this beauty of pattern and color is
+entirely due, present all manner of shapes, according to the particular
+species or the particular part of the individual from which they are
+taken. According to Lewenhoeck, there are 400,000 of these scales on the
+wing of the common <ins title="silk-worm">silkworm</ins>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The transformations of these insects are complete, and the
+changes are usually so sudden and striking as to have excited the wonder
+and admiration of observers from earliest times.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_025c.png" width="250" height="126"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 16.&mdash;A Moth,<br /><i>Utetheisa bella</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The more common form of the larva is exampled in the ordinary
+caterpillar&mdash;a cylindrical worm with a head, twelve joints and a
+sub-joint; six thoracic or true legs, four abdominal and two anal
+prolegs. But there is a great variety of these <ins title="larvae">larvæ</ins>, some
+having no legs whatever, some having only the jointed legs, and others
+having either four, six, eight, or ten, but never more than ten prolegs.
+With few exceptions they are all vegetable-feeders, and with still fewer
+exceptions, terrestrial. The perfect insects make free use of their
+ample wings, but walk little; and their legs are weak, and not modified
+in the various ways so noticeable in other orders, while the front pair
+in some butterflies are impotent.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;As an order this must be considered the most injurious of the
+seven.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_026a.png" width="400" height="228"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 17.&mdash;A Clothes-moth (<i>Tinea pellionella</i>)&mdash;enlarged.<br />
+<i>a</i>, adult; <i>b</i>, larva; <i>c</i>, larva in case.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A convenient system of classification for the Lepidoptera is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+based on the structure of the <ins title="antennae">antennæ</ins>. By it we get
+two great sections: 1st, Butterflies (<span class="smcap">Rhopalocera</span>); 2d, Moths
+(<span class="smcap">Heterocera</span>), which latter may again be divided into Crepuscular and
+Nocturnal Moths. Butterflies are at once distinguished from moths by
+their antennæ being straight, stiff and <i>knobbed</i>, and by being
+day-fliers or diurnal; while moths have the antennæ tapering to a point,
+and are, for the most part, night-flyers or nocturnal. The crepuscular
+moths, composed mostly of the Sphinges or Hawk-moths, hover over flowers
+at eve, and connect the two sections not only in habit, but in the
+character of the antennæ which first thicken toward the end, and then
+suddenly terminate in a point or hook.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_026b.png" width="181" height="200"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 18.&mdash;A Plant-bug<br />(<ins title="Euschistes punctipes"><i>Euschistus punctipes</i></ins>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Order <a name="HEMIPTERA" id="HEMIPTERA">HEMIPTERA</a> (ἡμι, half; πτερον, wing), Bugs. The insects of
+this order are naturally separated into two great sections; 1st,
+Half-winged Bugs, or <span class="smcap">Heteroptera</span> (<ins title="ἑτερος">ἑτερος,</ins> different; πτερον,
+wing) having the basal half of the front wings (called <i>hemelytra</i>)
+coriaceous or leathery, while the apical part is membranous. The wings
+cross flatly over the back when at rest; 2d, Whole-winged Bugs, or
+<span class="smcap">Homoptera</span> (ὁμος, equal; πτερον, wing), having all four wings of a
+uniform membranous nature and folding straight down the back when at
+rest. The latter, if separated, may be looked upon as a
+<ins title="Sub-order">Suborder</ins>.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_026c.png" width="250" height="225"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 19.&mdash;A Soldier-bug<br />(<i>Milyas cinctus</i>).
+<br /><i>b</i>, beak enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Transformations incomplete; <i>i.&nbsp;e.</i>, the larvæ and pupæ have more
+or less the image of the perfect insect, and differ little from it
+except in lacking wings.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The genuine or half-winged Bugs (Figs. 18 and 19) are usually
+flattened in form, when mature; though more rounded in the adolescent
+stages. They may be divided into Land Bugs (<i>Aurocorisa</i>) and Water Bugs
+(<i>Hydrocorisa</i>). The species of the first division very generally
+possess the power of emitting, when disturbed or alarmed, a nauseous,
+bed-buggy odor, which comes from a fluid secreted from two pores,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+situated on the under side of the metathorax. Such well-known insects as
+the Bed-bug and Chinch-bug belong here. The habits of the species are
+varied, and while some are beneficial, others are quite injurious to
+man.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_027a.png" width="150" height="110"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 20.&mdash;A Tree-hopper<br />(<i>Ceresa bubalus</i>).<br /><i>a</i>, side;
+<i>b</i>, top view.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The Whole-winged Bugs (Figs. 20 and 21), on the contrary, are all
+plant-feeders, and with the exception of a few, such as the Cochineal
+and Lac insects, are injurious. The secretion of a white, or bluish,
+waxy, or farinose substance from the surface of the body is as
+characteristic of this section as the nauseous odor is of the first. It
+forms three natural divisions, arranged according to the number of
+joints to the tarsi&mdash;namely <span class="smcap">Trimera</span>, with three joints; <span class="smcap">Dimera</span>, with two
+<ins title="joints,">joints;</ins>, and <span class="smcap">Monomera</span>, with one joint to the tarsi.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_027b.png" width="300" height="232"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 21.&mdash;A Plant-louse (<i>Schizoneura lanigera</i>). <i>a</i>,
+infested<br />root; <i>b</i>, larva; <i>c</i>, winged insect; <i>d&ndash;g</i>, parts of perfect<br />
+insect enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Suborder <a name="THYSANOPTERA" id="THYSANOPTERA"><span class="smcap">Thysanoptera</span></a> (ϑυσανος, a fringe; πτερον, wing): This suborder
+contains the single family <i>Thripidæ</i>, which comprises minute insects
+commonly known as Thrips, and of which a common species, <i>Thrips
+striatus</i>, is shown in the accompanying figure. (See <a href="#fig_22">Fig.&nbsp;22.</a>) They bear
+strong relations to both the Pseudoneuroptera and the Hemiptera and by
+later writers are generally associated with the latter order. They feed
+on plants, puncturing and killing the leaves, or on other plant-feeding
+species of their own class, and are characterized by having narrow wings
+crossed on the back when at rest, and beautifully fringed, from which
+latter feature the name of the suborder is derived.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_027c.png" width="300" height="209"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="fig_22"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 22.&mdash;<i>Thrips striatus</i>, with wings enlarged<br />at
+side.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The mouth parts are peculiar in that they are intermediate in form
+between the sucking beak of Hemiptera and the biting mouth parts of
+other insects.</p>
+
+<p>Their eggs resemble those of Hemiptera; the larvæ and pupæ are active,
+and in form resemble the adult, except in the absence of wings. Some
+species, also, are wingless in the adult stage.</p>
+
+<p>The pupæ are somewhat sluggish and the limbs and wings are enclosed in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+thin membrane which is expanded about the feet into bulbous
+enlargements, giving rise to the name &ldquo;bladder-footed&rdquo;
+(Physopoda) applied to these insects by Burmeister.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_028a.png" width="250" height="205"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 23.&mdash;A Mosquito (<i>Culex pipiens</i>).<br /><i>a</i>, adult; <i>b</i>,
+head of same enlarged; <i>e</i>, portion<br />of antenna of same; <i>f</i>, larva; <i>g</i>,
+pupa.<br />(After Westwood.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Order <a name="DIPTERA" id="DIPTERA">DIPTERA</a> (δις, twice; πτερον, wing) or Two-winged Flies. The
+only order having but two wings, the hind pair replaced by a pair of
+small, slender filaments clubbed at tip, and called halteres, poisers,
+or balancers.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_028b.png" width="200" height="207"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 24.&mdash;A Hawk-fly (<i>Erax bastardi</i>).<br /><i>a</i>, perfect
+insect; <i>b</i>, pupa; larva shown at side.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_028c.png" width="250" height="135"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 25.&mdash;A Flesh-fly (<i>Sarcophaga carnaria</i>,<br />var.
+<i>saracenæ</i>). <i>a</i>, larva; <i>b</i>, puparium;<br /><i>c</i>, adult insect with enlarged
+parts.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;No order surpasses this in the number of species or in the
+immense swarms of individuals belonging to the same species which are
+frequently met with. The wings, which are variously veined, though
+appearing naked to the unaided eye, are often thickly covered with very
+minute hairs or hooks. As an order the Diptera are decidedly injurious
+to man, whether we consider the annoyances to ourselves or our animals
+of the Mosquito, Buffalo-gnat, Gad-fly, Breeze-fly, Zimb or Stomoxys, or
+the injury to our crops of the Hessian-fly, Wheat-midge, Cabbage-maggot,
+Onion-maggot, etc. There are, in fact, but two families, Syrphidæ and
+Tachinidæ, which can be looked upon as beneficial to the cultivator,
+though many act the part of scavengers. No insects, not even the
+Lepidoptera, furnish such a variety of curious larval characters, and
+none, perhaps, offer a wider or more interesting field of investigation
+to the biologist. It is difficult to give any very satisfactory
+arrangement of these Two-winged flies, though they easily fall into two
+rather artificial sections. These are: 1st, <span class="smcap">Nemocera</span>, or those with long
+antennæ, having more than six joints, and palpi having four or five
+<ins title="joints">joints.</ins> The pupa is naked, as in the Lepidoptera, with the limbs
+exposed. This kind of pupa is called <i>obtected</i>. 2d, <span class="smcap">Brachocera</span>, or
+those with short antennæ, not having more than three distinct joints,
+and palpi with one or two joints. The pupa is mostly <i>coarctate</i>, <i>i.&nbsp;e.</i>,
+is formed within, and more or less completely connected with, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+hardened and shrunken skin of the larva.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_029a.png" width="300" height="259"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 26.&mdash;The Sheep Bot (<i>&#338;strus ovis</i>). 1, 2, flies;<br />
+3, puparium; 4, 5, and 6, larvæ or bots.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The most anomalous of the Diptera are the Forest-flies and
+Sheep-ticks (<i>Hippoboscidæ</i>). They have a horny and flattened body, and
+resemble lice in their parasitic habits, living beneath the hair of bats
+and birds. Their mode of development has always attracted the attention
+of entomologists. The larvæ are hatched in the <ins title="abodmen">abdomen</ins> of the
+female, which is capable of distention. There it remains and, after
+assuming the pupa state, is deposited in the form of a short, white,
+egg-like object, without trace of articulation, and nearly as large as
+the abdomen of the female fly. Closely allied to these are the Bat-ticks
+(<i>Nycteribidæ</i>), which possess neither wings nor balancers, and remind
+one strongly of spiders.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In this order we may also place certain wingless lice (such as
+<i>Braula c&oelig;ca</i>, Nitzch), which infests the Honey-bee in Europe,
+northern Africa, and western Asia, but which has not yet been detected
+in this country.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_029b.png" width="300" height="187"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 27.&mdash;A Flea (<i>Pulex</i>). (From Packard.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Suborder <a name="APHANIPTERA" id="APHANIPTERA"><span class="smcap">Aphaniptera</span></a> (αϕανης, inconspicuous; πτερον, wing) or
+Fleas, comprising the single family Pulicidæ, now placed with the
+Diptera. Everybody is supposed to be familiar with the appearance of the
+Flea&mdash;its bloodthirsty propensities and amazing muscular power; and
+while everyone may not have the leisure and means to experience the
+exhilarating influence of the chase after larger animals, there is no
+one&mdash;be he never so humble&mdash;who may not indulge in the hunt after this
+smaller game! In place of wings the flea has four small, scaly plates.
+The minute eggs&mdash;about a dozen to each female&mdash;are laid in obscure
+places, such as the cracks of a floor, the hair of rugs, etc., and the
+larva is worm-like and feeds upon whatever animal matter&mdash;as grease and
+blood&mdash;or decaying vegetable matter it can find.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Order <a name="ORTHOPTERA" id="ORTHOPTERA">ORTHOPTERA</a> (ορθος, straight; πτερον, wing), or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+Straight-winged Insects. Characterized by having the front wings (called
+<i>tegmina</i>) straight and usually narrow, pergameneous or parchment-like,
+thickly veined, and overlapping at tips when closed; the hind wings
+large and folding longitudinally like a fan. Transformations incomplete.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_030a.png" width="400" height="169"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 28.&mdash;A Locust (<ins title="Acrideum americanum"><i>Acridium americanum</i></ins>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_030b.png" width="300" height="240"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 29.&mdash;A Tree-cricket (<ins title="Ocharis saltator"><i>Orocharis saltator</i></ins>).<br /><i>a</i>, female; <i>b</i>, male.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_030c.png" width="400" height="198"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 30.&mdash;The Croton Bug or German Cockroach<br />
+<ins title="(Phyllodromia germanica.)">(<i>Phyllodromia germanica</i>).</ins> <i>a</i>, first stage; <i>b</i>, second stage;<br />
+<i>c</i>, third stage; <i>d</i>, fourth stage; <i>e</i>, adult; <i>f</i>, adult female with<br />
+egg-case; <i>g</i>, egg-case&mdash;enlarged; <i>h</i>, adult with wings<br />spread&mdash;all
+natural size except <i>g</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The insects of this order have a lengthened body and very robust
+jaws, with a correspondingly large head. The legs are strong, and
+fashioned either for grasping, running, climbing, jumping, or burrowing.
+As in the other orders, where the transformations are incomplete, the
+young differ little from the parent, except in the want of wings; and in
+many instances even this difference does not exist, as there are
+numerous species which never acquire wings. There are no aquatic
+Orthoptera. Some are omnivorous, others carnivorous, but most of them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+herbivorous. They form four distinct sections: 1st, <span class="smcap">Cursoria</span>,
+Cockroaches; 2d, <span class="smcap">Raptatoria</span>, Mantes; 3d, <span class="smcap">Ambulatoria</span>, Walking-sticks;
+4th, <span class="smcap">Saltatoria</span>, Crickets, Grasshoppers, and Locusts.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_031a.png" width="150" height="88"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 31.&mdash;Hind wing of Earwig.<br />(From Comstock.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_031b.png" width="100" height="199"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 32.&mdash;An Earwig.<br />(From Packard.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Suborder <a name="DERMAPTERA" id="DERMAPTERA"><span class="smcap">Dermaptera</span></a><a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> (δερμα, skin; πτερον, wing), or
+<ins title="Earwigs">Earwigs</ins>, consisting of the single family Forficulidæ, which may be
+placed with the Orthoptera. They are rare insects with us, but very
+common in Europe, where there prevails a superstition that they get into
+the ear and cause all sorts of trouble. The front wings are small and
+leathery; the hind ones have the form of a quadrant, and look like a fan
+when opened; and the characteristic feature is a pair of forceps-like
+appendages at the end of the body, best developed in the males. They are
+nocturnal in habit, hiding during the day in any available recess. The
+female lays her eggs in the ground, and singularly enough, broods over
+them and over her young, the latter crowding under her like chicks under
+a hen.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_031c.png" width="300" height="201"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_033"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 33.&mdash;A Dragon-fly (<i>Libellula trimaculata</i>).<br />(From
+Packard.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Order <a name="NEUROPTERA" id="NEUROPTERA">NEUROPTERA</a> (νευρον, nerve; πτερον, wing), or Nerve-winged
+insects. Characterized by having the wings reticulate with numerous
+veins so as to look like net-work. The order forms two natural
+divisions, the first including all those which undergo a complete, and
+the second, called Pseudo-neuroptera (Dictyotoptera, Burmeister), those
+which undergo an incomplete metamorphosis. * * * The insects of this
+order are, as a whole, more lowly organized, and more generally aquatic,
+than either of the others. A natural arrangement of them is difficult on
+account of their degradational character. They present forms which are
+synthetic and closely approach the other orders, and the evolutionist
+naturally looks upon them as furnishing an idea of what the archetypal
+forms of our present insects may have been. They are, as a rule, large
+and sluggish, with the body parts soft and little specialized, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+muscles weak. Their remains are found in the Devonian and Carboniferous
+deposits.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;They are mostly carnivorous, and with the exception of the
+White-ants and certain Book-lice they none of them affect man
+injuriously, while some are quite beneficial.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The first division of this order, or the Neuroptera proper,
+characterized by having incomplete metamorphoses, may be considered
+under the three following suborders:</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_032a.png" width="300" height="198"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 34.&mdash;Caddis-fly, larva and its case.<br />(From
+Packard.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Suborder <a name="TRICHOPTERA" id="TRICHOPTERA"><span class="smcap">Trichoptera</span></a> (θριξ, hair; πτερον, wing), or Caddis-flies,
+containing the single family Phryganeidæ, and placed with the
+Neuroptera, though bearing great affinities with the Lepidoptera. Every
+good disciple of Walton and lover of the &ldquo;gentle art&rdquo; knows
+the value of the Caddis-fly, or Water-moth, as bait. These flies very
+much resemble certain small moths, the scales on the wings of the latter
+being replaced in the former with simple hairs. The larvæ live in the
+water and inhabit silken cases, which are usually cylindrical and
+covered with various substances, according to the species, or the
+material most conveniently obtained by the individual.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_032b.png" width="150" height="97"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 35.&mdash;Panorpa or Scorpion-fly.<br />(From Packard.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Suborder <a name="MECOPTERA" id="MECOPTERA"><span class="smcap">Mecoptera</span></a> (μηκος, length; πτερον, wing). This suborder includes
+a peculiar group of insects, the most striking characteristics of which
+are the mouth-parts, which are prolonged into a rostrum or beak. The
+wings are long and narrow, and of nearly equal size. The abdomen of the
+male is constricted near its posterior end and terminates in long
+clasping organs from which these insects obtain the common name of
+Scorpion-flies.</p>
+
+<p>The larvæ of one genus (<i>Panorpa</i>) are remarkable for their great
+resemblance to the larvæ of Lepidoptera. They have, however, eight pairs
+of abdominal legs. The habits of these insects are not well known, but
+they are supposed to be generally.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_033a.png" width="300" height="123"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 36.&mdash;Lace-wing fly. <i>a</i>, eggs, <i>b</i>, larva,<br /><i>c</i>,
+cocoons, <i>d</i>, fly with left wings removed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_033b.png" width="300" height="142"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 37.&mdash;An Ant-lion (<i>Myrmeleon</i>).<br />(From Packard.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_033c.png" width="50" height="75"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 38.&mdash;Myrmeleon<br />larva.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_033d.png" width="200" height="174"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 39.&mdash;<i>Mantispa</i> with<br />side view beneath.<br />(From
+Packard.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Suborder <a name="NEUROPTERA_2" id="NEUROPTERA_2"><span class="smcap">Neuroptera</span></a>. This group as restricted by modern authors is a
+small one, including the largest species, as in the Hellgrammite, the
+Lace-wing Flies, the Ant-lions, and the Mantispas representing the
+families, Sialidæ and Hemerobiidæ, with their subfamilies. The first
+includes the so-called Hellgrammite Fly (<i>Corydalus cornutus</i>), one of
+our largest and most striking insects, the larvæ of which is known as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+Dobsons by anglers, and is aquatic and carnivorous in habit. The
+Hemerobiidæ is a large family, comprising, as a rule, delicate insects
+with rather ample gauzy wings. The larvæ are predaceous. The common
+Lace-wing flies are among our most beneficial insects, destroying
+plant-lice and other soft-bodied species. To the same family belongs the
+Ant-lion (<i>Myrmeleon</i>), the larvæ of which have the curious habit of
+constructing a funnel-shaped burrow in the sand, in the bottom of which
+they conceal themselves and wait for any soft-bodied insects which may
+fall into the trap. This family also includes the peculiar Mantis-like
+insects belonging to the genus <i>Mantispa</i>. As in the true Mantis, the
+prothorax of these insects is greatly elongated and the first pair of
+legs are fitted for grasping. The larvæ are parasitic in the egg-sacs of
+certain large spiders (genera <i>Licosa</i>, <i>Dolomedes</i>, etc.), and undergo
+a remarkable change in form after the first molt. In the first stage the
+larvæ are very agile, with slender bodies and long legs. After molting
+the body becomes much swollen and the legs are much shortened, as are
+also the antennæ, the head becoming small and the general appearance
+reminding one of the larva of a bee.</p>
+
+<p>The second section of the Neuroptera, characterized by complete
+metamorphosis, comprises the following suborders:</p>
+
+<p>Suborder <a name="PLATYPTERA" id="PLATYPTERA"><span class="smcap">Platyptera</span></a> (πλατυς, flat; πτερον, wing). Under this head are
+grouped the White-ants (<i>Termitidæ</i>), the Bird-lice (<i>Mallophaga</i>), and
+the Book-mites (<i>Psocidæ</i>). The suborder receives its name from the fact
+that in the case of the winged forms the wings, when at rest, are
+usually laid flat upon the back of the insect. The Mallophaga, or
+Bird-lice, are degraded wingless insects, and are parasitic chiefly on
+birds, but also on mammals. In shape of body and character of the
+mouth-parts they are most nearly allied to the Psocidæ. The latter
+family includes both winged and wingless forms, the Book-mites belonging
+to the latter category. The winged forms may be illustrated by the
+common species, <i>Psocus venosus</i> (see <a href="#fig_040">Fig.&nbsp;40</a>). The legs and antennæ are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+long and slender and the wings are folded roof-like over the body when
+the insect is at rest. They feed on lichens and dry vegetation.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_034a.png" width="150" height="119"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="fig_040"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 40.&mdash;<i>Psocus venosus.</i><br />(From Comstock.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Termitidæ are represented in this country by the White-ant (<i>Termes
+flavipes</i>), which is frequently so destructive to woodwork, books, etc.
+The term White-ant applied to these insects is unfortunate, as in
+structure they are widely separated from ants and resemble them only in
+general appearance and also in their social habits. Like the ants they
+live in colonies and have a number of distinct forms, as winged and
+wingless, males and females, and workers and soldiers.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_034b.png" width="250" height="225"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 41.&mdash;A Stone-fly (<i>Pteronarcys regalis</i>).<br />(From
+Comstock.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Suborder <a name="PLECOPTERA" id="PLECOPTERA"><span class="smcap">Plecoptera</span></a> (πλεκτος, plaited; πτερον, wing). Closely allied to
+the latter suborder is the suborder Plecoptera, which includes the
+single family Perlidæ or Stone-flies. The larvæ and pupæ of these
+insects are aquatic, being often found under stones in water, whence the
+name. The adults are long, flattened insects, with long antennæ. The
+wings are ample and are somewhat folded or plaited, from which character
+the suborder takes its name.</p>
+
+<p>Suborder <a name="ODONATA" id="ODONATA"><span class="smcap">Odonata</span></a> (οϑους, tooth). This includes the Dragon-flies or
+Libellulidæ, the most common and the best known of the Neuroptera. The
+larva and the active pupa or nymph are aquatic and are predaceous, as is
+also the adult. A common species is represented at see <a href="#img_033">Fig.&nbsp;33</a></p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_034c.png" width="150" height="176"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_042"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 42.&mdash;A May-fly<br />(<ins title="Protamanthus marginatus"><i>Potamanthus
+marginatus</i></ins>).<br />(From Packard.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Suborder <a name="EPHEMEROPTERA" id="EPHEMEROPTERA"><span class="smcap">Ephemeroptera</span></a> (εϕημερον, a day-fly; πτερον, wing) comprises
+the May-flies, or Ephemeridæ (see <a href="#img_042">Fig.&nbsp;42</a>). These insects are very
+fragile and are often attracted in enormous numbers to electric lights.
+They have large front wings, while the hind wings are small,
+rudimentary, or wanting. They are furnished with two or three very long,
+jointed, threadlike caudal appendages. The larval and nymphal stages are
+passed in the water and aquatic vegetation furnishes the food, although
+some species may be predaceous. The adults have very rudimentary mouths
+and eat nothing; their term of life is also very limited, not exceeding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+2&ndash;4 days.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_035.png" width="94" height="150"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 43.&mdash;(<i>Lepisma 4-seriata</i>).<br />(After Packard.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Suborder <a name="THYSANURA" id="THYSANURA"><span class="smcap">Thysanura</span></a> θυσανος, tassel; ουρα, tail). This suborder comprises
+minute, degraded insects commonly known as Spring-tails, Bristle-tails,
+Fish-moths, Snow-fleas, etc. They occur in damp situations and also
+infest books, wall-paper, etc., eating the starch paste in the
+book-bindings, or beneath the wall paper. They comprise very primitive
+forms and are interesting because they are supposed to represent the
+original stock from which the higher orders of insects have sprung. They
+are wingless, usually with simple eyes, and clothed with scales, and
+undergo no metamorphosis. Some of them, as the Fish-moth (<i>Lepisma
+sp.</i>), run very rapidly and are furnished at the end of the body with a
+number of long bristles. In other forms these anal bristles or stylets
+are united at the base and bent under the body and become a powerful
+jumping organ, giving them the very appropriate name of Spring-tails.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p style="font-size: 125%; text-indent: 0em;">Footnote:</p>
+<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Euplexoptera of some authors from ευ, well; πλεχω, folded,
+referring to the folded wings.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<h2><a name="COLLECTING" id="COLLECTING"></a>COLLECTING.</h2>
+
+<p><a name="GEN_CONS" id="GEN_CONS"><span class="smcap">General Considerations.</span></a>&mdash;&ldquo;Few departments of natural history offer
+greater inducements or facilities to the student than Entomology. He
+need not pass his threshold for material, for it may be found on every
+hand and at all seasons. The directions for collecting, preserving, and
+studying insects might be extended indefinitely in detail, as volumes
+have already been written on the subject; but the more general and
+important instructions are soon given.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Beginners are very apt to supply themselves with all sorts of
+appliances advertised by natural history furnishing stores. Many of
+these appliances, when it comes to real, practical field-work, are soon
+abandoned as useless incumbrances; and the greater the experience, the
+simpler will be the paraphernalia. My own equipment, on a collecting
+trip, consists chiefly of a cotton umbrella, a strong and narrow steel
+trowel or digger, a haversack slung across the shoulders, a cigar box
+lined with sheet cork, and a small knapsack attached to a waistbelt
+which girts a coat, not of many colors, but of many pockets, so made
+that in stooping nothing falls out of them. The umbrella is one of the
+indispensables. It shields, when necessary, from old Sol's scorching
+rays and from the pelting, drenching storm; brings within reach, by its
+hooked handle, many a larva-freighted bough which would otherwise remain
+undisturbed; and forms an excellent receptacle for all insects that may
+be dislodged from bush or branch. Opened and held inverted under a bough
+with the left hand, while the right manipulates a beating-stick, cut for
+the occasion, it will be the recipient of many a choice specimen that
+would never have been espied amid its protective surroundings. Some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+collectors use an umbrella painted or lined on the inside with white, to
+facilitate the detection of any object that drops into it; but as there
+are fully as many, if not more, pale and white insects as there are dark
+or black ones, the common dark umbrella is good enough for all ordinary
+purposes; and if any improvement on the ordinary cotton umbrella is
+desired, it should be in the way of a joint or knuckle about the middle
+of the handle, which will facilitate its packing and using. The trowel
+is valuable for prying off the loosened bark from old trees, whether
+felled or standing, and for digging into the ground or into decaying
+stumps and logs. The haversack is for the carriage of different kinds of
+boxes (those made of tin being best) intended for larval and other forms
+which it is necessary to bring home alive for breeding purposes; and if
+made with a partition so that the filled and empty boxes may be
+separated, all the better; it may also be used for nets and other
+apparatus to be mentioned, and for such provender as is necessary on the
+trip. The knapsack may be made on the plan of a cartridge box, of stout
+canvas or leather, and should be of moderate size and slung onto the
+belt so as to be slipped to any part of the waist and not hinder free
+bodily motion. It may be used to carry bottles, phials, and other small
+appliances, and should be accordingly partitioned and furnished with
+loops or pockets on the inside. The cigar-box is for the reception of
+pinned specimens, and may be slipped onto the belt, or buttoned to the
+trousers by means of leather.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_036.png" width="285" height="300"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_044"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 44.&mdash;The Butterfly net-frame.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The greatest requisites in collecting are a pair of sharp eyes
+and ready hands, with coolness and self-possession; but a few traps will
+materially aid. One of the most important is the hand-net, which may be
+made so as to subserve the two purposes of a sweeping and an
+air-net.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The frame of the net which I use is illustrated herewith (see <a href="#img_044">Fig.&nbsp;44</a>),
+and will be found strong and serviceable and conveniently portable.
+It is constructed as follows: Take two pieces of stout brass wire, each
+about 20 inches long; bend them half-circularly and at one end by a
+folding hinge having a check on one side, <i>b</i>. The other ends are bent
+and beaten into two square sockets, <i>f</i>, which fit to a nut sunk and
+soldered into one end of a brass tube, <i>d</i>. When so fitted, they are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+secured by a large-headed screw, <i>e</i>, threaded to fit into the
+nut-socket, and with a groove wide enough to receive the back of a
+common pocket-knife blade. The wire hoop is easily detached and folded,
+as at <i>c</i>, for convenient carriage; and the handle may be made of any
+desired length by cutting a stick and fitting it into the hollow tube
+<i>a</i>, which should be about 6 inches long. It is well to have two
+separate hoops, one of lighter wire, furnished with silk gauze or some
+other light material, for catching flying insects, and one which is
+stouter and furnished with a net of stronger material for sweeping
+non-flying specimens.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Another still more simple, but less convenient frame, is thus
+described by my friend F. G. Sanborn, of Boston, Mass.:</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_037a.png" width="75" height="137"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_045"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 45.&mdash;The<br />Sanborn net-frame.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&lsquo;Make a loop of strong iron or brass wire, of about 3-16ths of an
+inch in thickness, so that the diameter of the loop or circle will not
+exceed 12 inches, leaving an inch to an inch and a half of wire at each
+end bent at nearly right angles. Bind the two extremities of the wire
+together with smaller wire (see <a href="#img_045">Fig.&nbsp;45</a>, <i>a</i>), and tin them by applying a
+drop of muriate of zinc, then holding it in the fire or over a gas flame
+until nearly red hot, when a few grains of block tin or soft solder
+placed upon them will flow evenly over the whole surface and join them
+firmly together. Take a Maynard rifle cartridge tube, or other brass
+tube of similar dimensions; if the former, file off the closed end or
+perforate it for the admission of the wire, and having tinned it in the
+same manner on the inside, push a tight-fitting cork half way through
+<ins title="(Fig. c)">(Fig.&nbsp;45, <i>c</i>)</ins> and pour into it melted tin or soft solder, and
+insert the wires; if carefully done, you will have a firmly constructed
+and very durable foundation for a collecting net. The cork being
+extracted will leave a convenient socket for inserting a stick or
+walking cane to serve as a handle.&rsquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;My friend, J. A. Lintner, of Albany, N. Y., makes very good use,
+in his ordinary promenades, of a telescopic fish-rod, with a head (<a href="#img_046">Fig.&nbsp;46</a>)
+screwed on to one end, in which to fasten an elastic brass coil on
+which the net is drawn, but which when not in use sits snugly inside his
+silk hat.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_037b.png" width="75" height="209"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_046"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 46.&mdash;<br />Clamp of the<br />Lintner net.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The bag should taper to the bottom, and in any case its length
+should be fully twice the diameter of the hoop, so that by giving the
+net a twist, the mouth may be closed and the contents thus secured. The
+sweeping-net may be protected around the hoop with leather, and in use
+should be kept in a steady and continued back-and-forth motion, over and
+touching the plants, until the contents are to be examined; when, by
+placing the head at the opening and quietly surveying the restless
+inmates, the desiderata may be secured and the rest turned out. A sudden
+dash of the air-net will usually lay any flying object at the bottom. A
+net for aquatic insects may be made on the same principle, but should be
+stout, with the meshes open enough to allow free passage of water, and
+the bag not quite as deep as the diameter of the hoop. A forceps net,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+which consists of two gauze or bobbinet covered frames, having riveted
+handles, so as to close like a pair of scissors, is employed for small
+insects; but I find little use for it. A coarse sieve, together with a
+white towel or sheet, will be found of great service for special
+occasions, particularly in the spring, when the search for minute
+insects found under old leaves, or for pupæ around the butts of trees,
+is contemplated. With the sheet spread on the ground, and a few handfuls
+of leaves and leafy mold sifted over it, many a minute specimen will be
+separated from the coarser particles and drop to the sheet, where the
+eye may readily detect it. Conversely, the earth taken from around trees
+may be sifted so as to leave in the sieve such larger objects as pupæ,
+etc. Another favorite plan, with some collectors, of obtaining
+specimens, especially night-flying moths, is by
+&lsquo;sugaring.&rsquo; This consists of applying to the trunks of
+trees or to strips of cloth attached to the trees some sweet,
+attractive, and stupefying preparation. Diluted molasses or dissolved
+brown sugar, mixed with rum or beer, is most frequently employed. I have
+found sugaring of little use till after the blossoming season, and it is
+almost impossible to so stupefy or intoxicate an insect that it will
+remain upon the sugared tree till the next morning. I generally sugar at
+eve, and visit the tree several times between sundown and midnight,
+armed with wide-mouthed killing-bottles and accompanied by a second
+person, who carries a dark-lantern. Isolated trees, on the edges of
+woods, give the best results. Everybody knows how some poor moths will
+persist in flitting around a light until they singe their wings; and, as
+many insects are strongly attracted to bright artificial light, it may
+be employed with good results, especially during warm and damp evenings.
+The collector should never go unprovided with a small box or tube full
+of different sized pins (a corked cartridge-tube makes a good box,) a
+pair or two of forceps, a pair of scissors, a little mucilage, and the
+killing apparatus to be described.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>With these general remarks, it will be well to consider some of the
+important paraphernalia more in detail.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="COLL_APPS" id="COLL_APPS">COLLECTING APPARATUS.</a></h3>
+
+<p><a name="SWEEP_NET" id="SWEEP_NET"><i>The Sweeping Net.</i></a>&mdash;A multitude of insects of all orders feed or rest
+on grasses and other low plants. Upon close inspection of these plants a
+careful observer will be able to secure, without any instruments, not
+only many mature insects, but also many larvæ in connection with their
+food-plants. This is laborious and slow work, only necessary on special
+occasions. The beating net, which is constructed on the same general
+plan as the butterfly net, is valuable here as a time saver. By holding
+the handle of the net firmly in one hand and quickly sweeping over the
+plants first from right to left, and then, after quickly turning the net
+again, sweeping from left to right, most insects coming within reach of
+the sweep will fall into the bag and may be easily taken out and put
+into the collecting-vials. From this mode of operation it is evident<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+that the sweeping net must be stronger in all its parts than the
+butterfly net, but otherwise it may be made on the same plan.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_039.png" width="400" height="205"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 47.&mdash;The Deyrolle Sweeping Net. <i>a</i>, net entire;
+<i>b</i>, frame; <i>c</i> and <i>d</i>, attachment of frame and handle (original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ring should be rigid, made of brass or iron, either of one piece or
+of two pieces, and fastened to the handle or stick in the same way as
+the butterfly net. The bag need not be as long as in the butterfly net,
+about 18 inches being sufficient, but it should be of stout cotton or
+linen and the bottom should preferably be sewed in as a round piece, so
+as to avoid corners. Care needs to be bestowed on the fastening of the
+bag on the ring, for by the use of the net the part of the bag sewed
+around the ring is soon chafed through. To prevent this a strip of
+leather is sewed over the cotton along the rim, but since even this must
+be frequently renewed some other devices are used to give greater
+durability to the net. In the pattern of a beating-net originally sold
+by Deyrolle in Paris, the metal ring was flattened, with the narrow edge
+pointing upwards and the broad side pierced with holes at suitable
+intervals and grooved on the outer surface between the holes. The bag is
+sewed on to the inner side of the ring by stout twine, which passes from
+one hole to the next and is thus prevented from coming in contact with
+obstructive objects, and only the bottom of the bag wears and will need
+to be occasionally mended or renewed.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_040a.png" width="300" height="268"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 48.&mdash;Beating net, opened and attached to handle,
+<br />with frame of same folded.<br />(After Kiesenwetter.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another method of preventing the tearing of the upper rim of the bag is
+described and illustrated in Kiesenwetter's useful volume &ldquo;Der
+Naturaliensammler&rdquo; from which I shall frequently have <ins title="occassion">
+occasion</ins> to quote. In this net the main ring is of rounded iron
+wire on which a number of brass rings are slipped. These must be but
+little larger than the diameter of the wire. These little brass rings<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+should not be more than 30 mm. or at most 40 mm., distant from each
+other, and to them the upper rim of the bag is sewed with very strong
+twine and is thus protected from wear and tear. The handle or stick of
+the net should be firmly and solidly attached to the ring and should be
+stout and not liable to break. I prefer a rather short stick, say not
+longer than two feet.</p>
+
+<p>I figure herewith the ring of a very convenient net for sweeping or
+beating purposes. It has the advantage of being for sale on the market,
+and in fact is an ordinary fishing dip net of small size. It is hinged
+in three places, as shown in the figure, and folds into very small
+compass. When unfolded and brought together, it screws into a ferrule
+which may be attached to a cane or a special handle.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_040b.png" width="100" height="182"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 49.&mdash;Folding ring<br />for beating net (original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The beating net can be successfully used at almost every season of the
+year. Even on warm days in winter time many specimens can be swept from
+the dead grass. So long as the dew is on the plants or in rainy weather
+no beating should be attempted, as the more delicate species are more or
+less spoiled by the moisture. After one or two minutes' sweeping the
+contents should be examined. Those insects which are quick to take wing
+or which are good runners should first receive attention; the less
+active can then be examined more at leisure. The desiderata are then
+disposed of, the rest thrown away, and the beating renewed.</p>
+
+<p>The beating net is an important instrument for collecting all insects
+excepting mature Lepidoptera, which are apt to get rubbed. Many larvæ,
+especially of Lepidoptera, are caught by beating and are mostly in good
+condition, but it is usually difficult to ascertain the food plant.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_041a.png" width="150" height="75"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 50.&mdash;The Water Net.<br />(After Packard.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="WATER_NET" id="WATER_NET"><i>The Water Net.</i></a>&mdash;The numerous insects or insect larvæ which live in the
+water can not be conveniently collected without the use of a net, except
+where they live in small shallow streams or creeks with gravelly or
+stony bottoms. A suitable water net can readily be made by using the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+frame of the beating net and attaching to it a rather short bag of some
+coarse material, <i>e.&nbsp;g.</i>, &ldquo;grass cloth,&rdquo; coarse millinet.
+The mode of operation with this net is very simple: if some insect is
+seen swimming in the water, the net is carefully brought beneath the
+specimen, which is thus lifted out of the water. Most water insects are,
+however, not seen swimming about freely, but hide amid the various
+plants, mosses, etc., or in the mud at the base of the plants, and they
+can best be captured by dragging the net through these plants. When
+taken from the water the net is more or less filled with mud and parts
+of plants, and the water must be allowed to run out and the contents of
+the net spread out on a cloth or on a flat stone, if such be at hand.
+The insects are at first not readily seen, but after a short while they
+begin to emerge from the mud and crawl about, and can readily be taken
+up with a forceps.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_041b.png" width="150" height="122"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_051"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 51.&mdash;Small Water<br />Dip Net (original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="DIP_NET" id="DIP_NET"><i>Water Dip Net.</i></a>&mdash;The small water sieve, shown in the accompanying
+illustration (<a href="#img_051">Fig.&nbsp;51</a>), and somewhat resembling in appearance a jockey
+cap, is frequently of service in collecting the larvæ of aquatic
+insects, especially where it is necessary to scrape submerged stones or
+timbers. In use it is fastened on the end of a cane or stick, and can be
+easily made by any tinsmith.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UMBRELLA" id="UMBRELLA"><i>The Umbrella.</i></a>&mdash;The umbrella, as already stated, is one of the most
+useful instruments of the collector, since it enables him to obtain all
+those numerous insects which live on the branches of trees, on shrubs,
+and on other large plants. A common stout cotton umbrella is
+sufficiently large, but is liable to get out of joint, and moreover the
+specimens hide themselves under the ribs. It is well, therefore, to have
+the inside of such umbrella lined along the ribs with muslin, or some
+other material, preferably of a light color. An umbrella specially
+constructed for entomological purposes is offered for sale by E.
+Deyrolle, in Paris. It resembles a stoutly built common umbrella, but
+has the inside lined with white linen and the handle has a joint near
+the middle, so that the umbrella can be more conveniently held and more
+readily packed away. The opened and inverted umbrella is held with the
+left hand under the branch which the collector intends to relieve of its
+entomological inhabitants, while the right hand, armed with a heavy
+stick, is free to properly jar the branch. Care must be taken in the
+jarring, lest the insects are knocked beyond the circumference of the
+umbrella. The larger the umbrella the greater are the chances of making
+rich captures, but the more difficult it becomes to manipulate,
+especially where the woods are dense or where there are many vines, etc.
+In the absence of an umbrella the butterfly net or the beating net can
+be used.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_042.png" width="400" height="480"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_052"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 52.&mdash;The Umbrella and its mode of use. (After
+Kiesenwetter.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A drawback to collecting with the umbrella is that many insects take<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+wing and escape before being secured. This can hardly be avoided, and
+experienced collectors, in southern countries more particularly, have
+found it advisable to discard the umbrella and to use in its stead a
+very large butterfly net, 2 feet or more in diameter.</p>
+
+<p><a name="BEATING_CLOTH" id="BEATING_CLOTH"><i>The Beating Cloth.</i></a>&mdash;A very simple substitute for the umbrella, and one
+which can always be carried without inconvenience, may here be
+described. It consists of a piece of common unbleached cotton cloth (1
+yard square), to each corner of which a loop of stout twine is sewed.
+Upon reaching the woods, two straight sticks, each about 5 feet in
+length and not too heavy, but also not so small as to be liable to break
+or to bend too easily, are cut from a convenient bush. The sticks are
+placed crosswise over the cloth and fastened to the loops at the four
+ends. This is easily and quickly done by making sliding loops of the
+simple loops. The cloth is thus kept spread out between the sticks, and
+forms a very good substitute for an umbrella. In beating, the sticks are
+held at their intersecting points. When not in use one of the loops is
+detached from the stick and the instrument can be rolled up and carried
+under one arm without seriously interfering with other operations of the
+collector. When laid on the ground, with the sticks on the underside,
+this simple instrument may be advantageously used as a cloth on which
+to sift or examine fungi, moss, pieces of bark, etc., and since the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+cloth is always tightly expanded, it offers a smooth and level surface,
+where examination of various objects can be made with ease and accuracy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_043.png" width="400" height="422"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_053"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 53.&mdash;The umbrella beating and sweeping net
+(original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UMBRELLA_NET" id="UMBRELLA_NET"><i>The Umbrella Net.</i></a>&mdash;A very convenient form of net for both sweeping and
+for use in place of an umbrella for beating has been devised by Dr.&nbsp;George
+Marx. (See <a href="#img_053">Fig.&nbsp;53</a>) It is constructed from an old umbrella, as
+follows: To the handle of the umbrella are attached two steel rods
+working on hinges at the apex of the umbrella, as do the ordinary
+umbrella ribs, and attached to the sliding piece of the umbrella in the
+same manner, as shown at <i>a</i>. These rods should be about 2½ feet long.
+When the sliding piece is pushed up and caught behind the spring clip,
+as shown at <i>b</i>, a circular loop is formed giving the framework for the
+net. The latter, which should be comparatively shallow, is made of stout
+muslin and sewed to the frame, as in the ordinary sweeping net. The
+enlarged drawings <i>c</i> and <i>d</i> illustrate clearly the manner of
+constructing the frame. The advantage of this net is its convenience in
+carrying and its general usefulness, taking the place of both the
+umbrella and the sweeping net. When not in use the frame is allowed to
+assume the position shown at A, and the net may be wrapped about the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+frame and the whole inserted in an ordinary umbrella cover.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_044.png" width="200" height="342"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_054"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 54.&mdash;The sieve. <i>a</i>, wire netting<br />(original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="SIEVE" id="SIEVE"><i>The Sieve.</i></a>&mdash;This useful aid to good collecting has not been generally
+employed by American entomologists. It facilitates the finding of small
+insects living under old leaves, in moss, in decayed trees, in fungi, in
+ants' nests, or in the ground. Any ordinary sieve about a foot in
+diameter and with meshes of about one-fifth of an inch will answer,
+though for durability and convenience of carriage one made of two wire
+or brass rings and muslin (<a href="#img_054">Fig.&nbsp;54</a>), as follows, is the best. The ends
+of the wire netting should be bent around the ring so as not to project.
+A piece of common muslin about 1 foot wide and long enough to go around
+the circumference of one of the rings is then sewed together so as to
+form a kind of cylinder or bag without bottom, and the upper and lower
+rims of this bag are then sewed on around the two rings. The whole
+instrument thus forms a bag, the top of which is kept open by the simple
+wire ring, and the bottom is closed by the second ring covered with the
+wire netting. After choosing a suitable locality a white cloth is spread
+as evenly as possible on the ground; the collector then takes the sieve,
+places therein two or three handfuls of the material to be sifted,
+returns to his cloth, and, holding with his right hand the lower ring
+and with the left hand the upper ring, shakes the sieve over the cloth.
+The larger particles and specimens are retained in the sieve while the
+smaller fall through the meshes on to the cloth. Care must be taken that
+the siftings form an even and thin layer on the surface of the cloth, so
+as to be easily examined from time to time. If the locality is favorable
+many insects will be seen at the first glance crawling or running about,
+and these can easily be picked up by means of a moistened brush, or with
+the forceps. Many other insects, however, either feign death or, at any
+rate, do not move until after the lapse of several minutes, and the
+proper investigation of a single sifting often requires much time, and
+patience will be more fully rewarded here than in any other mode of
+collecting.</p>
+
+<p>The size of the wire meshes given above is best adapted for sifting the
+fragments of old decayed trees, which furnish the most frequent material
+for the use of the sieve, but for sifting ants' nests, soil, etc., a
+sieve with smaller meshes is desirable.</p>
+
+<p>The sieve is indispensable to the Coleopterist, the Arachnologist, and
+to the specialist in the smaller Hemiptera and Hymenoptera, but it is
+also useful for most other orders, many interesting species existing
+which can be secured in numbers only by this mode of collecting. Many
+Tineidæ and even Noctuidæ hide under old leaves, but the specimens are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+usually rubbed and rendered useless in the process of sifting. Many
+larvæ and pupæ can, however, thus be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>If the locality chosen for sifting prove to be a good one, it pays to
+put the sifted material in a small sack and to carry it home where it
+can be investigated at leisure, and with a greater thoroughness than is
+usually possible outdoors. This sack can be easily arranged to be
+attached to or drawn over the lower ring of the sieve, so that the
+sifting can be done directly into the sack.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule it may be said that very dry places are least productive,
+while more or less moist places are apt to furnish a rich harvest. Old
+wet leaves lying immediately along the edges of swamps, or wet moss,
+harbor many interesting insects, but such wet material is sifted with
+difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>The sieve can be used with great advantage at all seasons of the year,
+but more especially late in fall or early in spring, when so many
+species are still hibernating.</p>
+
+<p><a name="CHISEL" id="CHISEL"><i>The Chisel.</i></a>&mdash;For securing the many insects living or hiding under bark
+of dying or dead trees an instrument of some sort is indispensable, as,
+in most cases, the bark so firmly adheres to the wood that it cannot be
+torn off with the hand. A stout pocket-knife will do good service, but
+far better is a common chisel of medium size and with a short handle.
+This chisel is also useful as an instrument for digging in the ground or
+for investigating the interior of partly decayed logs.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TROWEL" id="TROWEL"><i>The Trowel.</i></a>&mdash;Aside from the fact that many insects enter the ground
+for the purpose of hibernation in various stages, there is a rich
+subterranean life to be found during the summer. There are many
+burrowing Coleoptera; many, if not most, ants construct subterranean
+nests; the number of other fossorial Hymenoptera is very large, and
+there are also various burrowing Orthoptera and many Lepidopterous larvæ
+which hide in the ground during the day. Some instrument for digging in
+the ground is therefore of great importance, and while, as stated above,
+the chisel will answer this purpose if nothing else be at hand, yet
+there are other instruments which perform the work much quicker and more
+thoroughly. The most available instrument is a rather small steel
+trowel, such as can be had at the hardware stores in a great variety of
+patterns, and which can be carried on excursions without much
+inconvenience. One with a long and narrow blade, made very stout, I have
+found very useful, though somewhat awkward to carry.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_045.png" width="500" height="60"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_055"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 55.&mdash;The collecting tweezers.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="COLL_TWEEZERS" id="COLL_TWEEZERS"><i>The collecting Tweezers.</i></a>&mdash;In the picking up of specimens and
+transferring them into the various bottles, vials, or boxes, the trained
+collector will gather by hand the most delicate specimens without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+injuring them. Yet this labor will be greatly facilitated by the use of
+the tweezers or the brush. The former is a small, light pair of forceps,
+made of steel or brass. It should be as pliable as possible, and the tip
+should be narrow and rounded off and not pointed. It may be either
+straight or curved at tip, according to individual preference.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_046a.png" width="500" height="89"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 56.&mdash;Pinning forceps.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_046b.png" width="500" height="118"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 57.&mdash;Pinning forceps.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_046c.png" width="300" height="184"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 58.&mdash;Pinning forceps for Lepidoptera.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Suitable tweezers may be obtained at the larger hardware stores or of
+watchmakers. Excellent tweezers made of steel (see <a href="#img_055">Fig.&nbsp;55</a> are sold for
+about 40 cents a pair by Codman, Shurtleff&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;Co., Tremont street,
+Boston, Mass. Aside from their utility in picking up specimens from the
+collecting cloth or the umbrella, the tweezers are indispensable for
+extracting insects from cracks, or holes in timber, or from their
+burrows in branches and stems of plants, or from places whence it is
+impossible to dislodge them by hand. The larger &ldquo;collecting
+forceps,&rdquo; sold by various dealers, do good service in certain
+emergencies, as when large scorpions or other very large and ferocious
+insects are to be secured.</p>
+
+<p>For the handling of mounted insects various special forceps are
+employed, a number of styles of which are shown at Figs. 56&ndash;8.</p>
+
+<p><a name="BRUSH" id="BRUSH"><i>The Brush.</i></a>&mdash;A common camel's hair brush, of smaller or larger size
+according to individual preference, is useful for picking up very small
+or soft-bodied insects. For this purpose the brush is slightly moistened
+with saliva, and the tip brought in contact with the specimen, which
+then adheres to the brush, so that it can readily and without injury be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+transferred to the collecting bottle or box. The brush is indispensable
+also for preparing small specimens for the cabinet. If taken into the
+field the handle of the brush should be of a bright color, otherwise the
+brush is often lost.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_047.png" width="300" height="449"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_059"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 59.&mdash;The Fumigator. (After Kiesenwetter).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="FUMIGATOR" id="FUMIGATOR"><i>The Fumigator.</i></a>&mdash;This is not used by American collectors, but there are
+several patterns sold by European dealers. It is intended to smoke out
+specimens that hide in otherwise inaccessible places, <i>e.&nbsp;g.</i>, cracks in
+the ground, holes in hard wood, etc. The accompanying figure and the
+following description of a fumigator are taken from Kiesenwetter. A
+common smoking-pipe mouthpiece (<a href="#img_059">Fig.&nbsp;59</a>, <i>a</i>) with flexible rubber joint
+(<i>b</i>) is attached to the cover (<i>c</i>) of a very large smoking-pipe head
+(<i>d</i>). To the mouth (<i>e</i>) of the latter a rubber hose (<i>f</i>) is attached,
+which has a convenient discharge at its end (<i>g</i>). The pipe is then
+filled with tobacco, and the latter ignited by means of a piece of
+burning tinder placed on top; the cover is then screwed on, and the
+smoke can be directed to any desired point by blowing air through the
+mouthpiece. The smoke from a common pipe or cigar is often useful. In
+sifting in cold weather a puff of tobacco smoke gently blown over the
+débris on the collecting cloth will induce many specimens to move, which
+otherwise &ldquo;play possum&rdquo; and could not be observed; and,
+further, tobacco smoke blown into holes and cracks in timber by means of
+an improvised funnel made of a piece of paper will be the means of
+securing many rare specimens.</p>
+
+<p><a name="HAVERSACK" id="HAVERSACK"><i>The Haversack.</i></a>&mdash;In order that the above-mentioned instruments and the
+various bottles, vials, and boxes which are needed for the preservation
+of specimens may most conveniently and with the least impediment to the
+collector be carried along on excursions, a haversack is indispensable.
+This is made either of leather or, still better, of some waterproof
+cloth, and should contain various compartments of different sizes; one
+for stowing away the nets, the sieve, and the larger instruments, and
+several smaller ones for boxes and vials&mdash;the whole so arranged that
+each desired object can readily be taken out and that nothing will drop
+out and get lost. The haversack is slung across the shoulders by means
+of a leather strap, and a full field outfit need not be very heavy nor
+seriously interfere with free bodily movements.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the smaller objects are most conveniently carried in the pockets<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+of the coat, which acquires, therefore, some importance to the
+collector. The coat should be of some durable stuff and provided with
+many pockets, so arranged that in stooping nothing falls out of them.</p>
+
+<p><a name="LENS_MICRO" id="LENS_MICRO"><i>The Lens and Microscope.</i></a>&mdash;In the examination of the minuter forms of
+insect life the naked eye is not sufficient, and a hand-lens, or, for
+more delicate work, the compound microscope will be found necessary. I
+had, in my early experience, some difficulty in getting a satisfactory
+hand-lens, and the use of a poor hand-lens in time injures the eyesight,
+as I know by a year's rather disagreeable experience. For a hand-lens
+the achromatic lenses formerly manufactured by A. K. Eaton, of Brooklyn,
+N. Y., and now made by John Green, 35 Liverpool street, East Boston,
+Mass., are most excellent in workmanship and are satisfactory in every
+respect. A very good lens can also be purchased of any of the leading
+manufacturers of microscopical apparatus in this country. The kind of
+compound microscope to be purchased will depend upon the nature of the
+work of the investigator. Very serviceable instruments are made by J. W.
+Queen&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;Co., Philadelphia, Pa., and by the Bausch&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;Lomb
+Optical Company, of Rochester, N. Y., and others. The German microscopes
+are in many respects superior to those of American make, and if one has
+sufficient means, I would recommend the purchase of one of the better
+instruments of Zeiss's manufacture, which may be obtained either direct
+from the manufacturers or through Queen&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;Co., or from the Boston
+Educational Supply Company. Microscopic material, including slides,
+cover glasses, instruments for mounting, mounting media, staining
+fluids, etc., may be obtained of either of the firms named above.</p>
+
+<p>Having thus indicated somewhat fully the general methods of collecting,
+and the paraphernalia most desirable in collecting, it will be well to
+go still further into detail, and in connection with the different
+orders give some more specific information that will be valuable as a
+guide not only to the general collector, but to the specialist.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="COLL_HYMENOPTERA" id="COLL_HYMENOPTERA">COLLECTING HYMENOPTERA.</a></h3>
+
+<p>The insects of this order, including Bees, Wasps, Ants, Ichneumon-flies,
+Gall-flies, Saw-flies, and allied insects have always been of unusual
+interest both to entomologists and non-entomologists on account of their
+diversified and peculiar habits. In abundance of species they exceed
+perhaps even the Coleoptera. In general they are day fliers and always
+to be found in abundance on bright days about flowers. The best season
+for collecting is in early spring, on the bloom of the Willow, Alder,
+and other trees. They may also be found at any season of the year, but
+the males of many species are only to be taken in fall. In this order,
+species of many groups can be most easily obtained by breeding. This
+includes the gall-making family, Cynipidæ, and the parasitic families
+Chalcididæ, Proctotrypidæ, Ichneumonidæ and Braconidæ. The Chrysididæ
+and certain other less important families are also parasitic, but are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+more easily obtained by general collecting. The implements necessary for
+collecting Hymenoptera are the sweeping-net and the beating-net. Many
+rare forms of the smaller parasitic families may be obtained by sweeping
+the grass and foliage of all sorts. The Proctotrypidæ may be collected
+in quantity by sifting leaves and rubbish collected in the woods. Mr.&nbsp;William H. Ashmead, who has made an especial study of this group, finds
+winter sifting profitable. Dried leaves and rubbish are sifted, the
+finer portion being retained and transferred to a bag. When a sufficient
+quantity is collected it is removed to a warm room. Many hibernating
+species are taken in this way, and, revived by the warmth, are easily
+noticed when the material is spread on white paper.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_049.png" width="400" height="458"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 60.&mdash;A Saw-fly (Nematus ventralis). <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>,
+young larvæ; <i>b</i>, full-grown larva; <i>c</i>, cocoon; <i>d</i>, adult; all
+slightly enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>On account of the interest attaching to a knowledge of the various hosts
+of parasitic insects the collector should always aim to obtain the
+latter by breeding as much as possible. This can easily be done by
+keeping a lookout for larvæ of all sorts which give evidence of being
+parasitized. The larvæ of Lepidoptera found late in the fall are very
+apt to be parasitized, and should be collected and kept over the winter.
+The parasites will emerge throughout the winter season and in the early
+spring. Such larvæ will be found on the trunks of trees, in the crevices
+of the bark, and the cocoons of parasites will also be found in similar
+situations.</p>
+
+<p>The Tenthredinidæ (Saw-flies) are not so often found about flowers but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+usually remain in the vicinity of the food-plant of the larva, and may
+many of them be collected by sweeping. The larvæ of this family are in
+many cases difficult to breed, as most of them are single-brooded, and
+it becomes necessary to carry the larvæ over the winter.</p>
+
+<p>The Gall-flies, Cynipidæ, are the easiest of the families to collect,
+because of their abundance and because of the ease with which they may
+be reared. Their galls occur in enormous variety on oaks of various
+species and also upon brambles and certain common weeds. These should be
+collected when mature and be kept in glass jars. The Gall-flies and
+inquilinous and parasitic species may thus be easily obtained, the
+former appearing at particular seasons and the latter emerging from the
+galls at all seasons of the year, and sometimes continuing to escape for
+a period exceeding two years.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_050.png" width="200" height="200"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 61.&mdash;An Ichneumon (<i>Ophion</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting families in this order is the Formicidæ,
+which comprises the true ants. In the case of these insects isolated
+specimens should not ordinarily be collected, and it is especially
+desirable to collect the species from colonies so that the three forms
+(males, females, and workers) may be obtained together. This holds also
+in the case of the social wasps and bees, but the different sexes of the
+latter may be collected in a season's collecting about flowers, the
+females and workers in early spring and the males in the fall.</p>
+
+<p>The Uroceridæ or woodborers are to be found only about trees in which
+the larvæ breed. They may frequently be taken about tree trunks, or
+burrowing with their long gimlet-like ovipositors into the trunks of
+trees to oviposit. Breeding is also a satisfactory method of obtaining
+these insects.</p>
+
+<p>Some special methods of collecting Hymenoptera may be briefly outlined.
+In the case of the social bees, particularly bumble-bees, and also the
+smaller wasps and yellow-jackets, a very satisfactory method of
+collecting consists in first stupefying the insects in the nest by
+introducing a small amount of chloroform, benzine, or bisulphide of
+carbon. This should preferably be done in the late evening, after all
+the insects have come in for the night. The nest may then be opened and
+examined without any danger of being stung, and the different forms may
+thus easily be obtained, together with any rare parasitic or inquilinous
+insects. In the case of the nests of Bombi this is the best method of
+obtaining the inquilinous Apathus species.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_051.png" width="300" height="184"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 62.&mdash;The Little Red Ant (<i>Monomorium pharaonis</i>).
+<br /><i>a</i>, female; <i>b</i>, worker enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>On account of the danger of being stung, and also on account of the
+extremely quick flight of these insects, the removing of Hymenoptera<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+from the net is not always an easy task, and in many cases rare
+specimens escape. One method of avoiding the danger of being stung is to
+have the collecting net constructed with an opening at the bottom which,
+during the sweeping, is tied with a string. When a sufficient quantity
+of insects is obtained they are, by a few quick motions, driven to the
+bottom of the net, and the net is then seized just above the insects
+with the hand, the folds of cloth preventing the insects from getting to
+the hand, so that there is little danger of being stung. The lower end
+is then carefully untied and inserted into a wide-mouthed bottle, and
+the contents of the net shaken out into the bottle. After the catch is
+stupefied the vial may be turned out and the undesirable material
+discarded. A second method consists in the use of an ordinary
+sweeping-net of light material. A quantity of Hymenoptera are collected
+from flowers and driven to the bottom of the net, and secured as in the
+preceding method. The portion of the net containing the insects is then,
+by means of a pair of forceps, thrust bodily into a large collecting
+bottle. After a few minutes the insects are stupefied and may be readily
+examined.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="COLL_COLEOPTERA" id="COLL_COLEOPTERA">COLLECTING COLEOPTERA.</a></h3>
+
+<p><a name="GEN_DIR" id="GEN_DIR"><span class="smcap">General Directions.</span></a>&mdash;Owing to their hard outer skeleton, Coleoptera can
+be collected, handled, and preserved with greater safety and with less
+trouble than most other orders of insects. From this fact, and from
+their very great diversity in form, Coleoptera have, next to the
+Lepidoptera, always been favorites. As a consequence, there are now more
+species described in this than in any other order, and in the large
+museums they are much better represented than other insects. This rich
+material has been studied by numerous and competent specialists, and the
+classification of Coleoptera is at present more advanced and more
+accessible than that of the other orders. This fact gives stimulus to
+neophytes, and though the literature of our North American fauna is much
+scattered and we are still in want of comprehensive works (with the
+exception of the general &ldquo;Classification&rdquo; by Drs. Le Conte
+and Horn), yet, except in a few hitherto neglected families and smaller
+groups, the species are fairly well worked up.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, our knowledge of the earlier states of Coleoptera is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+yet very imperfect as compared with the Lepidoptera. Coleopterous larvæ
+are, with few exceptions (notably Coccinellidæ and some Chrysomelidæ),
+much more difficult to find and rear, and their distinguishing
+characters are more difficult to study. The few comprehensive works on
+Coleopterous larvæ that have been published are based on rather scant
+material and none of them deal with the North American fauna.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_052.png" width="150" height="152"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 63.&mdash;A Ground-beetle<br />(<i>Calosoma calidum</i>).<br /><i>a</i>,
+larva; <i>b</i>, adult.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Coleoptera occur in all climates and in all localities. Species are
+known from the highest northern latitudes ever reached by man, and in
+the tropics they occur in an embarrassing richness of forms. They are
+found in the most arid desert lands, in the depths of our subterranean
+caves, and on our highest mountains up to the line of eternal snow. The
+open ocean and the open water of our Great Lakes are the only regions
+free from them. As a rule, the number of species gradually increases
+from the Arctic regions toward the tropics, but it would be difficult to
+decide, speaking of North America, whether or not the fauna of the
+Middle States is poorer in the number of species than that of the
+Southern States; or whether the beetles of the Atlantic slope outnumber
+those of the Pacific States or those of the Central region. On the
+Pacific slope the influence of the seasons on insect life is greater
+than on the Atlantic slope. While in the latter region a number of
+species may be found the whole year round, there is, in the more arid
+regions of the West, an abundance of insect life during and shortly
+after the rainy season, with great scarcity during the dry season,
+except, perhaps, on the high mountains.</p>
+
+<p>Few persons have had a more extended experience in collecting Coleoptera
+than Mr.&nbsp;E.&nbsp;A.&nbsp;Schwarz, one of my assistants, and the following account
+has been prepared by him at my request and is given <i>in extenso</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+<p><a name="WINTER_COLL" id="WINTER_COLL"><span class="smcap">Winter Collecting.</span></a>&mdash;There are more species of Coleoptera
+hibernating in the imago state<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> than in any other order and winter
+collecting is therefore most profitable in many respects. For instance,
+great swampy tracts which are inaccessible in the summer season harbor
+an abundance of rare Coleoptera, which either can not be found in summer
+time or are found at that season with the greatest difficulty. At the
+approach of winter, however, all or most of these species will leave the
+swamp and seek drier ground, where they hibernate under old leaves,
+under bark of trees, or in rotten stumps near the edge of the swamp.
+Such places will, therefore, give a rich harvest to the Coleopterist
+late in the fall, during warm spells in midwinter, and in very early
+spring. If the temperature is below the freezing point, or if the ground
+is frozen hard, no winter collecting should be attempted, first,
+on account of sanitary considerations, and also because the Coleoptera<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+then retreat more deeply into the ground and can not be found so easily
+as when the ground is free from frost. Other good collecting places in
+winter are the accumulated old leaves along the edges of forests or
+under the shrubbery along water courses, thick layers of moss, and the
+loose bark of dead or dying trees, and, finally, also under the bark of
+certain living trees, <i>e.&nbsp;g.</i> Pines, Sycamore, Shellbark Hickory.
+Digging in the ground at the base of large trees or rocks also yields
+good returns. The only instruments necessary for winter collecting are
+the sieve, the chisel, and the trowel.</p>
+
+<p><a name="SPRING_COLL" id="SPRING_COLL"><span class="smcap">Spring Collecting.</span></a>&mdash;With the first days of spring, collecting becomes a little more
+varied. The methods used for winter collecting can still be continued with good
+success. Certain spring flowers, notably Willow blossoms, will furnish many valuable
+species, which are not seen again during the rest of the season.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_053.png" width="300" height="275"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 64.&mdash;A Lamellicorn (<i>Pelidnota punctata</i>).<br /><i>a</i>, larva;
+<i>b</i>, pupa; <i>c</i>, beetle; <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, enlarged parts.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="MYRM_TERM" id="MYRM_TERM"><i>Myrmecophilous and Termitophilous species.</i></a>&mdash;The early spring is
+also the best time for collecting the Myrmecophilous and Termitophilous
+Coleoptera. Termitophilous species have in North America hitherto been
+found only in connection with the White-ants (<i>Termes flavipes</i>), and
+the inquilinous beetles are found running among the White-ants in the
+colonies under stones, loose bark of trees, and more numerously in the
+interior of old infested trees. Myrmecophilous Coleoptera are by far
+more numerous in species than the Termitophilous species and are found
+among many species of ants which have their nests either under stones or
+loose bark of trees, in stumps or logs, or which construct larger or
+smaller hills. Upon uncovering a colony of ants under a stone, the
+underside of the latter as well as the galleries of the ants in the
+ground should be carefully examined for inquilines, which from their
+greater or slighter resemblance to the ants are liable to be overlooked
+by an inexperienced collector. If such colony of ants harbors a rare
+beetle the subterranean part of the colony itself should be dug out and
+sifted, but since from the stony nature of the ground this is not always
+practicable it is to be recommended to carefully replace the stone under
+which the colony has been found. Upon revisiting the spot again the next
+day or even a few hours after the first visit additional specimens of
+the inquilines are usually to be obtained on the stone or in the
+superficial galleries of the ants. Ant colonies in hollow trees and in
+rotten logs should be sifted and there is no particular difficulty
+connected with this operation. Owing to the pugnacious character of the
+hill-constructing ants it would seem to be a rather unpleasant task to
+examine a strong and vigorous colony for inquilinous beetles, but the
+collector must not mind being bitten and stung by the infuriated ants,
+and after a little experience he will find that it is not such a
+difficult thing after all to attack even the largest ant-hill. The only
+thorough way of investigating such ant-hills is to sieve the same, which
+can be easily done if the hill is composed of sticks and other vegetable
+débris. If it is built of earth or sand the process of sifting is more
+difficult and tedious. Another method of securing specimens of these
+inquilinous beetles is to place flat stones or similar objects on the
+surface of the ant-hill and to examine them occasionally, when the
+beetles will be found on the underside of the traps.</p>
+
+<p><a name="SPRING_COLEOPTERA" id="SPRING_COLEOPTERA"><i>Spring Flights of Coleoptera.</i></a>&mdash;On the first really warm days of
+spring commences the &ldquo;swarming&rdquo; season of
+Coleoptera, when all winged species are flying about, especially toward
+evening. On favorable days the number of specimens and species that can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+thus be found is astonishingly great, and this is one of the few
+occasions when the Coleopterist can advantageously use a light butterfly
+net. The flying beetles preferably alight and rest on the top of wooden
+fences (especially newly made ones), on the railings of bridges, etc.,
+where they can be easily seen and secured, or they are attracted in
+great numbers by the white-painted surface of buildings. This flying
+season lasts in the latitude of Washington from the end of April to the
+middle of June, but favorable days are not of frequent occurrence, since
+a peculiar combination of atmospheric conditions appears to be necessary
+to induce the Coleoptera to fly about in great numbers.</p>
+
+<p><a name="BEACH_COLL" id="BEACH_COLL"><i>Beach collecting.</i></a>&mdash;Along the shores of the ocean and the Great
+Lakes untold numbers of Coleoptera and other insects fall at this season
+into the water, and, if the tides, the currents, and the winds be
+favorable, they are washed ashore by the waves on the sandy beaches,
+where they often form windrows several inches in height and width. If
+the collector is happy enough to be at the right place on the right day
+he has then the opportunity to pick up hundreds of rare species within a
+very short time and without any trouble. Many of the specimens thus
+washed ashore are dead and decayed, but the majority are alive and in
+excellent condition. This &ldquo;beach collecting&rdquo; affords also an
+excellent opportunity for the Hymenopterist and Hemipterist to secure
+large numbers of rare species, but favorable days are also here of rare
+occurrence.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ATTR_LIGHT" id="ATTR_LIGHT"><i>Attracting by Lights.</i></a>&mdash;On the beaches, day and night flying
+insects can thus be captured. Away from the beach night-flying
+Coleoptera can best be collected at the electric lights of our cities;
+but, as in the Lepidoptera, not all night-flying species are attracted
+by the light. Gas and other lights also attract Coleoptera, and the
+various &ldquo;light traps&rdquo; that have been devised and described
+can advantageously be used for collecting these insects.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_054.png" width="100" height="222"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 65.&mdash;An Elaterid<br />(<i>Pyrophorus noctilucus</i>).
+<br />(From Packard.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="TRAPS" id="TRAPS"><i>Traps.</i></a>&mdash;The method of &ldquo;sugaring,&rdquo; so important to the Lepidopterist, is by far less
+favorable for collecting Coleoptera. Still, certain rare Carabidæ, Elateridæ, and
+Cerambycidæ are attracted by this bait, and the Coleopterist
+should not entirely ignore this mode of collecting. There are
+a few other methods of trapping certain Coleoptera. By laying
+out dead mammals, birds, fishes, snakes, etc., on suitable places
+and so that they are protected from dogs, rats, etc., the carrion-feeding
+Coleoptera can be found in great abundance, but a cleaner
+and less disagreeable method of obtaining them is to bury in
+the ground tin cans or glass jars so that the top is even with
+the surrounding ground and to bait them with pieces of meat,
+fried fish, boiled eggs, etc. Many Curculionidæ, Scolytidæ, and
+numerous other wood-inhabiting species can be successfully
+trapped in the following way: A number of branches, preferably
+of only one kind of tree, are cut and tied up into bundles of convenient
+size. The bundles are then laid on the ground in a
+shady place or firmly fastened on trunks of trees. When the
+cut branches begin to get dry they will attract many of these
+Coleoptera, which can then be readily collected by shaking the
+bundles out over the collecting cloth.</p>
+
+<p><a name="FRESHET" id="FRESHET"><i>Freshets.</i></a>&mdash;Freshets usually take place in springtime in most of
+our rivers and creeks, and furnish the means of obtaining a multitude of
+Coleoptera, among which there will be many species which can not, or
+only accidentally, be found otherwise. These freshets, sweeping over the
+low banks or inundating wide stretches of low land, carry with them all
+insects that have been caught by the inundation. Intermingled with, and
+usually clinging to, the various floating débris, these insects are
+eventually washed ashore by the current at various points and
+the Coleopterist should not miss this rare opportunity, but go out to
+the river bank at a time when the water is still rising, or at least<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+when it has attained its highest point. Among, or on the washed up
+débris, a multitude of Coleoptera of various families can be found, and
+the specimens can either be gathered up on the spot or a quantity of the
+débris be put in sacks and taken home, where it can be examined more
+thoroughly and with greater leisure than out of doors. A day or so after
+the floods have receded the washed up specimens will have dispersed and
+only a few will remain in the débris for a longer period. Still more
+profitable than the spring floods are the summer freshets, because a
+larger and more diversified lot of Coleoptera is then brought down by
+the water. A similar opportunity for collecting is offered near the
+seashore if unusually high tides inundate the low marshes along the
+bayous and inlets.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_055.png" width="100" height="132"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 66.&mdash;A Longicorn<br />(<i>Prionus
+laticollis</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="SUMMER_COLL" id="SUMMER_COLL"><span class="smcap">Summer Collecting.</span></a>&mdash;During the latter part of spring and throughout
+the whole summer, when the vegetation is fully developed, every possible
+collecting method can be carried on with success, so that the beginner
+hardly knows what particular method to use. There are stones to be
+turned over; old logs, stumps, and hollow trees to be investigated;
+newly felled or wounded trees to be carefully inspected; here a spot
+favorable for sifting claims attention; promising meadows and low
+herbage in the woods invite the use of the sweeping net; living or dead
+branches of all sorts of trees and shrubs to be worked with the
+umbrella; the mud or gravel banks of ponds, lakes, rivers, and creeks
+afford excellent collecting places; the numerous aquatic beetles are to
+be collected in the water itself; the dung beetles to be extracted from
+their unsavory habitations; in the evening the electric and other lights
+are to be visited, the lightning beetles chased on meadows and in the
+woods, or the wingless but luminous females of some species of this
+family to be looked for on the ground, and the trees and shrubs are to
+be beaten after dark in search of May beetles and other nocturnal
+leaf-feeding species which can not be obtained at daytime; and, finally,
+some of the rarest Scarabæidæ and some other species fly only late at
+night or again only before sunrise.</p>
+
+<p>In view of this embarrassing multitude of collecting opportunities in a
+good locality, the beginner is apt to be at a loss what course to
+pursue. Experience alone can teach here, and only an expert collector is
+able to decide, at a glance at the locality before him, what collecting
+method is likely to produce the best results, and his judgment will
+rarely be at fault.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to go into details regarding the various collecting
+methods, just mentioned, and only a few general directions can be given
+regarding those methods which have not previously been alluded to.</p>
+
+<p><a name="COLL_STONE" id="COLL_STONE"><i>Collecting under Stones.</i></a>&mdash;Turning over stones is a favorite
+method among beginners multitude of species of other families. Stones on
+very dry ground are productive, only early in spring or in the fall,
+while those on moist ground, in the shade of woods, are good at all
+seasons. In the Alpine regions of our mountainous districts, especially
+above the timber line, collecting under stones becomes the most
+important method, and is especially favorable along the edges of snow
+fields. In often frequented localities the collector should carefully
+replace the stones, especially those under which he has found rare
+specimens. The neglect of this rule is one of the principal causes for
+certain rare species having become extinct in the vicinity of our
+cities.</p>
+
+<p><a name="COLL_LOGS" id="COLL_LOGS"><i>Collecting in rotten Stumps and Logs.</i></a>&mdash;Success in collecting in
+rotten stumps depends much upon the more or less advanced stage
+of decay as well as upon the situation of the log and upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+particular kind of wood. If the decay is very much advanced neither the
+loose bark nor the interior of the log will harbor many Coleoptera
+excepting a multitude of <i>Passalus cornutus</i> and its larvæ. If the decay
+is less advanced, but if such log is exposed to the scorching rays of
+the sun, it will be far less productive than a log in a shady situation.
+The investigation of the bark of a favorably situated log in the right
+stage of decay does not need any special instruction, but the decayed
+wood itself should be pried off with a chisel or trowel, put in the <ins
+title="seive">sieve</ins> and sifted on the collecting cloth. This is the best
+way of obtaining the numerous species of rare Micro-coleoptera of
+various families that inhabit such places. A &ldquo;red rotten&rdquo;
+oak or beech log is more favorable for this mode of collecting than a
+&ldquo;white rotten&rdquo; of the same or other kinds of trees.</p>
+
+<p><a name="COLL_TREES" id="COLL_TREES"><i>Collecting in dying or dead Trees.</i></a>&mdash;Dying or dead trees almost
+always harbor a large number of Coleoptera and offer an excellent
+collecting opportunity until the wood becomes thoroughly dry, which
+usually takes place in large trees two or three years after the death of
+the tree, and in less time with smaller ones. The bark of such trees is
+the best collecting place for Cucujidæ, Colydiidæ, Scolytidæ, Histeridæ,
+etc., and it will be found that the shady side of the tree is more
+profitable than the side exposed to the sun. The numerous Buprestidæ,
+Elateridæ, Ptinidæ, Cerambycidæ, Melandryidæ, etc., which breed in the
+wood can be obtained only with difficulty. Some specimens may be cut out
+from their holes by a skillful use of the knife or hatchet; others
+(especially the Buprestidæ) may be found resting on or crawling over the
+trunk in the bright sunshine, while the more nocturnal species may be
+found on the tree toward evening or after dark, when, of course, a
+lantern must be used. A large proportion of the species living in the
+trunks of dead trees also breed in the dead branches of otherwise
+healthy trees from which they can be beaten into the umbrella, or where
+the use of the knife is more practicable than in the large trunks. The
+trunks of freshly felled trees attract numbers of Cerambycidæ and
+Buprestidæ and have to be carefully looked over, while the drying
+foliage of such trees affords an excellent opportunity for the use of
+the umbrella.</p>
+
+<p><a name="BEAT_VINES" id="BEAT_VINES"><i>Beating living Trees, Shrubs, and Vines.</i></a>&mdash;The success of beating
+into the umbrella branches of living trees and shrubs depends on the
+particular kind of tree or shrub, on the condition and situation of
+these, and largely also upon the season. Pine trees are very productive
+from early in the spring to early in the summer, but much less so in
+midsummer and later on. Young Oak trees or Oak shrubs are much more
+preferred by the leaf-eating Coleoptera peculiar to this tree than the
+older trees. The Beech, which, next to the Oak, is the best tree for
+wood-boring species, harbors but few leaf-eating species. The leaves of
+the Chestnut are also generally not attacked by Coleoptera; still a
+surprising number of species can be beaten from this tree when it is in
+blossom. There is not a single species of Coleoptera known to live in
+the wood or to feed on the leaves of the Holly (<i>Ilex glabra</i>); still it
+will pay the Coleopterist to beat this tree when it is in bloom. Trees,
+shrubs, and vines in the interior of unbroken forest districts are, as a
+rule, unproductive, while the edges of the woods, narrow strips of
+hedges, and especially solitary trees are excellent collecting places.
+In the Rocky Mountains, especially in the more southern sections, long
+stretches of mountain slopes are occasionally perfectly bare of
+vegetation with the exception of a few solitary, sickly-looking, and
+dwarfed trees, but every one of these is a veritable gold mine to the
+Coleopterist with his umbrella.</p>
+
+<p><a name="SWEEPING" id="SWEEPING"><i>Sweeping.</i></a>&mdash;The use of the beating net continues profitable from
+spring till fall, a different set of species appearing with each season.
+Low and swampy meadows, meadows on the slopes of mountains or surrounded
+by woods, low underbrush, and herbage in smaller patches of woods are
+very good beating grounds. Dry and sandy meadows are less productive,
+but harbor usually a different set of species on account of the
+difference in the flora. Pastures and meadows much frequented by cattle
+and horses are much less productive, and where a large number of sheep
+are kept there is usually no chance for using the beating net,
+since neither grass nor specimens are left. The lawns in our parks and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+gardens are usually poor collecting ground on account of the limited
+variety of plants in such places; but the few species found there occur
+in enormous number of specimens. The endless stretches of our western
+prairies swarm at the right season (in June) with numerous Coleoptera
+(mostly Malachiidæ, Chrysomelidæ, Mordellidæ, Curculionidæ, etc.),
+provided prairie fires have not swept too frequently over the place.
+Fires and cattle produce a remarkable change in the flora and fauna of
+the prairies; many indigenous species disappear or become scarce and are
+replaced by a much smaller number of imported species.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_057.png" width="400" height="199"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_067"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 67.&mdash;A Dermestid (<i>Anthrenus scrophulariæ</i>).
+<i>a</i>, larva, dorsal view; <i>b</i>, larva, ventral view; <i>c</i>, pupa; <i>d</i>,
+adult&mdash;all enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sweeping may commence in the forenoon as soon as the dew has
+disappeared; it is less profitable in the heat of the midday, but
+produces the best results late in the afternoon and more especially in
+the short interval from just before sunset until dark. At this time many
+rare Pselaphidæ and Scydmænidæ, species of the genera <i>Colon</i> and
+<i>Anisotoma</i>, and other small Silphidæ can be beaten from the tips of
+grasses, all being species which can not, or only accidentally, be found
+during daytime, when they hide between the roots of plants.</p>
+
+<p><a name="COLL_BANKS" id="COLL_BANKS"><i>Collecting on mud and gravel Banks.</i></a>&mdash;The mud or gravel banks of
+rivers, creeks, and stagnant bodies of water are inhabited, especially
+early in summer, with an astonishing multitude of Coleoptera. Countless
+specimens of smaller Carabidæ (<i>Dyschirius</i>, <i>Clivina</i>, <i>Bembidium</i>,
+<i>Tachys</i>, etc.) and Staphylinidæ (<i>Tachyusa</i>, <i>Philonthus</i>, <i>Actobius</i>,
+<i>Stenus</i>, <i>Lathrobium</i>, <i>Trogophlæus</i> and many other genera) will be
+seen actively running over the mud or sand; many other specimens are
+hiding under the pebbles in company with other species (<i>Cryptohypnus</i>,
+<i>Georyssus</i>, etc.) or in little subterranean galleries (<i>Dyschirius</i>,
+<i>Bledius</i>, <i>Heterocerus</i>). All these beetles must be collected by
+picking them up with the fingers, an operation which, owing to the
+activity of the specimens, requires some little practice. The beginner
+will at first crush or otherwise injure many of the delicate specimens,
+the capture of which is moreover by no means facilitated by the rapidity
+with which most of them are able to take wing. The collector must
+necessarily kneel down and he must not mind getting covered with mud. A
+good device for driving these species out of their galleries or from
+their hiding places under stones or in cracks of the ground is to pour
+water over the banks, and this can in most cases be done with the hand.
+Larger stones and pieces of wood or bark lying on the bank are favorite
+hiding places of certain larger Carabidæ (<i>Nebria</i>, <i>Chlænius</i>,
+<i>Platynus</i>, etc.), and should of course be turned over. Finally, the
+moss growing on rocks and logs close to the water's edge, and in which,
+besides other beetles, some rare Staphylinidæ and the Byrrhid genus
+<i>Limnichus</i> can be found, should be scraped off and investigated on the
+collecting cloth or on the surface of a flat rock, if such be
+conveniently at hand.</p>
+
+<p><a name="AQUA_BEETLE" id="AQUA_BEETLE"><i>Collecting aquatic Beetles.</i></a>&mdash;The fishing for water beetles in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+deeper water by means of the water net has already been alluded to (p.
+<a href="#Page_32">[32]</a>), but many species live in shallow brooks with stony or gravelly
+bottom, where the water net can not be used. The Dytiscidæ and
+Hydrophilidæ living in such places usually hide under stones, and can in
+most cases be easily picked up with the hand, or a little tin dipper or
+a spoon will be found convenient for catching them. The species of the
+family Parnidæ are found on the underside of rough stones or logs which
+are either partially or entirely submerged. They are more numerous,
+however, in the moss or among the roots of other plants that grow in the
+water. Such plants have to be pulled out and examined over the
+collecting cloth.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_058a.png" width="100" height="212"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 68.&mdash;A Tiger Beetle<br />
+(<i>Cicindela limbata</i>), drawn<br />
+by Miss Sullivan&mdash;enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="COLL_PLACES" id="COLL_PLACES"><i>Collecting at the Seashore and on sandy Places.</i></a>&mdash;A large number
+of species belonging to various families live exclusively in the
+vicinity of the ocean, some on the open beach, others along the inlets,
+bayous, or salt marshes, and still others on the dry sand dunes. The
+Cicindelæ are actively running or flying about close to the water's edge
+and have to be captured with the butterfly net. The remaining maritime
+species live hidden under the seaweed and other débris cast up by the
+waves, or in the sand (sometimes quite deep below the surface) beneath
+the débris or between the roots of the plants growing on the dunes. The
+majority of the maritime species do not appear before June (in the
+Middle States), but the collecting remains good until September.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_058b.png" width="200" height="268"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 69.&mdash;The Beaver Parasite<br />(<i>Platypsyllus castoris</i>),
+<br />adult&mdash;greatly enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In dry sandy places away from the seashore, the collecting at the roots
+of plants is especially to be recommended, and the plants, and more
+especially the bunches of coarse grasses usually growing in such places,
+should be pulled up and shaken out over the collecting cloth. This mode
+of collecting acquires a great importance in the arid regions of the
+West and Southwest, where, in the warm season, nearly all Coleoptera are
+hiding during daytime in the ground at the roots of plants.</p>
+
+<p><a name="DUNG_BEETLE" id="DUNG_BEETLE"><i>Collecting Dung-beetles.</i></a>&mdash;The collecting of the numerous species
+(<i>Hydrophilidæ</i>, <i>Staphylinidæ</i>, <i>Histeridæ</i>, <i>Scarabæidæ</i>, etc.) which
+live in the droppings of various animals is by no means an agreeable
+task. The collector should provide himself with a pointed stick and
+collecting tweezers, and must manage to pick up the specimens as best he
+can. The larger specimens are best collected in alcohol, while the more
+delicate species can be collected in a cleaner condition by removing the
+droppings and sifting the ground beneath the same. Some species hide
+deep in the ground beneath the droppings and have to be dug out. Summer
+freshets, when pasture lands are inundated, offer an excellent
+opportunity for collecting the dung-inhabitingspecies in a
+clean condition.</p>
+
+<p><a name="NIGHT_COLL" id="NIGHT_COLL"><i>Night Collecting.</i></a>&mdash;The beating of trees and shrubs after dark is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+a good method of obtaining Lachnosternas and other species, and here the
+collector will do well to secure the assistance of a companion, who
+takes charge of the lantern and the collecting bottles, while the
+collector himself works the umbrella.</p>
+
+<p><a name="FALL_COLL" id="FALL_COLL"><span class="smcap">Fall Collecting.</span></a>&mdash;From the first of August the number of species
+gradually diminishes, but late in the summer or early in fall quite a
+number of other species make their appearance, <i>e.&nbsp;g.</i>, some
+Chrysomelidæ, Cerambycidæ, and many Meloidæ. Many of these frequent the
+blossoms of Golden-rods, umbelliferous and other late-flowering plants.
+The fall is also the best season for collecting Coleoptera living in
+fungi. Although puff-balls, toadstools, and the numerous fungi and
+moulds growing on old trees, etc., furnish many species of Coleoptera
+also earlier in the season, yet most fungi, and more especially the
+toadstools, flourish best in the fall, and consequently there is then
+the greatest abundance of certain species of Coleoptera. Decaying
+toadstools are especially rich, and should be sifted, and the collector
+should also not omit to examine the soil beneath them.</p>
+
+<p>During the &ldquo;Indian summer&rdquo; there is usually a repetition of
+the &ldquo;spring flight&rdquo; of Coleoptera, though on a smaller
+scale, and collecting on the tops of fence posts and on whitewashed
+walls again becomes good. The first really sharp frost causes these late
+species to disappear, and winter collecting commences again.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p style="font-size: 125%; text-indent: 0em;">Footnote:</p>
+<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> There are a few species of Coleoptera known in Europe which belong to the true
+&ldquo;winter insects,&rdquo; <i>i.&nbsp;e.</i> such as appear in the imago state only during winter time,
+but whether or not we have such species in our own fauna has not yet been ascertained.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<h3><a name="COLL_LEPIDOPTERA" id="COLL_LEPIDOPTERA">COLLECTING LEPIDOPTERA.</a></h3>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_059.png" width="200" height="185"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 70.&mdash;The Eight-spotted Forester<br />(<i>Alypia
+octomaculata</i>). <i>a</i>, larva; <i>b</i>,<br />enlarged segment of same; <i>c</i>, moth.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In this order the importance of collecting the early states and of
+rearing the adult insects rather than of catching the latter should, if
+the collector has the advancement of knowledge and the greatest pleasure
+in mind, be insisted upon. Collected specimens, in the majority of
+cases, will be more or less rubbed or damaged and unfit for permanent
+keeping, and will always be far inferior to freshly reared specimens.
+All Lepidopterists, therefore, rely to a great extent upon breeding
+rather than upon field collecting. There are, however, many species of
+which the early states are still unknown, and these can only be taken by
+field collecting, and by attracting to various lights or traps. This
+subject, therefore, naturally falls into two categories&mdash;(1) the general
+collecting of the adult, and (2) collecting the early stages and rearing
+the perfect insects.</p>
+
+<p><a name="COLL_ADULT" id="COLL_ADULT"><i>Collecting the Adult.</i></a>&mdash;The implements for the general collecting of
+butterflies comprise the collecting net, and in some cases the beating
+net, although the use of the latter will not often be called for. The
+Rhopalocera or Diurnals may be taken about flowers, and the best season
+is in the early spring. Most of them are double-brooded, and the second
+brood will be in the greatest abundance during July and August. They
+are, however, to be found throughout the summer. They are also to be
+looked for in the neighborhood of the food-plants of their larvæ, and in
+the case of many species, examination of such plants affords the most
+satisfactory means of collecting. The food of butterflies is almost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+exclusively the nectar of flowers, but strangely enough they are also
+attracted to decaying animal matter, and many species, including rare
+forms, may be taken about decaying animal matter or resting on spots
+where dead animals have lain, or beneath which they have been buried.
+Moist spots of earth are also frequented by them, especially in dry
+seasons. Many of the larger butterflies, whose <ins title="larvae">larvæ</ins> feed
+on the taller shrubs and the foliage of trees, will be found fluttering
+about the open spaces in forests, but by far the larger number, as the
+Browns, the Blues, the Yellows, and the Whites, which develop on the
+lower herbaceous and succulent plants, will be found flying over fields,
+prairies, and gardens. Crepuscular and nocturnal Lepidoptera, comprising
+most of the Heterocera, the Sphingidæ, Bombycids, Noctuids, etc., have
+different habits. The Sphingidæ or Hawk Moths fly in early evening, and
+may be collected in quantity about such plants as the Honeysuckle,
+Thistle, Verbena, Petunia, etc. The Bombycids and many Noctuids also fly
+in the early evening, but mostly at night. The former, however, do not
+frequent flowers, except such as are the food-plants of their larvæ, as
+their <ins title="mouthparts">mouth-parts</ins> are rudimentary, and they take no nourishment.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_060a.png" width="100" height="107"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 71.&mdash;Collecting Pill-box.<br /><i>a</i>, glass bottom
+(original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Collecting by the aid of strong light is a favorite means for moths as
+well as other insects, and nowadays the electric lights in all large
+cities furnish the best collecting places, and hundreds of species may
+be taken in almost any desired quantity. In woods or in other situations
+they may be attracted to a lantern or to a light placed in an open
+window. Various traps have been devised, which comprise a lamp with
+apparatus for retaining and stupefying the insects attracted to the
+light. The common form is made by providing a lantern with a strong
+reflector. Under the light a funnel several inches larger than the
+lantern reaches down into a box or bottle containing the fumes of
+chloroform, ether, or benzine.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_060b.png" width="200" height="160"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 72.&mdash;Method of holding and manipulating<br />collecting
+pill-box in capturing (original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mr.&nbsp;Jerome McNeill describes at length and figures in the <i>American
+Naturalist</i>, Vol. <span class="smcap">xxiii</span>, p. 268&ndash;270, an insect trap to be used in
+connection with electric lights. It consists of a tin pail or can
+charged with cyanide after the manner of a collecting bottle, which is
+attached beneath the globe of the electric light.</p>
+
+<p>The insects attracted by the light strike against a vertical tin screen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+fixed above the can and fall into a tin funnel the small end of which
+enters and closes the mouth of the can, and they are thus conducted into
+the last. A support or post in the center of the can bears a hollow tin
+cone, the apex of which is pierced with a number of small holes to admit
+light, and enters and partly closes the lower end of the funnel. The
+entire interior of the can is painted black and the chief light comes
+through the holes in the apex of the interior cone. The entrapped
+insects endeavor to escape by crawling up the central post towards the
+light coming through the small holes in the end of the cone rather than
+by the entrance slit about the latter and fall back repeatedly until
+overcome by the cyanide.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the Lepidoptera will be ruined by the beetles and other insects
+or by their own ineffectual attempts to escape, but Coleoptera,
+Hymenoptera, Neuroptera, and Hemiptera are secured in satisfactory
+condition.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the devices are very complicated and can not be described in
+this connection. The nocturnal species, also, fly into our houses, and
+this is especially the case in the country, and an open window, with a
+strong light reflected onto a table covered with either a white paper or
+a white cloth will keep one busy, on favorable nights, in properly
+taking care of the specimens thus attracted.</p>
+
+<p>Another favorite method of collecting moths early in the evening, or as
+late as or later than midnight, is by sugaring. This consists in
+smearing a mixture of sugar and vinegar, or some similar compound, on
+the bark of trees or on the boards of fences, and visiting the spot from
+time to time to collect the moths attracted to the bait. It has been
+found that the use of beer or some other alcoholic liquor, as rum or
+brandy, with the sugar or molasses water, greatly adds to its efficiency
+in attracting the moths. This method of collecting moths will be found
+especially efficient on warm, moist, cloudy nights. The collector should
+be provided with a dark lantern and a good net, and a number of
+wide-mouthed cyanide collecting bottles. The smearing should be done
+just before dark, and I have always found that better success attends
+this method of collecting when two are engaged in it&mdash;one to hold a
+bull's eye lantern while the other bottles the specimens. Experience
+will soon teach the surest way of approaching and capturing the
+specimens.</p>
+
+<p>For collecting Microlepidoptera, in addition to the ordinary net, some
+special apparatus will be found very essential. Lord Walsingham makes
+use of a special glass-bottomed pill-box, with which to capture
+specimens, and the satisfactory nature of the work done with this box,
+and the dexterity acquired by practice with it, I can vouch for by
+personal experience. These glass pill-boxes are useful, also, in
+admitting of the examination of specimens, so that worthless or common
+species can be discarded and only desired forms kept. The method of
+holding these boxes is illustrated in the accompanying illustrations.
+(Figs. 72, 73.) A drop of chloroform on the bottom of the box at once<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+stupefies the capture so that it can be taken out and <ins title="otherwiise dsposed">otherwise disposed</ins> of.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_062.png" width="250" height="158"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 73.&mdash;Same, showing method of closing pill-box<br />after
+the specimen is secured (original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The necessity of rearing to obtain perfect specimens is even more
+important in the case of the Microlepidoptera than with the larger
+forms, and many species are very easily reared and can thus be obtained
+in quantity. The Micros are abundant from early spring to late fall
+about shrubbery, in open fields, and along the edges of woods. They are,
+for the most part, day fliers, being on the wing chiefly in the latter
+part of the day and early evening. As soon as collected they should be
+transferred to pill-boxes and the greatest care should be exercised to
+avoid mutilating them, as the slightest touch will denude them of a
+portion of their scales or break their limbs or antennæ. Lord Walsingham
+thus gives his experience in collecting Micros:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>I go out with a coat provided with large pockets inside and out,
+containing an assortment of pill-boxes, generally of three sizes,
+glass-bottomed pill-boxes preferred, a bag slung over my shoulder,
+and a net. Unless searching for particular day-flying species, I
+prefer the last three hours before dark. As the sun goes down many
+species move which do not stir at other times. I watch the tops of
+the grass, the stems of the flowers, the twigs of the trees; I
+disturb leaves and low-growing plants with a short switch and
+secure each little moth that moves, taking each out of the net in a
+separate pill-box, selected according to the size of the insect, as
+he runs up the net to escape. Transferring the full boxes to the
+bag I continue the process until moths cease flying or night sets
+in. Many species can be taken with a lamp after dark.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="COLL_EARLY" id="COLL_EARLY"><i>Collecting the early States.</i></a>&mdash;The careful entomologist who prides
+himself on the appearance of his specimens, will, as stated above, rely
+largely on collecting the early states and on rearing the insects, for
+his material. The Macrolepidoptera have either a single or two broods,
+or more, in a season, and the collection of the early states will be
+greatly facilitated if a knowledge of the insect's life-habits is first
+obtained. The eggs are often found on the food plants of the species,
+and where they are deposited in masses they afford a very easy method of
+getting the larvæ in numbers. In many cases, however, the eggs are
+deposited singly and their discovery then becomes a difficult matter.</p>
+
+<p>More satisfactory in some respects is the method of obtaining the eggs
+from captured gravid females, and the general collector should always be
+on the lookout for females of rare species from which he may be able to
+obtain eggs. A single battered female may, in this way, be the source of
+large numbers of excellent reared specimens. Many rare Lepidopterous
+larvæ may be obtained by the use of the beating net and by beating
+foliage over an umbrella. A very satisfactory method consists in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+collecting pupæ, which may frequently be found in numbers about the
+bases of the trees on which the larvæ feed. Many larvæ of the large
+family of Owlet Moths (<i>Noctuidæ</i>) are found either on the surface of
+the ground or under various substances, while others burrow into the
+stems of the different herbaceous plants, some being subaquatic and
+feeding on the underside of leaves or in the stems of aquatic plants. In
+the case of Microlepidoptera, their habit as larvæ, of mining leaves or
+tying or webbing them together, affords an easy means of detecting their
+presence in most cases. The miners are easily noticed by the discolored
+spots on the leaves or the wavy, pale, or brown lines marking their
+burrows. The presence of others is indicated by the leaves being drawn
+together and united with webs, or withered and brown from being
+skeletonized by the larvæ. Many species are case-bearers, and live upon
+the leaves and branches of trees and plants, dragging their cases along
+with them. Others burrow in grasses or in the stems of plants or the
+trunks of trees, or in fungi. In the case of the leaf-miners and
+leaf-tiers, little difficulty is experienced in rearing the imagoes.</p>
+
+<p>The care of the larvæ, the outfit required, and the methods of breeding
+will be described in later sections.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="COLL_HEMIPTERA" id="COLL_HEMIPTERA">COLLECTING HEMIPTERA.</a></h3>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_063a.png" width="100" height="119"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 74.&mdash;A Pentatomid<br />(<i>Stiretrus anchoraga</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_063b.png" width="250" height="123"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 75.&mdash;The Blood-sucking Cone-nose<br />(<i>Conorhinus
+sanguisuga</i>).<br /><i>a</i>, mature bug; <i>b</i>, pupa.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_064a.png" width="180" height="125"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 76.&mdash;The Bed-bug (<i>Acanthia lectularia</i>).<br /><i>a</i>,
+young; <i>b</i>, adult&mdash;enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>For the most part the directions for collecting Coleoptera will apply to
+this order of insects equally well, especially so far as concerns the
+first section of the order (Heteroptera), and the higher families of the
+second section (Homoptera). A few directions may be given for the lower
+forms, including the Aphididæ, Coccidæ, Aleurodidæ, and Psyllidæ, and
+the suborder Parasita, including the degraded forms which infest man and
+the lower animals. The <ins title="Plantlice">Plant-lice</ins> or Aphides should always be collected
+in connection with their food-plants, and it is very essential also to
+collect the same species at different seasons of the year to obtain the
+different forms or generations, which frequently present very marked
+differences. It is also very necessary to secure the winged forms, which
+are usually produced toward autumn, and without which the species are
+not easily identified. The Bark lice or Scale-insects should also be
+collected in connection with the leaves or twigs which they infest. The
+males of these insects are minute and, as a rule, two-winged, resembling
+small gnats, and may be bred from the male scales. The females are for
+the most part stationary, being fixed to the plant by the protecting,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+waxy, excretion or scale. The Flea-lice (<i>Psyllidæ</i>) frequently produce
+galls, and these should always be collected with the insect architects.
+Some species do not produce galls, and may be collected by sweeping. The
+Hackberry is infested by large numbers of species of Psyllids, and these
+produce a great variety of interesting galls. The Aleurodidæ
+(Fringe-scales) are delicate insects, and easily injured in the taking;
+they are therefore best reared from their stationary and fringed larvæ
+and pupæ, which occur on the leaves of many plants. Leaves bearing the
+latter should also be collected and pinned or preserved in alcohol. The
+Parasita, the lowest representatives of the order, may be obtained from
+the domestic and wild animals which they infest.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_064b.png" width="400" height="250"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 77.&mdash;The Short-nosed Ox-louse (<i>Hæmatopinus
+eurysternus</i>). <i>a</i>, female; <i>b</i>, rostrum; <i>c</i>, ventral surface, last
+segments of male; <i>d</i>, female; <i>e</i>, egg; <i>f</i>, surface of egg greatly
+enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="COLL_DIPTERA" id="COLL_DIPTERA">COLLECTING DIPTERA.</a></h3>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_065a.png" width="200" height="228"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 78.&mdash;Ox Bot-fly (<i>Hypoderma bovis</i>)<br />enlarged.<br />(After
+Brauer.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_065b.png" width="100" height="183"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 79.&mdash;The Collecting Shears.<br />(After Kiesenwetter.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_065c.png" width="400" height="212"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 80.&mdash;A Bee-fly (<i>Anthrax hypomelas</i>). <i>a</i>, larva
+from side;<br /><i>b</i>, pupal skin protruding from cutworm chrysalis; <i>c</i>, pupa;
+<br /><i>d</i>, imago&mdash;all <ins title="enlarged)">enlarged</ins>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_066a.png" width="150" height="144"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 81.&mdash;A Syrphus-fly.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Most Diptera frequent flowers and may be collected with a sweeping net
+without much difficulty. The best season is from April to June, and the
+bloom of the Willow, Alder, Plum, Cherry, Dogwood, Blackberry, etc.,
+will ordinarily yield a bountiful supply of specimens and species.
+Parasitic and saprophytic forms may also readily be obtained by
+breeding, the former as in the case of the parasitic Hymenoptera, and
+the latter from decaying vegetable matter and fungi. The Diptera
+require the most delicate treatment, and the greatest care must be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+exercised both in collecting and handling. A light sweep net is the best
+implement for collecting and the contents of the net should frequently
+be emptied into bottles provided with blotting paper to absorb the
+excess of moisture. Very small Diptera should not be killed when they
+can not be immediately pinned, and hairy flies should never be taken
+from the net with the hand, but should be handled with fine forceps. A
+pair of special collecting shears has been used by Lord Walsingham very
+successfully. It is represented in the accompanying figure, and consists
+of a pair of screen-covered disks, between which the fly is caught. The
+insect is at once pinned through the screen and may be removed and
+transferred to a box containing a sponge soaked in chloroform. The use
+of this implement is especially advisable in the case of the Bee-flies
+(<i>Bombiliidæ</i>) and other hairy forms which are liable to be rubbed when
+collected in the ordinary net. The Gall-making Diptera (<i>Cecidomyidæ</i>)
+are of little value unless accompanied with their galls, and the aim
+should always be to collect the galls and rear the insects rather than
+the keeping of specimens taken in the course of general collecting with
+a sweep net. The rearing of Cecidomyidæ is, however, a delicate task,
+and requires considerable experience. Some knowledge of the habits of
+the species is very essential to success. From immature galls no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+rearings need be expected. A good plan is to examine the galls from time
+to time and collect them when it is found that the larvæ are beginning
+to abandon them. In the case of species like the common Cone Gall-gnat
+of the Willow, the larvæ of which do not leave the gall to undergo
+transformation in the earth, it is advisable not to gather the galls
+until the transformation to the pupa state takes place, which, in this
+species, occurs in early spring. The various leaf-mining and seed
+inhabiting species can be treated as in the case of the
+Microlepidoptera.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="COLL_ORTHOPTERA" id="COLL_ORTHOPTERA">COLLECTING ORTHOPTERA.</a></h3>
+
+<p>The insects of this order may all be collected by the use of the
+sweeping net. Some of the families are attracted to light, as certain of
+the roaches and green locusts, or Katydids (<i>Locustidæ</i>). Our common
+roaches (<i>Blattidæ</i>) are cosmopolitan insects, and infest dwellings.
+Certain species are also found about ponds, under rotten logs, the bark
+of trees, and particularly in decaying vegetable matter. In the tropics
+the species are very abundant, but aside from the domestic forms, they
+occur rarely in northern latitudes. The collection of the egg-cases
+(oötheca) is important as they furnish many interesting characters. The
+Mantidæ, of which the Preying Mantis (<i>Phasmomantis carolina</i>) is a
+type, are sluggish, carnivorous insects frequently found about houses
+and may best be collected by general sweeping of vegetation. The
+Phasmidæ or Walking-sticks are herbivorous and may be collected in the
+midst of vegetation by sweeping or by the hand. The crickets
+(<i>Gryllidæ</i>) frequent, for the most part, moist situations. Certain
+forms, like the Mole-cricket and the Jumping Water-crickets
+(<i>Trydactylus</i> spp.), burrow in moist soil and occur in numbers near the
+edges of ponds and water courses. The katydids and locusts are abundant
+on low shrubs or trees and in pasture and meadow land, but are most
+numerous in the somewhat dry, arid regions of the West. Most of these
+insects mature in late summer and fall and should be collected at this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+season. The Forficulidæ or Earwigs are very odd-looking insects,
+resembling somewhat the Rove-beetles (<ins title="Staphilinidæ"><i>Staphylinidæ</i></ins>),
+and are provided with a prominent anal forceps. They are very rare in
+the United States, are nocturnal in habit; and, flying about at dusk,
+may be attracted to light or may be secured by sweeping after nightfall.
+They feed on flowers and fruit.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_066b.png" width="400" height="194"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 82.&mdash;A blind Cricket (<i>Hadenalcus</i>) from Mammoth
+Cave. (From Packard.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="COLL_NEUROPTERA" id="COLL_NEUROPTERA">COLLECTING NEUROPTERA.</a></h3>
+
+<p>As indicated in the preliminary outline of classification, this large
+order has been divided into many orders by later entomologists. It has
+also been divided, as indicated, into two grand divisions, the
+Pseudoneuroptera, comprising those insects with incomplete
+transformations, and the Neuroptera proper, comprising those insects
+whose metamorphoses are complete. It will be convenient to discuss these
+insects under these two heads.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_067a.png" width="75" height="158"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 83.<ins title="A">&mdash;A</ins> Spring-tail<br />(<i>Degeeria lanuginosa</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_067b.png" width="100" height="140"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 84.&mdash;A Mallophagan<br />(<i>Trichodectes latus</i>).<br />(After
+Denny.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="PSEUDONEUROPTERA" id="PSEUDONEUROPTERA"><i>Pseudoneuroptera.</i></a>&mdash;Spring-tails, Bird-lice, Stone-flies, White-ants,
+Dragon-flies, May-flies.</p>
+
+<p>The Spring-tails, Fish-moths, etc., representing the primitive stock
+from which the higher forms have developed, have a varied habit and
+hence are to be found in divers situations. The Spring-tails
+(<i>Collembola</i>, etc.), occur in damp and moist places, usually in immense
+numbers. The Fish-moths and Book-mites are common household pests, but
+also occur outdoors under logs, boards, bricks, and rubbish of all
+sorts. In houses they feed on the starch paste beneath wall-paper and
+also on the starch in bookbindings and other domestic articles. They may
+be collected at all seasons and a sieve is the only implement necessary.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_068a.png" width="100" height="256"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 85.&mdash;<i>b</i>, a May-fly<br />(<ins title="Palingenia bilneata"><i>Palingenia
+bilineata</i></ins>);<br /><i>c</i>, its larva; <i>a</i>, a Caddis-fly<br />(<i>Macronema
+zebratum</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_068b.png" width="150" height="96"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 86.&mdash;A Dragon-fly (<i>Libellula</i>).<br />(From Packard.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Bird-lice or Mallophaga may be collected at all seasons on birds and
+mammals. A number of species infest domestic animals, horses, cattle,
+etc., but the majority of them can be found only by the examination of
+domestic fowls and wild birds. The Stone-flies (<i>Perlidæ</i>) are found in
+the neighborhood of water courses and ponds, are very sluggish in
+flight, and easily captured with the sweep-net. They are also attracted
+to light. The Psocidæ are a small family of certain degraded wingless
+forms, comprising the Book-lice, which, as the name implies, infest
+books, feeding on the starch of the binding. Others have ample wings and
+closely resemble large Aphides. They occur on the trunks of trees and on
+foliage, and feed on lichens and other dried vegetable matter. They are
+gregarious in habit and frequently occur in immense numbers together. In
+the case of the Termitidæ or White-ants, their abundance renders their
+collection an easy matter. Effort, however, should be made to discover<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+the different forms, the females and soldiers as well as the workers.
+The former may be found in rotten tree trunks, but are very rarely met
+with. In the tropics many species occur and construct curious nests,
+either attaching them to the boughs of trees or building them in the
+form of pyramids on the ground. The Dragon-flies (<i>Libellulidæ</i>,) are
+collected in the same way as the Diurnal Lepidoptera. They are very
+swift flyers, and are practically always on the wing. Their collection
+requires some degree of skill in the use of the net. A good method
+consists in visiting, in the early morning, water courses in which the
+larval and pupal states are passed, and capturing the adults just as
+they issue from their pupal skins at the edges of the pond or stream. In
+cold weather they are less active and may frequently be found clinging
+to trees and plants, particularly in the vicinity of their breeding
+places. May-flies (<i>Ephemeridæ</i>) occur in immense numbers near their
+breeding places in ponds and streams and are also attracted in large
+quantities to electric lights. Their collection is therefore an easy
+matter, but on account of the very fragile nature of these insects the
+utmost care must be employed in handling them. The early states of all
+the aquatic forms mentioned above may be obtained for breeding by the
+use of the dip net by dragging it forcibly against water plants.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_068c.png" width="100" height="83"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 87.&mdash;A Dragon-fly (<i>Agrion</i>).<br />(From Packard.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_069.png" width="200" height="102"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 88.&mdash;An Ant-lion, adult (<i>Myrmeleon</i>).<br />(From
+Packard.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="NEUROPTERA_3" id="NEUROPTERA_3"><i>Neuroptera proper</i></a> (Hellgrammites, Lace-wings, Ant-lions, Caddis-flies,
+etc.)&mdash;Among the largest insects of this order are the Sialidæ, which
+includes the enormous Hellgrammite Fly, <i>Corydalus cornutus</i>. The larvæ
+of this insect are carnivorous and occur in streams, under stones, etc.
+The adults may be collected in neighboring situations and are also
+attracted to light. The Lace-wing flies (<i>Chrysopa</i>), Ant-lions, etc.,
+are carnivorous as larvæ, and occur, the former among the Aphides which
+infest various plants and the latter at the bottom of pits in loose,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+sandy soil. The adults may be obtained by general sweeping and are also
+attracted to light. The most interesting insects of this order are the
+Caddis-flies, on account of the peculiar and frequently very beautiful
+cases constructed by their larvæ, which it is important to collect. The
+Caddis-flies breed in ponds and lakes and the adults may be collected in
+such situations or at light. The larvæ may easily be reared, and should
+be collected for this purpose. Most of the insects named in this order
+are extremely delicate and require great care in handling.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<h2><a name="KILLING_AND_PRESERVING_INSECTS" id="KILLING_AND_PRESERVING_INSECTS"></a>KILLING AND PRESERVING INSECTS.</h2>
+
+<p>Between the collecting of the specimens and their final disposition in a
+well-arranged cabinet, a good deal of mechanical work is necessary,
+involving a skill and dexterity which can be thoroughly acquired only by
+practice.</p>
+
+<p><a name="PRESERVE_SPEC" id="PRESERVE_SPEC"><span class="smcap">First Preservation of living Specimens.</span></a>&mdash;Larvæ, pupæ, or imagoes,
+intended for rearing purposes, must be kept alive, and are best placed,
+after capture, in tin boxes of various sizes, according to the number of
+specimens to be put in each and according to the size or nature of the
+food plant, etc., on or in which the specimens are found, and of which a
+quantity must always be taken home. For larger tin boxes those known as
+&ldquo;Seidlitz powder boxes,&rdquo; described and figured below, which
+can be made to order at any tinner's shop, are well adapted, and smaller
+tin boxes of a convenient round form can be obtained of the watchmaker.
+The collector will find it advisable to take with him on his longer
+jaunts a larger tin collecting box as well as the smaller boxes, and for
+this purpose nothing is better than a good botanist's collecting can or
+vasculum. All tin boxes used for entomological purposes should be tight,
+and the cover should so fit that it neither drops off too readily nor
+closes too tightly. Larvæ of Lepidoptera and Tenthredinidæ should be
+placed in a box with a quantity of the leaves of the plant on which they
+were found. Larvæ, especially of Coleoptera, found in the earth or in
+decayed wood, should be placed in a box filled with such earth or wood,
+so as to prevent shaking or rattling about. Larvæ found in roots or
+stems of living plants can generally be reared to maturity only if the
+whole plant with a quantity of the surrounding soil is taken home, and
+for this purpose the large collecting box, just mentioned, is very
+useful. Most Coleopterous or other larvæ found under bark or in solid
+wood can be reared only if large sections of the wood are obtained and
+the larvæ are full grown or nearly so. This holds true, also, of species<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+breeding in seeds and with most leaf-mining species. The greatest
+difficulty is experienced with carnivorous Coleopterous larvæ, and care
+should be taken with such not to inclose two or more specimens in one
+box. Most larvæ die quickly if placed in an empty box, and this is
+especially true of predaceous species; so that it is always advisable to
+pack the box with moist soil, decaying wood, leaves or other similar
+substance. Aquatic larvæ should be carried in tin boxes filled with wet
+moss or some water plant, for, if placed in corked vials with water,
+they die quickly.</p>
+
+<p><a name="KILL_SPEC" id="KILL_SPEC"><span class="smcap">Killing Specimens.</span></a>&mdash;Specimens not intended for rearing should be killed
+immediately after capture unless for each specimen a separate vial or
+box can be provided. If a number of miscellaneous insects are put in the
+same vial the stronger specimens will, in a short time, crush or
+otherwise injure the more delicate ones or the predaceous species will
+devour any others they can master. But even where the specimens are
+killed immediately the following rule should be observed: Do not put
+large and small specimens in the same vial, but provide a larger bottle
+for the larger specimens, and one, or still better, several, smaller
+vials for the medium-sized and very small specimens. The importance of
+this rule is recognized by all experienced collectors.</p>
+
+<p>There are several methods of killing insects, each having its own
+peculiar advantages and drawbacks.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ALCOHOL" id="ALCOHOL"><i>Alcohol.</i></a>&mdash;The use of alcohol will, on the whole, prove the most
+satisfactory method of killing Coleoptera, many Hemiptera, some
+Neuroptera, and larvæ of all sorts. Only the best quality of alcohol
+should be used, but it should be diluted with from 30 to 40 per cent of
+pure water, the greatest care being taken to keep the alcohol as clean
+as possible. During the collecting a mass of débris and dirt is apt to
+be thrown into the bottle, and when this is the case the alcohol should
+be changed even during short excursions. At any rate, upon the return
+from the excursion, the specimens should be at once taken from the
+bottle and washed in pure alcohol in a shallow vessel. The larvæ and
+other material intended for permanent preservation in alcohol should be
+transferred to suitable vials and the material to be mounted cleansed
+with chloroform or acetic ether and then prepared for the cabinet. If it
+is inconvenient or impossible to mount the Coleoptera, etc., soon after
+the return from the excursion they should be washed, dried, and placed
+in pill boxes between layers of soft paper, or they may be replaced in a
+vial with pure alcohol. On longer collecting trips, lasting several days
+or weeks, specimens will keep thus very well, provided they are not
+shaken up, and this can be prevented by filling the empty space in the
+vial with cotton or soft paper. If the bottle is a large one and
+contains many large specimens the alcohol should be renewed three or
+four times at intervals of eight or ten days; otherwise the specimens
+are liable to decompose. Small and delicate specimens, if they are to
+be kept in alcohol, should be treated with still greater care. Upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+return from the excursion they should also be cleaned in pure alcohol
+and placed in small vials into which a very few drops of alcohol, just
+sufficient to keep the contents moist, are poured. The vial should be
+corked as tightly as possible and the specimens will keep pretty well
+for an indefinite time.</p>
+
+<p>The drawbacks to the use of alcohol are: 1st, that all hairy specimens
+are liable to spoil; 2ndly, that all Coleoptera with soft integuments
+spread the wing-cases apart if kept too long in it. The advantage of the
+alcohol is that it is the simplest and least troublesome fluid for
+naturalists traveling in distant countries who are not specialists in
+entomology. Specimens killed in alcohol are also less liable to be
+attacked by verdigris when pinned than those killed by some other
+method. Rum, whisky, or similar strong alcoholic liquors may be used as
+substitutes where no pure alcohol can be obtained, but are not
+especially to be recommended.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_071.png" width="150" height="339"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_089"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 89.&mdash;Chloroform bottle<br />with brush.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ETHER" id="ETHER"><i>Chloroform and Ether.</i></a>&mdash;Killing with the fumes of <i>chloroform</i> or
+<i>ether</i> (sulphuric or acetic) or <i>benzine</i>, or some other etheric oil,
+is often practiced and advocated by those who, for any reason, dislike
+the use of alcohol or object, on account of its poisonous nature, to the
+use of cyanide of potassium, and they are of especial value in the case
+of butterflies and moths, Hymenoptera and Diptera. &ldquo;A small and
+stout bottle of chloroform or ether, with a brush securely inserted into
+the cork (<a href="#img_089">Fig.&nbsp;89</a>), will be found very serviceable. A slight moistening
+through the air net will stupefy most insects caught in it, and
+facilitate their removal to the cyanide bottle; while a touch or two
+with the wet brush under the head and thorax, will kill the more
+delicate specimens outright, without in the least injuring them. Another
+way of using chloroform is by means of a small, hollow tube passed
+through the cork, what is called jeweler's hollow wire answering the
+purpose. The liquid evaporates more readily in such a bottle, and I
+altogether prefer the first mentioned. Some large insects, and
+especially female moths, whose size prevents the use of the ordinary
+cyanide bottles, are difficult to kill. With these, fluttering may be
+prevented by the use of chloroform, or they may be killed by puncturing
+the thorax or piercing the body longitudinally, with a needle dipped in
+liquid cyanide, or oxalic acid. A long bottle with a needle thrust into
+the cork may be kept for this purpose; but the needle must be of ivory
+or bone, as those of metal are corroded and eaten by the liquids. * * *</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;For killing small and delicate moths which have been bred, I find
+nothing more handy than chloroform. They may be caught in turned wooden
+boxes which are kept by every druggist; and a touch of the chloroform on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+the outside of the box immediately stupefies them. It has a tendency to
+stiffen them, however, and they are best set immediately after
+death.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_072a.png" width="50" height="157"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 90.&mdash;Bottle with<br />liquid cyanide.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_072b.png" width="125" height="326"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_091"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 91.&mdash;The Cyanide bottle<br />with paper strips to give
+support<br />to the insects.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A piece of heavy blotting paper or heavy cloth soaked with chloroform or
+ether or benzine and placed at the bottom of a jar or bottle makes an
+excellent killing bottle for large-sized insects. For smaller specimens
+the collecting vial should be half filled loosely with narrow strips of
+soft paper, upon which a few drops of the liquid are poured, not so
+much, however, as to wet the paper. While collecting, the vial must be
+kept closed as much as possible. Some collectors prefer chloroform,
+others ether. If this method of killing is practiced with the necessary
+care, there is no objection whatever to it; the specimens are not wetted
+as they are in alcohol, and remain cleaner than those killed by any
+other method. The drawback is that the substances mentioned evaporate
+very rapidly and have to be renewed even on short excursions. On account
+of this great volatility, one can never be certain that all the
+specimens in the collecting bottle are dead after a given time and there
+is always some danger that one or the other of the hardier insects may
+regain activity. What mischief such revived specimens are capable of
+doing, many collectors have experienced to their sorrow. Another
+disadvantage of these volatile substances is that if used in too large
+quantities they will, in delicate specimens, especially beetles, cause
+an extension of the soft ligaments between the head and prothorax or
+between the latter and the mesothorax, and thus bring the specimen into
+an unnatural position, or cause the head, or head and thorax to drop
+off.</p>
+
+<p><a name="CYANIDE" id="CYANIDE"><i>Cyanide of Potassium.</i></a>&mdash;The method of killing which, of late years, has
+found most favor with collectors, is the use of cyanide of potassium.
+For killing large sized specimens they are simply put in what is now
+universally known as the &ldquo;cyanide bottle.&rdquo; This may be
+constructed as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_073.png" width="100" height="374"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_092"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 92.&mdash;Pocket<br />cyanide bottle.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Take a 2-ounce quinine bottle, or still better a shorter bottle with a
+wide mouth; break up a quantity of cyanide of potassium into pieces of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+convenient size (about a cubic centimeter); put these pieces in the
+bottle so that they form an even layer at the bottom; mix in a
+convenient vessel a quantity of plaster of Paris with water just
+sufficient to make the mixture semifluid and then pour it over the
+cyanide so as to cover this last to a depth of about 5 millimeters. The
+bottle is then left open for an hour or two until the plaster is
+thoroughly dry. The walls of the bottle are then cleansed from particles
+of the plaster which may have splashed on them, and the bottle is ready
+for use. If not used too frequently, especially in warm weather, it will
+last for an entire year or longer. Bottles or vials of different sizes
+can be prepared in the same way, and a very small cyanide vial which can
+be carried in the vest pocket will be found most convenient for use on
+all occasions. <a href="#img_092">Fig.&nbsp;92</a> represents a medium-sized chemist's test tube,
+converted into a very convenient cyanide bottle, in which, however, a
+cotton wad has been used to keep the poison in place. When the collected
+specimens have been removed from the bottle the latter should be
+carefully wiped clean with a piece of cloth or paper. The surface of the
+plaster soon becomes dirty and, on account of the hygroscopic property
+of the cyanide, more or less moist, especially during warm weather. The
+cyanide bottle is, therefore, not well adapted for the killing and
+temporary preservation of small and delicate specimens. This difficulty
+can be altogether obviated by placing a circular piece of blotting
+paper, cut to neatly fit the interior of the bottle, on the surface of
+the plaster. This can be renewed once a week or so, or oftener if it
+becomes necessary. It will frequently be advisable, also, especially in
+the collection of Diptera, Hymenoptera, and other delicate insects, to
+put a strip of blotting paper partially round the inner side of the
+bottle. This will absorb any moisture which may gather on the inside of
+the bottle and which would otherwise wet and injure the specimens. The
+accompanying figure (<a href="#img_093">Fig.&nbsp;93</a>) illustrates a bottle arranged as described
+above. A similar result is attained by some collectors by partially
+filling the bottle with narrow strips of bibulous paper to support and
+separate the insects as shown at <a href="#img_091">Fig.&nbsp;91</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_074.png" width="125" height="357"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_093"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 93.&mdash;The cyanide bottle<br />with blotting-paper lining
+(original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>For delicate specimens, also, the collecting bottle may consist of a
+test-tube of about the size of <a href="#img_092">Fig.&nbsp;92</a>. This is half filled with loose,
+thin strips of soft white paper. A piece of cyanide about the size of a
+pea is then wrapped carefully in paper and so placed in the middle of
+the strips that it can not come in contact with the sides of the
+glass. Some prefer to pin the paper containing the cyanide to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+lower surface of the cork. The latter should be rather short and
+tapering toward its lower end. It is longitudinally perforated through
+its center by a round hole just large enough to insert a goose-quill,
+which is cut straight at the lower end and obliquely at its upper end.
+By means of this goose-quill the specimens may be introduced into the
+bottle without taking off the cork. This form of cyanide bottle lasts
+for only one day's collecting, except in cold weather, and in very warm
+weather it is advisable to take two prepared bottles along, so that the
+first used can be stowed away as soon as the cyanide begins to moisten
+the paper strips. Most insects are quickly killed in such a bottle, but
+some Coleoptera must be left in for five or six hours, while others
+resist death for a still longer time. This is especially true of the
+Coleopterous families Curculionidæ, Trogositidæ, and Tenebrionidæ.</p>
+
+<p>Submersion in alcohol will prove a satisfactory method of killing these
+or other beetles with similar vitality.</p>
+
+<p><a name="OTHER_AGENTS" id="OTHER_AGENTS"><i>Other Agents.</i></a>&mdash;Prof. E. W. Claypole has found the use of benzine or
+gasoline very cheap and satisfactory for killing Lepidoptera, as the
+largest are at once killed thereby without injury to their scales.
+(<i>Can. Ent.</i>, <span class="smcap">xix</span>, p. 136.) He squirts it onto the specimen within the
+net or in the open air by means of a druggist's dropping tube. Hot water
+kills rapidly and leaves the specimens in good flexible condition for
+mounting. The heads of large insects may be held for a few moments in
+the water, while smaller specimens should first be thrown into a corked
+bottle and the bottle submitted to heat. Where the laurel grows its
+bruised leaves may be used in place of cyanide; they kill less quickly.
+The leaves of the Laurel-cherry (<i>Prunus laurocerasus</i>), a plant
+commonly grown in England for screens and hedges, are also used for this
+purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Some collectors, with indifferent olfactory sense, moisten the cork of
+their boxes with creosote. Its killing power lasts for several days. A
+few whiffs from a cigar, when nothing else is at hand, will also kill
+many of the more tender insects.</p>
+
+<p><a name="SPEC_ORDERS" id="SPEC_ORDERS"><span class="smcap">Special directions for different orders.</span></a>&mdash;A few brief directions for the
+special treatment of different orders may be given. Certain Coleoptera,
+notably those of the Curculionid genus Lixus, are covered with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+yellowish pruinosity resembling pollen, which is of an evanescent
+nature, so that if the specimens are collected and killed by the
+ordinary methods, the pruinosity is completely lost. To preserve the
+natural beauty of such species it is necessary to put each specimen
+alive in a small vial and to kill it at once by means of a lighted match
+held under the vial for a few seconds. In pinning or otherwise mounting
+the specimen it should not be handled between the fingers.</p>
+
+<p>Many Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera, especially species with yellow
+markings, if kept for any length of time in a cyanide bottle, will
+become discolored, the yellow changing to reddish, and hence such
+insects should not be left longer than necessary in the bottle. If care
+is exercised in this respect, no danger of discoloration need ordinarily
+be feared. The chloroform collecting bottle may be used with these
+insects if discoloration is anticipated. All the more delicate insects,
+including Hymenoptera, Diptera, the smaller Lepidoptera, and the
+Neuroptera, require special care in killing. Large numbers should not be
+thrown into a killing bottle together, and plenty of bibulous paper
+should be kept in the bottle to prevent moisture from accumulating and
+wetting and ruining the specimens. It is frequently advisable to pin
+Diptera, especially the hairy forms (as the Bee-flies), in the net and
+transfer them at once to a cigar box containing a sponge moistened with
+chloroform. When the collecting shears are used, the insects are always
+thus pinned at once, which is, in fact, the only method of securing
+them. This is also necessary in the case of many Lepidoptera. Delicate
+Neuroptera may be killed by the use of the cyanide bottle, or,
+preferably, placed at once in a vial of alcohol, as these insects, in
+many instances, cannot be kept securely if pinned or mounted. Large
+Lepidoptera, as the Bombycids, may be killed by pouring benzine,
+naphtha, or chloroform over the thorax and abdomen. These substances
+evaporate rapidly and do not appreciably injure the vestiture of the
+insects. Some collectors, in the case of butterflies, seize them
+dexterously between the thumb and finger, and give a sharp pinch on the
+sides of the thorax. This will prevent the fluttering of the insect when
+transferred to the cyanide bottle, and, if carefully done, the scales
+need not be rubbed off. It is objectionable, however, because the thorax
+is distorted and subsequent anatomical study interfered with, and, in
+the case of moths, should never be practiced, as the thorax affords
+important characters used in classification. Orthoptera may be killed by
+the use of the cyanide bottle but should be transferred at once to the
+vials of alcohol. If placed in a cyanide bottle, especially in the case
+of Locusts (<i>Acrididæ</i>), they are apt to exude colored juices from the
+mouth, so that the specimens become soiled. Hence the use of vials of
+alcohol is preferable, and these insects should never be thrown into
+vials containing delicate insects of other orders. Plant-lice, together
+with the plant which they infest, should be placed at once in vials of
+alcohol, and specimens of the Aphides, representing all the forms<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+present, should be mounted on slides for microscopic examination. The
+fixed forms of Coccids, comprising the majority of the species, require
+no special treatment, and the leaves, twigs, or bark on which they occur
+may be pinned at once and placed in the collection. The free forms are
+treated as in the case of plant-lice.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<h2><a name="ENTOMOTAXY" id="ENTOMOTAXY"></a>ENTOMOTAXY.</h2>
+
+<p>Under this term may be considered the preparation of insects for the
+cabinet.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="MOUNTED_SPEC" id="MOUNTED_SPEC">CARE OF PINNED AND MOUNTED SPECIMENS.</a></h3>
+
+<p><a name="INSECT_PINS" id="INSECT_PINS"><i>Insect Pins.</i></a>&mdash;In mounting insects for the cabinet, expressly made
+entomological pins should be used. These come from three different
+sources: Kläger pins, made by Hermann Kläger, Berlin, Germany; Karlsbad
+pins, made by one or several firms in Karlsbad, Bohemia, Austria; and
+Vienna pins, made by Miller, Vienna, Austria.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> These three kinds of
+pins have each their own slight advantages and disadvantages, so that it
+is difficult to say which is the best. All have the disadvantage that
+the pinned specimens are liable to be ruined by verdigris, and to
+obviate this japanned (&ldquo;black&rdquo;) insect pins are made by
+Kläger and Miller. These black pins are, however, much softer than the
+&ldquo;white&rdquo; pins, and therefore more difficult to handle. A pin
+of 35 millimeters in length will be found most convenient for pinning
+all insects excepting the larger Lepidoptera and other heavy-bodied
+insects, for which a longer pin may advantageously be used. According to
+the different degrees of fineness, the pins are numbered from No.&nbsp;00
+(the finest in the trade) to No.&nbsp;7 or 8, but the numbers used by the
+different manufacturers do not correspond with each other. In
+experience, pins of Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 (Kläger numbers) are more often
+needed than the others. The long pins of the finer numbers (Nos. 0 and
+00) are difficult to handle in the collection and, for this reason, not
+to be recommended.</p>
+
+<p>For many small insects, especially Microlepidoptera and Microdiptera,
+which <i>must</i> be pinned, even the finest ordinary insect-pins are too
+large, and two special makes of pins are in use for this purpose. The
+&ldquo;elbow pin&rdquo; (formerly made and sold by Dr.&nbsp;Kuenow, of
+Königsberg, Prussia, Germany) consists of a piece of fine silver wire,
+pointed at one end, and with a coil loop at the other end, into which a
+longer pin (No.&nbsp;3 or No.&nbsp;4) is thrust. This pin is illustrated in <a href="#img_094">Fig.&nbsp;94</a>.
+Still more satisfactory are the &ldquo;Minutien-Nadeln&rdquo; (pins
+for minute insects) manufactured by Mr.&nbsp;Miller, of Vienna, Austria, and
+which consist of a straight piece (about 14<sup>mm</sup>. long) of extremely
+fine steel wire which is pointed at one end, and which is used in
+connection with a piece of pith or cork. The mode of using this pin is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+shown in Fig.&nbsp;101. These fine and elbow pins may be obtained either
+&ldquo;white&rdquo; or japanned.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_077.png" width="100" height="171"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_094"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 94.&mdash;Insect<br />mounted on<br />&ldquo;elbow-pin.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Many English entomologists use short pins, very much like those
+of ordinary make, and my late friend Walsh never gave up the custom, and
+most vehemently opposed the use of what he ridiculed as &lsquo;long
+German skewers.&rsquo; But the only advantage that can possibly be
+claimed for the short pins is that they are less apt to bend,
+consequently more easily stuck into the bottoms of boxes, and require
+less room; while, compared with the long pins, they have numerous
+disadvantages. Long pins admit of the very important advantage of
+attaching notes and labels to the specimen; render it more secure from
+injury when handled, and from museum pests in the cabinet; and on them
+several rows of carded duplicates may be fastened, one under the other,
+so as to economize room.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>I have seen few old collections in better condition than that of the
+late E. Mulsant, of Lyons, France; and he used iron wire, cut
+slantingly, of the requisite length&mdash;a common custom in France. These
+wires bend so easily and have such dull points that they require much
+more careful manipulation than the pins, and the claim made for them
+that they do not verdigris would, perhaps, be offset by their rusting in
+moist climates or near the sea. Silver wire or silver-plated wire is
+also used.</p>
+
+<p><a name="PREP_SPEC" id="PREP_SPEC"><i>Preparation of Specimens.</i></a>&mdash;Upon the return from an excursion the
+specimens should be prepared for the collection as soon as practicable.
+If they have been collected in the forenoon they should be mounted the
+same evening, and those collected during an afternoon or evening
+excursion should be mounted the following morning, or, at any rate,
+before they get dry and brittle. Even specimens collected in alcohol
+should be attended to as soon as possible.</p>
+
+<p>Specimens are taken from the collecting bottle, spread out on a sheet of
+white blotting paper and cleaned from adhering impurities either with a
+soft dry brush, or, in the case of species with hard covering, by
+washing them with chloroform or ether or benzine where necessary.
+Theoretically the best way of mounting would be to pin all specimens,
+since the under side with its important characters then remains free for
+examination. Pins adapted for pinning even the smallest insects have
+been described above, but this pinning is such a delicate operation and
+requires so much time that considering the large number of small
+specimens that may be collected on a single short excursion it is next
+to impossible to carry out this method, and therefore only the larger
+specimens need be pinned and the smaller may be glued onto the paper
+points described later. If the work is done with proper care all
+insects can be prepared for the cabinet so that both the upper and under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+surface of the specimen may be examined without further manipulation.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_078a.png" width="250" height="249"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_095"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 95.&mdash;Method of pinning and<br />labeling Coleoptera
+(original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="PINNING" id="PINNING"><i>Pinning.</i></a>&mdash;&ldquo;Insects should be pinned through the middle of the
+thorax, when, as is more generally the case, this portion (the
+mesothorax) is largely developed. Beetles (<i>Coleoptera</i>) and Bugs
+(<i>Hemiptera</i>), should, however, be pinned, the former through the right
+elytron or wing-cover (<a href="#img_095">Fig.&nbsp;95</a>), and the latter through the scutel or
+triangular piece behind the thorax, the pin issuing between the middle
+and hind legs (<a href="#img_096">Fig.&nbsp;96</a>). The specimens look very pretty with all the
+legs neatly spread out, but for practical purposes it is better to let
+them dry in the natural, partly bent position. It is a saving of time
+and space, and the limbs are not so apt to break. The legs must also not
+reach too far downward or they will interfere with the proper labeling
+and the secure pinning of the specimen in the <ins title="cabinet">cabinet.</ins>
+Moreover, the antennæ and legs must be brought into such position that
+they will not obstruct the view of any important part of the
+undersurface. The pin should always project about half an inch above the
+insect to facilitate handling, and uniformity in this regard will have
+much to do with the neat appearance of the collection. In pinning very
+large and heavy insects on a No.&nbsp;4 or No.&nbsp;5 pin, it is a good plan to
+first flatten the pin by a few blows of a hammer, in order to prevent
+the specimen from subsequently turning round on the pin.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_078b.png" width="100" height="179"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_096"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 96.&mdash;Method<br />of pinning<br />Hemiptera (original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In pinning specimens which have a flat or nearly flat undersurface and
+short legs (as in many Coleoptera and Hemiptera and some Hymenoptera,
+<i>e.&nbsp;g.</i> the <ins title="Sawflies">Saw-flies</ins>) the specimens are laid on a piece of
+cork and held in place there with the fingers or with a forceps. The pin
+is then pushed through the insect at the proper point, care being taken
+not to strike one of the legs or coxæ, and that the pin passes through
+the specimen in a vertical direction.</p>
+
+<p>After the pin has been pushed through the specimen it is taken out of
+the cork and the specimen is pushed up to its proper height. This can be
+done either by holding the specimen between the fingers or by placing it
+on the upper edge of a thick book. A piece of cardboard provided with a
+small hole may also be used for this purpose. The perforations in
+ordinary sheet-cork, or the lapel of one's coat, will answer the same
+purpose. In pinning Lepidoptera or Hymenoptera the specimen should lie
+lightly in the angle formed by the thumb and first two fingers of the
+left hand and the pin be carefully thrust through at the proper angle.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+In pinning all insects the pin should be so inserted that the insect is
+nearly at right angles with the pin, the posterior end being slightly
+depressed.</p>
+
+<p><a name="MOUNT_POINT" id="MOUNT_POINT"><i><ins title="Moanting">Mounting</ins> on Points.</i></a>&mdash;Most insects which are too
+small to be pinned on a No.&nbsp;2 pin may be fastened to cardboard by means
+of gum tragacanth, gum shellac, or any good glue. It is not always easy
+to determine whether to pin a medium specimen or to glue it to a
+triangle. Pinned specimens are more secure, and not so apt to fall or be
+knocked off, but they are liable to become corroded by verdigris and
+ultimately lost, especially in families the larvæ of which are
+endophytous or internal feeders. It is better to glue wherever there is
+doubt. A drop of corrosive sublimate added to the water in which the gum
+tragacanth is dissolved will indefinitely prevent its souring, but
+should not be used where the gum is to come in contact with the pin, as
+it inclines the latter to verdigris. In such cases a little spirits of
+camphor mixed with the gum tragacanth is best. Shellac should be
+dissolved in alcohol and this requires some time. This glue is not
+affected by moisture, and if it is desired to remove the specimens, they
+must be immersed in alcohol until the shellac is again dissolved.</p>
+
+<p>A number of different kinds of glue are used by entomologists. The
+requirements of a good glue are that it be colorless, and, what is of
+greater importance, that the specimens adhere firmly to the paper points
+so that there is little or no danger of their being jarred off. Those
+glues which are readily soluble in cold or lukewarm water are perhaps
+more convenient than those which require alcohol or chloroform for
+dissolving. Gum arabic and gum tragacanth have the disadvantage that
+they are more liable to attract mites and are more brittle, so that they
+do not hold specimens as well as some of the liquid glues that are on
+the market. Spalding's glue answers a very good purpose, as also the
+preparation known to European entomologists as Leprieur's gum. White
+bleached shellac, while requiring alcohol to dissolve it, has the
+advantage that a very minute quantity suffices. In olden times the
+method employed was simply to glue the specimen by the ventral side to
+the middle of a quadrangular piece of cardboard, which was then pinned
+on a No.&nbsp;3 or No.&nbsp;4 insect pin. This method is still in vogue with
+English entomologists, but can not be recommended except for mounting
+duplicates. Much better are the small isosceles triangles which, before
+mounting the specimen, are pinned through near the base on a No.&nbsp;2 or
+No.&nbsp;3 insect pin. Only the best and finest cardboard should be used for
+this purpose, since that of poor quality is liable to be broken while
+passing the pin through it and will yellow with age. &ldquo;Reynolds's
+Superfine Board,&rdquo; which may be ordered through any dealer in
+artist's supplies of Devoe&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;Co., Fulton street, New York City, is
+perhaps the best for this purpose. Some of the neatest mounting which I
+have had done by any of my agents or assistants is by Mr.&nbsp;Albert
+Koebele, who has used mica or gelatine instead of cardboard, the object<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+being not only to show the whole of the under side of the specimen, but
+to obscure less of the light from the labels and to render the triangles
+less conspicuous in the cabinet. These have been in use in the museum
+collection only for the last two or three years, and whether they will
+eventually tend to corrode the pins is not yet settled. Mica and
+isinglass are also used for the same purpose. The points used in
+mounting may easily be cut by hand to a convenient size, say one-fourth
+of an inch (6&ndash;8<sup>mm</sup>) long by one-sixteenth or less at the base, and
+tapering to a point. The point may be narrower or wider to accommodate
+insects of different sizes.</p>
+
+<p>For cutting these triangles or points, various forms of punches similar
+to the appended figure (<a href="#img_097">Fig.&nbsp;97</a>) known to the trade as conductor's
+punches may be used, and points thus cut are to be preferred to those
+made by other means, on account of the greater uniformity secured.</p>
+
+<p>An experienced hand, however, will cut these points very rapidly and
+accurately with a pair of shears, and most collectors use no special
+instrument for this purpose.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_080a.png" width="250" height="145"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_097"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 97.&mdash;Insect punch for cutting triangles<br />or points
+(original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The punches mentioned may be obtained of the manufacturers<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> of such
+instruments at from $2 to $3. Care should be observed in ordering to
+state explicitly the length, width at base and point, or, what is
+better, to inclose sample of the size of point it is desired to cut; but
+above all, to state that the block of paper to be cut out is the result
+desired, and that the instrument should cut clean and even, with no
+ragged edges.</p>
+
+<p>For mounting different forms and sizes the fastidious collector uses
+four or five sizes of points, but for all practical purposes one to cut
+a card point not less than 1.3<sup>mm</sup> at the base and prolonged as nearly
+as possible to a point, and another a trifle wider at the base, say 1½
+or 1&#8532;<sup>mm</sup> and with a point about 1½<sup>mm</sup> in width will suffice.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_080b.png" width="171" height="75"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 98.&mdash;Points for mounting insects (original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>For mounting most long-bodied insects, <i>e.&nbsp;g.</i>, Staphylinidæ and
+Elateridæ, an oblong card say 1½<sup>mm</sup> in width is desirable. With a
+little care these may be cut with sufficient uniformity with scissors.
+Seven and one-half millimeters may be taken as a standard of length, as
+this is about the size used by the majority of our best collectors.
+Shorter points, say 6<sup>mm</sup> or one-quarter inch long, are sometimes
+preferred, where economy of space is a desideratum.</p>
+
+<p>A series of four points of different sizes for mounting insects is shown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+in the accompanying illustration. The sharp-pointed one, <i>a</i>, is
+designed for the minutest forms and the larger points for large insects.
+The largest should be mounted on points of a nearly rectangular shape,
+shown at <i>d</i>. The dimensions of these points as adopted by most
+entomologists, are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table id="p73" border="1" summary="dimensions" width="200">
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">Length.</td>
+    <td align="center">Breadth.</td>
+    <td align="center">Point.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>a</i></td>
+    <td align="right">7.5mm.</td>
+    <td align="right">1.5mm.</td>
+    <td align="right">.0mm.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>b</i></td>
+    <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.6em;">7.5</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.6em;">1.5</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.6em;">.4</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>c</i></td>
+    <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.6em;">7.5</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.6em;">1.5</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.6em;">.6</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>d</i></td>
+    <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.6em;">7.5</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.6em;">1.6</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.6em;">1.6</span></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_081a.png" width="150" height="201"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_099"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 99.&mdash;Insect mounted<br />on cardboard triangle.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The point or triangle should be mounted on the pin and directed to the
+left, the height from the top of the pin varying somewhat with the
+specimen, but averaging about one-half an inch. The insect is then glued
+to the point with the head pointed forward. In the case of Coleoptera
+and Hymenoptera, and in fact of most insects, the specimen is mounted
+with the back uppermost, but in the case of the smaller Hymenoptera it
+is advisable to mount some of the specimens, at least, on the left side
+(see <a href="#img_099">Fig.&nbsp;99</a>). This directs the legs toward the pin, as a matter of
+safety, prevents their being broken in handling, and also gives
+opportunity for subsequent examination of the back, side, and venter of
+the specimen. Coleopterists always mount specimens on the venter, and in
+the case of a correctly mounted specimen the whole underside of the body
+should be available for examination except the right half of the
+metasternum, as shown in figure 100.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_081b.png" width="150" height="145"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 100.&mdash;Method of gluing<br />beetle on paper point<br />(original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In mounting minute insects a few precautions are necessary. The beginner
+usually uses too much glue or <ins title="shell-lac">shellac</ins>, and the result is that the
+mounted specimens are more or less covered with the fluid, so as to
+render them unfit for examination. If, on the other hand, too little of
+the glue is used, the specimens are not securely fastened to the paper
+point, and are liable to be jolted off by the slightest jar. Before
+mounting specimens the legs and antennæ must be brought into the proper
+position by means of a brush or with a dissecting needle, so that they
+may easily be seen. A supply of paper points should always be at hand,
+and after selecting one of the proper size for the specimen, with an
+acute tip for a very small specimen and with a more obtuse point for a
+larger one, a small quantity of glue is applied to the tip by means of a
+pointed stick, such as a toothpick, the amount varying with the size of
+the specimen. The tip of a moistened brush may be used to transfer the
+specimen to the point, or one will soon become dextrous enough to do<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+this without the aid of the brush. The specimens are then allowed to dry
+in a horizontally placed box. If the drying box is placed in a vertical
+position the specimens, especially long-bodied ones, are liable to
+topple over before the glue has become firm.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_082a.png" width="150" height="221"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 101.&mdash;Cecidomyiid<br />mounted on pith<br />(original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Delicate flies and Microlepidoptera, which it will not do to fasten with
+mucilage, may first be mounted on the fine pins described above and
+these thrust into oblong or triangular bits of pith or cork, which are
+mounted on larger pins as shown in Figures 101 and 102. This affords a
+very satisfactory method of mounting, particularly as the different
+sexes may be brought together on the same bit of pith, or the adult and
+puparium in Diptera, as shown at Figure 101. Strips of stout cardboard
+with the pins run through the narrow edge may also be used. The method
+of mounting minute Hymenoptera and Diptera and other insects on a bent
+wire, mentioned above, is illustrated at Figure 94. This method has not
+proved so satisfactory, as the wires are apt to become loose on the pin.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_082b.png" width="150" height="192"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 102.&mdash;Microlepidoptera<br />mounted on pith<br />(original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_082c.png" width="150" height="242"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_103"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 103.&mdash;Method of<br />mounting duplicates<br />(original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="MOUNT_DUPL" id="MOUNT_DUPL"><i>Mounting Duplicates.</i></a>&mdash;If the collector finds more specimens of a rare
+species than he cares to have in his collection, the excess may be
+mounted as duplicates. If the species happens to be of a large size the
+specimens are pinned in the ordinary way, but if small enough to be
+gummed, there is a most convenient method of rapidly mounting the
+specimens so that they may be sent through the mail with much less risk
+of getting broken or knocked off than if glued on paper points, and will
+also take up very little room in the duplicate boxes. It consists in
+gluing the specimens in a transverse row on a strip of white card paper
+with one of the glues soluble in water, care being taken that between
+the individual specimens some space be left, and further that the heads
+and antennæ do not project beyond the edge of the paper. The width of
+the paper strip must be somewhat greater than the length of the
+specimen, so that below the latter there is sufficient room for
+inserting a pin through the paper. After the glue has become dry the row
+of specimens is cut with scissors into several smaller rows of
+convenient size, so that on each of these rows there are two or three or
+more specimens, according to the size of the species. A locality label
+is pushed high up on a No.&nbsp;3 or No.&nbsp;4 pin, and one of the mounted rows
+of specimens is then pinned and pushed up near the locality label; a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+second row is then pinned and pushed near the first row, and the same
+process continued with the third row and so on. A single pin will thus
+bear five or six rows, and in giving away or sending away specimens the
+lowest row is taken from the pin and repinned for mailing. The
+accompanying figure (<a href="#img_103">Fig.&nbsp;103</a>) illustrates the mounting of a
+moderate-sized species in rows of two specimens each. This method of
+mounting duplicates may be adopted not only for Coleoptera, but also for
+Heteroptera, Homoptera (excepting Aphididæ and allied families), smaller
+Orthoptera, and Hymenoptera. It is, however, impracticable for
+Lepidoptera, Diptera, and most Neuroptera.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TEMP_SPEC" id="TEMP_SPEC"><i>Temporary Storage of Specimens.</i></a>&mdash;If the entomologist is prevented from
+mounting his captures soon after returning from an expedition, or if, on
+extended collecting trips, time does not offer for this purpose,
+specimens of almost all orders except the Lepidoptera, Orthoptera, and
+Neuroptera may be placed in a small, tightly closing pill box, care
+being taken to keep the larger specimens apart from the small ones. In
+this way specimens will keep for an indefinite period, provided they are
+properly packed. In the case of the traveling collector, where the
+material is to be carried from point to point at great risk of breaking,
+specimens should be packed very carefully to prevent any shaking or
+rattling about in the boxes. This may be done by placing a round piece
+of soft paper on the top of the specimens in the pill box. This paper
+should be gently pressed down and the empty space above filled with
+other layers of paper or with cotton. The packing of specimens between
+cotton is not recommended, as it is a difficult and tedious task to
+afterwards free them from the adhering fibers. Layers of soft paper or,
+yet better, velvet, are preferable.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_083.png" width="200" height="183"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 104.&mdash;Method of preserving Diurnal<br />Lepidoptera in
+paper envelopes.<br />(After <ins title="Kiesenvetter">Kiesenwetter</ins>.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ENV_LEPI" id="ENV_LEPI"><i>Envelopes for Lepidoptera, etc.</i></a>&mdash;On an extended trip, it will be found
+impracticable to mount and prepare insects requiring cumbersome
+apparatus for spreading, as Lepidoptera or Neuroptera, and a very
+excellent plan consists in folding the wings of the insect so that the
+lower surfaces come together and then placing it in a triangular
+envelope, as shown in the <ins title="accompaying">accompanying</ins> illustration. The
+collector should be provided with a quantity of paper of the requisite
+dimensions for making these envelopes, and specimens, as they are taken
+from the collecting bottle, may be rapidly inclosed in them, labeled,
+and packed away in a tight wooden (not tin) box containing a supply of
+naphthaline, the specimens thus occupying the minimum of space.
+Specimens secured in this way may be kept without further manipulation
+indefinitely or until time is found to relax and set them. This is also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+an excellent method of sending diurnal Lepidoptera and Dragon-flies
+through the mails and is preferable in some respects to mailing spread
+specimens.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_084a.png" width="250" height="190"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_105"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 105.<ins title="Spreading">&mdash;Spreading</ins> board for Lepidoptera.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_084b.png" width="25" height="217"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_106"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 106.<ins title="Needle">&mdash;Needle</ins><br />for spreading<br />insects.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="DIR_INSECTS" id="DIR_INSECTS"><i>Directions for Spreading Insects.</i></a>&mdash;&ldquo;For the proper spreading of
+insects with broad and flattened wings, such as butterflies and moths, a
+spreading board or stretcher is necessary. One that is simple and
+answers every purpose is shown at <a href="#img_105">Fig.&nbsp;105</a>. It may be made of two pieces
+of thin whitewood or pine board, fastened together by braces at the
+ends, but left wide enough apart to admit the bodies of the insects to
+be spread; strips of cork or pith, in which to fasten the pins, may then
+be tacked or glued below so as to cover the intervening space. The
+braces must be deep enough to prevent the pins from touching anything
+the stretcher may be laid on, and by attaching a ring or loop to one of
+them the stretcher may be hung against a wall, out of the way. For
+ordinary-sized specimens I use boards 2 feet long, 3 inches wide, and
+&#8531; inch thick, with three braces (one in the middle and one at each
+end) 1½ inches deep at the ends, but narrowing from each end to 1<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>6</sub>
+inches at the middle. This slight rising from the middle is to
+counteract the tendency of the wings, however well dried, to drop a
+little after the insect is placed in the cabinet. The wings are held in
+position by means of strips of paper (<a href="#img_105">Fig.&nbsp;105</a>) until dry. For
+stretching the wings and for many other purposes, a handled needle will
+be found useful. Split off, with the grain, a piece of pine wood 3 or 4
+inches long; hold it in the right hand; take a medium-sized needle in
+the left hand; hold it upright with the point touching a walnut table,
+or other hard-grained wood, and bring a steady pressure to bear on the
+pine. The head of the needle will sink to any required distance into the
+pine, which may then be whittled off, and you have just the thing you
+want (<a href="#img_106">Fig.&nbsp;106</a>). To obtain uniformity in the position of the wings, a
+good rule is to have the inner margins of the front wings as nearly as
+possible on a straight line. When the specimens are thoroughly stiff and
+dry, they should be taken from the stretcher and kept for several weeks
+in the drying box before being permanently placed in the cabinet. The
+drying box is simply a box of any required dimensions, containing a
+series of shelves on which to pin the specimens, and without a solid
+back or front. The back is covered on the inside with fine gauze and on
+the outside with coarser wire, and the door in front consists of a
+close-fitting frame of the same material, the object being to allow free
+passage of air, but at the same time to keep out dust and prevent the
+gnawings of mice and other animals. The shelves should be not less than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+2 inches deep, and if made in the form of a quadrangular frame, braced
+with two cross-pieces on which to tack sheet cork, they will serve for
+the double purpose of drying spread specimens and for the spreading of
+others, as there are many insects with long legs which are more
+conveniently spread on such a board, by means of triangular pieces of
+stiff cardboard braces or &lsquo;saddles,&rsquo; than on the stretcher
+already described. Two of these braces are fixed on the setting board,
+by means of stout pins, at sufficient distances apart to receive the
+body between them. The wings are then spread upon them and kept in place
+until dry by means of additional braces. In the case of bees, wasps,
+etc., the pin may be thrust well into the cork or pith so that the wings
+may be arranged in the proper position and braced and supported by
+strips of stout cardboard. This method is especially recommended in the
+case of the Fossorial wasps, the legs of which, if mounted in an
+ordinary spreading board, can not be properly arranged.</p>
+
+<p>In spreading Lepidoptera I have used, in the place of a number of paper
+strips pinned across the wings, blocks of glass of various sizes to hold
+the wings in position. My method of mounting, with a large amount of
+material on hand to be attended to, consists in pinning a row on the
+spreading-board and fixing the wings in position with spreading needles,
+fastening them with a single narrow strip of paper placed next the body.
+The entire spreading-board is filled with specimens in this way, a
+single long strip of paper on either side answering to keep the wings of
+all the specimens in position. Then, instead of pinning additional
+strips to hold the wings flat and securely in position, the pieces of
+glass referred to are used, placing them on the wings of the insect.
+With the use of glass the spreading-board must always be kept in a
+horizontal position and must never be disturbed. The advantage of the
+glass is that the wings can be seen through it and more truly adjusted.</p>
+
+<p>Spreading-boards may be made as described above, or it may be of
+advantage, when a good deal of work is to be done, to adopt a somewhat
+different method. Five or six spreading-boards may be made together,
+forming a sort of shelf. A number of these shelves may be constructed
+and the whole combined in a case with a screen cover to exclude insects.
+The individual shelves may be arranged with grooves to slide on tongues
+in the side of the case. A screen-covered case for spreading-boards is
+always desirable, as the insects are otherwise very liable to be eaten
+by roaches or other insects. A spreading-case of the form described is
+shown at <a href="#img_107">Fig.&nbsp;107</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_086a.png" width="300" height="225"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_107"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 107.&mdash;Spreading-case (original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_086b.png" width="300" height="251"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 108.&mdash;Spreading apparatus for Microlepidoptera
+<br />(original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="NEW_APP" id="NEW_APP"><i>A new Apparatus for Spreading Microlepidoptera.</i></a>&mdash;For the spreading of
+Microlepidoptera my assistant, Mr.&nbsp;Theo. Pergande, has devised an
+apparatus, represented in the accompanying illustration, which he finds
+very convenient. It consists of a small spreading-block represented at
+<i>B</i> and the support with attachment shown at <i>A</i>. The former is made in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+a long strip of the shape shown in the illustration, having a square
+groove, <i>c</i>, cut in the top. Over this is glued a thin strip of wood,
+<i>b</i>, say &#8539; inch thick, and a narrow slit is sawed in the center of
+this above, cutting through into the groove <i>c</i>. This is then sawed up
+into pieces of uniform length, say 1½ to 2 inches, and the block is
+completed by the insertion of a rectangular strip of pith or cork into
+the groove. The Micro is pinned on a short black pin, and the pin is
+thrust down into the narrow opening made by the saw and is held firmly
+by the pith or cork. This block is then slid into the groove in the
+setting-board <i>A</i>, which narrows slightly from <i>e</i>, and pushed along
+until firmly secured (<i>d</i>). The operator can then rest his hands and
+arms on either side of the support, and, if necessary, bring a large
+hand lens over the object by means of a support with ball-and-socket
+joint shown at <i>e</i>. The wings may thus be easily and accurately arranged
+and fixed in position with pins or strips of paper, as in the ordinary
+mounting of such insects. Two or three specimens may be mounted on each
+of these blocks. The construction of the support is indicated in the
+annexed drawing. One side is attached by clamps, shown enlarged at <i>f</i>,
+which afford means of adjusting the width of the slit in which the small
+sawed blocks slide and correct the shrinking or swelling which may take
+place in moist or dry seasons. The advantage of the apparatus is that
+the operator has the setting block firmly fixed before him and has both
+hands free to manipulate the wings of the insect in addition to having
+the lens in a convenient position, the use of which is necessary in the
+preparation of the very minute forms.</p>
+
+<p><a name="SPREAD_MICROLEP" id="SPREAD_MICROLEP"><i>Spreading Microlepidoptera.</i></a>&mdash;The mounting of Microlepidoptera is about
+the most delicate work in entomotaxy, and I can not do better than
+quote the explicit directions given by Lord Walsingham on the subject.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>Returning to camp I put a few drops of liquid ammonia on a small
+piece of sponge and place it in a tin canister with such of the
+boxes as do not contain the smallest species, and put these and the
+remainder away until morning in a cool place. In the morning I
+prepare for work by getting out a pair of scissors, a pair of
+forceps, my drying-box containing setting-boards, a sheet of white
+paper, and some pins.</p>
+
+<p>First, I cut two or three narrow pieces of paper from 3 to 6 lines
+wide, or rather wider, according to the size of the largest and
+smallest specimens I have to set. I then double each of these
+strips and cut it up into braces by a number of oblique cuts. Now I
+turn out the contents of the canister and damp the sponge with a
+few drops of fresh ammonia, refilling with boxes containing live
+insects. Those which have been taken out will be found to be all
+dead and in a beautifully relaxed condition for setting. Had the
+smallest specimens been placed in the canister over night there
+would have been some fear of their drying up, owing to the small
+amount of moisture in their bodies.</p>
+
+<p>If the weather is very hot there is some danger of killed insects
+becoming stiff while others are being set, in which case it is
+better to pin at once into a damp cork box all that have been taken
+out of the canister, but under ordinary circumstances I prefer to
+pin them one by one as I set them.</p>
+
+<p>Taking the lid off a box, and taking the box between the finger and
+thumb of the right hand, I roll out the insect on the top of the
+left thumb, supporting it with the top of the forefinger and so
+manipulating it as to bring the head pointing toward my right hand
+and the thorax uppermost. Now I take a pin in the right hand and
+resting the first joint of the middle finger of the right against
+the projecting point of the middle finger of the left hand to avoid
+unsteadiness, I pin the insect obliquely through the thickest part
+of the thorax, so that the head of the pin leans very slightly
+forward over the head of the insect. After passing the pin far
+enough through to bring about one-fourth of an inch out below,<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> I
+pin the insect into the middle of the groove of a setting board so
+that the edge of the groove will just support the under sides of
+the wings close up to the body when they are raised upon it. The
+board should be chosen of such a size as will permit of the
+extension of the wings nearly to its outer edge. The position of
+the pin should still be slanting a little forward. The wings should
+now be raised into the position in which they are intended to rest,
+with especial care in doing so not to remove any scales from the
+surface or cilia of the wings. Each wing should be fastened with a
+brace long enough to extend across both, the braces being pinned at
+the thick end, so that the head of the pin slopes away from the
+point of the brace; this causes the braces to press more firmly
+down on the wing when fixed. The insect should be braced thus: The
+two braces next the body should have the points upwards, the two
+outer ones pointing downwards and slightly inwards towards the
+body, and covering the main portion of the wings beyond the middle.
+Antennæ should be carefully laid back above the wings, and braces
+should lie flat, exercising an even pressure at all points of their
+surface. The fore wings should slope slightly forwards so that a
+line drawn from the point of one to the point of the other will
+just miss the head and palpi. The hind wings should be close up,
+leaving no intervening space, but just showing the upper angle of
+the wing evenly on each side. I can give no more precise directions
+as to how this desirable result may most simply and speedily be
+attained; no two people set alike. Speed is an object; for I have
+often had to set twelve dozen insects before breakfast. A simple
+process is essential, for a man who is always pinning and moving
+pins, and rearranging wings and legs, is sure to remove a certain
+number of scales and spoil the appearance of the insect, besides
+utterly destroying its value. I raise each of the fore wings with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+a pin, and fix the pin against the inner margin so as to keep them
+in position while I apply the braces. Half the battle is really in
+the pinning. When an insect is pinned through the exact center of
+the thorax, with the pin properly sloped forward, the body appears
+to fall naturally into its position on the setting board, and the
+muscles of the wings being left free are easily directed and
+secured; but if the pin is not put exactly in the middle it
+interferes with the play of the wings. Legs must be placed close
+against the body or they will project and interfere with the set of
+the wings. Practice, care, and a steady hand will succeed. When all
+the insects that have been killed are set the contents of the
+canister will be found again ready, twenty minutes being amply
+sufficient to expose to the fumes of ammonia. Very bright green or
+pale pink insects should be killed by some other process, say
+chloroform, as ammonia will affect their colors.</p>
+
+<p>Insects should be left on the setting boards a full week to dry;
+then the braces may be carefully removed and they may be
+transferred to the store box.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>In my own experience I have found that a touch or two of the chloroform
+brush on the pill-box containing small moths is sufficient to either
+kill or so asphyxiate them that they can easily be mounted. I have also
+found that strips of corn pith or even of soft cork, with grooves cut
+into them, are very handy for the pinning and spreading, and that by
+means of a small, broad-tipped, and pliable forceps the smallest
+specimens can be deftly arranged in the groove and kept in place until
+pinned. In fact, for all persons who have not very great experience and
+dexterity this method is perhaps more to be recommended than that of
+holding them between the thumb and fingers. Where chloroform is used
+either to kill or deaden specimens, it is important that after they are
+once spread and in the drying box they should be subjected to an
+additional asphyxiation, as the larger species may revive and are apt to
+pull away from the holding strips, and thus rub off their scales.</p>
+
+<p>Microlepidoptera, together with Microhymenoptera and Diptera may be
+conveniently pinned on fine, short pins, and these thrust into an oblong
+bit of cork or pith. This form of mounting has already been described
+and is represented in figure 102. The neatest mounting of
+Microlepidoptera which I have seen is the work of my assistant, Mr.&nbsp;Albert
+Koebele, who mounts these insects on an oblong strip of pith.
+This is very light and presents no difficulty in pinning. The strips may
+be made of considerable length and both sexes may be pinned on the same
+block (see <a href="#img_103">Fig.&nbsp;103</a>). Most Lepidoptera present on the under surface an
+entirely different aspect from that on the upper surface, and, in such
+cases, it is a good plan to mount a number of specimens obversely.</p>
+
+<p><a name="RELAXING" id="RELAXING"><i>Relaxing.</i></a>&mdash;It will frequently be desirable to re-spread insects which
+have been incorrectly mounted, or to spread specimens which have been
+collected and stored in papers, or pinned and allowed to dry without
+being prepared for the cabinet. Such specimens may be relaxed by placing
+them in a tight tin vessel half filled with moist sand to which a little
+carbolic acid has been added to prevent molding. Small specimens will be
+sufficiently relaxed to spread in twenty-four hours. Larger specimens
+require from two to three days. More rapid relaxing may be caused by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+use of steam, and a flat piece of cork with the specimens laid or pinned
+thereon and floated on the top of hot water in a closed vessel
+constitutes an excellent relaxing arrangement.</p>
+
+<p><a name="INFLA_LEPI" id="INFLA_LEPI"><i>Inflation of the Larvæ of Lepidoptera.</i></a>&mdash;The larvæ of Lepidoptera
+preserved in alcohol are excellent for anatomical and general study, but
+are not very suitable for use in economic displays. This means of
+preservation also has the disadvantage of not generally preserving the
+natural color and appearance of the specimens. These objections may be
+avoided, however, by the dry method of preserving larvæ, viz, by blowing
+or inflation. The process may be described as follows: The larva may be
+operated upon alive, but should preferably be first killed by dipping in
+chloroform or alcohol, or in the cyanide bottle. It is then placed on a
+piece of blotting paper and the alimentary canal caused to protrude from
+one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch, by rolling a pencil over the larva
+from the head to the posterior extremity. The protruding tip is then
+severed with a sharp knife or pair of dissecting scissors, and the
+contents of the abdomen are forced out by passing a pencil, as before, a
+number of times over the larva. Great care should be exercised in
+expressing the fluids not to press the pencil too strongly against the
+larva or to continue the operation too long, as this will, especially in
+delicate larvæ, remove the pigment from the skin, and the specimen when
+dried will show discolored spots and be more or less distorted. The
+larva should be moved from place to place on the blotting paper during
+the operation, so as not to become soiled by its own juices. A straw, or
+a glass tube drawn to a point at the tip, is then inserted in the
+protruding portion of the alimentary canal. If a straw is used the larva
+may be fastened to it by thrusting a pin through the wall of the canal
+and the straw. In the case of the glass tube the alimentary canal can be
+caused to adhere by drying for a few minutes and this operation may be
+hastened and the fastening made more secure by touching the point of
+union with a drop of glue. The straw or glass tube is then attached to a
+small rubber bag, previously inflated with air, the ordinary dentist's
+or chemist's gas bag answering admirably for this purpose. The larva is
+now ready for drying, and for this purpose a drying oven is required
+into which it is thrust and manipulated by turning it from side to side,
+to keep it in proper shape and dry it uniformly until the moisture has
+been thoroughly expelled. An apparatus which I have found very
+convenient for this purpose is represented at <a href="#img_109">Fig.&nbsp;109</a>. It consists of a
+tin box with mica or glass slides, <i>e</i>, to allow the larva to be
+constantly in sight. It has also a hinged top, <i>b</i>, which may be kept
+closed or partly open, or entirely open, as may be necessary, during the
+operation. The ends of the box are prolonged downward about 5 inches,
+forming supports for it, <i>g</i>. Beneath it is placed an alcohol lamp, <i>f</i>,
+which furnishes the heat. In the end of the box is a circular opening,
+<i>d</i>, for the introduction of the larva, and this may be entirely or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+partly closed by a sliding door, <i>a</i>. It will be found of advantage to
+line the bottom of the box (inside) with a brass screen of very fine
+mesh to distribute and equalize the heat. This apparatus can be very
+easily made by any tinsmith and will answer every purpose.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_090.png" width="350" height="467"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_109"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 109.&mdash;Drying oven for the inflation of larvæ
+(original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The larvæ of Microlepidoptera or young larvæ may be dried without
+expressing the body contents, and will keep, to a great extent, their
+normal shape and appearance. The method consists in placing them on a
+sand bath, heated by an alcohol lamp. The vapor generated by the heat in
+the larvæ inflates them and keeps the skin taut until the juices are
+entirely evaporated. They may then be glued at once to cardboard and
+pinned in the cases.</p>
+
+<p>In the mounting of large inflated larvæ I have adopted the plan of
+supporting them on covered copper wire of a size varying with the size
+of the larva. A pin is first thrust through a square bit of cork and the
+wire brought tightly about it and wrapped once or twice, compressing the
+cork and giving a firm attachment to the pin. The wire is then neatly
+bent to form a diamond-shaped loop about one-sixth of an inch in length
+and again twisted loosely to the end&mdash;the length of the twisted portion
+about equalling that of the larva to be mounted. This is then either
+thrust into the blown skin of the larva through the anal opening, the
+larva being glued to the wire by the posterior extremity, or the larva
+is glued to the wire by the abdominal legs and venter, thus resting on
+the wire as on a twig. This style of mounting is illustrated in Pl. I.
+With a little experience the operator will soon be able to inflate the
+most delicate larvæ and also the very hairy forms, as for instance
+<i>Orgyia leucostigma</i>, without the least injury, so that the natural
+colors and appearance will be preserved.</p>
+
+<p>Another very good method, and still safer, is to blow with straw, cut
+the straw square off at the anus, and then preserve the thoroughly dried
+and blown specimen in a glass tube of about the same length and diameter
+as the larva. This arrangement in conjunction with the tube holder,
+which will be described further on, is one of the most satisfactory for
+the preservation of inflated larvæ.</p>
+
+<p>For the biological-display collection, larvæ may be blown in various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+natural positions, to be subsequently fastened on leaf or twig or in
+burrows which they have occupied. Fastened to artificial foliage in
+which nature is imitated as much as possible, such blown larvæ are quite
+effective.</p>
+
+<p><a name="STUFF_INSECTS" id="STUFF_INSECTS"><i>Stuffing Insects.</i></a>&mdash;Large larvæ may sometimes be satisfactorily
+preserved for exhibition purposes by stuffing them with cotton. The
+method consists simply in making a small slit with the dissecting
+scissors or a short scalpel between the abdominal prolegs, and removing
+the body contents. Powdered arsenic or some other preservative should be
+put in the body of the larva with the cotton used in stuffing it, and
+the slit closed by a few stitches, when the larva may be dried and
+mounted on a twig or leaf. This method of stuffing with cotton is also
+applicable in the case of certain large-bodied insects which, if mounted
+and put away without preparation, would be liable to decompose, as, for
+instance, the larger moths, grasshoppers, etc. A slit can be made in the
+center of the abdomen or near the anus beneath, and the body contents
+removed and replaced with cotton. Stuffing in this way with cotton is of
+especial advantage in the case of certain of the large endophytous
+insects which grease badly. The cut will not be noticed after the insect
+has dried, or it may be closed by a stitch or two.</p>
+
+<p><a name="DRY_APHIDES" id="DRY_APHIDES"><i>Dry Preservation of Aphides and other soft-bodied Insects.</i></a>&mdash;Difficulty
+has always been experienced in preserving soft-bodied insects,
+particularly Aphides, in a condition serviceable for subsequent
+scientific study. Kept in alcohol or other antiseptic fluid, they almost
+<ins title="invariable">invariably</ins> lose much of their normal appearance, and
+many of the important characteristics, especially of color, are obscured
+or lost. The balsam mount is also unsatisfactory in many respects, as
+the body is always more or less distorted and little can be relied upon
+except the venation and the jointed appendages. A method of preserving
+soft-bodied insects by means of the sudden application of intense heat
+was communicated to the <i>Entomologische Nachrichten</i>, Vol. <span class="smcap">iv</span>, page 155,
+by Herr D. H. R. von Schlechtendal. It is claimed for this method that
+the Aphides and other soft-bodied insects can be satisfactorily
+preserved in form and coloring, the success of the method being vouched
+for by a number of well-known German entomologists, Kaltenbach, Giebel,
+Taschenberg, Mayr, and Rudow. A condensed translation of the method
+employed by Schlechtendal is given by J. W. Douglas in the
+<i>Entomologists' Monthly Magazine</i> for December, 1878, which I quote:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>The heat is derived from the flame of a spirit or petroleum
+<ins title="lamp">lamp.</ins> Above this is placed a piece of sheet-tin, and over this
+the roasting proceeds. A bulging lamp cylinder, laid horizontally,
+serves as a roasting oven. In this the insect to be dried, when
+prepared as directed, and stuck on a piece of pith, is to be held
+over the flame; or the cylinder may be closed at the lower end with
+a cork, which should extend far inwards, and on this the insect
+should be fastened; the latter mode being preferable because the
+heat is more concentrated, and one hand is left free. The mode of
+procedure varies according to the nature of the objects to be
+treated. For the class of larger objects, such as Hemiptera,
+Cicadina, and Orthoptera, in their young stages of existence, the
+heat must not be slight, but a little practice shows the proper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+temperature required. If the heat be insufficient, a drying up
+instead of a natural distention ensues. The insect to be roasted is
+to be pierced by a piece of silver wire on the under side of the
+thorax, but it is not to be inserted so far as to damage the upper
+side, and the wire should then be carried through a disk of pith,
+placed beneath the insect, on which the legs should be set out in
+the desired position. But with some objects, such, for instance, as
+a young <i>Strachia</i>, the drying proceeds very quickly, so that if
+distention be not observed then the heat is too great, for the
+expansion of the air inside will force off the head with a loud
+report; also, with softer, thicker Pentatomidæ care must be taken
+to begin with a heat only so strong that the internal juices do not
+boil, for in such case the preparation would be spoiled. It is of
+advantage to remove the cylinder from time to time, and test, by
+means of a lens, if a contraction of the skin has taken place on
+any part; if so, the roasting is to be continued. The desired
+hardness may be tested with a bristle or wire.</p>
+
+<p>For <i>Aphides</i> the <i>living Aphis</i> is to be put on a piece of white
+paper, and at the moment when it is in the desired position it is
+to be held over the flame, and in an instant it will be dead and
+will retain the attitude. Then put it, still on the paper, into the
+oven; or, still better, hold it over the heated tin, carefully
+watching the drying and moving the paper about in order to prevent
+it getting singed. The roasting is quickly accomplished in either
+way, but somewhat slower out of the oven especially in the larger
+kinds, such as Lachnus. If the paper turn brown it is a sure sign
+that caution is requisite. To pierce these brittle preparations for
+preservation is hazardous, and it is a better way to mount them
+with gum on card, placing some examples on their back.</p>
+
+<p>For Cecidomyidæ, Agromyzidæ, Cynipidæ, and other small insects
+liable to shrink, yet containing but little moisture, such as
+Poduridæ, Pediculidæ, Psyllidæ, etc., another method is adopted.
+Over the insect, mounted on a wire, etc., as above directed, a thin
+chemical reagent glass or glass rod, heated strongly at one end, is
+held, and the heat involved is generally sufficient to bring about
+the immediate drying and distention, but if the heat be too little
+the process must be repeated; and, although by this method the
+danger of burning is not obviated, yet the position of the legs is
+maintained much better than by the aforesaid roasting.</p>
+
+<p>Larvæ of all kinds, up to the size of that of <i>Astynomus ædilis</i>,
+even when they have long been kept in spirits, may be treated
+successfully by the roasting method; but with these objects care
+must be taken that the heat is not too strong or else the form will
+be distorted. For small larvæ it is preferable to use a short
+glass, in order better to effect their removal without touching the
+upper part, which becomes covered with steam, and contact with
+which would cause the destruction of the preparation. Larvæ of
+Coleoptera, which contain much moisture or have a mucous surface,
+must lie on a bed of paper or pith in order to prevent adhesion and
+burning, and these may be further avoided if the cylinder be
+slightly shaken during the process, and the position of the object
+be thereby changed.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Many Aphides and Coccids are covered with a waxy secretion which
+interferes very materially with their easy examination. Mr.&nbsp;Howard has
+overcome this difficulty by the following treatment:</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;With Aphides and Coccids which are covered with an abundant waxy
+secretion which can not be readily brushed away, we have adopted the
+plan of melting the wax. We place the insect on a bit of platinum foil
+and pass it once over the flame of the alcohol lamp. The wax melts at a
+surprisingly low temperature and leaves the insect perfectly clean for
+study. This method is particularly of use in the removal of the waxy
+cocoon of the pupæ of male Coccidæ, and is quicker and more thorough
+than the use of any of the chemical wax solvents which we have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+tried.&rdquo; (<i>Insect Life</i>, I, p. 152.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="MOUNT_MICRO" id="MOUNT_MICRO"><i>Mounting Specimens for the Microscope.</i></a>&mdash;The study of the minuter forms
+of insect life, including Parasites, Thysanura, Mallophaga, the newly
+hatched of most insects, etc., requires the use of the microscope, and
+some little knowledge of the essentials of preparing and mounting
+specimens is needed. The subject of mounting the different organs of
+insects and the preparation for histological study of the soft parts of
+insects opens up the immense field of microscopy, the use of the
+innumerable mounting media, the special treatment of the objects to be
+mounted, staining, section-cutting, and many other like topics, a full
+description of which is altogether out of place in the present work.
+Anyone desiring to become thoroughly versed in the subject should
+consult some of the larger manuals for the microscopist, of which there
+are many. For the practical working entomologist, however, a knowledge
+of all these methods and processes is not essential, and in my long
+experience I have found that mounting in Canada balsam will answer for
+almost every purpose. The softer-bodied forms will shrink more or less
+in this substance, and it is frequently necessary to make studies or
+drawings of them when freshly mounted; or, if additional specimens are
+preserved in alcohol, they will supplement the mounted specimens and the
+material may be worked up at the convenience of the student. The
+materials for the balsam mounts may be obtained of any dealer in
+microscopical supplies. They consist of glass slides, 3 inches by 1
+inch, thin cover-glasses of different dimensions, and the prepared
+balsam. The balsam is put up very conveniently for use in tin tubes. A
+sufficient quantity is pressed out on the center of the glass slide,
+which has previously been made thoroughly clean and dry, the insect is
+removed from the alcohol, and when the excess of liquor has been removed
+with bibulous paper, it is placed in the balsam, the limbs and antennæ
+being arranged as desired by the use of fine mounting-needles. A
+cover-glass, also made thoroughly clean and dry, is then placed over the
+specimen and pressed gently until the balsam entirely fills the space
+between the cover and the glass slide. The slide should then be properly
+labeled with a number referring to the notes on the insect, preferably
+placed on the upper edge of the slide above the cover-glass, and also a
+label giving the number of the slide and the number of the slide box. On
+the opposite end of the slide may be placed the label giving the name of
+the specimen mounted and the date. If a revolving slide table is
+employed to center the mounts, the appearance of the slide may be
+improved by adding a circle of asphalt or Brunswick black. With the
+balsam mounts, however, this sealing is not necessary. The slide (<a href="#img_110">Fig.&nbsp;110</a>)
+should then be placed in a slide case with the mount uppermost, and
+should be kept in a horizontal position to prevent sliding of the
+cover-glass and specimen until the balsam is thoroughly dried. For
+storing slides I have found very convenient the box shown at <a href="#img_111">Fig.&nbsp;111</a>.
+It is constructed of strong pasteboard and is arranged for holding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+twenty-six slides. The cover bears numbers from 1 to 26, opposite which
+the name of each insect mounted, or the label on the slide, may be
+written. This box when not in use is kept in a pasteboard case, on which
+may be placed the number of the box. These slide cases may be stored in
+drawers or on shelves made for the purpose. In mounting specimens taken
+from alcohol it is advisable to put a drop of oil of cloves upon them,
+which unites with the balsam and ultimately evaporates. The occurrence
+of minute air bubbles under the cover-glass need occasion no uneasiness,
+for these will disappear on the drying of the balsam.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_094a.png" width="400" height="144"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_110"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 110.&mdash;Balsam mount, showing method of labeling, etc.
+(original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In mounting minute Acarids or mites it has been found best to kill the
+insects in hot water, which causes them to expand their legs, so that
+when mounted these appendages can readily be studied. If mounted living,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+the legs are almost invariably curled up under the body and can not be
+seen. This method may also be used in the case of other minute insects.
+Some insects, such as minute Diptera, are injured by the use of hot
+water, and for these dipping in hot spirits is recommended.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_094b.png" width="400" height="337"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_111"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 111.&mdash;Slide case, showing method of labeling case
+and of numbering and labeling slides (original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the mounting of Aphides the same difficulty is avoided in a measure
+by Mr.&nbsp;G.&nbsp;B.&nbsp;Buckton, author of &ldquo;A Monograph of the British
+Aphides,&rdquo; by first placing a few dots of balsam on the glass
+slide, to which the insect is transferred by means of a moistened
+camel's-hair brush. The efforts of the insect to escape will cause it to
+spread out its legs in a natural position and a cover glass may then be
+placed in position and a drop of the balsam placed at the side, when, by
+capillarity, it will fill the space between the slide and cover glass
+and the limbs will be found to have remained extended. If three or four
+drops of the balsam are put on the glass the wings may also be brought
+down and caught to them so that they will remain expanded in shape for
+examination.</p>
+
+<p><a name="PREP_LEPI" id="PREP_LEPI"><i>Preparing and Mounting the Wings of Lepidoptera.</i></a>&mdash;The student of
+Lepidoptera will frequently find it necessary in the study of the
+venation of wings to bleach them or denude them of their scales in some
+way. Various methods of bleaching and mounting the wings of these
+insects have been given, and a few of them may be briefly outlined.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest and quickest, but perhaps the least satisfactory, method is
+to remove the scales with a camel's-hair brush. This will answer for the
+larger forms and where a very careful examination is not required. For
+more careful examination and study the wings are first bleached by the
+action of some caustic solution and then mounted in balsam for permanent
+preservation. Chambers's method for Tineina, Tortricina, Pyralidina, and
+the smaller moths generally, is as follows: The wing is placed on a
+microscopic slide in from 3 to 4 drops of a strong solution of potash,
+the amount varying according to the size of the wing. A cover of glass
+is then placed in position on the wing as in ordinary mounting.</p>
+
+<p>The quantity of liquid should be sufficient to fill the space beneath,
+but not sufficient to float the cover glass. The mount is then placed
+over an alcohol flame, removing it at the first sign of ebullition, when
+the wing will be found denuded, if it be a fresh specimen. An old
+specimen, or a larger wing, will require somewhat more prolonged
+boiling. The fluid is drawn off by tilting the glass or with bibulous
+paper, and the potash removed by washing with a few drops of water. The
+cover glass is then removed and the wing mounted either on the same
+slide in balsam or floated to another slide, or at once accurately
+sketched with the camera lucida. Permanent mounting, however, is always
+to be recommended.</p>
+
+<p>The Dimmock method of bleaching the wings of Lepidoptera, given in
+Psyche, Vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>, pp. 97&ndash;99, is as follows: He uses for bleaching a
+modification of the chlorine bleaching process commonly employed in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+cotton bleacheries, the material for which is sold by druggists as
+chlorate of lime. The wings are first soaked in pure alcohol to dissolve
+out the oily matter, which will act as a repellant to the aqueous
+chlorine solution. The chlorate of lime is dissolved in 10 parts of
+water and filtered. The wings are transferred to a small quantity of
+this solution and in an hour or two are thoroughly bleached, the veins,
+however, retaining a light brown color. If the bleaching does not
+commence readily in the chlorine solution the action may be hastened by
+previously dipping them in dilute hydrochloric acid. When sufficiently
+decolorized the wings should be washed in dilute hydrochloric acid to
+remove the deposit of calcic carbonate, which forms by the union of the
+calcic hydrate solution with the carbonic dioxide of the air. The wings
+are then thoroughly washed in pure water and may be gummed to cards or
+mounted on glass slides in Canada balsam, first washing them in alcohol
+and chloroform to remove the moisture. If either of the solutions known
+as <i>eau de labaraque</i> and <i>eau de javelle</i> are used in place of the
+bleaching powder, no deposit is left on the wings and the washing with
+acid is obviated. This process does not dissolve or remove the scales,
+but merely renders them transparent, so that they do not interfere with
+the study of the venation.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. C. H. Fernald (<i>American Monthly Microscopical Journal</i>, <span class="smcap">i</span>, p.
+172, 1880), mounts the wings of Lepidoptera in glycerin, after having
+first cleared them by the Dimmock process. After bleaching and washing,
+the wings are dried by holding the slides over an alcohol flame, and a
+drop of glycerin is then applied and a cover glass put on at once. By
+holding the slide again over the flame until ebullition takes place the
+glycerin will replace the air under the wings and no injury to the
+structure of the wings will result, even if, in refractory cases, the
+wing is boiled for some little time. The mount in this method must be
+sealed with some microscopic cement, as asphalt or Brunswick black.</p>
+
+<p>A method of mounting wings of small Lepidoptera for studying venation,
+which I have found very convenient, is thus described by Mr.&nbsp;Howard in
+<i>Insect Life</i>, Vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>, p. 151:</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Some years ago we used the following method for studying the
+venation of the wings of small Lepidoptera. We have told it since to
+many friends, but believe it has not been published. It is in some
+respects preferable to the so-called &lsquo;Dimmock process,&rsquo;
+and particularly as a time-saver. It is also in this respect preferable
+to denudation with a brush. The wing is removed and mounted upon a slide
+in Canada balsam, which should be preferably rather thick. The slide is
+then held over the flame of an alcohol lamp until the balsam spreads
+well over the wing. Just as it is about to enter the veins, however, the
+slide is placed upon ice, or, if in the winter time, outside the window
+for a few moments. This thickens the balsam immediately and prevents it
+from entering the veins, which remain permanently filled with air and
+appear black with transmitted light. With a little practice one soon
+becomes expert enough to remove the slide and cool it at just the right<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+time, when the scales will have been rendered nearly transparent by the
+balsam, while the veins remain filled with air. We have done this
+satisfactorily not only with Tortricidæ and Tineidæ, but with Noctuids
+of the size of <i>Aletia</i> and <i>Leucania</i>. The mounts are permanent, and we
+have some which have remained unchanged since 1880. Prof. Riley had for
+some years before this been in the habit of mounting wings in balsam, in
+which of course the scales cleared after a time.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Prof. John B. Smith recommends a modification of the Dimmock process of
+bleaching the wings of Lepidoptera, publishing it in Insect Life, Vol.
+<span class="smcap">i</span>, pp. 291, 292, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;By the Dimmock process the wings are first acted upon by a
+saturated solution of the chloride of lime, chlorine being, of course,
+the bleaching agent. Afterward they are washed in water to which
+hydrochloric acid has been added, to get rid of the slight deposit of
+lime. The process is a slow one for thickly scaled, dark-colored
+insects, and it occurred to me to try a mixture of the chloride and
+acid, liberating the chlorine gas. The method was absolutely successful,
+the wings decolorizing immediately and being ready for the slide within
+two minutes. In fact, very delicate wings can scarcely be taken out
+quick enough, and need very little acid. The advantage is the rapidity
+of work and the certainty of retaining the wings entire, the chloride of
+lime sometimes destroying the membrane in part before the bleaching is
+complete. The disadvantage is the vile smell of the chlorine gas when
+liberated by the combination of the two liquids. For quick work this
+must be endured, and the beauty and completeness of the result are also
+advantages to counterbalance the discomfort to the senses.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>For further special directions for mounting, for microscopic purposes,
+different insects and the different parts of insects, representing both
+the external <ins title="chytinous">chitinous</ins> covering and the internal anatomy,
+the student is referred to special works.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p style="font-size: 125%; text-indent: 0em;">Footnotes:</p>
+<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> In North America, Kläger pins and Karlsbad pins can be
+obtained through Mr. John&nbsp;Ackhurst, 78 Ashland Place, Brooklyn, N. Y.,
+and possibly also through Messrs. Blake&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;Co., 55 North Seventh
+street, Philadelphia, Pa. The Vienna pins and the Minutien-Nadeln have
+to be ordered direct through the manufacturer, Mr.&nbsp;Miller.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>
+Montgomery&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;Co., 105 Fulton street, New York City.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>This applies to the use of short pins, which should
+subsequently be connected through strips of pith with longer pins.
+For some of the larger micros the long pins may be used directly
+and a different spreading board employed.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="PRE_SPEC" id="PRE_SPEC">PRESERVATION OF ALCOHOLIC SPECIMENS.</a></h3>
+
+<p><a name="APP_METH" id="APP_METH"><span class="smcap">Apparatus and Methods.</span></a>&mdash;The collections of most value, especially to our
+various agricultural colleges and experiment stations will be largely of
+a biologic and economic character, and the interest attaching to a
+knowledge of the life history of insects will induce many collectors to
+build up independent biologic collections. Very much of this biological
+material will be alcoholic, and though many immature states of insects
+may be preserved by dry processes, still the bulk must needs be kept in
+liquid. This material may, when not abundant, be kept with the general
+systematic collection, but experience has shown that it is better to
+make a separate biological collection, and this is recommended
+especially for State institutions where the collections may be expected
+to attain some considerable proportions. In the case of such collections
+it is very desirable to adopt some method of securing the vials in such
+a manner that they can easily be transferred from one place to another<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+and fastened in the boxes or drawers employed for pinned insects. For
+directions in this regard I reproduce from an article on the subject in
+<i>Insect Life</i>, Vol. <span class="smcap">ii</span>, pp. 345, 346, which was republished, with slight
+changes, from my annual report for 1886 as Honorary Curator.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
+
+<p><a name="STOP_HOLD" id="STOP_HOLD"><i>Vials, Stoppers and Holders.</i></a>&mdash;The vials in use to preserve such
+specimens as must be left in alcohol or other liquids are straight glass
+tubes of varying diameters and lengths, with round bottom and smooth
+even mouth. The stoppers in use are of rubber, which, when tightly put
+into the vial, the air being nearly all expelled, keep the contents of
+the vial intact and safe for years.</p>
+
+<p>Various forms of bottles are used in museums for the preservation of
+minute alcoholic material. I have tried the flattened and the square and
+have studied various other forms of these vials; but I am satisfied that
+those just described, which are in use by Dr.&nbsp;Hagen in the Cambridge
+Museum, are, all things considered, the most convenient and economical.
+A more difficult problem to solve was a convenient and satisfactory
+method of holding these vials and of fastening them into drawers or
+cases held at all angles, from perpendicular to horizontal. Most
+alcoholic collections are simply kept standing, either in tubes with
+broad bases or in tubes held in wooden or other receptacles; but for a
+biologic collection of insects something that could be used in
+connection with the pinned specimens and that could be easily removed,
+as above set forth, was desirable. After trying many different
+contrivances I finally prepared a block, with Mr.&nbsp;Hawley's assistance,
+which answers every purpose of simplicity, neatness, security, and
+convenience. It is, so far as I know, unique, and will be of advantage
+for the same purpose to other museums. It has been in use now for the
+past six years, and has been of great help and satisfaction in the
+arrangement and preservation of the alcoholic specimens, surpassing all
+other methods for ease of handling and classifying.</p>
+
+<p>The blocks are oblong, one-fourth of an inch thick, the ends (<i>c c</i>,
+<a href="#img_112">Fig.&nbsp;112</a>) beveled, the sides either beveled or straight, the latter
+preferable. They vary in length and breadth according to the different
+sizes of the vials, and are painted white. Upon the upper side of these
+blocks are fastened two curved clamps of music wire (<i>b b</i>), forming
+about two-thirds of a complete circle. The fastening to the block is
+simple and secure. A bit of the wire of proper length is first doubled
+and then by a special contrivance the two ends are bent around a mandrel
+so as to form an insertion point or loop. A brad awl is used to make a
+slot in the block, into which this loop is forced (<i>e</i>, <a href="#img_112">Fig.&nbsp;112</a>,&nbsp;5), a
+drop of warm water being first put into the slot to soften the wood,
+which swells and closes so firmly around the wire that considerable
+force is required to pull it out. Four pointed wire nails (<i>d d d d</i>),
+set into the bottom so as to project about one-fourth inch, serve to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+hold the block to the cork bottom of the case or drawer in which it is
+to be placed. The method of use is simple and readily seen from the
+accompanying figures, which represent the block from all sides.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages of this system are the ease and security with which the
+block can be placed in or removed from a box; the ease with which a vial
+can be slipped into or removed from the wire clamps; the security with
+which it is held, and the fact that practically no part of the contents
+of the vial is obscured by the holder&mdash;the whole being visible from
+above.</p>
+
+<p>The beveled ends of the block may be used for labeling, or pieces of
+clean <ins title="card-board">cardboard</ins> cut so as to project somewhat on all sides may be used
+for this purpose, and will be held secure by the pins between the block
+and the cork of the drawers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_099.png" width="500" height="320"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_112"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 112.&mdash;Vial holder; 1, block, with vial, beveled on
+all <ins title="sides:">sides;</ins> 2, do., beveled only on ends; 3, block, end view; 5,
+do., section; 4, 6, do., side views; <i>a</i>, block; <i>b</i>, spring-wire
+clamps; <i>c</i>, beveled ends of block; <i>d</i>, pointed wire nails; <i>e</i>, point
+of insertion of clamp. (Lettering on all figures corresponds.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The use of rubber stoppers in this country was first instituted by Dr.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;A.&nbsp;Hagen
+in connection with the Cambridge biological collection, and
+he has made some very careful records to determine the durability of
+such stoppers. From an examination of some seven thousand vials with
+rubber stoppers, two-thirds of which had been in use for from ten to
+twelve years, he comes to the conclusion that less than one in a
+thousand gives out every year after twelve years' use, and in the first
+six years probably only one out of two thousand. Stoppers of large size
+keep much longer than those of small size. American rubber stoppers are
+all made of vulcanized India rubber and have the disadvantage of forming
+small crystals of sulphur about the stopper, which become loosened and
+attach themselves to the specimens. It is supposed that pure
+rubber-stoppers used for chemical purposes would not present this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+disadvantage, which may be obviated, however, or very much reduced, if
+the stoppers are washed or soaked, preferably in hot water, for an hour
+or two at least.</p>
+
+<p>If stoppers are stored for a considerable time and exposed to the air
+they become very hard and unfit for use, and Dr.&nbsp;Hagen has drawn
+attention to a method recommended by Professor W.&nbsp;Hemple, of Dresden,
+Saxony, of preventing them from becoming thus hardened. He says that to
+keep rubber stoppers or rubber apparatus of any sort elastic, they
+should be stored in large glass jars in which an open vessel containing
+petroleum is placed. This treatment prevents the evaporation of the
+fluids which are fixed in the rubber in the process of vulcanization. It
+is better also to keep the light from the jar. To soften stoppers which
+have already become hardened, they should be brought together in a jar
+with sulphuret of carbon until they are pliable and afterward kept as
+recommended above.</p>
+
+<p>In the use of the rubber stopper the novice may find some difficulty in
+inserting it in a vial filled with alcohol. The compression of the
+alcohol, or alcohol and air when the vial is not completely filled,
+forces the stopper out, and this is true whether of rubber or cork. If a
+fine insect pin is placed beside the cork when this is thrust into the
+bottle, the air or liquid displaced by the cork will escape along the
+pin and the latter may then be removed and the cork remains securely in
+position.</p>
+
+<p>If cork stoppers have been used the vials may be stored in large
+quantities together in jars filled with alcohol. This will prevent
+evaporation of the alcohol from the vials, and the specimens may be
+preserved indefinitely. This is only desirable in the storage of
+duplicate specimens and unarranged material and is not recommended as a
+substitute for the use of the rubber stopper. With cork stoppers
+evaporation can be in a measure prevented if the cork is first anointed
+with the petroleum preparation known as vaseline. This substance is
+practically unaffected at ordinary temperature and is sparingly soluble
+in cold alcohol. Experiments with it have shown that at ordinary spring
+and summer temperatures there is no appreciable loss of alcohol from
+vials and jars.</p>
+
+<p>My old method of keeping alcoholic specimens, which I abandoned for the
+method outlined above, was fairly serviceable, inexpensive, and warrants
+description.</p>
+
+<p>I had special folding boxes constructed resembling in exterior
+appearance a large insect box. The bottom of the box was solid and was
+made by gluing together two 1½-inch planks.</p>
+
+<p>Holes extending nearly through the lower plank and of various sizes to
+accommodate vials of different diameters were bored as closely together
+as the wood justified without splitting or breaking.</p>
+
+<p>The holes were numbered consecutively and the vials when placed in them
+were numbered to correspond; the box also had its number, and in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+notes the vial was referred to by number of box and vial thus, <sup>3</sup>&#8260;<sub>73</sub> (box
+3, vial 73). The vial should project one-half to 1 inch above the hole,
+and should be loose enough to provide for the swelling of the wood in
+moist weather.</p>
+
+<p>To protect the vials a cover having a depth of about 1½ inch was hinged
+to the back and secured in front by hook-and-eye fastenings.</p>
+
+<p>This method of storing vials is satisfactory enough for private
+collections, but for larger public collections is not so suitable.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_101a.png" width="600" height="144"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_113"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 113.&mdash;The Marx tray for alcoholic specimens
+(original.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_101b.png" width="150" height="186"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_114"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 114.&mdash;Vials used<br />in the Marx tray (original.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A rather convenient and inexpensive method of storing vials is that used
+by Dr.&nbsp;Marx. In this method the vials are stored in a wooden frame,
+shown at <a href="#img_113">Fig.&nbsp;113</a>. The top piece of the tray into which the vials are
+thrust has a cork center, in which holes corresponding to the size of
+the vials are made with a gun-wad punch. The outer end of the tray bears
+a label or labels describing the material in the tray. The vials used by
+Dr.&nbsp;Marx are of thinner glass than those which I recommend and flare
+slightly at the top, as shown in the accompanying illustrations. They
+are made in various sizes to accommodate larger and smaller specimens. A
+vial thrust into the hole punched in the cork rests on the bottom piece
+of the tray, the flange or neck preventing it from sliding through.
+These trays are arranged on shallow shelves in a case or cabinet,
+especially constructed for the purpose and a large quantity of
+material may be stored by their use in small compass. The use of the
+cork center piece in the upper part of the tray is not a necessity, and
+a wooden piece may be used in which holes are bored with a <ins title="bitt">bit</ins>
+of proper size.</p>
+
+<p><a name="PRES_ALCO" id="PRES_ALCO"><i>Preserving Micro-larvæ in Alcohol.</i></a>&mdash;The following is quoted from
+Packard's &ldquo;Entomology for Beginners,&rdquo; for which it was
+translated from the &ldquo;<i>Deutsche Ent. Zeitg.</i>,&rdquo; 1887, Heft I:</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_102.png" width="300" height="100"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 115.&mdash;Method of preserving minute larvæ etc.<br />(After
+Dewitz.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Dr.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;Dewitz mounts the larvæ and pupæ of Microlepidoptera, and
+also the early stages of other small insects, in the following way: The
+insects are put into a bottle with 95 per cent alcohol. Many
+<ins title="larvae">larvæ</ins> turn black in alcohol, but boiling them in alcohol in a
+test tube will bleach them. They may then be finally placed in glass
+tubes as small and thin as possible, varying from 0.003 to 0.006 meter
+in diameter, according to the size of the insects. About 0.07 meter's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+length of a tube is melted over a spirit lamp, and the tube filled
+three-quarters full with 95 per cent alcohol, the insects placed within
+and the contents of the tube heated at the end still open, and then
+closed by being pulled out with another piece of glass tubing. After the
+glass has been held a few minutes in the hand until it is slightly
+cooled off, the end closed last is once more held over the lamp so that
+the points may be melted together, and this end of the glass may be
+finished. During the whole time from the closure of the tube until the
+complete cooling of the glass it should be held obliquely in the hand,
+so that the alcohol may not wet the upper end, for if the tube is too
+full it is difficult to melt it, as the steam quickly expanding breaks
+through the softened mass of glass. The tube may be mounted by boring a
+hole through a cork stopper of the same diameter as the glass. The
+stopper is cut into the shape of a cube, a strong insect pin put through
+it, and the glass tube inserted into the hole. It can then be pinned in
+the insect box or drawer, near the imago, so that the free end of the
+glass may touch the bottom, while the other end stands up somewhat;
+while to keep the tube in place the free end resting on the bottom may
+be fastened with two strong insect pins. The specimens thus put up can
+easily be examined with a lens, and if they need to be taken out for
+closer examination the tube can be opened and closed again after a
+little practice.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="PRES_FLUIDS" id="PRES_FLUIDS"><span class="smcap">Preservative Fluids.</span></a>&mdash;The principal liquids in which soft-bodied insects
+may be successfully preserved are the following:</p>
+
+<p><a name="ALCOHOL_2" id="ALCOHOL_2"><i>Alcohol.</i></a>&mdash;As indicated in the foregoing portions of this work, alcohol
+is the standard preservative used for soft-bodied specimens, and may be
+used either full strength or diluted with water. Diluted alcohol should
+always be first used with larvæ, since the pure alcohol shrivels them
+up. The weak spirits can afterwards be replaced by strong, for permanent
+preservation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ARSENIC" id="ARSENIC"><i>Alcohol and White Arsenic.</i></a>&mdash;The method of preserving insects
+recommended by Laboulbène and quoted in Packard's Entomology for
+Beginners, consists in plunging the insects in the fresh state into a
+preservative liquid, consisting of alcohol with an excess of the common
+white arsenic of commerce. The larva placed in this mixture absorbs .003
+of its own weight, and when removed and pinned is safe from the attacks
+of museum pests. This liquid is said not to change the colors, blue,
+green or red of beetles, if they are not immersed for more than
+twenty-four hours. This treatment is applicable to the orders
+Coleoptera, Hemiptera, and Orthoptera. If the insect is allowed to stay
+in this mixture for a considerable time, say three or four weeks, and
+then removed and dried, it becomes very hard and brittle and can not be
+used for dissection or study, but makes a good cabinet specimen. The
+white deposit of arsenic which will appear on drying can be washed off<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+with alcohol.</p>
+
+<p><a name="SUBLIMATE" id="SUBLIMATE"><i>Alcohol and Corrosive Sublimate.</i></a>&mdash;The same author recommends another
+preparation consisting of alcohol with a variable quantity of corrosive
+sublimate added, the strength of the solution varying from 100 parts of
+alcohol to 1 part of corrosive sublimate for the strongest, to one-tenth
+of 1 part of sublimate in 100 parts of alcohol for the weakest. The
+insects are allowed to remain in this mixture not longer than two hours
+before drying. The last-described preparation is said to preserve the
+specimens from mold. Both of these solutions are very poisonous and
+should be used with care.</p>
+
+<p><a name="FORM_COLOR" id="FORM_COLOR"><i>Two Liquids to preserve Form and Color.</i></a>&mdash;Professor Packard also quotes
+the formula of A. E. Verrill for preserving insects in their natural
+color and form. Two formulas are given; the first consists of 2½ pounds
+of common salt and 4 ounces of niter dissolved in a gallon of water and
+filtered. The specimens should be prepared for permanent preservation in
+this solution by being previously immersed in a solution consisting of a
+quart of the first solution and 2 ounces of arsenite of potash in a
+gallon of water. Professor Packard gives also the formula of M. H. Trois
+for preserving caterpillars, for which it is claimed that the colors of
+the caterpillars are preserved perfectly, even when exposed to strong
+light. The formula for this solution is as follows:</p>
+
+<table summary="liquid_formula" width="250">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left">Common salt</td>
+    <td align="right">grams</td>
+    <td align="right">2.35</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left">Alum</td>
+    <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 0.5em;">do.</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.2em;">55</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left">Corrosive sublimate</td>
+    <td align="right">centigrams</td>
+    <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.2em;">18</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="left">Boiling water </td>
+    <td align="right">liters</td>
+    <td align="right"><span style="margin-right: 1.2em;">5</span></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Allow the liquid to cool and add 50 grains of carbolic acid, and filter
+after standing five or six days.</p>
+
+<p><a name="GLYCERIN" id="GLYCERIN"><i>Glycerin.</i></a>&mdash;Glycerin, either pure or mixed with water or alcohol, is
+frequently used to preserve the larvæ of delicate insects. It preserves
+the color and form better than alcohol, but particularly in the case of
+larvæ, it causes a softening of the tissues which renders them unfit for
+study.</p>
+
+<p><a name="WICKERSHEIM" id="WICKERSHEIM"><i>The Wickersheim Preserving Fluid.</i></a>&mdash;This valuable preserving fluid has
+been known for some time, but is not very commonly used, on account of
+frequent disappointment due to the difficulty attending its preparation.
+It is claimed for it that animal or vegetable bodies impregnated with it
+will retain their form, color, and flexibility in the most perfect
+manner. The objects to be preserved are put in the fluid for from six to
+twelve days, according to their size, and then taken out and dried in
+the air. The ligaments remain soft and movable, and the animals or
+plants remain fit for anatomical dissection and study for long periods,
+even years. It is said to be especially valuable for the preservation of
+larvæ and soft-bodied insects. In order to perfectly preserve the
+colors, it is necessary to leave the specimens in the fluid, or, if they
+are taken out, they should be sealed up in air-tight vials or vessels.
+The formula for the fluid is as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Dissolve 100 grams alum, 25 grams common salt, 12 grams saltpeter, 60<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+grams potash, 10 grams arsenious acid in 3,000 grams boiling water.
+Filter the solution, and when cold add 10 liters of the liquid to 4
+liters of glycerin and 1 liter of methyl alcohol.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p style="font-size: 125%; text-indent: 0em;">Footnote:</p>
+<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1886, Part
+  II, Report of the National Museum, pp. 182&ndash;186. Washington, 1890.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="LAB_SPEC" id="LAB_SPEC">LABELING SPECIMENS.</a></h3>
+
+<p><a name="GEN_DIR_2" id="GEN_DIR_2"><i>General Directions.</i></a>&mdash;It matters little how much care and pains have
+been taken in the preparation and mounting of specimens, they will have
+little value unless accompanied by proper labels giving information as
+to locality and date of collection, name of collector, and a label or
+number referring to notebooks, if any biological or other facts
+concerning them have been ascertained. There should be pinned to the
+specimen labels referring to, or giving all the information obtainable
+or of interest concerning it. A somewhat different style of label will
+be found necessary in the case of the two forms of collections described
+in the foregoing pages, namely, the biological or economic collection,
+and the systematic collection. For the former, numbers may be attached
+to the specimens which will refer to the notes relating to the specimen
+or species. For the latter, in most cases, all necessary information may
+be recorded and made available by written or printed labels attached
+directly to the specimens. In most cases, however, I find a combination
+of these two systems convenient and desirable. The numbering system is
+very simple, and is the one which I have followed in all the species for
+which I have biological or other notes. It consists in giving each
+species, as it comes under observation, a serial number which refers to
+a record in a notebook. With this number may be combined, if convenient,
+the date of rearing or collection of the specimen, and also the locality
+and food-plant if known. The vast number of species represented in a
+systematic collection renders the numbering system entirely out of place
+and inadequate, and the labeling system alone is generally available. If
+it becomes necessary in the systematic collection to refer to
+food-plants or life-history or any other fact of interest, the numbering
+system should be used, and I recommend that the numbers be written in
+red ink on the labels, to distinguish at a glance the numbers referring
+to biological notes from other numbers that will occur in the
+collection.</p>
+
+<p><a name="PIN_SPEC" id="PIN_SPEC"><i>Labels for pinned Specimens.</i></a>&mdash;The following labels should be employed
+in the collection: (1) <i>Locality label</i>, which should be as explicit as
+possible. (2) <i>Date of capture</i>, which is very useful and sometimes
+quite important in various ways. It indicates at what time additional
+specimens of some rare species may be secured, and greatly assists in
+elaborating the life history of the species, and in other cases assists
+in the correct determination of closely allied insects, which differ
+chiefly in habit or date of appearance. (3) <i>A label to indicate the
+sex</i>. This label has recently acquired greater importance than formerly,
+on account of the value of the sexual differences in the distinction of
+species. The well-known signs for male, female, and worker, printed in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+convenient form, are well adapted for collections. (4) <i>The name of the
+collector</i>. This label is of less value, but sometimes becomes important
+in determining the history of the specimen or the exact place of
+capture. The name of the species is not necessarily attached to all the
+specimens in a collection, and ordinarily will be placed with the first
+specimen in a series in the cabinet. This and other labeling of insects
+in cabinet is discussed in another place. Other labels are useful to
+indicate type specimens, namely, those of which descriptions have been
+drawn up and published, and which should be designated by a special
+label written by the author himself. Determinations by an authority in a
+special group should be indicated, and the labels placed on specimens by
+such an authority should not be removed.</p>
+
+<p>It will not be found necessary to use a separate label for each of the
+data indicated above, and a single label may be made to combine many of
+them, as, except for the specific names of the insects themselves (which
+should always be on the lowermost label), most other words will bear
+abbreviation, especially localities and dates. &ldquo;A combination
+label, which has given general satisfaction to all to whom it has been
+communicated, is a two-line label printed in diamond type, on heavy
+writing paper. The upper line consists of the name of the locality, <i>e.&nbsp;g.</i>,
+&lsquo;Washngtn&rsquo; (a name consisting of more than eight
+letters to be abbreviated), and the lower line has at the right-hand
+corner &lsquo;DC&rsquo; (interpunctuation and spacing to be avoided so
+as to save space). This leaves on the second line sufficient room for
+inserting the date, which can be quickly and neatly written with ink if
+the labels are printed in columns of ten or more repetitions. The label
+thus combines locality with date of capture. Or the upper line reads
+&lsquo;Arizona&rsquo; and the lower line &lsquo;Morrison,&rsquo; the
+label thus combining locality with the name of the collector.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p>In general I indorse the system of labeling suggested in the above
+condensation from Mr.&nbsp;Schwarz, but there is no particular disadvantage,
+and in fact many advantages, in special cases, in a larger label or in
+folded labels. Particularly in visiting large foreign collections I have
+found it convenient to use large labels of thin paper which will contain
+a good deal of information closely written in pencil and bear folding
+several times, so as not to occupy more than the ordinary label space
+when pinned to the specimens. This involves detaching the label when the
+specimen or species comes to be studied, but this additional labor is
+insignificant compared with the large amount of valuable information
+which in time is thus brought together in condensed availability for the
+student; for brief notes of opinions of experts, of comparison with
+types, of special studies, of reference to descriptions, etc., may thus
+be all brought together. Where there is not room to indicate the
+authority for a determination on the upper side of a label, I also find
+it convenient to do so on the lower side.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_106.png" width="400" height="385"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_116"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 116.&mdash;Cabinet for apparatus used in mounting and
+labeling. (Original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="ALCO_SPEC" id="ALCO_SPEC"><i>Labeling alcoholic Specimens.</i></a>&mdash;Alcoholic specimens, including<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+alcoholic biologic material and collections of Arachnida and <ins title="Myriopoda">Myriapoda</ins>,
+are well adapted to the labeling system, as the vials are always of
+sufficient size to allow the insertion of one or more labels large
+enough to contain a pretty full record of the specimen. The label may
+consist of a number referring to notes, or of a number together with the
+other data indicated for the systematic collection. The label in my
+experience is preferably written in pencil, which, in alcohol, is
+practically permanent. Waterproof inks are sometimes used, and of these
+the oak-gall ink is undoubtedly the best. Dr.&nbsp;George Marx, in labeling
+his Arachnida, uses onion-skin paper and waterproof ink, such as
+Higgins's drawing ink. There is some danger, in placing a label in a
+vial, of its settling against the specimen and injuring it. This,
+however, can generally be avoided if a little care is used. The label
+may be long and narrow and folded lengthwise so as to occupy one side
+only of the vial, or short and inserted in such manner that it will pass
+around the inside of the vial, where it will be held by the natural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+adhesion to the glass in the upper portion of the vial, as shown at <a href="#img_114">Fig.&nbsp;114</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="CAB_APP" id="CAB_APP"><i>Cabinet for Apparatus.</i></a>&mdash;The work of preparation of insects for the
+cabinet may be greatly facilitated if a convenient case is provided with
+drawers and compartments for the keeping of pins of different sizes,
+labels, braces, implements, tweezers, dissecting apparatus, and the
+like, with microscopical supplies&mdash;slides, cover glasses, mounting
+media, etc. I present a photograph of a cabinet of this sort used in my
+earlier work and found very convenient and serviceable (<a href="#img_116">Fig.&nbsp;116</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p style="font-size: 125%; text-indent: 0em;">Footnote:</p>
+<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> E. A. Schwarz, Proc. Ent. Soc., Wash., II, No.&nbsp;1, 1891.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<h2><a name="INSECT_BOXES_AND_CABINETS" id="INSECT_BOXES_AND_CABINETS"></a>INSECT BOXES AND CABINETS.</h2>
+
+<p><a name="GEN_DIR_3" id="GEN_DIR_3"><i>General Directions.</i></a>&mdash;The boxes or cases which are used to keep insects
+in permanently may be made of any dimensions to suit the fancy, 12 by 16
+inches inside being a convenient size and allowing economic use of cork.
+They must, however, be perfectly tight and should not be more than 2½
+inches deep on the inside. The bottoms should be lined with something
+which will hold the pins, and the whole inside covered with white paper,
+which, if delicately cross ruled, will facilitate the regular pinning of
+specimens. While the size and style of the box and cabinet may be left
+to individual taste, some choice must be had of material. <i>Red cedar
+should never be used.</i> I have learned, to my sorrow, the baneful effects
+of this wood, notwithstanding it is recommended&mdash;evidently by those who
+are guiltless of having used it&mdash;as having the advantage over other wood
+of keeping off <ins title="musuem">museum</ins> pests. It seems impossible to
+get this wood so seasoned but that a certain amount of resin will
+continually exude from it; and insects in boxes of this material are
+very apt to soften and become greasy. Paper boxes are also bad, as they
+attract moisture and cause the specimens to mold. Well-seasoned pine and
+whitewood are the most satisfactory; and, in such boxes as have glass
+covers and are intended to form part of a neat cabinet for parlor
+ornament, the fronts may be of walnut or cherry.</p>
+
+<p>The character of the boxes and cabinets used for storing insects will
+depend largely on the nature and extent of the collection and the object
+of the collector. For temporary use, nothing is more convenient and
+economical than a cigar box lined with cork or pith. Such boxes,
+however, should be employed only for the temporary storage of fresh
+specimens, as they afford free access to museum pests, and insects kept
+in them for any length of time are apt to be destroyed or rendered
+useless.</p>
+
+<p><a name="FOLD_BOX" id="FOLD_BOX"><i>The Folding-box.</i></a>&mdash;The use of folding-boxes for the working collector
+is to be especially recommended in the case of those orders comprising
+small insects like Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, etc. These boxes have the
+great advantage of being readily rearranged on the shelves and of being
+very easily used in study. The boxes of this type now manufactured by
+John Schmidt, of Brooklyn, N. Y., and John Burr, of Camden, N. J., based
+on the experience which I have had, have proved so serviceable and
+satisfactory in this respect that I have employed them for the bulk of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+the collection in the National Museum. These boxes (<a href="#img_117">Fig.&nbsp;117</a>) are
+constructed as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_108.png" width="400" height="453"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_117"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 117.&mdash;The Schmidt folding insect box, opened and
+showing arrangement of insects (original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>They are of white pine, shellacked and varnished, the bottom and top
+double and crossgrained, to prevent warping, and projecting slightly at
+all sides except the hinged back. They are 13 by 8¼ inches outside
+measurement. The inside measurement is 11¾ by 7. The sides, back, and
+front are five-sixteenths of an inch thick, with a machine joint, which
+is neat and very secure. The boxes are 2&#8541; inches in outside depth,
+unequally divided, the lower portion 1½ inches outside depth, lined
+inside with a thin whitewood strip, projecting three-fourths of an inch
+above the rim of the outside box. Over this projecting lining the lid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+closes as tightly as practicable and is kept from springing by hooks and
+eyes. The bottom is cork-lined and covered with a fine, white, glazed
+paper.</p>
+
+<p>Similar folding boxes with both sides of equal depth and both lined with
+cork, when properly covered, may be made to look like books and be set
+on end in an ordinary bookcase, but the single lining is preferable, as
+there is less danger of the breakage of specimens and the boxes may
+either be laid flat one on the other on shelves, or, what is more
+convenient, placed side by side resting on the front edge, so that the
+label is attached to one of the narrow ends. The rows of insects are
+then pinned crosswise, not lengthwise, of the box, with the abdomens
+turned toward the front which rests on the shelf.</p>
+
+<p>All the boxes are furnished with neat brass label-holders, in which a
+card containing a list of the contents can readily be placed and removed
+at pleasure. The chief demerit of this box which I have endeavored to
+overcome by the above details is the tendency to warp and crack in the
+trying steam heat of our Government buildings.</p>
+
+<p><a name="CABINET" id="CABINET"><i>The Cabinet.</i></a>&mdash;For larger insects, such as Lepidoptera, Neuroptera,
+etc., a larger box is desirable, and for these orders I have adopted for
+use in the National Museum a cabinet which resulted from a careful study
+in person of the different forms and patterns used for entomological
+collections both in this country and Europe, whether by private
+individuals or public institutions. The drawer and cabinet are
+essentially after the pattern of those used in the British (South
+Kensington) Museum, but adapted in size to our own requirements. In the
+use of the National Museum these cabinets have proved eminently well
+adapted to their object.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_109.png" width="400" height="228"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_118"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 118.&mdash;Construction of insect cabinet drawer of the
+National Museum. A, cross-section <i>f</i> front; B, same <i>f</i> side; C, view
+of front end of side, &#8532; natural size (original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The drawers (<a href="#img_118">Fig.&nbsp;118</a>,&nbsp;A,&nbsp;B,&nbsp;C) are square, with an outside measurement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+of 18 inches and an outside depth of 3 inches. The sides and back have a
+thickness of three-eighths of an inch, while the front is five-eighths
+of an inch thick. The pieces are firmly dovetailed together, the front
+being clean and the dovetailing blind. The bottom, <i>a</i>, is of three-ply
+crossgrained veneer, run into a groove at the sides, leaving a clear
+inside depth of 2<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>16</sub> inches to the frame of the cover. The bottoms are
+lined in all but forty of the drawers with first quality cork, <i>b</i>,
+one-fourth of an inch thick. At a distance of one-fourth of an inch from
+the sides and back and three-eighths of an inch from the front there is
+an inside box of one-eighth inch whitewood, <i>c</i>, closely fitted, and
+held in place by blocks between it and the outer box. There is thus
+between the inner and outer box a clear space, <i>d</i>, all round, in which
+insecticides or disinfectants can be placed to keep out Museum pests,
+making it impossible for such to get into the inner box containing the
+specimens without first passing through this poison chamber. The entire
+inside is lined with white paper, or, in the case of the uncorked boxes,
+painted with zinc white. The front is furnished with a plain knob. The
+cover is of glass, set into a frame, <i>f</i>, three-fourths of an inch wide,
+three-eighths of an inch thick, with a one-fourth inch tongue fitting
+closely into the space between the inner lining and outer box, which
+here serves as a groove. This arrangement furnishes a perfectly tight
+drawer of convenient size and not unwieldy for handling when studying
+the collection.</p>
+
+<p>The material of which these drawers are made is California red wood,
+except the cover frame, which is mahogany. The cabinets containing these
+drawers are 36 inches high, 40 inches wide, 21 inches deep (all outside
+measurements), and are closed by two paneled doors. Each cabinet
+contains twenty drawers in two rows of ten each, and the drawers slide
+by means of a groove, <i>g</i>, on either side, on hard-wood tongues, and are
+designed to be interchangeable.</p>
+
+<p><a name="LINTNER_BOX" id="LINTNER_BOX"><i>The Lintner display Box.</i></a>&mdash;For beauty and security and the perfect
+display of the larger <i>Lepidoptera</i>, I have seen nothing superior to a
+box used by Mr.&nbsp;J.&nbsp;A.&nbsp;Lintner, of Albany, N. Y. It is a frame made in
+the form of a folio volume, with glass set in for sides and bound in an
+ordinary book cover. The insects are pinned onto pieces of cork fastened
+to the inside of one of the glass plates and the boxes may be stood on
+ends, in library shape, like ordinary books. For the benefit of those
+who wish to make small collections of showy insects, I give Mr.&nbsp;Lintner's
+method, of which he has been kind enough to furnish me the
+following description:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>Figs. A, B, and C represent, in section, the framework of the
+volume, <i>a</i> showing the ends, <i>b</i> the front, and <i>c</i> the back. The
+material can be prepared in long strips of some soft wood by a
+cabinet-maker (if the collector has the necessary skill and leisure
+for framing it) at a cost of 60 cents a frame, if a number
+sufficient for a dozen boxes be ordered. Or, if it be preferred to
+order them made, the cost should not exceed 80 cents each.</p>
+
+<p>Before being placed in the hands of the binder the mitering should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+be carefully examined and any defect in fitting remedied, so that
+the glass, when placed in position, may have accurate bearings on
+all the sides. The interior of the frame is covered with tin foil,
+made as smooth as possible before application, to be applied with
+thoroughly boiled flour paste (in which a small proportion of
+arsenic may be mixed) and rubbed smoothly down till the removal of
+the blisters, which are apt to appear. The tin foil can be
+purchased, by weight, at druggists', and the sheets marked off and
+cut by a rule in strips of proper width, allowing for a trifle of
+overlapping on the sides. Its cost per volume is merely nominal.</p>
+
+<p>First-quality single-thick glass for sides must be selected, wholly
+free from rust, veins, air-bubbles, or any blemish. Such glass can
+be purchased at 15 cents a pane. The lower glass, after thorough
+cleaning, especially of its inner surface, with an alkaline wash,
+and a final polishing with slightly wetted white printing paper, is
+to be firmly secured in its place by a proper number of tin points;
+the upper glass is but temporarily fastened. The binder must be
+directed to cover the exposed sides of the frame with
+&ldquo;combed&rdquo; paper, bringing it over the border of the
+permanent lower glass and beneath the removable upper glass.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_111.png" width="400" height="305"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 119.&mdash;Construction of the Lintner box.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The covers of the volume are of heavy binders' board (No.&nbsp;18),
+neatly lined within with glazed white paper. On one of the insides
+of the lids may be attached, by its corners, a sheet with the
+numbers and names of the species contained in the volume, or these
+may be placed on the pin bearing the insect. If bound in best
+quality of imitation morocco, with cloth covers, lettered and
+gilded on the back, the cost (for a dozen volumes) need not exceed
+$1 each. If in turkey morocco, it will be $1.50.</p>
+
+<p>The lettering and ornamentation of the back will vary with the
+taste of the individual. The family designations may be permanently
+lettered, or they may be pasted on the back, on a slip of paper or
+gum label, as are the generic names, thus permitting the change of
+the contents of a volume at any time if desired.</p>
+
+<p>The bits of cork to which the insects are to be pinned are cut in
+quarter-inch squares from sheet-cork of one-fourth of an inch in
+thickness. If the trouble be taken to trim off the corners, giving
+them an octagonal form, their appearance will be materially
+improved and much less care will be required in adjusting them on
+the glass.</p>
+
+<p>The cement usually recommended for attaching the cork to the glass
+is composed of equal parts of white wax and resin. My experience
+with this has not been favorable, for, after the lapse of a few
+years, I have invariably been subjected to the serious annoyance of
+being compelled to renew the entire contents of the volume, clean
+the glass, and replace the corks with new cement. From some cause,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+inexplicable to me, a gradual separation takes place of the cork
+with its cement from the glass, first appearing at the angles of
+the cork, and its progress indicated by an increasing number of
+iridescent rings which form within until the center is reached,
+when, if not previously detached, the insect falls with the cork,
+usually to its injury and that of others beneath it.</p>
+
+<p>A number of years ago I happened to employ, in attaching a single
+piece of cork in one of my cases, a cement originally made for
+other purposes, consisting of six parts of resin, one of wax, and
+one of Venetian red. Several years thereafter my attention was
+drawn to this piece by finding it as firmly united as when at first
+applied, and at the present time (after the lapse of twelve years)
+it is without the slightest indication of separation. Acting upon
+this hint, I have, of late, used this cement in the restoration of
+a number of my cases, and with the most satisfactory results. It is
+important that the cement, when used, should be heated (by a spirit
+lamp or gas flame) to as high a degree as it will bear without
+burning. An amount sufficient to cover the bottom of the small,
+flat metal vessel containing it to the depth of an eighth of an
+inch will suffice and prevent the cork from taking up more than its
+requisite quantity. It should be occasionally stirred to prevent
+the precipitation of its heavier portions. The cork may be
+conveniently dipped by the aid of a needle inserted in a handle,
+when, as quickly as possible, it should be transferred to the
+glass, for the degree of adhesion seems to depend upon the degree
+of fluidity of the cement. From some experiments made by me, after
+the corks had been attached as above, in heating the entire glass
+to such a degree as thoroughly to melt the cement until it spreads
+outward from beneath the weight of the cork, and then permitted to
+cool&mdash;the glass meanwhile held horizontally, that the corks might
+not be displaced&mdash;the results appear to indicate that the above
+cement, applied in this manner on glass properly cleaned, will
+prove a permanent one. It is scarcely necessary to state that this
+method is not available where the glass has been bound as above.</p>
+
+<p>Preparatory to corking the glass for the specimens assigned to it,
+the spaces required for them are to be ascertained by arranging
+them in order on a cork surface or otherwise. On a sheet of paper
+of the size of the glass, perpendicular lines, of the number of the
+rows and at their proper distances, are to be drawn, and cross
+lines equal in number to the insects contained in the rows. The
+distances of these lines will be uniform, unless smaller specimens
+are to occupy some portion of the case, when they may be graduated
+to the required proportion. With the sheet ruled in this manner and
+placed beneath the glass, the points where the corks are to be
+applied are indicated by the intersections of the lines. The sheet,
+marked with the family of the insects for which it was used and
+with the numbers designating its divisions, may be laid aside for
+future use in the preparation of other cases for which it may be
+suitable. In a series of unbound cases in my collection, in which
+the glasses measure 11 by 14½ inches, I have used for my
+Lepidoptera and laid aside the following scales, the citation of
+which will also serve to show the capacity of the cases: 3 by 8,
+Catocalas; 2 by 7 and 3 by 9, Sphingidæ; 4 by 11 to 4 by 14,
+Bombycidæ; 5 by 13 to 6 by 16, Noctuidæ; 8 by 16 and 8 by 20,
+Lycænidæ and Tortricidæ.</p>
+
+<p>The unbound cases above referred to are inexpensive frames, made by
+myself, of quarter-inch white wood or pine, the corners mitered,
+glued, and nailed with three-quarter inch brads, lined within with
+white paper (better with tin foil), and covered without with stout
+manila paper. The glasses are cut of the size of the frame, and
+when placed in position thereon are appressed closely to it by
+laying upon them, near each corner, a heavy weight, and strips of
+an enameled green paper, cut to the width of 1 inch, are pasted
+over their edges, extending a little beyond the thickness of the
+frame, and brought downward over the outside of the frame. On its
+back two gum labels, indicating the insects inclosed, are placed at
+uniform heights (7 and 12 inches), when, if all has been neatly
+done, they present a tasteful appearance upon a shelf. When there
+is reason to believe that the case will need to be opened for the
+change or addition of specimens, it will be found convenient to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+employ, for the fastening of the left-hand side of the upper glass,
+paper lined with a thin muslin, to serve as a hinge when the other
+sides have been cut.</p>
+
+<p>Should it become desirable to bind these cases, outside frames may
+be constructed after the plans above given, with the omission of
+the inside quarter inch (the equivalent of these frames), in which
+these may be placed and held in position by two or three screws
+inserted in their sides.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><a name="MARTIN_BOX" id="MARTIN_BOX"><i>The Martindale Box for Lepidoptera.</i></a>&mdash;Mr.&nbsp;Isaac&nbsp;C.&nbsp;Martindale, in the
+October, 1891, number of <i>Entomological News</i>, pp. 126, 127, describes a
+new form of cabinet for butterflies, the drawers of which present some
+new features. They are for the same end as the Lintner box described
+above&mdash;namely, for the display of the upper and under surface of the
+wings of Lepidoptera, and promise to be more useful. The drawer is
+described as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>The especial feature is the drawer itself, which, instead of having
+a cork bottom, as is usually the case, has both the top and bottom
+of glass. The top part of the drawer frame fits tightly over a
+ledge one inch in height, effectually preventing the intrusion of
+destructive insects, the pest of the entomologist; but it is
+readily lifted when it is desirable to add to the contents or
+change the location of the specimens. For the inside arrangement I
+have taken a strip of common tin, one inch wide, and turned up each
+side five-sixteenths of an inch, thus leaving three-eighths of an
+inch for the bottom. The length of the strip of tin, being about
+two inches longer than the width of the drawer, admits of each end
+being turned up one inch. Into this tin trough is tightly fitted a
+cork strip three-eighths of an inch square. The whole being covered
+with white paper, such as is usually used for lining drawers,
+conceals the inequalities of the cork and makes a fine finish. They
+should be made to fit neatly in the drawer, and can be readily
+moved about to suit large or small specimens. For <i>Lycænas</i>,
+<i>Pamphilas</i>, etc., as many as fifteen of these strips may be used
+in one drawer, and as few as five for <i>Morphos</i>, <i>Caligos</i>, etc.
+The upturned ends are fastened in place by using the ordinary thumb
+tacks that can be procured at any stationer's. The frame work of
+the drawers should be of white pine, well seasoned. Into this the
+thumb tacks are readily inserted and as easily withdrawn when a
+change in the position of the cork strips is needed.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><a name="HORIZONTAL_BOX" id="HORIZONTAL_BOX"><i>Horizontal vs. vertical Arrangement of Boxes.</i></a>&mdash;I have elsewhere
+discussed the availability of the upright vs. the horizontal arrangement
+of insect boxes.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> In the case of Lepidoptera and large-bodied insects
+I have found the horizontal drawer or box to be preferable. If
+large-bodied insects are placed in a vertical position they are very
+liable to become loose on the pins, swing from side to side, and damage
+themselves and other specimens; but for the smaller insects of all
+orders, the vertical arrangement is quite safe and satisfactory. If the
+pin is slightly flattened, as described on p. 69, the danger of large
+specimens becoming loose is to a great extent avoided.</p>
+
+<p><a name="LINING_BOX" id="LINING_BOX"><i>Lining for Insect Boxes.</i></a>&mdash;The old lining of insect boxes was the
+ordinary sheet cork of commerce, and if a good quality of cork is
+procurable it will answer the purpose. A better substance, however, for
+the lining of insect boxes is the prepared or ground cork, which is now
+almost exclusively used. It is simply ground cork mixed with a small<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+amount of glue, compressed into sheets and covered with paper. This
+gives a very homogenous composition, and is much better than the
+ordinary cork, having a more uniform and neat appearance, and admitting
+the insertion of the pins more freely. It may be purchased from H.
+Herpers, 18 Crawford street, Newark, N. J.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_114.png" width="200" height="163"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_120"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 120.&mdash;Paper lining for insect box.<br />(After <ins title="Marse">Morse</ins>.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A less expensive substitute is paper stretched upon a frame. Prof. E. S.
+Morse has given in the &ldquo;American Naturalist&rdquo; (Vol. i, p.
+156) a plan which is very neat and useful for lining boxes in a large
+museum, which are designed to be placed in horizontal show-cases (<a href="#img_120">Fig.&nbsp;120</a>).
+&ldquo;A box is made of the required depth, and a light frame is
+fitted to its interior. Upon the upper and under surfaces of this frame
+a sheet of white paper (drawing or log paper answers the purpose) is
+securely glued. The paper, having been previously damped, in drying
+contracts and tightens like a drumhead. The frame is then secured about
+one-fourth of an inch from the bottom of the box, and the pin is forced
+down through the thicknesses of paper, and if the bottom of the box be
+of soft pine, the point of the pin may be slightly forced into it. It is
+thus firmly held at two or three different points, and all lateral
+<ins title="movemnts">movements</ins> are
+prevented. Other advantages are secured by this arrangement besides
+firmness: when the box needs cleaning or fumigation, the entire
+collection may be removed by taking out the frame; or camphor, tobacco,
+or other material can be placed on the bottom of the box, and concealed
+from sight. The annexed figure represents a transverse section of a
+portion of the side and bottom of the box with the frame. A A, box; B,
+frame; P P, upper and under sheets of paper; C, space between lower
+sheets of paper and bottom of box.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Other substitutes are the pith of various plants, especially of corn.
+Palm wood and &ldquo;inodorous felt&rdquo; are also used, being cut to
+fit the bottom of the box.</p>
+
+<p>Pita wood or the light porous wood of the Agave or Century plant when
+cut into proper strips also makes a very light and satisfactory lining,
+while good close bog-peat cut into proper thicknesses is not
+infrequently used in France and Germany. Druce&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;Co., 68 Baker
+street, London, W., England, have lately been manufacturing what is
+known as cork carpet, which seems to be a combination of ground cork and
+rubber. It comes in various colors and of the proper thickness, and
+makes a very smooth and desirable lining, holding the pins very firmly.
+It cost 90 cents per square yard in England, and I have had one cabinet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+lined with it as an experiment, as there is a probability that the pins
+may corrode in contact with the rubber.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p style="font-size: 125%; text-indent: 0em;">Footnote:</p>
+<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> <i>American Naturalist</i>, Vol. XV, p. 401, 1881.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<h2><a name="ARRANGEMENT_OF_INSECTS_IN_THE_CABINET" id="ARRANGEMENT_OF_INSECTS_IN_THE_CABINET"></a>ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS IN THE CABINET.</h2>
+
+<p><a name="SYST_COLL" id="SYST_COLL"><i>Systematic and biologic Collections.</i></a>&mdash;The permanent arrangement of
+specimens in boxes and drawers will vary somewhat with the nature of the
+insects. The almost universal custom of collectors, however, is to
+arrange the insects in vertical columns. In the case of the smaller
+forms, as Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, 2½ to 3 inches in width is
+allowed for the columns; and for the larger insects, as Lepidoptera,
+Orthoptera, for which larger drawers are recommended, a greater width of
+column is needed and 4½ to 5 inches will be found necessary. With
+alcoholic material, a similar arrangement in columns may be followed.</p>
+
+<p>In spacing or dividing insect boxes into columns for the arrangement of
+specimens, I have followed the plan of pinning narrow strips of colored
+paper in the boxes at regular distances to divide the columns of
+insects. A fine line made with a medium pencil will answer the same
+purpose and will not materially disfigure the box.</p>
+
+<p>The appearance of the collection will largely depend on the care used in
+the alignment of the specimens, both vertically and horizontally. It is
+advisable to have at least four specimens of a species, which,
+entomologically speaking, constitute a set. The collector, however,
+should not limit the number of his specimens to four, as it is
+frequently necessary to have a larger number to represent, firstly, the
+sexes; secondly, varieties; and thirdly, geographical distribution.</p>
+
+<p>In the systematic collection the species should be arranged serially in
+accordance with the latest catalogue or monograph, and if the collector
+intends making a complete study of the group, space should be left for
+the subsequent insertion of species not at present in his possession and
+also for new species. This will avoid the rearrangement of the entire
+collection at brief intervals.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ECO_DISP" id="ECO_DISP"><i>Economic Displays.</i></a>&mdash;In the case of economic displays, which will
+include pinned specimens, alcoholic material, early states and specimens
+illustrating the work of the insect&mdash;also the parasitic and predaceous
+enemies&mdash;the horizontal arrangement can be followed, and I have found it
+advisable, in making such displays, to arrange them in this manner, so
+that any needed width for the display of particular species may be had.
+A good idea of the system of arrangement adopted for an economic exhibit
+may be obtained from the accompanying illustration (Pl. <span class="smcap">i</span>). Every insect
+will require a somewhat different treatment, owing to its different
+habit, but the plan indicated in the illustration should, in the main,
+be followed. Prof. J. H. Comstock uses and recommends a sort of block
+system, which consists in pinning the insects and specimens showing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+their work, and alcoholic material, to blocks of soft wood. These are
+then arranged in the display cases. The advantage claimed for the system
+is facility in transferring and rearranging the exhibits. This method is
+somewhat cumbersome, and in making and handling economic exhibits I have
+found pinning specimens directly to the cork lining of the box, as
+already described, to be entirely satisfactory. A biologic exhibit
+should be carefully planned beforehand, and when once completed is
+permanent and does not require rearrangement, as is frequently necessary
+in a systematic collection, owing to the constant changes in
+classification. The only alteration necessary is a renewal of specimens
+which have become injured, or faded by exposure to light.</p>
+
+<p><a name="LAB_COLL" id="LAB_COLL"><i>Labeling Collections.</i></a>&mdash;I have already fully discussed the subject of
+labeling insects before placing them in their final resting place in the
+collection. In the collection certain additional labels are required,
+viz, labels for the order, family, subfamily, genus, species, and
+sometimes variety. The label for the order should be placed above the
+first species in the collection, and should be in large type, as should
+also be the name of the family, which is to be placed above the first
+species in the family. The genus label should be in prominent type,
+somewhat smaller than the family label, and should be placed at the head
+of the genus. Custom varies as to placing the label of the species. In
+my practice I have adopted the plan of placing the label below the
+series of specimens representing the species. Some entomologists reverse
+this plan and place the label above the series of specimens. Others
+recommend pinning the label to the first and best-determined specimen of
+the series. This has the advantage of always keeping the label with the
+species and preventing the danger of mistake or confusion of the latter.
+In the case of large insects, however, this plan has the disadvantage
+that the label can not be seen except by taking out the specimen, and,
+on the whole, the plan which I have adopted of placing the label below
+the series of specimens is preferable, but may be supplemented by the
+other, as in addition to the independent label, one of the specimens
+should have a label pinned with it. The labels should be neatly written
+on blanks printed for the purpose; but a better plan, perhaps, and one
+which I have followed, where possible, in labeling the national
+collection, is to cut the names neatly from a catalogue of the insects,
+which will furnish all the labels from order to species, and fasten them
+with short, inconspicuous pins in their proper places in the collection.
+Where it is not desired to keep the collection as compact as possible,
+or where one has limited space, I would advise labeling the species, not
+only with the recognized name, but also with the synonyms. This requires
+some space, and will hardly be followed except in public collections. It
+is also desirable to arrange together, and label as such, the varieties
+of any given species. The appearance of the collection will depend
+largely on the uniformity of the labeling, and too much care can not be
+exercised in this respect.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="MUSEUM_PESTS_MOLD_ETC" id="MUSEUM_PESTS_MOLD_ETC"></a>MUSEUM PESTS, MOLD, ETC.</h2>
+
+<p><a name="PESTS" id="PESTS"></a>Unfortunately for the well-being of collections, dried insects are
+liable to the attacks of various museum pests, the most troublesome of
+which are themselves insects, but altogether out of their proper place
+and rôle in the general collection. Unless constant precautions are
+taken, the collector will discover after a few months that instead of
+the rare specimens with the preparations of which he has taken no little
+pains there remains only a series of fragmentary specimens, which a few
+years' neglect will reduce to little more than a mass of dust or powder.
+The price, then, of a good collection is eternal vigilance. Most
+insects, when exposed for any length of time to strong light, fade or
+lose color, and the only way to prevent such achromatism is to exclude
+the light.</p>
+
+<p>Insect pests affecting collections include Psocidæ, Mites, Tineidæ,
+Coleoptera of the families Ptinidæ and Dermestidæ, these last being the
+most injurious.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_117.png" width="200" height="140"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_121"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 121.&mdash;<i>Tineola biselliella</i>: <i>a</i>, adult; <i>b</i>, larva;
+<br /><i>c</i>, cocoon and empty pupa&mdash;skin enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Psocidæ&mdash;degraded wingless insects already referred to in the
+classification (p. 24)&mdash;will find their way into the tightest boxes, but
+ordinarily do little if any damage, except in the case of delicate
+insects, such as Ephemerids, Microlepidoptera, and Microdiptera. The
+common forms found in collections are <i>Atropos divinatorius</i> and
+<i>Clothilla pulsatoria</i>. Mites or Acari are rarely troublesome in
+collections, though Dr.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;A.&nbsp;Hagen reports having found a species
+(probably of Tyroglyphus) with imported insects, and considers them as
+liable to become dangerous enemies. Tineid larvæ are rarely found in
+collections, and only affect the larger moths. They are not easily
+discovered, since they make no dust, as do most other pests. Some
+persons have been considerably annoyed by one of the common clothes
+moths, <i>Tineola biselliella</i> (<a href="#img_121">Fig.&nbsp;121</a>). Dr.&nbsp;Hagen found that it
+attacked freshly collected or newly spread insects, where the
+spreading-boards were left uncovered, but Mr.&nbsp;F.&nbsp;M.&nbsp;Webster has found it
+injurious to the general collections at Columbus, Ohio.</p>
+
+<p>Of beetles, the Ptinidæ are sometimes found in collections but are not
+common. Two species are known to attack entomological specimens, namely,
+<i>Ptinus fur</i>, which is quite rare, in this country, but much more
+abundant in Europe, and <i>Tribolium ferrugineum</i>, a cosmopolitan species
+which, however, has several times been associated in injurious numbers
+with large collections of insects imported from the East Indies.</p>
+
+<p>But by far the most dangerous enemies of insect collections are the
+larvæ of some half dozen or more species of Dermestidæ belonging to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+genera Anthrenus, Attagenus, Trogoderma, and Dermestes. Of these
+<i>Anthrenus varius</i> is the more common pest, in museums, especially in
+the North and East. In the South and West <i>Trogoderma tarsale</i> and <i>T.
+ornatum</i> (?) replace Anthrenus. The European species <i>Anthrenus
+musæorum</i>, is, on the authority of Hagen, rare in this country, and
+probably occurs chiefly in collections of imported insects. It is the
+common injurious species of Europe. <i>Anthrenus scrophulariæ</i> (see <a href="#img_067">Fig.&nbsp;67</a>)
+occurs also in collections, Dr.&nbsp;Hagen stating that he has found it
+nearly as common as <i>A. varius</i>, and certainly more dangerous. In my own
+experience it is rarely found in insect collections. Two species of
+Attagenus (<i>A. pellio</i> and <i>A. megatoma</i>) have also been found in
+collections. <i>A. megatoma</i> has been found by Dr.&nbsp;Hagen to do not a
+little damage to insect collections in Cambridge, as well as to equal if
+not exceed the Carpet Beetle in its disastrous attacks upon carpets and
+household furniture. The other species, <i>A. pellio</i>, is rarely found in
+this country, but is much more common and obnoxious in Europe than <i>A.
+megatoma</i>. <i>Dermestes lardarius</i> is sometimes found in collections, and
+is attracted by the presence of animal matter such as skins, etc. The
+two <ins title="particuliarly">particularly</ins> destructive pests, as pointed
+out, are <i>Anthrenus varius</i> and <i>Trogoderma tarsale</i>. These species,
+together with most of the others, have no definite breeding period, but,
+in the uniform temperature of the laboratory or museum, breed all the
+year round and present no definite broods. It is the experience at the
+Museum that the boxes on the lower tier of shelves are very much more
+subject to attack than those on the upper tiers, from which it would
+seem that the parent beetle deposits her eggs outside the boxes on the
+floor of the cases and that the young larvæ work their way into the
+smallest crevices. The danger of infection by these pests is greater in
+warm climates like that of Washington than in regions further north, as
+the warm season begins earlier, lasts longer, and furnishes better
+conditions for breeding and multiplication.</p>
+
+<p><a name="REMEDIES" id="REMEDIES"><span class="smcap">Remedies.</span></a>&mdash;The following remedies and preventives will prove efficient
+in checking or preventing the work of these pests.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_118.png" width="75" height="236"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_122"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 122.&mdash;A naphthaline<br />cone.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="NAPHTHALINE" id="NAPHTHALINE"><i>Naphthaline.</i></a>&mdash;Where tight boxes are employed little fear of the work
+of these destructive agents need arise, especially if the boxes are kept
+supplied with repellent naphthaline cones. These are hard cones of
+naphthaline, mounted on pins for convenient placing in the boxes (see
+<a href="#img_122">Fig.&nbsp;122</a>), and may be obtained of dealers in entomological supplies.
+Naphthaline cones act as repellents to these insects and also to some
+extent retard the development of the larvæ in all stages and
+particularly of the eggs.</p>
+
+<p>Mr.&nbsp;Schwarz states (<i>Proc. Ent. Soc. of Washington</i>, Vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>, page 63)
+that in place of these cones a form of naphthaline may be used which is
+known in commerce as &ldquo;white carbon,&rdquo; and is put up in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+form of small square rods for use in intensifying the flames of
+gaslight. The material is very cheap, costing only 8 cents per pound
+wholesale, and may be broken up into small pieces, wrapped in paper, and
+pinned. The use of naphthaline cones is not advisable in boxes
+containing delicate specimens, as it leaves a deposit which dulls the
+colors and encourages greasing. The deliquescence of the naphthaline
+cones produces a blackish, oily residuum which will soil the lining of
+the box, and it is always advisable either to pin a piece of blotting
+paper beneath the cone or to wrap this in paper.</p>
+
+<p>Constant watchfulness is necessary to see that the eggs which have been
+deposited and checked in development by the application of this
+insecticide do not ultimately hatch and start a new generation in the
+insect box.</p>
+
+<p><a name="BISULPHIDE" id="BISULPHIDE"><i>Bisulphide of Carbon.</i></a>&mdash;If the collection is found to be infested with
+insect pests, it may be renovated by pouring a little bisulphide of
+carbon into the boxes and closing them at once. This substance
+evaporates rapidly and will destroy all insect life, and does not injure
+specimens or pins nor stain the boxes. If infested specimens are
+received, these should be inclosed in a tight box and treated with
+bisulphide of carbon before being added to the general collection, and
+it is always well for those who are receiving pinned specimens by
+exchange or otherwise to keep a quarantine box of this kind on hand.</p>
+
+<p><a name="MERCURY" id="MERCURY"><i>Mercury Pellets.</i></a>&mdash;The use of mercury pellets is recommended to free
+boxes from Mites, Psoci, etc., and also to collect any particles of dust
+which may gain entrance. A few small pellets of mercury, placed free in
+the bottom of the horizontal box will, by the movement of the box, be
+caused to roll to and fro and accomplish the desired end.</p>
+
+<p><a name="CARBOLIC" id="CARBOLIC"><i>Carbolic Acid.</i></a>&mdash;Mr.&nbsp;A.&nbsp;T.&nbsp;Marshall (<i>Entomologist's Monthly Magazine</i>,
+Dec., 1873, p. 176) records that he washes the paper of his boxes with
+the common disinfecting solution of carbolic acid in two-thirds water,
+which dries without staining and protects the specimens from Psoci.</p>
+
+<p><a name="HOT_COUNT" id="HOT_COUNT"><i>A Means of preserving Insects in dry hot Countries.</i></a>&mdash;In the
+&ldquo;<i>Horæ Societatis Entomologicæ Rossicæ</i>,&rdquo; XXIV, pp. 233, 234
+(1889), M. A. Wilkins, writing from Tachkent in Turkestan, alludes to
+the inefficiency of ordinary preservatives in Central Asia, on account
+of their rapid volatilization through the hot dry air, so that if a
+collection be neglected for only two or three months <i>Anthreni</i> are sure
+to be found in the boxes. He has hit upon a plan which he finds
+effective, and at the same time very simple. He employs India-rubber
+bands about 1½ inches in width and less than the length of the boxes to
+which they are to be applied. These bands are stretched over the opening
+line of the boxes, and effectually prevent the entrance of the most
+minute destroyers. Possibly a similar plan might be adopted in other
+countries with a like climate. At any rate, the method has the merit of
+extreme simplicity. (The <i>Ent. Mo. Mag.</i>, Apr., 1891, p. 107.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="MOLD" id="MOLD"></a>MOLD.</h3>
+
+<p>Collections kept in damp places or in a moist climate are very liable to
+mold, and under such conditions it is difficult to avoid this evil.
+Carbolic acid is recommended, but Mr.&nbsp;Ashmead, who has kept a large
+collection in the moist climate of Florida, has found the use of
+naphthaline much more satisfactory. Mr.&nbsp;Herbert H.&nbsp;Smith who has had
+more extensive experience in the tropics prefers the carbolic acid.
+Moldy specimens may be cleansed by washing with carbolic acid applied
+with a fine camel's hair brush.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="GREASING" id="GREASING">VERDIGRISING AND GREASING.</a></h3>
+
+<p>The action of the acid juices in the bodies of certain specimens&mdash;as
+many of the Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera&mdash;will cause the
+formation of verdigris about the pin, which in time accumulates and
+disfigures and distorts the specimen, and ultimately corrodes the pin,
+so that the slightest touch causes it to bend or break. There is no
+preventive yet known for this trouble other than the use of pins which
+have no brass to be corroded. Japanned pins are made for this purpose,
+and are, on the whole, satisfactory, but they bend easily and some
+caution is required in handling them. In place of these pins, which are
+somewhat more expensive than the steel pins, iron pins may be used.
+These are very soft and bend too easily for satisfactory use. The steel
+pins may be rendered available for use by an immersion in a silver bath,
+which is comparatively inexpensive.</p>
+
+<p>Insects the larvæ of which live in wood are particularly subject to
+verdigris, as the Cerambycidæ and Elateridæ in Coleoptera, the Uroceridæ
+in Hymenoptera and Sesiidæ in Lepidoptera. In Hymenoptera the families
+Formicidæ, Mutillidæ, and the endophytous <ins title="Ienthredinidæ">Tenthredinidæ</ins>
+verdigris very rapidly, and most Diptera also. With all these insects
+japanned or silvered pins should be used, or when not too large the
+insects should be mounted on triangles. This verdigrising is associated
+with what is known as greasing, and this, as just indicated, is also
+associated with endophytous larval life. The verdigris may be prevented
+by the methods indicated, and I would strongly advise, as a good general
+rule to be followed, the rejection of the ordinary pins for all species
+which, in the larva state, are internal feeders. But there is no way of
+preventing greasing or decomposition of the fats of the body, which may
+affect a specimen years after it has been in the cabinet. If the
+specimen is valuable the grease may be absorbed by immersion in ether or
+benzine, or by a longer treatment with powdered pipe-clay or plaster of
+Paris. Insects collected on seabeaches, and saturated with salt water,
+also corrode the common steel pin very quickly and should be mounted on
+japanned pins. It is also advisable to rinse such specimens thoroughly
+in fresh water before mounting.</p>
+
+<p>The conviction has been forcing itself on my mind for some time that the
+naphthaline cones tend to promote greasing and verdigris, and carbolic
+acid in some small vessel secured to the cork, were, perhaps,
+preferable.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="THE_REARING_OF_INSECTS" id="THE_REARING_OF_INSECTS"></a>THE REARING OF INSECTS.</h2>
+
+<p><a name="GEN_DIR_4" id="GEN_DIR_4"><i>General Directions.</i></a>&mdash;The importance, even to the mere collector, of
+rearing insects to obtain specimens for the cabinet has been referred to
+from time to time in these pages. The philosophic study of entomology,
+however, requires much more than the mere collecting of specimens, and
+one of the most profitable and, at the same time, most fascinating
+phases of the study relates to the life-history and habits. In no branch
+of natural history are biologic studies more easily carried on, or the
+biologic facts more remarkable or interesting. The systematist by such
+study will be saved from the narrow and hair-splitting tendencies which
+study of slight difference of characters tends to, while to the economic
+entomologist it is most essential.</p>
+
+<p>In the rearing of insects success will be attained in proportion to the
+extent to which the conditions of nature in the matters of temperature,
+moisture, food-supply, and conditions for pupation, are observed.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In the hands of the careful breeder an insect may be secured
+against its numerous natural enemies and against vicissitudes of
+climate, and will, consequently, be more apt to mature than in a state
+of nature. The breeding of aquatic insects requires aquaria, and is
+always attended with the difficulty of furnishing a proper supply of
+food. The transformations of many others, both aquatic and terrestrial,
+can be studied only by close and careful outdoor observation. But the
+great majority of insect larvæ may be reared to the perfect state
+indoors, where their maneuverings may be constantly and conveniently
+watched. For the feeding of small species, glass jars and wide-mouthed
+bottles will be found useful. The mouths should be covered with gauze or
+old linen, fastened either by thread or rubber, and a few inches of
+moist earth at the bottom will furnish a retreat for those which enter
+it to transform and keep the atmosphere in a moist and fit condition.</p>
+
+<p><a name="CAGE" id="CAGE"><i>The Breeding Cage or Vivarium.</i></a>&mdash;&ldquo;For larger insects I use a
+breeding cage or vivarium which answers the purpose admirably. It is
+represented in figure 123, and comprises three distinct parts: First,
+the bottom board <i>a</i>, consisting of a square piece of inch thick walnut
+with a rectangular zinc pan <i>ff</i>, 4 inches deep, fastened to it above,
+and with two cross pieces <i>gg</i> below, to prevent cracking or warping,
+facilitate lifting, and allow the air to pass underneath the cage.
+Second, a box <i>b</i> with three glass sides and a glass door in front, to
+fit over the zinc pan. Third, a cap <i>c</i>, which fits closely on to the
+box, and has a top of fine wire gauze. To the center of the zinc pan is
+soldered a zinc tube <i>d</i> just large enough to contain an ordinary
+quinine bottle. The zinc pan is filled with clean sifted earth or sand
+<i>e</i>, and the quinine bottle is for the reception of the food plant. The
+cage admits of abundant light and air, and also of the easy removal of
+excrement or frass which falls to the ground; while the insects in
+transforming enter the ground or attach themselves to the sides or the
+cap, according to their habits. The most convenient dimensions I find<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+to be 12 inches square and 18 inches high: the cap and the door fit
+closely by means of rabbets, and the former has a depth of about 4
+inches to admit of the largest cocoon being spun in it without touching
+the box on which it rests. The zinc pan might be made 6 or 8 inches
+deep, and the lower half filled with sand, so as to keep the whole moist
+for a greater length of time.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_122.png" width="250" height="349"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 123.&mdash;Insect breeding-cage or vivarium.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The sand or earth in the zinc pan at the bottom of the breeding cage
+should be kept constantly moistened, and in the case of hibernating pupæ
+the constant adding of water to the top of the earth or sand causes it
+to become very hard and compact. To overcome this objection it was
+suggested in the <i>Entomologists' Monthly Magazine</i> for June, 1876, page
+17, that the base should be made with an inner perforated side, the
+water to be applied between it and the outer side, and I have for some
+years employed a similar double-sided base, which answers the purpose
+admirably (See Figure <ins title="124.">124</ins>). It is substantially the
+same as that made for the Department by Prof. J. H. Comstock in 1879. It
+consists of a zinc tray <i>a</i>, of two or three inches greater diameter
+than the breeding cage, which surrounds the zinc pan proper containing
+the earth, and the tube <i>d</i> for the reception of the food-plant. The
+lower portion of the inner pan <i>b</i> is of perforated zinc. Zinc supports,
+<i>c c</i>, are constructed about halfway between the bottom and the top of
+this pan, on which the breeding cage rests. In moistening the earth in
+the cage, water is poured into the tray, which enters the soil slowly,
+through the perforations in the zinc pan. I have found this modification
+of very decided advantage and use it altogether in the work of the
+Division, and heartily recommend it.</p>
+
+<p>The base of the vivarium or breeding cage should never be made of tin,
+but always of zinc. If made of tin, it will soon rust out. Galvanized
+iron may be used in place of the zinc, and will doubtless prove equally
+satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A dozen such cages will furnish room for the annual breeding of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+great number of species, as several having different habits and
+appearance, and which there is no danger of confounding, may be
+simultaneously fed in the same cage. I number each of the three parts of
+each cage to prevent misplacement and to facilitate reference, and aside
+from the notes made in the notebook, it will aid the memory and expedite
+matters to keep a short open record of the species contained in each
+cage, by means of slips of paper pasted on the glass door. As fast as
+the different specimens complete their transformations and are taken
+from the cage the notes may be altered or erased, or the slips wetted
+and removed entirely. To prevent possible confounding of the different
+species which enter the ground, it is well, from time to time, to sift
+the earth, separate the pupæ and place them in what I call &lsquo;imago
+cages,&rsquo; used for this purpose alone and not for feeding. Here
+they may be arranged with references to their exact whereabouts.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_123.png" width="500" height="218"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 124.&mdash;Improved base for breeding-cage (original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A continued supply of fresh food must be given to those insects
+which are feeding, and a bit of moist sponge thrust into the mouth of
+the bottle will prevent drowning, and furnish moisture to such as need
+it. By means of a broad paste brush and spoon the frass may be daily
+removed from the earth, which should be kept in a fit and moist
+condition&mdash;neither too wet nor too dry. In the winter, when insect life
+is dormant, the earth may be covered with a layer of clean moss, and the
+cages put away in the cellar, where they will need only occasional
+inspection, but where the moss must nevertheless be kept damp. Cages
+made after the same plan, but with the sides of wire gauze instead of
+glass, may be used for insects which do not well bear confinement
+indoors, the cages to be placed on a platform on the north side of a
+house, where they will receive only the early morning and late evening
+sun.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="REARING" id="REARING"><i>Detailed Instructions for Rearing.</i></a>&mdash;In the rearing of insects every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+worker will develop a number of methods of value, and it is only by
+careful study and comparison of the experiences of all that the best
+system can be elaborated. For this reason I have, in what follows,
+quoted, in a more or less fragmentary way, the experiences of different
+entomologists.</p>
+
+<p>As is remarked by Miss Murtfeldt, in an interesting paper read before
+the Entomological Club of the American Association for the Advancement
+of Science, August 20, 1890, &ldquo;there is a great individuality, or
+rather specificality, in insects, and not infrequently specimens of
+larvæ are found for which the collector taxes his ingenuity in vain to
+provide. Not the freshest leaves, the cleanest swept earth, or the most
+well-aired cages will seem to promote their development.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The greatest care and watchfulness, therefore, are necessary to insure
+success in the rearing of larvæ. In many cases such larvæ can only be
+successfully reared by inclosing them in netting on their food-plant out
+of doors. It is a frequent device of Lepidopterists also to inclose a
+rare female in netting placed on the food plant of the species, where
+the male may be attracted and may be caught and placed in the bag with
+the female, when copulation usually takes place successfully, or a male
+may be caught in the field and inclosed with such female. Mr.&nbsp;W.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;Edwards,
+where the plant is a small one, uses for this purpose a
+headless keg covered at one end with gauze, which he places over the
+plant inclosing the female.</p>
+
+<p>Mr.&nbsp;James Fletcher, of Ottawa, Canada, one of our most enthusiastic
+rearers of insects, has given some details of his methods in a recent
+very interesting account of &ldquo;A Trip to Nepigon.&rdquo; One style
+of cage used by him in securing the eggs of large Lepidoptera &ldquo;is
+made by cutting two flexible twigs from the willow or any other shrub
+and bending them into the shape of two arches, which are put one over
+the other at right angles and the ends pushed into the ground. Over the
+penthouse thus formed a piece of gauze is placed, and the cage is
+complete. The edges of the gauze may be kept down either with pegs or
+with earth placed upon them.&rdquo; This kind of cage is used for all
+the larger species which lay upon low plants. The species which oviposit
+on larger plants or trees are inclosed in a gauze bag tied over the
+branch. This is applicable to insects like <i>Papilio</i>, <i>Limenitis</i>,
+<i>Grapta</i>, etc. Care must be taken, however, that the leaves of the plant
+inside the net are in a natural position, for some species are very
+particular about where they lay their eggs, some ovipositing on the top
+of the leaves, others near the tip, and many others on the under
+surface. &ldquo;When a bag made beforehand is used, the points must be
+rounded, and in tying the piece of gauze over the branch care must be
+taken to pull out all creases and folds, or the insect will be sure to
+get into them and either die or be killed by spiders from the outside of
+the bag. It is better to put more than one female in the same cage. I
+have frequently noticed that one specimen alone is apt to crawl about<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+and settle on the top of the cage, and not go near the food plant. When
+there are two or three they disturb each other and are frequently moving
+and falling on the food plant, when they will stop for a moment and lay
+an egg. A stubborn female of <i>Coleus eurytheme</i> was only induced to lay
+by having a male placed in the cage with her, and by his impatient
+fluttering and efforts to escape she was frequently knocked down from
+the top, and every time she fell upon the clover plant beneath, she laid
+an egg before crawling to the top again.&rdquo; Some insects, even with
+all care in making their surroundings as natural as possible, will
+persistently refuse to lay. Mr.&nbsp;Fletcher has successfully obtained eggs
+from some of these by a method which he says one of his correspondents
+styles &ldquo;Egg-laying extraordinary.&rdquo; It consists simply in
+&ldquo;gently pressing the abdomen of a female which has died without
+laying eggs, until one and sometimes two perfect eggs are passed from
+the ovipositor.&rdquo; Mr.&nbsp;Fletcher has secured a number of eggs from
+rare species in this way, and successfully reared the larvæ. The
+following directions for obtaining the eggs and rearing the larvæ of
+Lepidoptera, given in this paper by Mr.&nbsp;Fletcher, are excellent, and I
+quote them entire:</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;There are one or two points which should be remembered when
+obtaining eggs and rearing larvæ. In the first place, the females should
+not be left exposed to the direct rays of the sun; but it will be found
+sometimes that if a butterfly is sluggish, putting her in the sun for a
+short time will revive her and make her lay eggs. Confined females,
+whether over branches or potted plants, should always be in the open
+air. If females do not lay in two or three days they must be fed. This
+is easily done. Take them from the cage and hold near them a piece of
+sponge (or, Mr.&nbsp;Edwards suggests, evaporated apple), saturated with a
+weak solution of sugar and water. As soon as it is placed near them they
+will generally move their antennæ towards it, and, uncoiling their
+tongues, suck up the liquid. If they take no notice of it the tongue can
+be gently uncoiled with the tip of a pin, when they will nearly always
+begin to feed. It is better to feed them away from the plant they are
+wanted to lay upon, for if any of the sirup be spilled over the
+flowerpot or plant it is almost sure to attract ants. I kept one female
+<i>Colias interior</i> in this way for ten days before eggs were laid. When
+eggs are laid they should, as a rule, be collected at short intervals.
+They are subject to the attacks of various enemies&mdash;spiders, ants,
+crickets, and minute hymenopterous parasites. They may be kept easily in
+small boxes, but do better if not kept in too hot or dry a place. When
+the young caterpillars hatch they must be removed with great care to the
+food plant; a fine paint brush is the most convenient instrument. With
+small larvæ or those which it is desired to examine often, glass tubes
+or jelly glasses with a tight-fitting tin cover are best. These must be
+tightly closed and in a cool place. Light is not at all necessary, and
+the sun should never be allowed to shine directly upon them. If moisture
+gathers inside the glasses the top should be removed for a short time.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+Larvæ may also be placed upon growing plants. These can be planted in
+flowerpots and the young caterpillars kept from wandering either by a
+cage of wire netting or, by what I have found very satisfactory, glass
+lamp chimneys. These can be placed over the plant, with the bottom
+pushed into the earth, and then should have a loose wad of cotton
+batting in the top. This has the double effect of preventing too great
+evaporation of moisture and keeping its occupants within bounds. Some
+larvæ wander very much and climb with the greatest ease over glass,
+spinning a silken path for themselves as they go. When caterpillars are
+bred in the study it must not be forgotten that the air inside a house
+is much drier than it is out of doors amongst the trees and low herbage,
+where caterpillars live naturally. The amateur will require some
+experience in keeping the air at a right degree of moisture when
+breeding upon growing plants. In close tin boxes or jars, where the
+leaves must be changed every day, there is not so much trouble. An
+important thing to remember with larvæ in jars is to thoroughly wash out
+the jars with cold water every day. If, however, a caterpillar has spun
+a web on the side and is hung up to moult, it must not be disturbed. In
+changing the food it is better not to remove the caterpillars from the
+old food, but having placed a new supply in the jar, cut off the piece
+of leaf upon which they are and drop it into the jar. If they are not
+near the moult a little puff of breath will generally dislodge them.
+Some caterpillars, as <i>Papilio turnus</i>, which spins a platform to which
+it retires after feeding, can best be fed upon a living tree out of
+doors, but must be covered with a gauze bag to keep off enemies. A piece
+of paper should be kept <i>attached</i> to each breeding jar or cage, upon
+which regular notes must be taken <i>at the time</i>, giving the dates of
+every noticeable feature, particularly the dates of the moults and the
+changes which take place in the form and color at that time.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The necessity of outdoor work is further felt in the determination of
+the facts in the life-history of some insects which have an alternation
+of generations, as some Gall-flies (<ins title="Cynipidae"><i>Cynipidæ</i></ins>), and most
+Aphides. To successfully study these insects constant outdoor
+observation is necessary, or the species must be inclosed in screens of
+wire or netting outdoors on their food-plant. Many insects which breed
+on the ground or on low herbage may be very successfully watched and
+controlled by covering the soil containing them or the plant on which
+they feed with a wire screen or netting. The use of wire screens is also
+advisable in the case of wintering pupæ or larvæ out of doors. Many
+species can be more easily carried through the winter by placing them
+outdoors under such screens during the winter, which insures their being
+subjected to the natural conditions of climate, and then transferring
+them to the breeding cage again early in the spring. This is advisable
+in the case of Microlarvæ and pupæ. Species which bore in the stems of
+plants may be easily cared for and leaf-mining and leaf-webbing forms
+can be secured under screens or covers out of doors for the winter in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+sheltered situations. Many species which, if kept in a warm room can not
+be reared, will, if subjected to freezing weather under slight
+protection in the open air, emerge successfully the following spring.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest care is necessary in the breeding of Tenthredinidæ, as most
+of them transform under ground and are single brooded, the <ins title="larvae">larvæ</ins>
+remaining in the ground from midsummer until the following
+spring. Nothing but constant care in maintaining uniform moisture and
+temperature of the soil will insure the success of such breeding. Some
+species bore into rotten wood or the stems of plants to undergo their
+transformations, as for instance the Dogwood Saw-fly (<i>Harpiphorus
+varianus</i>). This species, unless supplied with soft or rotten wood in
+which to bore, will wander ceaselessly round the cage, and in most cases
+eventually perish.</p>
+
+<p>Where a small room can be devoted to the purpose, an excellent wholesale
+method of obtaining wood-boring insects (<i>Coleoptera</i>, <i>Lepidoptera</i>,
+etc.) is to collect large quantities of dead or dying wood of all sorts
+or any that indicates the presence of the early states of insects, and
+store it in such apartment. The following spring and summer the escaping
+insects will be attracted to the windows and may be easily secured. The
+objection to this method is that, in many cases, it will be impossible
+to determine the food habit of the insect secured, owing to the variety
+of material brought together.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ROOT_CAGE" id="ROOT_CAGE"><i>The Root Cage.</i></a>&mdash;For the study of insects which affect the roots of
+plants a root cage has been devised by Prof. J. H. Comstock which is of
+sufficient importance to warrant full description. It consists of a zinc
+frame (<a href="#img_125">Fig.&nbsp;125</a><i>a</i>) holding two plates of glass in a vertical position
+and only a short distance apart, the space between the plates being
+filled with soil in which seeds are planted or small plants set. Outside
+of each glass is a piece of zinc or sheet iron (<i>b</i>) which slips into
+grooves and which can be easily removed. When these zincs are in place
+the soil is kept dark.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of the cages is, that the space between the glasses being very
+narrow, a large part of the roots will ramify close to the surface of
+the glass, so that by removing the zinc slides the roots may be easily
+seen, and any root-inhabiting insects which it maybe desirable to breed
+may thus be studied in their natural conditions without disturbing them.
+Prof. Comstock has used this cage very successfully in studying the
+habits of wire-worms, and its availability for many of the underground
+insects, such as the Cicadas, root-lice, larvæ, etc., is apparent. These
+frames may be made of various sizes, to accommodate particular insects.
+It will be of advantage in many cases, in order to secure the natural
+conditions as nearly as possible, to sink the cage in the soil, and for
+this purpose Prof. Comstock has had constructed a pit lined with brick
+for the reception of his cages, and employs a small portable crane to
+lift them out of the ground when it is desirable to examine them.</p>
+
+<p><a name="OTHER_APPS" id="OTHER_APPS"><i>Other Apparatus.</i></a>&mdash;Much of the breeding of insects can be done with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+simplest apparatus, and for the rearing of Microlepidoptera,
+Gall-insects, and the keeping of cocoons and chrysalides of small
+species, nothing is more convenient than a medium sized test-tube, the
+end of which may be plugged with cotton. I have recently successfully
+carried over the winter the larva of <i>Sphecius speciosus</i>, which had
+been removed early in the fall from its earthen pod or cocoon, the larva
+transforming to a perfect pupa in the spring. In this case the test tube
+was plugged with cotton and inserted in a wooden mailing tube to exclude
+the light. Smaller jars with glass covers or with a covering of gauze
+may be employed for most insects, with the advantage of occupying
+comparatively little space and of isolating the species under study.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_128.png" width="500" height="369"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_125"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> <ins title="125">125.</ins>&mdash;Root cage: <i>a</i>, frame with slide removed; <i>b</i>,
+movable slide; <i>c</i>, top view (original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Long glass tubes, open at both ends, are useful in many other ways,
+especially in the rearing and study of the smaller hypogean insects or
+those which bore and live in the stems of plants. An infested stem cut
+open on one side and placed in such a tube will generally carry any
+insect that has ceased feeding, or any species like the wood-boring bees
+which feed upon stored food, successfully through their transformations;
+while root-lice may be kept for a lengthy period upon the roots in such
+tube, providing a portion of the root extends outside of the tube and is
+kept in moistened ground or water. In all such cases these tubes, with
+their contents, should be kept in the dark, either in a drawer or else
+covered with some dark material which can be wound around or slipped
+over them, and the ends must be closed with cotton or cork.</p>
+
+<p>The rearer of insects will frequently experience difficulty in carrying
+his pupæ through the winter, and, even though ordinary precautions are
+taken, the mortality will frequently amount to 50 per cent of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+specimens. Mr.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;Bakhaus, of <ins title="Leipsic">Leipzig</ins>, thus describes a device which is
+substantially the base of the vivarium shown on page 114.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The base consists of a round plate of strong zinc, with two
+vertical rims, an inch high, placed one within the other, an inch apart,
+and soldered to the basal plate so that the outer one is water-tight.
+The inner rim must be perforated with small holes as close to the bottom
+as possible. The space inside the inner rim must be filled with fine
+sand, on which the pupæ should be laid. The space between the two rims
+is then filled with water, which, finding its way through the holes in
+the inner rim to the sand, causes the necessary moisture. Over the whole
+is put a bell-shaped cover of wire gauze, which must fit tightly over
+the outer rim. In this receptacle the pupæ remain untouched, and receive
+fresh moisture, as above indicated, if required by the drying of the
+sand.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The hardy pupæ of most Noctuids and Bombycids, as well as those of many
+Rophalocera, may be handled with little danger, but other species, if
+handled at all, or if the cocoons which they make for themselves are
+broken, can seldom be reared. Constant precautions also must be
+exercised in the care of the soil and the breeding cages. One of the
+great drawbacks is the presence of mites and thread worms (Entozoöns),
+etc., which affect dying or dead pupæ and larvæ in the soil. They also
+affect living specimens and are capable of doing very considerable
+damage. To free the soil of them it is necessary at times to allow the
+earth to become dry enough to be sifted, and then after removing the
+pupæ submit it to heat sufficient to destroy any undesired life there
+may be in it.</p>
+
+<p><a name="INSECTARY" id="INSECTARY"><i>The Insectary.</i></a>&mdash;Up to the present time the work of rearing insects has
+been largely confined to the breeding cage and breeding jar, already
+described, which have been kept in the rooms of the investigator. The
+advantages of having a special building for this purpose are at once
+apparent and need not be insisted upon. One of the best establishments
+of this kind is that of the Cornell University Experiment Station, which
+was fully described in Bulletin No.&nbsp;3, of that station, November, 1888.
+The Kansas Experiment Station has a similar building, and one has
+recently been built for the use of the Entomological Division of the
+United States Department of Agriculture. The insect-breeding house, or
+insectary, should comprise a building having workrooms, or laboratories,
+for microscopic and general work in the study and preparation of
+specimens, and also a conservatory for the rearing of specimens and the
+growth of plants, and, where applied entomology is concerned, special
+rooms for the preparation and the test of insecticides. The building
+proper should also have a basement storage room for hibernating insects.
+The laboratory should be fitted with all the apparatus used in the study
+of insects, including microscopes and accessories and a dark-room for
+photographic purposes.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="DIRECTIONS_FOR_TRANSMITTING_INSECTS" id="DIRECTIONS_FOR_TRANSMITTING_INSECTS"></a>DIRECTIONS FOR TRANSMITTING INSECTS.</h2>
+
+<p>It is very desirable in transmitting insects from the field of
+exploration, or from one entomologist to another, for information,
+exchange, or other purpose, that they be properly secured and packed.
+Pinned and mounted specimens should be firmly fixed in a cigar box, or a
+special box for mailing, and this should be carefully but not too
+tightly wrapped with cotton or other loose packing material to a depth
+of perhaps an inch, and the whole then inclosed in stiff wrapping paper.
+It is preferable, however, to inclose the box containing the specimens
+in a larger box, filling the intervening space, not too firmly, with
+cotton or other packing material. Where specimens are to be sent to a
+considerable distance it is advisable also to line the box in which they
+are placed with cotton, which serves to catch and hold any specimens
+which may become loose in transit. In the case of alcoholic specimens
+each vial should be wrapped separately in cotton and placed in a strong
+wooden or tin box. Special mailing boxes for alcoholic specimens have
+been devised, and a very convenient form is herewith figured. It is an
+ordinary tube of wood, with a metal screw top, and the interior lined
+with rough cork. These tubes are made in various sizes to accommodate
+vials of different dimensions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_130.png" width="400" height="320"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 126.&mdash;Wooden-tube mailing-box: <i>a</i>, tube; <i>b</i>, cover
+(original.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In mailing living specimens the essential thing is a strong box,
+preferably tin, made as nearly air-tight as possible. I have found it
+very convenient on long trips to carry with me a number of tin boxes in
+the flat (<a href="#img_127">Fig.&nbsp;127</a>), combined in convenient packages, ready to be bent
+and improvised in the field. For this purpose get any tinsmith to make
+out of good tin a number of pieces cut of the requisite dimensions both
+for the bottoms and the covers, carefully cutting the corners to permit
+the proper bending of the sides. These improvised boxes will prove
+useful for keeping living larvæ with their food-plants, especially if<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
+tied up in stout brown paper to prevent any exit from the unsoldered
+angles. They will also answer admirably for mailing or otherwise sending
+specimens to their ultimate destination. In the case of larvæ a quantity
+of the food-plant should always be inclosed in the box.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_131a.png" width="400" height="270"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_127"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 127.&mdash;Tin mailing-box in the flat: <i>a</i>, box; <i>b</i>,
+cover (original).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In transmitting insects for information the greatest care should be
+taken to relieve the person of whom information is sought of as much
+unnecessary work as possible. It is easy for any beginner to collect
+more in a single day than an experienced entomologist can well mount,
+study, and determine in a week, and as those who have the means and
+information to give determinations or otherwise to assist beginners are
+generally very much occupied, and their time is valuable, they are
+justified in ignoring miscellaneous collectings where the sender has
+made no effort to either properly mount or otherwise study and care for
+his specimens.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_131b.png" width="250" height="93"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 128.&mdash;Tin mailing-box, bent into shape<br />for use
+(original.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Living specimens, especially larvæ, should be packed in tin, with a
+supply of their appropriate food. The tighter the box the fresher will
+the food as well as the specimens keep. Insects do not easily suffocate,
+and it is worse than useless, in the majority of cases, to punch
+air-holes in such boxes. Dead specimens, when not pinned, may be sent in
+a variety of ways. Small ones may be dropped into a quill and inclosed
+in a letter, or a small vial fitted into a piece of bored wood. Those
+which do not spoil by wetting may be sent in alcohol, provided the
+bottle is absolutely filled, or, what is better, in sawdust moistened<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+with alcohol, or between layers of cotton saturated with alcohol.</p>
+
+<p>The postal regulations permit the sending by mail of &ldquo;dried
+insects * * * when properly put up, so as not to injure the persons of
+those handling the mails, nor soil the mail bags or their
+contents.&rdquo; Specimens in alcohol may also be sent by mail, provided
+that the containing vial be strong enough to resist the shock of
+handling in the mail, and that it be inclosed in a wooden or
+papier-maché tube not less than three-sixteenths of an inch thick in the
+thinnest part, lined with cork or other soft material, and with a screw
+top so adjusted as to prevent the leakage of the contents in case of
+breakage. Entomological specimens are of the fourth class of mail
+matter, the postage on which is 1 cent an ounce or fraction thereof, the
+limit of weight for a single package being 4 pounds, and the limit as to
+bulk 18 inches in any direction. Saleable matter is also non-mailable at
+fourth-class rates; so that the safer method, with small packages, is to
+send under letter postage. It is far better, however, for long journeys,
+and especially for transatlantic shipment, to send by express.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<h2><a name="NOTES_AND_MEMORANDA" id="NOTES_AND_MEMORANDA"></a>NOTES AND MEMORANDA.</h2>
+
+<p>In the foregoing pages are given some of the more useful directions for
+those wishing to commence to collect and study insects. Experience will
+soon teach many other important facts not mentioned here, and the best
+closing advice I can give the novice is, to get acquainted, if possible,
+with some one who has already had large experience. He will be very apt
+to find such a person pleasant and instructive company whether in the
+field or in the closet. One important habit, however, I wish to strongly
+inculcate and emphasize: The collector should never be without his
+memorandum or note book. More profitless work can scarcely be imagined
+than collecting natural-history specimens without some specific aim or
+object. Every observation made should be carefully recorded, and the
+date of capture, locality, and food-plant should always be attached to
+the specimens when these are mounted. More extended notes may be made in
+a field memorandum book carried in the pocket or in larger record books
+at home. For field memoranda I advise the use of a stylographic pen, as
+pencil is apt to rub and efface in time by the motions of the body. The
+larger record book is especially necessary for biologic notes. Notes on
+adolescent states which it is intended to rear to the imago can not be
+too carefully made or in too much detail. The relative size, details of
+ornamentation and structure, dates of moulting or transformation from
+one state to another&mdash;indeed, everything that pertains to the biography
+of the species&mdash;should be noted down, and little or nothing trusted to
+mere memory where exact data are so essential. Many insects,
+particularly dragon-flies, have brilliant coloring when fresh from the
+pupa, which is largely lost afterward. The time of laying and hatching<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+of eggs, the number from a single female, the character of the eggs,
+general habits, records of parasites and their mode of attack&mdash;all
+should be entered as observed. A great many species have the most
+curious life histories, which can not be ascertained except by continued
+and persevering observation, not only in the vivarium or insectary but
+in the field. It is almost impossible to follow, under artificial
+conditions, the full life cycle of many species like the Aphididæ, or
+the Gall-flies, etc., which involve alternation of generations,
+dimorphism, heteromorphism, migration from one plant to another, and
+various other curious departures from the normal mode of development,
+without careful field study and experiment. These studies are possible
+only to those who are able to frequent the same localities throughout
+the whole year, and can hardly be carried on by the traveling naturalist
+or collector.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<h2><a name="INSTRUCTIONS_FOR_COLLECTING_AND_PRESERVING_ARACHNIDS_AND_MYRIAPODS" id="INSTRUCTIONS_FOR_COLLECTING_AND_PRESERVING_ARACHNIDS_AND_MYRIAPODS"></a>INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING ARACHNIDS AND MYRIAPODS.</h2>
+
+<p>The foregoing portions of this manual have dealt almost exclusively with
+the subject of the securing and preservation of Hexapods, but it is
+deemed advisable to include brief instructions for the collection and
+care of the near allies of the true insect, Spiders and Myriapods, the
+study of which will in most cases be associated with that of Hexapods.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="DIR_SPIDER" id="DIR_SPIDER">DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING SPIDERS.</a></h3>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_134a.png" width="250" height="164"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 129.&mdash;A ground Spider (<i>Oxyopes viridans</i>).<br />(After
+Comstock.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="APPARATUS" id="APPARATUS"><i>Apparatus.</i></a>&mdash;Many of the directions and methods given in the foregoing
+pages for the collection of Hexapods apply also to the animals named
+above. Little apparatus is necessary in the collection of spiders and
+other Arachnids. The essentials are vials containing alcohol, an insect
+net, a sieve, and forceps. Narrow vials without necks are best for
+collecting purposes, as the corks can be more quickly inserted. They
+should be of different sizes, from 1 dram to 4 or 6 drams, and the
+alcohol used should be at least 50 per cent strong and in some cases it
+is advisable to use it at a strength of 70 or 80 per cent. The net may
+be of the same construction as that used to collect insects and is used
+in the same way. Some arachnologists, however, use a net of a somewhat
+different make, which is much stronger. The iron ring is heavier and
+larger than in the case of the insect net, resembling in this respect
+the ring of the Deyrolle net. The bag is short and the handle is
+fastened to both sides of the ring. This net is used for beating the
+leaves of trees, bushes, and grass. Dr.&nbsp;Marx uses a net which is already
+described and figured under the name of the Umbrella Net (see p. <a href="#Page_34">34</a>,
+<a href="#img_052">Fig.&nbsp;52</a>). The sieve is the same as that described on p. <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#img_054">Fig.&nbsp;54</a>, and
+is used to sift the spiders from leaves and rubbish, especially during
+winter. A mass of leaves and other material is thrown into the sieve and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+then shaken, the spiders falling through on a piece of white cloth,
+which is spread under the sieve on the ground. Many hibernating species
+can be readily secured in this manner. A forceps similar to that
+described for the collecting of hexapods should be used to capture or
+pick up specimens, for if handled with the fingers they are apt to be
+crushed, especially the smaller forms. As soon as the collecting is
+finished or the vial is filled a label should be placed in this last
+indicating place and date of collection. Egg sacs and cocoons should be
+collected in pill boxes and properly labeled, and if possible the adults
+should be reared. Both sexes should be collected and descriptive notes
+or drawings made of the webs as found in nature.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_134b.png" width="250" height="174"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 130.&mdash;An orb-weaver<br />(<i>Argiope argyraspides</i> Walck):
+<br /><i>a</i>, male; <i>b</i>, female; <i>c</i> and <i>d</i>,<br />enlarged parts.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="TIME_LOC" id="TIME_LOC"><i>Time and Locality for Collecting.</i></a>&mdash;The best time to collect spiders is
+in the early fall, during the months of September and October. The great
+majority of the species are then mature. Many forms, however, occur in
+the adult state in late spring and early summer. Numerous species may
+also be collected during winter, some of these hibernating under stones,
+the bark of dead trees, etc., and others, more particularly the small
+forms, under dead leaves and rubbish on the ground in woods. Other
+species which have hibernated may be found about the earliest flowers in
+spring. No particular localities can be indicated for the collection of
+spiders, since they occur in all sorts of places, in wooded or open
+regions and also in and about dwellings. Many Lycosidæ are found in dry
+and rocky situations and quite a number in open fields. Thomisidæ may be
+found on flowers. The Therididæ affect shady places, and many Epeiridæ
+will be found in similar situations. The Attidæ love the sun and are
+found very actively engaged in hunting insects on plants and dead
+leaves. Many species of this family will be found in cases under loose
+bark in winter. Evergreen trees are also quite good collecting grounds
+for Attidæ. The Drassidæ are ground spiders and are mostly nocturnal,
+hiding during the day under leaves and stones; a few forms, however,
+disport in the hottest sunshine. Some genera are found most frequently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+near water or in damp places, as Dolomedes and Tetragnatha; others in
+sandy places, as Micaria, Targalia.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="COLL_ARACH" id="COLL_ARACH">COLLECTING OTHER ARACHNIDS: MITES, TICKS, SCORPIONS, ETC.</a></h3>
+
+<p>Other Arachnids&mdash;as mites, ticks, scorpions, daddy longlegs or
+harvest-men&mdash;may be collected in the same way as spiders.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_135a.png" width="150" height="239"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 131.&mdash;A Harvest-man<br />(<i>Phalangium
+ventricosum</i>).<br />&mdash;From Packard.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Phalangidæ (Harvest-men) somewhat resemble spiders, and are at once
+recognized by their extremely long legs. They occur about houses,
+especially in shady places, under the eaves, etc., and in the woods and
+fields. They are carnivorous and feed on small insects, especially
+Aphides. They should be pressed a little when captured to extrude the
+genital apparatus, if possible, and are best collected in the early
+fall.</p>
+
+<p>The Phrynidæ are very peculiar looking animals, the anterior legs being
+very long and slender and the maxillary palpi very large. The genus
+<i>Thelyphonus</i> is not uncommon in the South, and is known by its oblong
+body, ending usually with a long, slender, many-jointed filament, from
+which they are called Whip-tailed Scorpions. <i>T. giganteus</i> is the
+common species. They occur in moist situations, and are carnivorous,
+feeding on insects and small animals.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_135b.png" width="150" height="187"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 132.&mdash;False Scorpion<br />(<i>Chelifer cancroides</i>
+L.).<br />&mdash;From Packard.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The false scorpions, Chermetidæ, may at once be recognized by their
+large maxillary palpi, resembling the maxillæ of the true scorpion. They
+are small insects, rarely exceeding a quarter of an inch in length, and
+are found in dark shady places and feed upon mites, Psoci, and other
+small insects. A common species is represented at figure 132.</p>
+
+<p>The true scorpions, Scorpionidæ, are well-known forms, and are easily
+recognized by their large, powerful, forceps-like maxillæ, and the long
+slender tail continuous with the thorax and ending with a sting, which
+is, in most cases, quite poisonous. They are found mostly in the Western
+and Southwestern States, and are dangerous in proportion to their size.
+The poisonous nature of the sting of these animals is, however,
+generally overrated, and the wounds, even of the larger species, are
+rarely fatal.</p>
+
+<p>The Acarina or true mites are the lowest representatives of the
+Arachnida and include many genera and species differing very widely in
+habit and characters. Some of them are mere sacs, on which the mouth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+parts or other organs are scarcely discernible. In general they resemble
+spiders. The young, however, when they leave the egg, almost invariably
+have but three pairs of feet, resembling in this respect the Hexapods.
+The fourth pair is added in the later stages. They are parasitic on
+insects and other animals, and some of them are vegetable feeders or
+live in decaying vegetable and animal matter.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_136a.png" width="150" height="189"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_134"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 134.&mdash;The Cattle-tick.<br />(After Packard.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_136b.png" width="150" height="254"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 133.&mdash;A true Scorpion<br />(<i>Buthus carolinianus</i>).<br />&mdash;From
+Packard.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A very interesting group is comprised in the family Phytoptidæ or
+gall-making mites which occur on the leaves of various trees and shrubs
+and produce curious galls or abnormal growths. These mites are elongate
+in form, have rudimentary mouth-parts and but four legs. A common form,
+<i>Phytoptus quadripes</i>, produces a gall on the leaves of the soft maple.
+The galls of all species should be collected and pinned and also
+preserved in alcohol, and specimens of the mites should be mounted in
+balsam.</p>
+
+<p>The members of the genus Sarcoptes are very minute and are the active
+source of the itch in the lower animals and man. Another common genus is
+Tyroglyphus, which includes the common cheese mite, <i>T. siro</i>. Other
+species of this genus also sometimes occur in enormous numbers in
+grocers' supplies. Still others are parasitic on insects, and one
+species, <i>T. phylloxeræ</i> Riley, is very beneficial, since, as its name
+indicates, it feeds on the Phylloxera of the grapevine.</p>
+
+<p>The Ixodidæ comprise the ticks which attach themselves to cattle, hogs,
+and man, and are not at all uncommon objects. These insects can be found
+on the animals they infest, and distinct species will be found to occur
+on most wild mammals. The common Cattle tick <i>Boophilus bovis</i> Riley, is
+represented at <a href="#img_134">Fig.&nbsp;134</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_137a.png" width="100" height="111"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 135.&mdash;<i>Nothrus ovivorus</i><br />Packard.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The family Orobatidæ includes a number of small terrestrial mites, which
+occur on the moss on trees and stones. Some species are known to feed on
+the eggs of insects, and the one shown in the accompanying figure,
+<i>Nothrus ovivorus</i> has been observed, by Dr.&nbsp;Packard to eat the eggs of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+the Canker Worm.</p>
+
+<p>The members of the family Gamasidæ are parasitic upon animals, but
+chiefly upon insects. The Hydrachnidæ are parasitic also upon the
+aquatic insects, and also affect fish or mussels or occur on fresh-water
+plants.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important families of mites is the Trombidiidiæ which
+includes a large number of species, some of which occur in immense
+numbers. Most of them are vegetable feeders, but some species feed on
+the eggs of insects.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_137b.png" width="500" height="274"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_136"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 136.&mdash;<i>Trombidium locustarum</i>: <i>a</i>, female with her
+batch of eggs; <i>b</i>, newly hatched larva&mdash;natural size indicated by the
+dot within the circle; <i>c</i>, egg; <i>d e</i>, vacated egg-shells.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The genus Trombidium includes a number of the Red Mites which feed on
+insects in all their stages. The Locust Mite, <i>Trombidium locustarum</i>
+Riley, is one of the most interesting as well as one of the most
+important of our locust enemies, and will serve to illustrate the habits
+of the group. It differs so much in infancy and maturity that it has
+been referred to different genera and is known under different names.
+The mature form lives on the ground and feeds on all sorts of animal or
+decomposing vegetable matter, and wherever the ground is filled with
+locust eggs these afford an abundance of food and the mites flourish and
+multiply rapidly. In the spring the female lays 300 or 400 minute
+spherical orange-red eggs in the ground (<a href="#img_136">Fig.&nbsp;136</a><i>a</i>). From these eggs,
+as shown enlarged at <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, and <i>e</i> (the two latter being the vacated
+egg shells) emerge the six-legged larva shown at <i>b</i>. These are mere
+specks and crawl actively about, fastening themselves to the locusts
+mostly at the base of the wings or along the upper veins. They subsist
+on the juices of their host. They firmly attach themselves by the mouth
+and increase rapidly in size, the legs not growing and becoming mere
+rudiments. In this form they are shown at <a href="#img_137">Fig.&nbsp;137</a><i>a</i>. When fully
+developed they let go their hold, drop to the ground, and crawl under
+the shelter afforded by holes in the earth or under sticks. Here, in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+course of two or three weeks, they transform within the larval skin to
+the pupal stage shown at <i>b</i>, and eventually break through the old
+larval skin and escape in the form shown at <i>c</i> and <i>d</i>. This mature
+form passes the winter in the ground and is active whenever the
+temperature is a few degrees above the freezing point. A larger species
+<i>T. giganteum</i> Riley, also attacks locusts, while a third species
+attacks the common House-fly. This was formerly known in the larva state
+only and was referred to the genus Astoma, to which also the larval form
+of Trombidium was referred. I have described the adult together with the
+larva and pupa as <i>Trombidium muscarum</i>. An allied mite, <i>Hydrachna
+belostomæ</i>, attacks the large aquatic water bug, Belostoma, and has a
+mode of development precisely similar to that of Trombidium.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_138a.png" width="500" height="210"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a id="img_137"></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 137.&mdash;<i>Trombidium locustarum</i>. <i>a</i>, mature larva
+when about to leave the wing of a locust; <i>b</i>, pupa; <i>c</i>, male adult
+when just from the pupa; <i>d</i>, female&mdash;the natural sizes indicated to the
+right; <i>e</i>, palpal claw and thumb; <i>f</i>, pedal claw; <i>g</i>, one of the
+barbed hairs; <i>h</i>, the striations on the larval skin.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright">
+     <img src="images/img_138b.png" width="200" height="300"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 138.&mdash;The Six-spotted Mite of the Orange<br />
+(<i>Tetranychus 6-maculatus</i>): <i>a</i>, from above&mdash;enlarged;<br /><i>b</i>, tarsus;
+<i>c</i>, rostrum and palpus&mdash;still more enlarged;<br /><i>d</i>, tip of palpus&mdash;still
+more enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To this family also belong the common greenhouse mite, <i>Tetranychus
+telarius</i>, and also the Bryobia mite, <i>B. pratensis</i>, which of late
+years has attracted very considerable attention by its appearance in
+immense numbers about dwellings, coming from the adjoining fields of
+clover or grass. Generically allied to the greenhouse mite is the
+Six-spotted Mite of the Orange (<i>T. 6-maculatus</i> Riley), which is shown
+in the accompanying figure.</p>
+
+<p>Spiders and mites thus collected may be transferred to alcohol. Dr.&nbsp;Marx,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+who has had a very considerable experience in the preservation of
+spiders, recommends the use of the following mixture: Glycerin and
+Wickersheim's fluid, 1½ ounces of each, and distilled water 3 ounces,
+the whole to be shaken and thoroughly mixed and added to 30 ounces of 95
+per cent alcohol. Alcohol which has previously been used for preserving
+spiders, and which has therefore dissolved some of the fatty matters
+from the specimens, he prefers to pure alcohol, using with this,
+however, somewhat less of the distilled water. The liquid thus composed
+answers all demands and keeps the specimens flexible and preserves their
+coloring. Should the stopper become loose and the liquid evaporate,
+there is always sufficient liquid, water or glycerine, left in the vial
+to keep the specimens from drying and thus save them from destruction.
+Dr.&nbsp;Marx also prefers to use cork stoppers rather than the rubber
+stoppers recommended for other alcoholic material. His objection to the
+rubber stopper is that, in a collection in which the specimens are often
+used and the stoppers are frequently removed, he finds that small
+particles of the rubber stopper come off and settle upon the specimens
+as a white dust, which it is difficult to remove. This objection applies
+only to a poor quality of rubber, and in all other respects the rubber
+is much to be preferred. The colors of spiders are apt to fade somewhat
+if exposed to light, and the collection should therefore be kept in
+closed boxes or in the dark.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="COLL_MYRI" id="COLL_MYRI">COLLECTING MYRIAPODA.</a></h3>
+
+<p>Centipedes and Millipedes are collected in the same manner as spiders.
+They live in damp places, under sticks and stones, and in decaying
+vegetation. They should be preserved in alcohol, and on account of their
+usually strong chitinous covering, precautions as to the strength of the
+alcohol are less necessary here than with softer-bodied specimens.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+     <img src="images/img_139.png" width="200" height="46"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 139.&mdash;A Milliped. (<i>Cambula
+annulata</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The members of this subclass comprise a number of well-marked groups.
+The Iulidæ are cylindrical insects and occur in moist places, as do most
+of the representatives of this subclass. A common form is represented in
+the accompanying figure. The Chiliopodæ comprise the flattened forms
+having many-jointed antennæ and but a single pair of limbs to each
+segment of the body, and are the forms to which the name centipede may
+properly be applied. They are predaceous in habit, live largely on
+living animal matter, and are very quick in their movements. Some forms
+are poisonous, having poison glands at the base of the first pair of
+legs, but the majority of the species are entirely harmless. A number<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+of common species belong to the genus Geophilus and occur under stones
+and logs. The genus Scolopendra includes some of the larger species of
+the order. The largest known species, <i>S. gigantea</i>, occurs in the East
+Indies and attains a length of from 9 inches to more than a foot.
+Several species found within the limits of the United States attain a
+length of 5 inches or more. The family Cermatiidæ includes the very
+common species <i>Cermatia forceps</i>, which, while abundant in the South
+and West, occurs somewhat more rarely in the North. It is commonly found
+in moist situations, in houses or conservatories, and on account of its
+long legs and agile movements frequently creates considerable
+consternation. It is, however, an entirely harmless and very beneficial
+species, since it feeds on various household pests, including flies,
+roaches, etc.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<h2><a name="TEXT_BOOKS_ENTOMOLOGICAL_WORKS" id="TEXT_BOOKS_ENTOMOLOGICAL_WORKS"></a>TEXT BOOKS&mdash;ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS.</h2>
+
+<p>Bulletin No.&nbsp;19 of the Division of Entomology, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture, contains an enumeration of the published
+<ins title="synoposes">synopses</ins>, catalogues, and lists of North American insects,
+together with other information intended to assist the student of
+American entomology. This can be had upon application, and I would refer
+the student to it for specific information as to synopses, catalogues,
+and lists. I have deemed it advisable, however, to include here an
+enumeration of the more useful works of a general character; a list of
+the entomological periodicals, both home and foreign; and the
+entomological works published by the different departments of the
+Government, with some information as to how and of whom they can be
+obtained. Many of these publications are no longer to be had except as
+they may be picked up through book-dealers; but the titles even of those
+which are out of print will be useful to the student as a guide to what
+he should find in every good library. Requests for this kind of
+information are constantly received at the Department of Agriculture and
+at the National Museum. The most useful general works are given first,
+and, while a great many others in foreign languages might be cited, I
+would strongly advise the beginner in America to confine himself to
+these, and especially to read Harris's Insects Injurious to Vegetation,
+Kirby&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;Spence's Introduction, and Westwood's Introduction. This
+last, though published over half a century ago, is still one of the most
+useful entomological works in the English language. While these
+Introductions will be of great service in arranging and classifying
+material and in giving a knowledge of the relationships of species,
+there is no better text-book than the great book of nature, which is
+always ready to unfold its truths to every earnest inquirer. In field
+and wood alone can he become familiar with the insects in all their
+wondrous life habits, instincts, and intelligence. There alone will he
+receive the fullest inspiration and pleasure in his work or find the
+highest reward for his efforts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="COMP_WORK" id="COMP_WORK"></a>COMPREHENSIVE WORKS MOST USEFUL FOR THE STUDY OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS.</h3>
+
+<div class="left">
+<ul>
+  <li><span class="smcap">H. C. C. Burmeister.</span>&mdash;Handbuch der Entomologie. Berlin, 1832&ndash;1855. 5 vols.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Manual of Entomology.</span>&mdash;A translation of the above, by W. E. Shuckard. London, 1836.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">J. O. Westwood.</span>&mdash;An introduction to the modern classification of
+insects, founded on the natural habits and corresponding organization of
+the different families. 2 vols. London, 1839&ndash;&lsquo;40.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Thomas Say.</span>&mdash;Complete writings on the Entomology of North America;
+edited by John L. Le Conte. New York, 1859.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">H. A. Hagen.</span>&mdash;Bibliotheca Entomologica. Die Litteratur über das ganze
+Gebiet der Entomologie bis zum Jahre 1862. Leipzig, 1862.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">A. S. Packard.</span>&mdash;Guide to the Study of Insects. Henry Holt&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;Co.,
+Philadelphia and New York. (First edition, Salem, 1869.)</li>
+  <li>&mdash;&mdash; Entomology for Beginners. Henry Holt&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;Co., New York, 1888.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">The Standard Natural History.</span>&mdash;Edited by John Sterling Kingsley. S. E.
+Cassino&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;Co., Boston, 1884&ndash;&lsquo;85.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">Volume <span class="smcap">ii</span> contains the insects, which are treated by the following
+authors: <i>Hymenoptera</i>, J. H. Comstock and L. O. Howard;
+<i>Coleoptera</i>, George Dimmock; <i>Lepidoptera</i>, H'y Edwards and C. H.
+Fernald; <i>Diptera</i>, S. W. Williston; <i>Orthoptera</i>, C. V. Riley;
+<i>Hemiptera</i>, P. R. Uhler; <i>Neuroptera</i>, A. S. Packard; <i>Arachnida</i>,
+J. H. Emerton.</p></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">J. H. Comstock.</span>&mdash;An Introduction to Entomology. Published by the author.
+Ithaca, N. Y. 2 parts. Part <span class="smcap">i</span>, 1888.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Alpheus Hyatt and J. M. Arms.</span>&mdash;Guides for Science Teaching, No.&nbsp;<span class="smcap">iii</span>.
+Insecta. Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist. D. C. Heath&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;Co., Boston, 1890.</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="GEN_WORK" id="GEN_WORK">GENERAL WORKS ON CLASSIFICATION.</a></h3>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="HYMENOPTERA_2" id="HYMENOPTERA_2">HYMENOPTERA.</a></p>
+
+<div class="left">
+<ul>
+  <li><span class="smcap">E. T. Cresson.</span>&mdash;Synopsis of the Families and Genera of the Hymenoptera
+of America, north of Mexico, together with a Catalogue of the described
+Species and Bibliography. Transactions Am. Entom. Society, Supplementary
+volume. 2 parts. Philadelphia, 1887.</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="COLEOPTERA_2" id="COLEOPTERA_2">COLEOPTERA.</a></p>
+
+<div class="left">
+<ul>
+  <li><span class="smcap">John L. Le Conte and George H. Horn.</span>&mdash;Classification of the Coleoptera
+of North America. Prepared for the Smithsonian Institution. Washington,
+Smithsonian Institution, 1883.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">This is the most recent and the only complete classification of
+North American Coleoptera. It contains also Appendix <span class="smcap">ii</span>, a
+&ldquo;list of bibliographical references to memoirs, in which more
+or less complete synopses of the families, genera, and species of
+the Coleoptera of the United States have been published.&rdquo;</p></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">J. T. Lacordaire.</span>&mdash;Histoire naturelle des Insectes. Genera des
+Coléoptères, ou exposé méthodique et critique de tous les genres
+proposés jusqu'ici dans cet ordre d'insectes. [Completed by J. Chapuis.]
+Paris, France, 1854&ndash;1876. 12 vols, and 1 vol. plates.</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><span class="smcap">William Le Baron.</span>&mdash;Outlines of Entomology, published in connection<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+with the author's Annual Reports upon injurious insects. Part first.
+Including the Order of Coleoptera. Fourth Annual Report on the Noxious
+and Beneficial Insects of the State of Illinois. Sep. Edit. Springfield,
+1874.</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="LEPIDOPTERA_2" id="LEPIDOPTERA_2">LEPIDOPTERA.</a></p>
+
+<div class="left">
+<ul>
+  <li><span class="smcap">G. A. W. Herrich-Schaeffer.</span>&mdash;Sammlung neuer oder wenig bekannter
+aussereuropäischer Schmetterlinge. Vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>. Regensburg, 1850&ndash;'58; Vol.
+<span class="smcap">ii</span>, Pt. 1, 1869.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">Contains a classification of the Lepidoptera, which forms the basis
+of our present arrangement.</p></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">John G. Morris.</span>&mdash;Synopsis of the described Lepidoptera of North America.
+Part <span class="smcap">i</span>. Diurnal and Crepuscular Lepidoptera. Washington, Smithsonian
+Institution, 1862.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">Compiled descriptions of the North American Lepidoptera, from the
+Rhopalocera to the Bombycidæ.</p></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">H. Strecker.</span>&mdash;Lepidoptera, Rhopaloceres et Heteroceres, indigenous and
+exotic; with descriptions and colored illustrations. Reading, Pa.,
+1872&ndash;'77.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">Fifteen parts of this work have been published containing figures
+and descriptions of many North American species.</p></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">John B. Smith.</span>&mdash;An Introduction to a Classification of the North
+American Lepidoptera. &lt;Bull. Brookl. Ent. Soc., Vol. <span class="smcap">vii</span>, 1884, pp. 70&ndash;74 and 81&ndash;83.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">A synopsis of the families of Lepidoptera based on
+Herrich-Schaeffer's classification.</p></li>
+  <li>&mdash;&mdash;Synopsis of the Genera of the North American Rhopalocera. &lt;Bull.
+Brookl. Ent. Soc, Vol. <span class="smcap">vi</span>, 1883, pp. 37&ndash;45.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">E. Doubleday and W. C. Hewitson.</span>&mdash;The genera of diurnal Lepidoptera,
+comprising their generic characters, a notice of their transformations,
+and a catalogue of the species of each <ins title="genius">genus</ins>;
+illustrated, with 86 colored plates from drawings by W. C. Hewitson. 2
+vols., London, 1846&ndash;'52.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">This work was completed by Westwood after the death of Doubleday.</p></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">S. H. Scudder.</span>&mdash;Butterflies: Their structures, changes, and
+life-histories, with special reference to American forms. Being an
+application of the &ldquo;Doctrine of descent&rdquo; to the study of
+Butterflies, with an appendix of practical instructions. 321 pp. and 201
+text figs. New York, Henry Holt&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;Co., 1881.</li>
+  <li>&mdash;&mdash;The Butterflies of the Eastern United States and Canada with
+special reference to New England. 3 vols., Cambridge, Mass., 1889; pp.
+1958, plates 59. (Published by the author. Cost about $75 for 3 vols.)</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">G. H. French.</span>&mdash;The Butterflies of the Eastern United States. For the use<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+of classes in Zoölogy and private students. Philadelphia,
+Lippincott&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;Co., 1886.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">Gives synopses of the genera and species, and description of the
+species.</p></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">W. H. Edwards.</span>&mdash;Butterflies of North America. Boston, Houghton,
+Mifflin&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;Co.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">Two volumes are completed and the third is in course of
+publication.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="HEMIPTERA_2" id="HEMIPTERA_2">HEMIPTERA.</a></p>
+
+<div class="left">
+<ul>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Herbert Osborn.</span>&mdash;Classification of Hemiptera. &lt;Entomologica Amer., Vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>, 1885, pp. 21&ndash;27.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">Short characterization of the whole order, with tables of suborders
+and families.</p></li>
+  <li>&mdash;&mdash;Pediculi and Mallophaga affecting Man and the Lower Animals.
+Constituting Bulletin No.&nbsp;7 of the Division of Entomology, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture. Washington, 1891.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">P. R. Uhler.</span>&mdash;List of Hemiptera of the region west of the Mississippi
+River, including those collected during the Hayden explorations of 1873.
+&lt;Bull. U. S. Geolog. and Geogr. Survey of the Terr., Vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>, 1875, pp. 267&ndash;361, Pl. <span class="smcap">xix&ndash;xxi</span>.</li>
+  <li>&mdash;&mdash;Report upon the insects collected by P. R. Uhler during the
+exploration of 1875, including monographs of the families Cynidæ and
+Saldæ, and the Hemiptera collected by A. S. Packard, jr., M. D. &lt;U. S.
+Geolog. and Geogr. Survey, Bulletin, Vol. <span class="smcap">iii</span>, No.&nbsp;2, 1877, pp. 355&ndash;475.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Townend Glover.</span>&mdash;Report of the Entomologist. &lt;Report of the Commissioner
+of Agriculture for the year 1877, pp. 17&ndash;46.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">A popular treatise on the Homoptera, with illustrations.</p></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">A. H. Haliday.</span>&mdash;An Epitome of the British genera in the Order
+Thysanoptera, with indications of a few of the species. &lt;Entomol. Mag.,
+Vol. <span class="smcap">iii</span>, 1836, pp. 439&ndash;451.</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="DIPTERA_2" id="DIPTERA_2">DIPTERA.</a></p>
+
+<div class="left">
+<ul>
+  <li><span class="smcap">H. Loew and C. R. Osten-Sacken.</span>&mdash;Monographs of the Diptera of North
+America. (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.) 4 parts. Washington,
+Smithsonian Institution, 1862&ndash;'72.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">The several monographs will be found enumerated under the
+respective families.</p></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">H. Loew.</span>&mdash;Diptera Americæ septentrionalis indigena. 2 parts. Berlin,
+1861&ndash;'72. (Originally published in 10 centuriæ in the Berliner Entomol.
+Zeitschrift.)</li>
+  <li><p class="books">Descriptions of 1,000 North American Diptera, but without synoptic
+arrangement.</p></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">C. R. Osten-Sacken.</span>&mdash;Western Diptera: Descriptions of new genera and
+species of Diptera from the region west of the Mississippi and
+especially from California. &lt;Bull. U. S. Geolog. and Geogr. Survey of
+the Territories, Vol. <span class="smcap">iii</span>, 1877, pp. 189&ndash;354.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">F. Brauer.</span>&mdash;Die Zweiflügler des Kaiserlichen Museums zu Wien. <span class="smcap">i&ndash;iii.</span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+Wien, 1880&ndash;'83.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">Important contributions to the classification of the Diptera.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="ORTHOPTERA_2" id="ORTHOPTERA_2">ORTHOPTERA.</a></p>
+
+<div class="left">
+<ul>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Henri de <ins title="Saussure">Saussure.</ins></span>&mdash;Orthoptera nova Americana (Diagnoses
+præliminares). Series <span class="smcap">i&ndash;iii</span>. &lt;Revue et Mag. de Zool., 1859&ndash;'61.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">Contains synoptical tables of species, besides descriptions of
+numerous North American Orthoptera.</p></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Samuel H. Scudder.</span>&mdash;Materials for a monograph of the North American
+Orthoptera. &lt;Boston Journal of Nat. Hist., Vol. <span class="smcap">vii</span>, 1862, pp. 409&ndash;480.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">Contains synoptical tables and a review of the system used for
+classification.</p></li>
+  <li>&mdash;&mdash;Remarks upon the arrangement of the families of Orthoptera. &lt;Proc.
+Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. <span class="smcap">xii</span>, 1868&ndash;'69; also separate under the
+title: Entomological Notes, Vol. <span class="smcap">ii</span>, pp. 7&ndash;14.</li>
+  <li>&mdash;&mdash;Synoptical tables for determining North American insects.
+Orthoptera. &lt;Psyche, Vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>, 1876, pp. 169&ndash;171.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">Synopsis of families; also list of useful works in the study of
+North American Orthoptera.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="NEUROPTERA_4" id="NEUROPTERA_4">NEUROPTERA.</a></p>
+
+<div class="left">
+<ul>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Hermann Hagen.</span>&mdash;Synopsis of the Neuroptera of North America, with a list
+of the South American species. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,
+Washington, 1861.</li>
+  <li>&mdash;&mdash;Synopsis of the Odonata of America. &lt;Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.,
+Vol. <span class="smcap">xviii</span>, 1875, pp. 20&ndash;96.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Sir John Lubbock.</span>&mdash;Monograph of the Collembola and Thysanura. London,
+Ray Society, 1873.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">The introduction gives the full bibliography up to date.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="MYRIAPODA_2" id="MYRIAPODA_2">MYRIAPODA.</a></p>
+
+<div class="left">
+<ul>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Thomas Say.</span>&mdash;Descriptions of the Myriapoda of the United States.
+&lt;Journ. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil., Vol. <span class="smcap">ii</span>, 1821, pp. 102&ndash;114; Say's Entom. Writings, ed. Le Conte, Vol. <span class="smcap">ii</span>, pp.
+24&ndash;32.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">This is the first paper of importance on the North American
+Myriapoda.</p></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">George Newport.</span>&mdash;Monograph of the class Myriapoda, Order Chilopoda.
+&lt;Trans. Linnean Soc. of London, Vol. <span class="smcap">xix</span>, 1845, pp. 265&ndash;302 and 349&ndash;439.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Horatio C. Wood</span>, Jr.&mdash;On the Chilopoda of North America, with Catalogue
+of all the specimens in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution.
+&lt;Journ. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil., New Ser., Vol. <span class="smcap">v</span>, 1863, pp. 5&ndash;42.</li>
+  <li>&mdash;&mdash;The Myriapoda of North America. &lt;Trans. Amer.<ins title="Philos">Philos.</ins>
+Soc., Vol. <span class="smcap">xiii</span>, 1865, pp. 137&ndash;248, 3 pl.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">This is the first and only monograph of the Myriapoda published in
+this country.</p></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Robert Latzel.</span>&mdash;Die Myriapoden der Oesterreichisch-Ungarischen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+Monarchie. Erste Hälfte: Die Chilopoden, Wien, 1880. Zweite Hälfte: Die
+Symphylen, Pauropoden und Diplopoden, Wien, 1884.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">The most recent comprehensive work on this order, and very
+important from a classificatory standpoint.</p></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Lucien M. Underwood.</span>&mdash;The North American Myriapoda. &lt;Entomol. Amer.,
+Vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>, 1885, pp. 141&ndash;151.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">A complete bibliographical review of the subject, with tables of
+families and genera.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="ARACHNIDA_2" id="ARACHNIDA_2">ARACHNIDA.</a></p>
+
+<div class="left">
+<ul>
+  <li><span class="smcap">N. M. Hentz.</span>&mdash;Descriptions and figures of the Araneides of the United
+States. &lt;Journ. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vols, <span class="smcap">iv&ndash;vi</span>, 1842&ndash;'50.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">These papers form the basis of the study of American arachnology.
+Numerous species are described, but not in synoptic form.</p></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">T. Thorell.</span>&mdash;On European Spiders. Part I. Review of the European genera
+of Spiders. Upsala, 1869&ndash;'70.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">N. M. Hentz.</span>&mdash;Araneæ Americæ septentrionalis. The Spiders of the United
+States. Edited by J. H. Emerton and E. Burgess. &lt;&ldquo;Occasional
+Papers&rdquo; of the Boston Society of Natural History, 1875.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">A reprint of Hentz's papers on North American spiders.</p></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Graf Eugen Keyserling.</span>&mdash;Amerikanische Spinnen aus den Familien
+Pholcoidæ, Scytodoidæ und Dysderoidæ. &lt;Verh. k. k. zool.-bot. Ges. in
+Wien, Vol. <span class="smcap">xxvii</span>, 1877, pp. 205&ndash;234.</li>
+  <li>&mdash;&mdash;Neue Spinnen aus Amerika. (Six parts.) &lt;Verh. k. k. Zool.-bot. Ges.
+in Wien, Vols. <span class="smcap">xxix&ndash;xxxiv</span>, 1879&ndash;'84.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">E. Simon.</span>&mdash;Les Arachnides de France. Paris, Vols. <span class="smcap">i&ndash;v</span>, 1874&ndash;'84.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">These two works represent the most recent systems of
+classification, and are therefore of great general value, although
+they deal only with the European fauna.</p></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Lucien M. Underwood.</span>&mdash;The Progress of Arachnology in America. &lt;Amer.
+Natur., Vol. <span class="smcap">xxi</span>, 1887, pp. 963&ndash;975.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">A very useful review of the bibliography, with synoptic table of
+the families of the Araneæ.</p></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="AM_PERI" id="AM_PERI">AMERICAN PERIODICALS.</a></h3>
+
+<div class="left">
+<ul>
+  <li><span class="smcap">The American Naturalist.</span> A monthly journal devoted to the natural
+sciences in their widest sense (24 volumes published up to date. Now
+published at Philadelphia).</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York</span> (8 volumes,
+1824&ndash;'67. Continued since 1876 as Annals of the New York Academy of
+Sciences).</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">Bulletin of the Brooklyn Entomological Society</span> (7 volumes, 1878&ndash;'85.
+Continued as Entomologica Americana).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural History</span> (4 volumes completed;
+1874 to <ins title="1883">1883)</ins>.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Bulletins of the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the
+Territories</span>, F. V. Hayden in charge (Department of the Interior; 1875 to
+<ins title="1879">1879)</ins>.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Bulletins of the United States Geological Survey</span>, J. M. Powell,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+director; beginning with 1883.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Bulletins of the United States National Museum</span> (Department of the
+Interior; beginning with 1875).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">The Canadian Entomologist.</span> (Published by the Entomological Society of
+Ontario; 22 volumes issued up to the end of 1890. Published at London,
+Ontario.)</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">Entomologica Americana.</span> (Published by the Brooklyn Entomological
+Society at Brooklyn, N. Y. 1885 to 1890.)</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Entomological News</span> [and Proceedings of the Entomological Section of the
+Academy of Natural Sciences] (Vol. <span class="smcap">i</span> issued in 1890. Published at
+Philadelphia).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia</span> (commencing
+with 1817).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History</span> (commencing with 1866).</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">North American Entomologist.</span> (Published by the Buffalo Society of
+Natural Sciences, 1 volume, Buffalo, N. Y. 1879&ndash;'80.)</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">Papilio.</span> Devoted exclusively to Lepidoptera. Organ of the New York
+Entomological Club (4 volumes, 1881&ndash;'84).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Psyche.</span> Organ of the Cambridge Entomological Club (5 volumes issued up
+to date. Published at Cambridge, Mass. Publication begun in 1874).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia</span>
+(beginning with 1841).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia</span>
+(beginning with 1860).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History</span> (commencing with
+1841).</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia</span> (6 volumes,
+1861&ndash;'67).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia</span> (2 volumes,
+beginning with 1884).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington</span> (2 volumes,
+beginning with 1884).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Proceedings of the United States National Museum</span> (Department of the
+Interior; beginning with 1878).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Reports of the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the
+Territories</span> (Department of the Interior; beginning with 1867).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections</span> (Smithsonian Institution,
+Washington, D. C.; beginning 1862).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis</span> (4 volumes hitherto
+published).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Transactions of the American Entomological Society</span> and Proceedings of
+the Entomological Section of the Academy of Natural Sciences (beginning
+with 1868; published at Philadelphia).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Transactions of the American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia</span> (2d
+series beginning with 1818).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span></li>
+  <li><p>Papers on entomology are also published occasionally in other American
+periodicals, among which the following might be mentioned:</p></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society.</span> Chapel Hill, N. C.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Journal of the New York Microscopical Society.</span></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Naturaliste Canadien.</span> Edited by Abbé Provancher, Cap Rouge, Quebec.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences</span>, San Francisco, Cal.</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="FOR_PERI" id="FOR_PERI">FOREIGN PERIODICALS.</a></h3>
+
+<div class="left">
+<ul>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Annales de la Société entomologique de Belgique.</span> Publication begun in
+1857. Brussels.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Annales de la Société entomologique de France.</span> Publication begun in
+1832. Paris.</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">Berliner entomologische Zeitschrift.</span> 18 volumes, Berlin, 1857&ndash;1874.</li>
+  <li><p class="books">Succeeded by the Deutsche Entomologische Zeitung.</p></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Bulletin de la Société entomologique de France.</span></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Bulletin de la Société entomologique Suisse.</span> (See <ins title="Mittheil">Mittheil.</ins> d. Schweiz.
+Entom. Gesell.)</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Bulletino della Società entomologica Italiana.</span> Florence. (Publication
+commenced in 1869.)</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Deutsche Entomologische Zeitschrift.</span> Published by the Entomological
+Society of Berlin. (Publication begun in 1875.)</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Entomologische Nachrichten.</span> (Now edited by Dr.&nbsp;F. Karsch. Berlin.
+Publication commenced in 1875.)</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Entomologisk Tidskrift, på föranstaltande af Entomologiska Föreningen i
+Stockholm.</span> (Commenced with 1880.)</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">Entomologische Zeitung. Herausgegeben von dem Entomologischen Verein
+zu Stettin.</span> 36 volumes. Stettin. 1840&ndash;'75.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Entomologiske Meddelelser udgivne of Entomologisk Forening.</span> Edited by
+Fr. Meinert, Copenhagen (beginning with 1887).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">The Entomologist.</span> A popular monthly journal of British entomology. Vol.
+I, 1840&ndash;'42. (Publication resumed in 1864. London.)</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">The Entomologist's Annual.</span> Edited by H. T. Stainton. London.
+(Publication begun in 1855; 22 vols. published up to 1876.)</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Entomologist's Monthly Magazine.</span> London (beginning with 1864).</li>
+  <li>Horae ... Variis sermonibus rossiæ usitatis. Societas Entomologica
+Rossica. (Publication begun in 1861.)</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">Linnæa Entomologica. Herausgegeben vom entomologischen Vereine zu
+Stettin</span> (16 volumes, Berlin, 1846&ndash;'66).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Mittheilungen der schweizerischen entomologischen Gesellschaft.</span> Bulletin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+de la Société entomologique suisse. (Publication begun at Schaffhausen,
+Switz., in 1862. Afterward published at Geneva.)</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Revue d'Entomologie.</span> (Published by the Société Française d'Entomologie,
+Caën, France. Publication begun in 1882.)</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Tijdschrift voor Entomologie. Nederlandsche Entomologische Vereeniging</span>,
+Leiden, Holland (beginning with 1857. Published by the Dutch
+Entomological Society).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Transactions of the Entomological Society of London.</span> (Begun in 1834.)</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">Wiener entomologische Monatsschrift</span> (8 volumes, Vienna, 1857&ndash;'64).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Wiener entomologische Zeitung.</span> Vienna. (Commenced 1882.)</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span class="smcap">Zeitschrift für die Entomologie.</span> Edited by E. F. Germar (5 volumes.
+Leipzig, 1839&ndash;'44).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Zeitschrift für Entomologie. Verein für schlesische Inseckten-Kunde zu
+Breslau.</span> (Publication begun at Breslau in 1847).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Zoologie.</span> Leipzig. (Begun in 1848).</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p>A large number of other periodicals devoted to entomology have been
+issued, principally in Europe, but after continuing for a year or more
+their publication has been abandoned, and they are not included here.
+Important entomological papers have also been published in many serials
+devoted to zoölogy or the natural sciences generally. Among them may be
+mentioned the following:</p>
+
+<div class="left">
+<ul>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Annals and Magazine of Natural History.</span> London (beginning with 1838).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Archiv für Naturgeschichte.</span> Berlin (beginning with 1835).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Öfversigt af Kongl. Svenska Vetenskaps Academiens Förhandlingar</span>
+(beginning with 1844. Published at Stockholm).</li>
+  <li><p class="books">Proceedings of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.</p></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Proceedings of the Zoölogical Society of London.</span></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Revue et magasin de zoologie pure et appliquée.</span> Paris (beginning with
+1839).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Sitzungsberichte der mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Classe der
+kaiserlichen Academie der Wissenschaften zu Wien</span> (beginning with 1848).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Transactions of the Linnean Society of London</span> (beginning with 1791).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute.</span> Wellington,
+New Zealand.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Verhandlungen der zoologisch-botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien</span> (beginning
+with 1852).</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="MORE_USE" id="MORE_USE">LIST OF MORE USEFUL WORKS ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY.</a></h3>
+
+<div class="left">
+<ul>
+  <li><span class="smcap">T. W. Harris</span>, Insects Injurious to Vegetation. (Flint edition.) New<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+York, Orange Judd Co. $4 or $6. (First edition, Cambridge, 1841.)</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><span class="smcap">Asa Fitch</span>, Reports of the State Entomologist of New York, <span class="smcap">i&ndash;xiv</span>,
+Albany, 1855&ndash;'70. (For a full account of these, see First Annual Report,
+by J. A. Lintner, State Entomologist of New York, pp. 294&ndash;297.)</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>The Practical Entomologist. Vols. <span class="smcap">i</span> and <span class="smcap">ii</span>. Published by the
+Entomological Society of Philadelphia, 1865&ndash;'67.</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>The American Entomologist, edited by B. D. Walsh and C. V. Riley.
+Vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>. St. Louis, Mo., 1868. (Out of print.)</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>The American Entomologist and Botanist, edited by C. V. Riley and Dr.
+George Vasey. Vol. <span class="smcap">ii</span>. St. Louis, Mo., 1870.</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>The American Entomologist, edited by C. V. Riley. Vol. <span class="smcap">iii</span>. [Second
+series, Vol. <span class="smcap">i</span>.] New York, Hub Publishing Co., 1880.</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><span class="smcap">B. D. Walsh</span>, Annual Report on the Noxious Insects of the State of
+Illinois. Chicago, Prairie Farmer Co., 1868.</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><span class="smcap">C. V. Riley</span>, Reports of the State Entomologist of Missouri, <span class="smcap">i&ndash;ix</span>,
+Jefferson City, 1869&ndash;'77.</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><span class="smcap">William Le Baron</span>, Reports of the State Entomologist of Illinois.
+<span class="smcap">i&ndash;iv</span>, Springfield, 1871&ndash;'74.</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><span class="smcap">Cyrus Thomas</span>, Reports of the State Entomologist of Illinois, <span class="smcap">i&ndash;vi</span>,
+Springfield, 1876&ndash;'81.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">J. A. Lintner</span>, Reports of the State Entomologist of New York. Albany
+(beginning with 1882).</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">S. A. Forbes</span>, Reports of the State Entomologist of Illinois. Springfield
+(beginning with 1883).</li>
+  <li><p class="books">&mdash;&mdash;Miscellaneous Essays on Economic Entomology. Springfield, Ill.,
+1886. (Published instead of Annual Report.)</p></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Mary Treat</span>, Injurious Insects of the Farm and Garden. New York, Orange
+Judd Co., 1882. (A small work compiled from Riley's reports.)</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">William Saunders</span>, Insects Injurious to Fruits. Philadelphia, J. B.
+Lippincott&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;Co., 1883.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Matthew Cooke</span>, Injurious Insects of the Orchard, Vineyard, etc.
+Sacramento, 1883. (8vo., pp. 472.)</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">P. J. Van Beneden</span>, Animal Parasites and Messmates. New York, D.
+Appleton&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;Co., 1876. International Scientific Series.</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>Reports of the Entomologists of the U. S. Department of Agriculture,
+T. Glover (1863&ndash;1878), J. H. Comstock (1879&ndash;1880), and C. V. Riley
+(1878&ndash;1879, 1880 to date).<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></li>
+  <li>Bulletins of the Division of Entomology of the U. S. Department of
+Agriculture, C. V. Riley, Entomologist (1883 to date).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span></li>
+  <li>Reports and Bulletins of the U. S. Entomological Commission.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">John Curtis</span>, Farm Insects. London, Blackie&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;Son, 1860.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Eleanor A. Ormerod</span>, Manual of Injurious Insects, and Methods of
+Prevention, etc. London and Edinburgh, 1881. (A small work, costing
+about $1.50.)</li>
+  <li>&mdash;&mdash;Reports of Observations of Injurious Insects and Common Farm Pests,
+with Methods of Prevention and Remedy. London. Simpkin, Marshall,
+Hamilton, Kent&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;Co., limited. (Fourteen reports issued up to
+1891.)</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">J. H. Kaltenbach.</span>&mdash;Die Pflanzenfeinde aus der Classe der Insekten. 8vo.
+Stuttgart, 1874. (A useful work for determining what insects infest
+plants in Europe.)</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Insect Life.</span> Periodical Bulletin.&mdash;Devoted to the economy and the
+life-habits of insects, especially in their relations to agriculture.
+Edited by C. V. Riley, entomologist, and L. O. Howard, first assistant,
+with the assistance of other members of the divisional force
+(Publication begun in 1888.)</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">E. L. Taschenberg.</span>&mdash;Praktische Insekten-Kunde. Parts <span class="smcap">i&ndash;v</span>. Bremen, 1879.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Felice Franceschini.</span>&mdash;Gli Insetti Nocivi. Milan, 1891.</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">J. T. C. Ratzeburg.</span>&mdash;Die Waldverderbniss, oder dauernder Schade, welcher
+durch Insektenfrass, Schälen, Schlagen, und Verbeissen an lebenden
+Waldbäumen entsteht. Two parts. Berlin, 1866&ndash;'68.</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="ENTO_WORK" id="ENTO_WORK">ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS PUBLISHED BY THE UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL
+COMMISSION AND BY THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.</a></h3>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="WORK_USEC" id="WORK_USEC">UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.</a></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>(Members of the Commission: C. V. Riley, A. S. Packard, jr., and
+Cyrus Thomas.)</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="left">
+<ul>
+  <li><a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a><span class="smcap">Bulletin No.&nbsp;1.</span>&mdash;Destruction of the young or unfledged Locusts
+(<i>Caloptenus spretus</i>). (1877.) [pp. 15.]</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Bulletin No.&nbsp;2.</span>&mdash;On the Natural History of the Rocky Mountain Locust and
+on the habits of the young or unfledged insects as they occur in the
+more fertile country in which they will hatch the present year. (1877.)
+[pp. 14, figs. 10.]</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Bulletin No. 3.</span>&mdash;The Cotton Worm. Summary of its Natural History, with
+an Account of its Enemies, and the best Means of controlling it; being a
+Report of Progress of the Work of the Commission. By Chas. V. Riley, M.
+A., Ph. D. (1880.) [pp. 144, figs. 84, plates 1.]</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Bulletin No. 4.</span>&mdash;The Hessian Fly. Its Ravages, Habits, Enemies, and
+Means of preventing its Increase. By A. S. Packard, jr., M. D. (1880.)
+[pp. 43, figs. 1, <ins title="plates 2.,">plates 2,</ins> maps 1.]</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Bulletin No. 5.</span>&mdash;The Chinch Bug. Its History, Characters, and Habits,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+and the Means of destroying it or <ins title="counteractering">counteracting</ins>
+its Injuries. By Cyrus Thomas, Ph. D. (1879.) [pp. 44, figs. 10, maps
+1.]</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Bulletin No. 6.</span>&mdash;General Index and Supplement to the nine Reports on the
+Insects of Missouri. By Charles V. Riley, M. A., Ph. D. (1881.) [pp.
+177.]</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Bulletin No. 7.</span>&mdash;Insects injurious to Forest and Shade Trees. By A. S.
+Packard, jr., M. D. (1881.) [pp. 275, figs. 100.]</li>
+  <li>First Annual Report for the year 1877, relating to the Rocky Mountain
+Locust and the best Methods of preventing its Injuries and of guarding
+against its Invasions, in pursuance of an Appropriation made by Congress
+for this purpose. With maps and illustrations. (1878.) [pp. 477+294,
+figs. 111, plates 5, maps 1.]</li>
+  <li>Second Report for the years 1878 and 1879, relating to the Rocky
+Mountain Locust and the Western Cricket, and treating of the best Means
+of subduing the Locust in its permanent Breeding grounds, with a view of
+preventing its Migrations into the more fertile Portions of the
+trans-Mississippi country, in pursuance of Appropriations made by
+Congress for this purpose. With Maps and Illustrations. (1880.) [pp.
+<span class="smcap">xviii</span>+322+22, figs. 10, plates 17, maps 7.]</li>
+  <li>Third Report relating to the Rocky Mountain Locust, the Western Cricket,
+the Army Worm, Canker Worms, and the Hessian Fly; together with
+Descriptions of Larvæ of injurious Forest Insects, Studies on the
+embryological Development of the Locust and of other Insects, and on the
+systematic Position of the Orthoptera in Relation to other Orders of
+Insects. With Maps and Illustrations. (1883.) [pp. <span class="smcap">xviii</span>+347+91, figs.
+14, plates 64, maps 3.]</li>
+  <li>Fourth Report, being a revised Edition of Bulletin No.&nbsp;3, and the Final
+Report on the Cotton Worm and Bollworm. By Charles V. Riley, Ph. D.
+(1885.) [pp. <span class="smcap">xxxviii</span>+399+147, figs. 45, plates 64, maps 2.]</li>
+  <li>Fifth Report, being a revised and enlarged edition of Bulletin No.&nbsp;7, on
+Insects Injurious to Forest and Shade Trees. By Alpheus S. Packard, M.
+D., Ph. D., with woodcuts and 40 plates. (1890 (1). Small edition; only
+a few for general <ins title="distribution]">distribution)</ins>.</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="BULL_USDA" id="BULL_USDA">BULLETINS OF THE DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF
+AGRICULTURE, UNDER DIRECTION OF C. V. RILEY, ENTOMOLOGIST.</a></p>
+
+<div class="left">
+<ul>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No.&nbsp;1.&mdash;Reports of Experiments, chiefly with Kerosene, upon the
+Insects injuriously affecting the Orange Tree and the Cotton Plant, made
+under the Direction of the Entomologist. (1883.) [pp. 62.]</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 2.&mdash;Reports of Observations on the Rocky Mountain Locust and
+Chinch Bug, together with Extracts from the Correspondence of the
+Division on Miscellaneous Insects. (1883.) [pp. 36.]</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 3.&mdash;Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical Work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+of the Division, made under the Direction of the <ins title="Entomlogist">Entomologist</ins>. With plates. (1883.) [pp. 75, plates III.]</li>
+  <li>No. 4.&mdash;Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical Work of
+the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist, together
+with Extracts from Correspondence on miscellaneous Insects. (1884.) [pp.
+102, figs. 4.]</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 5.&mdash;Descriptions of North American Chalcididæ from the
+Collections of the U. S. Department of Agriculture and of Dr.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;V.
+Riley, with biological Notes. [First paper.] Together with a list of the
+described North American species of the family. By L. O. Howard, M. Sc.,
+Assistant, Bureau of Entomology. (1885.) [pp. 47.]</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 6.&mdash;The imported Elm-leaf Beetle. Its Habits and Natural History,
+and Means of counteracting its Injuries. (1885.) [pp. 18, figs. 1,
+plates I.]</li>
+  <li>No. 7.&mdash;The Pediculi and Mallophaga affecting Man and the lower Animals.
+By Prof. Herbert Osborn. (1891.) [pp. 54, figs. 42.]</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 8.&mdash;The Periodical Cicada. An account of <i>Cicada septendecim</i> and
+its tredicim race, with a chronology of all of the broods known. By
+Charles V. Riley, Ph. D. (1885.) [pp. 46, figs. <ins title="8.)">8.]</ins></li>
+  <li>No. 9.&mdash;The Mulberry Silk-worm; being a Manual of Instructions in Silk
+culture. By Charles V. Riley, M. A., Ph. D. (1886.) [pp. 65, figs. 29,
+plates II.]</li>
+  <li>No. 10.&mdash;Our Shade Trees and their Insect Defoliators. Being a
+consideration of the four most injurious species which affect the trees
+of the capital, with means of destroying them. By Charles V. Riley,
+Entomologist. (1887.) [pp. 75, figs. 27.]</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 11.&mdash;Reports of Experiments with various Insecticide Substances,
+chiefly upon Insects affecting garden Crops, made under the Direction of
+the Entomologist. (1886.) [pp. 34.]</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 12.&mdash;Miscellaneous Notes on the work of the Division of
+Entomology for the Season of 1885; prepared by the Entomologist. (1886.)
+[pp. 45, plates I.]</li>
+<li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 13.&mdash;Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical
+Work of the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist.
+(With illustrations.) (1887.) [pp. 78, figs. 4.]</li>
+  <li>No. 14.&mdash;Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical Work
+of the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist. (1887.)
+[pp. 62, figs. 2, plates I.]</li>
+  <li>No. 15.&mdash;The Icerya, or Fluted Scale, otherwise known as the Cottony
+Cushion-scale. (Reprint of some recent Articles by the Entomologist and
+of a Report from the Agricultural Experiment Station, University of
+California.) (1887.) [pp. 40.]</li>
+  <li>No. 16.&mdash;The Entomological Writings of Dr.&nbsp;Alpheus Spring Packard. By
+Samuel Henshaw. (1887.) [pp. 49.]</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 17.&mdash;The Chinch Bug: A general Summary of its History, Habits,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+Enemies, and of the Remedies and Preventives to be used against it. By
+L. O. Howard M. S., Assistant Entomologist. (1888.) [pp. 48, figs. 10.]</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 18.&mdash;The Life and Entomological Work of the late Townend Glover,
+first Entomologist of the United States Department of Agriculture.
+Prepared under the Direction of the Entomologist, by C. R. Dodge.
+(1888.) [pp. 68, figs. 6, plates I.]</li>
+  <li>No. 19.&mdash;An enumeration of the published Synopses, Catalogues, and Lists
+of North American Insects; together with other information intended to
+assist the student of American Entomology. (1888.) [pp. 77.]</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 20.&mdash;The Root Knot Disease of the Peach, Orange, and other Plants
+in Florida, due to the Work of Anguillula. Prepared under the Direction
+of the Entomologist, by J. C. Neal, Ph. D., M. D. (1889.) [pp. 31,
+plates 21.]</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>No. 21.&mdash;Report of a Trip to Australia, made under the Direction of
+the Entomologist to investigate the Natural Enemies of the Fluted Scale,
+by Albert Koebele. (1890.) [pp. 32, figs. 16.]</li>
+  <li>No. 22.&mdash;Reports of the Observations and Experiments in the practical
+Work of the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist.
+(1890.) [pp. 110.]</li>
+  <li>No. 23.&mdash;Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical Work
+of the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist. (1891.)
+[pp. 83.]</li>
+  <li>No. 24.&mdash;The Boll Worm. Preliminary Report, made under the Direction of
+the Entomologist. By F. W. Mally. (1891.) [pp. 50.]</li>
+  <li>No. 25.&mdash;Destructive Locusts. A popular consideration of a few of the
+more injurious Locusts or &ldquo;Grasshoppers&rdquo; of the United
+States, together with the best means of destroying them. By C. V. Riley,
+Ph. D. (1891.) [pp. 62, figs. 11, plates 12.]</li>
+  <li><a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>No. 26.&mdash;Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical
+Work of the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist.
+(1892.)</li>
+  <li><a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>No. 27.&mdash;Reports on the Damage by destructive Locusts during the
+season of 1891, made under the Direction of the Entomologist. (1892.)
+[pp. 64.]</li>
+  <li><a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>No. 28.&mdash;The more destructive Locusts of America, north of Mexico,
+by Lawrence Bruner, prepared under Direction of the Entomologist.
+(1892.)</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><a name="SPEC_REPS" id="SPEC_REPS">SPECIAL REPORTS AND BULLETINS.</a></p>
+
+<div class="left">
+<ul>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><span class="smcap">Report on Cotton Insects.</span>&mdash;By J. Henry Comstock. (1879.) [pp. 511,
+figs. 77, plates III.]</li>
+  <li><a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a><span class="smcap">Special Report, No. 11.</span>&mdash;The Silkworm; being a brief Manual of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+Instructions for the Production of Silk. Prepared, by direction of the
+Commissioner of Agriculture, by C. V. Riley, M. A., Ph. D.,
+Entomologist. (First ed., 1879; fifth ed., 1885.) [pp. 37, figs. 8.]</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><span class="smcap">Special Report, No. 35.</span>&mdash;Report on Insects injurious to Sugar Cane.
+Prepared, under Direction of the Commissioner of Agriculture, by J.
+Henry Comstock, Entomologist. (1881.) [pp. 11, figs. 3.]</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><span class="smcap">Division of Entomology.&mdash;Insects Affecting the Orange.</span>&mdash;Report on the
+Insects affecting the Culture of the Orange and other plants of the
+Citrus Family, with practical Suggestions for their Control or
+Extermination. By H. G. Hubbard. (1885.) [pp. x+227, figs. 95, plates
+XIV.]</li>
+  <li><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><span class="smcap">Special Report.</span>&mdash;Catalogue of the Exhibit of Economic Entomology at
+the World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition, New Orleans,
+1884&ndash;'85. (1888.) [pp. 95.]</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Special Bulletin.</span>&mdash;The Horn Fly (Hæmatobia serrata), being an account of
+its Life-history and the means to be used against it. By C. V. Riley and
+L. O. Howard. (Reprinted from Insect Life, Vol. II, No. 4, October
+1889.) (1889.) [pp. 11, figs. 5.]</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Bibliography of the more important Contributions to American Economic
+Entomology.</span> By Samuel Henshaw. Parts I, II, and III. The more important
+writings of Benjamin Dann Walsh and Charles Valentine Riley, Washington,
+1890.</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p style="font-size: 125%; text-indent: 0em;">Footnotes:</p>
+<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><span class="label">[10]</span> Out of print.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><span class="label">[11]</span> Publication discontinued.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> The annual reports of the Entomologist are contained in
+the corresponding annual reports of the Department of Agriculture. A
+limited author's edition, separately bound, and with table of contents
+and index, is published each year.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> All of these bulletins and reports, with the exception of
+the fifth report, are out of print.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Bulletin 26 is in press.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Bulletin 27 is in press.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Bulletin 28 is in
+course of preparation.</p>
+<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Bull. No. 9 of the Division of Entomology covers this
+subject.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<h2><a name="HOW_TO_OBTAIN_ENTOMOLOGICAL_BOOKS_AND_PAMPHLETS" id="HOW_TO_OBTAIN_ENTOMOLOGICAL_BOOKS_AND_PAMPHLETS"></a>HOW TO OBTAIN ENTOMOLOGICAL BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.</h2>
+
+<p>Comparatively few of the works treating of the classification of North
+American insects have been published as separate books; but such as have
+been so published, if of comparatively recent date, can be obtained
+through the regular book trade. By far the greater number of the
+monographs and synopses mentioned in the preceding pages have been
+published in scientific periodicals and in the proceedings or
+transactions of scientific societies. These may be obtained either
+through the societies or through the publishers; but single volumes of
+transactions or proceedings, and more especially single papers, are
+seldom sold, and the older volumes are liable to be out of print.
+Moreover, the expense attending the purchase of all of the periodicals
+containing the publications on a given order of insects will be so great
+as to put them beyond the reach of most entomologists. The custom of
+placing at the disposal of authors a number of separate copies of their
+papers overcomes this difficulty to some extent and creates a small
+supply. Thus it often happens that a person interested can obtain a copy
+of a scientific paper by addressing the author personally. Many of
+these separate copies also fall into the possession of dealers in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+second-hand books, and may be purchased from them. The American
+Entomological Society of Philadelphia, and also a few other societies
+here and in Europe, offer for sale from their duplicates many of these
+authors' extras, and in some cases publish lists. There are, moreover,
+certain business establishments which make a specialty of the sale of
+works and pamphlets on natural history, including entomology, and it is
+chiefly through such establishments that the student is enabled to
+secure the larger portion of the works needed.</p>
+
+<p>By subscribing to the entomological periodicals published in this
+country (a matter of but slight expense) the student may keep abreast of
+the current literature. Short book reviews or notes published therein
+call attention to the more important publications in other countries.
+Moreover, the Zoölogischer Anzeiger, edited by Prof. J. Victor Carus, in
+Leipzig, Germany, and published every fortnight, gives a tolerably
+complete bibliography of the current entomological literature at
+intervals of about six or eight weeks. The &ldquo;Naturæ
+Novitates,&rdquo; published every fortnight by R.
+Friedlaender&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;Sohn, Carlstrasse, 11, Berlin, Germany, gives the
+titles of most recent works and pamphlets.</p>
+
+<p>There are also three great annual publications, viz: &ldquo;Die
+Fortschritte auf dem Gebiet der Entomologie,&rdquo; published in
+Wiegmann's &ldquo;Archiv für Naturgeschichte;&rdquo; &ldquo;The
+Zoölogical Record,&rdquo; published by the Zoölogical Record Society, in
+London, England; and the &ldquo;Zoölogische Jahresberichte,&rdquo;
+published by the Zoölogical Station at Naples, Italy, which give the
+full literature of the previous year, discussing the more important
+papers and giving a list of the new species, besides other information.
+These three publications are almost indispensable to the student in any
+branch of zoölogy, and some one of them at least ought to be found in
+every public library in the country. The volumes of the
+&ldquo;Zoölogische Jahresberichte&rdquo; since 1887 contain no titles
+upon systematic and classificatory zoölogy, but only such as refer to
+biology.</p>
+
+<p>A not inconsiderable portion of the North American literature on the
+classification of insects has been published by the Government of the
+United States through various channels, foremost among which are the
+Smithsonian Institution, the U. S. Department of Agriculture, the U. S.
+National Museum, the U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey, and the
+various surveys of the Territories. Some of these publications are
+distributed free of cost; while others, like certain of the publications
+of the Smithsonian Institution and the Geological Survey, are sold at a
+moderate price to cover the cost of publication. Many of them are out of
+print, and can only be obtained through natural history book-dealers.</p>
+
+<p>Of the more general works, some may be obtained direct from the
+publishers, and in such cases the publishers are mentioned in the
+general list. The older works are mostly out of print and can only be
+obtained from second-hand dealers. The current State reports of Lintner
+and Forbes may be obtained from the secretaries of the respective State
+agricultural societies at Albany, N. Y., and Springfield, Ill., while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+the bulletins and reports of the entomologists of the various State
+experiment stations, of which a large number are being published, may be
+obtained from the directors of the respective stations. The older
+reports of the State entomologist of Missouri and the State
+entomologists of Illinois (Walsh, Le Baron, and Thomas) are all out of
+print and can only be obtained by purchase from second-hand dealers. The
+same may be said of the well-known and oft-quoted reports of Dr.&nbsp;Fitch,
+which were published with the old volumes of the Transactions of the New
+York State Agricultural Society.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Directions for Collecting and
+Preserving Insects, by C. V. Riley
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@@ -0,0 +1,7364 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Directions for Collecting and Preserving
+Insects, by C. V. Riley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Directions for Collecting and Preserving Insects
+
+Author: C. V. Riley
+
+Release Date: March 26, 2012 [EBook #39275]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Jens Nordmann and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and
+formatting have been maintained.
+
+Corrections applied to the original text have been listed at the end of
+the text.
+
+
+The ligature oe and OE has been marked as [oe] and [OE].
+
+Formatting:
+
+Text in italics has been marked with underscores (_text_) and spaced text
+with equal signs (=text=).
+
+
+
+
+                         SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
+                      UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM.
+
+
+
+             DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS.
+
+                                    BY
+
+                        C. V. RILEY, M. A., PH. D.,
+  _Honorary Curator of the Department of Insects, U. S. National Museum._
+
+
+
+      Part F of Bulletin of the United States National Museum, No. 39
+                             (with one plate).
+
+
+
+                                WASHINGTON:
+
+                        GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
+
+                                   1892.
+
+
+
+
+                                =CONTENTS.=
+
+                                                                   Page.
+  INTRODUCTORY                                                         3
+  MANUAL OF INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS         5
+  CHARACTERISTICS OF INSECTS                                           5
+  SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF ENTOMOLOGY                                   6
+  CLASSIFICATION OF HEXAPODS                                           8
+    Order Hymenoptera                                                 12
+    Order Coleoptera                                                  14
+    Order Lepidoptera                                                 16
+    Order Hemiptera                                                   17
+      Suborder Thysanoptera                                           18
+    Order Diptera                                                     19
+      Suborder Aphaniptera                                            20
+    Order Orthoptera                                                  21
+      Suborder Dermaptera                                             22
+    Order Neuroptera                                                  22
+      Suborder Trichoptera                                            23
+      Suborder Mecoptera                                              23
+      Suborder Neuroptera                                             23
+      Suborder Platyptera                                             24
+      Suborder Plecoptera                                             25
+      Suborder Odonata                                                25
+      Suborder Ephemeroptera                                          25
+      Suborder Thysanura                                              26
+  COLLECTING                                                          26
+    General considerations                                            26
+    Collecting apparatus                                              29
+      The sweeping net                                                29
+      The water net                                                   31
+      Water dip-net                                                   32
+      The umbrella                                                    32
+      The beating cloth                                               33
+      The umbrella net                                                34
+      The sieve                                                       35
+      The chisel                                                      36
+      The trowel                                                      36
+      The collecting tweezers                                         36
+      The brush                                                       37
+      The fumigator                                                   38
+      The haversack                                                   38
+      The lens and microscope                                         39
+    Collecting Hymenoptera                                            39
+    Collecting Coleoptera                                             42
+      General directions                                              42
+      Winter collecting                                               43
+      Spring collecting                                               44
+        Myrmecophilous and Termetophilous species                     44
+        Spring flights of Coleoptera                                  44
+        Beach collecting                                              45
+        Attracting by lights                                          45
+        Traps                                                         45
+        Freshet                                                       45
+      Summer collecting                                               46
+        Collecting under stones                                       46
+        Collecting in rotten stumps and logs                          46
+        Collecting in dying or dead trees                             47
+        Beating living trees, shrubs, and vines                       47
+        Sweeping                                                      47
+        Collecting on mud and gravel banks                            48
+        Collecting aquatic beetles                                    49
+        Collecting at the seashore and on sandy places                49
+        Collecting dung beetles                                       49
+        Night collecting                                              50
+      Fall collecting                                                 50
+    Collecting Lepidoptera                                            50
+        Collecting the adults                                         50
+        Collecting the early states                                   53
+    Collecting Hemiptera                                              54
+    Collecting Diptera                                                55
+    Collecting Orthoptera                                             57
+    Collecting Neuroptera                                             58
+        Pseudoneuroptera                                              58
+        Neuroptera                                                    59
+  KILLING AND PRESERVING INSECTS                                      60
+    First preservation of living specimens                            60
+    Killing specimens                                                 61
+        Alcohol                                                       61
+        Chloroform and ether                                          62
+        Cyanide of potassium                                          63
+        Other agents                                                  65
+    Special directions for different orders                           66
+  ENTOMOTAXY                                                          67
+    Care of pinned and mounted specimens                              67
+      Insect pins                                                     67
+      Preparation of specimens                                        68
+      Pinning                                                         69
+      Mounting on points                                              70
+      Mounting duplicates                                             73
+      Temporary storage of specimens                                  74
+      Envelopes for Lepidoptera, etc.                                 74
+      Directions for spreading insects                                75
+      A new apparatus for spreading Microlepidoptera                  76
+      Spreading Microlepidoptera                                      77
+      Relaxing                                                        79
+      Inflation of the larvae of Lepidoptera                           80
+      Stuffing insects                                                82
+      Dry preservation of Aphides and other soft-bodied insects       82
+      Mounting specimens for the microscope                           84
+      Preparing and mounting the wings of Lepidoptera                 86
+    Preservation of alcoholic specimens                               88
+      Apparatus and methods                                           88
+        Vials, stoppers, and holders                                  89
+        Preserving micro-larvae in alcohol                             92
+      Preservative fluids                                             93
+        Alcohol                                                       93
+        Alcohol and white arsenic                                     93
+        Alcohol and corrosive sublimate                               94
+        Two fluids to preserve form and color                         94
+        Glycerin                                                      94
+        The Wickersheim preserving fluid                              94
+    Labeling specimens                                                95
+        General directions                                            95
+        Labels for pinned specimens                                   95
+        Labeling alcoholic specimens                                  97
+    Cabinet for apparatus                                             98
+  INSECT BOXES AND CABINETS                                           98
+    General directions                                                98
+    The folding box                                                   98
+    The cabinet                                                      100
+    The Lintner display box                                          101
+    The Martindale box for Lepidoptera                               104
+    Horizontal _versus_ vertical arrangement of boxes                104
+    Lining for insect boxes                                          104
+  ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS IN THE CABINET                              106
+    Systematic and biologic collections                              106
+    Economic displays                                                106
+    Labeling collections                                             107
+  MUSEUM PESTS, MOLD, ETC                                            108
+    Museum pests                                                     108
+      Remedies                                                       109
+        Naphthaline                                                  109
+        Bisulphide of carbon                                         110
+        Mercury pellets                                              110
+        Carbolic acid                                                110
+        A means of preserving insects in dry, hot countries          110
+    Mold                                                             111
+    Verdigrising and greasing                                        111
+  THE REARING OF INSECTS                                             112
+    General directions                                               112
+    The breeding cage, or vivarium                                   112
+    Detailed instructions for rearing                                115
+    The root cage                                                    118
+    Other apparatus                                                  119
+    The insectary                                                    120
+  DIRECTIONS FOR PACKING AND TRANSMITTING INSECTS                    121
+  NOTES AND MEMORANDA                                                123
+  INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING ARACHNIDS AND MYRIAPODS 124
+    Directions for collecting spiders                                124
+      Apparatus                                                      124
+      Time and locality for collecting                               125
+    Collecting other Arachnids, mites, ticks, scorpions, etc         126
+    Collecting Myriapoda                                             130
+  TEXT BOOKS AND ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS                                 131
+    Comprehensive works most useful for the student of North
+    American insects                                                 132
+    General works on classification                                  132
+      Hymenoptera                                                    132
+      Coleoptera                                                     132
+      Lepidoptera                                                    133
+      Hemiptera                                                      134
+      Diptera                                                        134
+      Orthoptera                                                     135
+      Neuroptera                                                     135
+      Myriapoda                                                      135
+      Arachnida                                                      136
+    American periodicals                                             136
+    Foreign periodicals                                              138
+    The more useful works on economic entomology                     140
+    Entomological works published by the United States Entomological
+    Commission and by the United States Department of Agriculture    141
+      Works by the United States Entomological Commission            141
+      Bulletins of the Division of Entomology, U. S. Department of
+      Agriculture                                                    142
+      Special reports and bulletins                                  144
+  HOW TO OBTAIN ENTOMOLOGICAL BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS                    145
+
+
+
+
+                               INTRODUCTORY.
+
+
+There is a constant demand, especially from correspondents of the Museum
+and also of the Department of Agriculture, for information as to how to
+collect, preserve, and mount insects. There is also great need of some
+simple directions on a great many other points connected with the proper
+packing of insects for transmission through the mails or otherwise;
+labeling; methods of rearing; boxes and cabinets; text-books, etc.
+Interest in the subject of entomology has, in fact, made rapid growth in
+the last few years, and now that nearly every State has an official
+entomologist connected with its State Agricultural Experiment Station,
+the number of persons interested in the subject may be expected to
+increase largely in the near future. I have hitherto made use of the
+Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, No. 261, which is a pamphlet on
+collecting and preserving insects prepared by Dr. A. S. Packard. This is
+out of print, and I have been requested by Prof. Goode to prepare for
+Bulletin 39, U. S. N. M., something that would cover the whole ground
+and give the more essential information needed for collectors and
+students of insect life. I have deemed it unnecessary to go too much
+into detail, but have studied not to omit anything essential. Customs
+and methods vary in different countries and with different individuals,
+but the recommendations contained in the following pages are based upon
+my own experience and that of my assistants and many acquaintances, and
+embrace the methods which the large majority of American entomologists
+have found most satisfactory.
+
+Much of the matter is repeated bodily from the directions for collecting
+and preserving insects published in my Fifth Report on the Insects of
+Missouri (1872) and quotations not otherwise credited are from that
+Report. The illustrations, also, when not otherwise credited or not
+originally made for this paper, are from my previous writings. Some are
+taken from Dr. Packard's pamphlet, already mentioned; others, with the
+permission of Assistant Secretary Willits, from the publications of the
+Department of Agriculture, while a number have been especially made for
+the occasion, either from photographs, or from drawings by Miss L.
+Sullivan or Dr. Geo. Marx or Mr. C. L. Marlatt. When enlarged, the
+natural size is indicated in hair-line. In the preparation of the
+pamphlet I have had the assistance of Mr. E. A. Schwarz, and more
+particularly of Mr. C. L. Marlatt, to both of whom I desire here to
+express my obligations.
+
+                                                             C. V. R.
+
+
+[Illustration: Pl. 1.--ILLUSTRATION OF BIOLOGIC SERIES.]
+
+
+
+
+       MANUAL OF INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS.
+
+                     *       *       *       *       *
+
+                              By C. V. RILEY,
+  _Honorary Curator of the Department of Insects, U. S. National Museum._
+
+                     *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+                        CHARACTERISTICS OF INSECTS.
+
+
+The term "insect" comes from the Latin _insectum_, and signifies "cut
+into." It expresses one of the prime characteristics of this class of
+animals, namely, that of segmentation. This feature of having the body
+divided into rings or segments by transverse incisions is possessed by
+other large groups of animals, and was considered of sufficient
+importance by Cuvier to lead him, in his system of classification, to
+group with Insects, under the general term Articulata, Worms, Crustacea,
+Spiders, and Myriapods. Worms differ from the other four groups in
+having no articulated appendages, and in having a soft body-wall or
+integument instead of a dense chitinous covering, and are separated as a
+special class _Vermes_. The other four groups of segmented animals
+possess in common the feature of jointed appendages and a covering of
+chitinous plates, and are brought together under the term _Arthropoda_.
+The division of the body into a series of segments by transverse
+incisions, characteristic of these animals and these only, justifies the
+use of Cuvier's old name, Articulates, as this segmented feature
+represents a definite relationship and a natural division--as much so as
+the vertebral column in Vertebrates. The Cuvierian name should be
+retained as a coordinate of Vertebrates, Molluscs, etc., and the terms
+Vermes and Arthropods may be conveniently used to designate the two
+natural divisions of the Articulates.
+
+The term "insect" has been employed by authors in two different
+senses--one to apply to the tracheated animals or those that breathe
+through a system of air tubes (tracheae), comprising Spiders, Myriapods,
+and insects proper or Hexapods,[1] and the other in its restricted sense
+as applied to the Hexapods only. To avoid confusion, the latter
+signification only should be used, and it will be thus used in this
+article.
+
+  [1] From the Greek [Greek: exapous], having 6 feet.
+
+We see, then, that insects share, in common with many other animals, the
+jointed or articulated structure. Wherein, then, do they differ?
+_Briefly, in having the body divided into thirteen joints and a
+subjoint_, including the head as a joint, and in the adult having six
+true, jointed legs, and usually, though not always, wings. The five
+classes of Articulates differ from each other in the number of legs they
+possess in the adult form, as follows: Hexapoda, 6 legs; Arachnida, 8
+legs; Crustacea, 10-14 legs; Myriapoda, more than 14 legs; Vermes, none.
+This system holds for the adult form only, because some mites
+(Arachnida) when young have only 6 legs, and many true insects in the
+larva state either have no legs at all, or have additional abdominal
+legs which are not jointed, but membranous, and are lost in the perfect
+or adult state. These are called false or prolegs.
+
+It will serve to make these instructions clear if I at once explain that
+the life of an insect is marked by four distinct states, viz., the egg,
+the larva, the pupa, and the imago, and that the last three words will
+constantly recur. We have no English equivalent for the words larva and
+pupa, for while some authors have written them with the terminal _e_, so
+as to get the English plural, yet "larves" and "pupes" so shock the ear
+that the terms have not been (and deserve not to be) generally adopted.
+
+We have seen that an insect in the final state has six true legs. Yet
+even here many species depart from the rule, as there are many in which
+the perfect insect, especially in the female sex, is apodous or without
+legs, just as there are also other cases where they are without wings.
+Sometimes the legs seem to be reduced in number by the partial or total
+atrophy of one or the other pair, but in all these exceptional cases
+there is no difficulty in realizing that we have to deal with a true
+insect, because of the other characters pertaining to the class, some of
+which it will be well to allude to.
+
+Insects are further characterized by having usually three distinct
+divisions of the body, viz.: head, thorax, and abdomen, and by
+undergoing certain metamorphoses or transformations. Now, while a number
+of other animals outside of the insect world go through similar
+transformations, those in the Crustacea being equally remarkable, yet,
+from the ease with which they are observed and the completeness of the
+transformations in most insects, the metamorphoses of this class have,
+from time immemorial, excited the greatest curiosity.
+
+
+
+
+                    SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF ENTOMOLOGY.
+
+
+But few words are necessary to indicate the importance of entomology,
+especially to the farming community; for while insects play a most
+important part in the economy of nature and furnish us some valuable
+products and otherwise do us a great deal of indirect good, yet they are
+chiefly known by the annoyances they cause and by the great injury they
+do to our crops and domestic animals. Hence some knowledge of insects
+and how to study them becomes important, almost necessary, to every
+farmer.
+
+The scope of the science may best be indicated by a statement of the
+number of species existing, as compared with other animals. The
+omnipresence of insects is known and felt by all; yet few have any
+accurate idea of the actual numbers existing, so that some figures will
+not prove uninteresting in this connection. Taking the lists of
+described species, and the estimates of specialists in the different
+orders, it is safe to say that about thirty thousand species have
+already been described from North America, while the number of species
+already described or to be described in the Biologia Centrali-Americana,
+i. e., for Central America, foot up just about the same number, Lord
+Walsingham having estimated them at 30,114 in his address as president
+of the London Entomological Society two years ago, neither the
+Orthoptera nor the Neuroptera being included in this estimate. By way of
+contrast the number of mammals, birds, and reptiles to be described from
+the same region, is interesting. It foots up 1,937, as follows:
+
+Mammals, 180; birds, 1,600; reptiles, 157.
+
+If we endeavor to get some estimate of the number of insects that occur
+in the whole world, the most satisfactory estimates will be found in the
+address just alluded to, and in that of Dr. David Sharp before the same
+society. Linnaeus knew nearly 3,000 species, of which more than 2,000
+were European and over 800 exotic. The estimate of Dr. John Day, in
+1853, of the number of species on the globe, was 250,000. Dr. Sharp's
+estimate thirty years later was between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Sharp's
+and Walsingham's estimates in 1889 reached nearly 2,000,000, and the
+average number of insects annually described since the publication of
+the Zoological Record, deducting 8 per cent for synonyms, is 6,500
+species. I think the estimate of 2,000,000 species in the world is
+extremely low, and if we take into consideration the fact that species
+have been best worked up in the more temperate portions of the globe,
+and that in the more tropical portions a vast number of species still
+remain to be characterized and named, and if we take further into
+consideration the fact that many portions of the globe are yet
+unexplored, entomologically, that even in the best worked up regions by
+far the larger portion of the Micro-Hymenoptera and Micro-Diptera remain
+absolutely undescribed in our collections, and have been but very
+partially collected, it will be safe to estimate that not one-fifth of
+the species extant have yet been characterized or enumerated. In this
+view of the case the species in our collections, whether described or
+undescribed, do not represent perhaps more than one-fifth of the whole.
+In other words, to say that there are 10,000,000 species of insects in
+the world, would be, in my judgment, a moderate estimate.
+
+
+
+
+                        CLASSIFICATION OF HEXAPODS.
+
+
+Seven orders of insects were originally recognized by Linnaeus, namely,
+Neuroptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera,
+and Aptera. This classification was based on the organs of flight only,
+and while in the main resulting in natural divisions which still furnish
+the basis of more modern classifications, was faulty in several
+particulars. For instance, the Aptera, which included all wingless
+insects, was soon found to be a very unnatural assemblage and its
+components were distributed among the other orders. The establishment of
+the order Orthoptera by Olivier to include a large and well-defined
+group of insects associated with the Hemiptera by Linnaeus, restored the
+original seven orders, and this classification has, in the main, been
+followed by entomologists up to the present time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Pyramid showing the nature of the mouth, and
+relative rank of the Orders, and the affinities of the Suborders of
+Insects.]
+
+All insects are, in a broad way, referable to one or the other of these
+seven primary orders by the structure of the wings and the character of
+the mouth-parts in the imago, and by the nature of their
+transformations.
+
+Some of these orders are connected by aberrant and osculant families or
+groups, which have by other authors been variously ranked as independent
+orders, but which, following Westwood substantially, I have considered,
+for convenience, as suborders. (_See_ Fifth Report, Insects of Missouri,
+etc., 1872.)
+
+In the article just cited, I made use of the accompanying diagram in the
+form of a pyramid (Fig. 1), which gives a graphic representation of the
+distinguishing characters and the relative rank as usually accepted, of
+the orders and suborders.
+
+Full discussion of the different classifications is unnecessary in this
+connection. Authors have differed in the past and will differ in the
+future as to what constitutes a natural system, and it would require
+many pages to give even a brief survey of the various schemes that have
+been proposed. As I have elsewhere said, "We must remember that
+classifications are but a means to an end--appliances to facilitate our
+thought and study--and that, to use Spencer's words, 'we cannot, by any
+logical dichotomies, actually express relations which in nature graduate
+into each other insensibly.'"
+
+The most philosophical, perhaps, of the more modern systems of
+classification is that of Friedrich Brauer, who has carefully studied
+the subject, and has given us an arrangement consisting of sixteen
+orders. This has many merits and has been adopted, with slight
+modifications, by Packard in his "Entomology for Beginners," and by
+Hyatt and Arms in their recent and valuable text-book "Insecta."
+Comstock, in his "Introduction to Entomology" strongly recommends
+Brauer's classification, but for reasons of simplicity and convenience
+adheres to a modification of the old classification of Westwood.
+
+For purposes of comparison the classification by Hyatt and Arms, which
+is substantially that of Brauer, may be introduced.
+
+In linear arrangement it is as follows:
+
+     I. Thysanura (_Spring-tails_, etc.).
+    II. Ephemeroptera (_Ephemeridae_; May-flies). (=_Plectoptera_ Pack.)
+   III. Odonata (_Libellulidae_; Dragon-flies).
+    IV. Plecoptera (_Perlidae_; Stone-flies).
+     V. Platyptera (_Termites_, _Mallophaga_, etc.).
+    VI. Dermaptera (_Forficulidae_; Earwigs).
+   VII. Orthoptera (Locusts, Grasshoppers, etc.).
+  VIII. Thysanoptera (_Thripidae_; Fringe-wings).
+    IX. Hemiptera (Bugs).
+     X. Coleoptera (Beetles).
+    XI. Neuroptera (_Sialidae_, _Hemerobiidae_; Lace-wings, etc.).
+   XII. Mecoptera (_Panorpidae_; Scorpion-flies).
+  XIII. Trichoptera (_Phryganeidae_; Caddis-flies).
+   XIV. Lepidoptera (Butterflies and Moths).
+    XV. Hymenoptera (Bees, Wasps, etc.).
+   XVI. Diptera (Two-winged flies).
+
+The relationship of these orders cannot be indicated in a linear
+arrangement, and is admirably shown by Hyatt and Arms by means of
+diagrams which I reproduce (Figs. 2, 3.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Scheme illustrating origin and relationship of
+Orders. (After Hyatt.)]
+
+The relation of these sixteen orders to the older, septenary scheme is
+shown by the following arrangement:
+
+  1. Hymenoptera  Hymenoptera XV.
+
+  2. Coleoptera   Coleoptera X.
+
+  3. Lepidoptera  Lepidoptera XIV.
+
+                                      {Homoptera.
+  4. Hemiptera    {Hemiptera IX.      {Heteroptera.
+                  {Thysanoptera VIII.
+
+  5. Diptera      {Diptera XVI. {Including Aphaniptera or Siphonaptera
+                                {of some authors.
+
+  6. Orthoptera   {Orthoptera VII.
+                  {Dermaptera VI.
+
+                  {Trichoptera XIII  }
+                  {Mecoptera XII     }Neuroptera.
+                  {Neuroptera XI     }
+  7. Neuroptera   {Platyptera V      }
+                  {Plecoptera IV     }
+                  {Odonata III       }Pseudo-neuroptera.
+                  {Ephemeroptera II  }
+                  {Thysanura I       }
+
+It will be seen that the changes are not so great as would at first
+appear. The three more important orders, namely, the Hymenoptera,
+Coleoptera, and Lepidoptera, remain substantially the same in all
+classifications, and so with the three orders next in importance--the
+Hemiptera, Diptera, and Orthoptera. All that has been done with these
+three has been to rank as separate orders what by former authors were
+preferably considered as either families or suborders. The principal
+change is in the Neuroptera, of which no less than eight orders have
+been made. This is not to be wondered at, because the order, as formerly
+construed, was conceded to be that which represents the lowest forms
+and more synthetic types of insects, and as such necessarily contained
+forms which it is difficult to classify definitely.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Cross section of Fig. 2.]
+
+In the discussion of the characteristics, habits, number of species, and
+importance of the several groups, I follow, with such changes as the
+advances in the science of entomology have made necessary, the
+arrangement shown in Fig. 1.
+
+"Order HYMENOPTERA ([Greek: ymen], a membrane; [Greek: pteron], wing).
+Clear or Membrane-winged Flies: Bees, Wasps, Ants, Saw-flies, etc.
+Characterized by having four membranous wings with comparatively few
+veins, the hind part smallest. The transformations are complete: _i.
+e._, the larva bears no resemblance to the perfect insect.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Bold-faced Hornet, _Vespa maculata_. (After
+Sanborn).]
+
+"Some of the insects of this order are highly specialized, and their
+mouth-parts are fitted both for biting and sucking, and in this respect
+they connect the mandibulate and haustellate insects. The common
+Honey-bee has this complex structure of the mouth, and if the editors of
+our agricultural papers would bear the fact in mind, we should have less
+of the never-ending discussion as to whether bees are capable of
+injuring fruit at first hand. The lower lip (_labium_) is modified into
+a long tongue, sheathed by the lower jaws (_maxillae_), and they can sip,
+or, more properly speaking, lap up nectar; while the upper jaws
+(_mandibulae_), though not generally used for purposes of manducation,
+are fitted for biting and cutting. The Hymenoptera are terrestrial,
+there existing only a very few degraded, swimming forms.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--An Ichneumon Parasite, _Pimpla annulipes_,
+showing male and female abdomen.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--A Chalcid Parasite, _Chalcis flavipes_.]
+
+"This order is very naturally divided into two sections--the ACULEATA
+and TEREBRANTIA. The aculeate Hymenoptera, or Stingers, comprise all the
+families in which the abdomen in the female is armed with a sting
+connected with a poison reservoir, and may be considered the typical
+form of the order, including all the social and fossorial species. The
+insects of this section must be considered essentially beneficial to
+man, notwithstanding the occasional sting of a bee or wasp, the boring
+of a carpenter bee, or the importunities of the omnipresent ant. Not
+only do they furnish us with honey and wax, but they play so important a
+part in the destruction of insects injurious to vegetation that they may
+be looked upon as God-appointed guards over the vegetal
+kingdom--carrying the pollen from plant to plant, and insuring the
+fertilization of di[oe]cious species, and the cross-fertilization of
+others; and being ever ready to clear them of herbivorous worms which
+gnaw and destroy. The whole section is well characterized by the
+uniformly maggot-like nature of the larva. The transformations are
+complete, but the chitinous larval covering is often so very thin and
+delicate that the budding of the members, or gradual growth of the pupa
+underneath, is quite plainly visible, and the skin often peels off in
+delicate flakes, so that the transition from larva to pupa is not so
+marked and sudden as in those insects which have thicker skins.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--A Horn-tail, _Tremex columba_. _a_, larva,
+showing Thalessa larva attached to its side; _b_, head of larva, front
+view, enlarged; _c_, female pupa, ventral view; _d_, male pupa, ventral
+view; _e_, adult female--all slightly enlarged.]
+
+"The terebrantine Hymenoptera, or Piercers, are again divisible into two
+subsections: first, the ENTOMOPHAGA, which are, likewise, with the
+exception of a few gall-makers, beneficial to man, and include the
+parasitic families, and the gall-flies; second, the PHYTOPHAGA,
+comprising the Horn-tails (_Uroceridae_), and the Saw-flies
+(_Tenthredinidae_), all of which are vegetable feeders in the larval
+state, those of the first family boring into trees, and those of the
+second either feeding externally on leaves or inclosed in galls. They
+are at once distinguished from the other Hymenoptera by the larvae
+having true legs, which, however, in the case of the Horntails, are very
+small and exarticulate. The larvae of many Saw-flies have, besides,
+prolegs, which are, however, always distinguishable from those of
+Lepidopterous larvae by being more numerous and by having no hooks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Saw-fly and Larva. _Pristiphora grossulariae_;
+_a_, larva; _b_, imago, Walsh.]
+
+"Order COLEOPTERA ([Greek: koleos], a sheath; [Greek: pteron], wing).
+Beetles or Shield-winged Insects. Characterized by having four wings,
+the front pair (called _elytra_) horny or leathery, and usually united
+down the back with a straight suture when at rest, the hind ones
+membranous and folded up under the elytra when at rest. Transformations
+complete.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--A Chafer, _Cotalpa lanigera_. (After Packard.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--A Longicorn, _Saperda candida_. _a_, larva;
+_b_, pupa; _c_, beetle.]
+
+"This is an order of great importance, and in the vast number and
+diversity of the species comprised in it outranks any of the others. The
+ease with which the insects of this order are obtained and preserved
+make it one of the most attractive to the amateur, and beetles are,
+perhaps, of all insects, the best known and understood in the popular
+mind. For the same reason they have, in the perfect state, received most
+attention from the entomologists, but their transformations and
+preparatory forms yet offer a wide and inviting field for the student.
+The simplest and best-known classification of the beetles is the tarsal
+system, founded on the number of joints to the tarsi, by which we get
+four great sections: (1) PENTAMERA, in which all the tarsi are
+5-jointed; (2) HETEROMERA, with the four anterior 5-jointed and the two
+posterior 4-jointed; (3) PSEUDO-TETRAMERA, with apparently only four
+joints to all the tarsi, though, in reality, there is a fifth
+penultimate joint, diminutive and concealed; (4) PSEUDO-TRIMERA, with
+apparently only three joints to all the tarsi. This system, like most
+others, is not perfect, as there are numerous species not possessing
+five joints to the tarsi belonging to the first section; and for
+practical purposes beetles may be very well arranged according to habit.
+We thus get, first, the ADEPHAGA, or carnivorous species, including all
+those which prey on other living insects, and to which, following Mr.
+Walsh, I have, for obvious reasons, applied the suggestive term
+'Cannibal'; second, the NECROPHAGA, comprising those which feed on
+carrion, dung, fungi, and decaying vegetation; third, the PHYTOPHAGA,
+embracing all those feeding on living vegetation. This arrangement is by
+no means perfect, for there are beetles which are carnivorous in the
+larva and herbivorous in the imago state; while some of the NECROPHAGA
+are actually parasitic. Yet, it is not more artificial than others which
+have been proposed. The carnivorous species, broadly speaking, are
+_Pentamerous_, the only striking exception being the Coccinellidae
+(Lady-birds), which are _Pseudo-trimerous_. The carrion-feeders are also
+_Pentamerous_; but vegetable-feeders are found in all the tarsal
+divisions, though the _Pseudo-tetramera_ are the more essentially
+herbivorous, and consequently the most injurious."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--The Plum Curculio, _Conotrachelus nenuphar_.
+_a_, larva; _b_, pupa; _c_, beetle; _d_, plum showing egg-puncture and
+crescent.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--A Soldier-beetle, _Chauliognathus
+pennsylvanicus_. _a_, larva; _b-h_, parts of larva enlarged; _i_,
+beetle.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--The Bogus Potato-beetle, _Doryphora juncta_.
+_a_, eggs; _b_, larvae; _c_, beetle; _d_ and _e_, parts of beetle
+enlarged.]
+
+"Order LEPIDOPTERA ([Greek: lepis], a scale; [Greek: pteron], wing).
+Butterflies and Moths, or scaly-winged insects. Characterized by having
+four branching-veined membranous wings, each more or less densely
+covered on both sides with minute imbricated scales which are attached
+by a stalk, but which easily rub off, and appear to the unaided eye like
+minute particles of glistening dust or powder. Transformations complete.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--A Butterfly, _Pieris oleracea_.]
+
+"Next to the Lepidoptera, the Coleoptera are, perhaps, most familiar to
+the popular mind. Every one admires the beauty of these frail creatures,
+dressed in every conceivable pattern, and adorned with every conceivable
+color, so as to rival the delicate hues of the rainbow, and eclipse the
+most fantastic and elaborate designs of man. When magnified, the scales,
+to which this beauty of pattern and color is entirely due, present all
+manner of shapes, according to the particular species or the particular
+part of the individual from which they are taken. According to
+Lewenhoeck, there are 400,000 of these scales on the wing of the common
+silkworm.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--A Sphingid, _Ampelophaga myron_.]
+
+"The transformations of these insects are complete, and the changes are
+usually so sudden and striking as to have excited the wonder and
+admiration of observers from earliest times.
+
+"The more common form of the larva is exampled in the ordinary
+caterpillar--a cylindrical worm with a head, twelve joints and a
+sub-joint; six thoracic or true legs, four abdominal and two anal
+prolegs. But there is a great variety of these larvae, some having no
+legs whatever, some having only the jointed legs, and others having
+either four, six, eight, or ten, but never more than ten prolegs. With
+few exceptions they are all vegetable-feeders, and with still fewer
+exceptions, terrestrial. The perfect insects make free use of their
+ample wings, but walk little; and their legs are weak, and not modified
+in the various ways so noticeable in other orders, while the front pair
+in some butterflies are impotent.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--A Moth, _Utetheisa bella_.]
+
+"As an order this must be considered the most injurious of the seven.
+
+"A convenient system of classification for the Lepidoptera is based on
+the structure of the antennae. By it we get two great sections: 1st,
+Butterflies (RHOPALOCERA); 2d, Moths (HETEROCERA), which latter may
+again be divided into Crepuscular and Nocturnal Moths. Butterflies are
+at once distinguished from moths by their antennae being straight, stiff
+and _knobbed_, and by being day-fliers or diurnal; while moths have the
+antennae tapering to a point, and are, for the most part, night-flyers or
+nocturnal. The crepuscular moths, composed mostly of the Sphinges or
+Hawk-moths, hover over flowers at eve, and connect the two sections not
+only in habit, but in the character of the antennae which first thicken
+toward the end, and then suddenly terminate in a point or hook.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--A Clothes-moth (_Tinea pellionella_)--enlarged.
+_a_, adult; _b_, larva; _c_, larva in case.]
+
+"Order HEMIPTERA ([Greek: hemi], half; [Greek: pteron], wing), Bugs. The
+insects of this order are naturally separated into two great sections;
+1st, Half-winged Bugs, or HETEROPTERA ([Greek: heteros], different;
+[Greek: pteron], wing) having the basal half of the front wings (called
+_hemelytra_) coriaceous or leathery, while the apical part is
+membranous. The wings cross flatly over the back when at rest; 2d,
+Whole-winged Bugs, or HOMOPTERA ([Greek: homos], equal; [Greek: pteron],
+wing), having all four wings of a uniform membranous nature and folding
+straight down the back when at rest. The latter, if separated, may be
+looked upon as a Suborder.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--A Plant-bug (_Euschistus punctipes_).]
+
+"Transformations incomplete; _i. e._, the larvae and pupae have more or
+less the image of the perfect insect, and differ little from it except
+in lacking wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--A Soldier-bug (_Milyas cinctus_). _b_, beak
+enlarged.]
+
+"The genuine or half-winged Bugs (Figs. 18 and 19) are usually flattened
+in form, when mature; though more rounded in the adolescent stages. They
+may be divided into Land Bugs (_Aurocorisa_) and Water Bugs
+(_Hydrocorisa_). The species of the first division very generally
+possess the power of emitting, when disturbed or alarmed, a nauseous,
+bed-buggy odor, which comes from a fluid secreted from two pores,
+situated on the under side of the metathorax. Such well-known insects as
+the Bed-bug and Chinch-bug belong here. The habits of the species are
+varied, and while some are beneficial, others are quite injurious to
+man.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--A Tree-hopper (_Ceresa bubalus_). _a_, side;
+_b_, top view.]
+
+"The Whole-winged Bugs (Figs. 20 and 21), on the contrary, are all
+plant-feeders, and with the exception of a few, such as the Cochineal
+and Lac insects, are injurious. The secretion of a white, or bluish,
+waxy, or farinose substance from the surface of the body is as
+characteristic of this section as the nauseous odor is of the first. It
+forms three natural divisions, arranged according to the number of
+joints to the tarsi--namely TRIMERA, with three joints; DIMERA, with two
+joints; and MONOMERA, with one joint to the tarsi."
+
+Suborder THYSANOPTERA ([Greek: thysanos], a fringe; [Greek: pteron],
+wing): This suborder contains the single family _Thripidae_, which
+comprises minute insects commonly known as Thrips, and of which a common
+species, _Thrips striatus_, is shown in the accompanying figure. (See
+Fig. 22.) They bear strong relations to both the Pseudoneuroptera and
+the Hemiptera and by later writers are generally associated with the
+latter order. They feed on plants, puncturing and killing the leaves, or
+on other plant-feeding species of their own class, and are characterized
+by having narrow wings crossed on the back when at rest, and beautifully
+fringed, from which latter feature the name of the suborder is derived.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--A Plant-louse (_Schizoneura lanigera_). _a_,
+infested root; _b_, larva; _c_, winged insect; _d-g_, parts of perfect
+insect enlarged.]
+
+The mouth parts are peculiar in that they are intermediate in form
+between the sucking beak of Hemiptera and the biting mouth parts of
+other insects.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--_Thrips striatus_, with wings enlarged at
+side.]
+
+Their eggs resemble those of Hemiptera; the larvae and pupae are active,
+and in form resemble the adult, except in the absence of wings. Some
+species, also, are wingless in the adult stage.
+
+The pupae are somewhat sluggish and the limbs and wings are enclosed in a
+thin membrane which is expanded about the feet into bulbous
+enlargements, giving rise to the name "bladder-footed" (Physopoda)
+applied to these insects by Burmeister.
+
+"Order DIPTERA ([Greek: dis], twice; [Greek: pteron], wing) or
+Two-winged Flies. The only order having but two wings, the hind pair
+replaced by a pair of small, slender filaments clubbed at tip, and
+called halteres, poisers, or balancers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--A Mosquito (_Culex pipiens_). _a_, adult; _b_,
+head of same enlarged; _e_, portion of antenna of same; _f_, larva; _g_,
+pupa. (After Westwood.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--A Hawk-fly (_Erax bastardi_). _a_, perfect
+insect; _b_, pupa; larva shown at side.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--A Flesh-fly (_Sarcophaga carnaria_, var.
+_saracenae_). _a_, larva; _b_, puparium; _c_, adult insect with enlarged
+parts.]
+
+"No order surpasses this in the number of species or in the immense
+swarms of individuals belonging to the same species which are frequently
+met with. The wings, which are variously veined, though appearing naked
+to the unaided eye, are often thickly covered with very minute hairs or
+hooks. As an order the Diptera are decidedly injurious to man, whether
+we consider the annoyances to ourselves or our animals of the Mosquito,
+Buffalo-gnat, Gad-fly, Breeze-fly, Zimb or Stomoxys, or the injury to
+our crops of the Hessian-fly, Wheat-midge, Cabbage-maggot, Onion-maggot,
+etc. There are, in fact, but two families, Syrphidae and Tachinidae, which
+can be looked upon as beneficial to the cultivator, though many act the
+part of scavengers. No insects, not even the Lepidoptera, furnish such a
+variety of curious larval characters, and none, perhaps, offer a wider
+or more interesting field of investigation to the biologist. It is
+difficult to give any very satisfactory arrangement of these Two-winged
+flies, though they easily fall into two rather artificial sections.
+These are: 1st, NEMOCERA, or those with long antennae, having more than
+six joints, and palpi having four or five joints. The pupa is naked, as
+in the Lepidoptera, with the limbs exposed. This kind of pupa is called
+_obtected_. 2d, BRACHOCERA, or those with short antennae, not having more
+than three distinct joints, and palpi with one or two joints. The pupa
+is mostly _coarctate_, _i. e._, is formed within, and more or less
+completely connected with, the hardened and shrunken skin of the larva.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--The Sheep Bot (_[OE]strus ovis_). 1, 2, flies;
+3, puparium; 4, 5, and 6, larvae or bots.]
+
+"The most anomalous of the Diptera are the Forest-flies and Sheep-ticks
+(_Hippoboscidae_). They have a horny and flattened body, and resemble
+lice in their parasitic habits, living beneath the hair of bats and
+birds. Their mode of development has always attracted the attention of
+entomologists. The larvae are hatched in the abdomen of the female, which
+is capable of distention. There it remains and, after assuming the pupa
+state, is deposited in the form of a short, white, egg-like object,
+without trace of articulation, and nearly as large as the abdomen of the
+female fly. Closely allied to these are the Bat-ticks (_Nycteribidae_),
+which possess neither wings nor balancers, and remind one strongly of
+spiders.
+
+"In this order we may also place certain wingless lice (such as _Braula
+c[oe]ca_, Nitzch), which infests the Honey-bee in Europe, northern
+Africa, and western Asia, but which has not yet been detected in this
+country.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--A Flea (_Pulex_). (From Packard.)]
+
+"Suborder APHANIPTERA ([Greek: aphanes], inconspicuous; [Greek: pteron],
+wing) or Fleas, comprising the single family Pulicidae, now placed with
+the Diptera. Everybody is supposed to be familiar with the appearance of
+the Flea--its bloodthirsty propensities and amazing muscular power; and
+while everyone may not have the leisure and means to experience the
+exhilarating influence of the chase after larger animals, there is no
+one--be he never so humble--who may not indulge in the hunt after this
+smaller game! In place of wings the flea has four small, scaly plates.
+The minute eggs--about a dozen to each female--are laid in obscure
+places, such as the cracks of a floor, the hair of rugs, etc., and the
+larva is worm-like and feeds upon whatever animal matter--as grease and
+blood--or decaying vegetable matter it can find.
+
+"Order ORTHOPTERA ([Greek: orthos], straight; [Greek: pteron], wing), or
+Straight-winged Insects. Characterized by having the front wings (called
+_tegmina_) straight and usually narrow, pergameneous or parchment-like,
+thickly veined, and overlapping at tips when closed; the hind wings
+large and folding longitudinally like a fan. Transformations incomplete.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--A Locust (_Acridium americanum_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--A Tree-cricket (_Orocharis saltator_). _a_,
+female; _b_, male.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--The Croton Bug or German Cockroach
+(_Phyllodromia germanica_). _a_, first stage; _b_, second stage; _c_,
+third stage; _d_, fourth stage; _e_, adult; _f_, adult female with
+egg-case; _g_, egg-case--enlarged; _h_, adult with wings spread--all
+natural size except _g_.]
+
+"The insects of this order have a lengthened body and very robust jaws,
+with a correspondingly large head. The legs are strong, and fashioned
+either for grasping, running, climbing, jumping, or burrowing. As in the
+other orders, where the transformations are incomplete, the young differ
+little from the parent, except in the want of wings; and in many
+instances even this difference does not exist, as there are numerous
+species which never acquire wings. There are no aquatic Orthoptera. Some
+are omnivorous, others carnivorous, but most of them herbivorous. They
+form four distinct sections: 1st, CURSORIA, Cockroaches; 2d, RAPTATORIA,
+Mantes; 3d, AMBULATORIA, Walking-sticks; 4th, SALTATORIA, Crickets,
+Grasshoppers, and Locusts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Hind wing of Earwig. (From Comstock.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--An Earwig. (From Packard.)]
+
+"Suborder DERMAPTERA[2] ([Greek: derma], skin; [Greek: pteron], wing),
+or Earwigs, consisting of the single family Forficulidae, which may be
+placed with the Orthoptera. They are rare insects with us, but very
+common in Europe, where there prevails a superstition that they get into
+the ear and cause all sorts of trouble. The front wings are small and
+leathery; the hind ones have the form of a quadrant, and look like a fan
+when opened; and the characteristic feature is a pair of forceps-like
+appendages at the end of the body, best developed in the males. They are
+nocturnal in habit, hiding during the day in any available recess. The
+female lays her eggs in the ground, and singularly enough, broods over
+them and over her young, the latter crowding under her like chicks under
+a hen."
+
+  [2] Euplexoptera of some authors from [Greek: eu], well;
+  [Greek: plecho], folded, referring to the folded wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--A Dragon-fly (_Libellula trimaculata_). (From
+Packard.)]
+
+"Order NEUROPTERA ([Greek: neuron], nerve; [Greek: pteron], wing), or
+Nerve-winged insects. Characterized by having the wings reticulate with
+numerous veins so as to look like net-work. The order forms two natural
+divisions, the first including all those which undergo a complete, and
+the second, called Pseudo-neuroptera (Dictyotoptera, Burmeister),
+those which undergo an incomplete metamorphosis. * * * The insects of
+this order are, as a whole, more lowly organized, and more generally
+aquatic, than either of the others. A natural arrangement of them is
+difficult on account of their degradational character. They present
+forms which are synthetic and closely approach the other orders, and the
+evolutionist naturally looks upon them as furnishing an idea of what the
+archetypal forms of our present insects may have been. They are, as a
+rule, large and sluggish, with the body parts soft and little
+specialized, and the muscles weak. Their remains are found in the
+Devonian and Carboniferous deposits.
+
+"They are mostly carnivorous, and with the exception of the White-ants
+and certain Book-lice they none of them affect man injuriously, while
+some are quite beneficial."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Caddis-fly, larva and its case. (From
+Packard.)]
+
+The first division of this order, or the Neuroptera proper,
+characterized by having incomplete metamorphoses, may be considered
+under the three following suborders:
+
+"Suborder TRICHOPTERA ([Greek: thrix], hair; [Greek: pteron], wing), or
+Caddis-flies, containing the single family Phryganeidae, and placed with
+the Neuroptera, though bearing great affinities with the Lepidoptera.
+Every good disciple of Walton and lover of the "gentle art" knows the
+value of the Caddis-fly, or Water-moth, as bait. These flies very much
+resemble certain small moths, the scales on the wings of the latter
+being replaced in the former with simple hairs. The larvae live in the
+water and inhabit silken cases, which are usually cylindrical and
+covered with various substances, according to the species, or the
+material most conveniently obtained by the individual."
+
+Suborder MECOPTERA ([Greek: mekos], length; [Greek: pteron], wing). This
+suborder includes a peculiar group of insects, the most striking
+characteristics of which are the mouth-parts, which are prolonged into a
+rostrum or beak. The wings are long and narrow, and of nearly equal
+size. The abdomen of the male is constricted near its posterior end and
+terminates in long clasping organs from which these insects obtain the
+common name of Scorpion-flies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Panorpa or Scorpion-fly. (From Packard.)]
+
+The larvae of one genus (_Panorpa_) are remarkable for their great
+resemblance to the larvae of Lepidoptera. They have, however, eight pairs
+of abdominal legs. The habits of these insects are not well known, but
+they are supposed to be generally.
+
+Suborder NEUROPTERA. This group as restricted by modern authors is a
+small one, including the largest species, as in the Hellgrammite, the
+Lace-wing Flies, the Ant-lions, and the Mantispas representing the
+families, Sialidae and Hemerobiidae, with their subfamilies. The first
+includes the so-called Hellgrammite Fly (_Corydalus cornutus_), one of
+our largest and most striking insects, the larvae of which is known as
+Dobsons by anglers, and is aquatic and carnivorous in habit. The
+Hemerobiidae is a large family, comprising, as a rule, delicate insects
+with rather ample gauzy wings. The larvae are predaceous. The common
+Lace-wing flies are among our most beneficial insects, destroying
+plant-lice and other soft-bodied species. To the same family belongs the
+Ant-lion (_Myrmeleon_), the larvae of which have the curious habit of
+constructing a funnel-shaped burrow in the sand, in the bottom of which
+they conceal themselves and wait for any soft-bodied insects which may
+fall into the trap. This family also includes the peculiar Mantis-like
+insects belonging to the genus _Mantispa_. As in the true Mantis, the
+prothorax of these insects is greatly elongated and the first pair of
+legs are fitted for grasping. The larvae are parasitic in the egg-sacs of
+certain large spiders (genera _Licosa_, _Dolomedes_, etc.), and undergo
+a remarkable change in form after the first molt. In the first stage the
+larvae are very agile, with slender bodies and long legs. After molting
+the body becomes much swollen and the legs are much shortened, as are
+also the antennae, the head becoming small and the general appearance
+reminding one of the larva of a bee.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Lace-wing fly. _a_, eggs, _b_, larva, _c_,
+cocoons, _d_, fly with left wings removed.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--An Ant-lion (_Myrmeleon_). (From Packard.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Myrmeleon larva.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--_Mantispa_ with side view beneath. (From
+Packard.)]
+
+The second section of the Neuroptera, characterized by complete
+metamorphosis, comprises the following suborders:
+
+Suborder PLATYPTERA ([Greek: platys], flat; [Greek: pteron], wing).
+Under this head are grouped the White-ants (_Termitidae_), the Bird-lice
+(_Mallophaga_), and the Book-mites (_Psocidae_). The suborder receives
+its name from the fact that in the case of the winged forms the wings,
+when at rest, are usually laid flat upon the back of the insect. The
+Mallophaga, or Bird-lice, are degraded wingless insects, and are
+parasitic chiefly on birds, but also on mammals. In shape of body and
+character of the mouth-parts they are most nearly allied to the Psocidae.
+The latter family includes both winged and wingless forms, the
+Book-mites belonging to the latter category. The winged forms may be
+illustrated by the common species, _Psocus venosus_ (see Fig. 40). The
+legs and antennae are long and slender and the wings are folded roof-like
+over the body when the insect is at rest. They feed on lichens and dry
+vegetation.
+
+The Termitidae are represented in this country by the White-ant (_Termes
+flavipes_), which is frequently so destructive to woodwork, books, etc.
+The term White-ant applied to these insects is unfortunate, as in
+structure they are widely separated from ants and resemble them only in
+general appearance and also in their social habits. Like the ants they
+live in colonies and have a number of distinct forms, as winged and
+wingless, males and females, and workers and soldiers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--_Psocus venosus._ (From Comstock.)]
+
+Suborder PLECOPTERA ([Greek: plektos], plaited; [Greek: pteron], wing).
+Closely allied to the latter suborder is the suborder Plecoptera, which
+includes the single family Perlidae or Stone-flies. The larvae and pupae of
+these insects are aquatic, being often found under stones in water,
+whence the name. The adults are long, flattened insects, with long
+antennae. The wings are ample and are somewhat folded or plaited, from
+which character the suborder takes its name.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--A Stone-fly (_Pteronarcys regalis_). (From
+Comstock.)]
+
+Suborder ODONATA ([Greek: othous], tooth). This includes
+the Dragon-flies or Libellulidae, the most common and the best known of
+the Neuroptera. The larva and the active pupa or nymph are aquatic and
+are predaceous, as is also the adult. A common species is represented at
+Fig. 33.
+
+The Suborder EPHEMEROPTERA ([Greek: ephemeron], a day-fly; [Greek:
+pteron], wing) comprises the May-flies, or Ephemeridae (see Fig. 42).
+These insects are very fragile and are often attracted in enormous
+numbers to electric lights. They have large front wings, while the hind
+wings are small, rudimentary, or wanting. They are furnished with two or
+three very long, jointed, threadlike caudal appendages. The larval and
+nymphal stages are passed in the water and aquatic vegetation furnishes
+the food, although some species may be predaceous. The adults have very
+rudimentary mouths and eat nothing; their term of life is also very
+limited, not exceeding 2-4 days.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--A May-fly (_Potamanthus marginatus_). (From
+Packard.)]
+
+Suborder THYSANURA ([Greek: thysanos], tassel; [Greek: oura], tail).
+This suborder comprises minute, degraded insects commonly known as
+Spring-tails, Bristle-tails, Fish-moths, Snow-fleas, etc. They occur in
+damp situations and also infest books, wall-paper, etc., eating the
+starch paste in the book-bindings, or beneath the wall paper. They
+comprise very primitive forms and are interesting because they are
+supposed to represent the original stock from which the higher orders of
+insects have sprung. They are wingless, usually with simple eyes, and
+clothed with scales, and undergo no metamorphosis. Some of them, as the
+Fish-moth (_Lepisma sp._), run very rapidly and are furnished at the end
+of the body with a number of long bristles. In other forms these anal
+bristles or stylets are united at the base and bent under the body and
+become a powerful jumping organ, giving them the very appropriate name
+of Spring-tails.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--(_Lepisma 4-seriata_). (After Packard.)]
+
+
+
+
+                           COLLECTING.
+
+
+GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.--"Few departments of natural history offer
+greater inducements or facilities to the student than Entomology. He
+need not pass his threshold for material, for it may be found on every
+hand and at all seasons. The directions for collecting, preserving, and
+studying insects might be extended indefinitely in detail, as volumes
+have already been written on the subject; but the more general and
+important instructions are soon given.
+
+"Beginners are very apt to supply themselves with all sorts of
+appliances advertised by natural history furnishing stores. Many of
+these appliances, when it comes to real, practical field-work, are soon
+abandoned as useless incumbrances; and the greater the experience, the
+simpler will be the paraphernalia. My own equipment, on a collecting
+trip, consists chiefly of a cotton umbrella, a strong and narrow steel
+trowel or digger, a haversack slung across the shoulders, a cigar box
+lined with sheet cork, and a small knapsack attached to a waistbelt
+which girts a coat, not of many colors, but of many pockets, so made
+that in stooping nothing falls out of them. The umbrella is one of the
+indispensables. It shields, when necessary, from old Sol's scorching
+rays and from the pelting, drenching storm; brings within reach, by its
+hooked handle, many a larva-freighted bough which would otherwise remain
+undisturbed; and forms an excellent receptacle for all insects that may
+be dislodged from bush or branch. Opened and held inverted under a bough
+with the left hand, while the right manipulates a beating-stick, cut for
+the occasion, it will be the recipient of many a choice specimen that
+would never have been espied amid its protective surroundings. Some
+collectors use an umbrella painted or lined on the inside with white, to
+facilitate the detection of any object that drops into it; but as there
+are fully as many, if not more, pale and white insects as there are dark
+or black ones, the common dark umbrella is good enough for all ordinary
+purposes; and if any improvement on the ordinary cotton umbrella is
+desired, it should be in the way of a joint or knuckle about the middle
+of the handle, which will facilitate its packing and using. The trowel
+is valuable for prying off the loosened bark from old trees, whether
+felled or standing, and for digging into the ground or into decaying
+stumps and logs. The haversack is for the carriage of different kinds of
+boxes (those made of tin being best) intended for larval and other forms
+which it is necessary to bring home alive for breeding purposes; and if
+made with a partition so that the filled and empty boxes may be
+separated, all the better; it may also be used for nets and other
+apparatus to be mentioned, and for such provender as is necessary on the
+trip. The knapsack may be made on the plan of a cartridge box, of stout
+canvas or leather, and should be of moderate size and slung onto the
+belt so as to be slipped to any part of the waist and not hinder free
+bodily motion. It may be used to carry bottles, phials, and other small
+appliances, and should be accordingly partitioned and furnished with
+loops or pockets on the inside. The cigar-box is for the reception of
+pinned specimens, and may be slipped onto the belt, or buttoned to the
+trousers by means of leather.
+
+"The greatest requisites in collecting are a pair of sharp eyes and
+ready hands, with coolness and self-possession; but a few traps will
+materially aid. One of the most important is the hand-net, which may be
+made so as to subserve the two purposes of a sweeping and an air-net."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--The Butterfly net-frame.]
+
+"The frame of the net which I use is illustrated herewith (Fig. 44), and
+will be found strong and serviceable and conveniently portable. It is
+constructed as follows: Take two pieces of stout brass wire, each about
+20 inches long; bend them half-circularly and at one end by a folding
+hinge having a check on one side, _b_. The other ends are bent and
+beaten into two square sockets, _f_, which fit to a nut sunk and
+soldered into one end of a brass tube, _d_. When so fitted, they are
+secured by a large-headed screw, _e_, threaded to fit into the
+nut-socket, and with a groove wide enough to receive the back of a
+common pocket-knife blade. The wire hoop is easily detached and folded,
+as at _c_, for convenient carriage; and the handle may be made of any
+desired length by cutting a stick and fitting it into the hollow tube
+_a_, which should be about 6 inches long. It is well to have two
+separate hoops, one of lighter wire, furnished with silk gauze or some
+other light material, for catching flying insects, and one which is
+stouter and furnished with a net of stronger material for sweeping
+non-flying specimens.
+
+"Another still more simple, but less convenient frame, is thus described
+by my friend F. G. Sanborn, of Boston, Mass.:
+
+'Make a loop of strong iron or brass wire, of about 3-16ths of an inch
+in thickness, so that the diameter of the loop or circle will not exceed
+12 inches, leaving an inch to an inch and a half of wire at each end
+bent at nearly right angles. Bind the two extremities of the wire
+together with smaller wire (Fig. 45, _a_), and tin them by applying a
+drop of muriate of zinc, then holding it in the fire or over a gas flame
+until nearly red hot, when a few grains of block tin or soft solder
+placed upon them will flow evenly over the whole surface and join them
+firmly together. Take a Maynard rifle cartridge tube, or other brass
+tube of similar dimensions; if the former, file off the closed end or
+perforate it for the admission of the wire, and having tinned it in the
+same manner on the inside, push a tight-fitting cork half way through
+(Fig. 45, _c_) and pour into it melted tin or soft solder, and insert
+the wires; if carefully done, you will have a firmly constructed and
+very durable foundation for a collecting net. The cork being extracted
+will leave a convenient socket for inserting a stick or walking cane to
+serve as a handle.'
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--The Sanborn net-frame.]
+
+"My friend, J. A. Lintner, of Albany, N. Y., makes very good use, in his
+ordinary promenades, of a telescopic fish-rod, with a head (Fig. 46)
+screwed on to one end, in which to fasten an elastic brass coil on which
+the net is drawn, but which when not in use sits snugly inside his silk
+hat.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Clamp of the Lintner net.]
+
+"The bag should taper to the bottom, and in any case its length should
+be fully twice the diameter of the hoop, so that by giving the net a
+twist, the mouth may be closed and the contents thus secured. The
+sweeping-net may be protected around the hoop with leather, and in use
+should be kept in a steady and continued back-and-forth motion, over and
+touching the plants, until the contents are to be examined; when, by
+placing the head at the opening and quietly surveying the restless
+inmates, the desiderata may be secured and the rest turned out. A sudden
+dash of the air-net will usually lay any flying object at the bottom. A
+net for aquatic insects may be made on the same principle, but should be
+stout, with the meshes open enough to allow free passage of water, and
+the bag not quite as deep as the diameter of the hoop. A forceps net,
+which consists of two gauze or bobbinet covered frames, having riveted
+handles, so as to close like a pair of scissors, is employed for small
+insects; but I find little use for it. A coarse sieve, together with a
+white towel or sheet, will be found of great service for special
+occasions, particularly in the spring, when the search for minute
+insects found under old leaves, or for pupae around the butts of trees,
+is contemplated. With the sheet spread on the ground, and a few handfuls
+of leaves and leafy mold sifted over it, many a minute specimen will be
+separated from the coarser particles and drop to the sheet, where the
+eye may readily detect it. Conversely, the earth taken from around trees
+may be sifted so as to leave in the sieve such larger objects as pupae,
+etc. Another favorite plan, with some collectors, of obtaining
+specimens, especially night-flying moths, is by 'sugaring.' This
+consists of applying to the trunks of trees or to strips of cloth
+attached to the trees some sweet, attractive, and stupefying
+preparation. Diluted molasses or dissolved brown sugar, mixed with rum
+or beer, is most frequently employed. I have found sugaring of little
+use till after the blossoming season, and it is almost impossible to so
+stupefy or intoxicate an insect that it will remain upon the sugared
+tree till the next morning. I generally sugar at eve, and visit the tree
+several times between sundown and midnight, armed with wide-mouthed
+killing-bottles and accompanied by a second person, who carries a
+dark-lantern. Isolated trees, on the edges of woods, give the best
+results. Everybody knows how some poor moths will persist in flitting
+around a light until they singe their wings; and, as many insects are
+strongly attracted to bright artificial light, it may be employed with
+good results, especially during warm and damp evenings. The collector
+should never go unprovided with a small box or tube full of different
+sized pins (a corked cartridge-tube makes a good box,) a pair or two of
+forceps, a pair of scissors, a little mucilage, and the killing
+apparatus to be described."
+
+With these general remarks, it will be well to consider some of the
+important paraphernalia more in detail.
+
+
+                           COLLECTING APPARATUS.
+
+_The Sweeping Net._--A multitude of insects of all orders feed or rest
+on grasses and other low plants. Upon close inspection of these plants a
+careful observer will be able to secure, without any instruments, not
+only many mature insects, but also many larvae in connection with their
+food-plants. This is laborious and slow work, only necessary on special
+occasions. The beating net, which is constructed on the same general
+plan as the butterfly net, is valuable here as a time saver. By holding
+the handle of the net firmly in one hand and quickly sweeping over the
+plants first from right to left, and then, after quickly turning the net
+again, sweeping from left to right, most insects coming within reach of
+the sweep will fall into the bag and may be easily taken out and put
+into the collecting-vials. From this mode of operation it is evident
+that the sweeping net must be stronger in all its parts than the
+butterfly net, but otherwise it may be made on the same plan.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--The Deyrolle Sweeping Net. _a_, net entire;
+_b_, frame; _c_ and _d_, attachment of frame and handle (original).]
+
+The ring should be rigid, made of brass or iron, either of one piece or
+of two pieces, and fastened to the handle or stick in the same way as
+the butterfly net. The bag need not be as long as in the butterfly net,
+about 18 inches being sufficient, but it should be of stout cotton or
+linen and the bottom should preferably be sewed in as a round piece, so
+as to avoid corners. Care needs to be bestowed on the fastening of the
+bag on the ring, for by the use of the net the part of the bag sewed
+around the ring is soon chafed through. To prevent this a strip of
+leather is sewed over the cotton along the rim, but since even this must
+be frequently renewed some other devices are used to give greater
+durability to the net. In the pattern of a beating-net originally sold
+by Deyrolle in Paris, the metal ring was flattened, with the narrow edge
+pointing upwards and the broad side pierced with holes at suitable
+intervals and grooved on the outer surface between the holes. The bag is
+sewed on to the inner side of the ring by stout twine, which passes from
+one hole to the next and is thus prevented from coming in contact with
+obstructive objects, and only the bottom of the bag wears and will need
+to be occasionally mended or renewed.
+
+Another method of preventing the tearing of the upper rim of the bag is
+described and illustrated in Kiesenwetter's useful volume "Der
+Naturaliensammler" from which I shall frequently have occasion to quote.
+In this net the main ring is of rounded iron wire on which a number of
+brass rings are slipped. These must be but little larger than the
+diameter of the wire. These little brass rings should not be more than
+30 mm. or at most 40 mm., distant from each other, and to them the upper
+rim of the bag is sewed with very strong twine and is thus protected
+from wear and tear. The handle or stick of the net should be firmly and
+solidly attached to the ring and should be stout and not liable to
+break. I prefer a rather short stick, say not longer than two feet.
+
+I figure herewith the ring of a very convenient net for sweeping or
+beating purposes. It has the advantage of being for sale on the market,
+and in fact is an ordinary fishing dip net of small size. It is hinged
+in three places, as shown in the figure, and folds into very small
+compass. When unfolded and brought together, it screws into a ferrule
+which may be attached to a cane or a special handle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Beating net, opened and attached to handle,
+with frame of same folded. (After Kiesenwetter.)]
+
+The beating net can be successfully used at almost every season of the
+year. Even on warm days in winter time many specimens can be swept from
+the dead grass. So long as the dew is on the plants or in rainy weather
+no beating should be attempted, as the more delicate species are more or
+less spoiled by the moisture. After one or two minutes' sweeping the
+contents should be examined. Those insects which are quick to take wing
+or which are good runners should first receive attention; the less
+active can then be examined more at leisure. The desiderata are then
+disposed of, the rest thrown away, and the beating renewed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Folding ring for beating net (original).]
+
+The beating net is an important instrument for collecting all insects
+excepting mature Lepidoptera, which are apt to get rubbed. Many larvae,
+especially of Lepidoptera, are caught by beating and are mostly in good
+condition, but it is usually difficult to ascertain the food plant.
+
+_The Water Net._--The numerous insects or insect larvae which live in the
+water can not be conveniently collected without the use of a net, except
+where they live in small shallow streams or creeks with gravelly or
+stony bottoms. A suitable water net can readily be made by using the
+frame of the beating net and attaching to it a rather short bag of some
+coarse material, _e. g._, "grass cloth," coarse millinet. The mode of
+operation with this net is very simple: if some insect is seen swimming
+in the water, the net is carefully brought beneath the specimen, which
+is thus lifted out of the water. Most water insects are, however, not
+seen swimming about freely, but hide amid the various plants, mosses,
+etc., or in the mud at the base of the plants, and they can best be
+captured by dragging the net through these plants. When taken from the
+water the net is more or less filled with mud and parts of plants, and
+the water must be allowed to run out and the contents of the net spread
+out on a cloth or on a flat stone, if such be at hand. The insects are
+at first not readily seen, but after a short while they begin to emerge
+from the mud and crawl about, and can readily be taken up with a
+forceps.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--The Water Net. (After Packard.)]
+
+_Water Dip Net._--The small water sieve, shown in the accompanying
+illustration (Fig. 51), and somewhat resembling in appearance a jockey
+cap, is frequently of service in collecting the larvae of aquatic
+insects, especially where it is necessary to scrape submerged stones or
+timbers. In use it is fastened on the end of a cane or stick, and can be
+easily made by any tinsmith.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Small Water Dip Net (original).]
+
+_The Umbrella._--The umbrella, as already stated, is one of the most
+useful instruments of the collector, since it enables him to obtain all
+those numerous insects which live on the branches of trees, on shrubs,
+and on other large plants. A common stout cotton umbrella is
+sufficiently large, but is liable to get out of joint, and moreover the
+specimens hide themselves under the ribs. It is well, therefore, to have
+the inside of such umbrella lined along the ribs with muslin, or some
+other material, preferably of a light color. An umbrella specially
+constructed for entomological purposes is offered for sale by E.
+Deyrolle, in Paris. It resembles a stoutly built common umbrella, but
+has the inside lined with white linen and the handle has a joint near
+the middle, so that the umbrella can be more conveniently held and more
+readily packed away. The opened and inverted umbrella is held with the
+left hand under the branch which the collector intends to relieve of its
+entomological inhabitants, while the right hand, armed with a heavy
+stick, is free to properly jar the branch. Care must be taken in the
+jarring, lest the insects are knocked beyond the circumference of the
+umbrella. The larger the umbrella the greater are the chances of making
+rich captures, but the more difficult it becomes to manipulate,
+especially where the woods are dense or where there are many vines, etc.
+In the absence of an umbrella the butterfly net or the beating net can
+be used.
+
+A drawback to collecting with the umbrella is that many insects take
+wing and escape before being secured. This can hardly be avoided, and
+experienced collectors, in southern countries more particularly, have
+found it advisable to discard the umbrella and to use in its stead a
+very large butterfly net, 2 feet or more in diameter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--The Umbrella and its mode of use. (After
+Kiesenwetter.)]
+
+_The Beating Cloth._--A very simple substitute for the umbrella, and one
+which can always be carried without inconvenience, may here be
+described. It consists of a piece of common unbleached cotton cloth (1
+yard square), to each corner of which a loop of stout twine is sewed.
+Upon reaching the woods, two straight sticks, each about 5 feet in
+length and not too heavy, but also not so small as to be liable to break
+or to bend too easily, are cut from a convenient bush. The sticks are
+placed crosswise over the cloth and fastened to the loops at the four
+ends. This is easily and quickly done by making sliding loops of the
+simple loops. The cloth is thus kept spread out between the sticks, and
+forms a very good substitute for an umbrella. In beating, the sticks are
+held at their intersecting points. When not in use one of the loops is
+detached from the stick and the instrument can be rolled up and carried
+under one arm without seriously interfering with other operations of the
+collector. When laid on the ground, with the sticks on the underside,
+this simple instrument may be advantageously used as a cloth on which
+to sift or examine fungi, moss, pieces of bark, etc., and since the
+cloth is always tightly expanded, it offers a smooth and level surface,
+where examination of various objects can be made with ease and accuracy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--The umbrella beating and sweeping net
+(original).]
+
+_The Umbrella Net._--A very convenient form of net for both sweeping and
+for use in place of an umbrella for beating has been devised by Dr.
+George Marx. (See Fig. 53.) It is constructed from an old umbrella, as
+follows: To the handle of the umbrella are attached two steel rods
+working on hinges at the apex of the umbrella, as do the ordinary
+umbrella ribs, and attached to the sliding piece of the umbrella in the
+same manner, as shown at _a_. These rods should be about 21/2 feet long.
+When the sliding piece is pushed up and caught behind the spring clip,
+as shown at _b_, a circular loop is formed giving the framework for the
+net. The latter, which should be comparatively shallow, is made of stout
+muslin and sewed to the frame, as in the ordinary sweeping net. The
+enlarged drawings _c_ and _d_ illustrate clearly the manner of
+constructing the frame. The advantage of this net is its convenience in
+carrying and its general usefulness, taking the place of both the
+umbrella and the sweeping net. When not in use the frame is allowed to
+assume the position shown at A, and the net may be wrapped about the
+frame and the whole inserted in an ordinary umbrella cover.
+
+_The Sieve._--This useful aid to good collecting has not been generally
+employed by American entomologists. It facilitates the finding of small
+insects living under old leaves, in moss, in decayed trees, in fungi, in
+ants' nests, or in the ground. Any ordinary sieve about a foot in
+diameter and with meshes of about one-fifth of an inch will answer,
+though for durability and convenience of carriage one made of two wire
+or brass rings and muslin (Fig. 54), as follows, is the best. The ends
+of the wire netting should be bent around the ring so as not to project.
+A piece of common muslin about 1 foot wide and long enough to go around
+the circumference of one of the rings is then sewed together so as to
+form a kind of cylinder or bag without bottom, and the upper and lower
+rims of this bag are then sewed on around the two rings. The whole
+instrument thus forms a bag, the top of which is kept open by the simple
+wire ring, and the bottom is closed by the second ring covered with the
+wire netting. After choosing a suitable locality a white cloth is spread
+as evenly as possible on the ground; the collector then takes the sieve,
+places therein two or three handfuls of the material to be sifted,
+returns to his cloth, and, holding with his right hand the lower ring
+and with the left hand the upper ring, shakes the sieve over the cloth.
+The larger particles and specimens are retained in the sieve while the
+smaller fall through the meshes on to the cloth. Care must be taken that
+the siftings form an even and thin layer on the surface of the cloth, so
+as to be easily examined from time to time. If the locality is favorable
+many insects will be seen at the first glance crawling or running about,
+and these can easily be picked up by means of a moistened brush, or with
+the forceps. Many other insects, however, either feign death or, at any
+rate, do not move until after the lapse of several minutes, and the
+proper investigation of a single sifting often requires much time, and
+patience will be more fully rewarded here than in any other mode of
+collecting.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--The sieve. _a_, wire netting (original).]
+
+The size of the wire meshes given above is best adapted for sifting the
+fragments of old decayed trees, which furnish the most frequent material
+for the use of the sieve, but for sifting ants' nests, soil, etc., a
+sieve with smaller meshes is desirable.
+
+The sieve is indispensable to the Coleopterist, the Arachnologist, and
+to the specialist in the smaller Hemiptera and Hymenoptera, but it is
+also useful for most other orders, many interesting species existing
+which can be secured in numbers only by this mode of collecting. Many
+Tineidae and even Noctuidae hide under old leaves, but the specimens are
+usually rubbed and rendered useless in the process of sifting. Many
+larvae and pupae can, however, thus be obtained.
+
+If the locality chosen for sifting prove to be a good one, it pays to
+put the sifted material in a small sack and to carry it home where it
+can be investigated at leisure, and with a greater thoroughness than is
+usually possible outdoors. This sack can be easily arranged to be
+attached to or drawn over the lower ring of the sieve, so that the
+sifting can be done directly into the sack.
+
+As a rule it may be said that very dry places are least productive,
+while more or less moist places are apt to furnish a rich harvest. Old
+wet leaves lying immediately along the edges of swamps, or wet moss,
+harbor many interesting insects, but such wet material is sifted with
+difficulty.
+
+The sieve can be used with great advantage at all seasons of the year,
+but more especially late in fall or early in spring, when so many
+species are still hibernating.
+
+_The Chisel._--For securing the many insects living or hiding under bark
+of dying or dead trees an instrument of some sort is indispensable, as,
+in most cases, the bark so firmly adheres to the wood that it cannot be
+torn off with the hand. A stout pocket-knife will do good service, but
+far better is a common chisel of medium size and with a short handle.
+This chisel is also useful as an instrument for digging in the ground or
+for investigating the interior of partly decayed logs.
+
+_The Trowel._--Aside from the fact that many insects enter the ground
+for the purpose of hibernation in various stages, there is a rich
+subterranean life to be found during the summer. There are many
+burrowing Coleoptera; many, if not most, ants construct subterranean
+nests; the number of other fossorial Hymenoptera is very large, and
+there are also various burrowing Orthoptera and many Lepidopterous larvae
+which hide in the ground during the day. Some instrument for digging in
+the ground is therefore of great importance, and while, as stated above,
+the chisel will answer this purpose if nothing else be at hand, yet
+there are other instruments which perform the work much quicker and more
+thoroughly. The most available instrument is a rather small steel
+trowel, such as can be had at the hardware stores in a great variety of
+patterns, and which can be carried on excursions without much
+inconvenience. One with a long and narrow blade, made very stout, I have
+found very useful, though somewhat awkward to carry.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--The collecting tweezers.]
+
+_The collecting Tweezers._--In the picking up of specimens and
+transferring them into the various bottles, vials, or boxes, the trained
+collector will gather by hand the most delicate specimens without
+injuring them. Yet this labor will be greatly facilitated by the use of
+the tweezers or the brush. The former is a small, light pair of forceps,
+made of steel or brass. It should be as pliable as possible, and the tip
+should be narrow and rounded off and not pointed. It may be either
+straight or curved at tip, according to individual preference.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Pinning forceps.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Pinning forceps.]
+
+Suitable tweezers may be obtained at the larger hardware stores or of
+watchmakers. Excellent tweezers made of steel (see Fig. 55) are sold for
+about 40 cents a pair by Codman, Shurtleff & Co., Tremont street,
+Boston, Mass. Aside from their utility in picking up specimens from the
+collecting cloth or the umbrella, the tweezers are indispensable for
+extracting insects from cracks, or holes in timber, or from their
+burrows in branches and stems of plants, or from places whence it is
+impossible to dislodge them by hand. The larger "collecting forceps,"
+sold by various dealers, do good service in certain emergencies, as when
+large scorpions or other very large and ferocious insects are to be
+secured.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Pinning forceps for Lepidoptera.]
+
+For the handling of mounted insects various special forceps are
+employed, a number of styles of which are shown at Figs. 56-8.
+
+_The Brush._--A common camel's hair brush, of smaller or larger size
+according to individual preference, is useful for picking up very small
+or soft-bodied insects. For this purpose the brush is slightly moistened
+with saliva, and the tip brought in contact with the specimen, which
+then adheres to the brush, so that it can readily and without injury be
+transferred to the collecting bottle or box. The brush is indispensable
+also for preparing small specimens for the cabinet. If taken into the
+field the handle of the brush should be of a bright color, otherwise the
+brush is often lost.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--The Fumigator. (After Kiesenwetter).]
+
+_The Fumigator._--This is not used by American collectors, but there are
+several patterns sold by European dealers. It is intended to smoke out
+specimens that hide in otherwise inaccessible places, _e. g._, cracks in
+the ground, holes in hard wood, etc. The accompanying figure and the
+following description of a fumigator are taken from Kiesenwetter. A
+common smoking-pipe mouthpiece (Fig. 59, _a_) with flexible rubber joint
+(_b_) is attached to the cover (_c_) of a very large smoking-pipe head
+(_d_). To the mouth (_e_) of the latter a rubber hose (_f_) is attached,
+which has a convenient discharge at its end (_g_). The pipe is then
+filled with tobacco, and the latter ignited by means of a piece of
+burning tinder placed on top; the cover is then screwed on, and the
+smoke can be directed to any desired point by blowing air through the
+mouthpiece. The smoke from a common pipe or cigar is often useful. In
+sifting in cold weather a puff of tobacco smoke gently blown over the
+debris on the collecting cloth will induce many specimens to move, which
+otherwise "play possum" and could not be observed; and, further, tobacco
+smoke blown into holes and cracks in timber by means of an improvised
+funnel made of a piece of paper will be the means of securing many rare
+specimens.
+
+_The Haversack._--In order that the above-mentioned instruments and the
+various bottles, vials, and boxes which are needed for the preservation
+of specimens may most conveniently and with the least impediment to the
+collector be carried along on excursions, a haversack is indispensable.
+This is made either of leather or, still better, of some waterproof
+cloth, and should contain various compartments of different sizes; one
+for stowing away the nets, the sieve, and the larger instruments, and
+several smaller ones for boxes and vials--the whole so arranged that
+each desired object can readily be taken out and that nothing will drop
+out and get lost. The haversack is slung across the shoulders by means
+of a leather strap, and a full field outfit need not be very heavy nor
+seriously interfere with free bodily movements.
+
+Many of the smaller objects are most conveniently carried in the pockets
+of the coat, which acquires, therefore, some importance to the
+collector. The coat should be of some durable stuff and provided with
+many pockets, so arranged that in stooping nothing falls out of them.
+
+_The Lens and Microscope._--In the examination of the minuter forms of
+insect life the naked eye is not sufficient, and a hand-lens, or, for
+more delicate work, the compound microscope will be found necessary. I
+had, in my early experience, some difficulty in getting a satisfactory
+hand-lens, and the use of a poor hand-lens in time injures the eyesight,
+as I know by a year's rather disagreeable experience. For a hand-lens
+the achromatic lenses formerly manufactured by A. K. Eaton, of Brooklyn,
+N. Y., and now made by John Green, 35 Liverpool street, East Boston,
+Mass., are most excellent in workmanship and are satisfactory in every
+respect. A very good lens can also be purchased of any of the leading
+manufacturers of microscopical apparatus in this country. The kind of
+compound microscope to be purchased will depend upon the nature of the
+work of the investigator. Very serviceable instruments are made by J. W.
+Queen & Co., Philadelphia, Pa., and by the Bausch & Lomb Optical
+Company, of Rochester, N. Y., and others. The German microscopes are in
+many respects superior to those of American make, and if one has
+sufficient means, I would recommend the purchase of one of the better
+instruments of Zeiss's manufacture, which may be obtained either direct
+from the manufacturers or through Queen & Co., or from the Boston
+Educational Supply Company. Microscopic material, including slides,
+cover glasses, instruments for mounting, mounting media, staining
+fluids, etc., may be obtained of either of the firms named above.
+
+Having thus indicated somewhat fully the general methods of collecting,
+and the paraphernalia most desirable in collecting, it will be well to
+go still further into detail, and in connection with the different
+orders give some more specific information that will be valuable as a
+guide not only to the general collector, but to the specialist.
+
+
+                          COLLECTING HYMENOPTERA.
+
+The insects of this order, including Bees, Wasps, Ants, Ichneumon-flies,
+Gall-flies, Saw-flies, and allied insects have always been of unusual
+interest both to entomologists and non-entomologists on account of their
+diversified and peculiar habits. In abundance of species they exceed
+perhaps even the Coleoptera. In general they are day fliers and always
+to be found in abundance on bright days about flowers. The best season
+for collecting is in early spring, on the bloom of the Willow, Alder,
+and other trees. They may also be found at any season of the year, but
+the males of many species are only to be taken in fall. In this order,
+species of many groups can be most easily obtained by breeding. This
+includes the gall-making family, Cynipidae, and the parasitic families
+Chalcididae, Proctotrypidae, Ichneumonidae and Braconidae. The Chrysididae
+and certain other less important families are also parasitic, but are
+more easily obtained by general collecting. The implements necessary for
+collecting Hymenoptera are the sweeping-net and the beating-net. Many
+rare forms of the smaller parasitic families may be obtained by sweeping
+the grass and foliage of all sorts. The Proctotrypidae may be collected
+in quantity by sifting leaves and rubbish collected in the woods. Mr.
+William H. Ashmead, who has made an especial study of this group, finds
+winter sifting profitable. Dried leaves and rubbish are sifted, the
+finer portion being retained and transferred to a bag. When a sufficient
+quantity is collected it is removed to a warm room. Many hibernating
+species are taken in this way, and, revived by the warmth, are easily
+noticed when the material is spread on white paper.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--A Saw-fly (Nematus ventralis). _a_, _a_, _a_,
+young larvae; _b_, full-grown larva; _c_, cocoon; _d_, adult; all
+slightly enlarged.]
+
+On account of the interest attaching to a knowledge of the various hosts
+of parasitic insects the collector should always aim to obtain the
+latter by breeding as much as possible. This can easily be done by
+keeping a lookout for larvae of all sorts which give evidence of being
+parasitized. The larvae of Lepidoptera found late in the fall are very
+apt to be parasitized, and should be collected and kept over the winter.
+The parasites will emerge throughout the winter season and in the early
+spring. Such larvae will be found on the trunks of trees, in the crevices
+of the bark, and the cocoons of parasites will also be found in similar
+situations.
+
+The Tenthredinidae (Saw-flies) are not so often found about flowers but
+usually remain in the vicinity of the food-plant of the larva, and may
+many of them be collected by sweeping. The larvae of this family are in
+many cases difficult to breed, as most of them are single-brooded, and
+it becomes necessary to carry the larvae over the winter.
+
+The Gall-flies, Cynipidae, are the easiest of the families to collect,
+because of their abundance and because of the ease with which they may
+be reared. Their galls occur in enormous variety on oaks of various
+species and also upon brambles and certain common weeds. These should be
+collected when mature and be kept in glass jars. The Gall-flies and
+inquilinous and parasitic species may thus be easily obtained, the
+former appearing at particular seasons and the latter emerging from the
+galls at all seasons of the year, and sometimes continuing to escape for
+a period exceeding two years.
+
+One of the most interesting families in this order is the Formicidae,
+which comprises the true ants. In the case of these insects isolated
+specimens should not ordinarily be collected, and it is especially
+desirable to collect the species from colonies so that the three forms
+(males, females, and workers) may be obtained together. This holds also
+in the case of the social wasps and bees, but the different sexes of the
+latter may be collected in a season's collecting about flowers, the
+females and workers in early spring and the males in the fall.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--An Ichneumon (_Ophion_).]
+
+The Uroceridae or woodborers are to be found only about trees in which
+the larvae breed. They may frequently be taken about tree trunks, or
+burrowing with their long gimlet-like ovipositors into the trunks of
+trees to oviposit. Breeding is also a satisfactory method of obtaining
+these insects.
+
+Some special methods of collecting Hymenoptera may be briefly outlined.
+In the case of the social bees, particularly bumble-bees, and also the
+smaller wasps and yellow-jackets, a very satisfactory method of
+collecting consists in first stupefying the insects in the nest by
+introducing a small amount of chloroform, benzine, or bisulphide of
+carbon. This should preferably be done in the late evening, after all
+the insects have come in for the night. The nest may then be opened and
+examined without any danger of being stung, and the different forms may
+thus easily be obtained, together with any rare parasitic or inquilinous
+insects. In the case of the nests of Bombi this is the best method of
+obtaining the inquilinous Apathus species.
+
+On account of the danger of being stung, and also on account of the
+extremely quick flight of these insects, the removing of Hymenoptera
+from the net is not always an easy task, and in many cases rare
+specimens escape. One method of avoiding the danger of being stung is to
+have the collecting net constructed with an opening at the bottom which,
+during the sweeping, is tied with a string. When a sufficient quantity
+of insects is obtained they are, by a few quick motions, driven to the
+bottom of the net, and the net is then seized just above the insects
+with the hand, the folds of cloth preventing the insects from getting
+to the hand, so that there is little danger of being stung. The lower
+end is then carefully untied and inserted into a wide-mouthed bottle,
+and the contents of the net shaken out into the bottle. After the catch
+is stupefied the vial may be turned out and the undesirable material
+discarded. A second method consists in the use of an ordinary
+sweeping-net of light material. A quantity of Hymenoptera are collected
+from flowers and driven to the bottom of the net, and secured as in the
+preceding method. The portion of the net containing the insects is then,
+by means of a pair of forceps, thrust bodily into a large collecting
+bottle. After a few minutes the insects are stupefied and may be readily
+examined.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--The Little Red Ant (_Monomorium pharaonis_).
+_a_, female; _b_, worker enlarged.]
+
+
+                          COLLECTING COLEOPTERA.
+
+GENERAL DIRECTIONS.--Owing to their hard outer skeleton, Coleoptera can
+be collected, handled, and preserved with greater safety and with less
+trouble than most other orders of insects. From this fact, and from
+their very great diversity in form, Coleoptera have, next to the
+Lepidoptera, always been favorites. As a consequence, there are now more
+species described in this than in any other order, and in the large
+museums they are much better represented than other insects. This rich
+material has been studied by numerous and competent specialists, and the
+classification of Coleoptera is at present more advanced and more
+accessible than that of the other orders. This fact gives stimulus to
+neophytes, and though the literature of our North American fauna is much
+scattered and we are still in want of comprehensive works (with the
+exception of the general "Classification" by Drs. Le Conte and Horn),
+yet, except in a few hitherto neglected families and smaller groups, the
+species are fairly well worked up.
+
+On the other hand, our knowledge of the earlier states of Coleoptera is
+yet very imperfect as compared with the Lepidoptera. Coleopterous larvae
+are, with few exceptions (notably Coccinellidae and some Chrysomelidae),
+much more difficult to find and rear, and their distinguishing
+characters are more difficult to study. The few comprehensive works on
+Coleopterous larvae that have been published are based on rather scant
+material and none of them deal with the North American fauna.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--A Ground-beetle (_Calosoma calidum_). _a_,
+larva; _b_, adult.]
+
+Coleoptera occur in all climates and in all localities. Species are
+known from the highest northern latitudes ever reached by man, and in
+the tropics they occur in an embarrassing richness of forms. They are
+found in the most arid desert lands, in the depths of our subterranean
+caves, and on our highest mountains up to the line of eternal snow. The
+open ocean and the open water of our Great Lakes are the only regions
+free from them. As a rule, the number of species gradually increases
+from the Arctic regions toward the tropics, but it would be difficult to
+decide, speaking of North America, whether or not the fauna of the
+Middle States is poorer in the number of species than that of the
+Southern States; or whether the beetles of the Atlantic slope outnumber
+those of the Pacific States or those of the Central region. On the
+Pacific slope the influence of the seasons on insect life is greater
+than on the Atlantic slope. While in the latter region a number of
+species may be found the whole year round, there is, in the more arid
+regions of the West, an abundance of insect life during and shortly
+after the rainy season, with great scarcity during the dry season,
+except, perhaps, on the high mountains.
+
+Few persons have had a more extended experience in collecting Coleoptera
+than Mr. E. A. Schwarz, one of my assistants, and the following account
+has been prepared by him at my request and is given _in extenso_.
+
+WINTER COLLECTING.--There are more species of Coleoptera hibernating in
+the imago state[3] than in any other order and winter collecting is
+therefore most profitable in many respects. For instance, great swampy
+tracts which are inaccessible in the summer season harbor an abundance
+of rare Coleoptera, which either can not be found in summer time or are
+found at that season with the greatest difficulty. At the approach of
+winter, however, all or most of these species will leave the swamp and
+seek drier ground, where they hibernate under old leaves, under bark of
+trees, or in rotten stumps near the edge of the swamp. Such places will,
+therefore, give a rich harvest to the Coleopterist late in the fall,
+during warm spells in midwinter, and in very early spring. If the
+temperature is below the freezing point, or if the ground is frozen
+hard, no winter collecting should be attempted, first, on account of
+sanitary considerations, and also because the Coleoptera then retreat
+more deeply into the ground and can not be found so easily as when the
+ground is free from frost. Other good collecting places in winter are
+the accumulated old leaves along the edges of forests or under the
+shrubbery along water courses, thick layers of moss, and the loose bark
+of dead or dying trees, and, finally, also under the bark of certain
+living trees, _e. g._ Pines, Sycamore, Shellbark Hickory. Digging in the
+ground at the base of large trees or rocks also yields good returns. The
+only instruments necessary for winter collecting are the sieve, the
+chisel, and the trowel.
+
+  [3] There are a few species of Coleoptera known in Europe which belong
+  to the true "winter insects," _i. e._ such as appear in the imago state
+  only during winter time, but whether or not we have such species in our
+  own fauna has not yet been ascertained.
+
+SPRING COLLECTING.--With the first days of spring, collecting becomes a
+little more varied. The methods used for winter collecting can still be
+continued with good success. Certain spring flowers, notably Willow
+blossoms, will furnish many valuable species, which are not seen again
+during the rest of the season.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.--A Lamellicorn (_Pelidnota punctata_). _a_,
+larva; _b_, pupa; _c_, beetle; _d_, _e_, _f_, enlarged parts.]
+
+_Myrmecophilous and Termitophilous species._--The early spring is also
+the best time for collecting the Myrmecophilous and Termitophilous
+Coleoptera. Termitophilous species have in North America hitherto been
+found only in connection with the White-ants (_Termes flavipes_), and
+the inquilinous beetles are found running among the White-ants in the
+colonies under stones, loose bark of trees, and more numerously in the
+interior of old infested trees. Myrmecophilous Coleoptera are by far
+more numerous in species than the Termitophilous species and are found
+among many species of ants which have their nests either under stones or
+loose bark of trees, in stumps or logs, or which construct larger or
+smaller hills. Upon uncovering a colony of ants under a stone, the
+underside of the latter as well as the galleries of the ants in the
+ground should be carefully examined for inquilines, which from their
+greater or slighter resemblance to the ants are liable to be overlooked
+by an inexperienced collector. If such colony of ants harbors a rare
+beetle the subterranean part of the colony itself should be dug out and
+sifted, but since from the stony nature of the ground this is not always
+practicable it is to be recommended to carefully replace the stone under
+which the colony has been found. Upon revisiting the spot again the next
+day or even a few hours after the first visit additional specimens of
+the inquilines are usually to be obtained on the stone or in the
+superficial galleries of the ants. Ant colonies in hollow trees and in
+rotten logs should be sifted and there is no particular difficulty
+connected with this operation. Owing to the pugnacious character of the
+hill-constructing ants it would seem to be a rather unpleasant task to
+examine a strong and vigorous colony for inquilinous beetles, but the
+collector must not mind being bitten and stung by the infuriated ants,
+and after a little experience he will find that it is not such a
+difficult thing after all to attack even the largest ant-hill. The only
+thorough way of investigating such ant-hills is to sieve the same, which
+can be easily done if the hill is composed of sticks and other vegetable
+debris. If it is built of earth or sand the process of sifting is more
+difficult and tedious. Another method of securing specimens of these
+inquilinous beetles is to place flat stones or similar objects on the
+surface of the ant-hill and to examine them occasionally, when the
+beetles will be found on the underside of the traps.
+
+_Spring Flights of Coleoptera._--On the first really warm days of spring
+commences the "swarming" season of Coleoptera, when all winged species
+are flying about, especially toward evening. On favorable days the
+number of specimens and species that can thus be found is astonishingly
+great, and this is one of the few occasions when the Coleopterist can
+advantageously use a light butterfly net. The flying beetles preferably
+alight and rest on the top of wooden fences (especially newly made
+ones), on the railings of bridges, etc., where they can be easily seen
+and secured, or they are attracted in great numbers by the white-painted
+surface of buildings. This flying season lasts in the latitude of
+Washington from the end of April to the middle of June, but favorable
+days are not of frequent occurrence, since a peculiar combination of
+atmospheric conditions appears to be necessary to induce the Coleoptera
+to fly about in great numbers.
+
+_Beach collecting._--Along the shores of the ocean and the Great Lakes
+untold numbers of Coleoptera and other insects fall at this season into
+the water, and, if the tides, the currents, and the winds be favorable,
+they are washed ashore by the waves on the sandy beaches, where they
+often form windrows several inches in height and width. If the collector
+is happy enough to be at the right place on the right day he has then
+the opportunity to pick up hundreds of rare species within a very short
+time and without any trouble. Many of the specimens thus washed ashore
+are dead and decayed, but the majority are alive and in excellent
+condition. This "beach collecting" affords also an excellent opportunity
+for the Hymenopterist and Hemipterist to secure large numbers of rare
+species, but favorable days are also here of rare occurrence.
+
+_Attracting by Lights._--On the beaches, day and night flying insects
+can thus be captured. Away from the beach night-flying Coleoptera can
+best be collected at the electric lights of our cities; but, as in the
+Lepidoptera, not all night-flying species are attracted by the light.
+Gas and other lights also attract Coleoptera, and the various "light
+traps" that have been devised and described can advantageously be used
+for collecting these insects.
+
+_Traps._--The method of "sugaring," so important to the Lepidopterist,
+is by far less favorable for collecting Coleoptera. Still, certain rare
+Carabidae, Elateridae, and Cerambycidae are attracted by this bait, and the
+Coleopterist should not entirely ignore this mode of collecting. There
+are a few other methods of trapping certain Coleoptera. By laying out
+dead mammals, birds, fishes, snakes, etc., on suitable places and so
+that they are protected from dogs, rats, etc., the carrion-feeding
+Coleoptera can be found in great abundance, but a cleaner and less
+disagreeable method of obtaining them is to bury in the ground tin cans
+or glass jars so that the top is even with the surrounding ground and to
+bait them with pieces of meat, fried fish, boiled eggs, etc. Many
+Curculionidae, Scolytidae, and numerous other wood-inhabiting species can
+be successfully trapped in the following way: A number of branches,
+preferably of only one kind of tree, are cut and tied up into bundles of
+convenient size. The bundles are then laid on the ground in a shady
+place or firmly fastened on trunks of trees. When the cut branches begin
+to get dry they will attract many of these Coleoptera, which can then be
+readily collected by shaking the bundles out over the collecting cloth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.--An Elaterid (_Pyrophorus noctilucus_). (From
+Packard.)]
+
+_Freshets._--Freshets usually take place in springtime in most of our
+rivers and creeks, and furnish the means of obtaining a multitude of
+Coleoptera, among which there will be many species which can not, or
+only accidentally, be found otherwise. These freshets, sweeping over the
+low banks or inundating wide stretches of low land, carry with them all
+insects that have been caught by the inundation. Intermingled with, and
+usually clinging to, the various floating debris, these insects are
+eventually washed ashore by the current at various points and the
+Coleopterist should not miss this rare opportunity, but go out to the
+river bank at a time when the water is still rising, or at least when it
+has attained its highest point. Among, or on the washed up debris, a
+multitude of Coleoptera of various families can be found, and the
+specimens can either be gathered up on the spot or a quantity of the
+debris be put in sacks and taken home, where it can be examined more
+thoroughly and with greater leisure than out of doors. A day or so after
+the floods have receded the washed up specimens will have dispersed and
+only a few will remain in the debris for a longer period. Still more
+profitable than the spring floods are the summer freshets, because a
+larger and more diversified lot of Coleoptera is then brought down by
+the water. A similar opportunity for collecting is offered near the
+seashore if unusually high tides inundate the low marshes along the
+bayous and inlets.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.--A Longicorn (_Prionus laticollis_).]
+
+SUMMER COLLECTING.--During the latter part of spring and throughout the
+whole summer, when the vegetation is fully developed, every possible
+collecting method can be carried on with success, so that the beginner
+hardly knows what particular method to use. There are stones to be
+turned over; old logs, stumps, and hollow trees to be investigated;
+newly felled or wounded trees to be carefully inspected; here a spot
+favorable for sifting claims attention; promising meadows and low
+herbage in the woods invite the use of the sweeping net; living or dead
+branches of all sorts of trees and shrubs to be worked with the
+umbrella; the mud or gravel banks of ponds, lakes, rivers, and creeks
+afford excellent collecting places; the numerous aquatic beetles are to
+be collected in the water itself; the dung beetles to be extracted from
+their unsavory habitations; in the evening the electric and other lights
+are to be visited, the lightning beetles chased on meadows and in the
+woods, or the wingless but luminous females of some species of this
+family to be looked for on the ground, and the trees and shrubs are to
+be beaten after dark in search of May beetles and other nocturnal
+leaf-feeding species which can not be obtained at daytime; and, finally,
+some of the rarest Scarabaeidae and some other species fly only late at
+night or again only before sunrise.
+
+In view of this embarrassing multitude of collecting opportunities in a
+good locality, the beginner is apt to be at a loss what course to
+pursue. Experience alone can teach here, and only an expert collector is
+able to decide, at a glance at the locality before him, what collecting
+method is likely to produce the best results, and his judgment will
+rarely be at fault.
+
+It is impossible to go into details regarding the various collecting
+methods, just mentioned, and only a few general directions can be given
+regarding those methods which have not previously been alluded to.
+
+_Collecting under Stones._--Turning over stones is a favorite method
+among beginners and yields chiefly Carabidae, the larger Staphylinidae,
+certain Curculionidae, and a multitude of species of other families.
+Stones on very dry ground are productive, only early in spring or in the
+fall, while those on moist ground, in the shade of woods, are good at
+all seasons. In the Alpine regions of our mountainous districts,
+especially above the timber line, collecting under stones becomes the
+most important method, and is especially favorable along the edges of
+snow fields. In often frequented localities the collector should
+carefully replace the stones, especially those under which he has found
+rare specimens. The neglect of this rule is one of the principal causes
+for certain rare species having become extinct in the vicinity of our
+cities.
+
+_Collecting in rotten Stumps and Logs._--Success in collecting in rotten
+stumps depends much upon the more or less advanced stage of decay as
+well as upon the situation of the log and upon the particular kind of
+wood. If the decay is very much advanced neither the loose bark nor the
+interior of the log will harbor many Coleoptera excepting a multitude of
+_Passalus cornutus_ and its larvae. If the decay is less advanced, but if
+such log is exposed to the scorching rays of the sun, it will be far
+less productive than a log in a shady situation. The investigation of
+the bark of a favorably situated log in the right stage of decay does
+not need any special instruction, but the decayed wood itself should be
+pried off with a chisel or trowel, put in the sieve and sifted on the
+collecting cloth. This is the best way of obtaining the numerous species
+of rare Micro-coleoptera of various families that inhabit such places. A
+"red rotten" oak or beech log is more favorable for this mode of
+collecting than a "white rotten" of the same or other kinds of trees.
+
+_Collecting in dying or dead Trees._--Dying or dead trees almost always
+harbor a large number of Coleoptera and offer an excellent collecting
+opportunity until the wood becomes thoroughly dry, which usually takes
+place in large trees two or three years after the death of the tree, and
+in less time with smaller ones. The bark of such trees is the best
+collecting place for Cucujidae, Colydiidae, Scolytidae, Histeridae, etc.,
+and it will be found that the shady side of the tree is more profitable
+than the side exposed to the sun. The numerous Buprestidae, Elateridae,
+Ptinidae, Cerambycidae, Melandryidae, etc., which breed in the wood can be
+obtained only with difficulty. Some specimens may be cut out from their
+holes by a skillful use of the knife or hatchet; others (especially the
+Buprestidae) may be found resting on or crawling over the trunk in the
+bright sunshine, while the more nocturnal species may be found on the
+tree toward evening or after dark, when, of course, a lantern must be
+used. A large proportion of the species living in the trunks of dead
+trees also breed in the dead branches of otherwise healthy trees from
+which they can be beaten into the umbrella, or where the use of the
+knife is more practicable than in the large trunks. The trunks of
+freshly felled trees attract numbers of Cerambycidae and Buprestidae and
+have to be carefully looked over, while the drying foliage of such trees
+affords an excellent opportunity for the use of the umbrella.
+
+_Beating living Trees, Shrubs, and Vines._--The success of beating into
+the umbrella branches of living trees and shrubs depends on the
+particular kind of tree or shrub, on the condition and situation of
+these, and largely also upon the season. Pine trees are very productive
+from early in the spring to early in the summer, but much less so in
+midsummer and later on. Young Oak trees or Oak shrubs are much more
+preferred by the leaf-eating Coleoptera peculiar to this tree than the
+older trees. The Beech, which, next to the Oak, is the best tree for
+wood-boring species, harbors but few leaf-eating species. The leaves of
+the Chestnut are also generally not attacked by Coleoptera; still a
+surprising number of species can be beaten from this tree when it is in
+blossom. There is not a single species of Coleoptera known to live in
+the wood or to feed on the leaves of the Holly (_Ilex glabra_); still it
+will pay the Coleopterist to beat this tree when it is in bloom. Trees,
+shrubs, and vines in the interior of unbroken forest districts are, as a
+rule, unproductive, while the edges of the woods, narrow strips of
+hedges, and especially solitary trees are excellent collecting places.
+In the Rocky Mountains, especially in the more southern sections, long
+stretches of mountain slopes are occasionally perfectly bare of
+vegetation with the exception of a few solitary, sickly-looking, and
+dwarfed trees, but every one of these is a veritable gold mine to the
+Coleopterist with his umbrella.
+
+_Sweeping._--The use of the beating net continues profitable from spring
+till fall, a different set of species appearing with each season. Low
+and swampy meadows, meadows on the slopes of mountains or surrounded by
+woods, low underbrush, and herbage in smaller patches of woods are very
+good beating grounds. Dry and sandy meadows are less productive, but
+harbor usually a different set of species on account of the difference
+in the flora. Pastures and meadows much frequented by cattle and horses
+are much less productive, and where a large number of sheep are kept
+there is usually no chance for using the beating net, since neither
+grass nor specimens are left. The lawns in our parks and gardens are
+usually poor collecting ground on account of the limited variety of
+plants in such places; but the few species found there occur in enormous
+number of specimens. The endless stretches of our western prairies swarm
+at the right season (in June) with numerous Coleoptera (mostly
+Malachiidae, Chrysomelidae, Mordellidae, Curculionidae, etc.), provided
+prairie fires have not swept too frequently over the place. Fires and
+cattle produce a remarkable change in the flora and fauna of the
+prairies; many indigenous species disappear or become scarce and are
+replaced by a much smaller number of imported species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.--A Dermestid (_Anthrenus scrophulariae_). _a_,
+larva, dorsal view; _b_, larva, ventral view; _c_, pupa; _d_, adult--all
+enlarged.]
+
+Sweeping may commence in the forenoon as soon as the dew has
+disappeared; it is less profitable in the heat of the midday, but
+produces the best results late in the afternoon and more especially in
+the short interval from just before sunset until dark. At this time many
+rare Pselaphidae and Scydmaenidae, species of the genera _Colon_ and
+_Anisotoma_, and other small Silphidae can be beaten from the tips of
+grasses, all being species which can not, or only accidentally, be found
+during daytime, when they hide between the roots of plants.
+
+_Collecting on mud and gravel Banks._--The mud or gravel banks of
+rivers, creeks, and stagnant bodies of water are inhabited, especially
+early in summer, with an astonishing multitude of Coleoptera. Countless
+specimens of smaller Carabidae (_Dyschirius_, _Clivina_, _Bembidium_,
+_Tachys_, etc.) and Staphylinidae (_Tachyusa_, _Philonthus_, _Actobius_,
+_Stenus_, _Lathrobium_, _Trogophlaeus_ and many other genera) will be
+seen actively running over the mud or sand; many other specimens are
+hiding under the pebbles in company with other species (_Cryptohypnus_,
+_Georyssus_, etc.) or in little subterranean galleries (_Dyschirius_,
+_Bledius_, _Heterocerus_). All these beetles must be collected by
+picking them up with the fingers, an operation which, owing to the
+activity of the specimens, requires some little practice. The beginner
+will at first crush or otherwise injure many of the delicate specimens,
+the capture of which is moreover by no means facilitated by the rapidity
+with which most of them are able to take wing. The collector must
+necessarily kneel down and he must not mind getting covered with mud. A
+good device for driving these species out of their galleries or from
+their hiding places under stones or in cracks of the ground is to pour
+water over the banks, and this can in most cases be done with the hand.
+Larger stones and pieces of wood or bark lying on the bank are favorite
+hiding places of certain larger Carabidae (_Nebria_, _Chlaenius_,
+_Platynus_, etc.), and should of course be turned over. Finally, the
+moss growing on rocks and logs close to the water's edge, and in which,
+besides other beetles, some rare Staphylinidae and the Byrrhid genus
+_Limnichus_ can be found, should be scraped off and investigated on the
+collecting cloth or on the surface of a flat rock, if such be
+conveniently at hand.
+
+_Collecting aquatic Beetles._--The fishing for water beetles in deeper
+water by means of the water net has already been alluded to (p. [32]),
+but many species live in shallow brooks with stony or gravelly bottom,
+where the water net can not be used. The Dytiscidae and Hydrophilidae
+living in such places usually hide under stones, and can in most cases
+be easily picked up with the hand, or a little tin dipper or a spoon
+will be found convenient for catching them. The species of the family
+Parnidae are found on the underside of rough stones or logs which are
+either partially or entirely submerged. They are more numerous, however,
+in the moss or among the roots of other plants that grow in the water.
+Such plants have to be pulled out and examined over the collecting
+cloth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.--A Tiger Beetle (_Cicindela limbata_), drawn by
+Miss Sullivan--enlarged.]
+
+_Collecting at the Seashore and on sandy Places._--A large number of
+species belonging to various families live exclusively in the vicinity
+of the ocean, some on the open beach, others along the inlets, bayous,
+or salt marshes, and still others on the dry sand dunes. The Cicindelae
+are actively running or flying about close to the water's edge and have
+to be captured with the butterfly net. The remaining maritime species
+live hidden under the seaweed and other debris cast up by the waves, or
+in the sand (sometimes quite deep below the surface) beneath the debris
+or between the roots of the plants growing on the dunes. The majority of
+the maritime species do not appear before June (in the Middle States),
+but the collecting remains good until September.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.--The Beaver Parasite (_Platypsyllus castoris_),
+adult--greatly enlarged.]
+
+In dry sandy places away from the seashore, the collecting at the roots
+of plants is especially to be recommended, and the plants, and more
+especially the bunches of coarse grasses usually growing in such places,
+should be pulled up and shaken out over the collecting cloth. This mode
+of collecting acquires a great importance in the arid regions of the
+West and Southwest, where, in the warm season, nearly all Coleoptera are
+hiding during daytime in the ground at the roots of plants.
+
+_Collecting Dung-beetles._--The collecting of the numerous species
+(_Hydrophilidae_, _Staphylinidae_, _Histeridae_, _Scarabaeidae_, etc.) which
+live in the droppings of various animals is by no means an agreeable
+task. The collector should provide himself with a pointed stick and
+collecting tweezers, and must manage to pick up the specimens as best he
+can. The larger specimens are best collected in alcohol, while the more
+delicate species can be collected in a cleaner condition by removing the
+droppings and sifting the ground beneath the same. Some species hide
+deep in the ground beneath the droppings and have to be dug out. Summer
+freshets, when pasture lands are inundated, offer an excellent
+opportunity for collecting the dung-inhabiting species in a clean
+condition.
+
+_Night Collecting._--The beating of trees and shrubs after dark is a
+good method of obtaining Lachnosternas and other species, and here the
+collector will do well to secure the assistance of a companion, who
+takes charge of the lantern and the collecting bottles, while the
+collector himself works the umbrella.
+
+FALL COLLECTING.--From the first of August the number of species
+gradually diminishes, but late in the summer or early in fall quite a
+number of other species make their appearance, _e. g._, some
+Chrysomelidae, Cerambycidae, and many Meloidae. Many of these frequent the
+blossoms of Golden-rods, umbelliferous and other late-flowering plants.
+The fall is also the best season for collecting Coleoptera living in
+fungi. Although puff-balls, toadstools, and the numerous fungi and
+moulds growing on old trees, etc., furnish many species of Coleoptera
+also earlier in the season, yet most fungi, and more especially the
+toadstools, flourish best in the fall, and consequently there is then
+the greatest abundance of certain species of Coleoptera. Decaying
+toadstools are especially rich, and should be sifted, and the collector
+should also not omit to examine the soil beneath them.
+
+During the "Indian summer" there is usually a repetition of the "spring
+flight" of Coleoptera, though on a smaller scale, and collecting on the
+tops of fence posts and on whitewashed walls again becomes good. The
+first really sharp frost causes these late species to disappear, and
+winter collecting commences again.
+
+
+                          COLLECTING LEPIDOPTERA.
+
+In this order the importance of collecting the early states and of
+rearing the adult insects rather than of catching the latter should, if
+the collector has the advancement of knowledge and the greatest pleasure
+in mind, be insisted upon. Collected specimens, in the majority of
+cases, will be more or less rubbed or damaged and unfit for permanent
+keeping, and will always be far inferior to freshly reared specimens.
+All Lepidopterists, therefore, rely to a great extent upon breeding
+rather than upon field collecting. There are, however, many species of
+which the early states are still unknown, and these can only be taken by
+field collecting, and by attracting to various lights or traps. This
+subject, therefore, naturally falls into two categories--(1) the general
+collecting of the adult, and (2) collecting the early stages and rearing
+the perfect insects.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.--The Eight-spotted Forester (_Alypia
+octomaculata_). _a_, larva; _b_, enlarged segment of same; _c_, moth.]
+
+_Collecting the Adult._--The implements for the general collecting of
+butterflies comprise the collecting net, and in some cases the beating
+net, although the use of the latter will not often be called for. The
+Rhopalocera or Diurnals may be taken about flowers, and the best season
+is in the early spring. Most of them are double-brooded, and the second
+brood will be in the greatest abundance during July and August. They
+are, however, to be found throughout the summer. They are also to be
+looked for in the neighborhood of the food-plants of their larvae, and in
+the case of many species, examination of such plants affords the most
+satisfactory means of collecting. The food of butterflies is almost
+exclusively the nectar of flowers, but strangely enough they are also
+attracted to decaying animal matter, and many species, including rare
+forms, may be taken about decaying animal matter or resting on spots
+where dead animals have lain, or beneath which they have been buried.
+Moist spots of earth are also frequented by them, especially in dry
+seasons. Many of the larger butterflies, whose larvae feed on the taller
+shrubs and the foliage of trees, will be found fluttering about the open
+spaces in forests, but by far the larger number, as the Browns, the
+Blues, the Yellows, and the Whites, which develop on the lower
+herbaceous and succulent plants, will be found flying over fields,
+prairies, and gardens. Crepuscular and nocturnal Lepidoptera, comprising
+most of the Heterocera, the Sphingidae, Bombycids, Noctuids, etc., have
+different habits. The Sphingidae or Hawk Moths fly in early evening, and
+may be collected in quantity about such plants as the Honeysuckle,
+Thistle, Verbena, Petunia, etc. The Bombycids and many Noctuids also fly
+in the early evening, but mostly at night. The former, however, do not
+frequent flowers, except such as are the food-plants of their larvae, as
+their mouth-parts are rudimentary, and they take no nourishment.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Collecting Pill-box. _a_, glass bottom
+(original).]
+
+Collecting by the aid of strong light is a favorite means for moths as
+well as other insects, and nowadays the electric lights in all large
+cities furnish the best collecting places, and hundreds of species may
+be taken in almost any desired quantity. In woods or in other situations
+they may be attracted to a lantern or to a light placed in an open
+window. Various traps have been devised, which comprise a lamp with
+apparatus for retaining and stupefying the insects attracted to the
+light. The common form is made by providing a lantern with a strong
+reflector. Under the light a funnel several inches larger than the
+lantern reaches down into a box or bottle containing the fumes of
+chloroform, ether, or benzine.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.--Method of holding and manipulating collecting
+pill-box in capturing (original).]
+
+Mr. Jerome McNeill describes at length and figures in the _American
+Naturalist_, Vol. XXIII, p. 268-270, an insect trap to be used in
+connection with electric lights. It consists of a tin pail or can
+charged with cyanide after the manner of a collecting bottle, which is
+attached beneath the globe of the electric light.
+
+The insects attracted by the light strike against a vertical tin screen
+fixed above the can and fall into a tin funnel the small end of which
+enters and closes the mouth of the can, and they are thus conducted into
+the last. A support or post in the center of the can bears a hollow tin
+cone, the apex of which is pierced with a number of small holes to admit
+light, and enters and partly closes the lower end of the funnel. The
+entire interior of the can is painted black and the chief light comes
+through the holes in the apex of the interior cone. The entrapped
+insects endeavor to escape by crawling up the central post towards the
+light coming through the small holes in the end of the cone rather than
+by the entrance slit about the latter and fall back repeatedly until
+overcome by the cyanide.
+
+Many of the Lepidoptera will be ruined by the beetles and other insects
+or by their own ineffectual attempts to escape, but Coleoptera,
+Hymenoptera, Neuroptera, and Hemiptera are secured in satisfactory
+condition.
+
+Many of the devices are very complicated and can not be described in
+this connection. The nocturnal species, also, fly into our houses, and
+this is especially the case in the country, and an open window, with a
+strong light reflected onto a table covered with either a white paper or
+a white cloth will keep one busy, on favorable nights, in properly
+taking care of the specimens thus attracted.
+
+Another favorite method of collecting moths early in the evening, or as
+late as or later than midnight, is by sugaring. This consists in
+smearing a mixture of sugar and vinegar, or some similar compound, on
+the bark of trees or on the boards of fences, and visiting the spot from
+time to time to collect the moths attracted to the bait. It has been
+found that the use of beer or some other alcoholic liquor, as rum or
+brandy, with the sugar or molasses water, greatly adds to its efficiency
+in attracting the moths. This method of collecting moths will be found
+especially efficient on warm, moist, cloudy nights. The collector should
+be provided with a dark lantern and a good net, and a number of
+wide-mouthed cyanide collecting bottles. The smearing should be done
+just before dark, and I have always found that better success attends
+this method of collecting when two are engaged in it--one to hold a
+bull's eye lantern while the other bottles the specimens. Experience
+will soon teach the surest way of approaching and capturing the
+specimens.
+
+For collecting Microlepidoptera, in addition to the ordinary net, some
+special apparatus will be found very essential. Lord Walsingham makes
+use of a special glass-bottomed pill-box, with which to capture
+specimens, and the satisfactory nature of the work done with this box,
+and the dexterity acquired by practice with it, I can vouch for by
+personal experience. These glass pill-boxes are useful, also, in
+admitting of the examination of specimens, so that worthless or common
+species can be discarded and only desired forms kept. The method of
+holding these boxes is illustrated in the accompanying illustrations.
+(Figs. 72, 73.) A drop of chloroform on the bottom of the box at once
+stupefies the capture so that it can be taken out and otherwise disposed
+of.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.--Same, showing method of closing pill-box after
+the specimen is secured (original).]
+
+The necessity of rearing to obtain perfect specimens is even more
+important in the case of the Microlepidoptera than with the larger
+forms, and many species are very easily reared and can thus be obtained
+in quantity. The Micros are abundant from early spring to late fall
+about shrubbery, in open fields, and along the edges of woods. They are,
+for the most part, day fliers, being on the wing chiefly in the latter
+part of the day and early evening. As soon as collected they should be
+transferred to pill-boxes and the greatest care should be exercised to
+avoid mutilating them, as the slightest touch will denude them of a
+portion of their scales or break their limbs or antennae. Lord Walsingham
+thus gives his experience in collecting Micros:
+
+I go out with a coat provided with large pockets inside and out,
+containing an assortment of pill-boxes, generally of three sizes,
+glass-bottomed pill-boxes preferred, a bag slung over my shoulder, and a
+net. Unless searching for particular day-flying species, I prefer the
+last three hours before dark. As the sun goes down many species move
+which do not stir at other times. I watch the tops of the grass, the
+stems of the flowers, the twigs of the trees; I disturb leaves and
+low-growing plants with a short switch and secure each little moth that
+moves, taking each out of the net in a separate pill-box, selected
+according to the size of the insect, as he runs up the net to escape.
+Transferring the full boxes to the bag I continue the process until
+moths cease flying or night sets in. Many species can be taken with a
+lamp after dark.
+
+_Collecting the early States._--The careful entomologist who prides
+himself on the appearance of his specimens, will, as stated above, rely
+largely on collecting the early states and on rearing the insects, for
+his material. The Macrolepidoptera have either a single or two broods,
+or more, in a season, and the collection of the early states will be
+greatly facilitated if a knowledge of the insect's life-habits is first
+obtained. The eggs are often found on the food plants of the species,
+and where they are deposited in masses they afford a very easy method of
+getting the larvae in numbers. In many cases, however, the eggs are
+deposited singly and their discovery then becomes a difficult matter.
+
+More satisfactory in some respects is the method of obtaining the eggs
+from captured gravid females, and the general collector should always be
+on the lookout for females of rare species from which he may be able to
+obtain eggs. A single battered female may, in this way, be the source of
+large numbers of excellent reared specimens. Many rare Lepidopterous
+larvae may be obtained by the use of the beating net and by beating
+foliage over an umbrella. A very satisfactory method consists in
+collecting pupae, which may frequently be found in numbers about the
+bases of the trees on which the larvae feed. Many larvae of the large
+family of Owlet Moths (_Noctuidae_) are found either on the surface of
+the ground or under various substances, while others burrow into the
+stems of the different herbaceous plants, some being subaquatic and
+feeding on the underside of leaves or in the stems of aquatic plants. In
+the case of Microlepidoptera, their habit as larvae, of mining leaves or
+tying or webbing them together, affords an easy means of detecting their
+presence in most cases. The miners are easily noticed by the discolored
+spots on the leaves or the wavy, pale, or brown lines marking their
+burrows. The presence of others is indicated by the leaves being drawn
+together and united with webs, or withered and brown from being
+skeletonized by the larvae. Many species are case-bearers, and live upon
+the leaves and branches of trees and plants, dragging their cases along
+with them. Others burrow in grasses or in the stems of plants or the
+trunks of trees, or in fungi. In the case of the leaf-miners and
+leaf-tiers, little difficulty is experienced in rearing the imagoes.
+
+The care of the larvae, the outfit required, and the methods of breeding
+will be described in later sections.
+
+
+                           COLLECTING HEMIPTERA.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.--A Pentatomid (_Stiretrus anchoraga_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.--The Blood-sucking Cone-nose (_Conorhinus
+sanguisuga_). _a_, mature bug; _b_, pupa.]
+
+For the most part the directions for collecting Coleoptera will apply to
+this order of insects equally well, especially so far as concerns the
+first section of the order (Heteroptera), and the higher families of the
+second section (Homoptera). A few directions may be given for the lower
+forms, including the Aphididae, Coccidae, Aleurodidae, and Psyllidae, and
+the suborder Parasita, including the degraded forms which infest man and
+the lower animals. The Plant-lice or Aphides should always be collected
+in connection with their food-plants, and it is very essential also to
+collect the same species at different seasons of the year to obtain the
+different forms or generations, which frequently present very marked
+differences. It is also very necessary to secure the winged forms, which
+are usually produced toward autumn, and without which the species are
+not easily identified. The Bark lice or Scale-insects should also be
+collected in connection with the leaves or twigs which they infest. The
+males of these insects are minute and, as a rule, two-winged, resembling
+small gnats, and may be bred from the male scales. The females are for
+the most part stationary, being fixed to the plant by the protecting,
+waxy, excretion or scale. The Flea-lice (_Psyllidae_) frequently produce
+galls, and these should always be collected with the insect architects.
+Some species do not produce galls, and may be collected by sweeping. The
+Hackberry is infested by large numbers of species of Psyllids, and these
+produce a great variety of interesting galls. The Aleurodidae
+(Fringe-scales) are delicate insects, and easily injured in the
+taking; they are therefore best reared from their stationary and
+fringed larvae and pupae, which occur on the leaves of many plants. Leaves
+bearing the latter should also be collected and pinned or preserved in
+alcohol. The Parasita, the lowest representatives of the order, may be
+obtained from the domestic and wild animals which they infest.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.--The Bed-bug (_Acanthia lectularia_). _a_,
+young; _b_, adult--enlarged.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.--The Short-nosed Ox-louse (_Haematopinus
+eurysternus_). _a_, female; _b_, rostrum; _c_, ventral surface, last
+segments of male; _d_, female; _e_, egg; _f_, surface of egg greatly
+enlarged.]
+
+
+                            COLLECTING DIPTERA.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78.--Ox Bot-fly (_Hypoderma bovis_) enlarged. (After
+Brauer.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79.--The Collecting Shears. (After Kiesenwetter.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80.--A Bee-fly (_Anthrax hypomelas_). _a_, larva
+from side; _b_, pupal skin protruding from cutworm chrysalis; _c_, pupa;
+_d_, imago--all enlarged.]
+
+Most Diptera frequent flowers and may be collected with a sweeping net
+without much difficulty. The best season is from April to June, and the
+bloom of the Willow, Alder, Plum, Cherry, Dogwood, Blackberry, etc.,
+will ordinarily yield a bountiful supply of specimens and species.
+Parasitic and saprophytic forms may also readily be obtained by
+breeding, the former as in the case of the parasitic Hymenoptera, and
+the latter from decaying vegetable matter and fungi. The Diptera
+require the most delicate treatment, and the greatest care must be
+exercised both in collecting and handling. A light sweep net is the best
+implement for collecting and the contents of the net should frequently
+be emptied into bottles provided with blotting paper to absorb the
+excess of moisture. Very small Diptera should not be killed when they
+can not be immediately pinned, and hairy flies should never be taken
+from the net with the hand, but should be handled with fine forceps. A
+pair of special collecting shears has been used by Lord Walsingham very
+successfully. It is represented in the accompanying figure, and consists
+of a pair of screen-covered disks, between which the fly is caught. The
+insect is at once pinned through the screen and may be removed and
+transferred to a box containing a sponge soaked in chloroform. The use
+of this implement is especially advisable in the case of the Bee-flies
+(_Bombiliidae_) and other hairy forms which are liable to be rubbed when
+collected in the ordinary net. The Gall-making Diptera (_Cecidomyidae_)
+are of little value unless accompanied with their galls, and the aim
+should always be to collect the galls and rear the insects rather than
+the keeping of specimens taken in the course of general collecting with
+a sweep net. The rearing of Cecidomyidae is, however, a delicate task,
+and requires considerable experience. Some knowledge of the habits of
+the species is very essential to success. From immature galls no
+rearings need be expected. A good plan is to examine the galls from time
+to time and collect them when it is found that the larvae are beginning
+to abandon them. In the case of species like the common Cone Gall-gnat
+of the Willow, the larvae of which do not leave the gall to undergo
+transformation in the earth, it is advisable not to gather the galls
+until the transformation to the pupa state takes place, which, in this
+species, occurs in early spring. The various leaf-mining and seed
+inhabiting species can be treated as in the case of the
+Microlepidoptera.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.--A Syrphus-fly.]
+
+
+                          COLLECTING ORTHOPTERA.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.--A blind Cricket (_Hadenalcus_) from Mammoth
+Cave. (From Packard.)]
+
+The insects of this order may all be collected by the use of the
+sweeping net. Some of the families are attracted to light, as certain of
+the roaches and green locusts, or Katydids (_Locustidae_). Our common
+roaches (_Blattidae_) are cosmopolitan insects, and infest dwellings.
+Certain species are also found about ponds, under rotten logs, the bark
+of trees, and particularly in decaying vegetable matter. In the tropics
+the species are very abundant, but aside from the domestic forms, they
+occur rarely in northern latitudes. The collection of the egg-cases
+(ootheca) is important as they furnish many interesting characters. The
+Mantidae, of which the Preying Mantis (_Phasmomantis carolina_) is a
+type, are sluggish, carnivorous insects frequently found about houses
+and may best be collected by general sweeping of vegetation. The
+Phasmidae or Walking-sticks are herbivorous and may be collected in the
+midst of vegetation by sweeping or by the hand. The crickets
+(_Gryllidae_) frequent, for the most part, moist situations. Certain
+forms, like the Mole-cricket and the Jumping Water-crickets
+(_Trydactylus_ spp.), burrow in moist soil and occur in numbers near the
+edges of ponds and water courses. The katydids and locusts are abundant
+on low shrubs or trees and in pasture and meadow land, but are most
+numerous in the somewhat dry, arid regions of the West. Most of these
+insects mature in late summer and fall and should be collected at this
+season. The Forficulidae or Earwigs are very odd-looking insects,
+resembling somewhat the Rove-beetles (_Staphylinidae_), and are provided
+with a prominent anal forceps. They are very rare in the United States,
+are nocturnal in habit; and, flying about at dusk, may be attracted to
+light or may be secured by sweeping after nightfall. They feed on
+flowers and fruit.
+
+
+                          COLLECTING NEUROPTERA.
+
+As indicated in the preliminary outline of classification, this large
+order has been divided into many orders by later entomologists. It has
+also been divided, as indicated, into two grand divisions, the
+Pseudoneuroptera, comprising those insects with incomplete
+transformations, and the Neuroptera proper, comprising those insects
+whose metamorphoses are complete. It will be convenient to discuss these
+insects under these two heads.
+
+_Pseudoneuroptera._--Spring-tails, Bird-lice, Stone-flies, White-ants,
+Dragon-flies, May-flies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.--A Spring-tail (_Degeeria lanuginosa_).]
+
+The Spring-tails, Fish-moths, etc., representing the primitive stock
+from which the higher forms have developed, have a varied habit and
+hence are to be found in divers situations. The Spring-tails
+(_Collembola_, etc.), occur in damp and moist places, usually in immense
+numbers. The Fish-moths and Book-mites are common household pests, but
+also occur outdoors under logs, boards, bricks, and rubbish of all
+sorts. In houses they feed on the starch paste beneath wall-paper and
+also on the starch in bookbindings and other domestic articles. They may
+be collected at all seasons and a sieve is the only implement necessary.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.--A Mallophagan (_Trichodectes latus_). (After
+Denny.)]
+
+The Bird-lice or Mallophaga may be collected at all seasons on birds and
+mammals. A number of species infest domestic animals, horses, cattle,
+etc., but the majority of them can be found only by the examination of
+domestic fowls and wild birds. The Stone-flies (_Perlidae_) are found in
+the neighborhood of water courses and ponds, are very sluggish in
+flight, and easily captured with the sweep-net. They are also attracted
+to light. The Psocidae are a small family of certain degraded wingless
+forms, comprising the Book-lice, which, as the name implies, infest
+books, feeding on the starch of the binding. Others have ample wings and
+closely resemble large Aphides. They occur on the trunks of trees and on
+foliage, and feed on lichens and other dried vegetable matter. They are
+gregarious in habit and frequently occur in immense numbers together. In
+the case of the Termitidae or White-ants, their abundance renders their
+collection an easy matter. Effort, however, should be made to discover
+the different forms, the females and soldiers as well as the workers.
+The former may be found in rotten tree trunks, but are very rarely met
+with. In the tropics many species occur and construct curious nests,
+either attaching them to the boughs of trees or building them in the
+form of pyramids on the ground. The Dragon-flies (_Libellulidae_,) are
+collected in the same way as the Diurnal Lepidoptera. They are very
+swift flyers, and are practically always on the wing. Their collection
+requires some degree of skill in the use of the net. A good method
+consists in visiting, in the early morning, water courses in which the
+larval and pupal states are passed, and capturing the adults just as
+they issue from their pupal skins at the edges of the pond or stream. In
+cold weather they are less active and may frequently be found clinging
+to trees and plants, particularly in the vicinity of their breeding
+places. May-flies (_Ephemeridae_) occur in immense numbers near their
+breeding places in ponds and streams and are also attracted in large
+quantities to electric lights. Their collection is therefore an easy
+matter, but on account of the very fragile nature of these insects the
+utmost care must be employed in handling them. The early states of all
+the aquatic forms mentioned above may be obtained for breeding by the
+use of the dip net by dragging it forcibly against water plants.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85.--_b_, a May-fly (_Palingenia bilineata_); _c_,
+its larva; _a_, a Caddis-fly (_Macronema zebratum_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86.--A Dragon-fly (_Libellula_). (From Packard.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87.--A Dragon-fly (_Agrion_). (From Packard.)]
+
+_Neuroptera proper_ (Hellgrammites, Lace-wings, Ant-lions, Caddis-flies,
+etc.)--Among the largest insects of this order are the Sialidae, which
+includes the enormous Hellgrammite Fly, _Corydalus cornutus_. The larvae
+of this insect are carnivorous and occur in streams, under stones, etc.
+The adults may be collected in neighboring situations and are also
+attracted to light. The Lace-wing flies (_Chrysopa_), Ant-lions, etc.,
+are carnivorous as larvae, and occur, the former among the Aphides which
+infest various plants and the latter at the bottom of pits in loose,
+sandy soil. The adults may be obtained by general sweeping and are also
+attracted to light. The most interesting insects of this order are the
+Caddis-flies, on account of the peculiar and frequently very beautiful
+cases constructed by their larvae, which it is important to collect. The
+Caddis-flies breed in ponds and lakes and the adults may be collected in
+such situations or at light. The larvae may easily be reared, and should
+be collected for this purpose. Most of the insects named in this order
+are extremely delicate and require great care in handling.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88.--An Ant-lion, adult (_Myrmeleon_). (From
+Packard.)]
+
+
+
+
+                      KILLING AND PRESERVING INSECTS.
+
+
+Between the collecting of the specimens and their final disposition in a
+well-arranged cabinet, a good deal of mechanical work is necessary,
+involving a skill and dexterity which can be thoroughly acquired only by
+practice.
+
+FIRST PRESERVATION OF LIVING SPECIMENS.--Larvae, pupae, or imagoes,
+intended for rearing purposes, must be kept alive, and are best placed,
+after capture, in tin boxes of various sizes, according to the number of
+specimens to be put in each and according to the size or nature of the
+food plant, etc., on or in which the specimens are found, and of which a
+quantity must always be taken home. For larger tin boxes those known as
+"Seidlitz powder boxes," described and figured below, which can be made
+to order at any tinner's shop, are well adapted, and smaller tin boxes
+of a convenient round form can be obtained of the watchmaker. The
+collector will find it advisable to take with him on his longer jaunts a
+larger tin collecting box as well as the smaller boxes, and for this
+purpose nothing is better than a good botanist's collecting can or
+vasculum. All tin boxes used for entomological purposes should be tight,
+and the cover should so fit that it neither drops off too readily nor
+closes too tightly. Larvae of Lepidoptera and Tenthredinidae should be
+placed in a box with a quantity of the leaves of the plant on which they
+were found. Larvae, especially of Coleoptera, found in the earth or in
+decayed wood, should be placed in a box filled with such earth or wood,
+so as to prevent shaking or rattling about. Larvae found in roots or
+stems of living plants can generally be reared to maturity only if the
+whole plant with a quantity of the surrounding soil is taken home, and
+for this purpose the large collecting box, just mentioned, is very
+useful. Most Coleopterous or other larvae found under bark or in solid
+wood can be reared only if large sections of the wood are obtained and
+the larvae are full grown or nearly so. This holds true, also, of species
+breeding in seeds and with most leaf-mining species. The greatest
+difficulty is experienced with carnivorous Coleopterous larvae, and care
+should be taken with such not to inclose two or more specimens in one
+box. Most larvae die quickly if placed in an empty box, and this is
+especially true of predaceous species; so that it is always advisable to
+pack the box with moist soil, decaying wood, leaves or other similar
+substance. Aquatic larvae should be carried in tin boxes filled with wet
+moss or some water plant, for, if placed in corked vials with water,
+they die quickly.
+
+KILLING SPECIMENS.--Specimens not intended for rearing should be killed
+immediately after capture unless for each specimen a separate vial or
+box can be provided. If a number of miscellaneous insects are put in the
+same vial the stronger specimens will, in a short time, crush or
+otherwise injure the more delicate ones or the predaceous species will
+devour any others they can master. But even where the specimens are
+killed immediately the following rule should be observed: Do not put
+large and small specimens in the same vial, but provide a larger bottle
+for the larger specimens, and one, or still better, several, smaller
+vials for the medium-sized and very small specimens. The importance of
+this rule is recognized by all experienced collectors.
+
+There are several methods of killing insects, each having its own
+peculiar advantages and drawbacks.
+
+_Alcohol._--The use of alcohol will, on the whole, prove the most
+satisfactory method of killing Coleoptera, many Hemiptera, some
+Neuroptera, and larvae of all sorts. Only the best quality of alcohol
+should be used, but it should be diluted with from 30 to 40 per cent of
+pure water, the greatest care being taken to keep the alcohol as clean
+as possible. During the collecting a mass of debris and dirt is apt to
+be thrown into the bottle, and when this is the case the alcohol should
+be changed even during short excursions. At any rate, upon the return
+from the excursion, the specimens should be at once taken from the
+bottle and washed in pure alcohol in a shallow vessel. The larvae and
+other material intended for permanent preservation in alcohol should be
+transferred to suitable vials and the material to be mounted cleansed
+with chloroform or acetic ether and then prepared for the cabinet. If it
+is inconvenient or impossible to mount the Coleoptera, etc., soon after
+the return from the excursion they should be washed, dried, and placed
+in pill boxes between layers of soft paper, or they may be replaced in a
+vial with pure alcohol. On longer collecting trips, lasting several days
+or weeks, specimens will keep thus very well, provided they are not
+shaken up, and this can be prevented by filling the empty space in the
+vial with cotton or soft paper. If the bottle is a large one and
+contains many large specimens the alcohol should be renewed three or
+four times at intervals of eight or ten days; otherwise the specimens
+are liable to decompose. Small and delicate specimens, if they are to
+be kept in alcohol, should be treated with still greater care. Upon the
+return from the excursion they should also be cleaned in pure alcohol
+and placed in small vials into which a very few drops of alcohol, just
+sufficient to keep the contents moist, are poured. The vial should be
+corked as tightly as possible and the specimens will keep pretty well
+for an indefinite time.
+
+The drawbacks to the use of alcohol are: 1st, that all hairy specimens
+are liable to spoil; 2ndly, that all Coleoptera with soft integuments
+spread the wing-cases apart if kept too long in it. The advantage of the
+alcohol is that it is the simplest and least troublesome fluid for
+naturalists traveling in distant countries who are not specialists in
+entomology. Specimens killed in alcohol are also less liable to be
+attacked by verdigris when pinned than those killed by some other
+method. Rum, whisky, or similar strong alcoholic liquors may be used as
+substitutes where no pure alcohol can be obtained, but are not
+especially to be recommended.
+
+_Chloroform and Ether._--Killing with the fumes of _chloroform_ or
+_ether_ (sulphuric or acetic) or _benzine_, or some other etheric oil,
+is often practiced and advocated by those who, for any reason, dislike
+the use of alcohol or object, on account of its poisonous nature, to the
+use of cyanide of potassium, and they are of especial value in the case
+of butterflies and moths, Hymenoptera and Diptera. "A small and stout
+bottle of chloroform or ether, with a brush securely inserted into the
+cork (Fig. 89), will be found very serviceable. A slight moistening
+through the air net will stupefy most insects caught in it, and
+facilitate their removal to the cyanide bottle; while a touch or two
+with the wet brush under the head and thorax, will kill the more
+delicate specimens outright, without in the least injuring them. Another
+way of using chloroform is by means of a small, hollow tube passed
+through the cork, what is called jeweler's hollow wire answering the
+purpose. The liquid evaporates more readily in such a bottle, and I
+altogether prefer the first mentioned. Some large insects, and
+especially female moths, whose size prevents the use of the ordinary
+cyanide bottles, are difficult to kill. With these, fluttering may be
+prevented by the use of chloroform, or they may be killed by puncturing
+the thorax or piercing the body longitudinally, with a needle dipped in
+liquid cyanide, or oxalic acid. A long bottle with a needle thrust into
+the cork may be kept for this purpose; but the needle must be of ivory
+or bone, as those of metal are corroded and eaten by the liquids. * * *
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89.--Chloroform bottle with brush.]
+
+"For killing small and delicate moths which have been bred, I find
+nothing more handy than chloroform. They may be caught in turned wooden
+boxes which are kept by every druggist; and a touch of the chloroform on
+the outside of the box immediately stupefies them. It has a tendency to
+stiffen them, however, and they are best set immediately after death."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90.--Bottle with liquid cyanide.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.--The Cyanide bottle with paper strips to give
+support to the insects.]
+
+A piece of heavy blotting paper or heavy cloth soaked with chloroform or
+ether or benzine and placed at the bottom of a jar or bottle makes an
+excellent killing bottle for large-sized insects. For smaller specimens
+the collecting vial should be half filled loosely with narrow strips of
+soft paper, upon which a few drops of the liquid are poured, not so
+much, however, as to wet the paper. While collecting, the vial must be
+kept closed as much as possible. Some collectors prefer chloroform,
+others ether. If this method of killing is practiced with the necessary
+care, there is no objection whatever to it; the specimens are not wetted
+as they are in alcohol, and remain cleaner than those killed by any
+other method. The drawback is that the substances mentioned evaporate
+very rapidly and have to be renewed even on short excursions. On account
+of this great volatility, one can never be certain that all the
+specimens in the collecting bottle are dead after a given time and there
+is always some danger that one or the other of the hardier insects may
+regain activity. What mischief such revived specimens are capable of
+doing, many collectors have experienced to their sorrow. Another
+disadvantage of these volatile substances is that if used in too large
+quantities they will, in delicate specimens, especially beetles, cause
+an extension of the soft ligaments between the head and prothorax or
+between the latter and the mesothorax, and thus bring the specimen into
+an unnatural position, or cause the head, or head and thorax to drop
+off.
+
+_Cyanide of Potassium._--The method of killing which, of late years, has
+found most favor with collectors, is the use of cyanide of potassium.
+For killing large sized specimens they are simply put in what is now
+universally known as the "cyanide bottle." This may be constructed as
+follows:
+
+Take a 2-ounce quinine bottle, or still better a shorter bottle with a
+wide mouth; break up a quantity of cyanide of potassium into pieces of
+convenient size (about a cubic centimeter); put these pieces in the
+bottle so that they form an even layer at the bottom; mix in a
+convenient vessel a quantity of plaster of Paris with water just
+sufficient to make the mixture semifluid and then pour it over the
+cyanide so as to cover this last to a depth of about 5 millimeters. The
+bottle is then left open for an hour or two until the plaster is
+thoroughly dry. The walls of the bottle are then cleansed from particles
+of the plaster which may have splashed on them, and the bottle is ready
+for use. If not used too frequently, especially in warm weather, it will
+last for an entire year or longer. Bottles or vials of different sizes
+can be prepared in the same way, and a very small cyanide vial which can
+be carried in the vest pocket will be found most convenient for use on
+all occasions. Fig. 92 represents a medium-sized chemist's test tube,
+converted into a very convenient cyanide bottle, in which, however, a
+cotton wad has been used to keep the poison in place. When the collected
+specimens have been removed from the bottle the latter should be
+carefully wiped clean with a piece of cloth or paper. The surface of the
+plaster soon becomes dirty and, on account of the hygroscopic property
+of the cyanide, more or less moist, especially during warm weather. The
+cyanide bottle is, therefore, not well adapted for the killing and
+temporary preservation of small and delicate specimens. This difficulty
+can be altogether obviated by placing a circular piece of blotting
+paper, cut to neatly fit the interior of the bottle, on the surface of
+the plaster. This can be renewed once a week or so, or oftener if it
+becomes necessary. It will frequently be advisable, also, especially in
+the collection of Diptera, Hymenoptera, and other delicate insects, to
+put a strip of blotting paper partially round the inner side of the
+bottle. This will absorb any moisture which may gather on the inside of
+the bottle and which would otherwise wet and injure the specimens. The
+accompanying figure (Fig. 93) illustrates a bottle arranged as described
+above. A similar result is attained by some collectors by partially
+filling the bottle with narrow strips of bibulous paper to support and
+separate the insects as shown at Fig. 91.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92.--Pocket cyanide bottle.]
+
+For delicate specimens, also, the collecting bottle may consist of a
+test-tube of about the size of Fig. 92. This is half filled with loose,
+thin strips of soft white paper. A piece of cyanide about the size of a
+pea is then wrapped carefully in paper and so placed in the middle of
+the strips that it can not come in contact with the sides of the
+glass. Some prefer to pin the paper containing the cyanide to the
+lower surface of the cork. The latter should be rather short and
+tapering toward its lower end. It is longitudinally perforated through
+its center by a round hole just large enough to insert a goose-quill,
+which is cut straight at the lower end and obliquely at its upper end.
+By means of this goose-quill the specimens may be introduced into the
+bottle without taking off the cork. This form of cyanide bottle lasts
+for only one day's collecting, except in cold weather, and in very warm
+weather it is advisable to take two prepared bottles along, so that the
+first used can be stowed away as soon as the cyanide begins to moisten
+the paper strips. Most insects are quickly killed in such a bottle, but
+some Coleoptera must be left in for five or six hours, while others
+resist death for a still longer time. This is especially true of the
+Coleopterous families Curculionidae, Trogositidae, and Tenebrionidae.
+
+Submersion in alcohol will prove a satisfactory method of killing these
+or other beetles with similar vitality.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93.--The cyanide bottle with blotting-paper lining
+(original).]
+
+_Other Agents._--Prof. E. W. Claypole has found the use of benzine or
+gasoline very cheap and satisfactory for killing Lepidoptera, as the
+largest are at once killed thereby without injury to their scales.
+(_Can. Ent._, XIX, p. 136.) He squirts it onto the specimen within the
+net or in the open air by means of a druggist's dropping tube. Hot water
+kills rapidly and leaves the specimens in good flexible condition for
+mounting. The heads of large insects may be held for a few moments in
+the water, while smaller specimens should first be thrown into a corked
+bottle and the bottle submitted to heat. Where the laurel grows its
+bruised leaves may be used in place of cyanide; they kill less quickly.
+The leaves of the Laurel-cherry (_Prunus laurocerasus_), a plant
+commonly grown in England for screens and hedges, are also used for this
+purpose.
+
+Some collectors, with indifferent olfactory sense, moisten the cork of
+their boxes with creosote. Its killing power lasts for several days. A
+few whiffs from a cigar, when nothing else is at hand, will also kill
+many of the more tender insects.
+
+SPECIAL DIRECTIONS FOR DIFFERENT ORDERS.--A few brief directions for the
+special treatment of different orders may be given. Certain Coleoptera,
+notably those of the Curculionid genus Lixus, are covered with a
+yellowish pruinosity resembling pollen, which is of an evanescent
+nature, so that if the specimens are collected and killed by the
+ordinary methods, the pruinosity is completely lost. To preserve the
+natural beauty of such species it is necessary to put each specimen
+alive in a small vial and to kill it at once by means of a lighted match
+held under the vial for a few seconds. In pinning or otherwise mounting
+the specimen it should not be handled between the fingers.
+
+Many Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera, especially species with yellow
+markings, if kept for any length of time in a cyanide bottle, will
+become discolored, the yellow changing to reddish, and hence such
+insects should not be left longer than necessary in the bottle. If care
+is exercised in this respect, no danger of discoloration need ordinarily
+be feared. The chloroform collecting bottle may be used with these
+insects if discoloration is anticipated. All the more delicate insects,
+including Hymenoptera, Diptera, the smaller Lepidoptera, and the
+Neuroptera, require special care in killing. Large numbers should not be
+thrown into a killing bottle together, and plenty of bibulous paper
+should be kept in the bottle to prevent moisture from accumulating and
+wetting and ruining the specimens. It is frequently advisable to pin
+Diptera, especially the hairy forms (as the Bee-flies), in the net and
+transfer them at once to a cigar box containing a sponge moistened with
+chloroform. When the collecting shears are used, the insects are always
+thus pinned at once, which is, in fact, the only method of securing
+them. This is also necessary in the case of many Lepidoptera. Delicate
+Neuroptera may be killed by the use of the cyanide bottle, or,
+preferably, placed at once in a vial of alcohol, as these insects, in
+many instances, cannot be kept securely if pinned or mounted. Large
+Lepidoptera, as the Bombycids, may be killed by pouring benzine,
+naphtha, or chloroform over the thorax and abdomen. These substances
+evaporate rapidly and do not appreciably injure the vestiture of the
+insects. Some collectors, in the case of butterflies, seize them
+dexterously between the thumb and finger, and give a sharp pinch on the
+sides of the thorax. This will prevent the fluttering of the insect when
+transferred to the cyanide bottle, and, if carefully done, the scales
+need not be rubbed off. It is objectionable, however, because the thorax
+is distorted and subsequent anatomical study interfered with, and, in
+the case of moths, should never be practiced, as the thorax affords
+important characters used in classification. Orthoptera may be killed by
+the use of the cyanide bottle but should be transferred at once to the
+vials of alcohol. If placed in a cyanide bottle, especially in the case
+of Locusts (_Acrididae_), they are apt to exude colored juices from the
+mouth, so that the specimens become soiled. Hence the use of vials of
+alcohol is preferable, and these insects should never be thrown into
+vials containing delicate insects of other orders. Plant-lice, together
+with the plant which they infest, should be placed at once in vials of
+alcohol, and specimens of the Aphides, representing all the forms
+present, should be mounted on slides for microscopic examination. The
+fixed forms of Coccids, comprising the majority of the species, require
+no special treatment, and the leaves, twigs, or bark on which they occur
+may be pinned at once and placed in the collection. The free forms are
+treated as in the case of plant-lice.
+
+
+
+
+                                ENTOMOTAXY.
+
+
+Under this term may be considered the preparation of insects for the
+cabinet.
+
+
+                   CARE OF PINNED AND MOUNTED SPECIMENS.
+
+_Insect Pins._--In mounting insects for the cabinet, expressly made
+entomological pins should be used. These come from three different
+sources: Klaeger pins, made by Hermann Klaeger, Berlin, Germany; Karlsbad
+pins, made by one or several firms in Karlsbad, Bohemia, Austria; and
+Vienna pins, made by Miller, Vienna, Austria.[4] These three kinds of
+pins have each their own slight advantages and disadvantages, so that it
+is difficult to say which is the best. All have the disadvantage that
+the pinned specimens are liable to be ruined by verdigris, and to
+obviate this japanned ("black") insect pins are made by Klaeger and
+Miller. These black pins are, however, much softer than the "white"
+pins, and therefore more difficult to handle. A pin of 35 millimeters in
+length will be found most convenient for pinning all insects excepting
+the larger Lepidoptera and other heavy-bodied insects, for which a
+longer pin may advantageously be used. According to the different
+degrees of fineness, the pins are numbered from No. 00 (the finest in
+the trade) to No. 7 or 8, but the numbers used by the different
+manufacturers do not correspond with each other. In experience, pins of
+Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 (Klaeger numbers) are more often needed than the
+others. The long pins of the finer numbers (Nos. 0 and 00) are difficult
+to handle in the collection and, for this reason, not to be recommended.
+
+  [4] In North America, Klaeger pins and Karlsbad pins can be obtained
+  through Mr. John Ackhurst, 78 Ashland Place, Brooklyn, N. Y., and
+  possibly also through Messrs. Blake & Co., 55 North Seventh street,
+  Philadelphia, Pa. The Vienna pins and the Minutien-Nadeln have to be
+  ordered direct through the manufacturer, Mr. Miller.
+
+For many small insects, especially Microlepidoptera and Microdiptera,
+which _must_ be pinned, even the finest ordinary insect-pins are too
+large, and two special makes of pins are in use for this purpose. The
+"elbow pin" (formerly made and sold by Dr. Kuenow, of Koenigsberg,
+Prussia, Germany) consists of a piece of fine silver wire, pointed at
+one end, and with a coil loop at the other end, into which a longer pin
+(No. 3 or No. 4) is thrust. This pin is illustrated in Fig. 94. Still
+more satisfactory are the "Minutien-Nadeln" (pins for minute insects)
+manufactured by Mr. Miller, of Vienna, Austria, and which consist of a
+straight piece (about 14 mm. long) of extremely fine steel wire which is
+pointed at one end, and which is used in connection with a piece of
+pith or cork. The mode of using this pin is shown in Fig. 101. These
+fine and elbow pins may be obtained either "white" or japanned.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94.--Insect mounted on "elbow-pin."]
+
+"Many English entomologists use short pins, very much like those of
+ordinary make, and my late friend Walsh never gave up the custom, and
+most vehemently opposed the use of what he ridiculed as 'long German
+skewers.' But the only advantage that can possibly be claimed for the
+short pins is that they are less apt to bend, consequently more easily
+stuck into the bottoms of boxes, and require less room; while, compared
+with the long pins, they have numerous disadvantages. Long pins admit of
+the very important advantage of attaching notes and labels to the
+specimen; render it more secure from injury when handled, and from
+museum pests in the cabinet; and on them several rows of carded
+duplicates may be fastened, one under the other, so as to economize
+room."
+
+I have seen few old collections in better condition than that of the
+late E. Mulsant, of Lyons, France; and he used iron wire, cut
+slantingly, of the requisite length--a common custom in France. These
+wires bend so easily and have such dull points that they require much
+more careful manipulation than the pins, and the claim made for them
+that they do not verdigris would, perhaps, be offset by their rusting in
+moist climates or near the sea. Silver wire or silver-plated wire is
+also used.
+
+_Preparation of Specimens._--Upon the return from an excursion the
+specimens should be prepared for the collection as soon as practicable.
+If they have been collected in the forenoon they should be mounted the
+same evening, and those collected during an afternoon or evening
+excursion should be mounted the following morning, or, at any rate,
+before they get dry and brittle. Even specimens collected in alcohol
+should be attended to as soon as possible.
+
+Specimens are taken from the collecting bottle, spread out on a sheet of
+white blotting paper and cleaned from adhering impurities either with a
+soft dry brush, or, in the case of species with hard covering, by
+washing them with chloroform or ether or benzine where necessary.
+Theoretically the best way of mounting would be to pin all specimens,
+since the under side with its important characters then remains free for
+examination. Pins adapted for pinning even the smallest insects have
+been described above, but this pinning is such a delicate operation and
+requires so much time that considering the large number of small
+specimens that may be collected on a single short excursion it is next
+to impossible to carry out this method, and therefore only the larger
+specimens need be pinned and the smaller may be glued onto the paper
+points described later. If the work is done with proper care all
+insects can be prepared for the cabinet so that both the upper and under
+surface of the specimen may be examined without further manipulation.
+
+_Pinning._--"Insects should be pinned through the middle of the thorax,
+when, as is more generally the case, this portion (the mesothorax) is
+largely developed. Beetles (_Coleoptera_) and Bugs (_Hemiptera_),
+should, however, be pinned, the former through the right elytron or
+wing-cover (Fig. 95), and the latter through the scutel or triangular
+piece behind the thorax, the pin issuing between the middle and hind
+legs (Fig. 96). The specimens look very pretty with all the legs neatly
+spread out, but for practical purposes it is better to let them dry in
+the natural, partly bent position. It is a saving of time and space, and
+the limbs are not so apt to break. The legs must also not reach too far
+downward or they will interfere with the proper labeling and the secure
+pinning of the specimen in the cabinet. Moreover, the antennae and legs
+must be brought into such position that they will not obstruct the view
+of any important part of the undersurface. The pin should always project
+about half an inch above the insect to facilitate handling, and
+uniformity in this regard will have much to do with the neat appearance
+of the collection. In pinning very large and heavy insects on a No. 4 or
+No. 5 pin, it is a good plan to first flatten the pin by a few blows of
+a hammer, in order to prevent the specimen from subsequently turning
+round on the pin."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95.--Method of pinning and labeling Coleoptera
+(original).]
+
+In pinning specimens which have a flat or nearly flat undersurface and
+short legs (as in many Coleoptera and Hemiptera and some Hymenoptera,
+_e. g._ the Saw-flies) the specimens are laid on a piece of cork and
+held in place there with the fingers or with a forceps. The pin is then
+pushed through the insect at the proper point, care being taken not to
+strike one of the legs or coxae, and that the pin passes through the
+specimen in a vertical direction.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96.--Method of pinning Hemiptera (original).]
+
+After the pin has been pushed through the specimen it is taken out of
+the cork and the specimen is pushed up to its proper height. This can be
+done either by holding the specimen between the fingers or by placing it
+on the upper edge of a thick book. A piece of cardboard provided with a
+small hole may also be used for this purpose. The perforations in
+ordinary sheet-cork, or the lapel of one's coat, will answer the same
+purpose. In pinning Lepidoptera or Hymenoptera the specimen should lie
+lightly in the angle formed by the thumb and first two fingers of the
+left hand and the pin be carefully thrust through at the proper angle.
+In pinning all insects the pin should be so inserted that the insect is
+nearly at right angles with the pin, the posterior end being slightly
+depressed.
+
+_Mounting on Points._--Most insects which are too small to be pinned on
+a No. 2 pin may be fastened to cardboard by means of gum tragacanth, gum
+shellac, or any good glue. It is not always easy to determine whether to
+pin a medium specimen or to glue it to a triangle. Pinned specimens are
+more secure, and not so apt to fall or be knocked off, but they are
+liable to become corroded by verdigris and ultimately lost, especially
+in families the larvae of which are endophytous or internal feeders. It
+is better to glue wherever there is doubt. A drop of corrosive sublimate
+added to the water in which the gum tragacanth is dissolved will
+indefinitely prevent its souring, but should not be used where the gum
+is to come in contact with the pin, as it inclines the latter to
+verdigris. In such cases a little spirits of camphor mixed with the gum
+tragacanth is best. Shellac should be dissolved in alcohol and this
+requires some time. This glue is not affected by moisture, and if it is
+desired to remove the specimens, they must be immersed in alcohol until
+the shellac is again dissolved.
+
+A number of different kinds of glue are used by entomologists. The
+requirements of a good glue are that it be colorless, and, what is of
+greater importance, that the specimens adhere firmly to the paper points
+so that there is little or no danger of their being jarred off. Those
+glues which are readily soluble in cold or lukewarm water are perhaps
+more convenient than those which require alcohol or chloroform for
+dissolving. Gum arabic and gum tragacanth have the disadvantage that
+they are more liable to attract mites and are more brittle, so that they
+do not hold specimens as well as some of the liquid glues that are on
+the market. Spalding's glue answers a very good purpose, as also the
+preparation known to European entomologists as Leprieur's gum. White
+bleached shellac, while requiring alcohol to dissolve it, has the
+advantage that a very minute quantity suffices. In olden times the
+method employed was simply to glue the specimen by the ventral side to
+the middle of a quadrangular piece of cardboard, which was then pinned
+on a No. 3 or No. 4 insect pin. This method is still in vogue with
+English entomologists, but can not be recommended except for mounting
+duplicates. Much better are the small isosceles triangles which, before
+mounting the specimen, are pinned through near the base on a No. 2 or
+No. 3 insect pin. Only the best and finest cardboard should be used for
+this purpose, since that of poor quality is liable to be broken while
+passing the pin through it and will yellow with age. "Reynolds's
+Superfine Board," which may be ordered through any dealer in artist's
+supplies of Devoe & Co., Fulton street, New York City, is perhaps the
+best for this purpose. Some of the neatest mounting which I have had
+done by any of my agents or assistants is by Mr. Albert Koebele, who
+has used mica or gelatine instead of cardboard, the object being not
+only to show the whole of the under side of the specimen, but to obscure
+less of the light from the labels and to render the triangles less
+conspicuous in the cabinet. These have been in use in the museum
+collection only for the last two or three years, and whether they will
+eventually tend to corrode the pins is not yet settled. Mica and
+isinglass are also used for the same purpose. The points used in
+mounting may easily be cut by hand to a convenient size, say one-fourth
+of an inch (6-8 mm) long by one-sixteenth or less at the base, and
+tapering to a point. The point may be narrower or wider to accommodate
+insects of different sizes.
+
+For cutting these triangles or points, various forms of punches similar
+to the appended figure (Fig. 97) known to the trade as conductor's
+punches may be used, and points thus cut are to be preferred to those
+made by other means, on account of the greater uniformity secured.
+
+An experienced hand, however, will cut these points very rapidly and
+accurately with a pair of shears, and most collectors use no special
+instrument for this purpose.
+
+The punches mentioned may be obtained of the manufacturers[5] of such
+instruments at from $2 to $3. Care should be observed in ordering to
+state explicitly the length, width at base and point, or, what is
+better, to inclose sample of the size of point it is desired to cut; but
+above all, to state that the block of paper to be cut out is the result
+desired, and that the instrument should cut clean and even, with no
+ragged edges.
+
+  [5] Montgomery & Co., 105 Fulton street, New York City.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97.--Insect punch for cutting triangles or points
+(original).]
+
+For mounting different forms and sizes the fastidious collector uses
+four or five sizes of points, but for all practical purposes one to cut
+a card point not less than 1.3 mm at the base and prolonged as nearly as
+possible to a point, and another a trifle wider at the base, say 11/2 or 1
+2/3 mm and with a point about 11/2 mm in width will suffice.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98.--Points for mounting insects (original).]
+
+For mounting most long-bodied insects, _e. g._, Staphylinidae and
+Elateridae, an oblong card say 11/2 mm in width is desirable. With a little
+care these may be cut with sufficient uniformity with scissors. Seven
+and one-half millimeters may be taken as a standard of length, as this
+is about the size used by the majority of our best collectors. Shorter
+points, say 6 mm or one-quarter inch long, are sometimes preferred,
+where economy of space is a desideratum.
+
+A series of four points of different sizes for mounting insects is shown
+in the accompanying illustration. The sharp-pointed one, _a_, is
+designed for the minutest forms and the larger points for large insects.
+The largest should be mounted on points of a nearly rectangular shape,
+shown at _d_. The dimensions of these points as adopted by most
+entomologists, are as follows:--
+
+                  +------+---------+----------+--------+
+                  |      | Length. | Breadth. | Point. |
+                  +------+---------+----------+--------+
+                  | _a_  |  7.5mm. |  1.5mm.  |  .0mm. |
+                  | _b_  |  7.5    |  1.5     |  .4    |
+                  | _c_  |  7.5    |  1.5     |  .6    |
+                  | _d_  |  7.5    |  1.6     | 1.6    |
+                  +------+---------+----------+--------+
+
+The point or triangle should be mounted on the pin and directed to the
+left, the height from the top of the pin varying somewhat with the
+specimen, but averaging about one-half an inch. The insect is then glued
+to the point with the head pointed forward. In the case of Coleoptera
+and Hymenoptera, and in fact of most insects, the specimen is mounted
+with the back uppermost, but in the case of the smaller Hymenoptera it
+is advisable to mount some of the specimens, at least, on the left side
+(see Fig. 99). This directs the legs toward the pin, as a matter of
+safety, prevents their being broken in handling, and also gives
+opportunity for subsequent examination of the back, side, and venter of
+the specimen. Coleopterists always mount specimens on the venter, and in
+the case of a correctly mounted specimen the whole underside of the body
+should be available for examination except the right half of the
+metasternum, as shown in figure 100.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 99.--Insect mounted on cardboard triangle.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 100.--Method of gluing beetle on paper point
+(original).]
+
+In mounting minute insects a few precautions are necessary. The beginner
+usually uses too much glue or shellac, and the result is that the
+mounted specimens are more or less covered with the fluid, so as to
+render them unfit for examination. If, on the other hand, too little of
+the glue is used, the specimens are not securely fastened to the paper
+point, and are liable to be jolted off by the slightest jar. Before
+mounting specimens the legs and antennae must be brought into the proper
+position by means of a brush or with a dissecting needle, so that they
+may easily be seen. A supply of paper points should always be at hand,
+and after selecting one of the proper size for the specimen, with an
+acute tip for a very small specimen and with a more obtuse point for a
+larger one, a small quantity of glue is applied to the tip by means of a
+pointed stick, such as a toothpick, the amount varying with the size of
+the specimen. The tip of a moistened brush may be used to transfer the
+specimen to the point, or one will soon become dextrous enough to do
+this without the aid of the brush. The specimens are then allowed to dry
+in a horizontally placed box. If the drying box is placed in a vertical
+position the specimens, especially long-bodied ones, are liable to
+topple over before the glue has become firm.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 101.--Cecidomyiid mounted on pith (original).]
+
+Delicate flies and Microlepidoptera, which it will not do to fasten with
+mucilage, may first be mounted on the fine pins described above and
+these thrust into oblong or triangular bits of pith or cork, which are
+mounted on larger pins as shown in Figures 101 and 102. This affords a
+very satisfactory method of mounting, particularly as the different
+sexes may be brought together on the same bit of pith, or the adult and
+puparium in Diptera, as shown at Figure 101. Strips of stout cardboard
+with the pins run through the narrow edge may also be used. The method
+of mounting minute Hymenoptera and Diptera and other insects on a bent
+wire, mentioned above, is illustrated at Figure 94. This method has not
+proved so satisfactory, as the wires are apt to become loose on the pin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 102.--Microlepidoptera mounted on pith (original).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 103.--Method of mounting duplicates (original).]
+
+_Mounting Duplicates._--If the collector finds more specimens of a rare
+species than he cares to have in his collection, the excess may be
+mounted as duplicates. If the species happens to be of a large size the
+specimens are pinned in the ordinary way, but if small enough to be
+gummed, there is a most convenient method of rapidly mounting the
+specimens so that they may be sent through the mail with much less risk
+of getting broken or knocked off than if glued on paper points, and will
+also take up very little room in the duplicate boxes. It consists in
+gluing the specimens in a transverse row on a strip of white card paper
+with one of the glues soluble in water, care being taken that between
+the individual specimens some space be left, and further that the heads
+and antennae do not project beyond the edge of the paper. The width of
+the paper strip must be somewhat greater than the length of the
+specimen, so that below the latter there is sufficient room for
+inserting a pin through the paper. After the glue has become dry the row
+of specimens is cut with scissors into several smaller rows of
+convenient size, so that on each of these rows there are two or three or
+more specimens, according to the size of the species. A locality label
+is pushed high up on a No. 3 or No. 4 pin, and one of the mounted rows
+of specimens is then pinned and pushed up near the locality label; a
+second row is then pinned and pushed near the first row, and the same
+process continued with the third row and so on. A single pin will thus
+bear five or six rows, and in giving away or sending away specimens the
+lowest row is taken from the pin and repinned for mailing. The
+accompanying figure (Fig. 103) illustrates the mounting of a
+moderate-sized species in rows of two specimens each. This method of
+mounting duplicates may be adopted not only for Coleoptera, but also for
+Heteroptera, Homoptera (excepting Aphididae and allied families), smaller
+Orthoptera, and Hymenoptera. It is, however, impracticable for
+Lepidoptera, Diptera, and most Neuroptera.
+
+_Temporary Storage of Specimens._--If the entomologist is prevented from
+mounting his captures soon after returning from an expedition, or if, on
+extended collecting trips, time does not offer for this purpose,
+specimens of almost all orders except the Lepidoptera, Orthoptera, and
+Neuroptera may be placed in a small, tightly closing pill box, care
+being taken to keep the larger specimens apart from the small ones. In
+this way specimens will keep for an indefinite period, provided they are
+properly packed. In the case of the traveling collector, where the
+material is to be carried from point to point at great risk of breaking,
+specimens should be packed very carefully to prevent any shaking or
+rattling about in the boxes. This may be done by placing a round piece
+of soft paper on the top of the specimens in the pill box. This paper
+should be gently pressed down and the empty space above filled with
+other layers of paper or with cotton. The packing of specimens between
+cotton is not recommended, as it is a difficult and tedious task to
+afterwards free them from the adhering fibers. Layers of soft paper or,
+yet better, velvet, are preferable.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 104.--Method of preserving Diurnal Lepidoptera in
+paper envelopes. (After Kiesenwetter.)]
+
+_Envelopes for Lepidoptera, etc._--On an extended trip, it will be found
+impracticable to mount and prepare insects requiring cumbersome
+apparatus for spreading, as Lepidoptera or Neuroptera, and a very
+excellent plan consists in folding the wings of the insect so that the
+lower surfaces come together and then placing it in a triangular
+envelope, as shown in the accompanying illustration. The collector
+should be provided with a quantity of paper of the requisite dimensions
+for making these envelopes, and specimens, as they are taken from the
+collecting bottle, may be rapidly inclosed in them, labeled, and packed
+away in a tight wooden (not tin) box containing a supply of naphthaline,
+the specimens thus occupying the minimum of space. Specimens secured in
+this way may be kept without further manipulation indefinitely or until
+time is found to relax and set them. This is also an excellent method
+of sending diurnal Lepidoptera and Dragon-flies through the mails and is
+preferable in some respects to mailing spread specimens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 105.--Spreading board for Lepidoptera.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 106.--Needle for spreading insects.]
+
+_Directions for Spreading Insects._--"For the proper spreading of
+insects with broad and flattened wings, such as butterflies and moths, a
+spreading board or stretcher is necessary. One that is simple and
+answers every purpose is shown at Fig. 105. It may be made of two pieces
+of thin whitewood or pine board, fastened together by braces at the
+ends, but left wide enough apart to admit the bodies of the insects to
+be spread; strips of cork or pith, in which to fasten the pins, may then
+be tacked or glued below so as to cover the intervening space. The
+braces must be deep enough to prevent the pins from touching anything
+the stretcher may be laid on, and by attaching a ring or loop to one of
+them the stretcher may be hung against a wall, out of the way. For
+ordinary-sized specimens I use boards 2 feet long, 3 inches wide, and
+1/3 inch thick, with three braces (one in the middle and one at each
+end) 11/2 inches deep at the ends, but narrowing from each end to 1 1/6
+inches at the middle. This slight rising from the middle is to
+counteract the tendency of the wings, however well dried, to drop a
+little after the insect is placed in the cabinet. The wings are held in
+position by means of strips of paper (Fig. 105) until dry. For
+stretching the wings and for many other purposes, a handled needle will
+be found useful. Split off, with the grain, a piece of pine wood 3 or 4
+inches long; hold it in the right hand; take a medium-sized needle in
+the left hand; hold it upright with the point touching a walnut table,
+or other hard-grained wood, and bring a steady pressure to bear on the
+pine. The head of the needle will sink to any required distance into the
+pine, which may then be whittled off, and you have just the thing you
+want (Fig. 106). To obtain uniformity in the position of the wings, a
+good rule is to have the inner margins of the front wings as nearly as
+possible on a straight line. When the specimens are thoroughly stiff and
+dry, they should be taken from the stretcher and kept for several weeks
+in the drying box before being permanently placed in the cabinet. The
+drying box is simply a box of any required dimensions, containing a
+series of shelves on which to pin the specimens, and without a solid
+back or front. The back is covered on the inside with fine gauze and on
+the outside with coarser wire, and the door in front consists of a
+close-fitting frame of the same material, the object being to allow free
+passage of air, but at the same time to keep out dust and prevent the
+gnawings of mice and other animals. The shelves should be not less than
+2 inches deep, and if made in the form of a quadrangular frame, braced
+with two cross-pieces on which to tack sheet cork, they will serve for
+the double purpose of drying spread specimens and for the spreading of
+others, as there are many insects with long legs which are more
+conveniently spread on such a board, by means of triangular pieces of
+stiff cardboard braces or 'saddles,' than on the stretcher already
+described. Two of these braces are fixed on the setting board, by means
+of stout pins, at sufficient distances apart to receive the body between
+them. The wings are then spread upon them and kept in place until dry by
+means of additional braces. In the case of bees, wasps, etc., the pin
+may be thrust well into the cork or pith so that the wings may be
+arranged in the proper position and braced and supported by strips of
+stout cardboard. This method is especially recommended in the case of
+the Fossorial wasps, the legs of which, if mounted in an ordinary
+spreading board, can not be properly arranged.
+
+In spreading Lepidoptera I have used, in the place of a number of paper
+strips pinned across the wings, blocks of glass of various sizes to hold
+the wings in position. My method of mounting, with a large amount of
+material on hand to be attended to, consists in pinning a row on the
+spreading-board and fixing the wings in position with spreading needles,
+fastening them with a single narrow strip of paper placed next the body.
+The entire spreading-board is filled with specimens in this way, a
+single long strip of paper on either side answering to keep the wings of
+all the specimens in position. Then, instead of pinning additional
+strips to hold the wings flat and securely in position, the pieces of
+glass referred to are used, placing them on the wings of the insect.
+With the use of glass the spreading-board must always be kept in a
+horizontal position and must never be disturbed. The advantage of the
+glass is that the wings can be seen through it and more truly adjusted.
+
+Spreading-boards may be made as described above, or it may be of
+advantage, when a good deal of work is to be done, to adopt a somewhat
+different method. Five or six spreading-boards may be made together,
+forming a sort of shelf. A number of these shelves may be constructed
+and the whole combined in a case with a screen cover to exclude insects.
+The individual shelves may be arranged with grooves to slide on tongues
+in the side of the case. A screen-covered case for spreading-boards is
+always desirable, as the insects are otherwise very liable to be eaten
+by roaches or other insects. A spreading-case of the form described is
+shown at Fig. 107.
+
+_A new Apparatus for Spreading Microlepidoptera._--For the spreading of
+Microlepidoptera my assistant, Mr. Theo. Pergande, has devised an
+apparatus, represented in the accompanying illustration, which he finds
+very convenient. It consists of a small spreading-block represented at
+_B_ and the support with attachment shown at _A_. The former is made in
+a long strip of the shape shown in the illustration, having a square
+groove, _c_, cut in the top. Over this is glued a thin strip of wood,
+_b_, say 1/8 inch thick, and a narrow slit is sawed in the center of
+this above, cutting through into the groove _c_. This is then sawed up
+into pieces of uniform length, say 11/2 to 2 inches, and the block is
+completed by the insertion of a rectangular strip of pith or cork into
+the groove. The Micro is pinned on a short black pin, and the pin is
+thrust down into the narrow opening made by the saw and is held firmly
+by the pith or cork. This block is then slid into the groove in the
+setting-board _A_, which narrows slightly from _e_, and pushed along
+until firmly secured (_d_). The operator can then rest his hands and
+arms on either side of the support, and, if necessary, bring a large
+hand lens over the object by means of a support with ball-and-socket
+joint shown at _e_. The wings may thus be easily and accurately arranged
+and fixed in position with pins or strips of paper, as in the ordinary
+mounting of such insects. Two or three specimens may be mounted on each
+of these blocks. The construction of the support is indicated in the
+annexed drawing. One side is attached by clamps, shown enlarged at
+_f_, which afford means of adjusting the width of the slit in which the
+small sawed blocks slide and correct the shrinking or swelling which may
+take place in moist or dry seasons. The advantage of the apparatus is
+that the operator has the setting block firmly fixed before him and
+has both hands free to manipulate the wings of the insect in addition to
+having the lens in a convenient position, the use of which is necessary
+in the preparation of the very minute forms.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 107.--Spreading-case (original).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 108.--Spreading apparatus for Microlepidoptera
+(original).]
+
+_Spreading Microlepidoptera._--The mounting of Microlepidoptera is about
+the most delicate work in entomotaxy, and I can not do better than
+quote the explicit directions given by Lord Walsingham on the subject.
+
+Returning to camp I put a few drops of liquid ammonia on a small piece
+of sponge and place it in a tin canister with such of the boxes as do
+not contain the smallest species, and put these and the remainder away
+until morning in a cool place. In the morning I prepare for work by
+getting out a pair of scissors, a pair of forceps, my drying-box
+containing setting-boards, a sheet of white paper, and some pins.
+
+First, I cut two or three narrow pieces of paper from 3 to 6 lines wide,
+or rather wider, according to the size of the largest and smallest
+specimens I have to set. I then double each of these strips and cut it
+up into braces by a number of oblique cuts. Now I turn out the contents
+of the canister and damp the sponge with a few drops of fresh ammonia,
+refilling with boxes containing live insects. Those which have been
+taken out will be found to be all dead and in a beautifully relaxed
+condition for setting. Had the smallest specimens been placed in the
+canister over night there would have been some fear of their drying up,
+owing to the small amount of moisture in their bodies.
+
+If the weather is very hot there is some danger of killed insects
+becoming stiff while others are being set, in which case it is better to
+pin at once into a damp cork box all that have been taken out of the
+canister, but under ordinary circumstances I prefer to pin them one by
+one as I set them.
+
+Taking the lid off a box, and taking the box between the finger and
+thumb of the right hand, I roll out the insect on the top of the left
+thumb, supporting it with the top of the forefinger and so manipulating
+it as to bring the head pointing toward my right hand and the thorax
+uppermost. Now I take a pin in the right hand and resting the first
+joint of the middle finger of the right against the projecting point of
+the middle finger of the left hand to avoid unsteadiness, I pin the
+insect obliquely through the thickest part of the thorax, so that the
+head of the pin leans very slightly forward over the head of the insect.
+After passing the pin far enough through to bring about one-fourth of an
+inch out below,[6] I pin the insect into the middle of the groove of a
+setting board so that the edge of the groove will just support the under
+sides of the wings close up to the body when they are raised upon it.
+The board should be chosen of such a size as will permit of the
+extension of the wings nearly to its outer edge. The position of the pin
+should still be slanting a little forward. The wings should now be
+raised into the position in which they are intended to rest, with
+especial care in doing so not to remove any scales from the surface or
+cilia of the wings. Each wing should be fastened with a brace long
+enough to extend across both, the braces being pinned at the thick end,
+so that the head of the pin slopes away from the point of the brace;
+this causes the braces to press more firmly down on the wing when fixed.
+The insect should be braced thus: The two braces next the body should
+have the points upwards, the two outer ones pointing downwards and
+slightly inwards towards the body, and covering the main portion of the
+wings beyond the middle. Antennae should be carefully laid back above the
+wings, and braces should lie flat, exercising an even pressure at all
+points of their surface. The fore wings should slope slightly forwards
+so that a line drawn from the point of one to the point of the other
+will just miss the head and palpi. The hind wings should be close up,
+leaving no intervening space, but just showing the upper angle of the
+wing evenly on each side. I can give no more precise directions as to
+how this desirable result may most simply and speedily be attained; no
+two people set alike. Speed is an object; for I have often had to set
+twelve dozen insects before breakfast. A simple process is essential,
+for a man who is always pinning and moving pins, and rearranging wings
+and legs, is sure to remove a certain number of scales and spoil the
+appearance of the insect, besides utterly destroying its value. I raise
+each of the fore wings with a pin, and fix the pin against the inner
+margin so as to keep them in position while I apply the braces. Half the
+battle is really in the pinning. When an insect is pinned through the
+exact center of the thorax, with the pin properly sloped forward, the
+body appears to fall naturally into its position on the setting board,
+and the muscles of the wings being left free are easily directed and
+secured; but if the pin is not put exactly in the middle it interferes
+with the play of the wings. Legs must be placed close against the body
+or they will project and interfere with the set of the wings. Practice,
+care, and a steady hand will succeed. When all the insects that have
+been killed are set the contents of the canister will be found again
+ready, twenty minutes being amply sufficient to expose to the fumes of
+ammonia. Very bright green or pale pink insects should be killed by some
+other process, say chloroform, as ammonia will affect their colors.
+
+  [6] This applies to the use of short pins, which should subsequently be
+  connected through strips of pith with longer pins. For some of the
+  larger micros the long pins may be used directly and a different
+  spreading board employed.
+
+Insects should be left on the setting boards a full week to dry; then
+the braces may be carefully removed and they may be transferred to the
+store box.
+
+In my own experience I have found that a touch or two of the chloroform
+brush on the pill-box containing small moths is sufficient to either
+kill or so asphyxiate them that they can easily be mounted. I have also
+found that strips of corn pith or even of soft cork, with grooves cut
+into them, are very handy for the pinning and spreading, and that by
+means of a small, broad-tipped, and pliable forceps the smallest
+specimens can be deftly arranged in the groove and kept in place until
+pinned. In fact, for all persons who have not very great experience and
+dexterity this method is perhaps more to be recommended than that of
+holding them between the thumb and fingers. Where chloroform is used
+either to kill or deaden specimens, it is important that after they are
+once spread and in the drying box they should be subjected to an
+additional asphyxiation, as the larger species may revive and are apt to
+pull away from the holding strips, and thus rub off their scales.
+
+Microlepidoptera, together with Microhymenoptera and Diptera may be
+conveniently pinned on fine, short pins, and these thrust into an oblong
+bit of cork or pith. This form of mounting has already been described
+and is represented in figure 102. The neatest mounting of
+Microlepidoptera which I have seen is the work of my assistant, Mr.
+Albert Koebele, who mounts these insects on an oblong strip of pith.
+This is very light and presents no difficulty in pinning. The strips may
+be made of considerable length and both sexes may be pinned on the same
+block (see Fig. 103). Most Lepidoptera present on the under surface an
+entirely different aspect from that on the upper surface, and, in such
+cases, it is a good plan to mount a number of specimens obversely.
+
+_Relaxing._--It will frequently be desirable to re-spread insects which
+have been incorrectly mounted, or to spread specimens which have been
+collected and stored in papers, or pinned and allowed to dry without
+being prepared for the cabinet. Such specimens may be relaxed by placing
+them in a tight tin vessel half filled with moist sand to which a little
+carbolic acid has been added to prevent molding. Small specimens will be
+sufficiently relaxed to spread in twenty-four hours. Larger specimens
+require from two to three days. More rapid relaxing may be caused by the
+use of steam, and a flat piece of cork with the specimens laid or pinned
+thereon and floated on the top of hot water in a closed vessel
+constitutes an excellent relaxing arrangement.
+
+_Inflation of the Larvae of Lepidoptera._--The larvae of Lepidoptera
+preserved in alcohol are excellent for anatomical and general study, but
+are not very suitable for use in economic displays. This means of
+preservation also has the disadvantage of not generally preserving the
+natural color and appearance of the specimens. These objections may be
+avoided, however, by the dry method of preserving larvae, viz, by blowing
+or inflation. The process may be described as follows: The larva may be
+operated upon alive, but should preferably be first killed by dipping in
+chloroform or alcohol, or in the cyanide bottle. It is then placed on a
+piece of blotting paper and the alimentary canal caused to protrude from
+one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch, by rolling a pencil over the larva
+from the head to the posterior extremity. The protruding tip is then
+severed with a sharp knife or pair of dissecting scissors, and the
+contents of the abdomen are forced out by passing a pencil, as before, a
+number of times over the larva. Great care should be exercised in
+expressing the fluids not to press the pencil too strongly against the
+larva or to continue the operation too long, as this will, especially in
+delicate larvae, remove the pigment from the skin, and the specimen when
+dried will show discolored spots and be more or less distorted. The
+larva should be moved from place to place on the blotting paper during
+the operation, so as not to become soiled by its own juices. A straw, or
+a glass tube drawn to a point at the tip, is then inserted in the
+protruding portion of the alimentary canal. If a straw is used the larva
+may be fastened to it by thrusting a pin through the wall of the canal
+and the straw. In the case of the glass tube the alimentary canal can be
+caused to adhere by drying for a few minutes and this operation may be
+hastened and the fastening made more secure by touching the point of
+union with a drop of glue. The straw or glass tube is then attached to a
+small rubber bag, previously inflated with air, the ordinary dentist's
+or chemist's gas bag answering admirably for this purpose. The larva is
+now ready for drying, and for this purpose a drying oven is required
+into which it is thrust and manipulated by turning it from side to side,
+to keep it in proper shape and dry it uniformly until the moisture has
+been thoroughly expelled. An apparatus which I have found very
+convenient for this purpose is represented at Fig. 109. It consists of a
+tin box with mica or glass slides, _e_, to allow the larva to be
+constantly in sight. It has also a hinged top, _b_, which may be kept
+closed or partly open, or entirely open, as may be necessary, during the
+operation. The ends of the box are prolonged downward about 5 inches,
+forming supports for it, _g_. Beneath it is placed an alcohol lamp, _f_,
+which furnishes the heat. In the end of the box is a circular opening,
+_d_, for the introduction of the larva, and this may be entirely or
+partly closed by a sliding door, _a_. It will be found of advantage to
+line the bottom of the box (inside) with a brass screen of very fine
+mesh to distribute and equalize the heat. This apparatus can be very
+easily made by any tinsmith and will answer every purpose.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 109.--Drying oven for the inflation of larvae
+(original).]
+
+The larvae of Microlepidoptera or young larvae may be dried without
+expressing the body contents, and will keep, to a great extent, their
+normal shape and appearance. The method consists in placing them on a
+sand bath, heated by an alcohol lamp. The vapor generated by the heat in
+the larvae inflates them and keeps the skin taut until the juices are
+entirely evaporated. They may then be glued at once to cardboard and
+pinned in the cases.
+
+In the mounting of large inflated larvae I have adopted the plan of
+supporting them on covered copper wire of a size varying with the size
+of the larva. A pin is first thrust through a square bit of cork and the
+wire brought tightly about it and wrapped once or twice, compressing the
+cork and giving a firm attachment to the pin. The wire is then neatly
+bent to form a diamond-shaped loop about one-sixth of an inch in length
+and again twisted loosely to the end--the length of the twisted portion
+about equalling that of the larva to be mounted. This is then either
+thrust into the blown skin of the larva through the anal opening, the
+larva being glued to the wire by the posterior extremity, or the larva
+is glued to the wire by the abdominal legs and venter, thus resting on
+the wire as on a twig. This style of mounting is illustrated in Pl. I.
+With a little experience the operator will soon be able to inflate the
+most delicate larvae and also the very hairy forms, as for instance
+_Orgyia leucostigma_, without the least injury, so that the natural
+colors and appearance will be preserved.
+
+Another very good method, and still safer, is to blow with straw, cut
+the straw square off at the anus, and then preserve the thoroughly dried
+and blown specimen in a glass tube of about the same length and diameter
+as the larva. This arrangement in conjunction with the tube holder,
+which will be described further on, is one of the most satisfactory for
+the preservation of inflated larvae.
+
+For the biological-display collection, larvae may be blown in various
+natural positions, to be subsequently fastened on leaf or twig or in
+burrows which they have occupied. Fastened to artificial foliage in
+which nature is imitated as much as possible, such blown larvae are quite
+effective.
+
+_Stuffing Insects._--Large larvae may sometimes be satisfactorily
+preserved for exhibition purposes by stuffing them with cotton. The
+method consists simply in making a small slit with the dissecting
+scissors or a short scalpel between the abdominal prolegs, and removing
+the body contents. Powdered arsenic or some other preservative should be
+put in the body of the larva with the cotton used in stuffing it, and
+the slit closed by a few stitches, when the larva may be dried and
+mounted on a twig or leaf. This method of stuffing with cotton is also
+applicable in the case of certain large-bodied insects which, if mounted
+and put away without preparation, would be liable to decompose, as, for
+instance, the larger moths, grasshoppers, etc. A slit can be made in the
+center of the abdomen or near the anus beneath, and the body contents
+removed and replaced with cotton. Stuffing in this way with cotton is of
+especial advantage in the case of certain of the large endophytous
+insects which grease badly. The cut will not be noticed after the insect
+has dried, or it may be closed by a stitch or two.
+
+_Dry Preservation of Aphides and other soft-bodied Insects._--Difficulty
+has always been experienced in preserving soft-bodied insects,
+particularly Aphides, in a condition serviceable for subsequent
+scientific study. Kept in alcohol or other antiseptic fluid, they almost
+invariably lose much of their normal appearance, and many of the
+important characteristics, especially of color, are obscured or lost.
+The balsam mount is also unsatisfactory in many respects, as the body is
+always more or less distorted and little can be relied upon except the
+venation and the jointed appendages. A method of preserving soft-bodied
+insects by means of the sudden application of intense heat was
+communicated to the _Entomologische Nachrichten_, Vol. IV, page 155, by
+Herr D. H. R. von Schlechtendal. It is claimed for this method that the
+Aphides and other soft-bodied insects can be satisfactorily preserved in
+form and coloring, the success of the method being vouched for by a
+number of well-known German entomologists, Kaltenbach, Giebel,
+Taschenberg, Mayr, and Rudow. A condensed translation of the method
+employed by Schlechtendal is given by J. W. Douglas in the
+_Entomologists' Monthly Magazine_ for December, 1878, which I quote:
+
+The heat is derived from the flame of a spirit or petroleum lamp. Above
+this is placed a piece of sheet-tin, and over this the roasting
+proceeds. A bulging lamp cylinder, laid horizontally, serves as a
+roasting oven. In this the insect to be dried, when prepared as
+directed, and stuck on a piece of pith, is to be held over the flame; or
+the cylinder may be closed at the lower end with a cork, which should
+extend far inwards, and on this the insect should be fastened; the
+latter mode being preferable because the heat is more concentrated, and
+one hand is left free. The mode of procedure varies according to the
+nature of the objects to be treated. For the class of larger objects,
+such as Hemiptera, Cicadina, and Orthoptera, in their young stages of
+existence, the heat must not be slight, but a little practice shows the
+proper temperature required. If the heat be insufficient, a drying up
+instead of a natural distention ensues. The insect to be roasted is to
+be pierced by a piece of silver wire on the under side of the thorax,
+but it is not to be inserted so far as to damage the upper side, and the
+wire should then be carried through a disk of pith, placed beneath the
+insect, on which the legs should be set out in the desired position. But
+with some objects, such, for instance, as a young _Strachia_, the drying
+proceeds very quickly, so that if distention be not observed then the
+heat is too great, for the expansion of the air inside will force off
+the head with a loud report; also, with softer, thicker Pentatomidae care
+must be taken to begin with a heat only so strong that the internal
+juices do not boil, for in such case the preparation would be spoiled.
+It is of advantage to remove the cylinder from time to time, and test,
+by means of a lens, if a contraction of the skin has taken place on any
+part; if so, the roasting is to be continued. The desired hardness may
+be tested with a bristle or wire. For _Aphides_ the _living Aphis_ is to
+be put on a piece of white paper, and at the moment when it is in the
+desired position it is to be held over the flame, and in an instant it
+will be dead and will retain the attitude. Then put it, still on the
+paper, into the oven; or, still better, hold it over the heated tin,
+carefully watching the drying and moving the paper about in order to
+prevent it getting singed. The roasting is quickly accomplished in
+either way, but somewhat slower out of the oven especially in the larger
+kinds, such as Lachnus. If the paper turn brown it is a sure sign that
+caution is requisite. To pierce these brittle preparations for
+preservation is hazardous, and it is a better way to mount them with gum
+on card, placing some examples on their back.
+
+For Cecidomyidae, Agromyzidae, Cynipidae, and other small insects liable to
+shrink, yet containing but little moisture, such as Poduridae,
+Pediculidae, Psyllidae, etc., another method is adopted. Over the insect,
+mounted on a wire, etc., as above directed, a thin chemical reagent
+glass or glass rod, heated strongly at one end, is held, and the heat
+involved is generally sufficient to bring about the immediate drying and
+distention, but if the heat be too little the process must be repeated;
+and, although by this method the danger of burning is not obviated, yet
+the position of the legs is maintained much better than by the aforesaid
+roasting.
+
+Larvae of all kinds, up to the size of that of _Astynomus aedilis_, even
+when they have long been kept in spirits, may be treated successfully by
+the roasting method; but with these objects care must be taken that the
+heat is not too strong or else the form will be distorted. For small
+larvae it is preferable to use a short glass, in order better to effect
+their removal without touching the upper part, which becomes covered
+with steam, and contact with which would cause the destruction of the
+preparation. Larvae of Coleoptera, which contain much moisture or have a
+mucous surface, must lie on a bed of paper or pith in order to prevent
+adhesion and burning, and these may be further avoided if the cylinder
+be slightly shaken during the process, and the position of the object be
+thereby changed.
+
+Many Aphides and Coccids are covered with a waxy secretion which
+interferes very materially with their easy examination. Mr. Howard has
+overcome this difficulty by the following treatment:
+
+"With Aphides and Coccids which are covered with an abundant waxy
+secretion which can not be readily brushed away, we have adopted the
+plan of melting the wax. We place the insect on a bit of platinum foil
+and pass it once over the flame of the alcohol lamp. The wax melts at a
+surprisingly low temperature and leaves the insect perfectly clean for
+study. This method is particularly of use in the removal of the waxy
+cocoon of the pupae of male Coccidae, and is quicker and more thorough
+than the use of any of the chemical wax solvents which we have tried."
+(_Insect Life_, I, p. 152.)
+
+_Mounting Specimens for the Microscope._--The study of the minuter forms
+of insect life, including Parasites, Thysanura, Mallophaga, the newly
+hatched of most insects, etc., requires the use of the microscope, and
+some little knowledge of the essentials of preparing and mounting
+specimens is needed. The subject of mounting the different organs of
+insects and the preparation for histological study of the soft parts of
+insects opens up the immense field of microscopy, the use of the
+innumerable mounting media, the special treatment of the objects to be
+mounted, staining, section-cutting, and many other like topics, a full
+description of which is altogether out of place in the present work.
+Anyone desiring to become thoroughly versed in the subject should
+consult some of the larger manuals for the microscopist, of which there
+are many. For the practical working entomologist, however, a knowledge
+of all these methods and processes is not essential, and in my long
+experience I have found that mounting in Canada balsam will answer for
+almost every purpose. The softer-bodied forms will shrink more or less
+in this substance, and it is frequently necessary to make studies or
+drawings of them when freshly mounted; or, if additional specimens are
+preserved in alcohol, they will supplement the mounted specimens and the
+material may be worked up at the convenience of the student. The
+materials for the balsam mounts may be obtained of any dealer in
+microscopical supplies. They consist of glass slides, 3 inches by 1
+inch, thin cover-glasses of different dimensions, and the prepared
+balsam. The balsam is put up very conveniently for use in tin tubes. A
+sufficient quantity is pressed out on the center of the glass slide,
+which has previously been made thoroughly clean and dry, the insect is
+removed from the alcohol, and when the excess of liquor has been removed
+with bibulous paper, it is placed in the balsam, the limbs and antennae
+being arranged as desired by the use of fine mounting-needles. A
+cover-glass, also made thoroughly clean and dry, is then placed over the
+specimen and pressed gently until the balsam entirely fills the space
+between the cover and the glass slide. The slide should then be properly
+labeled with a number referring to the notes on the insect, preferably
+placed on the upper edge of the slide above the cover-glass, and also a
+label giving the number of the slide and the number of the slide box. On
+the opposite end of the slide may be placed the label giving the name of
+the specimen mounted and the date. If a revolving slide table is
+employed to center the mounts, the appearance of the slide may be
+improved by adding a circle of asphalt or Brunswick black. With the
+balsam mounts, however, this sealing is not necessary. The slide (Fig.
+110) should then be placed in a slide case with the mount uppermost, and
+should be kept in a horizontal position to prevent sliding of the
+cover-glass and specimen until the balsam is thoroughly dried. For
+storing slides I have found very convenient the box shown at Fig. 111.
+It is constructed of strong pasteboard and is arranged for holding
+twenty-six slides. The cover bears numbers from 1 to 26, opposite which
+the name of each insect mounted, or the label on the slide, may be
+written. This box when not in use is kept in a pasteboard case, on which
+may be placed the number of the box. These slide cases may be stored in
+drawers or on shelves made for the purpose. In mounting specimens taken
+from alcohol it is advisable to put a drop of oil of cloves upon them,
+which unites with the balsam and ultimately evaporates. The occurrence
+of minute air bubbles under the cover-glass need occasion no uneasiness,
+for these will disappear on the drying of the balsam.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 110.--Balsam mount, showing method of labeling, etc.
+(original).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 111.--Slide case, showing method of labeling case
+and of numbering and labeling slides (original).]
+
+In mounting minute Acarids or mites it has been found best to kill the
+insects in hot water, which causes them to expand their legs, so that
+when mounted these appendages can readily be studied. If mounted living,
+the legs are almost invariably curled up under the body and can not be
+seen. This method may also be used in the case of other minute insects.
+Some insects, such as minute Diptera, are injured by the use of hot
+water, and for these dipping in hot spirits is recommended.
+
+In the mounting of Aphides the same difficulty is avoided in a measure
+by Mr. G. B. Buckton, author of "A Monograph of the British Aphides," by
+first placing a few dots of balsam on the glass slide, to which the
+insect is transferred by means of a moistened camel's-hair brush. The
+efforts of the insect to escape will cause it to spread out its legs in
+a natural position and a cover glass may then be placed in position and
+a drop of the balsam placed at the side, when, by capillarity, it will
+fill the space between the slide and cover glass and the limbs will be
+found to have remained extended. If three or four drops of the balsam
+are put on the glass the wings may also be brought down and caught to
+them so that they will remain expanded in shape for examination.
+
+_Preparing and Mounting the Wings of Lepidoptera._--The student of
+Lepidoptera will frequently find it necessary in the study of the
+venation of wings to bleach them or denude them of their scales in some
+way. Various methods of bleaching and mounting the wings of these
+insects have been given, and a few of them may be briefly outlined.
+
+The simplest and quickest, but perhaps the least satisfactory, method is
+to remove the scales with a camel's-hair brush. This will answer for the
+larger forms and where a very careful examination is not required. For
+more careful examination and study the wings are first bleached by the
+action of some caustic solution and then mounted in balsam for permanent
+preservation. Chambers's method for Tineina, Tortricina, Pyralidina, and
+the smaller moths generally, is as follows: The wing is placed on a
+microscopic slide in from 3 to 4 drops of a strong solution of potash,
+the amount varying according to the size of the wing. A cover of glass
+is then placed in position on the wing as in ordinary mounting.
+
+The quantity of liquid should be sufficient to fill the space beneath,
+but not sufficient to float the cover glass. The mount is then placed
+over an alcohol flame, removing it at the first sign of ebullition, when
+the wing will be found denuded, if it be a fresh specimen. An old
+specimen, or a larger wing, will require somewhat more prolonged
+boiling. The fluid is drawn off by tilting the glass or with bibulous
+paper, and the potash removed by washing with a few drops of water. The
+cover glass is then removed and the wing mounted either on the same
+slide in balsam or floated to another slide, or at once accurately
+sketched with the camera lucida. Permanent mounting, however, is always
+to be recommended.
+
+The Dimmock method of bleaching the wings of Lepidoptera, given in
+Psyche, Vol. I, pp. 97-99, is as follows: He uses for bleaching a
+modification of the chlorine bleaching process commonly employed in
+cotton bleacheries, the material for which is sold by druggists as
+chlorate of lime. The wings are first soaked in pure alcohol to dissolve
+out the oily matter, which will act as a repellant to the aqueous
+chlorine solution. The chlorate of lime is dissolved in 10 parts of
+water and filtered. The wings are transferred to a small quantity of
+this solution and in an hour or two are thoroughly bleached, the veins,
+however, retaining a light brown color. If the bleaching does not
+commence readily in the chlorine solution the action may be hastened by
+previously dipping them in dilute hydrochloric acid. When sufficiently
+decolorized the wings should be washed in dilute hydrochloric acid to
+remove the deposit of calcic carbonate, which forms by the union of the
+calcic hydrate solution with the carbonic dioxide of the air. The wings
+are then thoroughly washed in pure water and may be gummed to cards or
+mounted on glass slides in Canada balsam, first washing them in alcohol
+and chloroform to remove the moisture. If either of the solutions known
+as _eau de labaraque_ and _eau de javelle_ are used in place of the
+bleaching powder, no deposit is left on the wings and the washing with
+acid is obviated. This process does not dissolve or remove the scales,
+but merely renders them transparent, so that they do not interfere with
+the study of the venation.
+
+Prof. C. H. Fernald (_American Monthly Microscopical Journal_, I, p.
+172, 1880), mounts the wings of Lepidoptera in glycerin, after having
+first cleared them by the Dimmock process. After bleaching and washing,
+the wings are dried by holding the slides over an alcohol flame, and a
+drop of glycerin is then applied and a cover glass put on at once. By
+holding the slide again over the flame until ebullition takes place the
+glycerin will replace the air under the wings and no injury to the
+structure of the wings will result, even if, in refractory cases, the
+wing is boiled for some little time. The mount in this method must be
+sealed with some microscopic cement, as asphalt or Brunswick black.
+
+A method of mounting wings of small Lepidoptera for studying venation,
+which I have found very convenient, is thus described by Mr. Howard in
+_Insect Life_, Vol. I, p. 151:
+
+"Some years ago we used the following method for studying the venation
+of the wings of small Lepidoptera. We have told it since to many
+friends, but believe it has not been published. It is in some respects
+preferable to the so-called 'Dimmock process,' and particularly as a
+time-saver. It is also in this respect preferable to denudation with a
+brush. The wing is removed and mounted upon a slide in Canada balsam,
+which should be preferably rather thick. The slide is then held over the
+flame of an alcohol lamp until the balsam spreads well over the wing.
+Just as it is about to enter the veins, however, the slide is placed
+upon ice, or, if in the winter time, outside the window for a few
+moments. This thickens the balsam immediately and prevents it from
+entering the veins, which remain permanently filled with air and appear
+black with transmitted light. With a little practice one soon becomes
+expert enough to remove the slide and cool it at just the right time,
+when the scales will have been rendered nearly transparent by the
+balsam, while the veins remain filled with air. We have done this
+satisfactorily not only with Tortricidae and Tineidae, but with Noctuids
+of the size of _Aletia_ and _Leucania_. The mounts are permanent, and we
+have some which have remained unchanged since 1880. Prof. Riley had for
+some years before this been in the habit of mounting wings in balsam, in
+which of course the scales cleared after a time."
+
+Prof. John B. Smith recommends a modification of the Dimmock process of
+bleaching the wings of Lepidoptera, publishing it in Insect Life, Vol.
+I, pp. 291, 292, as follows:
+
+"By the Dimmock process the wings are first acted upon by a saturated
+solution of the chloride of lime, chlorine being, of course, the
+bleaching agent. Afterward they are washed in water to which
+hydrochloric acid has been added, to get rid of the slight deposit of
+lime. The process is a slow one for thickly scaled, dark-colored
+insects, and it occurred to me to try a mixture of the chloride and
+acid, liberating the chlorine gas. The method was absolutely successful,
+the wings decolorizing immediately and being ready for the slide within
+two minutes. In fact, very delicate wings can scarcely be taken out
+quick enough, and need very little acid. The advantage is the rapidity
+of work and the certainty of retaining the wings entire, the chloride of
+lime sometimes destroying the membrane in part before the bleaching is
+complete. The disadvantage is the vile smell of the chlorine gas when
+liberated by the combination of the two liquids. For quick work this
+must be endured, and the beauty and completeness of the result are also
+advantages to counterbalance the discomfort to the senses."
+
+For further special directions for mounting, for microscopic purposes,
+different insects and the different parts of insects, representing both
+the external chitinous covering and the internal anatomy, the student is
+referred to special works.
+
+
+                   PRESERVATION OF ALCOHOLIC SPECIMENS.
+
+APPARATUS AND METHODS.--The collections of most value, especially to our
+various agricultural colleges and experiment stations will be largely of
+a biologic and economic character, and the interest attaching to a
+knowledge of the life history of insects will induce many collectors to
+build up independent biologic collections. Very much of this biological
+material will be alcoholic, and though many immature states of insects
+may be preserved by dry processes, still the bulk must needs be kept in
+liquid. This material may, when not abundant, be kept with the general
+systematic collection, but experience has shown that it is better to
+make a separate biological collection, and this is recommended
+especially for State institutions where the collections may be expected
+to attain some considerable proportions. In the case of such collections
+it is very desirable to adopt some method of securing the vials in such
+a manner that they can easily be transferred from one place to another
+and fastened in the boxes or drawers employed for pinned insects. For
+directions in this regard I reproduce from an article on the subject in
+_Insect Life_, Vol. II, pp. 345, 346, which was republished, with slight
+changes, from my annual report for 1886 as Honorary Curator.[7]
+
+  [7] Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1886, Part II,
+  Report of the National Museum, pp. 182-186. Washington, 1890.
+
+_Vials, Stoppers and Holders._--The vials in use to preserve such
+specimens as must be left in alcohol or other liquids are straight glass
+tubes of varying diameters and lengths, with round bottom and smooth
+even mouth. The stoppers in use are of rubber, which, when tightly put
+into the vial, the air being nearly all expelled, keep the contents of
+the vial intact and safe for years.
+
+Various forms of bottles are used in museums for the preservation of
+minute alcoholic material. I have tried the flattened and the square and
+have studied various other forms of these vials; but I am satisfied that
+those just described, which are in use by Dr. Hagen in the Cambridge
+Museum, are, all things considered, the most convenient and economical.
+A more difficult problem to solve was a convenient and satisfactory
+method of holding these vials and of fastening them into drawers or
+cases held at all angles, from perpendicular to horizontal. Most
+alcoholic collections are simply kept standing, either in tubes with
+broad bases or in tubes held in wooden or other receptacles; but for a
+biologic collection of insects something that could be used in
+connection with the pinned specimens and that could be easily removed,
+as above set forth, was desirable. After trying many different
+contrivances I finally prepared a block, with Mr. Hawley's assistance,
+which answers every purpose of simplicity, neatness, security, and
+convenience. It is, so far as I know, unique, and will be of advantage
+for the same purpose to other museums. It has been in use now for the
+past six years, and has been of great help and satisfaction in the
+arrangement and preservation of the alcoholic specimens, surpassing all
+other methods for ease of handling and classifying.
+
+The blocks are oblong, one-fourth of an inch thick, the ends (_c c_,
+Fig. 112) beveled, the sides either beveled or straight, the latter
+preferable. They vary in length and breadth according to the different
+sizes of the vials, and are painted white. Upon the upper side of these
+blocks are fastened two curved clamps of music wire (_b b_), forming
+about two-thirds of a complete circle. The fastening to the block is
+simple and secure. A bit of the wire of proper length is first doubled
+and then by a special contrivance the two ends are bent around a mandrel
+so as to form an insertion point or loop. A brad awl is used to make a
+slot in the block, into which this loop is forced (_e_, Fig. 112, 5), a
+drop of warm water being first put into the slot to soften the wood,
+which swells and closes so firmly around the wire that considerable
+force is required to pull it out. Four pointed wire nails (_d d d d_),
+set into the bottom so as to project about one-fourth inch, serve to
+hold the block to the cork bottom of the case or drawer in which it is
+to be placed. The method of use is simple and readily seen from the
+accompanying figures, which represent the block from all sides.
+
+The advantages of this system are the ease and security with which the
+block can be placed in or removed from a box; the ease with which a vial
+can be slipped into or removed from the wire clamps; the security with
+which it is held, and the fact that practically no part of the contents
+of the vial is obscured by the holder--the whole being visible from
+above.
+
+The beveled ends of the block may be used for labeling, or pieces of
+clean cardboard cut so as to project somewhat on all sides may be used
+for this purpose, and will be held secure by the pins between the block
+and the cork of the drawers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 112.--Vial holder; 1, block, with vial, beveled on
+all sides; 2, do., beveled only on ends; 3, block, end view; 5, do.,
+section; 4, 6, do., side views; _a_, block; _b_, spring-wire clamps;
+_c_, beveled ends of block; _d_, pointed wire nails; _e_, point of
+insertion of clamp. (Lettering on all figures corresponds.)]
+
+The use of rubber stoppers in this country was first instituted by Dr.
+H. A. Hagen in connection with the Cambridge biological collection, and
+he has made some very careful records to determine the durability of
+such stoppers. From an examination of some seven thousand vials with
+rubber stoppers, two-thirds of which had been in use for from ten to
+twelve years, he comes to the conclusion that less than one in a
+thousand gives out every year after twelve years' use, and in the first
+six years probably only one out of two thousand. Stoppers of large size
+keep much longer than those of small size. American rubber stoppers are
+all made of vulcanized India rubber and have the disadvantage of forming
+small crystals of sulphur about the stopper, which become loosened and
+attach themselves to the specimens. It is supposed that pure
+rubber-stoppers used for chemical purposes would not present this
+disadvantage, which may be obviated, however, or very much reduced, if
+the stoppers are washed or soaked, preferably in hot water, for an hour
+or two at least.
+
+If stoppers are stored for a considerable time and exposed to the air
+they become very hard and unfit for use, and Dr. Hagen has drawn
+attention to a method recommended by Professor W. Hemple, of Dresden,
+Saxony, of preventing them from becoming thus hardened. He says that to
+keep rubber stoppers or rubber apparatus of any sort elastic, they
+should be stored in large glass jars in which an open vessel containing
+petroleum is placed. This treatment prevents the evaporation of the
+fluids which are fixed in the rubber in the process of vulcanization. It
+is better also to keep the light from the jar. To soften stoppers which
+have already become hardened, they should be brought together in a jar
+with sulphuret of carbon until they are pliable and afterward kept as
+recommended above.
+
+In the use of the rubber stopper the novice may find some difficulty in
+inserting it in a vial filled with alcohol. The compression of the
+alcohol, or alcohol and air when the vial is not completely filled,
+forces the stopper out, and this is true whether of rubber or cork. If a
+fine insect pin is placed beside the cork when this is thrust into the
+bottle, the air or liquid displaced by the cork will escape along the
+pin and the latter may then be removed and the cork remains securely in
+position.
+
+If cork stoppers have been used the vials may be stored in large
+quantities together in jars filled with alcohol. This will prevent
+evaporation of the alcohol from the vials, and the specimens may be
+preserved indefinitely. This is only desirable in the storage of
+duplicate specimens and unarranged material and is not recommended as a
+substitute for the use of the rubber stopper. With cork stoppers
+evaporation can be in a measure prevented if the cork is first anointed
+with the petroleum preparation known as vaseline. This substance is
+practically unaffected at ordinary temperature and is sparingly soluble
+in cold alcohol. Experiments with it have shown that at ordinary spring
+and summer temperatures there is no appreciable loss of alcohol from
+vials and jars.
+
+My old method of keeping alcoholic specimens, which I abandoned for the
+method outlined above, was fairly serviceable, inexpensive, and warrants
+description.
+
+I had special folding boxes constructed resembling in exterior
+appearance a large insect box. The bottom of the box was solid and was
+made by gluing together two 11/2-inch planks.
+
+Holes extending nearly through the lower plank and of various sizes to
+accommodate vials of different diameters were bored as closely together
+as the wood justified without splitting or breaking.
+
+The holes were numbered consecutively and the vials when placed in them
+were numbered to correspond; the box also had its number, and in the
+notes the vial was referred to by number of box and vial thus, 3/73 (box
+3, vial 73). The vial should project one-half to 1 inch above the hole,
+and should be loose enough to provide for the swelling of the wood in
+moist weather.
+
+To protect the vials a cover having a depth of about 11/2 inch was hinged
+to the back and secured in front by hook-and-eye fastenings.
+
+This method of storing vials is satisfactory enough for private
+collections, but for larger public collections is not so suitable.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 113.--The Marx tray for alcoholic specimens
+(original.)]
+
+A rather convenient and inexpensive method of storing vials is that used
+by Dr. Marx. In this method the vials are stored in a wooden frame,
+shown at Fig. 113. The top piece of the tray into which the vials are
+thrust has a cork center, in which holes corresponding to the size of
+the vials are made with a gun-wad punch. The outer end of the tray bears
+a label or labels describing the material in the tray. The vials used by
+Dr. Marx are of thinner glass than those which I recommend and flare
+slightly at the top, as shown in the accompanying illustrations. They
+are made in various sizes to accommodate larger and smaller specimens. A
+vial thrust into the hole punched in the cork rests on the bottom piece
+of the tray, the flange or neck preventing it from sliding through.
+These trays are arranged on shallow shelves in a case or cabinet,
+especially constructed for the purpose and a large quantity of material
+may be stored by their use in small compass. The use of the cork center
+piece in the upper part of the tray is not a necessity, and a wooden
+piece may be used in which holes are bored with a bit of proper size.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 114.--Vials used in the Marx tray (original.)]
+
+_Preserving Micro-larvae in Alcohol._--The following is quoted from
+Packard's "Entomology for Beginners," for which it was translated from
+the "_Deutsche Ent. Zeitg._," 1887, Heft I:
+
+"Dr. H. Dewitz mounts the larvae and pupae of Microlepidoptera, and also
+the early stages of other small insects, in the following way: The
+insects are put into a bottle with 95 per cent alcohol. Many larvae turn
+black in alcohol, but boiling them in alcohol in a test tube will bleach
+them. They may then be finally placed in glass tubes as small and thin
+as possible, varying from 0.003 to 0.006 meter in diameter, according
+to the size of the insects. About 0.07 meter's length of a tube is
+melted over a spirit lamp, and the tube filled three-quarters full with
+95 per cent alcohol, the insects placed within and the contents of the
+tube heated at the end still open, and then closed by being pulled out
+with another piece of glass tubing. After the glass has been held a few
+minutes in the hand until it is slightly cooled off, the end closed last
+is once more held over the lamp so that the points may be melted
+together, and this end of the glass may be finished. During the whole
+time from the closure of the tube until the complete cooling of the
+glass it should be held obliquely in the hand, so that the alcohol may
+not wet the upper end, for if the tube is too full it is difficult to
+melt it, as the steam quickly expanding breaks through the softened mass
+of glass. The tube may be mounted by boring a hole through a cork
+stopper of the same diameter as the glass. The stopper is cut into the
+shape of a cube, a strong insect pin put through it, and the glass tube
+inserted into the hole. It can then be pinned in the insect box or
+drawer, near the imago, so that the free end of the glass may touch the
+bottom, while the other end stands up somewhat; while to keep the tube
+in place the free end resting on the bottom may be fastened with two
+strong insect pins. The specimens thus put up can easily be examined
+with a lens, and if they need to be taken out for closer examination the
+tube can be opened and closed again after a little practice."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 115.--Method of preserving minute larvae etc. (After
+Dewitz.)]
+
+PRESERVATIVE FLUIDS.--The principal liquids in which soft-bodied insects
+may be successfully preserved are the following:
+
+_Alcohol._--As indicated in the foregoing portions of this work, alcohol
+is the standard preservative used for soft-bodied specimens, and may be
+used either full strength or diluted with water. Diluted alcohol should
+always be first used with larvae, since the pure alcohol shrivels them
+up. The weak spirits can afterwards be replaced by strong, for permanent
+preservation.
+
+_Alcohol and White Arsenic._--The method of preserving insects
+recommended by Laboulbene and quoted in Packard's Entomology for
+Beginners, consists in plunging the insects in the fresh state into a
+preservative liquid, consisting of alcohol with an excess of the common
+white arsenic of commerce. The larva placed in this mixture absorbs .003
+of its own weight, and when removed and pinned is safe from the attacks
+of museum pests. This liquid is said not to change the colors, blue,
+green or red of beetles, if they are not immersed for more than
+twenty-four hours. This treatment is applicable to the orders
+Coleoptera, Hemiptera, and Orthoptera. If the insect is allowed to stay
+in this mixture for a considerable time, say three or four weeks, and
+then removed and dried, it becomes very hard and brittle and can not be
+used for dissection or study, but makes a good cabinet specimen. The
+white deposit of arsenic which will appear on drying can be washed off
+with alcohol.
+
+_Alcohol and Corrosive Sublimate._--The same author recommends another
+preparation consisting of alcohol with a variable quantity of corrosive
+sublimate added, the strength of the solution varying from 100 parts of
+alcohol to 1 part of corrosive sublimate for the strongest, to one-tenth
+of 1 part of sublimate in 100 parts of alcohol for the weakest. The
+insects are allowed to remain in this mixture not longer than two hours
+before drying. The last-described preparation is said to preserve the
+specimens from mold. Both of these solutions are very poisonous and
+should be used with care.
+
+_Two Liquids to preserve Form and Color._--Professor Packard also quotes
+the formula of A. E. Verrill for preserving insects in their natural
+color and form. Two formulas are given; the first consists of 21/2 pounds
+of common salt and 4 ounces of niter dissolved in a gallon of water and
+filtered. The specimens should be prepared for permanent preservation in
+this solution by being previously immersed in a solution consisting of a
+quart of the first solution and 2 ounces of arsenite of potash in a
+gallon of water. Professor Packard gives also the formula of M. H. Trois
+for preserving caterpillars, for which it is claimed that the colors of
+the caterpillars are preserved perfectly, even when exposed to strong
+light. The formula for this solution is as follows:
+
+                 Common salt                  grams   2.35
+                 Alum                           do.  55
+                 Corrosive sublimate     centigrams  18
+                 Boiling water               liters   5
+
+Allow the liquid to cool and add 50 grains of carbolic acid, and filter
+after standing five or six days.
+
+_Glycerin._--Glycerin, either pure or mixed with water or alcohol, is
+frequently used to preserve the larvae of delicate insects. It preserves
+the color and form better than alcohol, but particularly in the case of
+larvae, it causes a softening of the tissues which renders them unfit for
+study.
+
+_The Wickersheim Preserving Fluid._--This valuable preserving fluid has
+been known for some time, but is not very commonly used, on account of
+frequent disappointment due to the difficulty attending its preparation.
+It is claimed for it that animal or vegetable bodies impregnated with it
+will retain their form, color, and flexibility in the most perfect
+manner. The objects to be preserved are put in the fluid for from six to
+twelve days, according to their size, and then taken out and dried in
+the air. The ligaments remain soft and movable, and the animals or
+plants remain fit for anatomical dissection and study for long periods,
+even years. It is said to be especially valuable for the preservation of
+larvae and soft-bodied insects. In order to perfectly preserve the
+colors, it is necessary to leave the specimens in the fluid, or, if they
+are taken out, they should be sealed up in air-tight vials or vessels.
+The formula for the fluid is as follows:
+
+Dissolve 100 grams alum, 25 grams common salt, 12 grams saltpeter, 60
+grams potash, 10 grams arsenious acid in 3,000 grams boiling water.
+Filter the solution, and when cold add 10 liters of the liquid to 4
+liters of glycerin and 1 liter of methyl alcohol.
+
+
+                            LABELING SPECIMENS.
+
+_General Directions._--It matters little how much care and pains have
+been taken in the preparation and mounting of specimens, they will have
+little value unless accompanied by proper labels giving information as
+to locality and date of collection, name of collector, and a label or
+number referring to notebooks, if any biological or other facts
+concerning them have been ascertained. There should be pinned to the
+specimen labels referring to, or giving all the information obtainable
+or of interest concerning it. A somewhat different style of label will
+be found necessary in the case of the two forms of collections described
+in the foregoing pages, namely, the biological or economic collection,
+and the systematic collection. For the former, numbers may be attached
+to the specimens which will refer to the notes relating to the specimen
+or species. For the latter, in most cases, all necessary information may
+be recorded and made available by written or printed labels attached
+directly to the specimens. In most cases, however, I find a combination
+of these two systems convenient and desirable. The numbering system is
+very simple, and is the one which I have followed in all the species for
+which I have biological or other notes. It consists in giving each
+species, as it comes under observation, a serial number which refers to
+a record in a notebook. With this number may be combined, if convenient,
+the date of rearing or collection of the specimen, and also the locality
+and food-plant if known. The vast number of species represented in a
+systematic collection renders the numbering system entirely out of place
+and inadequate, and the labeling system alone is generally available. If
+it becomes necessary in the systematic collection to refer to
+food-plants or life-history or any other fact of interest, the numbering
+system should be used, and I recommend that the numbers be written in
+red ink on the labels, to distinguish at a glance the numbers referring
+to biological notes from other numbers that will occur in the
+collection.
+
+_Labels for pinned Specimens._--The following labels should be employed
+in the collection: (1) _Locality label_, which should be as explicit as
+possible. (2) _Date of capture_, which is very useful and sometimes
+quite important in various ways. It indicates at what time additional
+specimens of some rare species may be secured, and greatly assists in
+elaborating the life history of the species, and in other cases assists
+in the correct determination of closely allied insects, which differ
+chiefly in habit or date of appearance. (3) _A label to indicate the
+sex_. This label has recently acquired greater importance than formerly,
+on account of the value of the sexual differences in the distinction of
+species. The well-known signs for male, female, and worker, printed in
+convenient form, are well adapted for collections. (4) _The name of the
+collector_. This label is of less value, but sometimes becomes important
+in determining the history of the specimen or the exact place of
+capture. The name of the species is not necessarily attached to all the
+specimens in a collection, and ordinarily will be placed with the first
+specimen in a series in the cabinet. This and other labeling of insects
+in cabinet is discussed in another place. Other labels are useful to
+indicate type specimens, namely, those of which descriptions have been
+drawn up and published, and which should be designated by a special
+label written by the author himself. Determinations by an authority in a
+special group should be indicated, and the labels placed on specimens by
+such an authority should not be removed.
+
+It will not be found necessary to use a separate label for each of the
+data indicated above, and a single label may be made to combine many of
+them, as, except for the specific names of the insects themselves (which
+should always be on the lowermost label), most other words will bear
+abbreviation, especially localities and dates. "A combination label,
+which has given general satisfaction to all to whom it has been
+communicated, is a two-line label printed in diamond type, on heavy
+writing paper. The upper line consists of the name of the locality, _e.
+g._, 'Washngtn' (a name consisting of more than eight letters to be
+abbreviated), and the lower line has at the right-hand corner 'DC'
+(interpunctuation and spacing to be avoided so as to save space). This
+leaves on the second line sufficient room for inserting the date, which
+can be quickly and neatly written with ink if the labels are printed in
+columns of ten or more repetitions. The label thus combines locality
+with date of capture. Or the upper line reads 'Arizona' and the lower
+line 'Morrison,' the label thus combining locality with the name of the
+collector."[8]
+
+  [8] E. A. Schwarz, Proc. Ent. Soc., Wash., II, No. 1, 1891.
+
+In general I indorse the system of labeling suggested in the above
+condensation from Mr. Schwarz, but there is no particular disadvantage,
+and in fact many advantages, in special cases, in a larger label or in
+folded labels. Particularly in visiting large foreign collections I have
+found it convenient to use large labels of thin paper which will contain
+a good deal of information closely written in pencil and bear folding
+several times, so as not to occupy more than the ordinary label space
+when pinned to the specimens. This involves detaching the label when the
+specimen or species comes to be studied, but this additional labor is
+insignificant compared with the large amount of valuable information
+which in time is thus brought together in condensed availability for the
+student; for brief notes of opinions of experts, of comparison with
+types, of special studies, of reference to descriptions, etc., may thus
+be all brought together. Where there is not room to indicate the
+authority for a determination on the upper side of a label, I also find
+it convenient to do so on the lower side.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 116.--Cabinet for apparatus used in mounting and
+labeling. (Original).]
+
+_Labeling alcoholic Specimens._--Alcoholic specimens, including
+alcoholic biologic material and collections of Arachnida and Myriapoda,
+are well adapted to the labeling system, as the vials are always of
+sufficient size to allow the insertion of one or more labels large
+enough to contain a pretty full record of the specimen. The label may
+consist of a number referring to notes, or of a number together with the
+other data indicated for the systematic collection. The label in my
+experience is preferably written in pencil, which, in alcohol, is
+practically permanent. Waterproof inks are sometimes used, and of these
+the oak-gall ink is undoubtedly the best. Dr. George Marx, in labeling
+his Arachnida, uses onion-skin paper and waterproof ink, such as
+Higgins's drawing ink. There is some danger, in placing a label in a
+vial, of its settling against the specimen and injuring it. This,
+however, can generally be avoided if a little care is used. The label
+may be long and narrow and folded lengthwise so as to occupy one side
+only of the vial, or short and inserted in such manner that it will pass
+around the inside of the vial, where it will be held by the natural
+adhesion to the glass in the upper portion of the vial, as shown at Fig.
+114.
+
+_Cabinet for Apparatus._--The work of preparation of insects for the
+cabinet may be greatly facilitated if a convenient case is provided with
+drawers and compartments for the keeping of pins of different sizes,
+labels, braces, implements, tweezers, dissecting apparatus, and the
+like, with microscopical supplies--slides, cover glasses, mounting
+media, etc. I present a photograph of a cabinet of this sort used in my
+earlier work and found very convenient and serviceable (Fig. 116).
+
+
+
+
+                        INSECT BOXES AND CABINETS.
+
+
+_General Directions._--The boxes or cases which are used to keep insects
+in permanently may be made of any dimensions to suit the fancy, 12 by 16
+inches inside being a convenient size and allowing economic use of cork.
+They must, however, be perfectly tight and should not be more than 21/2
+inches deep on the inside. The bottoms should be lined with something
+which will hold the pins, and the whole inside covered with white paper,
+which, if delicately cross ruled, will facilitate the regular pinning of
+specimens. While the size and style of the box and cabinet may be left
+to individual taste, some choice must be had of material. _Red cedar
+should never be used._ I have learned, to my sorrow, the baneful effects
+of this wood, notwithstanding it is recommended--evidently by those who
+are guiltless of having used it--as having the advantage over other wood
+of keeping off museum pests. It seems impossible to get this wood so
+seasoned but that a certain amount of resin will continually exude from
+it; and insects in boxes of this material are very apt to soften and
+become greasy. Paper boxes are also bad, as they attract moisture and
+cause the specimens to mold. Well-seasoned pine and whitewood are the
+most satisfactory; and, in such boxes as have glass covers and are
+intended to form part of a neat cabinet for parlor ornament, the fronts
+may be of walnut or cherry.
+
+The character of the boxes and cabinets used for storing insects will
+depend largely on the nature and extent of the collection and the object
+of the collector. For temporary use, nothing is more convenient and
+economical than a cigar box lined with cork or pith. Such boxes,
+however, should be employed only for the temporary storage of fresh
+specimens, as they afford free access to museum pests, and insects kept
+in them for any length of time are apt to be destroyed or rendered
+useless.
+
+_The Folding-box._--The use of folding-boxes for the working collector
+is to be especially recommended in the case of those orders comprising
+small insects like Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, etc. These boxes have the
+great advantage of being readily rearranged on the shelves and of being
+very easily used in study. The boxes of this type now manufactured by
+John Schmidt, of Brooklyn, N. Y., and John Burr, of Camden, N. J., based
+on the experience which I have had, have proved so serviceable and
+satisfactory in this respect that I have employed them for the bulk of
+the collection in the National Museum. These boxes (Fig. 117) are
+constructed as follows:
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 117.--The Schmidt folding insect box, opened and
+showing arrangement of insects (original).]
+
+They are of white pine, shellacked and varnished, the bottom and top
+double and crossgrained, to prevent warping, and projecting slightly at
+all sides except the hinged back. They are 13 by 81/4 inches outside
+measurement. The inside measurement is 113/4 by 7. The sides, back, and
+front are five-sixteenths of an inch thick, with a machine joint, which
+is neat and very secure. The boxes are 2 5/8 inches in outside depth,
+unequally divided, the lower portion 11/2 inches outside depth, lined
+inside with a thin whitewood strip, projecting three-fourths of an inch
+above the rim of the outside box. Over this projecting lining the lid
+closes as tightly as practicable and is kept from springing by hooks and
+eyes. The bottom is cork-lined and covered with a fine, white, glazed
+paper.
+
+Similar folding boxes with both sides of equal depth and both lined with
+cork, when properly covered, may be made to look like books and be set
+on end in an ordinary bookcase, but the single lining is preferable, as
+there is less danger of the breakage of specimens and the boxes may
+either be laid flat one on the other on shelves, or, what is more
+convenient, placed side by side resting on the front edge, so that the
+label is attached to one of the narrow ends. The rows of insects are
+then pinned crosswise, not lengthwise, of the box, with the abdomens
+turned toward the front which rests on the shelf.
+
+All the boxes are furnished with neat brass label-holders, in which a
+card containing a list of the contents can readily be placed and removed
+at pleasure. The chief demerit of this box which I have endeavored to
+overcome by the above details is the tendency to warp and crack in the
+trying steam heat of our Government buildings.
+
+_The Cabinet._--For larger insects, such as Lepidoptera, Neuroptera,
+etc., a larger box is desirable, and for these orders I have adopted for
+use in the National Museum a cabinet which resulted from a careful study
+in person of the different forms and patterns used for entomological
+collections both in this country and Europe, whether by private
+individuals or public institutions. The drawer and cabinet are
+essentially after the pattern of those used in the British (South
+Kensington) Museum, but adapted in size to our own requirements. In the
+use of the National Museum these cabinets have proved eminently well
+adapted to their object.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 118.--Construction of insect cabinet drawer of the
+National Museum. A, cross-section _f_ front; B, same _f_ side; C, view
+of front end of side, 2/3 natural size (original).]
+
+The drawers (Fig. 118, A, B, C) are square, with an outside measurement
+of 18 inches and an outside depth of 3 inches. The sides and back have a
+thickness of three-eighths of an inch, while the front is five-eighths
+of an inch thick. The pieces are firmly dovetailed together, the front
+being clean and the dovetailing blind. The bottom, _a_, is of three-ply
+crossgrained veneer, run into a groove at the sides, leaving a clear
+inside depth of 2 1/16 inches to the frame of the cover. The bottoms are
+lined in all but forty of the drawers with first quality cork, _b_,
+one-fourth of an inch thick. At a distance of one-fourth of an inch from
+the sides and back and three-eighths of an inch from the front there is
+an inside box of one-eighth inch whitewood, _c_, closely fitted, and
+held in place by blocks between it and the outer box. There is thus
+between the inner and outer box a clear space, _d_, all round, in which
+insecticides or disinfectants can be placed to keep out Museum pests,
+making it impossible for such to get into the inner box containing the
+specimens without first passing through this poison chamber. The entire
+inside is lined with white paper, or, in the case of the uncorked boxes,
+painted with zinc white. The front is furnished with a plain knob. The
+cover is of glass, set into a frame, _f_, three-fourths of an inch wide,
+three-eighths of an inch thick, with a one-fourth inch tongue fitting
+closely into the space between the inner lining and outer box, which
+here serves as a groove. This arrangement furnishes a perfectly tight
+drawer of convenient size and not unwieldy for handling when studying
+the collection.
+
+The material of which these drawers are made is California red wood,
+except the cover frame, which is mahogany. The cabinets containing these
+drawers are 36 inches high, 40 inches wide, 21 inches deep (all outside
+measurements), and are closed by two paneled doors. Each cabinet
+contains twenty drawers in two rows of ten each, and the drawers slide
+by means of a groove, _g_, on either side, on hard-wood tongues, and are
+designed to be interchangeable.
+
+_The Lintner display Box._--For beauty and security and the perfect
+display of the larger _Lepidoptera_, I have seen nothing superior to a
+box used by Mr. J. A. Lintner, of Albany, N. Y. It is a frame made in
+the form of a folio volume, with glass set in for sides and bound in an
+ordinary book cover. The insects are pinned onto pieces of cork fastened
+to the inside of one of the glass plates and the boxes may be stood on
+ends, in library shape, like ordinary books. For the benefit of those
+who wish to make small collections of showy insects, I give Mr.
+Lintner's method, of which he has been kind enough to furnish me the
+following description:
+
+Figs. A, B, and C represent, in section, the framework of the volume,
+_a_ showing the ends, _b_ the front, and _c_ the back. The material can
+be prepared in long strips of some soft wood by a cabinet-maker (if the
+collector has the necessary skill and leisure for framing it) at a cost
+of 60 cents a frame, if a number sufficient for a dozen boxes be
+ordered. Or, if it be preferred to order them made, the cost should not
+exceed 80 cents each.
+
+Before being placed in the hands of the binder the mitering should be
+carefully examined and any defect in fitting remedied, so that the
+glass, when placed in position, may have accurate bearings on all the
+sides. The interior of the frame is covered with tin foil, made as
+smooth as possible before application, to be applied with thoroughly
+boiled flour paste (in which a small proportion of arsenic may be mixed)
+and rubbed smoothly down till the removal of the blisters, which are apt
+to appear. The tin foil can be purchased, by weight, at druggists', and
+the sheets marked off and cut by a rule in strips of proper width,
+allowing for a trifle of overlapping on the sides. Its cost per volume
+is merely nominal.
+
+First-quality single-thick glass for sides must be selected, wholly free
+from rust, veins, air-bubbles, or any blemish. Such glass can be
+purchased at 15 cents a pane. The lower glass, after thorough cleaning,
+especially of its inner surface, with an alkaline wash, and a final
+polishing with slightly wetted white printing paper, is to be firmly
+secured in its place by a proper number of tin points; the upper glass
+is but temporarily fastened. The binder must be directed to cover the
+exposed sides of the frame with "combed" paper, bringing it over the
+border of the permanent lower glass and beneath the removable upper
+glass.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 119.--Construction of the Lintner box.]
+
+The covers of the volume are of heavy binders' board (No. 18), neatly
+lined within with glazed white paper. On one of the insides of the lids
+may be attached, by its corners, a sheet with the numbers and names of
+the species contained in the volume, or these may be placed on the pin
+bearing the insect. If bound in best quality of imitation morocco, with
+cloth covers, lettered and gilded on the back, the cost (for a dozen
+volumes) need not exceed $1 each. If in turkey morocco, it will be
+$1.50.
+
+The lettering and ornamentation of the back will vary with the taste of
+the individual. The family designations may be permanently lettered, or
+they may be pasted on the back, on a slip of paper or gum label, as are
+the generic names, thus permitting the change of the contents of a
+volume at any time if desired.
+
+The bits of cork to which the insects are to be pinned are cut in
+quarter-inch squares from sheet-cork of one-fourth of an inch in
+thickness. If the trouble be taken to trim off the corners, giving them
+an octagonal form, their appearance will be materially improved and much
+less care will be required in adjusting them on the glass.
+
+The cement usually recommended for attaching the cork to the glass is
+composed of equal parts of white wax and resin. My experience with this
+has not been favorable, for, after the lapse of a few years, I have
+invariably been subjected to the serious annoyance of being compelled to
+renew the entire contents of the volume, clean the glass, and replace
+the corks with new cement. From some cause, inexplicable to me, a
+gradual separation takes place of the cork with its cement from the
+glass, first appearing at the angles of the cork, and its progress
+indicated by an increasing number of iridescent rings which form within
+until the center is reached, when, if not previously detached, the
+insect falls with the cork, usually to its injury and that of others
+beneath it.
+
+A number of years ago I happened to employ, in attaching a single piece
+of cork in one of my cases, a cement originally made for other purposes,
+consisting of six parts of resin, one of wax, and one of Venetian red.
+Several years thereafter my attention was drawn to this piece by finding
+it as firmly united as when at first applied, and at the present time
+(after the lapse of twelve years) it is without the slightest indication
+of separation. Acting upon this hint, I have, of late, used this cement
+in the restoration of a number of my cases, and with the most
+satisfactory results. It is important that the cement, when used, should
+be heated (by a spirit lamp or gas flame) to as high a degree as it will
+bear without burning. An amount sufficient to cover the bottom of the
+small, flat metal vessel containing it to the depth of an eighth of an
+inch will suffice and prevent the cork from taking up more than its
+requisite quantity. It should be occasionally stirred to prevent the
+precipitation of its heavier portions. The cork may be conveniently
+dipped by the aid of a needle inserted in a handle, when, as quickly as
+possible, it should be transferred to the glass, for the degree of
+adhesion seems to depend upon the degree of fluidity of the cement. From
+some experiments made by me, after the corks had been attached as above,
+in heating the entire glass to such a degree as thoroughly to melt the
+cement until it spreads outward from beneath the weight of the cork, and
+then permitted to cool--the glass meanwhile held horizontally, that the
+corks might not be displaced--the results appear to indicate that the
+above cement, applied in this manner on glass properly cleaned, will
+prove a permanent one. It is scarcely necessary to state that this
+method is not available where the glass has been bound as above.
+
+Preparatory to corking the glass for the specimens assigned to it, the
+spaces required for them are to be ascertained by arranging them in
+order on a cork surface or otherwise. On a sheet of paper of the size of
+the glass, perpendicular lines, of the number of the rows and at their
+proper distances, are to be drawn, and cross lines equal in number to
+the insects contained in the rows. The distances of these lines will be
+uniform, unless smaller specimens are to occupy some portion of the
+case, when they may be graduated to the required proportion. With the
+sheet ruled in this manner and placed beneath the glass, the points
+where the corks are to be applied are indicated by the intersections of
+the lines. The sheet, marked with the family of the insects for which it
+was used and with the numbers designating its divisions, may be laid
+aside for future use in the preparation of other cases for which it may
+be suitable. In a series of unbound cases in my collection, in which the
+glasses measure 11 by 141/2 inches, I have used for my Lepidoptera and
+laid aside the following scales, the citation of which will also serve
+to show the capacity of the cases: 3 by 8, Catocalas; 2 by 7 and 3 by 9,
+Sphingidae; 4 by 11 to 4 by 14, Bombycidae; 5 by 13 to 6 by 16, Noctuidae;
+8 by 16 and 8 by 20, Lycaenidae and Tortricidae.
+
+The unbound cases above referred to are inexpensive frames, made by
+myself, of quarter-inch white wood or pine, the corners mitered, glued,
+and nailed with three-quarter inch brads, lined within with white paper
+(better with tin foil), and covered without with stout manila paper. The
+glasses are cut of the size of the frame, and when placed in position
+thereon are appressed closely to it by laying upon them, near each
+corner, a heavy weight, and strips of an enameled green paper, cut to
+the width of 1 inch, are pasted over their edges, extending a little
+beyond the thickness of the frame, and brought downward over the outside
+of the frame. On its back two gum labels, indicating the insects
+inclosed, are placed at uniform heights (7 and 12 inches), when, if all
+has been neatly done, they present a tasteful appearance upon a shelf.
+When there is reason to believe that the case will need to be opened
+for the change or addition of specimens, it will be found convenient to
+employ, for the fastening of the left-hand side of the upper glass,
+paper lined with a thin muslin, to serve as a hinge when the other sides
+have been cut.
+
+Should it become desirable to bind these cases, outside frames may be
+constructed after the plans above given, with the omission of the inside
+quarter inch (the equivalent of these frames), in which these may be
+placed and held in position by two or three screws inserted in their
+sides.
+
+_The Martindale Box for Lepidoptera._--Mr. Isaac C. Martindale, in the
+October, 1891, number of _Entomological News_, pp. 126, 127, describes a
+new form of cabinet for butterflies, the drawers of which present some
+new features. They are for the same end as the Lintner box described
+above--namely, for the display of the upper and under surface of the
+wings of Lepidoptera, and promise to be more useful. The drawer is
+described as follows:
+
+The especial feature is the drawer itself, which, instead of having a
+cork bottom, as is usually the case, has both the top and bottom of
+glass. The top part of the drawer frame fits tightly over a ledge one
+inch in height, effectually preventing the intrusion of destructive
+insects, the pest of the entomologist; but it is readily lifted when it
+is desirable to add to the contents or change the location of the
+specimens. For the inside arrangement I have taken a strip of common
+tin, one inch wide, and turned up each side five-sixteenths of an inch,
+thus leaving three-eighths of an inch for the bottom. The length of the
+strip of tin, being about two inches longer than the width of the
+drawer, admits of each end being turned up one inch. Into this tin
+trough is tightly fitted a cork strip three-eighths of an inch square.
+The whole being covered with white paper, such as is usually used for
+lining drawers, conceals the inequalities of the cork and makes a fine
+finish. They should be made to fit neatly in the drawer, and can be
+readily moved about to suit large or small specimens. For _Lycaenas_,
+_Pamphilas_, etc., as many as fifteen of these strips may be used in one
+drawer, and as few as five for _Morphos_, _Caligos_, etc. The upturned
+ends are fastened in place by using the ordinary thumb tacks that can be
+procured at any stationer's. The frame work of the drawers should be of
+white pine, well seasoned. Into this the thumb tacks are readily
+inserted and as easily withdrawn when a change in the position of the
+cork strips is needed.
+
+_Horizontal vs. vertical Arrangement of Boxes._--I have elsewhere
+discussed the availability of the upright vs. the horizontal arrangement
+of insect boxes.[9] In the case of Lepidoptera and large-bodied insects
+I have found the horizontal drawer or box to be preferable. If
+large-bodied insects are placed in a vertical position they are very
+liable to become loose on the pins, swing from side to side, and damage
+themselves and other specimens; but for the smaller insects of all
+orders, the vertical arrangement is quite safe and satisfactory. If the
+pin is slightly flattened, as described on p. 69, the danger of large
+specimens becoming loose is to a great extent avoided.
+
+  [9] _American Naturalist_, Vol. XV, p. 401, 1881.
+
+_Lining for Insect Boxes._--The old lining of insect boxes was the
+ordinary sheet cork of commerce, and if a good quality of cork is
+procurable it will answer the purpose. A better substance, however, for
+the lining of insect boxes is the prepared or ground cork, which is now
+almost exclusively used. It is simply ground cork mixed with a small
+amount of glue, compressed into sheets and covered with paper. This
+gives a very homogenous composition, and is much better than the
+ordinary cork, having a more uniform and neat appearance, and admitting
+the insertion of the pins more freely. It may be purchased from H.
+Herpers, 18 Crawford street, Newark, N. J.
+
+A less expensive substitute is paper stretched upon a frame. Prof. E. S.
+Morse has given in the "American Naturalist" (Vol. i, p. 156) a plan
+which is very neat and useful for lining boxes in a large museum, which
+are designed to be placed in horizontal show-cases (Fig. 120). "A box is
+made of the required depth, and a light frame is fitted to its interior.
+Upon the upper and under surfaces of this frame a sheet of white paper
+(drawing or log paper answers the purpose) is securely glued. The paper,
+having been previously damped, in drying contracts and tightens like a
+drumhead. The frame is then secured about one-fourth of an inch from the
+bottom of the box, and the pin is forced down through the thicknesses of
+paper, and if the bottom of the box be of soft pine, the point of the
+pin may be slightly forced into it. It is thus firmly held at two or
+three different points, and all lateral movements are prevented. Other
+advantages are secured by this arrangement besides firmness: when the
+box needs cleaning or fumigation, the entire collection may be removed
+by taking out the frame; or camphor, tobacco, or other material can be
+placed on the bottom of the box, and concealed from sight. The annexed
+figure represents a transverse section of a portion of the side and
+bottom of the box with the frame. A A, box; B, frame; P P, upper and
+under sheets of paper; C, space between lower sheets of paper and bottom
+of box."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 120.--Paper lining for insect box. (After Morse.)]
+
+Other substitutes are the pith of various plants, especially of corn.
+Palm wood and "inodorous felt" are also used, being cut to fit the
+bottom of the box.
+
+Pita wood or the light porous wood of the Agave or Century plant when
+cut into proper strips also makes a very light and satisfactory lining,
+while good close bog-peat cut into proper thicknesses is not
+infrequently used in France and Germany. Druce & Co., 68 Baker street,
+London, W., England, have lately been manufacturing what is known as
+cork carpet, which seems to be a combination of ground cork and rubber.
+It comes in various colors and of the proper thickness, and makes a very
+smooth and desirable lining, holding the pins very firmly. It cost 90
+cents per square yard in England, and I have had one cabinet lined with
+it as an experiment, as there is a probability that the pins may corrode
+in contact with the rubber.
+
+
+
+
+                  ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS IN THE CABINET.
+
+
+_Systematic and biologic Collections._--The permanent arrangement of
+specimens in boxes and drawers will vary somewhat with the nature of the
+insects. The almost universal custom of collectors, however, is to
+arrange the insects in vertical columns. In the case of the smaller
+forms, as Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, 21/2 to 3 inches in width is
+allowed for the columns; and for the larger insects, as Lepidoptera,
+Orthoptera, for which larger drawers are recommended, a greater width of
+column is needed and 41/2 to 5 inches will be found necessary. With
+alcoholic material, a similar arrangement in columns may be followed.
+
+In spacing or dividing insect boxes into columns for the arrangement of
+specimens, I have followed the plan of pinning narrow strips of colored
+paper in the boxes at regular distances to divide the columns of
+insects. A fine line made with a medium pencil will answer the same
+purpose and will not materially disfigure the box.
+
+The appearance of the collection will largely depend on the care used in
+the alignment of the specimens, both vertically and horizontally. It is
+advisable to have at least four specimens of a species, which,
+entomologically speaking, constitute a set. The collector, however,
+should not limit the number of his specimens to four, as it is
+frequently necessary to have a larger number to represent, firstly, the
+sexes; secondly, varieties; and thirdly, geographical distribution.
+
+In the systematic collection the species should be arranged serially in
+accordance with the latest catalogue or monograph, and if the collector
+intends making a complete study of the group, space should be left for
+the subsequent insertion of species not at present in his possession and
+also for new species. This will avoid the rearrangement of the entire
+collection at brief intervals.
+
+_Economic Displays._--In the case of economic displays, which will
+include pinned specimens, alcoholic material, early states and specimens
+illustrating the work of the insect--also the parasitic and predaceous
+enemies--the horizontal arrangement can be followed, and I have found it
+advisable, in making such displays, to arrange them in this manner, so
+that any needed width for the display of particular species may be had.
+A good idea of the system of arrangement adopted for an economic exhibit
+may be obtained from the accompanying illustration (Pl. I). Every insect
+will require a somewhat different treatment, owing to its different
+habit, but the plan indicated in the illustration should, in the main,
+be followed. Prof. J. H. Comstock uses and recommends a sort of block
+system, which consists in pinning the insects and specimens showing
+their work, and alcoholic material, to blocks of soft wood. These are
+then arranged in the display cases. The advantage claimed for the system
+is facility in transferring and rearranging the exhibits. This method is
+somewhat cumbersome, and in making and handling economic exhibits I have
+found pinning specimens directly to the cork lining of the box, as
+already described, to be entirely satisfactory. A biologic exhibit
+should be carefully planned beforehand, and when once completed is
+permanent and does not require rearrangement, as is frequently necessary
+in a systematic collection, owing to the constant changes in
+classification. The only alteration necessary is a renewal of specimens
+which have become injured, or faded by exposure to light.
+
+_Labeling Collections._--I have already fully discussed the subject of
+labeling insects before placing them in their final resting place in the
+collection. In the collection certain additional labels are required,
+viz, labels for the order, family, subfamily, genus, species, and
+sometimes variety. The label for the order should be placed above the
+first species in the collection, and should be in large type, as should
+also be the name of the family, which is to be placed above the first
+species in the family. The genus label should be in prominent type,
+somewhat smaller than the family label, and should be placed at the head
+of the genus. Custom varies as to placing the label of the species. In
+my practice I have adopted the plan of placing the label below the
+series of specimens representing the species. Some entomologists reverse
+this plan and place the label above the series of specimens. Others
+recommend pinning the label to the first and best-determined specimen of
+the series. This has the advantage of always keeping the label with the
+species and preventing the danger of mistake or confusion of the latter.
+In the case of large insects, however, this plan has the disadvantage
+that the label can not be seen except by taking out the specimen, and,
+on the whole, the plan which I have adopted of placing the label below
+the series of specimens is preferable, but may be supplemented by the
+other, as in addition to the independent label, one of the specimens
+should have a label pinned with it. The labels should be neatly written
+on blanks printed for the purpose; but a better plan, perhaps, and one
+which I have followed, where possible, in labeling the national
+collection, is to cut the names neatly from a catalogue of the insects,
+which will furnish all the labels from order to species, and fasten them
+with short, inconspicuous pins in their proper places in the collection.
+Where it is not desired to keep the collection as compact as possible,
+or where one has limited space, I would advise labeling the species, not
+only with the recognized name, but also with the synonyms. This requires
+some space, and will hardly be followed except in public collections. It
+is also desirable to arrange together, and label as such, the varieties
+of any given species. The appearance of the collection will depend
+largely on the uniformity of the labeling, and too much care can not be
+exercised in this respect.
+
+
+
+
+                         MUSEUM PESTS, MOLD, ETC.
+
+
+Unfortunately for the well-being of collections, dried insects are
+liable to the attacks of various museum pests, the most troublesome of
+which are themselves insects, but altogether out of their proper place
+and role in the general collection. Unless constant precautions are
+taken, the collector will discover after a few months that instead of
+the rare specimens with the preparations of which he has taken no little
+pains there remains only a series of fragmentary specimens, which a few
+years' neglect will reduce to little more than a mass of dust or powder.
+The price, then, of a good collection is eternal vigilance. Most
+insects, when exposed for any length of time to strong light, fade or
+lose color, and the only way to prevent such achromatism is to exclude
+the light.
+
+Insect pests affecting collections include Psocidae, Mites, Tineidae,
+Coleoptera of the families Ptinidae and Dermestidae, these last being the
+most injurious.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 121.--_Tineola biselliella_: _a_, adult; _b_, larva;
+_c_, cocoon and empty pupa--skin enlarged.]
+
+The Psocidae--degraded wingless insects already referred to in the
+classification (p. 24)--will find their way into the tightest boxes, but
+ordinarily do little if any damage, except in the case of delicate
+insects, such as Ephemerids, Microlepidoptera, and Microdiptera. The
+common forms found in collections are _Atropos divinatorius_ and
+_Clothilla pulsatoria_. Mites or Acari are rarely troublesome in
+collections, though Dr. H. A. Hagen reports having found a species
+(probably of Tyroglyphus) with imported insects, and considers them as
+liable to become dangerous enemies. Tineid larvae are rarely found in
+collections, and only affect the larger moths. They are not easily
+discovered, since they make no dust, as do most other pests. Some
+persons have been considerably annoyed by one of the common clothes
+moths, _Tineola biselliella_ (Fig. 121). Dr. Hagen found that it
+attacked freshly collected or newly spread insects, where the
+spreading-boards were left uncovered, but Mr. F. M. Webster has found it
+injurious to the general collections at Columbus, Ohio.
+
+Of beetles, the Ptinidae are sometimes found in collections but are not
+common. Two species are known to attack entomological specimens, namely,
+_Ptinus fur_, which is quite rare, in this country, but much more
+abundant in Europe, and _Tribolium ferrugineum_, a cosmopolitan species
+which, however, has several times been associated in injurious numbers
+with large collections of insects imported from the East Indies.
+
+But by far the most dangerous enemies of insect collections are the
+larvae of some half dozen or more species of Dermestidae belonging to the
+genera Anthrenus, Attagenus, Trogoderma, and Dermestes. Of these
+_Anthrenus varius_ is the more common pest, in museums, especially in
+the North and East. In the South and West _Trogoderma tarsale_ and _T.
+ornatum_ (?) replace Anthrenus. The European species _Anthrenus
+musaeorum_, is, on the authority of Hagen, rare in this country, and
+probably occurs chiefly in collections of imported insects. It is the
+common injurious species of Europe. _Anthrenus scrophulariae_ (see Fig.
+67) occurs also in collections, Dr. Hagen stating that he has found it
+nearly as common as _A. varius_, and certainly more dangerous. In my own
+experience it is rarely found in insect collections. Two species of
+Attagenus (_A. pellio_ and _A. megatoma_) have also been found in
+collections. _A. megatoma_ has been found by Dr. Hagen to do not a
+little damage to insect collections in Cambridge, as well as to equal if
+not exceed the Carpet Beetle in its disastrous attacks upon carpets and
+household furniture. The other species, _A. pellio_, is rarely found in
+this country, but is much more common and obnoxious in Europe than _A.
+megatoma_. _Dermestes lardarius_ is sometimes found in collections, and
+is attracted by the presence of animal matter such as skins, etc. The
+two particularly destructive pests, as pointed out, are _Anthrenus
+varius_ and _Trogoderma tarsale_. These species, together with most of
+the others, have no definite breeding period, but, in the uniform
+temperature of the laboratory or museum, breed all the year round and
+present no definite broods. It is the experience at the Museum that the
+boxes on the lower tier of shelves are very much more subject to attack
+than those on the upper tiers, from which it would seem that the parent
+beetle deposits her eggs outside the boxes on the floor of the cases and
+that the young larvae work their way into the smallest crevices. The
+danger of infection by these pests is greater in warm climates like that
+of Washington than in regions further north, as the warm season begins
+earlier, lasts longer, and furnishes better conditions for breeding and
+multiplication.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122.--A naphthaline cone.]
+
+REMEDIES.--The following remedies and preventives will prove efficient
+in checking or preventing the work of these pests.
+
+_Naphthaline._--Where tight boxes are employed little fear of the work
+of these destructive agents need arise, especially if the boxes are kept
+supplied with repellent naphthaline cones. These are hard cones of
+naphthaline, mounted on pins for convenient placing in the boxes (see
+Fig. 122), and may be obtained of dealers in entomological supplies.
+Naphthaline cones act as repellents to these insects and also to some
+extent retard the development of the larvae in all stages and
+particularly of the eggs.
+
+Mr. Schwarz states (_Proc. Ent. Soc. of Washington_, Vol. I, page 63)
+that in place of these cones a form of naphthaline may be used which is
+known in commerce as "white carbon," and is put up in the form of small
+square rods for use in intensifying the flames of gaslight. The material
+is very cheap, costing only 8 cents per pound wholesale, and may be
+broken up into small pieces, wrapped in paper, and pinned. The use of
+naphthaline cones is not advisable in boxes containing delicate
+specimens, as it leaves a deposit which dulls the colors and encourages
+greasing. The deliquescence of the naphthaline cones produces a
+blackish, oily residuum which will soil the lining of the box, and it is
+always advisable either to pin a piece of blotting paper beneath the
+cone or to wrap this in paper.
+
+Constant watchfulness is necessary to see that the eggs which have been
+deposited and checked in development by the application of this
+insecticide do not ultimately hatch and start a new generation in the
+insect box.
+
+_Bisulphide of Carbon._--If the collection is found to be infested with
+insect pests, it may be renovated by pouring a little bisulphide of
+carbon into the boxes and closing them at once. This substance
+evaporates rapidly and will destroy all insect life, and does not injure
+specimens or pins nor stain the boxes. If infested specimens are
+received, these should be inclosed in a tight box and treated with
+bisulphide of carbon before being added to the general collection, and
+it is always well for those who are receiving pinned specimens by
+exchange or otherwise to keep a quarantine box of this kind on hand.
+
+_Mercury Pellets._--The use of mercury pellets is recommended to free
+boxes from Mites, Psoci, etc., and also to collect any particles of dust
+which may gain entrance. A few small pellets of mercury, placed free in
+the bottom of the horizontal box will, by the movement of the box, be
+caused to roll to and fro and accomplish the desired end.
+
+_Carbolic Acid._--Mr. A. T. Marshall (_Entomologist's Monthly Magazine_,
+Dec., 1873, p. 176) records that he washes the paper of his boxes with
+the common disinfecting solution of carbolic acid in two-thirds water,
+which dries without staining and protects the specimens from Psoci.
+
+_A Means of preserving Insects in dry hot Countries._--In the "_Horae
+Societatis Entomologicae Rossicae_," XXIV, pp. 233, 234 (1889), M. A.
+Wilkins, writing from Tachkent in Turkestan, alludes to the inefficiency
+of ordinary preservatives in Central Asia, on account of their rapid
+volatilization through the hot dry air, so that if a collection be
+neglected for only two or three months _Anthreni_ are sure to be found
+in the boxes. He has hit upon a plan which he finds effective, and at
+the same time very simple. He employs India-rubber bands about 11/2 inches
+in width and less than the length of the boxes to which they are to be
+applied. These bands are stretched over the opening line of the boxes,
+and effectually prevent the entrance of the most minute destroyers.
+Possibly a similar plan might be adopted in other countries with a like
+climate. At any rate, the method has the merit of extreme simplicity.
+(The _Ent. Mo. Mag._, Apr., 1891, p. 107.)
+
+
+                                   MOLD.
+
+Collections kept in damp places or in a moist climate are very liable to
+mold, and under such conditions it is difficult to avoid this evil.
+Carbolic acid is recommended, but Mr. Ashmead, who has kept a large
+collection in the moist climate of Florida, has found the use of
+naphthaline much more satisfactory. Mr. Herbert H. Smith who has had
+more extensive experience in the tropics prefers the carbolic acid.
+Moldy specimens may be cleansed by washing with carbolic acid applied
+with a fine camel's hair brush.
+
+
+                        VERDIGRISING AND GREASING.
+
+The action of the acid juices in the bodies of certain specimens--as
+many of the Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera--will cause the
+formation of verdigris about the pin, which in time accumulates and
+disfigures and distorts the specimen, and ultimately corrodes the pin,
+so that the slightest touch causes it to bend or break. There is no
+preventive yet known for this trouble other than the use of pins which
+have no brass to be corroded. Japanned pins are made for this purpose,
+and are, on the whole, satisfactory, but they bend easily and some
+caution is required in handling them. In place of these pins, which are
+somewhat more expensive than the steel pins, iron pins may be used.
+These are very soft and bend too easily for satisfactory use. The steel
+pins may be rendered available for use by an immersion in a silver bath,
+which is comparatively inexpensive.
+
+Insects the larvae of which live in wood are particularly subject to
+verdigris, as the Cerambycidae and Elateridae in Coleoptera, the Uroceridae
+in Hymenoptera and Sesiidae in Lepidoptera. In Hymenoptera the families
+Formicidae, Mutillidae, and the endophytous Tenthredinidae verdigris very
+rapidly, and most Diptera also. With all these insects japanned or
+silvered pins should be used, or when not too large the insects should
+be mounted on triangles. This verdigrising is associated with what is
+known as greasing, and this, as just indicated, is also associated with
+endophytous larval life. The verdigris may be prevented by the methods
+indicated, and I would strongly advise, as a good general rule to be
+followed, the rejection of the ordinary pins for all species which, in
+the larva state, are internal feeders. But there is no way of preventing
+greasing or decomposition of the fats of the body, which may affect a
+specimen years after it has been in the cabinet. If the specimen is
+valuable the grease may be absorbed by immersion in ether or benzine, or
+by a longer treatment with powdered pipe-clay or plaster of Paris.
+Insects collected on seabeaches, and saturated with salt water, also
+corrode the common steel pin very quickly and should be mounted on
+japanned pins. It is also advisable to rinse such specimens thoroughly
+in fresh water before mounting.
+
+The conviction has been forcing itself on my mind for some time that the
+naphthaline cones tend to promote greasing and verdigris, and carbolic
+acid in some small vessel secured to the cork, were, perhaps,
+preferable.
+
+
+
+
+                          THE REARING OF INSECTS.
+
+
+_General Directions._--The importance, even to the mere collector, of
+rearing insects to obtain specimens for the cabinet has been referred to
+from time to time in these pages. The philosophic study of entomology,
+however, requires much more than the mere collecting of specimens, and
+one of the most profitable and, at the same time, most fascinating
+phases of the study relates to the life-history and habits. In no branch
+of natural history are biologic studies more easily carried on, or the
+biologic facts more remarkable or interesting. The systematist by such
+study will be saved from the narrow and hair-splitting tendencies which
+study of slight difference of characters tends to, while to the economic
+entomologist it is most essential.
+
+In the rearing of insects success will be attained in proportion to the
+extent to which the conditions of nature in the matters of temperature,
+moisture, food-supply, and conditions for pupation, are observed.
+
+"In the hands of the careful breeder an insect may be secured against
+its numerous natural enemies and against vicissitudes of climate, and
+will, consequently, be more apt to mature than in a state of nature. The
+breeding of aquatic insects requires aquaria, and is always attended
+with the difficulty of furnishing a proper supply of food. The
+transformations of many others, both aquatic and terrestrial, can be
+studied only by close and careful outdoor observation. But the great
+majority of insect larvae may be reared to the perfect state indoors,
+where their maneuverings may be constantly and conveniently watched. For
+the feeding of small species, glass jars and wide-mouthed bottles will
+be found useful. The mouths should be covered with gauze or old linen,
+fastened either by thread or rubber, and a few inches of moist earth at
+the bottom will furnish a retreat for those which enter it to transform
+and keep the atmosphere in a moist and fit condition.
+
+_The Breeding Cage or Vivarium._--"For larger insects I use a breeding
+cage or vivarium which answers the purpose admirably. It is represented
+in figure 123, and comprises three distinct parts: First, the bottom
+board _a_, consisting of a square piece of inch thick walnut with a
+rectangular zinc pan _ff_, 4 inches deep, fastened to it above, and with
+two cross pieces _gg_ below, to prevent cracking or warping, facilitate
+lifting, and allow the air to pass underneath the cage. Second, a box
+_b_ with three glass sides and a glass door in front, to fit over the
+zinc pan. Third, a cap _c_, which fits closely on to the box, and has a
+top of fine wire gauze. To the center of the zinc pan is soldered a zinc
+tube _d_ just large enough to contain an ordinary quinine bottle. The
+zinc pan is filled with clean sifted earth or sand _e_, and the quinine
+bottle is for the reception of the food plant. The cage admits of
+abundant light and air, and also of the easy removal of excrement or
+frass which falls to the ground; while the insects in transforming enter
+the ground or attach themselves to the sides or the cap, according to
+their habits. The most convenient dimensions I find to be 12 inches
+square and 18 inches high: the cap and the door fit closely by means of
+rabbets, and the former has a depth of about 4 inches to admit of the
+largest cocoon being spun in it without touching the box on which it
+rests. The zinc pan might be made 6 or 8 inches deep, and the lower half
+filled with sand, so as to keep the whole moist for a greater length of
+time."
+
+The sand or earth in the zinc pan at the bottom of the breeding cage
+should be kept constantly moistened, and in the case of hibernating pupae
+the constant adding of water to the top of the earth or sand causes it
+to become very hard and compact. To overcome this objection it was
+suggested in the _Entomologists' Monthly Magazine_ for June, 1876, page
+17, that the base should be made with an inner perforated side, the
+water to be applied between it and the outer side, and I have for some
+years employed a similar double-sided base, which answers the purpose
+admirably (See Figure 124). It is substantially the same as that made
+for the Department by Prof. J. H. Comstock in 1879. It consists of a
+zinc tray _a_, of two or three inches greater diameter than the breeding
+cage, which surrounds the zinc pan proper containing the earth, and the
+tube _d_ for the reception of the food-plant. The lower portion of the
+inner pan _b_ is of perforated zinc. Zinc supports, _c c_, are
+constructed about halfway between the bottom and the top of this pan, on
+which the breeding cage rests. In moistening the earth in the cage,
+water is poured into the tray, which enters the soil slowly, through the
+perforations in the zinc pan. I have found this modification of very
+decided advantage and use it altogether in the work of the Division, and
+heartily recommend it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 123.--Insect breeding-cage or vivarium.]
+
+The base of the vivarium or breeding cage should never be made of tin,
+but always of zinc. If made of tin, it will soon rust out. Galvanized
+iron may be used in place of the zinc, and will doubtless prove equally
+satisfactory.
+
+"A dozen such cages will furnish room for the annual breeding of a great
+number of species, as several having different habits and appearance,
+and which there is no danger of confounding, may be simultaneously fed
+in the same cage. I number each of the three parts of each cage to
+prevent misplacement and to facilitate reference, and aside from the
+notes made in the notebook, it will aid the memory and expedite matters
+to keep a short open record of the species contained in each cage, by
+means of slips of paper pasted on the glass door. As fast as the
+different specimens complete their transformations and are taken from
+the cage the notes may be altered or erased, or the slips wetted and
+removed entirely. To prevent possible confounding of the different
+species which enter the ground, it is well, from time to time, to sift
+the earth, separate the pupae and place them in what I call 'imago
+cages,' used for this purpose alone and not for feeding. Here they may
+be arranged with references to their exact whereabouts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 124.--Improved base for breeding-cage (original).]
+
+"A continued supply of fresh food must be given to those insects which
+are feeding, and a bit of moist sponge thrust into the mouth of the
+bottle will prevent drowning, and furnish moisture to such as need it.
+By means of a broad paste brush and spoon the frass may be daily removed
+from the earth, which should be kept in a fit and moist
+condition--neither too wet nor too dry. In the winter, when insect life
+is dormant, the earth may be covered with a layer of clean moss, and the
+cages put away in the cellar, where they will need only occasional
+inspection, but where the moss must nevertheless be kept damp. Cages
+made after the same plan, but with the sides of wire gauze instead of
+glass, may be used for insects which do not well bear confinement
+indoors, the cages to be placed on a platform on the north side of a
+house, where they will receive only the early morning and late evening
+sun."
+
+_Detailed Instructions for Rearing._--In the rearing of insects every
+worker will develop a number of methods of value, and it is only by
+careful study and comparison of the experiences of all that the best
+system can be elaborated. For this reason I have, in what follows,
+quoted, in a more or less fragmentary way, the experiences of different
+entomologists.
+
+As is remarked by Miss Murtfeldt, in an interesting paper read before
+the Entomological Club of the American Association for the Advancement
+of Science, August 20, 1890, "there is a great individuality, or rather
+specificality, in insects, and not infrequently specimens of larvae are
+found for which the collector taxes his ingenuity in vain to provide.
+Not the freshest leaves, the cleanest swept earth, or the most
+well-aired cages will seem to promote their development."
+
+The greatest care and watchfulness, therefore, are necessary to insure
+success in the rearing of larvae. In many cases such larvae can only be
+successfully reared by inclosing them in netting on their food-plant out
+of doors. It is a frequent device of Lepidopterists also to inclose a
+rare female in netting placed on the food plant of the species, where
+the male may be attracted and may be caught and placed in the bag with
+the female, when copulation usually takes place successfully, or a male
+may be caught in the field and inclosed with such female. Mr. W. H.
+Edwards, where the plant is a small one, uses for this purpose a
+headless keg covered at one end with gauze, which he places over the
+plant inclosing the female.
+
+Mr. James Fletcher, of Ottawa, Canada, one of our most enthusiastic
+rearers of insects, has given some details of his methods in a recent
+very interesting account of "A Trip to Nepigon." One style of cage used
+by him in securing the eggs of large Lepidoptera "is made by cutting two
+flexible twigs from the willow or any other shrub and bending them into
+the shape of two arches, which are put one over the other at right
+angles and the ends pushed into the ground. Over the penthouse thus
+formed a piece of gauze is placed, and the cage is complete. The edges
+of the gauze may be kept down either with pegs or with earth placed upon
+them." This kind of cage is used for all the larger species which lay
+upon low plants. The species which oviposit on larger plants or trees
+are inclosed in a gauze bag tied over the branch. This is applicable to
+insects like _Papilio_, _Limenitis_, _Grapta_, etc. Care must be taken,
+however, that the leaves of the plant inside the net are in a natural
+position, for some species are very particular about where they lay
+their eggs, some ovipositing on the top of the leaves, others near the
+tip, and many others on the under surface. "When a bag made beforehand
+is used, the points must be rounded, and in tying the piece of gauze
+over the branch care must be taken to pull out all creases and folds, or
+the insect will be sure to get into them and either die or be killed by
+spiders from the outside of the bag. It is better to put more than one
+female in the same cage. I have frequently noticed that one specimen
+alone is apt to crawl about and settle on the top of the cage, and not
+go near the food plant. When there are two or three they disturb each
+other and are frequently moving and falling on the food plant, when they
+will stop for a moment and lay an egg. A stubborn female of _Coleus
+eurytheme_ was only induced to lay by having a male placed in the cage
+with her, and by his impatient fluttering and efforts to escape she was
+frequently knocked down from the top, and every time she fell upon the
+clover plant beneath, she laid an egg before crawling to the top again."
+Some insects, even with all care in making their surroundings as natural
+as possible, will persistently refuse to lay. Mr. Fletcher has
+successfully obtained eggs from some of these by a method which he says
+one of his correspondents styles "Egg-laying extraordinary." It consists
+simply in "gently pressing the abdomen of a female which has died
+without laying eggs, until one and sometimes two perfect eggs are passed
+from the ovipositor." Mr. Fletcher has secured a number of eggs from
+rare species in this way, and successfully reared the larvae. The
+following directions for obtaining the eggs and rearing the larvae of
+Lepidoptera, given in this paper by Mr. Fletcher, are excellent, and I
+quote them entire:
+
+"There are one or two points which should be remembered when obtaining
+eggs and rearing larvae. In the first place, the females should not be
+left exposed to the direct rays of the sun; but it will be found
+sometimes that if a butterfly is sluggish, putting her in the sun for a
+short time will revive her and make her lay eggs. Confined females,
+whether over branches or potted plants, should always be in the open
+air. If females do not lay in two or three days they must be fed. This
+is easily done. Take them from the cage and hold near them a piece of
+sponge (or, Mr. Edwards suggests, evaporated apple), saturated with a
+weak solution of sugar and water. As soon as it is placed near them they
+will generally move their antennae towards it, and, uncoiling their
+tongues, suck up the liquid. If they take no notice of it the tongue can
+be gently uncoiled with the tip of a pin, when they will nearly always
+begin to feed. It is better to feed them away from the plant they are
+wanted to lay upon, for if any of the sirup be spilled over the
+flowerpot or plant it is almost sure to attract ants. I kept one female
+_Colias interior_ in this way for ten days before eggs were laid. When
+eggs are laid they should, as a rule, be collected at short intervals.
+They are subject to the attacks of various enemies--spiders, ants,
+crickets, and minute hymenopterous parasites. They may be kept easily in
+small boxes, but do better if not kept in too hot or dry a place. When
+the young caterpillars hatch they must be removed with great care to the
+food plant; a fine paint brush is the most convenient instrument. With
+small larvae or those which it is desired to examine often, glass tubes
+or jelly glasses with a tight-fitting tin cover are best. These must be
+tightly closed and in a cool place. Light is not at all necessary, and
+the sun should never be allowed to shine directly upon them. If
+moisture gathers inside the glasses the top should be removed for a
+short time. Larvae may also be placed upon growing plants. These can be
+planted in flowerpots and the young caterpillars kept from wandering
+either by a cage of wire netting or, by what I have found very
+satisfactory, glass lamp chimneys. These can be placed over the plant,
+with the bottom pushed into the earth, and then should have a loose wad
+of cotton batting in the top. This has the double effect of preventing
+too great evaporation of moisture and keeping its occupants within
+bounds. Some larvae wander very much and climb with the greatest ease
+over glass, spinning a silken path for themselves as they go. When
+caterpillars are bred in the study it must not be forgotten that the air
+inside a house is much drier than it is out of doors amongst the trees
+and low herbage, where caterpillars live naturally. The amateur will
+require some experience in keeping the air at a right degree of moisture
+when breeding upon growing plants. In close tin boxes or jars, where the
+leaves must be changed every day, there is not so much trouble. An
+important thing to remember with larvae in jars is to thoroughly wash out
+the jars with cold water every day. If, however, a caterpillar has spun
+a web on the side and is hung up to moult, it must not be disturbed. In
+changing the food it is better not to remove the caterpillars from the
+old food, but having placed a new supply in the jar, cut off the piece
+of leaf upon which they are and drop it into the jar. If they are not
+near the moult a little puff of breath will generally dislodge them.
+Some caterpillars, as _Papilio turnus_, which spins a platform to which
+it retires after feeding, can best be fed upon a living tree out of
+doors, but must be covered with a gauze bag to keep off enemies. A piece
+of paper should be kept _attached_ to each breeding jar or cage, upon
+which regular notes must be taken _at the time_, giving the dates of
+every noticeable feature, particularly the dates of the moults and the
+changes which take place in the form and color at that time."
+
+The necessity of outdoor work is further felt in the determination of
+the facts in the life-history of some insects which have an alternation
+of generations, as some Gall-flies (_Cynipidae_), and most Aphides. To
+successfully study these insects constant outdoor observation is
+necessary, or the species must be inclosed in screens of wire or netting
+outdoors on their food-plant. Many insects which breed on the ground or
+on low herbage may be very successfully watched and controlled by
+covering the soil containing them or the plant on which they feed with a
+wire screen or netting. The use of wire screens is also advisable in the
+case of wintering pupae or larvae out of doors. Many species can be more
+easily carried through the winter by placing them outdoors under such
+screens during the winter, which insures their being subjected to the
+natural conditions of climate, and then transferring them to the
+breeding cage again early in the spring. This is advisable in the case
+of Microlarvae and pupae. Species which bore in the stems of plants may be
+easily cared for and leaf-mining and leaf-webbing forms can be secured
+under screens or covers out of doors for the winter in sheltered
+situations. Many species which, if kept in a warm room can not be
+reared, will, if subjected to freezing weather under slight protection
+in the open air, emerge successfully the following spring.
+
+The greatest care is necessary in the breeding of Tenthredinidae, as most
+of them transform under ground and are single brooded, the larvae
+remaining in the ground from midsummer until the following spring.
+Nothing but constant care in maintaining uniform moisture and
+temperature of the soil will insure the success of such breeding. Some
+species bore into rotten wood or the stems of plants to undergo their
+transformations, as for instance the Dogwood Saw-fly (_Harpiphorus
+varianus_). This species, unless supplied with soft or rotten wood in
+which to bore, will wander ceaselessly round the cage, and in most cases
+eventually perish.
+
+Where a small room can be devoted to the purpose, an excellent wholesale
+method of obtaining wood-boring insects (_Coleoptera_, _Lepidoptera_,
+etc.) is to collect large quantities of dead or dying wood of all sorts
+or any that indicates the presence of the early states of insects, and
+store it in such apartment. The following spring and summer the escaping
+insects will be attracted to the windows and may be easily secured. The
+objection to this method is that, in many cases, it will be impossible
+to determine the food habit of the insect secured, owing to the variety
+of material brought together.
+
+_The Root Cage._--For the study of insects which affect the roots of
+plants a root cage has been devised by Prof. J. H. Comstock which is of
+sufficient importance to warrant full description. It consists of a zinc
+frame (Fig. 125_a_) holding two plates of glass in a vertical position
+and only a short distance apart, the space between the plates being
+filled with soil in which seeds are planted or small plants set. Outside
+of each glass is a piece of zinc or sheet iron (_b_) which slips into
+grooves and which can be easily removed. When these zincs are in place
+the soil is kept dark.
+
+The idea of the cages is, that the space between the glasses being very
+narrow, a large part of the roots will ramify close to the surface of
+the glass, so that by removing the zinc slides the roots may be easily
+seen, and any root-inhabiting insects which it maybe desirable to breed
+may thus be studied in their natural conditions without disturbing them.
+Prof. Comstock has used this cage very successfully in studying the
+habits of wire-worms, and its availability for many of the underground
+insects, such as the Cicadas, root-lice, larvae, etc., is apparent. These
+frames may be made of various sizes, to accommodate particular insects.
+It will be of advantage in many cases, in order to secure the natural
+conditions as nearly as possible, to sink the cage in the soil, and for
+this purpose Prof. Comstock has had constructed a pit lined with brick
+for the reception of his cages, and employs a small portable crane to
+lift them out of the ground when it is desirable to examine them.
+
+_Other Apparatus._--Much of the breeding of insects can be done with the
+simplest apparatus, and for the rearing of Microlepidoptera,
+Gall-insects, and the keeping of cocoons and chrysalides of small
+species, nothing is more convenient than a medium sized test-tube, the
+end of which may be plugged with cotton. I have recently successfully
+carried over the winter the larva of _Sphecius speciosus_, which had
+been removed early in the fall from its earthen pod or cocoon, the larva
+transforming to a perfect pupa in the spring. In this case the test tube
+was plugged with cotton and inserted in a wooden mailing tube to exclude
+the light. Smaller jars with glass covers or with a covering of gauze
+may be employed for most insects, with the advantage of occupying
+comparatively little space and of isolating the species under study.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 125.--Root cage: _a_, frame with slide removed; _b_,
+movable slide; _c_, top view (original).]
+
+Long glass tubes, open at both ends, are useful in many other ways,
+especially in the rearing and study of the smaller hypogean insects or
+those which bore and live in the stems of plants. An infested stem cut
+open on one side and placed in such a tube will generally carry any
+insect that has ceased feeding, or any species like the wood-boring bees
+which feed upon stored food, successfully through their transformations;
+while root-lice may be kept for a lengthy period upon the roots in such
+tube, providing a portion of the root extends outside of the tube and is
+kept in moistened ground or water. In all such cases these tubes, with
+their contents, should be kept in the dark, either in a drawer or else
+covered with some dark material which can be wound around or slipped
+over them, and the ends must be closed with cotton or cork.
+
+The rearer of insects will frequently experience difficulty in carrying
+his pupae through the winter, and, even though ordinary precautions are
+taken, the mortality will frequently amount to 50 per cent of the
+specimens. Mr. H. Bakhaus, of Leipzig, thus describes a device which is
+substantially the base of the vivarium shown on page 114.
+
+"The base consists of a round plate of strong zinc, with two vertical
+rims, an inch high, placed one within the other, an inch apart, and
+soldered to the basal plate so that the outer one is water-tight. The
+inner rim must be perforated with small holes as close to the bottom as
+possible. The space inside the inner rim must be filled with fine sand,
+on which the pupae should be laid. The space between the two rims is then
+filled with water, which, finding its way through the holes in the inner
+rim to the sand, causes the necessary moisture. Over the whole is put a
+bell-shaped cover of wire gauze, which must fit tightly over the outer
+rim. In this receptacle the pupae remain untouched, and receive fresh
+moisture, as above indicated, if required by the drying of the sand."
+
+The hardy pupae of most Noctuids and Bombycids, as well as those of many
+Rophalocera, may be handled with little danger, but other species, if
+handled at all, or if the cocoons which they make for themselves are
+broken, can seldom be reared. Constant precautions also must be
+exercised in the care of the soil and the breeding cages. One of the
+great drawbacks is the presence of mites and thread worms (Entozoons),
+etc., which affect dying or dead pupae and larvae in the soil. They also
+affect living specimens and are capable of doing very considerable
+damage. To free the soil of them it is necessary at times to allow the
+earth to become dry enough to be sifted, and then after removing the
+pupae submit it to heat sufficient to destroy any undesired life there
+may be in it.
+
+_The Insectary._--Up to the present time the work of rearing insects has
+been largely confined to the breeding cage and breeding jar, already
+described, which have been kept in the rooms of the investigator. The
+advantages of having a special building for this purpose are at once
+apparent and need not be insisted upon. One of the best establishments
+of this kind is that of the Cornell University Experiment Station, which
+was fully described in Bulletin No. 3, of that station, November, 1888.
+The Kansas Experiment Station has a similar building, and one has
+recently been built for the use of the Entomological Division of the
+United States Department of Agriculture. The insect-breeding house, or
+insectary, should comprise a building having workrooms, or laboratories,
+for microscopic and general work in the study and preparation of
+specimens, and also a conservatory for the rearing of specimens and the
+growth of plants, and, where applied entomology is concerned, special
+rooms for the preparation and the test of insecticides. The building
+proper should also have a basement storage room for hibernating insects.
+The laboratory should be fitted with all the apparatus used in the study
+of insects, including microscopes and accessories and a dark-room for
+photographic purposes.
+
+
+
+
+                   DIRECTIONS FOR TRANSMITTING INSECTS.
+
+
+It is very desirable in transmitting insects from the field of
+exploration, or from one entomologist to another, for information,
+exchange, or other purpose, that they be properly secured and packed.
+Pinned and mounted specimens should be firmly fixed in a cigar box, or a
+special box for mailing, and this should be carefully but not too
+tightly wrapped with cotton or other loose packing material to a depth
+of perhaps an inch, and the whole then inclosed in stiff wrapping paper.
+It is preferable, however, to inclose the box containing the specimens
+in a larger box, filling the intervening space, not too firmly, with
+cotton or other packing material. Where specimens are to be sent to a
+considerable distance it is advisable also to line the box in which they
+are placed with cotton, which serves to catch and hold any specimens
+which may become loose in transit. In the case of alcoholic specimens
+each vial should be wrapped separately in cotton and placed in a strong
+wooden or tin box. Special mailing boxes for alcoholic specimens have
+been devised, and a very convenient form is herewith figured. It is an
+ordinary tube of wood, with a metal screw top, and the interior lined
+with rough cork. These tubes are made in various sizes to accommodate
+vials of different dimensions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 126.--Wooden-tube mailing-box: _a_, tube; _b_, cover
+(original.)]
+
+In mailing living specimens the essential thing is a strong box,
+preferably tin, made as nearly air-tight as possible. I have found it
+very convenient on long trips to carry with me a number of tin boxes in
+the flat (Fig. 127), combined in convenient packages, ready to be bent
+and improvised in the field. For this purpose get any tinsmith to make
+out of good tin a number of pieces cut of the requisite dimensions both
+for the bottoms and the covers, carefully cutting the corners to permit
+the proper bending of the sides. These improvised boxes will prove
+useful for keeping living larvae with their food-plants, especially if
+tied up in stout brown paper to prevent any exit from the unsoldered
+angles. They will also answer admirably for mailing or otherwise sending
+specimens to their ultimate destination. In the case of larvae a quantity
+of the food-plant should always be inclosed in the box.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 127.--Tin mailing-box in the flat: _a_, box; _b_,
+cover (original).]
+
+In transmitting insects for information the greatest care should be
+taken to relieve the person of whom information is sought of as much
+unnecessary work as possible. It is easy for any beginner to collect
+more in a single day than an experienced entomologist can well mount,
+study, and determine in a week, and as those who have the means and
+information to give determinations or otherwise to assist beginners are
+generally very much occupied, and their time is valuable, they are
+justified in ignoring miscellaneous collectings where the sender has
+made no effort to either properly mount or otherwise study and care for
+his specimens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 128.--Tin mailing-box, bent into shape for use
+(original.)]
+
+Living specimens, especially larvae, should be packed in tin, with a
+supply of their appropriate food. The tighter the box the fresher will
+the food as well as the specimens keep. Insects do not easily suffocate,
+and it is worse than useless, in the majority of cases, to punch
+air-holes in such boxes. Dead specimens, when not pinned, may be sent in
+a variety of ways. Small ones may be dropped into a quill and inclosed
+in a letter, or a small vial fitted into a piece of bored wood. Those
+which do not spoil by wetting may be sent in alcohol, provided the
+bottle is absolutely filled, or, what is better, in sawdust moistened
+with alcohol, or between layers of cotton saturated with alcohol.
+
+The postal regulations permit the sending by mail of "dried insects
+* * * when properly put up, so as not to injure the persons of those
+handling the mails, nor soil the mail bags or their contents." Specimens
+in alcohol may also be sent by mail, provided that the containing vial
+be strong enough to resist the shock of handling in the mail, and that
+it be inclosed in a wooden or papier-mache tube not less than
+three-sixteenths of an inch thick in the thinnest part, lined with cork
+or other soft material, and with a screw top so adjusted as to prevent
+the leakage of the contents in case of breakage. Entomological specimens
+are of the fourth class of mail matter, the postage on which is 1 cent
+an ounce or fraction thereof, the limit of weight for a single package
+being 4 pounds, and the limit as to bulk 18 inches in any direction.
+Saleable matter is also non-mailable at fourth-class rates; so that the
+safer method, with small packages, is to send under letter postage. It
+is far better, however, for long journeys, and especially for
+transatlantic shipment, to send by express.
+
+
+
+
+                           NOTES AND MEMORANDA.
+
+
+In the foregoing pages are given some of the more useful directions for
+those wishing to commence to collect and study insects. Experience will
+soon teach many other important facts not mentioned here, and the best
+closing advice I can give the novice is, to get acquainted, if possible,
+with some one who has already had large experience. He will be very apt
+to find such a person pleasant and instructive company whether in the
+field or in the closet. One important habit, however, I wish to strongly
+inculcate and emphasize: The collector should never be without his
+memorandum or note book. More profitless work can scarcely be imagined
+than collecting natural-history specimens without some specific aim or
+object. Every observation made should be carefully recorded, and the
+date of capture, locality, and food-plant should always be attached to
+the specimens when these are mounted. More extended notes may be made in
+a field memorandum book carried in the pocket or in larger record books
+at home. For field memoranda I advise the use of a stylographic pen, as
+pencil is apt to rub and efface in time by the motions of the body. The
+larger record book is especially necessary for biologic notes. Notes on
+adolescent states which it is intended to rear to the imago can not be
+too carefully made or in too much detail. The relative size, details of
+ornamentation and structure, dates of moulting or transformation from
+one state to another--indeed, everything that pertains to the biography
+of the species--should be noted down, and little or nothing trusted to
+mere memory where exact data are so essential. Many insects,
+particularly dragon-flies, have brilliant coloring when fresh from the
+pupa, which is largely lost afterward. The time of laying and hatching
+of eggs, the number from a single female, the character of the eggs,
+general habits, records of parasites and their mode of attack--all
+should be entered as observed. A great many species have the most
+curious life histories, which can not be ascertained except by continued
+and persevering observation, not only in the vivarium or insectary but
+in the field. It is almost impossible to follow, under artificial
+conditions, the full life cycle of many species like the Aphididae, or
+the Gall-flies, etc., which involve alternation of generations,
+dimorphism, heteromorphism, migration from one plant to another, and
+various other curious departures from the normal mode of development,
+without careful field study and experiment. These studies are possible
+only to those who are able to frequent the same localities throughout
+the whole year, and can hardly be carried on by the traveling naturalist
+or collector.
+
+
+
+
+    INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING ARACHNIDS AND MYRIAPODS.
+
+
+The foregoing portions of this manual have dealt almost exclusively with
+the subject of the securing and preservation of Hexapods, but it is
+deemed advisable to include brief instructions for the collection and
+care of the near allies of the true insect, Spiders and Myriapods, the
+study of which will in most cases be associated with that of Hexapods.
+
+
+                    DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING SPIDERS.
+
+_Apparatus._--Many of the directions and methods given in the foregoing
+pages for the collection of Hexapods apply also to the animals named
+above. Little apparatus is necessary in the collection of spiders and
+other Arachnids. The essentials are vials containing alcohol, an insect
+net, a sieve, and forceps. Narrow vials without necks are best for
+collecting purposes, as the corks can be more quickly inserted. They
+should be of different sizes, from 1 dram to 4 or 6 drams, and the
+alcohol used should be at least 50 per cent strong and in some cases it
+is advisable to use it at a strength of 70 or 80 per cent. The net may
+be of the same construction as that used to collect insects and is used
+in the same way. Some arachnologists, however, use a net of a somewhat
+different make, which is much stronger. The iron ring is heavier and
+larger than in the case of the insect net, resembling in this respect
+the ring of the Deyrolle net. The bag is short and the handle is
+fastened to both sides of the ring. This net is used for beating the
+leaves of trees, bushes, and grass. Dr. Marx uses a net which is already
+described and figured under the name of the Umbrella Net (see p. 34,
+Fig. 52). The sieve is the same as that described on p. 35, Fig. 54, and
+is used to sift the spiders from leaves and rubbish, especially during
+winter. A mass of leaves and other material is thrown into the sieve and
+then shaken, the spiders falling through on a piece of white cloth,
+which is spread under the sieve on the ground. Many hibernating
+species can be readily secured in this manner. A forceps similar to that
+described for the collecting of hexapods should be used to capture or
+pick up specimens, for if handled with the fingers they are apt to be
+crushed, especially the smaller forms. As soon as the collecting is
+finished or the vial is filled a label should be placed in this last
+indicating place and date of collection. Egg sacs and cocoons should be
+collected in pill boxes and properly labeled, and if possible the adults
+should be reared. Both sexes should be collected and descriptive notes
+or drawings made of the webs as found in nature.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 129.--A ground Spider (_Oxyopes viridans_). (After
+Comstock.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 130.--An orb-weaver (_Argiope argyraspides_ Walck):
+_a_, male; _b_, female; _c_ and _d_, enlarged parts.]
+
+_Time and Locality for Collecting._--The best time to collect spiders is
+in the early fall, during the months of September and October. The great
+majority of the species are then mature. Many forms, however, occur in
+the adult state in late spring and early summer. Numerous species may
+also be collected during winter, some of these hibernating under stones,
+the bark of dead trees, etc., and others, more particularly the small
+forms, under dead leaves and rubbish on the ground in woods. Other
+species which have hibernated may be found about the earliest flowers in
+spring. No particular localities can be indicated for the collection of
+spiders, since they occur in all sorts of places, in wooded or open
+regions and also in and about dwellings. Many Lycosidae are found in dry
+and rocky situations and quite a number in open fields. Thomisidae may be
+found on flowers. The Therididae affect shady places, and many Epeiridae
+will be found in similar situations. The Attidae love the sun and are
+found very actively engaged in hunting insects on plants and dead
+leaves. Many species of this family will be found in cases under loose
+bark in winter. Evergreen trees are also quite good collecting grounds
+for Attidae. The Drassidae are ground spiders and are mostly nocturnal,
+hiding during the day under leaves and stones; a few forms, however,
+disport in the hottest sunshine. Some genera are found most frequently
+near water or in damp places, as Dolomedes and Tetragnatha; others in
+sandy places, as Micaria, Targalia.
+
+
+         COLLECTING OTHER ARACHNIDS: MITES, TICKS, SCORPIONS, ETC.
+
+Other Arachnids--as mites, ticks, scorpions, daddy longlegs or
+harvest-men--may be collected in the same way as spiders.
+
+The Phalangidae (Harvest-men) somewhat resemble spiders, and are at once
+recognized by their extremely long legs. They occur about houses,
+especially in shady places, under the eaves, etc., and in the woods and
+fields. They are carnivorous and feed on small insects, especially
+Aphides. They should be pressed a little when captured to extrude the
+genital apparatus, if possible, and are best collected in the early
+fall.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 131.--A Harvest-man (_Phalangium
+ventricosum_).--From Packard.]
+
+The Phrynidae are very peculiar looking animals, the anterior legs being
+very long and slender and the maxillary palpi very large. The genus
+_Thelyphonus_ is not uncommon in the South, and is known by its oblong
+body, ending usually with a long, slender, many-jointed filament, from
+which they are called Whip-tailed Scorpions. _T. giganteus_ is the
+common species. They occur in moist situations, and are carnivorous,
+feeding on insects and small animals.
+
+The false scorpions, Chermetidae, may at once be recognized by their
+large maxillary palpi, resembling the maxillae of the true scorpion. They
+are small insects, rarely exceeding a quarter of an inch in length, and
+are found in dark shady places and feed upon mites, Psoci, and other
+small insects. A common species is represented at figure 132.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 132.--False Scorpion (_Chelifer cancroides_
+L.).--From Packard.]
+
+The true scorpions, Scorpionidae, are well-known forms, and are easily
+recognized by their large, powerful, forceps-like maxillae, and the long
+slender tail continuous with the thorax and ending with a sting, which
+is, in most cases, quite poisonous. They are found mostly in the Western
+and Southwestern States, and are dangerous in proportion to their size.
+The poisonous nature of the sting of these animals is, however,
+generally overrated, and the wounds, even of the larger species, are
+rarely fatal.
+
+The Acarina or true mites are the lowest representatives of the
+Arachnida and include many genera and species differing very widely in
+habit and characters. Some of them are mere sacs, on which the mouth
+parts or other organs are scarcely discernible. In general they resemble
+spiders. The young, however, when they leave the egg, almost invariably
+have but three pairs of feet, resembling in this respect the Hexapods.
+The fourth pair is added in the later stages. They are parasitic on
+insects and other animals, and some of them are vegetable feeders or
+live in decaying vegetable and animal matter.
+
+A very interesting group is comprised in the family Phytoptidae or
+gall-making mites which occur on the leaves of various trees and shrubs
+and produce curious galls or abnormal growths. These mites are elongate
+in form, have rudimentary mouth-parts and but four legs. A common form,
+_Phytoptus quadripes_, produces a gall on the leaves of the soft maple.
+The galls of all species should be collected and pinned and also
+preserved in alcohol, and specimens of the mites should be mounted in
+balsam.
+
+The members of the genus Sarcoptes are very minute and are the active
+source of the itch in the lower animals and man. Another common genus is
+Tyroglyphus, which includes the common cheese mite, _T. siro_. Other
+species of this genus also sometimes occur in enormous numbers in
+grocers' supplies. Still others are parasitic on insects, and one
+species, _T. phylloxerae_ Riley, is very beneficial, since, as its name
+indicates, it feeds on the Phylloxera of the grapevine.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 133.--A true Scorpion (_Buthus carolinianus_).--From
+Packard.]
+
+The Ixodidae comprise the ticks which attach themselves to cattle, hogs,
+and man, and are not at all uncommon objects. These insects can be found
+on the animals they infest, and distinct species will be found to occur
+on most wild mammals. The common Cattle tick _Boophilus bovis_ Riley, is
+represented at Fig. 134.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 134.--The Cattle-tick. (After Packard.)]
+
+The family Orobatidae includes a number of small terrestrial mites, which
+occur on the moss on trees and stones. Some species are known to feed on
+the eggs of insects, and the one shown in the accompanying figure,
+_Nothrus ovivorus_ has been observed, by Dr. Packard to eat the eggs of
+the Canker Worm.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 135.--_Nothrus ovivorus_ Packard.]
+
+The members of the family Gamasidae are parasitic upon animals, but
+chiefly upon insects. The Hydrachnidae are parasitic also upon the
+aquatic insects, and also affect fish or mussels or occur on fresh-water
+plants.
+
+One of the most important families of mites is the Trombidiidiae which
+includes a large number of species, some of which occur in immense
+numbers. Most of them are vegetable feeders, but some species feed on
+the eggs of insects.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 136.--_Trombidium locustarum_: _a_, female with her
+batch of eggs; _b_, newly hatched larva--natural size indicated by the
+dot within the circle; _c_, egg; _d e_, vacated egg-shells.]
+
+The genus Trombidium includes a number of the Red Mites which feed on
+insects in all their stages. The Locust Mite, _Trombidium locustarum_
+Riley, is one of the most interesting as well as one of the most
+important of our locust enemies, and will serve to illustrate the habits
+of the group. It differs so much in infancy and maturity that it has
+been referred to different genera and is known under different names.
+The mature form lives on the ground and feeds on all sorts of animal or
+decomposing vegetable matter, and wherever the ground is filled with
+locust eggs these afford an abundance of food and the mites flourish and
+multiply rapidly. In the spring the female lays 300 or 400 minute
+spherical orange-red eggs in the ground (Fig. 136_a_). From these eggs,
+as shown enlarged at _c_, _d_, and _e_ (the two latter being the vacated
+egg shells) emerge the six-legged larva shown at _b_. These are mere
+specks and crawl actively about, fastening themselves to the locusts
+mostly at the base of the wings or along the upper veins. They subsist
+on the juices of their host. They firmly attach themselves by the mouth
+and increase rapidly in size, the legs not growing and becoming mere
+rudiments. In this form they are shown at Fig. 137_a_. When fully
+developed they let go their hold, drop to the ground, and crawl under
+the shelter afforded by holes in the earth or under sticks. Here, in the
+course of two or three weeks, they transform within the larval skin to
+the pupal stage shown at _b_, and eventually break through the old
+larval skin and escape in the form shown at _c_ and _d_. This mature
+form passes the winter in the ground and is active whenever the
+temperature is a few degrees above the freezing point. A larger species
+_T. giganteum_ Riley, also attacks locusts, while a third species
+attacks the common House-fly. This was formerly known in the larva state
+only and was referred to the genus Astoma, to which also the larval form
+of Trombidium was referred. I have described the adult together with the
+larva and pupa as _Trombidium muscarum_. An allied mite, _Hydrachna
+belostomae_, attacks the large aquatic water bug, Belostoma, and has a
+mode of development precisely similar to that of Trombidium.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 137.--_Trombidium locustarum_. _a_, mature larva
+when about to leave the wing of a locust; _b_, pupa; _c_, male adult
+when just from the pupa; _d_, female--the natural sizes indicated to the
+right; _e_, palpal claw and thumb; _f_, pedal claw; _g_, one of the
+barbed hairs; _h_, the striations on the larval skin.]
+
+To this family also belong the common greenhouse mite, _Tetranychus
+telarius_, and also the Bryobia mite, _B. pratensis_, which of late
+years has attracted very considerable attention by its appearance in
+immense numbers about dwellings, coming from the adjoining fields of
+clover or grass. Generically allied to the greenhouse mite is the
+Six-spotted Mite of the Orange (_T. 6-maculatus_ Riley), which is shown
+in the accompanying figure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 138.--The Six-spotted Mite of the Orange
+(_Tetranychus 6-maculatus_): _a_, from above--enlarged; _b_, tarsus;
+_c_, rostrum and palpus--still more enlarged; _d_, tip of palpus--still
+more enlarged.]
+
+Spiders and mites thus collected may be transferred to alcohol. Dr.
+Marx, who has had a very considerable experience in the preservation of
+spiders, recommends the use of the following mixture: Glycerin and
+Wickersheim's fluid, 11/2 ounces of each, and distilled water 3 ounces,
+the whole to be shaken and thoroughly mixed and added to 30 ounces of 95
+per cent alcohol. Alcohol which has previously been used for preserving
+spiders, and which has therefore dissolved some of the fatty matters
+from the specimens, he prefers to pure alcohol, using with this,
+however, somewhat less of the distilled water. The liquid thus composed
+answers all demands and keeps the specimens flexible and preserves their
+coloring. Should the stopper become loose and the liquid evaporate,
+there is always sufficient liquid, water or glycerine, left in the vial
+to keep the specimens from drying and thus save them from destruction.
+Dr. Marx also prefers to use cork stoppers rather than the rubber
+stoppers recommended for other alcoholic material. His objection to the
+rubber stopper is that, in a collection in which the specimens are often
+used and the stoppers are frequently removed, he finds that small
+particles of the rubber stopper come off and settle upon the specimens
+as a white dust, which it is difficult to remove. This objection applies
+only to a poor quality of rubber, and in all other respects the rubber
+is much to be preferred. The colors of spiders are apt to fade somewhat
+if exposed to light, and the collection should therefore be kept in
+closed boxes or in the dark.
+
+
+                           COLLECTING MYRIAPODA.
+
+Centipedes and Millipedes are collected in the same manner as spiders.
+They live in damp places, under sticks and stones, and in decaying
+vegetation. They should be preserved in alcohol, and on account of their
+usually strong chitinous covering, precautions as to the strength of the
+alcohol are less necessary here than with softer-bodied specimens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 139.--A Milliped (_Cambula annulata_).]
+
+The members of this subclass comprise a number of well-marked groups.
+The Iulidae are cylindrical insects and occur in moist places, as do most
+of the representatives of this subclass. A common form is represented in
+the accompanying figure. The Chiliopodae comprise the flattened forms
+having many-jointed antennae and but a single pair of limbs to each
+segment of the body, and are the forms to which the name centipede may
+properly be applied. They are predaceous in habit, live largely on
+living animal matter, and are very quick in their movements. Some forms
+are poisonous, having poison glands at the base of the first pair of
+legs, but the majority of the species are entirely harmless. A number
+of common species belong to the genus Geophilus and occur under stones
+and logs. The genus Scolopendra includes some of the larger species of
+the order. The largest known species, _S. gigantea_, occurs in the East
+Indies and attains a length of from 9 inches to more than a foot.
+Several species found within the limits of the United States attain a
+length of 5 inches or more. The family Cermatiidae includes the very
+common species _Cermatia forceps_, which, while abundant in the South
+and West, occurs somewhat more rarely in the North. It is commonly found
+in moist situations, in houses or conservatories, and on account of its
+long legs and agile movements frequently creates considerable
+consternation. It is, however, an entirely harmless and very beneficial
+species, since it feeds on various household pests, including flies,
+roaches, etc.
+
+
+
+
+                     TEXT BOOKS--ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS.
+
+
+Bulletin No. 19 of the Division of Entomology, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture, contains an enumeration of the published synopses,
+catalogues, and lists of North American insects, together with other
+information intended to assist the student of American entomology. This
+can be had upon application, and I would refer the student to it for
+specific information as to synopses, catalogues, and lists. I have
+deemed it advisable, however, to include here an enumeration of the more
+useful works of a general character; a list of the entomological
+periodicals, both home and foreign; and the entomological works
+published by the different departments of the Government, with some
+information as to how and of whom they can be obtained. Many of these
+publications are no longer to be had except as they may be picked up
+through book-dealers; but the titles even of those which are out of
+print will be useful to the student as a guide to what he should find in
+every good library. Requests for this kind of information are constantly
+received at the Department of Agriculture and at the National Museum.
+The most useful general works are given first, and, while a great many
+others in foreign languages might be cited, I would strongly advise the
+beginner in America to confine himself to these, and especially to read
+Harris's Insects Injurious to Vegetation, Kirby & Spence's Introduction,
+and Westwood's Introduction. This last, though published over half a
+century ago, is still one of the most useful entomological works in the
+English language. While these Introductions will be of great service in
+arranging and classifying material and in giving a knowledge of the
+relationships of species, there is no better text-book than the great
+book of nature, which is always ready to unfold its truths to every
+earnest inquirer. In field and wood alone can he become familiar with
+the insects in all their wondrous life habits, instincts, and
+intelligence. There alone will he receive the fullest inspiration and
+pleasure in his work or find the highest reward for his efforts.
+
+
+  COMPREHENSIVE WORKS MOST USEFUL FOR THE STUDY OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS.
+
+H. C. C. BURMEISTER.--Handbuch der Entomologie. Berlin, 1832-1855.
+5 vols.
+
+MANUAL OF ENTOMOLOGY.--A translation of the above, by W. E. Shuckard.
+London, 1836.
+
+J. O. WESTWOOD.--An introduction to the modern classification of
+insects, founded on the natural habits and corresponding organization of
+the different families. 2 vols. London, 1839-'40.
+
+THOMAS SAY.--Complete writings on the Entomology of North America;
+edited by John L. Le Conte. New York, 1859.
+
+H. A. HAGEN.--Bibliotheca Entomologica. Die Litteratur ueber das ganze
+Gebiet der Entomologie bis zum Jahre 1862. Leipzig, 1862.
+
+A. S. PACKARD.--Guide to the Study of Insects. Henry Holt & Co.,
+Philadelphia and New York. (First edition, Salem, 1869.)
+
+---- Entomology for Beginners. Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1888.
+
+THE STANDARD NATURAL HISTORY.--Edited by John Sterling Kingsley. S. E.
+Cassino & Co., Boston, 1884-'85.
+
+     Volume II contains the insects, which are treated by the following
+     authors: _Hymenoptera_, J. H. Comstock and L. O. Howard;
+     _Coleoptera_, George Dimmock; _Lepidoptera_, H'y Edwards and C. H.
+     Fernald; _Diptera_, S. W. Williston; _Orthoptera_, C. V. Riley;
+     _Hemiptera_, P. R. Uhler; _Neuroptera_, A. S. Packard; _Arachnida_,
+     J. H. Emerton.
+
+J. H. COMSTOCK.--An Introduction to Entomology. Published by the author.
+Ithaca, N. Y. 2 parts. Part I, 1888.
+
+ALPHEUS HYATT AND J. M. ARMS.--Guides for Science Teaching, No. III.
+Insecta. Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, 1890.
+
+
+                     GENERAL WORKS ON CLASSIFICATION.
+
+                               HYMENOPTERA.
+
+E. T. CRESSON.--Synopsis of the Families and Genera of the Hymenoptera
+of America, north of Mexico, together with a Catalogue of the described
+Species and Bibliography. Transactions Am. Entom. Society, Supplementary
+volume. 2 parts. Philadelphia, 1887.
+
+
+                                COLEOPTERA.
+
+JOHN L. LE CONTE AND GEORGE H. HORN.--Classification of the Coleoptera
+of North America. Prepared for the Smithsonian Institution. Washington,
+Smithsonian Institution, 1883.
+
+     This is the most recent and the only complete classification of
+     North American Coleoptera. It contains also Appendix II, a "list of
+     bibliographical references to memoirs, in which more or less
+     complete synopses of the families, genera, and species of the
+     Coleoptera of the United States have been published."
+
+J. T. LACORDAIRE.--Histoire naturelle des Insectes. Genera des
+Coleopteres, ou expose methodique et critique de tous les genres
+proposes jusqu'ici dans cet ordre d'insectes. [Completed by J. Chapuis.]
+Paris, France, 1854-1876. 12 vols, and 1 vol. plates.
+
+[Out of print.]WILLIAM LE BARON.--Outlines of Entomology, published in
+connection with the author's Annual Reports upon injurious insects. Part
+first. Including the Order of Coleoptera. Fourth Annual Report on the
+Noxious and Beneficial Insects of the State of Illinois. Sep. Edit.
+Springfield, 1874.
+
+
+                               LEPIDOPTERA.
+
+G. A. W. HERRICH-SCHAEFFER.--Sammlung neuer oder wenig bekannter
+aussereuropaeischer Schmetterlinge. Vol. I. Regensburg, 1850-'58; Vol.
+II, Pt. 1, 1869.
+
+     Contains a classification of the Lepidoptera, which forms the basis
+     of our present arrangement.
+
+JOHN G. MORRIS.--Synopsis of the described Lepidoptera of North America.
+Part I. Diurnal and Crepuscular Lepidoptera. Washington, Smithsonian
+Institution, 1862.
+
+     Compiled descriptions of the North American Lepidoptera, from the
+     Rhopalocera to the Bombycidae.
+
+H. STRECKER.--Lepidoptera, Rhopaloceres et Heteroceres, indigenous and
+exotic; with descriptions and colored illustrations. Reading, Pa.,
+1872-'77.
+
+     Fifteen parts of this work have been published containing figures
+     and descriptions of many North American species.
+
+JOHN B. SMITH.--An Introduction to a Classification of the North
+American Lepidoptera. <Bull. Brookl. Ent. Soc., Vol. VII, 1884, pp.
+70-74 and 81-83.
+
+     A synopsis of the families of Lepidoptera based on
+     Herrich-Schaeffer's classification.
+
+---- Synopsis of the Genera of the North American Rhopalocera. <Bull.
+     Brookl. Ent. Soc, Vol. VI, 1883, pp. 37-45.
+
+E. DOUBLEDAY AND W. C. HEWITSON.--The genera of diurnal Lepidoptera,
+comprising their generic characters, a notice of their transformations,
+and a catalogue of the species of each genus; illustrated, with 86
+colored plates from drawings by W. C. Hewitson. 2 vols., London,
+1846-'52.
+
+     This work was completed by Westwood after the death of Doubleday.
+
+S. H. SCUDDER.--Butterflies: Their structures, changes, and
+life-histories, with special reference to American forms. Being an
+application of the "Doctrine of descent" to the study of Butterflies,
+with an appendix of practical instructions. 321 pp. and 201 text figs.
+New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1881.
+
+---- The Butterflies of the Eastern United States and Canada with
+     special reference to New England. 3 vols., Cambridge, Mass., 1889;
+     pp. 1958, plates 59. (Published by the author. Cost about $75 for
+     3 vols.)
+
+G. H. FRENCH.--The Butterflies of the Eastern United States. For the use
+of classes in Zoology and private students. Philadelphia, Lippincott &
+Co., 1886.
+
+     Gives synopses of the genera and species, and description of the
+     species.
+
+W. H. EDWARDS.--Butterflies of North America. Boston, Houghton, Mifflin
+& Co.
+
+     Two volumes are completed and the third is in course of
+     publication.
+
+
+                                HEMIPTERA.
+
+HERBERT OSBORN.--Classification of Hemiptera. <Entomologica Amer., Vol.
+I, 1885, pp. 21-27.
+
+     Short characterization of the whole order, with tables of suborders
+     and families.
+
+---- Pediculi and Mallophaga affecting Man and the Lower Animals.
+     Constituting Bulletin No. 7 of the Division of Entomology, U. S.
+     Department of Agriculture. Washington, 1891.
+
+P. R. UHLER.--List of Hemiptera of the region west of the Mississippi
+River, including those collected during the Hayden explorations of 1873.
+<Bull. U. S. Geolog. and Geogr. Survey of the Terr., Vol. I, 1875, pp.
+267-361, Pl. XIX-XXI.
+
+---- Report upon the insects collected by P. R. Uhler during the
+     exploration of 1875, including monographs of the families Cynidae and
+     Saldae, and the Hemiptera collected by A. S. Packard, jr., M. D.
+     <U. S. Geolog. and Geogr. Survey, Bulletin, Vol. III, No. 2, 1877,
+     pp. 355-475.
+
+TOWNEND GLOVER.--Report of the Entomologist. <Report of the Commissioner
+of Agriculture for the year 1877, pp. 17-46.
+
+     A popular treatise on the Homoptera, with illustrations.
+
+A. H. HALIDAY.--An Epitome of the British genera in the Order
+Thysanoptera, with indications of a few of the species. <Entomol. Mag.,
+Vol. III, 1836, pp. 439-451.
+
+
+                                 DIPTERA.
+
+H. LOEW AND C. R. OSTEN-SACKEN.--Monographs of the Diptera of North
+America. (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.) 4 parts. Washington,
+Smithsonian Institution, 1862-'72.
+
+     The several monographs will be found enumerated under the
+     respective families.
+
+H. LOEW.--Diptera Americae septentrionalis indigena. 2 parts. Berlin,
+1861-'72. (Originally published in 10 centuriae in the Berliner Entomol.
+Zeitschrift.)
+
+     Descriptions of 1,000 North American Diptera, but without synoptic
+     arrangement.
+
+C. R. OSTEN-SACKEN.--Western Diptera: Descriptions of new genera and
+species of Diptera from the region west of the Mississippi and
+especially from California. <Bull. U. S. Geolog. and Geogr. Survey of
+the Territories, Vol. III, 1877, pp. 189-354.
+
+F. BRAUER.--Die Zweifluegler des Kaiserlichen Museums zu Wien. I-III.
+Wien, 1880-'83.
+
+     Important contributions to the classification of the Diptera.
+
+
+                                ORTHOPTERA.
+
+HENRI DE SAUSSURE.--Orthoptera nova Americana (Diagnoses praeliminares).
+Series I-III. <Revue et Mag. de Zool., 1859-'61.
+
+     Contains synoptical tables of species, besides descriptions of
+     numerous North American Orthoptera.
+
+SAMUEL H. SCUDDER.--Materials for a monograph of the North American
+Orthoptera. <Boston Journal of Nat. Hist., Vol. VII, 1862, pp. 409-480.
+
+     Contains synoptical tables and a review of the system used for
+     classification.
+
+---- Remarks upon the arrangement of the families of Orthoptera. <Proc.
+     Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XII, 1868-'69; also separate under the
+     title: Entomological Notes, Vol. II, pp. 7-14.
+
+---- Synoptical tables for determining North American insects.
+     Orthoptera. <Psyche, Vol. I, 1876, pp. 169-171.
+
+     Synopsis of families; also list of useful works in the study of
+     North American Orthoptera.
+
+
+                                NEUROPTERA.
+
+HERMANN HAGEN.--Synopsis of the Neuroptera of North America, with a list
+of the South American species. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,
+Washington, 1861.
+
+---- Synopsis of the Odonata of America. <Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.,
+      Vol. XVIII, 1875, pp. 20-96.
+
+SIR JOHN LUBBOCK.--Monograph of the Collembola and Thysanura. London,
+Ray Society, 1873.
+
+     The introduction gives the full bibliography up to date.
+
+
+                                MYRIAPODA.
+
+THOMAS SAY.--Descriptions of the Myriapoda of the United States. <Journ.
+Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil., Vol. II, 1821, pp. 102-114; Say's Entom. Writings,
+ed. Le Conte, Vol. II, pp. 24-32.
+
+     This is the first paper of importance on the North American
+     Myriapoda.
+
+GEORGE NEWPORT.--Monograph of the class Myriapoda, Order Chilopoda.
+<Trans. Linnean Soc. of London, Vol. XIX, 1845, pp. 265-302 and 349-439.
+
+HORATIO C. WOOD, Jr.--On the Chilopoda of North America, with Catalogue
+of all the specimens in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution.
+<Journ. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil., New Ser., Vol. V, 1863, pp. 5-42.
+
+---- The Myriapoda of North America. <Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol.
+     XIII, 1865, pp. 137-248, 3 pl.
+
+     This is the first and only monograph of the Myriapoda published in
+     this country.
+
+ROBERT LATZEL.--Die Myriapoden der Oesterreichisch-Ungarischen
+Monarchie. Erste Haelfte: Die Chilopoden, Wien, 1880. Zweite Haelfte: Die
+Symphylen, Pauropoden und Diplopoden, Wien, 1884.
+
+     The most recent comprehensive work on this order, and very
+     important from a classificatory standpoint.
+
+LUCIEN M. UNDERWOOD.--The North American Myriapoda. <Entomol. Amer.,
+Vol. I, 1885, pp. 141-151.
+
+     A complete bibliographical review of the subject, with tables of
+     families and genera.
+
+
+                                ARACHNIDA.
+
+N. M. HENTZ.--Descriptions and figures of the Araneides of the United
+States. <Journ. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vols, IV-VI, 1842-'50.
+
+     These papers form the basis of the study of American arachnology.
+     Numerous species are described, but not in synoptic form.
+
+T. THORELL.--On European Spiders. Part I. Review of the European genera
+of Spiders. Upsala, 1869-'70.
+
+N. M. HENTZ.--Araneae Americae septentrionalis. The Spiders of the United
+States. Edited by J. H. Emerton and E. Burgess. <"Occasional Papers" of
+the Boston Society of Natural History, 1875.
+
+     A reprint of Hentz's papers on North American spiders.
+
+GRAF EUGEN KEYSERLING.--Amerikanische Spinnen aus den Familien
+Pholcoidae, Scytodoidae und Dysderoidae. <Verh. k. k. zool.-bot. Ges. in
+Wien, Vol. XXVII, 1877, pp. 205-234.
+
+---- Neue Spinnen aus Amerika. (Six parts.) <Verh. k. k. Zool.-bot. Ges.
+     in Wien, Vols. XXIX-XXXIV, 1879-'84.
+
+E. SIMON.--Les Arachnides de France. Paris, Vols. I-V, 1874-'84.
+
+     These two works represent the most recent systems of
+     classification, and are therefore of great general value, although
+     they deal only with the European fauna.
+
+LUCIEN M. UNDERWOOD.--The Progress of Arachnology in America. <Amer.
+Natur., Vol. XXI, 1887, pp. 963-975.
+
+     A very useful review of the bibliography, with synoptic table of
+     the families of the Araneae.
+
+
+                           AMERICAN PERIODICALS.
+
+THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. A monthly journal devoted to the natural
+sciences in their widest sense (24 volumes published up to date. Now
+published at Philadelphia).
+
+[Publication discontinued.]ANNALS OF THE LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY OF NEW
+YORK (8 volumes, 1824-'67. Continued since 1876 as Annals of the New York
+Academy of Sciences).
+
+[Publication discontinued.]BULLETIN OF THE BROOKLYN ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
+(7 volumes, 1878-'85. Continued as Entomologica Americana).
+
+BULLETIN OF THE BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY (4 volumes completed;
+1874 to 1883).
+
+BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE
+TERRITORIES, F. V. Hayden in charge (Department of the Interior; 1875 to
+1879).
+
+BULLETINS OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, J. M. Powell,
+director; beginning with 1883.
+
+BULLETINS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM (Department of the
+Interior; beginning with 1875).
+
+THE CANADIAN ENTOMOLOGIST. (Published by the Entomological Society of
+Ontario; 22 volumes issued up to the end of 1890. Published at London,
+Ontario.)
+
+[Publication discontinued.]ENTOMOLOGICA AMERICANA. (Published by the
+Brooklyn Entomological Society at Brooklyn, N. Y. 1885 to 1890.)
+
+ENTOMOLOGICAL NEWS [and Proceedings of the Entomological Section of the
+Academy of Natural Sciences] (Vol. I issued in 1890. Published at
+Philadelphia).
+
+JOURNAL OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA (commencing
+with 1817).
+
+MEMOIRS OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY (commencing with 1866).
+
+[Publication discontinued.]NORTH AMERICAN ENTOMOLOGIST. (Published by the
+Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, 1 volume, Buffalo, N. Y. 1879-'80.)
+
+[Publication discontinued.]PAPILIO. Devoted exclusively to Lepidoptera.
+Organ of the New York Entomological Club (4 volumes, 1881-'84).
+
+PSYCHE. Organ of the Cambridge Entomological Club (5 volumes issued up
+to date. Published at Cambridge, Mass. Publication begun in 1874).
+
+PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA
+(beginning with 1841).
+
+PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF PHILADELPHIA
+(beginning with 1860).
+
+PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY (commencing with
+1841).
+
+[Publication discontinued.]PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF
+PHILADELPHIA (6 volumes, 1861-'67).
+
+PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON (2 volumes,
+beginning with 1884).
+
+PROCEEDINGS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM (Department of the
+Interior; beginning with 1878).
+
+REPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE
+TERRRITORIES (Department of the Interior; beginning with 1867).
+
+SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS (Smithsonian Institution,
+Washington, D. C.; beginning 1862).
+
+TRANSACTIONS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OF ST. LOUIS (4 volumes hitherto
+published).
+
+TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY and Proceedings of
+the Entomological Section of the Academy of Natural Sciences (beginning
+with 1868; published at Philadelphia).
+
+TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF PHILADELPHIA (2d
+series beginning with 1818).
+
+Papers on entomology are also published occasionally in other American
+periodicals, among which the following might be mentioned:
+
+JOURNAL OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. Chapel Hill, N. C.
+
+JOURNAL OF THE NEW YORK MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.
+
+NATURALISTE CANADIEN. Edited by Abbe Provancher, Cap Rouge, Quebec.
+
+PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, San Francisco, Cal.
+
+
+                           FOREIGN PERIODICALS.
+
+ANNALES DE LA SOCIETE ENTOMOLOGIQUE DE BELGIQUE. Publication begun in
+1857. Brussels.
+
+ANNALES DE LA SOCIETE ENTOMOLOGIQUE DE FRANCE. Publication begun in
+1832. Paris.
+
+[Publication discontinued.]BERLINER ENTOMOLOGISCHE ZEITSCHRIFT.
+18 volumes, Berlin, 1857-1874.
+
+     Succeeded by the Deutsche Entomologische Zeitung.
+
+BULLETIN DE LA SOCIETE ENTOMOLOGIQUE DE FRANCE.
+
+BULLETIN DE LA SOCIETE ENTOMOLOGIQUE SUISSE. (See Mittheil. d. Schweiz.
+Entom. Gesell.)
+
+BULLETINO DELLA SOCIETA ENTOMOLOGICA ITALIANA. Florence. (Publication
+commenced in 1869.)
+
+DEUTSCHE ENTOMOLOGISCHE ZEITSCHRIFT. Published by the Entomological
+Society of Berlin. (Publication begun in 1875.)
+
+ENTOMOLOGISCHE NACHRICHTEN. (Now edited by Dr. F. Karsch. Berlin.
+Publication commenced in 1875.)
+
+ENTOMOLOGISK TIDSKRIFT; PA FOeRANSTALTANDE AF ENTOMOLOGISKA FOeRENINGEN I
+STOCKHOLM: (Commenced with 1880.)
+
+[Publication discontinued.]ENTOMOLOGISCHE ZEITUNG: HERAUSGEGEBEN VON DEM
+ENTOMOLOGISCHEN VEREIN ZU STETTIN. 36 volumes. Stettin. 1840-'75.
+
+ENTOMOLOGISKE MEDDELELSER UDGIVNE OF ENTOMOLOGISK FORENING. Edited by
+Fr. Meinert, Copenhagen (beginning with 1887).
+
+THE ENTOMOLOGIST. A popular monthly journal of British entomology. Vol.
+I, 1840-'42. (Publication resumed in 1864. London.)
+
+[Publication discontinued.]THE ENTOMOLOGIST'S ANNUAL. Edited by
+H. T. Stainton. London. (Publication begun in 1855; 22 vols. published
+up to 1876.)
+
+ENTOMOLOGIST'S MONTHLY MAGAZINE. London (beginning with 1864).
+
+Horae ... Variis sermonibus rossiae usitatis. Societas Entomologica
+Rossica. (Publication begun in 1861.)
+
+[Publication discontinued.]LINNAE ENTOMOLOGICA. HERAUSGEGEBEN VOM
+ENTOMOLOGISCHEN VEREINE ZU STETTIN (16 volumes, Berlin, 1846-'66).
+
+MITTHEILUNGEN DER SCHWEIZERISCHEN ENTOMOLOGISCHEN GESELLSCHAFT. Bulletin
+de la Societe entomologique suisse. (Publication begun at Schaffhausen,
+Switz., in 1862. Afterward published at Geneva.)
+
+REVUE D'ENTOMOLOGIE. (Published by the Societe Francaise d'Entomologie,
+Caen, France. Publication begun in 1882.)
+
+TIJDSCHRIFT VOOR ENTOMOLOGIE. NEDERLANDSCHE ENTOMOLOGISCHE VEREINIGUNG,
+Leiden, Holland (beginning with 1857. Published by the Dutch
+Entomological Society).
+
+TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. (Begun in 1834.)
+
+[Publication discontinued.]WIENER ENTOMOLOGISCHE MONATSSCHRIFT
+(8 volumes, Vienna, 1857-'64).
+
+WIENER ENTOMOLOGISCHE ZEITUNG. Vienna. (Commenced 1882.)
+
+[Publication discontinued.]ZEITSCHRIFT FUeR DIE ENTOMOLOGIE. Edited by
+E. F. Germar (5 volumes. Leipzig, 1839-'44).
+
+ZEITSCHRIFT FUeR ENTOMOLOGIE. VEREIN FUeR SCHLESISCHE INSECKTEN-KUNDE ZU
+BRESLAU. (Publication begun at Breslau in 1847).
+
+ZEITSCHRIFT FUeR WISSENSCHAFTLICHE ZOOLOGIE. Leipzig. (Begun in 1848).
+
+A large number of other periodicals devoted to entomology have been
+issued, principally in Europe, but after continuing for a year or more
+their publication has been abandoned, and they are not included here.
+Important entomological papers have also been published in many serials
+devoted to zoology or the natural sciences generally. Among them may be
+mentioned the following:
+
+ANNALS AND MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. London (beginning with 1838).
+
+ARCHIV FUeR NATURGESCHICHTE. Berlin (beginning with 1835).
+
+OeFVERSIGT AF KONGL. SVENSKA VETENSKAPS ACADEMIENS FOeRHANDLINGAR
+(beginning with 1844. Published at Stockholm).
+
+     Proceedings of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
+
+PROCEEDINGS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.
+
+REVUE ET MAGASIN DE ZOOLOGIE PURE ET APPLIQUEE. Paris (beginning with
+1839).
+
+SITZUNGSBERICHTE DER MATHEMATISCH-NATURWISSENSCHAFTLICHEN CLASSE DER
+KAISERLICHEN ACADEMIE DER WISSENSCHAFTEN ZU WIEN (beginning with 1848).
+
+TRANSACTIONS OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY OF LONDON (beginning with 1791).
+
+TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. Wellington,
+New Zealand.
+
+VERHANDLUNGEN DER ZOOLOGISCH-BOTANISCHEN GESELLSCHAFT IN WIEN (beginning
+with 1852).
+
+
+             LIST OF MORE USEFUL WORKS ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY.
+
+T. W. HARRIS, Insects Injurious to Vegetation. (Flint edition.) New
+York, Orange Judd Co. $4 or $6. (First edition, Cambridge, 1841.)
+
+[Out of print.]ASA FITCH, Reports of the State Entomologist of New York,
+I-XIV, Albany, 1855-'70. (For a full account of these, see First Annual
+Report, by J. A. Lintner, State Entomologist of New York, pp. 294-297.)
+
+[Publication discontinued.]The Practical Entomologist. Vols. I and II.
+Published by the Entomological Society of Philadelphia, 1865-'67.
+
+[Publication discontinued.]The American Entomologist, edited by
+B. D. Walsh and C. V. Riley. Vol. I. St. Louis, Mo., 1868.
+(Out of print.)
+
+[Publication discontinued.]The American Entomologist and Botanist, edited
+by C. V. Riley and Dr. George Vasey. Vol. II. St. Louis, Mo., 1870.
+
+[Out of print.]The American Entomologist, edited by C. V. Riley. Vol. III.
+[Second series, Vol. I.] New York, Hub Publishing Co., 1880.
+
+[Out of print.]B. D. WALSH, Annual Report on the Noxious Insects of the
+State of Illinois. Chicago, Prairie Farmer Co., 1868.
+
+[Out of print.]C. V. RILEY, Reports of the State Entomologist of Missouri,
+I-IX, Jefferson City, 1869-'77.
+
+[Out of print.]WILLIAM LE BARON, Reports of the State Entomologist of
+Illinois. I-IV, Springfield, 1871-'74.
+
+[Out of print.]CYRUS THOMAS, Reports of the State Entomologist of
+Illinois, I-VI, Springfield, 1876-'81.
+
+J. A. LINTNER, Reports of the State Entomologist of New York. Albany
+(beginning with 1882).
+
+S. A. FORBES, Reports of the State Entomologist of Illinois. Springfield
+(beginning with 1883).
+
+---- Miscellaneous Essays on Economic Entomology. Springfield, Ill.,
+     1886. (Published instead of Annual Report.)
+
+MARY TREAT, Injurious Insects of the Farm and Garden. New York, Orange
+Judd Co., 1882. (A small work compiled from Riley's reports.)
+
+WILLIAM SAUNDERS, Insects Injurious to Fruits. Philadelphia, J. B.
+Lippincott & Co., 1883.
+
+MATTHEW COOKE, Injurious Insects of the Orchard, Vineyard, etc.
+Sacramento, 1883. (8vo., pp. 472.)
+
+P. J. VAN BENEDEN, Animal Parasites and Messmates. New York, D. Appleton
+& Co., 1876. International Scientific Series.
+
+[Out of print.]Reports of the Entomologists of the U. S. Department of
+Agriculture, T. Glover (1863-1878), J. H. Comstock (1879-1880), and
+C. V. Riley (1878-1879, 1880 to date).[10]
+
+  [10] The annual reports of the Entomologist are contained in the
+  corresponding annual reports of the Department of Agriculture. A
+  limited author's edition, separately bound, and with table of contents
+  and index, is published each year.
+
+Bulletins of the Division of Entomology of the U. S. Department of
+Agriculture, C. V. Riley, Entomologist (1883 to date).
+
+Reports and Bulletins of the U. S. Entomological Commission.
+
+JOHN CURTIS, Farm Insects. London, Blackie & Son, 1860.
+
+ELEANOR A. ORMEROD, Manual of Injurious Insects, and Methods of
+Prevention, etc. London and Edinburgh, 1881. (A small work, costing
+about $1.50.)
+
+---- Reports of Observations of Injurious Insects and Common Farm Pests,
+     with Methods of Prevention and Remedy. London. Simpkin, Marshall,
+     Hamilton, Kent & Co., limited. (Fourteen reports issued up to 1891.)
+
+J. H. KALTENBACH.--Die Pflanzenfeinde aus der Classe der Insekten. 8vo.
+Stuttgart, 1874. (A useful work for determining what insects infest
+plants in Europe.)
+
+INSECT LIFE. Periodical Bulletin.--Devoted to the economy and the
+life-habits of insects, especially in their relations to agriculture.
+Edited by C. V. Riley, entomologist, and L. O. Howard, first assistant,
+with the assistance of other members of the divisional force
+(Publication begun in 1888.)
+
+E. L. TASCHENBERG.--Praktische Insekten-Kunde. Parts I-V. Bremen, 1879.
+
+FELICE FRANCESCHINI.--Gli Insetti Nocivi. Milan, 1891.
+
+J. T. C. RATZEBURG.--Die Waldverderbniss, oder dauernder Schade, welcher
+durch Insektenfrass, Schaelen, Schlagen, und Verbeissen an lebenden
+Waldbaeumen entsteht. Two parts. Berlin, 1866-'68.
+
+
+    ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS PUBLISHED BY THE UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL
+     COMMISSION AND BY THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
+
+                  UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.
+
+(Members of the Commission: C. V. Riley, A. S. Packard, jr., and Cyrus
+Thomas.)
+
+[11]BULLETIN NO. 1.--Destruction of the young or unfledged Locusts
+(_Caloptenus spretus_). (1877.) [pp. 15.]
+
+  [11] All of these bulletins and reports, with the exception of the
+  fifth report, are out of print.
+
+BULLETIN NO. 2.--On the Natural History of the Rocky Mountain Locust and
+on the habits of the young or unfledged insects as they occur in the
+more fertile country in which they will hatch the present year. (1877.)
+[pp. 14, figs. 10.]
+
+BULLETIN NO. 3.--The Cotton Worm. Summary of its Natural History, with
+an Account of its Enemies, and the best Means of controlling it; being a
+Report of Progress of the Work of the Commission. By Chas. V. Riley, M.
+A., Ph. D. (1880.) [pp. 144, figs. 84, plates 1.]
+
+BULLETIN NO. 4.--The Hessian Fly. Its Ravages, Habits, Enemies, and
+Means of preventing its Increase. By A. S. Packard, jr., M. D. (1880.)
+[pp. 43, figs. 1, plates 2, maps 1.]
+
+BULLETIN NO. 5.--The Chinch Bug. Its History, Characters, and Habits,
+and the Means of destroying it or counteracting its Injuries. By Cyrus
+Thomas, Ph. D. (1879.) [pp. 44, figs. 10, maps 1.]
+
+BULLETIN NO. 6.--General Index and Supplement to the nine Reports on the
+Insects of Missouri. By Charles V. Riley, M. A., Ph. D. (1881.) [pp.
+177.]
+
+BULLETIN NO. 7.--Insects injurious to Forest and Shade Trees. By A. S.
+Packard, jr., M. D. (1881.) [pp. 275, figs. 100.]
+
+First Annual Report for the year 1877, relating to the Rocky Mountain
+Locust and the best Methods of preventing its Injuries and of guarding
+against its Invasions, in pursuance of an Appropriation made by Congress
+for this purpose. With maps and illustrations. (1878.) [pp. 477+294,
+figs. 111, plates 5, maps 1.]
+
+Second Report for the years 1878 and 1879, relating to the Rocky
+Mountain Locust and the Western Cricket, and treating of the best Means
+of subduing the Locust in its permanent Breeding grounds, with a view of
+preventing its Migrations into the more fertile Portions of the
+trans-Mississippi country, in pursuance of Appropriations made by
+Congress for this purpose. With Maps and Illustrations. (1880.) [pp.
+XVIII+322+22, figs. 10, plates 17, maps 7.]
+
+Third Report relating to the Rocky Mountain Locust, the Western Cricket,
+the Army Worm, Canker Worms, and the Hessian Fly; together with
+Descriptions of Larvae of injurious Forest Insects, Studies on the
+embryological Development of the Locust and of other Insects, and on the
+systematic Position of the Orthoptera in Relation to other Orders of
+Insects. With Maps and Illustrations. (1883.) [pp. XVIII+347+91, figs.
+14, plates 64, maps 3.]
+
+Fourth Report, being a revised Edition of Bulletin No. 3, and the Final
+Report on the Cotton Worm and Bollworm. By Charles V. Riley, Ph. D.
+(1885.) [pp. XXXVIII+399+147, figs. 45, plates 64, maps 2.]
+
+Fifth Report, being a revised and enlarged edition of Bulletin No. 7, on
+Insects Injurious to Forest and Shade Trees. By Alpheus S. Packard, M.
+D., Ph. D., with woodcuts and 40 plates. (1890 (1). Small edition; only
+a few for general distribution).
+
+
+       BULLETINS OF THE DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF
+        AGRICULTURE, UNDER DIRECTION OF C. V. RILEY, ENTOMOLOGIST.
+
+[Out of print.]No. 1.--Reports of Experiments, chiefly with Kerosene, upon
+the Insects injuriously affecting the Orange Tree and the Cotton Plant,
+made under the Direction of the Entomologist. (1883.) [pp. 62.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 2.--Reports of Observations on the Rocky Mountain
+Locust and Chinch Bug, together with Extracts from the Correspondence of
+the Division on Miscellaneous Insects. (1883.) [pp. 36.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 3.--Reports of Observations and Experiments in the
+practical Work of the Division, made under the Direction of the
+Entomologist. With plates. (1883.) [pp. 75, plates III.]
+
+No. 4.--Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical Work of
+the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist, together
+with Extracts from Correspondence on miscellaneous Insects. (1884.) [pp.
+102, figs. 4.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 5.--Descriptions of North American Chalcididae from
+the Collections of the U. S. Department of Agriculture and of Dr. C. V.
+Riley, with biological Notes. [First paper.] Together with a list of the
+described North American species of the family. By L. O. Howard, M. Sc.,
+Assistant, Bureau of Entomology. (1885.) [pp. 47.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 6.--The imported Elm-leaf Beetle. Its Habits and
+Natural History, and Means of counteracting its Injuries. (1885.) [pp.
+18, figs. 1, plates I.]
+
+No. 7.--The Pediculi and Mallophaga affecting Man and the lower Animals.
+By Prof. Herbert Osborn. (1891.) [pp. 54, figs. 42.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 8.--The Periodical Cicada. An account of _Cicada
+septendecim_ and its tredicim race, with a chronology of all of the
+broods known. By Charles V. Riley, Ph. D. (1885.) [pp. 46, figs. 8.]
+
+No. 9.--The Mulberry Silk-worm; being a Manual of Instructions in Silk
+culture. By Charles V. Riley, M. A., Ph. D. (1886.) [pp. 65, figs. 29,
+plates II.]
+
+No. 10.--Our Shade Trees and their Insect Defoliators. Being a
+consideration of the four most injurious species which affect the trees
+of the capital, with means of destroying them. By Charles V. Riley,
+Entomologist. (1887.) [pp. 75, figs. 27.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 11.--Reports of Experiments with various Insecticide
+Substances, chiefly upon Insects affecting garden Crops, made under the
+Direction of the Entomologist. (1886.) [pp. 34.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 12.--Miscellaneous Notes on the work of the Division
+of Entomology for the Season of 1885; prepared by the Entomologist.
+(1886.) [pp. 45, plates I.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 13.--Reports of Observations and Experiments in the
+practical Work of the Division, made under the Direction of the
+Entomologist. (With illustrations.) (1887.) [pp. 78, figs. 4.]
+
+No. 14.--Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical Work
+of the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist. (1887.)
+[pp. 62, figs. 2, plates I.]
+
+No. 15.--The Icerya, or Fluted Scale, otherwise known as the Cottony
+Cushion-scale. (Reprint of some recent Articles by the Entomologist and
+of a Report from the Agricultural Experiment Station, University of
+California.) (1887.) [pp. 40.]
+
+No. 16.--The Entomological Writings of Dr. Alpheus Spring Packard. By
+Samuel Henshaw. (1887.) [pp. 49.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 17.--The Chinch Bug: A general Summary of its
+History, Habits, Enemies, and of the Remedies and Preventives to be used
+against it. By L. O. Howard M. S., Assistant Entomologist. (1888.) [pp.
+48, figs. 10.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 18.--The Life and Entomological Work of the late
+Townend Glover, first Entomologist of the United States Department of
+Agriculture. Prepared under the Direction of the Entomologist, by C. R.
+Dodge. (1888.) [pp. 68, figs. 6, plates I.]
+
+No. 19.--An enumeration of the published Synopses, Catalogues, and Lists
+of North American Insects; together with other information intended to
+assist the student of American Entomology. (1888.) [pp. 77.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 20.--The Root Knot Disease of the Peach, Orange, and
+other Plants in Florida, due to the Work of Anguillula. Prepared under
+the Direction of the Entomologist, by J. C. Neal, Ph. D., M. D. (1889.)
+[pp. 31, plates 21.]
+
+[Out of print.]No. 21.--Report of a Trip to Australia, made under the
+Direction of the Entomologist to investigate the Natural Enemies of the
+Fluted Scale, by Albert Koebele. (1890.) [pp. 32, figs. 16.]
+
+No. 22.--Reports of the Observations and Experiments in the practical
+Work of the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist.
+(1890.) [pp. 110.]
+
+No. 23.--Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical Work
+of the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist. (1891.)
+[pp. 83.]
+
+No. 24.--The Boll Worm. Preliminary Report, made under the Direction of
+the Entomologist. By F. W. Mally. (1891.) [pp. 50.]
+
+No. 25.--Destructive Locusts. A popular consideration of a few of the
+more injurious Locusts or "Grasshoppers" of the United States, together
+with the best means of destroying them. By C. V. Riley, Ph. D. (1891.)
+[pp. 62, figs. 11, plates 12.]
+
+[12]No. 26.--Reports of Observations and Experiments in the practical
+Work of the Division, made under the Direction of the Entomologist.
+(1892.)
+
+[12]No. 27.--Reports on the Damage by destructive Locusts during the
+season of 1891, made under the Direction of the Entomologist. (1892.)
+[pp. 64.]
+
+[12]No. 28.--The more destructive Locusts of America, north of Mexico,
+by Lawrence Bruner, prepared under Direction of the Entomologist.
+(1892.)
+
+  [12] Bulletins 26 and 27 are in press, and Bulletin 28 is in course of
+  preparation.
+
+
+                     SPECIAL REPORTS AND BULLETINS.
+
+[Out of print.]REPORT ON COTTON INSECTS.--By J. Henry Comstock. (1879.)
+[pp. 511, figs. 77, plates III.]
+
+[13]SPECIAL REPORT, No. 11.--The Silkworm; being a brief Manual of
+Instructions for the Production of Silk. Prepared, by direction of the
+Commissioner of Agriculture, by C. V. Riley, M. A., Ph. D.,
+Entomologist. (First ed., 1879; fifth ed., 1885.) [pp. 37, figs. 8.]
+
+  [13] Bull. No. 9 of the Division of Entomology covers this subject.
+
+[Out of print.]SPECIAL REPORT, No. 35.--Report on Insects injurious to
+Sugar Cane. Prepared, under Direction of the Commissioner of Agriculture,
+by J. Henry Comstock, Entomologist. (1881.) [pp. 11, figs. 3.]
+
+[Out of print.]DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY.--INSECTS AFFECTING THE ORANGE.
+--Report on the Insects affecting the Culture of the Orange and other
+plants of the Citrus Family, with practical Suggestions for their
+Control or Extermination. By H. G. Hubbard. (1885.) [pp. x+227, figs.
+95, plates XIV.]
+
+[Out of print.]SPECIAL REPORT.--Catalogue of the Exhibit of Economic
+Entomology at the World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition,
+New Orleans, 1884-'85. (1888.) [pp. 95.]
+
+SPECIAL BULLETIN.--The Horn Fly (Haematobia serrata), being an account of
+its Life-history and the means to be used against it. By C. V. Riley and
+L. O. Howard. (Reprinted from Insect Life, Vol. II, No. 4, October
+1889.) (1889.) [pp. 11, figs. 5.]
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MORE IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS TO AMERICAN ENONOMIC
+ENTOMOLOGY. By Samuel Henshaw. Parts I, II, and III. The more important
+writings of Benjamin Dann Walsh and Charles Valentine Riley, Washington,
+1890.
+
+
+
+
+             HOW TO OBTAIN ENTOMOLOGICAL BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.
+
+
+Comparatively few of the works treating of the classification of North
+American insects have been published as separate books; but such as have
+been so published, if of comparatively recent date, can be obtained
+through the regular book trade. By far the greater number of the
+monographs and synopses mentioned in the preceding pages have been
+published in scientific periodicals and in the proceedings or
+transactions of scientific societies. These may be obtained either
+through the societies or through the publishers; but single volumes of
+transactions or proceedings, and more especially single papers, are
+seldom sold, and the older volumes are liable to be out of print.
+Moreover, the expense attending the purchase of all of the periodicals
+containing the publications on a given order of insects will be so great
+as to put them beyond the reach of most entomologists. The custom of
+placing at the disposal of authors a number of separate copies of their
+papers overcomes this difficulty to some extent and creates a small
+supply. Thus it often happens that a person interested can obtain a copy
+of a scientific paper by addressing the author personally. Many of
+these separate copies also fall into the possession of dealers in
+second-hand books, and may be purchased from them. The American
+Entomological Society of Philadelphia, and also a few other societies
+here and in Europe, offer for sale from their duplicates many of these
+authors' extras, and in some cases publish lists. There are, moreover,
+certain business establishments which make a specialty of the sale of
+works and pamphlets on natural history, including entomology, and it is
+chiefly through such establishments that the student is enabled to
+secure the larger portion of the works needed.
+
+By subscribing to the entomological periodicals published in this
+country (a matter of but slight expense) the student may keep abreast of
+the current literature. Short book reviews or notes published therein
+call attention to the more important publications in other countries.
+Moreover, the Zoologischer Anzeiger, edited by Prof. J. Victor Carus, in
+Leipzig, Germany, and published every fortnight, gives a tolerably
+complete bibliography of the current entomological literature at
+intervals of about six or eight weeks. The "Naturae Novitates," published
+every fortnight by R. Friedlaender & Sohn, Carlstrasse, 11, Berlin,
+Germany, gives the titles of most recent works and pamphlets.
+
+There are also three great annual publications, viz: "Die Fortschritte
+auf dem Gebiet der Entomologie," published in Wiegmann's "Archiv fuer
+Naturgeschichte;" "The Zoological Record," published by the Zoological
+Record Society, in London, England; and the "Zoologische
+Jahresberichte," published by the Zoological Station at Naples, Italy,
+which give the full literature of the previous year, discussing the more
+important papers and giving a list of the new species, besides other
+information. These three publications are almost indispensable to the
+student in any branch of zoology, and some one of them at least ought to
+be found in every public library in the country. The volumes of the
+"Zoologische Jahresberichte" since 1887 contain no titles upon
+systematic and classificatory zoology, but only such as refer to
+biology.
+
+A not inconsiderable portion of the North American literature on the
+classification of insects has been published by the Government of the
+United States through various channels, foremost among which are the
+Smithsonian Institution, the U. S. Department of Agriculture, the U. S.
+National Museum, the U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey, and the
+various surveys of the Territories. Some of these publications are
+distributed free of cost; while others, like certain of the publications
+of the Smithsonian Institution and the Geological Survey, are sold at a
+moderate price to cover the cost of publication. Many of them are out of
+print, and can only be obtained through natural history book-dealers.
+
+Of the more general works, some may be obtained direct from the
+publishers, and in such cases the publishers are mentioned in the
+general list. The older works are mostly out of print and can only be
+obtained from second-hand dealers. The current State reports of Lintner
+and Forbes may be obtained from the secretaries of the respective State
+agricultural societies at Albany, N. Y., and Springfield, Ill., while
+the bulletins and reports of the entomologists of the various State
+experiment stations, of which a large number are being published, may be
+obtained from the directors of the respective stations. The older
+reports of the State entomologist of Missouri and the State
+entomologists of Illinois (Walsh, Le Baron, and Thomas) are all out of
+print and can only be obtained by purchase from second-hand dealers. The
+same may be said of the well-known and oft-quoted reports of Dr. Fitch,
+which were published with the old volumes of the Transactions of the New
+York State Agricultural Society.
+
+                     *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.
+
+  p iii: Detailed instructions for breeding -> rearing
+  p 5: Spiders, and Myriopods -> Myriapods
+  p 5: comprising Spiders, Myriopods -> Myriapods
+  p 7: If we endevor -> endeavor
+  p 8: of the Sub-orders-> Suborders
+  p 9: Springtails -> Spring-tails
+  p 9: Plectoptera -> Plecoptera
+  p 14: the case of the Horntails -> Horn-tails
+  p 14: FIG. 8.--Sawfly -> Saw-fly
+  p 14: Beetles or-> duplicate "or" deleted
+  p 16: of the common silk-worm -> silkworm
+  p 16: variety of these larvae -> larvae
+  p 17: structure of the antennae -> antennae
+  p 17: HETEROPTERA ([Greek: heteros], -> comma added
+  p 17: looked upon as a Sub-order -> Suborder
+  p 17: A Plant-bug Euschistes -> Euschistus
+  p 18: DIMERA, with two joints; -> comma changed to semicolon
+  p 19: four or five joints. -> period added
+  p 20: hatched in the abodmen -> abdomen
+  p 21: A Locust Acrideum -> Acridium
+  p 21: Orthoptera -> changed from smallcaps to all capital letters
+  p 21: Tree-cricket Ocharis -> Orocharis
+  p 21: Phyllodromia germanica.) -> germanica).
+  p 22: "Earwigs, consisting -> Earwigs
+  p 26: A May-fly Protamanthus -> Potamanthus
+  p 28: (Fig. c) -> (Fig. 45, c)
+  p 30: frequently have occassion -> occasion
+  p 47: put in the seive -> sieve
+  p 51: butterflies, whose larvae -> larvae
+  p 51: as their mouthparts -> mouth-parts
+  p 53: and otherwiise dsposed -> otherwise disposed
+  p 54: animals. The Plantlice -> Plant-lice
+  p 55: imago--all enlarged -> closing round bracket deleted
+  p 58: Rove-beetles Staphilinidae -> Staphylinidae
+  p 58: A Spring-tail -> --A Spring-tail
+  p 59: Palingenia bilneata -> bilineata
+  p 70: specimen in the cabinet. -> period added
+  p 70: e. g. the Sawflies -> Saw-flies
+  p 71: Moanting -> Mounting
+  p 73: glue or shell-lac -> shellac
+  p 75: After Kiesenvetter -> Kiesenwetter
+  p 75: shown in the accompaying -> accompanying
+  p 76: FIG. 105. Spreading -> FIG. 105.--Spreading
+  p 76: FIG. 106. Needle -> FIG. 106.--Needle
+  p 83: they almost invariable -> invariably
+  p 83: spirit or petroleum lamp. -> period added
+  p 89: the external chytinous -> chitinous
+  p 91: pieces of clean card-board -> cardboard
+  p 91: beveled on all sides: -> sides;
+  p 93: bored with a bitt -> bit
+  p 94: Many larvae -> larvae
+  p 98: Myriopoda -> Myriapoda
+  p 99: keeping off musuem -> museum
+  p 106: all lateral movemnts -> movements
+  p 106: After Marse -> Morse
+  p 110: The two particuliarly -> particularly
+  p 112: endophytous Ienthredinidae -> Tenthredinidae
+  p 114: (See Figure 124.) -> (See Figure 124)
+  p 118: Gall-flies Cynipidae -> Cynipidae
+  p 119: brooded, the larvae -> larvae
+  p 129: FIG. 125 ->  FIG. 125.
+  p 121: Bakhaus, of Leipsic -> Leipzig
+  p 132: of the published synoposes -> synopses
+  p 134: species of each genius -> genus
+  p 136: HENRI DE SAUSSURE. -> period added
+  p 136: Amer. Philos. -> period added
+  p 137: 1874 to 1883 -> 1883)
+  p 137: 1875 to 1879 -> 1879)
+  p 138: See Mittheil. -> period added
+  p 142: plates 2., -> plates 2,
+  p 143: it or counteractering -> counteracting
+  p 143: for general distribution -> distribution)
+  p 144: of the Entomlogist -> Entomologist
+  p 144: [pp. 46, figs. 8.)-> [pp. 46, figs. 8.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Directions for Collecting and
+Preserving Insects, by C. V. Riley
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS ***
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