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+The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Power Of The Popes, by Pierre Claude François Daunou
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
+will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
+using this eBook.
+
+Title: The Power Of The Popes
+
+Author: Pierre Claude François Daunou
+
+Release Date: March 12, 2012 [eBook #39267]
+[Most recently updated: March 17, 2021]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+Produced by: David Widger
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE POWER OF THE POPES ***
+
+
+
+
+ *THE POWER OF THE POPES*
+
+ _By_
+
+ *Pierre Claude François Daunou*
+
+_AN HISTORICAL ESSAY ON THEIR TEMPORAL DOMINION, AND THE ABUSE OF THEIR
+ SPIRITUAL AUTHORITY_
+
+ Two Volumes in One
+
+ _1838_
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+ TRANSLATORS PREFACE
+ ADVERTISEMENT TO THE THIRD EDITION, ORIGINAL
+ CHAPTER I. ORIGIN OF THE TEMPORAL POWER OF THE POPES
+ CHAPTER II. ENTERPRIZES OF THE POPES OF THE NINTH CENTURY
+ CHAPTER III. TENTH CENTURY
+ CHAPTER IV. ENTERPRISES OF THE POPES OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY
+ CHAPTER V. CONTESTS BETWEEN THE POPES AND THE SOVEREIGNS OF THE
+ TWELFTH CENTURY
+ CHAPTER VI. POWER OF THE POPES OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY
+ CHAPTER VII. FOURTEENTH CENTURY
+ CHAPTER VIII. FIFTEENTH CENTURY
+ CHAPTER IX. POLICY OF THE POPES OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
+ CHAPTER X. ATTEMPTS OF THE POPES OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
+ CHAPTER XII. RECAPITULATION
+ CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
+ ENDNOTES AND
+
+
+
+
+ TO
+ THE REV. RICHARD T. P. POPE,
+ AT WHOSE SUGGESTION IT WAS UNDERTAKEN,
+ THIS TRANSLATION
+ OF
+ THE PAPAL POWER
+ IS INSCRIBED,
+ AS A SMALL TRIBUTE OF RESPET AND REGARD
+ BY
+ HIS AFFECTIONATE FRIEND,
+ THE TRANSLATOR.
+
+
+
+
+TRANSLATORS PREFACE
+
+
+THE Work of which the following is a translation, had its origin in the
+transactions which took place between Pius VII. and the French Emperor,
+relative and subsequent to the restoration of the Roman Catholic
+religion in France. Its object appears to have been, to exhibit to the
+world the unreasonable pretensions of the Roman Court, and to appeal to
+public opinion for support in resisting claims deemed incompatible with
+the independence of the civil power, and derogatory to the honour of the
+French throne. In pursuance of this object, an investigation was entered
+into, to ascertain with precision the line of demarcation which
+separated the recognized authority of the Papal See in France, from the
+rights appertaining to the civil power, and the indisputable privileges
+of the French Church. This investigation naturally led the enquiry up to
+a remote period, and the present work may be considered an epitome of
+the political history of the Roman Court, and of its relations with the
+other Courts of Europe, from the period in which its spiritual authority
+began to merge into temporal power, down to the occasion of the present
+essay in the pontificate of Pius VII.
+
+In the former period of this enquiry, the pages of early history
+afforded the materials from which the requisite information was to have
+been derived. This source was open to all; and the merit of the work is
+here confined to the discrimination exercised in the selection of the
+scattered parts, and the judgment with which they may be found combined
+into an uniform whole.
+
+In the latter period, the advantages possessed by the author were
+peculiar and important. Access to the papal archives appears to have
+opened to him abundant sources of information, which a patient
+investigation enabled him to avail himself of, in applying those
+documents, otherwise perhaps destined to oblivion, to the illustration
+of the object which he had in view. These documents give to this portion
+of the work a peculiar interest. For, though the period to which they
+relate is recent, the circumstances in which Europe was placed during
+the transactions more immediately referred to, and the extraordinary
+revolutions to which both public opinion and political institutions were
+subjected, not only give to it the charm of novelty, but confer on it an
+interest similar to that derived from the dust of antiquity. Whatever
+the defects of the translation, it will I trust be found a valuable
+addition to our historical records, and a source of much useful and
+interesting information.
+
+ R. T. H.
+Montmorenci, 1825.
+
+
+
+
+ADVERTISEMENT TO THE THIRD EDITION, ORIGINAL
+
+
+WE have introduced into this Third Edition some developments which were
+not in the two former. We have inserted many justificatory pieces, some
+of which have never before been published. These pieces, and the
+reflections induced by them, occupy the second volume, which is divided
+into three parts, containing:
+
+1. Exposition of the Maxims of the Court of Rome, since the fabrication
+of the False Decretals, and especially from the time of Gregory VII. to
+the present day:
+
+ 2. Exposition of the Maxims of the Gallican Church, from St. Louis to
+ the Emperor Napoleon:
+ 3. Exposal of the actual conduct of Pius VII. with some observations
+ on the effects it may produce.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I. ORIGIN OF THE TEMPORAL POWER OF THE POPES
+
+
+WHOEVER has read the Gospel, knows that Jesus Christ founded no temporal
+power, no political sovereignty. He declares that his kingdom is not of
+this world;¹ he charges his apostles not to confound the mission he
+gives them, with the power exercised by the princes of the earth.² St.
+Peter and his colleagues are sent not to govern but to instruct³ and the
+authority with which they are clothed, consists only in the knowledge
+and the benefits they are to bestow.
+
+ ¹ John xviii. 36.
+
+ ² Luke xxii. 25.
+
+ ³ Matt, xxviii. 20.
+
+Faithful to confining themselves within the bounds of so pure an
+apostolat, far from erecting themselves into rivals of the civil power,
+they, on the contrary, proclaimed its independence and the sacredness of
+its rights:⁴ obedience to sovereigns is one of the first precepts of
+their pious morality. To resist governments is, they say, to offend the
+Ruler of the world, and take up arms against God himself.⁵
+
+The successors of the apostles for a long time held the same language:
+they acknowledged no power superior to that of sovereigns but Divine
+Providence itself.⁶ They subjected to kings all the ministers of the
+altar, levites, pontiffs, evangelists, and even prophets.⁷ God alone
+was, immediately and without mediator, the only judge of kings; to him
+alone belonged their condemnation: the Church addressed to them only
+supplications or respectful advice.⁸
+
+ ⁴ Rom. xiii.
+
+ ⁵ Qui resistit potestati, Dei ordinationi resistit; qui autem
+ fesistunt, ipsi sibi damnationem acquirunt.
+
+ ⁶ Chrysostom. Comm, on Epistle to the Romans.
+
+ ⁷ Deum esse solum in cujus solius, imperatores sunt potestate, à quo
+ sunt secundi, post quem primi ante omnes.— Colimus imperatorem ut
+ hominem à Deo secundum, solo Deo minorem.—Tertull.
+
+ ⁸ Quod rex delinquit, soli Deo reus est.—Cassiodoi’us, Si quis de
+ nobis, 0 rex, justitiæ tram item transcendere volu-erit, à te
+ corrigi potest: si verô tu excesseris, quis te corripiet, quis te
+ condemnabit, nisi is qui se pronunciavit esse justitiam? —Gregor,
+ Turon. ad Chilpericum. Reges non sunt à nobis graviter
+ exasperandi, divino judiciô sunt reservandi.—Yvo. Carnot. See
+ Bossuet’s reflections on these various texts of Scripture, and of
+ the fathers. De(. Cler. Gail. par. 2. b. 6. ch. 13, 18, 26, 31,
+ 32.
+
+She exercised empire only through the medium of her virtues⁹ and
+possessed no other inheritance than that of faith.¹⁰ These are the very
+expressions of the holy fathers, not only during the three first
+centuries, but subsequent to Constantine, and even after the time of
+Charlemagne.
+
+Every one knows, that previous to Constantine, the Christian churches
+had been but individual associations, too frequently proscribed, and at
+all times unconnected with the state. The popes, in these times of
+persecution and of ferment, most assuredly were far from aspiring to the
+government of provinces: they were contented in being permitted to be
+virtuous with impunity; and they obtained no crown on earth save that of
+martyrdom.
+
+From the year 321, Constantine allowed the churches to acquire landed
+property, and individuals to enrich them by legacies. Here we behold, in
+all probability, says the President Henault, what has given rise to the
+supposition of Constantine’s donation.¹¹ This donation preserved its
+credit for such a lapse of time, that in 1478 some Christians were
+burned at Strasburgh for daring to question its authenticity.
+
+ ⁹ Pelag. 1 Concilior. vol. 5. p. 803. Greg. Mag. vol. 2. p. 675,
+ 676, 677.
+
+ ¹⁰ Nihil ecclesia sibi nisi fidem possidet.—Ambros. Op. tom. 2, p.
+ 837.
+
+ ¹¹ Abr. Chron. History of France, years 753, 754, 755.
+
+In the twelfth century, Gratian and Theodore Balsamon copied it into
+their canonical compilations; and St. Bernard did not consider if
+apocryphal.¹² It had its origin before the tenth century,
+notwithstanding what many critics say: for in 776 Pope Adrian avails
+himself of it in an exhortation to Charlemagne. But, in 755, Stephen II.
+had also an open to make use of it, as we shall shortly see; but as he
+neither mentions it, nor refers to it in any way, it follows that it was
+unknown to him as it had been to all his predecessors. It was therefore
+after the middle, and before the end of the eighth century, that it must
+have been fabricated. For the rest, the falsity of this piece is
+according to Fleury more universally recognized than that of the
+decretals of Isidore: and if the donation of Constantine could still
+preserve any credit, to strip it of such credit, it would be sufficient
+to transcribe it: here follow some lines:
+
+ “We attribute to the see of St. Peter all the dig−
+ “nity, all the glory, all the authority of the imperial
+ “power. Furthermore we give to Sylvester and to
+ “his successors our palace of the Latran, which is
+ “incontestibly the finest palace on earth; we give
+ “him our crown, our mitre, our diadem, and all
+ “our imperial vestments: we transfer to him the
+ “imperial dignity. We bestow on the Holy Pontiff
+ “in free gift the city of Rome and all the western
+ “cities of Italy; also the western cities of every
+ “other country. To cede precedence to him, we
+ “divest ourselves of our authority over all those
+ “provinces, and we withdraw from Rome, trans−
+ “ferring the seat of our empire to Byzantium;
+ “inasmuch as it is not proper, that an earthly
+ “emperor should preserve the least authority, where
+ “God has established the head of his religion.”
+
+ ¹² De Consider, ad Eugen. book 4. ch. 4.—Dante de Monarchiâ, book 3,
+ proves that this donation could not bind the successors of
+ Constantine; he declares it null, but without disputing its
+ authenticity.
+
+The respect which we owe to our readers, forbids all observation on such
+palpable absurdities: but we have believed it not altogether useless to
+relate them here, as they may give an idea of the means resorted to in
+the eighth century to establish the temporal power of the popes. They
+also furnish a standard of the public ignorance during the succeeding
+centuries, in which this strange concession, revered by the people, and
+even by their kings, effectually contributed to the developement of the
+power of the Holy See. But we must also state, that at the restoration
+of literature the first rays of light sufficed to dissipate so
+contemptible an imposture.¹³
+
+ ¹³ A copy of this donation will be found in the 2d volume.
+
+Laurence Valle having demonstrated, towards the middle of the fifteenth
+century, the falsity of this donation, the best writers of the
+sixteenth, even those of Italy, treated it with the contempt it
+deserved. Ariosto energetically expresses the contemptinto which it had
+fallen¹⁴ and places it among the various chimeras which Astolphus meets
+with in the moon.
+
+Four hundred and sixty-three years had passed from the death of
+Constantine in 337, to the coronation of Charlemagne in 800. Now during
+all this period, no epoch, no year, can be specified, in which the popes
+exercised sovereign authority. The immediate successors of Constantine
+reigned, as he did, over Italy: and when on the death of Theodoras two
+empires arose out of one, Rome, the metropolis of the west, continued to
+be governed still by an emperor. Then, as all historians attest, the
+popes assumed apostolic functions alone; they were not reckoned in the
+number of the civil magistrates; although their election, the work of
+the people and of the clergy, was obliged to be confirmed by the prince.
+When they sought from their creed and the exercise of their spiritual
+ministry, an independence which they did not always obtain, they
+rendered homage to that of the civil power, and did not claim any of its
+properties.
+
+In 476 the Western Empire fell: Augustulus was dethroned; the Heruli,
+the Ostrogoths, and other barbarians, invaded and laid waste Italy. Rome
+was governed by Odoacre down to 493, by Theodoric to 526, and, during
+the twenty-seven succeeding years, by Theodat, Vitiges, Totila, or the
+generals of the Eastern Emperors.
+
+ ¹⁴ Or puzza forte: Questo era il dono, se pero dir lece, Che
+ Costantino al buon Silvestro fece. Or I. Fur. 14th chap. 8th
+ stanza: This was the gift, with reverence be it said, Which
+ Constantine to good Sylvester made.
+
+It is necessary to observe here, that the sovereignty of these emperors
+over Italy, and especially over the city of Rome, had been acknowledged
+by Odoacre and by Theodoric, and sometimes even by their successors¹⁵
+But in 553, the victory of Narses over Theia restored to the Greek
+emperors an immediate sovereignty over the Roman territory and the
+neighbouring countries. Thus terminated seventy-seven years of wars and
+revolutions, during which the popes neither obtained nor aspired to the
+exercise of any temporal authority. Theodoric, in 498, confirmed the
+election of Pope Symmachus;¹⁶ and when, in the year 500, this pope was
+accused by his enemies, the decision of the matter was referred to
+Theodoric.¹⁷
+
+From 553 to 567, Narses governed Italy in the name of the emperors of
+Constantinople. Shortly after his death, the Lombards, led by Alboin,
+made themselves masters of the northern parts of Italy, and there
+founded a kingdom, which lasted about two hundred years. The other
+regions of Italy remained more or less under the authority of the
+emperors of the East, which was administered by the Exarchs of Ravenna.
+
+ ¹⁵ St Marc. Abridged History of Italy, vol. 1. p, 1 to 129.
+
+ ¹⁶ Anastas. Bibliotb. of the Lives of the Roman Pontiffs, p. 84.
+
+ ¹⁷ Fleury. Eccles. Hist b. xxx. n. 1.
+
+The exarch was a governor general, to whom the dukes, prefects or
+patricians, and also the governors of particular territories or cities,
+were subordinate. From the exarch or the emperor they sought the
+ratification of the election of each bishop of Rome: this is a fact of
+which the proof exists in an ancient collection of the formulas of the
+Romish Church¹⁸ Once only, at the election of Pelagius II. in 577, they
+dispensed with the consent of the emperor, because the Lombards besieged
+Rome, and cut off the communication with Constantinople. Paul Diacre, in
+speaking of Gregory the Great, who in 590 succeeded Pelagius II. says
+expressly, that it was not permitted to instal a pope without the order
+of the Greek emperor.¹⁹
+
+ ¹⁸ Liber decimus Romanorum Pontificum. Pere Gamier, & Jesuit,
+ published an edition of it at Paris, in 1680. This collection had
+ been published before by Holstenius, and was suppressed by the
+ Court of Rome.—Sec. on the Dependence of tho Popes, 3d and 4th
+ heads.
+
+ ¹⁹ Non enim licebat tunc temporis quemlibet in Romanâ civitate ad
+ pontificatum promovere absque jussWeimperatoris. —Paul Diac. b. 3,
+ c. 4.
+
+A letter of Martin I. to Gregory I. called ‘the Great’ has rendered
+frequent homage to the civil authority; but letters have been
+fabricated, under his name, in which he declares, that every king, every
+prelate, every judge, who shall neglect to ascertain the privileges of
+the three monasteries of Autun, and those of the Abbey of St. Medard de
+Soissons, shall be deprived of his dignity, and condemned, like Judas,
+to the pit of hell, unless he do penance, and become reconciled with the
+monks.—See Maimbourg. Historical Treatise on the Church of Rome, chap.
+99, the emperor thus commences: “Martin, bishop, to “the emperor our
+most serene lord,” and ends with these words: “May the grace from above
+preserve “the very pious empire of our lord, and bow the “neck of all
+nations unto him.”²⁰ Thus a pope expresses himself who, imprisoned,
+exiled, and deposed by Constantius, never disputed the rights of the
+sovereign who treated him with so much rigour and even injustice. When
+this emperor, Constantius, came to Rome in 662, the pope, Vitalien, paid
+him the homage of a faithful subject.²¹
+
+Two apostolic nuncios, stationed, the one at Constantinople, the other
+at Ravenna, offered to the emperor and to the exarch the respect,
+devotion, and tribute of the Roman pontiff. Pope Leo II. towards the
+year 683, writing to Constantine Pogonat, calls him his king and lord.²²
+In 686 and 687, the elections of the popes Conon and Sergius were
+confirmed, the one by the Exarch Theodoric, the other by the Exarch
+Platys, who exacted from Sergius a large sum, although this description
+of tribute had been abolished by the Emperor under the pontificate of
+Agathon.²³
+
+ ²⁰ Morin. History of the Origin and Progress of the Power of the
+ Popes, p. 664,
+
+ ²¹ Fleury. Ecclesiastical Hist. b. 39, n. 33.
+
+ ²² Morin. History of the Origin and Progress of the Power of the
+ Popes, p. 664.
+
+ ²³ Anast. Hist de vit. Bom. Pont, pages 147, 149.
+
+In 710 Pope Constantine, ordered to Constantinople by Justinian the
+Second, hastened to obey this superior order.²⁴ We shall only cite a
+letter written by the Pontiff to the Duke of Venice in 727:²⁵
+
+ “The city of Ravenna having been taken, because
+ “of our sins, by the wicked nation of the Lombards,
+ “and our excellent master, the Exarch, being, as
+ “we are informed, retired to Venice, we conjure
+ “your Highness to unite with him, in order to re−
+ “store the city of Ravenna to the imperial domi−
+ “nion; to the end that we may, by the Lord’s as−
+ “sistance, remain inviolably attached to Leo and
+ “Constantine, our august emperors.”
+
+The Pope who thus expresses himself, is Gregory the Second, one of those
+who may be suspected of having been amongst the first, who sought to
+extend, beyond the bounds of the apostolat, the pontifical authority.
+His letter at least proves that the imperial sovereignty was then a
+right universally acknowledged; a public and undeniable fact.
+
+It is however in the eighth century, and a short time after the date of
+this epistle, that we perceive, not the establishment certainly, but the
+first symptoms of the temporal power of the Roman prelates. The various
+causes which could tend to this result, about this period begin to be
+perceptible, and to acquire additional strength from their combined
+operation.
+
+ ²⁴ Fleury. Ecclesiastical Hist. b. 41, no. 22.
+
+ ²⁵ Baronius. Ecclesiastical Annals, vol. 13, p. 343.
+
+The first of these causes consisted in the vast extension of all the
+ecclesiastical institutions. Many popes, and other prelates, merited by
+their virtues and their talents the respect of the people and the esteem
+of their sovereigns: they obtained that imposing reputation, which, in
+the midst of public troubles and misfortunes, is the universal prelude
+to power. Zealous missionaries had spread the light of the gospel
+through most of the countries of Europe, and prepared, nay, forwarded,
+by religious instruction, the civilization of some barbarous nations. On
+all sides churches and monasteries arose and were enriched: the pious
+liberality of princes and private individuals increased every where, but
+especially at Rome, the treasures and estates of the clergy: their
+landed property acquired sufficient extent to be transformed insensibly
+into principalities; a metamorphosis but too easy under such weak
+governments and such vacillating legislation.— Let us add to these
+circumstances the frequency and the solemnity of the councils, the
+general interest which their decisions excited, and the almost
+inevitable collision of their discussions with the quiet or disordered
+state of political affairs. We may observe, in particular, that at the
+commencement of the eighth century, there did not exist any great empire
+save the Eastern; and, nevertheless, that the power of the Greek
+Emperors—limited in Asia by that of the Caliphs, weakened in the very
+heart of Constantinople by internal revolutions, represented at Ravenna
+by unfaithful or injudicious Exarchs—with difficulty was upheld in Italy
+against the arms of the Lombards, and occasionally required to be
+defended by the influence of the Roman Pontiffs. In the mean while, the
+thrones which had been newly erected here and there by some barbarous
+conquerors, already tottered under their successors, whose ignorance,
+generally equal to that of their subjects, seemed to tempt the
+enterprises of the clergy. This clergy, though better informed than the
+common people, was not, however, sufficiently so to perceive the bounds
+of its proper functions under such circumstances, or to neglect
+profiting, at all hazards, by the opportunities offered to increase its
+power. When, in 681, a Council of Toledo loosed the subjects of Vamba
+from their allegiance to this prince, perhaps the thirty-five bishops
+who sat in this synod, neither perceived the weakness nor the monstrous
+disloyalty of such a sentence. Fleury was right to point out to us²⁶
+this first example of a king deposed by bishops; but he might also have
+remarked, that so serious a novelty excited no reprehension—that kings
+complained not of it, and that no obstacle opposed the execution of this
+strange decree.
+
+We may place in the catalogue of causes which favoured the ambition of
+the popes, the preposterous taste of the Greek Emperors for dogmatical
+controversies, and, the unfortunate part they incessantly took in them.
+
+ ²⁶ Ecclesiastical History, b. 40, n. 34. and 3d disc. n. 10.
+
+They thus provoked apostolic resistance, which, by its splendor and
+success, hum-bled in the eyes of the people the imperial authority. They
+beheld the doctrines of the pontiff exercising a solemn triumph over the
+edicts of the sovereign; and he, whose pastoral charges thus limited the
+civil authority, must have appeared competent to exercise it, the moment
+he ceased to disdain it. A sect was formed in Constantinople against the
+images, brought into disrepute in some places by the victories of the
+Mahometans over them. The Emperor Leo the Isaurian placed himself at the
+head of the Iconoclasts or Image-breakers: he published, at the same
+time nearly, an edict which prohibited the worship of every image, and
+the proposition of a new capitation-tax to be paid by the people of
+Italy. Pope Gregory the Second, become the defender of their _temporal
+and spiritual_ interests, and their faith, addressed respectful but
+energetic letters to the emperor, to induce him to maintain in the
+churches an ancient and salutary practice. Leo replied only by menaces
+calculated to strengthen in the hearts of the Italians their love and
+veneration for the pontiff. What does Gregory do? he appears inattentive
+to his personal danger, but implores for the people and their prince the
+divine mercy he thunders no anathemas, but recommends good works, and
+sets himself the example of them; he desires especially that each may
+remain faithful to the head of the empire, whatever may the deviations
+of Leo, and perseveres in applying to him the terms of emperor and head
+of the Christians.²⁷ According to Gregory, it is God himself who
+preserves the empire to Leo the Image-breaker:²⁸ a pontiff has no right,
+says this pope, to bestow crowns: his eye should not seek to penetrate
+into the palaces of kings: and it no more belongs to him to meddle in
+politics, than for a sovereign to become a teacher of dogmas in
+religion.²⁹ The army, the people, Venice, Ravenna, all Italy revolted,
+says Paul Diacre, against Leo the Isaurian, and would undoubtedly have
+acknowledged some other emperor, if the Roman pontiff had not himself
+opposed it.³⁰ Anastasius relates the same facts, and represents Gregory
+to us occupied in retaining the provinces in allegiance to their
+legitimate sovereign.³¹
+
+ ²⁷ Imperatorem et caput Christianorum. Greg. 2d Ep. to Leo.
+
+ ²⁸ Vestri à Deo conservati imperii. Ibid.
+
+ ²⁹ Pontifex introspiciendi in palatia potestatem non habet ac
+ dignitates regias deferendi.......Ecclesiis præpositi, sunt à
+ negotiis reipublicæ abstinentes.—Greg. 2.
+
+ ³⁰ Nisi eos prohibuesset pontifex, imperatorem super se constituere
+ fuissent aggressi.—Paul Diac. de Gesl. Longob.
+
+ ³¹ Omni8 Italia consilium iniit ut sibi eligerent imperatorem et
+ ducerent Constantinopolim. Sed compescuit tale consilium pontifex
+ sperans conversionem principis. Ne desisterent ab amore et fide
+ Romani imperii admonebat.—Anast. BibI. in vild Gregor.
+
+It would be difficult for us to verify, after a lapse of ten centuries,
+whether Leo really attempted, through the medium of his officers, the
+life of Gregory; but no person in Rome, none in all Italy, doubted it;
+and these abortive attempts excited general indignation, or contempt
+more dangerous still: on the contrary, when the Duke Peter is driven
+from Rome, when the Exarch Paul is killed at Ravenna, Gregory conducts
+himself so orderly that no one thinks of imputing these things to him.
+Liutprand, king of the Lombards, however, took advantage of these
+troubles to make himself master of Ravenna and many other places: in
+this conjuncture it was that Gregory wrote to the Duke of Venice the
+letter which we have already transcribed. Gregory did more, he
+negociated with Liutprand, he soothed him: but the King of the Lombards
+in abandoning the cities he had conquered and pillaged, was not disposed
+to restore them to the officers of the emperor; he made them a present
+to the Roman Church, which abstained alike from an acceptance or refusal
+of them. Disconcerted by so much wisdom, Leo, the Isaurian, saw himself
+limited in his vengeance to detaching from the patriarchate of Rome the
+churches of Illyria, of Sicily, the duchy of Naples and of Calabria, in
+order to subject them to the patriarch of Constantinople. This was all
+the mischief he could do to Gregory II. who died, without condescending
+to complain of it. Whatever Theophanes and other Byzantine authors may
+say on the subject³² who have very severely animadverted upon this
+pontiff, there prevailed great moderation in his conduct; and if it was
+policy, it was so profound, that we are induced to ascribe it to good
+faith.³³
+
+ ³² Cedrenus, Zon&ras.
+
+ ³³ This portion of the history of the eighth century, has been
+ perfectly elucidated, by Bossuet. Def, Cler. Gall, “The time was
+ not yet come, I shall be told, to display the pontifical power;
+ and before resorting to violent remedies, the means of mildness
+ and conciliation should be attempted.” “Very well,” replies
+ Bossuet, “but if charity and Christian prudence did not yet permit
+ Gregory to make use of all his power, should they not, at least,
+ have made a diversion, to afford a glimpse to this proud prince of
+ its extent, in order to intimidate him, and prevent the execution
+ of his criminal projects. For, behold the style of the menaces of
+ the emperor, as we learn from this sainted pope: I will go to Rome
+ and break the image of St. Peter, and I will take Pope Gregory
+ away, in order to transport him hither loaded with chains, as
+ Constantius did with Martin.—He proposed to imitate, then, the
+ example of the heretical emperors and persecutors of the Holy
+ Pontiff. Let us see what Gregory conceived it his duty to reply to
+ a prince, who formed such impious projects, and who flattered
+ himself he could execute them, by putting forth the full extent of
+ the imperial power. Did Gregory say, he could, when he wished,
+ deprive him of this power? He dreamed not of it; and for his whole
+ defence, he declared he desired earnestly to receive the crown of
+ martyrdom, as did the blessed Pope Martin, whose memory all
+ believers honoured. How far then was he from thinking of revolt,
+ of taking up arms, of repelling force by force, in fine, from
+ pronouncing sentences of deposition! Perhaps our adversaries will
+ make the trifling reply, that the Church, as yet too feeble, was
+ not in a state to display all its powers. But it was the Empire,
+ not the Church, which was weak in Italy.—See also Natalis Alex, in
+ sec. 8th dissert. 1. Libeaus History of Low Empire, vol. 83, p.
+ 368, 369.
+
+His successor, Gregory the Third, conceived himself dispensed from so
+rigorous a circumspection: at the head of a council, he excommuuicatcd
+the Emperor, not, indeed, by name but by not excepting him from the
+general sect of the Iconoclasts; and while Leo applied to himself this
+anathema, evidenced by the burst of anger with which he resented it;
+while he confiscated in Sicily the lands of the Roman church; while a
+fleet, dispatched by him against Italy, was perishing by shipwreck; the
+Pope laboured to create in the bosom of Rome an independent state, or,
+at least, one destined to become so. Some authors think they perceive,
+from the year 736, in the pontificate of Gregory the Second, a semblance
+of a Roman republic; and we may assure ourselves, at least, that in 730,
+a short.time previous to the death of this pope, and apparently without
+his concurrence, the Romans formally erected themselves into a republic.
+But it was especially subsequent to the year 731, and down to 741,³⁴
+that is to say, under the pontificate of Gregory III. that the
+expressions ‘republic of the Romans—republican association—³⁵ body of
+the Roman army,’ were accredited phrases which did not disappear till
+the year 800, and which, during the seventy preceding years, are very
+often employed, both in the acts of interior administrations, and in the
+negociations with the Kings of the Lombards, or Mayors of the palace of
+Ferara.
+
+ ³⁴ Anast. Bibl. in vitâ Gregorii III.
+
+ ³⁵ Reipublica Romanorum, com pages S. Reipublicæ corpus Christo
+ delectum exercitûs Romani. Apud Anast.
+
+They always avoided the positive declarations which would have irritated
+the Court of Constantinople; in case of necessity they even acknowledged
+the supremacy of the Emperor, solicited his assistance, and received his
+officers: and the homage paid to the imperial authority, is the ground
+of the opinion of those authors who deny the existence of this
+republic.— Without doubt, it was but a shadow of a republic; but they
+loved to present themselves under this title to the sovereigns of the
+west of Europe:³⁶ it was a mode of ranking themselves secretly in the
+number of independent states, and of weakening still more the ties which
+held them to the Byzantine empire. Generally, the pope did not fill in
+person the office of first magistrate of this republic; he left the
+insignia of its power to a prefect, a duke, or a patrician; and prepared
+to substitute, in a short time, for these unstable forms, a definite and
+pontifical government.
+
+ ³⁶ Gregory III. sent two ambassadors to the Mayor of the Palace,
+ Charles Martel, to invite him to declare himself in favour of the
+ Roman Republic against the Emperor of the East.
+
+Baronius ascribes the embassy of one of these to Gregory II.an important
+mistake, which Bossuet has removed.—Def. Cler. Gall, p. 2. b. 6. ch. 18.
+
+Another cause tended to, and even justified, the revolution which was
+going to take place in Italy against the authority of the Greek
+Emperors; this was, the almost absolute state of abandonment in which,
+for nearly two centuries, they left the provinces they possessed in this
+country. They kept no garrison in Rome, and this city, continually
+menaced by the Lombards, solicited more than once, through the organ of
+its dukes or its pontiffs, but in vain, the protection of the Exarch and
+the power of the Emperor. The Byzantine historians of this period
+scarcely ever speak of Italy: one of them, Theophylactus Simosatta,
+wrote the history of the empire from the year 582 to 802, without once
+naming Italy, Rome, or the Lombards. Deserted by their master, the
+Romans of necessity attached themselves to their pontiffs, who were
+generally Romans, and meriting such attachment. Fathers and defenders of
+the people, mediators between the great, and heads of the religion of
+the empire, the popes united in themselves the various sources of
+authority and influence which are conferred by riches, benefactions,
+virtue, and the high priesthood. They reconciled, or set at variance
+around them, the princes of the earth; and that temporal power, which as
+yet they possessed not, they could at pleasure strengthen or weaken in
+the hands of others.
+
+Things being so disposed, it was inevitable but that occasions must have
+occurred, favorable to the ambition of the Roman Pontiffs; or, rather,
+they had now need only of a more active ambition. While Zachary
+continued to pay homage to the sovereignty of the emperors, Liutprand
+made himself master of the exarchate, and his successor, Rachis,
+immediately after stipulated with the Romans for a peace of twenty
+years. Under the same pope, Pepin dethroned in France the Merovingian
+dynasty, submitted to the Holy See a famous case of conscience, and
+obtained from it a reply, which, absolving in the eyes of the people his
+audacious enterprise, placed in his hands a sceptre which he alone could
+wield. A short time after this wise reply,³⁷ Astolphus, the successor
+of Rachis, broke the truce of twenty years, conquered Istria,
+repossessed himself of Ravenna, which the Greek officers had re-entered,
+and drove them from it for ever. Eutychius, the last of the exarchs,
+took flight and retired to Naples; and every thing announced that the
+power of the emperors was about to be extinguished in Middle as it had
+been in Upper Italy.
+
+ ³⁷ It was a reply simply of opinion: and Bellarmine vainly
+ endeavoured to convert it into an absolute decree which deposed
+ Childerick III. Pepin owed his throne to his talents and his good
+ fortune: he obtained it by the consent of the French, and not by
+ the authority of the pope. See Natal. Alex. Dissert. 2. in Century
+ 8. ’ Dupin. Treatise on the Ecclesiastical power, pa. 245.
+ Bossuet. Def. Cler. Gall. p. 2. book 6. ch. 34.—Eginhard says,
+ Missiserat Burchardus et Foldea-dus ut consulerent pontificem de
+ causà regum, &c. against this Roman republic, in which the head of
+ the empire still preserved some shadow of sovereignty.
+
+The Pope, Stephen II. supplicated Constantine Copronymus to relieve the
+city of Rome, by dispatching an army which might put the Lombards to
+flight and maintain in Italy the integrity of the empire and the honor
+of the imperial authority.³⁸ It is evidently as the sovereign of Rome
+that Stephen addresses Constantine. But Constantine, occupied in making
+war against images,³⁹ directs Stephen to negociate with Astolphus, and,
+if Astolphus was intractable, with Pepin king of the French. The pontiff
+proceeds into France; there, as minister of the Greek emperor, he gives,
+in 753, to Pepin and to his sons, the title of Roman Patricians, which
+Charles Martel had before borne: and received, they assert, in exchange,
+the gift of the provinces which Astolphus usurped, and which this same
+emperor claimed, in whose name Stephen negociated. Pepin hesitated the
+less in bestowing them, as he was neither their possessor nor sovereign.
+
+ ³⁸ Id cum’ipsius imperio pemiciosum, tom nomine quoque apud posteros
+ fore turpissimum.—Sigoniut Hist. rtgn. liai. 1.3, p. 197.
+
+ ³⁹ Joannes Silentiarius à Constantino cum legatis pontificiis rediit,
+ narrans imperatori placere ut ipse ad regem proficiscens, quantum
+ precibus atque auctoritate “profiscere posset,
+ experi-retur,—Sigm.ibii.p. 199.
+
+Ambitious, however, to derive some advantage from his title of
+patrician, he passed the Alps in 754, besieged Pavia, and compelled
+Astolphus to promise that he would restore the Exarchate and the
+Pentapolis, not to the Emperor of Constantinople, but to St. Peter—to
+the Roman Church and Roman Republic. Vain promise! no sooner is King
+Pepin returned into France, than the Lombard king forgets his oaths,
+lays waste the environs of Rome, and labours to become master of the
+city. It was at this time, in 755, the pope wrote to the French monarch
+many letters, of which the one written in St. Peter’s name, gives us to
+perceive, says Fleury,⁴⁰ “the genius of the age, and to what extent the
+most grave of mankind may carry fiction when they consider it useful.”:
+
+ “Peter, called to the apostolat by Jesus Christ,
+ “the Son of the living God, &c........As by me the
+ “Roman Church, of which Stephen is bishop, is
+ “founded upon the stone........I adjure you, O ex−
+ “cellent Pepin, Charles, and Carloman, three kings,
+ “and with you the bishops, abbes, priests, and
+ “monks, and also the dukes, counts, and people....
+ “I adjure you, and with me the Virgin Mary, the
+ “angels, the martyrs, and all the other saints adjure
+ “you, not to suffer that my city of Rome, and my
+ “people, be any longer left a prey to the Lom−
+ “bards........If you obey me quickly, you shall in
+ “this life receive an abundant recompense for it;
+ “you shall overcome your enemies, you shall live
+ “long, you shall eat the fat of the land, and you
+ “shall, besides, receive eternal life. If you obey
+ “me not, know that by the authority of the Holy
+ “Trinity and of my apostolat, you shall be deprived
+ “of the kingdom of God.”
+
+ ⁴⁰ Hist. Eccl. book 43. no. 17.
+
+It is most important here to remark, that this letter makes no mention
+either of the donation of Constantine, or that which Pepin-le-Bref has
+the credit of having made in 703, and renewed in 754. It is not the most
+feeble argument of those who dismiss to the rank of chimeras, the second
+as well as the-first of these donations. They add, that the original
+title of Pepin’s grant exists no where in the world—that no authentic
+copy of it can be produced —and that its directions, omitted by
+contemporary historians, are only known to us through Anastasius, who
+compiled his History of the Popes at the end of the ninth century, one
+hundred and thirty years after the death of Stephen II. The supporters
+of this grant confine themselves to asserting, that Anastasius declares
+his having seen the original of it, and cites besides the remains of an
+inscription preserved at Ravenna, without very scrupulously inquiring
+the era in which so mutilated a monument might have been erected.⁴¹
+
+ ⁴¹ Pipinus. pius. primus, amplificandæ. ecclesiæ. viam. aperuit. et
+ exarchatum. Ravennæ. cum amplissimis. Pere le Cainte cites the
+ begiimiug of this inscription, and ends thus: Urbibus. temtoriis.
+ ac. seditibus. principi. apostolorum. ejus. qua. demum.
+ successoribus. lubens. ac. volens. concessit. Ann. Èçcl. Fr. vol.
+ 6. p. 544.
+
+Will they now ask us what the nature of the concession was which was
+made to the popes by Pepin-le-Bref: if he bestowed the absolute
+sovereignty or the mere administration; a secondary or delegated power,
+or the property only, and, as it is termed, the fee-simple of it? In
+default of a positive text which would offer an immediate reply to these
+questions, we have no other way of resolving them, but by continuing,
+even to the year 800, the examination of facts relative to the
+government of Rome and the authority of the popes. Now, it is certain,
+as we have stated, that during the fifty last years of the eighth
+century, the popes had never been sovereigns, seldom administrators. We
+have a series of letters in which they complain of the non-fulfilment of
+the promises of Pepin, and of the infidelity of the Lombard kings, who
+ravaged, or again seized on, the possessions of the church. Besides,
+Constantine Copronymus never renounced his rights: he offered to pay the
+expenses attending’the victories of the French army over the Lombards,
+provided the places recovered from them were restored to him. Pepin,
+though very little disposed to comply with these requisitions, evaded
+characterizing the power which he exercised over the Roman republic by
+the title of patrician; leaving it undecided, whether he considered
+himself as actual sovereign, or as but provisionally invested with the
+functions of the impeiial authority. What is very remarkable is, that in
+fixing the limits of the states of this monarch, no French historian
+extends them beyond the Alps.⁴² As to the popes, although their
+influence almost always swayed the authority of the deputies of the
+patrician, they did not as yet exercise a civil magistracy, properly so
+called, either regularly instituted or delegated. They continued to date
+from the reign of the emperors of Constantinople, and to call them their
+lords and masters. This is to be seen in an epistle written by Stephen
+II. in 757, a short time before his death;⁴³ in a diploma subscribed
+the same year by Paul I. the brother and successor of Stephen;⁴⁴ in a
+statute or rule of the same Paul in 758;⁴⁵ in a letter which Adrian
+addressed, in 772, to the emperor, in transmitting to him the decision
+respecting a crime committed in the duchy of Rome;⁴⁶ and in 785, in an
+epistle of the same Adrian to Constantine V. and his mother Irene.⁴⁷
+
+ ⁴² Antiquit. S. Dionyt. 1.2, c. 9. Regnabant inter Rhenum Ligerimque
+ priores, Ad Boream fuerat terminus oceanus, Australemque dabant
+ Balearica littora finem. Alpes et tectæ perpetuis nivibus.
+
+ ⁴³ Ibid. 1.2. c. 3.
+
+ ⁴⁴ Concil. vol. 6. p. 1619.
+
+ ⁴⁵ Ibid. vol. 6. p. 1694.
+
+ ⁴⁶ Fleury Hist. Eccles. 1.14. n. 2.
+
+ ⁴⁷ [--Greek--] Concil. Vol. 7. p. 99.
+
+Many cities comprised in the pretended donation were governed, according
+to the instructions of Pepin, by the Archbishops of Ravenna, who seem to
+have succeeded the Exarchs, whose title remained unrevived.
+
+Charlemagne, called by Adrian against Didier, king of the Lombards,
+blockaded Pavia, and renewed in Rome, in 774, the donation of
+Pepin.—This act, however, is no better authenticated to us than those of
+753 and 754. There is no original document, no authentic copy, nor even
+unauthenticated one. It is Anastasius also, who, after one hundred
+years, specifies its conditions to us.
+
+To Pepin’s gift Charlemagne added, according to this Anastasius,
+Corsica, Sardinia, Liguria, Sicily, Venice, Beneventum; and deposited
+the chart, which was to enrich to this extent the Roman church, upon the
+tomb of the holy apostles Peter and Paul. Anastasius does not explain to
+us how Charlemagne bestowed provinces which he never possessed, and over
+which he had no right of sovereignty, not even that of conquest. Sicily
+and Sardinia were never in his possession: Venice, struggling more and
+more for independence, yet recognised in form the sovereign rights of
+the Greek emperors. A duke governed Beneventum, which had been ceded to
+the Holy See only in 1047 by Henry the Black. This cession of 1047, does
+not embrace the whole territory of Beneventum, and the deed by which it
+is transferred is besides not the most authentic: but what is to be
+noticed here is, that this act does not renew in any way the pretended
+donation of Charlemagne; it makes no mention of it: on the contrary it
+implies, that the Court of Rome, for the first time, in 1047 is going to
+possess the city of Beneventum.
+
+Another objection which Anastasius does not resolve, is, that after 774,
+the popes did not assume the government or administration of either
+Beneventum, Venice, Sicily, Sardinia, the Exarchate, or even the city of
+Rome. Charlemagne, the conqueror and successor of the Lombard kings,
+adds the title of King of Italy, to that of Patrician of the Romans. The
+sovereignty or supreme authority remained in his hands; he exercised it
+either by himself or by his delegates, received the homage of the
+pontiffs, invested himself with the right of confirming their elections,
+and subjected their possessions and their persons in such sort to his
+authority, that we cannot suppose him to have ceded to them anything
+more than the ownership or feudal tenure of their domains. The Duchy of
+Rome, the Exarchate, the Pentapolis, were comprised, by the historians
+of this prince, in the account of the states over which he ruled,
+previous to the year 800,⁴⁸ and Piga thinks proper to add Corsica to
+them.⁴⁹
+
+ ⁴⁸ Eginhart. de Car. Mag. p. 91—96 of 6th vol. of Coll. of the
+ Historians of France.
+
+ ⁴⁹ Crit Ann. Baiomi ad Ann. 800. a. 11.
+
+In 778, to Charles is referred the decision of the disputes which sprung
+up between the pope and the archbishop of Ravenna: the latter retained
+the administration of the Exarchate, perhaps from Charlemagne having
+tacitly authorised it. Many letters addressed to this monarch, by Pope
+Adrian, after the year 775, have been collected into the code of
+Charlemagne, they prove that Charles was not very desirous to invest the
+Holy Fathers with the temporal power. The donation of Constantine is
+mentioned in one of these epistles,⁵⁰ as we have already observed; the
+name of the new Constantine is there promised to Charles, if he fulfils
+his engagements. But in 789, the pope complains of the delightful
+expectation held out to him, being still unfulfilled; he again brings
+forward the donation of Pepin as an act remaining without effect. It
+appears, however, that Adrian, in the course of the six last years of
+his pontificate, did exercise some actual power, since we find coin
+bearing his name. But the dukes of Beneventum, and other delegated
+governors, exercised at the time the same privilege, with the consent of
+their sovereigns. A much greater number of medals were struck at Rome in
+the name of Charlemagne;⁵¹ and appeals were made to his officers from
+the decisions passed by the popes.⁵²
+
+ ⁵⁰ Cod. Carol. Ep. Adriani VI. p. 550 of 5th vol. of Coll. of the
+ Historians of France.
+
+ ⁵¹ Leblanc. Medals of Charlemagne, &c, p. 17.
+
+ ⁵² Velly. History of France vol. 1. p. 399.
+
+Charlemagne, before the end of the eighth century, so little thought of
+investing the popes with a sovereign power, that he avoided, on the
+contrary, assuming to himself an absolute sovereignty over the city and
+territory of Rome. He did not dispute that of the Greek Emperors; and
+although he governed without receiving their commands, he left it to be
+supposed that he considered himself only as their representative. It is
+even conjectured, that in 781, he had received from Irene the letter
+which created him, in express terms, Patrician of the Romans. When Paul
+Diacre says, that Charles added Rome to his States from the year 774; it
+is according to Duquet an hyperbolical expression⁵³ since Charles
+himself was satisfied with the simple patriciate. Theophanus ascribes
+only to the year 779, the commencement of the domination of the French,
+over the capital of Italy; and even he is not exact, as we shall shortly
+see, since he anticipates by a year, the absolute extinction of the
+sovereignty of the Greek Emperors over the Romans.
+
+To measure the extent of the authority exercised by Charles in Rome,
+previous to the year 800, it is necessary to form an idea of the nature
+of the dignity of patrician, with which he was invested.
+
+ ⁵³ Rhetorici hâc et hyperbolici loquitur Paulus. Anno eriim 774, Roma
+ neque à Longobardis oppressa fuit, neque à Carolo cum dilionibus
+ suis unita, sed a Longobardorum in-sultibus liberata et Carolo
+ jure patriciatûs tantum subdita.— Collection of Gallic and French
+ Historian», vol. 5. p. 191. n. a.
+
+Constantine, anxious to restore the ancient patricians, had invented
+this personal title of patrician, to be given to the governor or first
+magistrate of the city of Rome. From 729 to 800, that is, during the
+existence of a shadow of the Roman republic, the office of patrician was
+often conferred by the clergy, the nobles, and the people of this city,
+almost always at the will of the popes, but never at their sole
+discretion. The Greek emperors ratified either expressly or tacitly the
+election of the patrician; preferring that it might be supposed he
+governed in their name, rather than it should be believed he ruled in
+despite of them. Many barbarous kings, Visigoths, Ostrogoths, and
+others, have received and borne this title; and Charlemagne did not
+disdain a dignity, subordinate in appearance, but in reality
+independent, and which might serve as a step to a more perfect
+sovereignty.
+
+Leo III. succeeding, in 790, to Pope Adrian, hastened to address to
+Charlemagne a letter of homage, similar to those which this prince was
+accustomed to receive from his vassals.⁵⁴ However, there remains to us
+a monument of the supremacy still preserved by the Emperor of the East
+over the Romans in 797; it is a mosaic, with which Leo III. ornamented
+the hall of the Lateran palace.⁵⁵
+
+ ⁵⁴ Ann. Lauresh. St. Marc, Abr. Chron. of Hist, of Italy, vol. 1.
+ year 796.
+
+ ⁵⁵ Ciampini, Vetera. Mon. par. 2. p. 128.
+
+We here behold a prince crowned, which circumstances prove to be
+Constantine V.: another prince, without a crown, and a pope, are
+represented kneeling, and by an inscription are named Charles and Leo.
+The Emperor receives a standard from the hands of Jesus Christ;
+Charlemagne receives another of them from St. Peter’s left hand, who,
+with his right hand, bestows a pallium on the pope. This mosaic is at
+once the emblem of the supremacy of the emperor, the power of the
+patrician, and the pretensions of the pontiff.
+
+In 799 a conspiracy is formed against Leo III.— he is accused before
+Charlemagne, who refers to commissioners the investigation and decision
+of the whole affair.⁵⁶ This fact suffices to shew, how far the pope was
+from being a sovereign before the year 800.
+
+The 25th of December this year, Charles is proclaimed emperor. He had
+been raised to this supreme dignity, not by the pope alone, but by an
+assembly of the clergy, of the nobility, and of the people of Rome.⁵⁷
+
+ ⁵⁶ Theophan. Chron. — Eginhard, ad ann. 799.—Anastasius vit. Leonis
+ iii.—Fleury. Hist. Eccles. 1* 45. n. 14.
+
+ ⁵⁷ Fleury. Hist. Eccles. 1. 45. n. 14. See also how Anastasias, the
+ historian of the popes, relates the coronation of Charlemagne:
+ Post hæc, adveniente die natali. D. N. J. C. in jam dictâ basilicâ
+ B. Petri apostoli omnes interum congregati sunt, et tunc
+ yenerabilis almificus pontifex xnanibus suis propriis
+ pretiosissimâ coronâ coronavit eum. Tunc universi jidelcs
+ Romani...unanimiter altisonâ voce, Dei nutu atque B. Petri
+ clavigeri regni cœlorum, exclamaverunt: Carolo piissimo Au-gusto à
+ Deo coronato, magno, pacifico imperatori, vita et victoria. Ante
+ sacram confessionem B. Petri apostoliter dictus est, et ab omnibus
+ constitutes est imperator Romanorum. Illico sanctissimus pontifex
+ unxit oleo sancto Carolum, &c.— Anast. Bibl. in vita Leonis III.
+
+Behold, then, the precise period of the extinction of the sovereign
+rights of the Eastern Emperor in Rome: then, also, ceased the
+patriciate, properly so called; and the pope, no longer recognizing any
+intermediate person between him and the Western Emperor, became, indeed,
+the governor or first magistrate of Rome and of its territory.
+Charlemagne, in order to deceive the court of Constantinople, had
+pretended to fill only a passive part in his own coronation:—it was
+without his knowledge that they decreed him the imperial crown —it was
+against his consent that he suffered it to be placed on his victorious
+head: such, at least, is the account which his chancellor Eginhard has
+given us of this event; an account which Sigonius⁵⁸ and Muratori⁵⁹
+have classed with the fabulous, and to which even Father David himself
+refuses all credence.
+
+ ⁵⁸ De Regn. Ital. 1. iv. p. 252.
+
+ ⁵⁹ Annali d’ltalia, ann. 800.
+
+Charlemagne hastened to dispatch ambassadors to Constantinople; he
+received in return those of the Emperor Nicephoras, and concluded a
+treaty of friendship and alliance with him, which fixed the limits of
+the two empires, without, however, a formal recognition of the Emperors
+of the West by the Greeks. But the absolute sovereignty of Charles over
+the Exarchate, the Pentapolis, and the Roman territory, became
+undisputed.⁶⁰
+
+ ⁶⁰ In uniting all these facts, says Bossuet, it is easy to see that
+ Baronins asserts very inappropriately, that the popes had deposed
+ the emperors because of their heresy, and transferred their empire
+ to the French. It is on the contrary evident, that in Italy and at
+ Rome, the popes themselves have constantly recognized as emperors,
+ the image-breaking princes; and that the empire was only
+ transferred to the French when it was possessed by Irene, a most
+ catholic princess after her rejection of heresy.
+
+It is no less evident, that the popes solicited the assistance of the
+French, not on account of the heresy of the Emperor, but because they
+had no other resources to oppose the Lombards: that their affairs were
+altogether desperate, and that they could hope for no succour from the
+emperors of the east. There were wanting none of the circumstances
+necessary, as is said in the present day, to justify the deposition of
+kings. These emperors were heretics, obstinate in error, cruel in their
+persecutions, and besides, were forgers and perjurers; a circumstance,
+which according to our adversaries, rendered them still more worthy of
+deposition, since it was against the church they sinned, in violating
+the oath, which they had taken at the foot of the altar, to commit no
+innovation in religion.
+
+Notwithstanding the violation of these solemn promises, the catholics
+not only honored as emperor, the prince who persecuted them, but did all
+which lay in their power, to restrain those who, under such pretext,
+wished to excite seditions and revolt against the empire: so true it is,
+that they had not then the least idea of that power, in which, at the
+present day, all the hopes of the church are made to consist, and which
+is regarded as the firmest bulwark of the pontifical authority. Def.
+Cler. Grail, p. 26. 6 ch. 20. in the year 803,⁶¹ and in 806,⁶² dates
+from the reign of the Emperor Charles. This prince designates himself
+‘Head of the Roman Empire;’⁶³ and the confines of his states are,
+henceforward extended, even to the lower Calabria, by Eginhard⁶⁴ and
+other historians.
+
+Stephen IV. as soon as he was elected successor to Leo. III. made the
+Romans take an oath of allegiance to Louis-le-Debonnaire, the successor
+of Charlemagne.⁶⁵ Among the gifts of which the Holy See avails itself,
+there is one which bears the name of this first Louis, and the date of
+816 or 817:⁶⁶ it is pretended, that in confirming the concessions of
+Charlemagne and of Pepin, Louis has reckoned Sicily in the number of the
+territories acquired by the Roman Court, and that he has renounced for
+himself and his successors also, the right of ratifying the elections of
+the popes.
+
+ ⁶¹ Imperante nostro domino Carolo piiasimo à Deo coronato. Ughelli,
+ Ital. see vol. 5. col. 1095.
+
+ ⁶² Concilior. vol. 8. p. 1120.
+
+ ⁶³ Carolus serenissimus Augustus......imperator Romanorum gubamans
+ imperium......Datum idibus junii, anno iii. imperii nostri, et 35
+ regni nostri in Franciâ. Lecoinle Ann. ecclct. Francorvm. vol. 6.
+ p. 814.
+
+ ⁶⁴ Italiamtotam. usque in Calabriam inferiorem. Eginhard.
+
+ ⁶⁵ Theg. de gestis Ludovici Pii. ann. 816.
+
+ ⁶⁶ Baronius Ann. Eccles. ann. 817.—Sigon. Hist Ital. 1.4.
+
+But we see him, in 827, examine into and approve that of Gregory IV.
+Eginhard, and another historian of Louis-le-Debonnaire,⁶⁷ attest this
+circumstance to us. As to Sicily it did not in any wise belong to Louis:
+he never possessed it; the pope did not even dream of governing it; and
+it is so incredible that it should have been ceded to the pope in 816,
+by the emperor, that Father Morin,⁶⁸ in supporting the authenticity of
+the donation of Louis I. is obliged to suppose, that the name of this
+isle had not been originally in it, but had been inserted in the course
+of time. Furthermore, it is a donation unknown to contemporary writers,
+and which appears not in historical records until long after its date.
+
+ ⁶⁷ Coll. of Histories of France, toI. 6. p. 108.
+
+ ⁶⁸ History of the Origin of the Power of the Popes, p. 627.
+
+The forgery of documents occurs often in the history of the temporal
+power of the popes. The Donation of Constantine was fabricated, as we
+have already observed, between the years 756 and 779, and it was about
+the same period that an Isidore, Mercator or Peccator, forged the
+decretals of the ancient popes, Anaclet, Clement, Evaristus, and others,
+down to St. Sylvester. In the sixth century, Dionysius-le-Petit was
+unable to collect any decretals, but those subsequent to St. Siricius,
+who died at the end of the fourth. Those of Isidore are long, full of
+common place, and all in the same style, which, according to Fleury⁶⁹
+is much more that of the eighth century, than of the early ages of the
+Church. “Their dates are almost all of them incorrect,” adds the
+historian we have just mentioned,:
+
+ “and the matter of these letters, still further
+ “evinces the forgery: they speak of archbishops,
+ “primates, patriarchs, as if these titles had been
+ “received from the birth of the Church. They
+ “forbid the holding of any council, even a provincial
+ “one, without the permission of the pope, and
+ “represent as a usual thing, the appeals to Rome.”
+
+These false decretals have contributed to the extension of the popes’
+spiritual power, and to invest them with political authority: their
+fatal effects have been fully exposed by Fleury, in his fourth discourse
+on ecclesiastical history.
+
+We believe, that from the details we have collected, it is sufficiently
+clear, that up to the year 800, and still later, the pope and the Romans
+have always acknowledged, as their sovereigns, the emperors of the East
+or the West, and even particular governors, as the exarch, the
+patrician, and the kings of the Lombards, or of Italy.⁷⁰
+
+ ⁶⁹ Hist, eccles. I. 45. n. 22.
+
+ ⁷⁰ Muratori introduces the same results, in the three first chapters
+ of his work entitled: Piena Esposizione di diritti im-periali ed
+ Estensi sopra Comacchio, 1712, in—fol.
+
+The pope at the end of Louis-le-Deboimaire’s reign, in 840, was not yet
+a sovereign; and taking the word in its literal sense, that is, as
+expressing supreme authority, independent and undelegated, we may
+maintain with certain authors, that he did not begin to be such until
+1355, when the Emperor Charles IV, receiving the imperial crown at Rome,
+renounced in the most express terms every sort of authority over the
+Holy See.
+
+But without sovereignty a power may yet be effective. Such was that of
+the popes long before 1355, and even from the time of Charlemagne. An
+actual temporal power, though subordinate, delegated or borrowed, rested
+from that period, in the hands of the pontiffs; and, from this time, the
+perpetual quarrels between the priesthood and the empire, had no other
+object, than to emancipate and extend their power. It was necessary in
+the first place, to render it independent; and from the time it was or
+asserted itself so to be, to amplify its prerogatives, its rights, its
+limits, finally to transform itself into a universal monarchy. Behold
+the common origin, of all the anathemas, all the quarrels, all the wars
+of which we are about to sketch the picture! Here is the secret of the
+eternal contentions of the Court of Rome with the greater number of the
+European powers, especially those which obtained an ascendancy in Italy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II. ENTERPRIZES OF THE POPES OF THE NINTH CENTURY
+
+
+CHARLEMAGNE had condemned gifts made to the church, to the prejudice of
+the children or near relatives of the donor. In 816, a capitulary of
+Louis I. declared all donations of this kind void. But, far from
+continuing to limit by such restraints the sacerdotal ambition, Louis
+was destined to become one of the first victims, and, by the same
+circumstance, one of the first founders of the clerical power.
+
+Pascal succeeding Stephen IV. in 817, did not wait for the consent of
+the prince to instal himself: he confined himself to sending him
+legates, and an apologetical letter, in which he pretended that he had
+been compelled hastily to accept the dignity. Some years after, Pascal
+crowned Lothaire, whom Louis, his father, had associated in the empire:
+the pope, say the ecclesiastical historians of the ninth century, gave
+to the young prince the power which the ancient emperors had enjoyed;
+they add, that with the consent and good will of Louis, Lothaire
+received from the sovereign pontiff the benediction, the dignity, and
+the title of emperor; expressions truly remarkable, and of which they
+have since availed themselves, in order to erect the pope into the
+disposer of the imperial crown; as if Charles and Louis had not
+previously borne it, without being indebted for it to the bishops of
+Rome!—as if it were not, above all, contradictory, to pretend at once
+that these two princes founded, the temporal power of the popes, and yet
+received from these same popes the dignity of Emperors of the West.
+
+Some officers in the service of Lothaire having been put to death in the
+Lateran palace, the holy fathers, accused of having ordered the
+commission of the crime, hastened to send nuncios to Louis to do away
+such suspicion. Louis received the nuncios coldly, and dispatched
+commissioners to Rome, before whom Pascal cleared himself by oath. He
+constantly, however, evaded delivering up the murderers, ‘because they
+were of the family of St. Peter’, that is, of the pope’s house.
+Louis-le-Debonnaire followed his natural love of clemency, says Fleury⁷¹
+and notwithstanding his wish to punish this action, he consented, not to
+follow up a proceeding, the first acts of which prove, at least, that he
+was recognized in 823, as sovereign of Rome, and judge of the Roman
+Pontiff.
+
+ ⁷¹ Hist Eccles. 1.46. n. 57.
+
+Eugene II. after the example of his predecessor Pascal, dispensed with
+having his election confirmed by the emperor. Lothaire complained loudly
+of it, and came to fill at Rome the functions of the sovereign
+authority. He tried a suit between the pope and the abbot of Farfa, of
+whom the court of Rome exacted an annual tribute—Not only was the abbey
+exempted from this tribute, but the pope was obliged to restore the
+property which the Roman Church had _unjustly deprived it of_: these are
+the terms of a charter of Lothaire.⁷² This prince published, at the same
+time, a constitution of nine articles,⁷³ in which the authority of the
+pope is indeed formally established, yet subordinate to that of the
+emperor. It is there stated, that complaints against the judges and
+other officers shall first be taken before the pontiff, who shall apply
+an immediate remedy, or inform the sovereign thereof, in order that he
+may provide for it.
+
+This constitution is of the year 824, and it is also the date of an oath
+which the Romans took in the following terms:⁷⁴
+
+ ⁷² S. Marc. Ab. Hist Italy, vol. 1. p. 469.
+
+ ⁷³ Ibid. p. 472.
+
+ ⁷⁴ Ibid. p. 473.
+
+ “I promise to be faithful
+ “to the emperors Louis and Lothaire, saving the
+ “faith I have promised to the pope, and not to con−
+ “sent to the election of a pope uncanonically, not
+ “that the pope should be consecrated before he has
+ “taken, in presence of the emperor’s commissioners,
+ “an oath similar to that which Pope Eugene has
+ “made by writing.”
+
+The clause, “saving the faith promised to the pope,” has not failed to
+draw after it arbitrary restrictions: but this formula expressed
+decisively the sovereignty of the emperor.
+
+We also see Gregory IV. in 827, solicit the emperor to confirm his
+election;⁷⁵ which proves, as we have already observed, that Louis had
+not renounced this right in 819. If the prince, said De Morca,⁷⁶ had
+left to the people and the clergy the power of electing the popes, their
+consecration was, notwithstanding, to be deferred till the sovereign had
+consented to it. In defiance of this preliminary, the pontificate of
+Gregory IV. is, nevertheless, one of the most memorable for the
+humiliations of the imperial dignity. It is true, they were caused by
+the weakness of the prince as much as by the ambition of the pontiff.
+The first error of Louis-le-Debonaire was the partition of his states,
+in 817, amongst his three sons: associating Lothaire in the empire, he
+gave Aquitaine to Pepin, and Bavaria to Louis; and by these arrangements
+he especially dissatisfied his nephew Bernard, King of Italy.
+
+ ⁷⁵ Lpco illius (scil. Valentini) Gregorius presbyter tituli Sancti
+ Marci electus est, dilatu consecratione ejus ad consulterai
+ imperatorh. Quo annuente et electionem cleri et populi probante,
+ ordinatus est in looo prions.—Vit. Ludov. Pii. kq mn.
+ 827.—Gregorius presbyter non prius ordinatus est, quam legatus
+ imperatoris Romam veneret et electionem populi
+ ex-aminaret—Eginhard. ad ann. 827.
+
+ ⁷⁶ De Concordiâ sacerdotii et imperii. 1;8. c. 14. n.8.
+
+Bernard revolted: it became necessary to subdue and punish him. In
+commuting the punishment of death pronounced against him, Louis had
+nevertheless caused his eyes to be put out; and this cruel punishment
+cost the patient his life. Louis reproached himself with this cruelty,
+and evincing still less moderation in his repentance than in his crime,
+he claimed public penance. To add to his difficulties, Judith, his
+second wife, becoming the mother of Charles the Bald, claimed a kingdom
+for this child. She obtained a new partition, which, however, interfered
+with the first, and caused the three, who were portioned in 817, to
+rebel. They leagued against their father: Vala, abbot of Corbia, a
+factious but revered monk, encouraged their rebellion: like them, he
+heaped invectives on the emperor, his wife Judith, and his minister
+Bernard. Easily disconcerted by such an outcry, Louis convoked four
+councils, to which he referred the examination of his conduct and the
+complaints it occasioned. These synods favoured but little the
+pretensions of the revolted; but in them was professed a doctrine on the
+privileges of the clergy and the duties of princes, which, at a period
+so near to that of the unbounded power of Charlemagne, would seem
+incredible, if the purport itself of these assemblies⁷⁷ did not
+suffice, to justify and explain the idea which they had formed of their
+supreme authority.
+
+ ⁷⁷ Concil. Grail, vol. 1.
+
+We will here transcribe a speech which one of the four councils makes
+Constantine the Great address to the bishops:
+
+ “God has given
+ “you the powers to judge us; but you cannot be
+ “judged by any man. God has established you as
+ “gods over us, and it becomes not men to be the
+ “judges of gods. That can belong to him alone
+ “of whom it is written, God has seated himself in
+ “the temple of the gods and judges them.”
+
+Here, then, we certainly behold the question respecting the two powers
+more clearly laid down than ever it had been; for they could not be more
+decisively reduced to one only.
+
+While councils were giving Louis these lessons; while he was sending
+Judith into the bosom of a cloister, and was thinking of assuming
+himself the monastic gown; his sons and the abbot Vala strove to compel
+him to do so, and would have succeeded, if another monk, in sowing
+discord among the three brothers, had not restored to their father some
+moments of repose and vigour. He recalled Judith, exiled Vala, deprived
+Lothaire of the title of emperor, and, incapable of prudence, abandoned
+himself in such degree to the counsels of his ambitious and vindictive
+wife, that he disinherited Pepin in favor of Charles, and even alienated
+the minister Bernard. Immediately the revolt revived; and here commences
+the part which Gregory IV. played in these disgraceful scenes. The pope
+allied himself with the three princes: he entered France with
+Lo-thaire—entered it without the permission of his sovereign, what none
+of his predecessors had done. At the first report of the anathema he was
+about to thunder against the emperor, some French prelates had the
+courage to say, that if Gregory was come to excommunicate, he should
+return excommunicated himself;⁷⁸ but Agobard, bishop of Lyons, and many
+of his colleagues, said, that the pope must be obeyed. Gregory, on his
+part, addressed to the partisans of Louis a memorable letter, in which
+the secular power is, without any ambiguity, subjected to the Holy
+See.⁷⁹
+
+ “The term of brother savours
+ “of equality,” said he to the prelates who had so addressed him;
+ “it is the title of *father* which you
+ “owe me: know that my chair is above Lewis’s
+ “throne.”
+
+In the mean time Lothario and his two brothers collect their troops in
+Alsace; Gregory joins them, and quits them only to appear in Louis’s
+camp in quality of mediator.
+
+ ⁷⁸ Si excoiwmunicaturua adveniret, excommunicatus abiret, cum aliter
+ se haberet antiquorum canonum autoritas.—Vit. hud. Pii. in Coll.
+ of Hist, of France, vol. 6. p. 113.
+
+ ⁷⁹ Agobardi Oper. vol. p. p. 53.
+
+What the pope did we know not; but the same night on which he took leave
+of the emperor, the troops of the latter disbanded themselves. This
+desertion dissolved Louis’s army, and doubled that of his opponents:
+compelled to give himself up to his sons, he was dethroned, _by the
+advice of the pope_, says Fleury;⁸⁰ and Gregory returned to Rome, very
+much afflicted, according to the same historian, at the triumph of the
+unnatural children whom he had served. The plain where he had
+negociated, between Strasburg and Basle, is called to this day the
+‘Field of falsehood.’
+
+It would be too painful to retrace here the details so well known of the
+humiliations of Louis I.; how Ebbon, his creature⁸¹ and other bishops,
+condemned him to a public penance; how the son of Charlemagne shewed
+himself almost worthy of the infamy by his submission; how, on his knees
+before these prelates, he publicly recited a confession of his crimes,
+in the number of which they had inserted the marching of his troops
+during Lent, and the convocation of a parliament on Holy Thursday; how,
+dragged from cloister to cloister, to Compagne, to Soissons, to
+Aix-la-Chapelle, to Paris, to St. Denis, he seemed destined to terminate
+his days there, when the excess of his misfortunes provoked the public
+pity, and produced against his already divided enemies the indignation
+of the nobles and of the people. The great lords came to offer him
+homage as their sovereign, but Louis dared not recognize himself such
+until he was canonically absolved: he did not resume, he said, the belt,
+but in virtue of the judgment and authority of the bishops.
+
+ ⁸⁰ Hist. Eccles. 1.47. n.39.
+
+ ⁸¹ Ebbon a contemporary historian thus speaks of it: Elegerunt tunc
+ unum impudicum et crudelissimum, qui dice* batur Hebo, Rexnansis
+ episcopug; qui erat ex originalium servorum
+ stirpe......Abstulerunt ei gladium de femore suo, judicio servorum
+ suorum, induentes cum cilicio. Tunc im-pletum est eloquium Jeremiæ
+ prophet dicentis: Servi domi-nati sunt nostri. O qualem
+ remuneratkmem reddidisti ei! Fecit te liberum, non nobilem, quod
+ impossibile est post liber-tatem: vestivit te purpurio et pallio,
+ tu induisti cum cilicio. Hie pertraxit te immeritum ad culipen
+ pontificate, tu cum falso judicio voluigti expellere à solio
+ patrum suorum....Patres tui fuerunt pastores caprarum, non
+ copsiliarii principum, &c. Thegon. de gettis budov. Pit tom. 45.
+
+On this occasion he invited Hilduin, the monk, to compose a life of St.
+Denis, a legend since become so famous, and which would suffice to
+characterize the reign of Louis I. or rather the empire of gross
+superstition which he permitted to rule in his place. At Thionville an
+assembly was held, half parliament, half council, which replaced him on
+his throne. Solemnly reestablished in the body of the church, at Metz,
+he pretended that the deposition of Ebbon, the Archbishop of Rheims,
+pronounced at Thionville, had need to be confirmed by the pope. Many
+prelates, accomplices of Ebbon, fled to Italy, under the protection of
+Lothaire and of Gregory; others, almost as shameless in confessing the
+crime as in commiting it, were pardoned:—none suffered the punishment
+due to such wicked attempts. Louis carried his good nature so far as to
+re-establish Agobard in the see of Lyons, and placed no bounds to the
+respectful deference which the pope exacted of him. Baronius even
+pretends, that it was by the pope’s authority the king remounted his
+throne: but Bossuet⁸² has victoriously refuted this assertion, which is
+unsupported by any contemporary witness.
+
+ ⁸² Def. Cler. Gall, vol.2. b. 6. ch.21.
+
+Marianus Sectus, the Chronicle writer of the twelfth.century, cited by
+Baronius, makes no mention in it of Gregory IV. and confines himself to
+saying, that in the year 835, Pepin and Louis restored to their father
+the sovereign power.
+
+In the mean time the death of Lothaire gave occasion for a new
+partition, and a new revolt of Louis of Bavaria. Louis-le-Debonnaire
+once more took up arms against his ever rebellious son, when a mortal
+fright which an eclipse produced on this emperor, whose astronomical
+knowledge is boasted of, terminated in the year 840 his lamentable
+reign, worthy of such termination.
+
+The ambition of Lothaire having united against him the King of Bavaria
+and Charles the Bold, they subdued him at Fontenai; and to possess
+themselves of his states, they addressed themselves to the bishops
+assembled at Aix-la-Chapelle. “Do you promise,” said these bishops, “to
+govern better than Lothaire has done?” the princes promised; and the
+prelates added:
+
+ “Reign then in his place, we allow
+ “you so to do; receive by divine authority the
+ “kingdom; govern it according to the will of God;
+ “we exhort you to it, we command you.”
+
+But Lothaire did not permit it, and his brother found him sufficiently
+formidable to treat with, and to continue to him the name of emperor,
+with certain states.
+
+After the circumstances which had so humbled the imperial power, we are
+not astonished to see Sergius II. succeed Gregory IV. without waiting
+for the Emperor Lothaire’s consent. Yet this prince was so irritated at
+it, that he sent his son Louis into Italy at the head of an army. The
+terrified pontiff endeavoured to appease the young prince by means of
+honours and of homage. Louis examined into the election of Sergius, and
+ratified it in the midst of an assembly in which Sergius was judicially
+interrogated. His premature consecration was held valid only on
+condition that they should act more regularly for the future. The pope
+and the rest of the assembly took the oath of fidelity to the emperor.⁸³
+This firmness of Lothaire upheld for a while the civil power, even in
+the states of Charles the Bald. This prince held a parliament at
+Epernai, in 846, to which the bishops were not admitted; in it were
+reprobated the canons which limited the rights of the king and of the
+lords, and measures were taken against the abuse of excommunications;
+
+ ⁸³ Anast Bibl. de vit. Roman. Pontif. p. 352.
+
+In 847, Leo IV. was also consecrated before the emperor had confirmed
+the election; but they protested, that the ravages of the Saracens in
+the neighbourhood of Rome obliged them to act thus; and that nothing was
+meant derogatory to the fealty due to the head of the empire. Besides
+Leo IV. was the most venerated pontiff of the ninth century. He
+fortified Rome, built the part which bears the name of the Leonine city;
+and, without desiring to disturb other states, he laboured for the space
+of eight years, for the prosperity of that which he governed. The same
+praise cannot be bestowed on Nicholas I. who filled the chair of St.
+Peter from the year 858 to 867; but he was the pope of that century,
+which extended most the pontifical authority.
+
+Elected in the presence, and by the influence of Lothaires’s son, the
+Emperor Louis, he received from this prince a devotion unknown before:
+Louis seems to have thought he might honor without danger a creature of
+his own. The emperor then was seen to walk on foot before the pontiff
+act as his equery, lead his horse by the bridle, and thus realize, if
+not surpass, one of the directions of Constantine’s pretended ‘deed of
+gift,’ Such ceremonies could not remain without effect, and Nicholas
+delayed not to discover occasions of availing himself of them. The power
+of Charlemagne was at that time divided among his numerous descendants:
+there were sons of the Emperor Lothaire, to wit, Louis, the heir to the
+empire, Charles, King of Provence, and Lothaire, King of Lorraine. Their
+uncles Louis and Charles reigned, the one in Germany, the other in
+France; while the son of Pepin, king of Aquitaine, fallen from the
+throne of their father, resumed it but to descend from it once more. All
+these princes, almost equally deprived of information and of energy,
+weak in the first place by their numbers, became still more so by their
+discord: each of them employed against the other the principal part of
+his limited power; it remained for Nicholas only to declare himself
+their master, in order to become so, and he failed not to do it.
+
+An archbishop of Sens, named Venilon,. loaded with benefits by Charles
+the Bald, but stimulated to rebel against this monarch by Louis, King of
+Germany, had collected in the palace of Attichi some other disaffected
+prelates, and in conjunction with them pronounced the deposition of the
+King of France, loosing his subjects from their oaths, and declaring his
+crown to have devolved to his brother. This attempt had but one
+remarkable consequence; this was, the strange complaint made of it in
+857 to a council held at Savonnieres,⁸⁴
+
+ “Venloon,” said he,
+ “consecrated me in the Church of St. Croix in
+ “Orleans; he promised never to depose me from
+ “the royal dignity, without the concurrence of the
+ “bishops who consecrated me with him: the bishops
+ “are the thrones upon which God sits to promulgate
+ “his decrees; I have always been, I am still in
+ “clined to submit to their paternal corrections, but
+ “only when they proceed regularly.”
+
+ ⁸⁴ Libellas proclamationis adrersus Venilonem. Concil. vol. 8. p.79.
+
+In order to confirm this enormous authority of the clergy, Charles the
+Bald resorted to it against Louis. He caused the French prelates to
+assemble at Metz: these signified to the German monarch, that he had
+incurred excommunication, and presented the terms to which his
+forgiveness was attached. Thus, by the avowal of the King of France,
+bishops had, of themselves, the right to depose, and even to
+excommunicate, a foreign sovereign. One day these bishops contracted a
+solemn engagement at Savonnieres, to remain united, in order to correct
+sovereigns, nobles, and people; and Charles heard and received these
+expressions with all the humility which should have been the portion of
+those who held them.
+
+Nicholas cautiously avoided repressing these enterprises of the clergy;
+on the contrary, he was pleased to behold the advancement of their
+power, provided it continued in subjection to his. The quarrels which
+arose among these prelates, gave him an open for exercising his
+supremacy; and those in whose favor he exerted it supported it with
+ardour. Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims, had deprived of his dignity
+Rotade, bishop of Soissons, and Charles the Bald executed the decrees of
+a council, which, in defiance of this Rotade’s appeal to the Holy See,
+had condemned him for contumacy. Nicholas cancelled these decrees,
+threatened Hincmar, and reestablished the bishop of Soissons. The king
+never thought of supporting Hincmar: on the contrary, he protected the
+nominated Vulfede, deposed by the Archbishop of Rheims, in another
+council, the sentence of which, also, Nicholas annulled. To such length
+had the ‘False Decretals’ extended the jurisdiction of the Holy See.
+
+But the affair in which Nicholas made the most solemn display of his
+power, was that of the king of Lorraine, Lothaire, who after having
+repudiated and taken back his wife Theutberga, wished finally to part
+with her in order to marry Valdrade. The opposition of the popes to the
+divorces of princes has been often since renewed, but this is the first
+example: we have seen Charlemagne repudiate Imiltrade, as also
+Ermengarde or Desiderate, without any opposition on the part of the
+Roman pontiff; but he was Charlemagne, and his great-grandson neither
+inherited his genius nor his power.
+
+Marriage is a civil act, which from its nature can be subject only to
+the regulations of the civil law. The religious rules or maxims which
+relate to it have no exterior force, no absolute efficacy, but inasmuch
+as they are inserted into the national code: they are not so inserted in
+those of the 9th century, and, consequently, the ecclesiastical ministry
+should have confined itself to recommending, in secret and without
+scandal, the observance, purely voluntary, of these maxims. But this
+wisdom, though so natural, was already foreign to the manners of a
+clergy, whose ministry the False Decretals had erected into authority;
+and neither kings nor people were capable of that degree of attention,
+necessary to acquire specific ideas of their civil rights and their
+religious duties. While Lothaire continued the husband of Theutberga,
+and had Valdrade but as a concubine, the pope and the bishops abstained
+from requiring him to give an example of a more regular and decent life:
+but from the time he thought of conferring upon Valdrade the rights of a
+lawful wife, Nicholas was earnest to apply to this project of reform the
+pontifical veto.
+
+In truth, Lothaire himself provoked the intervention of the clergy, by
+causing Theutberga to appear before a tribunal of bishops, in order to
+undergo their indelicate interrogatories. Twice she confessed herself
+guilty of incest; and when the office of these Lorraine priests extended
+itself to extorting from her public avowals of the same, Nicholas whom
+they acknowledged as their supreme head, might consider himself
+authorised to revise so strong a proceeding. He therefore annulled the
+decision pronounced against Theutberga by the councils of
+Aix-la-Chapelle and of Metz; he degraded two prelates, Gonthier and
+
+Theutgaud, whom the latter of these councils had thought proper to
+depute to him. These prelates condemned in plain terms the Pope’s
+sentence; they asserted, that Nicholas wished to make himself monarch of
+the world.⁸⁵ The Emperor Louis seemed to believe so in part; he came to
+Rome resolved to support his brother Lothaire again at Nicholas. But a
+fast and processions ordained by the pope, a tumult which he did not
+prevent, profanations about which he made a great noise, the sudden
+death of a soldier accused of having mutilated a miraculous cross; so
+many unlucky omens terrified Louis to that degree that it threw him into
+a fever. Furthermore, while Louis had been endeavouring to protect
+Lothaire, Charles the Bald, having declared against the latter, had
+received Theutberga. Hincmar himself composed a treatise respecting this
+divorce, which occupied all Europe, far from favourable to the interests
+of Valdiade.⁸⁶
+
+It was then enjoined by Nicholas, that Lothaire should give up the idea
+of a second marriage under pain of excommunication. A legate named
+Arsena came to compel the King of Lorraine to take back his first
+wife;⁸⁷ and to detach him more certainly from Valdrade, this courtezan,
+so she was styled by the Holy See, was borne off by the legate, who
+would have taken her to Rome if she had not made her escape by the way.
+
+ ⁸⁵ Fleury. Eccles. Hist 1. 60. n. 33.
+
+ ⁸⁶ De Dirortio Lotharii, vol. 1. Operum Hincmari.
+
+ ⁸⁷ Annal. Meteits. ad ann. 866. Annal. Fold. ad. ann. 365,
+ 886.—Concil. Gall. toi. iii. p. 879.
+
+The holy father who wished to convert, could therefore do no more than
+excommunicate her. But he received from Lothaire an humble epistle, in
+which this prince having declared that he had not seen Valdrade since
+she left Arsena, conjures the court of Rome not to give the kingdom of
+Lorraine to one of his rivals: a supplication that may seem to us in the
+present day as the excess, if not delirium, of weakness, but which was
+dictated to this king by the apprehension of being stripped of his
+states to enrich Charles the Bald, who in fact did hope to obtain them
+from the Holy See.
+
+Divers letters, written by Nicholas on this subject, contain a precious
+developement of his ideas of the royal powers, and of his own
+authority,:
+
+ “You say,” he writes to the bishop of Metz, Adventius,
+ “that “the apostle commands obedience to kings: but ex−
+ “amine first whether those kings really be such, that
+ “is, whether they act justly, conduct themselves
+ “well, and govern their subjects properly; for other−
+ “wise it is necessary to account them tyrants, and
+ “as such to resist them. Be subject to them on
+ “God’s account, as says the apostle, but not against
+ “God.”
+
+Fleury⁸⁸ here observes, “that the pope makes the bishops judges,
+whether kings be so legitimately, or tyrants, while the Christian
+morality requires their obedience of the worst of masters: in fact, to
+what prince did the apostle exact fidelity from them? It was to Nero.”
+
+ ⁸⁸ Hist. Eccles. 1.50. a. 35.
+
+Nicholas wrote to the bishops,⁸⁹ to know if Lothaire fulfilled his
+promises, and if they were satisfied with his behaviour to his first
+wife. He wrote to the King of Germany with new complaints of Lothaire⁹⁰
+
+ “We learn,” said he,
+ “that he proposes
+ “coming to Rome without our permission: prevent
+ “his disobedience of us; and furthermore take care
+ “to preserve to us, by secure methods, the revenues
+ “of St. Peter, which we have not, for the two past
+ “years, received from your states.”
+
+He declares to Charles the Bald,⁹¹ that Theutberga having had recourse
+to the church, she could no longer be subject to a secular tribunal. In
+another letter to the same monarch,⁹² he announces that he writes no
+longer to Lothaire because he has excommunicated him. Lothaire, indeed,
+though he had taken back Theutberga, had not altogether relinquished
+Valdrade; and Nicholas would not be satisfied with a shew of compliance.
+
+ ⁸⁹ Coll. Histories of France, vol. 8, p. 419.
+
+ ⁹⁰ Ibid, p. 428.
+
+ ⁹¹ Ibid, p. 422.
+
+ ⁹² Ibid, p. 438.
+
+Theutberga, finally, wearied with these contests, designed renouncing
+for ever the titles of wife and of queen:—the pontiff would not permit
+it; he addressed her in a long epistle, in which he recommended to her
+perseverance and intrepidity, and directed her rather to die than to
+yield.⁹³
+
+The same principles relative to the jurisdiction and independence of the
+clergy, are to be found in ‘Nicholas’s Rescript to the Bulgarians:’⁹⁴
+
+ “You who
+ “are laymen,” says he to them,
+ “ought not to
+ “judge either priest or clerk: they must be left to
+ “the judgment of their prelates.”
+
+Thus, while the pope censures the conduct of kings, annuls or confirms
+their civil acts, and even disposes of their crowns, the members of the
+clerical body, to the lowest degree, are freed from all secular
+jurisdiction. Such is the _regime_ to which Nicholas wished to subject
+the East and the West. He especially had at heart to make Constantinople
+submit; and his first step was to condemn and depose the patriarch
+Photius, in defiance of the emperor Michael. He threatened to burn, in
+the face of the world, an energetic letter which this emperor had
+written him, to excommunicate the ministers who had advised him to this
+step, and to annul in a Western council whatever had been done for
+Photius in the East This quarrel, winch was prolonged under the
+successors of Nicholas, was the prelude to the schism of the Greek
+Church.
+
+ ⁹³ Concilior, vol. 8, p. 425.
+
+ ⁹⁴ Henry’s Eccles. Hist -b. 60. n. 61.
+
+Basilius Cephalas, or the Macedonian, assassinated his benefactor
+Michael, and seized upon the throne of Constantinople. Photius, on this
+occasion, was willing to imitate St. Ambrose, and ventured to address
+Basilius:
+
+ “Your hands are polluted with.
+ “blood: approach not the sacred mysteries.”
+
+But Basilius did not in any respect imitate Theodosius: he banished
+Photius, and re-established Ignatius, whom Michael had, not less
+unjustly, driven from, the patriarchal chair. Adrian II. took advantage
+from the disgrace of Photius to renew against him the anathemas of
+Nicholas. Photius, condemned already at Rome, was also condemned in a
+general council held at Constantinople.
+
+Charles the Bald and Lewis the German, impatient to divide between them
+the states of their nephew Lothaire, hoped that Adrian would finally
+excommunicate that prince. But Adrian did not think it suitable to
+provide such means of aggrandizing their domains: he permitted Lothaire
+to come to Rome, and admitted him to the holy table;—did not hesitate to
+absolve Valdrade herself, and. contented himself for such great
+condescension with the King of Lorraine’s oaths and promises. The
+monarch swore he had no connexion with Valdrade while she was under
+excommunication, and pledged himself never more to see her. Lothaire
+died at Placentia, a few days after taking this oath; and his death,
+which was considered as a punishment of his perjury,⁹⁵ produced the
+result for his two uncles, which they expected from his excommunication.
+They divided his kingdom between them, without respect to the rights
+which preceding treaties had given to the Emperor Louis.
+
+Adrian, of his own motion, declared himself the guardian and arbiter of
+the respective rights of the three princes; decreed the states of
+Lothaire to the emperor, who had not as yet claimed them; enjoined
+Charles and Louis, under the usual penalties of ecclesiastical censure,
+to renounce the partition they had dared to make; and menaced with the
+same punishment every lord or bishop who should support their
+usurpation.
+
+ ⁹⁵ Ann. Metens. ad. ann. 869.—Rhegin. Chron, ann. 869.
+
+But neither in France nor Germany were any found disposed to the
+obedience prescribed by Adrian—his commands were despised. Hincmar,
+archbishop of Rheims, replied to him in the name of the nation, that a
+bishop of Rome was not the dispenser of the crowns of Europe; that
+France never received her masters from the pope’s hands; that wild
+anathemas, launched forth from mere political motives, could not alarm a
+king of France; that, until Nicholas, the popes had never written to the
+French princes save respectful letters: in a word, that in reverencing
+the apostolical ministry of the pontiff, they knew how to resist
+efficaciously his attempts, whenever he sought to become at once both
+pope and king.⁹⁶
+
+ ⁹⁶ Hincmari Op. vol. 2, p. 689.—This letter is cited by Bossuet with
+ applause. Def. Cler. Gal. p. 2, b. 6, ch. 23.
+
+This letter, worthy of a more enlightened age, excited in the soul of
+Adrian the most violent anger. He knew that a son of Charles the Bald,
+named Carloman, had revolted against this monarch; he knew that another
+Hincmar, bishop of Laon, and nephew of the archbishop of Rheims, had
+taken part with Carloman, and carried his rashness so far as to
+excommunicate the king. Adrian declared himself the protector both of
+Carloman and the seditious bishop. The latter, seeing his acts annulled
+by his uncle, who was also his metropolitan, cited him before the Holy
+See:
+
+ “an insolent step,” says Pasquier.
+ “unknown and contrary to the ancient
+ “decrees, which do not wish that causes should
+ “pass the confines of the kingdom in which they
+ “had their origin.”
+
+They hesitated not to break this appeal, they even deposed the
+appellant. A second fit of rage seizes Adrian, who commands the king, by
+his apostolic power, to send the parties to Rome to await their judgment
+there. In the vigorous reply of Charles, he protests that the kings of
+France, sovereigns in their states, never shall humiliate themselves so
+far as to hold themselves but as popes’ lieutenants,:
+
+ "exhorting him, in fine,” adds Pasquier,
+ “that for the future he might desist from
+ “letters of such a nature towards him and his pre−
+ “lates, lest he should be obliged to reject them.”
+
+This epistle of Charles produced the effect which persevering firmness
+always secures: the holy father became softened, excused himself,
+abandoned Carloman, confirmed the deposition of the bishop of Laon, and
+said no more about the partition made of the states of Lothaire. He
+wrote the king a letter so full of professions of regard, of praises,
+and of promises, that it contained the request to keep it very secret:
+but it became and remains public.⁹⁷ Adrian died a short time after
+having written it, and John VIII. succeeded him in December, 872.
+
+ ⁹⁷ Concilior. vol. 8, p. 936.;—Coll. of Histories of France, vol. 7,
+ p. 456—468.
+
+The ravages of the Saracens in Italy, and especially about Rome, obliged
+the pope, John, to use a degree of management with the princes of
+Christendom. He refrained, for instance, from displeasing Basilius, when
+this emperor, having been reconciled to Photius, wished to replace this
+prelate in the patriarchal chair of Constantinople, which the death of
+Ignatius had left vacant. John, by his legates and letters, concurred in
+the acts of the Council of Constantinople, which restored Photius, and
+carried his desire to please the Greeks so far, as to blame those who
+had added the word ‘filioque,’ to the Creed.⁹⁸
+
+ ⁹⁸ Fleury’s Eccles. History, b. 53. n. 24.
+
+But the competition which divided the numerous ‘heritors of Charlemagne,
+offered more than one opportunity to John VIII. to constitute himself
+arbiter, in return for the services he rendered to some, the right of
+humiliating others, and of ruling over all.
+
+The Emperor Louis died in 875; and Charles the Bald, in order to obtain
+the imperial dignity, in prejudice of his elder brother, the king of
+Germany, had occasion to have recourse to the Holy Father.—John VIII.
+who did not expect to find in the German, and in his sons, defenders
+sufficiently powerful ’against the Saracens, preferred Charles, and took
+advantage of circumstances to dispose of the empire in favour of a king
+of France. He consecrated him emperor during the festival of Christmas.
+“We have adjudged him,” said he, “worthy of the imperial sceptre: we
+have raised him to the dignify and-power of the empire; we have adorned
+him with the title of Augustus.” Charles dearly repaid the ceremony of
+this coronation. He consented to date from this day all the charters he
+should henceforward subscribe: and, according to appearances, John must
+have obtained from him considerable sums, which served afterwards to pay
+the tributes enacted of him by the Saracens. It is even added, that
+Charles stripped himself in favor of the pope, of his sovereign rights
+over the city and territory of Rome; but the deed of such cession does
+not exist; contemporary historians, with one exception, say nothing of
+it: and John himself makes no mention of it in the letters of his which
+have reached us.
+
+In 877, when Charles had so much difficulty in defending France against
+the Normans, John drew him into Italy to fight the Saracens. “Do not
+forget,” he says to him, “from whom you hold the empire, and do not
+cause us to change our mind.” Charles survived this threat but a short
+time; and the imperial crown, which he had borne for so short a period,
+was again solicited from the sovereign pontiff by several competitors.
+This time John confined himself to promising it, in order to hold it for
+the highest price: for three years there was no Emperor of the West:
+none of those who were ambitious of the title were powerful enough to
+assert it without the aid of the court of Rome. Louis the Stammerer, son
+of Charles the Bald, succeeded him only as king of the French. The pope
+came into France in the first year of this reign, and presided at the
+Council of Troyes. He there fulminated anathemas against Lambert, duke
+of Spoleto, and against Adelbert, marquis of Tuscany; against Gosfrid,
+count of Mans; Bernard, marquis of Sep-temanei; and Hugues, son of
+Lothaire and Valdvade.
+
+It is decreed by one of the canons of this council, that the bishops
+shall be treated with respect by the secular authorities, and that none
+must be so bold as to be seated before them without their invitation.⁹⁹
+One of the projects of John VIII. was to exercise over the affairs of
+France a more immediate and habitual influence, through the medium of a
+legate of the Holy See; already even he had clothed with this title
+Angesius, archbishop of Sens: but this novelty was not pleasing to the
+other prelates, nor too much so to the monarch. Hincmair, especially,
+opposed it earnestly: he wrote a treatise to shew how pernicious it must
+be; and his brethren, instructed by his lessons and animated by his
+example, persevered in repelling this undertaking. The pope was indeed
+willing to relinquish it: in truth, he had much preferred obtaining
+military and pecuniary succours against the Saracens; but these were
+more abundantly promised than granted.
+
+Sergius, duke of the Neapolitans, continued to favour the Saracens,
+notwithstanding the anathemas of Rome, and in despite of the
+remonstrances of his brother Athanasius, bishop of Naples. Athanasius
+took the resolution to tear out Sergius’s eyes, and proclaim himself
+duke in his place. It is painful to relate, that the pope highly
+approved this crime, or as Fleury has it, ‘this proceeding:’¹⁰⁰
+
+ ⁹⁹ Concilior. vol. 9. p. 208.
+
+ ¹⁰⁰ Eccles. Hist. b. 52, n. 47.4
+
+But the letters are preserved which John wrote on this occasion,¹⁰¹ and
+in which he applauds Athanasius for having preferred God to his brother,
+and having, according to the precept of the gospel, ‘plucked out the
+eye’ that scandalized him. This barbarous, and almost ludicrous,
+application of a sacred text, opens to our view the character of John
+VIII. whose three hundred and twenty letters speak so perpetually of
+excommunication, that this menace presents itself as an ordinary and, as
+we may say, an indispensable formula.
+
+In 880, John disposed of the imperial crown; he gave it on Christmas-day
+to the son of Louis the Gorman, Charles-le-Gros, who in 884 became king
+of France, by the death of Louis III. and of Carlo-man, son of Louis the
+Stammerer. The names of these princes suffice to remind us of the
+decline of the Carlovingian race. A bishop of France wrote one day to
+Louis III.¹⁰²
+
+ “It was not you who chose
+ “me to govern the church; but it was I, with my
+ “colleagues, who chose you to govern the kingdom,
+ “on condition of observing its laws.”
+
+ ¹⁰¹ Joannis Epist ob.67.
+
+ ¹⁰² Millofs Elem. of Hist, of France, vol. 1. p. 194.
+
+And the bishop who held such language to his king, was the same Hincmar
+of Rheims, who had so energetically repelled the daring enterprizes of
+Adrian II. It seemed decreed that the monarch should have for his
+master, either the national clergy or the bishop of Rome; and already
+insecure against one of these powers, he inevitably sunk when they
+united.
+
+John VIII. died in 882, and we may reckon up ten popes after him, in the
+course of the eighteen last years of the ninth century; none of whom had
+time to render themselves illustrious by any very great undertaking. We
+shall only observe, that the election of Stephen V. in 885, was, after
+his installation, examined and confirmed by Charles-le-Gros;¹⁰³ that
+the deposition of this emperor in 887, was pronounced, not by the
+ecclesiastical authority, but by an assembly of the German and French
+nobles;¹⁰⁴ that Formosus, in interfering in a dispute between Eudes and
+Charles the Simple, spoke at least a language more evangelical, and less
+haughty, than in similar circumstances had been held by Nicholas II.
+Adrian II. and John VIII. Formosus crowned two emperors, Lambert in 892,
+Amulf in 896: and in both these ceremonies, the Romans took the oath of
+fidelity to the prince, ‘saving the faith pledged to the Lord
+Formosus.’¹⁰⁵ This pope, in other respects, is only famous from the
+proceedings which his memory, and his corpse, experienced from his
+successors:—deplorable scenes, which are, however, foreign to the
+subject of which we treat.
+
+ ¹⁰³ Art of verifying dates, vol. i. p. 267.
+
+ ¹⁰⁴ Muratori’s Annals of Italy, year 887.
+
+ ¹⁰⁵ Liutprand. b.i. c. 8.—-St. Marc. Ab.of Hist of Italy, v.ii. p. 63.
+
+In 898, during the pontificate of John IX. Arnulf was declared an
+usurper of the imperial dignity, and Lambert re-assumed the title of
+Emperor. The pope held, on this occasion, a council at Ravenna, in which
+the sovereignty of the Western Emperors over Rome and the Ecclesiastical
+State, was recognized by many decrees.¹⁰⁶ The following is the most
+important:
+
+ “Considering that on the death
+ “of a sovereign pontiff, the Church is exposed to
+ “great and many disorders, when the new pope is
+ “consecrated without the privity of the emperor,
+ “and without waiting for his commissioners, whose
+ “authority might prevent the outrages and irregu−
+ “larities which generally attend on this ceremony;
+ “we desire that for the future the pope be nomi−
+ “nated by the bishops and clergy, on being pro−
+ “posed by the senate and the people; that, after
+ “having thus solemnly and publicly elected him,
+ “they consecrate him in presence of the commis−
+ "saries of the emperor; and, that no person dare,
+ “with impunity, under any pretence whatsoever,
+ “exact of him other promises or other oaths, than
+ “those which have been sanctioned by ancient
+ “usage; so that the church may neither suffer
+ “scandal nor injury, and that the authority of the
+ “emperor may receive no detriment.”
+
+ ¹⁰⁶ SC Marc. Ab. of Hist of Italy, vol. 2, p. 636—640,
+
+But, in thus rendering homage to the imperial dignity, the popes seem to
+have reserved to themselves, by way of compensation, the right of
+conferring it. After the death of Lambert, and of Arnulf, the bishops
+and lords of Bavaria elected, in 899, a son of Arnulf, named Louis, and
+solicited the pope to confirm this election, excusing themselves for
+having made it without his approbation, in consequence of the pagans,
+that is the Hungarians, having cut off the passage into Italy. Neither
+John IX. nor his successor, Benedict IV. were in haste to crown Louis.
+After the example of John VIII. they endeavoured to accustom the Romans
+to dispense with an emperor: the empire remained vacant till 901.
+
+We must recognize in the partition of the States of Charlemagne between
+the sons of Louis-le-De-bonnaire, and in the subsequent subdivisions of
+these states, the principal cause of the degradation of the civil
+authority, and the metamorphose of the pontifical ministry into a
+tremendous power:¹⁰⁷
+
+ “Hence,” says Velly,
+ “these enterprises of the popes, who,
+ “considering themselves as the dispensers of an
+ “empire, of which they were only the first subjects,
+ “assumed under the cloak of a purely spiritual
+ “authority, to dispose sovereignly of empires.
+ “Hence, the enormous power of the bishops, who,
+ “after having dethroned the father at the solicitation
+ “of the children, believed themselves empowered to
+ “elect, confirm or depose their masters; ambitious
+ “prelates, rather warriors than priests, scarcely
+ “knowing how to read, much less write; terrible
+ “notwithstanding, as well from the spiritual thunders
+ “which they after, as Pasquier expresses it, tilted
+ “too freely and carelessly with, as from the tem−
+ “poral power which they had usurped in their cities
+ “and dioceses. Hence these almost independent
+ “principalities that the monks established in those
+ “countries, where some years before they tilled, with
+ “their own hands, the grounds which a pious liberally
+ “had abandoned to them.”
+
+ ¹⁰⁷ Hist of France, vol. 2 (in 12), p. 244.
+
+Although there had been no authentic act which erected the pope into a
+sovereign, and which freed from the imperial supremacy the authority
+which he exercised at Rome, his power nevertheless became in effect
+independent; and as, in consecrating the emperors, he already considered
+himself as creating them, since he dared to speak of their dignity as a
+favour for which they were indebted to him, he doubtless had the means
+of placing limits to that obedience which they might be desirous of
+exacting from him. Far from imposing laws on him in his own states, they
+often acquiesced in his, even in the exercise of their civil rights and
+political powers. In the course of the succeeding centuries, every thing
+depended, not on the progress of ignorance or the return of knowledge
+alone, but on the personal energy of the kings and of the pontiffs
+individually.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III. TENTH CENTURY
+
+
+PROTESTANTS take a malicious pleasure in pourtraying the court of Rome
+in the tenth century, and in extracting from Liutprand a contemporary
+author, the unedifying details with which he has filled up the
+ecclesiastical and political history of this period. But without
+examining whether the relations of this writer are as faithful as they
+are satirical, we may say with Fleury¹⁰⁸ that Rome under these unworthy
+popes ceased not to be the centre of Christendom. We may add with other
+theologians, that so many abuses not having drawn after them the
+destruction of the Holy See, their very excess serves to manifest the
+care of Providence to maintain this visible focus of Catholic unity.
+
+ ¹⁰⁸ Discour. 4, a. 10.
+
+For the rest, the private lives of the popes is not the object which
+claims our attention; we shall only consider their political relations
+with secular governments. In confining ourselves to this view, we shall
+not be troubled with unravelling the thread of succession, somewhat
+confused, of thirty popes, who, in the course of this century, have
+occupied, more or less legitimately, the chair of St. Peter. When two
+shall start up at the same moment, we shall not stop to inquire which of
+them is the true one; we shall not take on us to decide between
+Baronius, who never wishes to recognize save the worthiest or the most
+canonically elected, and those authors who adhere to the most effective,
+that is, to the man who has more decisively exercised the pontifical
+power: these are delicate questions, requiring long discussions, and the
+investigation of a multitude of petty circumstances, foreign to the
+history of those great disputes between the pontiffs and kings. In the
+midst of those things and of those changes, two points appear to us
+incontrovertible; one, that the Holy See was at this period reckoned in
+the number of temporal governments; the other, that occupied with its
+own affairs, and the interior troubles which agitated it, it lost,
+without, a large portion of the influence and power which the preceding
+century had bequeathed to it. The first of these consequences is
+confirmed by Constantine Porphyrogenites, the Greek Emperor, who,
+previous to the middle of the tenth century, digested a sort of
+statistical table of the east and of the west: he in it represents the
+popes as ‘sovereigns of Rome’.
+
+Even in modifying this incorrect expression, we must admit, that this
+text places the bishops of Rome in the rank of princes who immediately
+governed states. As to the second conclusion, it followed almost of
+course: pleasure ever extinguishes the fire of ambition, discord
+shackles power, and the intrigues which employ us within, suspend our
+exterior projects; he who is compelled to defend himself in the bosom of
+his palace never meditates distant attacks. The excommunications so
+familiar to Gregory III. to Nicholas I. and to John VIII. menace,
+therefore, less frequently crowned heads. Theological opinions
+themselves become less exposed to anathemas. We find no general council,
+no new heresy in the tenth century.
+
+This century may be divided into four epochs. The first would terminate
+in 932; it would be characterised by the influence of Theodore and her
+daughters. The second would present the administration of Alberic, and
+of his son, up to 962. The third would open with the coronation of Otho
+as emperor, and would terminate with the death of this prince in 973.
+The consulate of Crescentius would designate the fourth.
+
+The inhabitants of Rome had never ceased to nourish ideas of
+independence; old customs led them back to republican forms. Their city
+did not belong to the kingdom of Italy; it held only from the imperial
+crown, which the pontiff himself had so far the disposal of, as
+occasionally to keep it in reserve. We have noticed examples of this
+interregnum of the empire, under John VIII. and John IX. p 906, when the
+eyes of Louis III. who on this account was called: the Blind, had been
+put out, the Romans ceased to insert his name in the public acts; and
+although this, unfortunate prince persevered in assuming the title of
+emperor, the imperial dignity actually remained vacant, until the
+coronation, of Berengariusin 916.¹⁰⁹ During these interregnums, Rome
+accustomed herself to consider, her pontiff, alone as her sovereign, or
+rather her own, citizens, nobles, priests, or; sometimes even plebeans.
+This, collective sovereign, created popes, and sometimes unmade them.
+There had been seven or eight of these elections, or revolutions, in the
+course of the first fourteen years of the tenth century; and each time
+two factions were seen attacking each other, into which the Roman
+nobility was divided, from the time of the proceedings against the
+memory of Formosus. Some authors discover at this era, the origin of the
+Guelphs, and Ghibelins: we must confess, we only behold as yet the
+families which disputed the papacy, or these influence exercised, as
+well over the electors as over the elected.
+
+ ¹⁰⁹ St Marc. Ab. Hist of Italy, vol, 2, pa. 668.
+
+A party in favour of the Western Emperors is the least to be
+distinguished in the midst of these troubles; we rather have to remark a
+tendency, weak at first, towards the Greek emperors, but which
+disposition became much more evident towards the close of this century.
+From the year 907, Rome behaved with complaisance to Leo VI. called the
+Philosopher, whose fourth marriage had been censured by the patriarch of
+Constantinople. The power of the clergy was, at this period, more
+formidable at a distance from Rome than in the capital of Christendom.
+William of Aquitaine, in founding the abbey of Cluni, about the year
+910, declared, that these monks should never be subject to him, to his
+relatives, or descendants, nor to any earthly power.¹¹⁰ In Northern and
+Western Europe the monks inherited, without being inherited of, and the
+edifice of their formidable opulence rapidly a rose. They made not such
+a hasty progress in the Roman State, where, under ephemeral popes, the
+elective chiefs of a species of republic, the intrigues attached to such
+a system occupied every mind. In the midst of these political movements,
+three female patricians arose, provided with all the resources of
+influence with which rank, talents and beauty could arm ambition.
+Theodora, the mother of the other two, seduced the nobles, calmed
+faction, subjected to her authority the Church itself, and finally
+softened public manners by corrupting them.
+
+ ¹¹⁰ Concilior. vol. 9. p. 565—Bibl. Clun. —Fleury’s Eccles. Hist. b.
+ 54, n. 45.
+
+One of her lovers, at first bishop of Bologna, she raised to the
+archbishopric of Ravenna, and, subsequently, to the sovereign
+pontificate, which he filled under the name of John X. from 914 to 928.
+We cannot make a favorable report of the holiness of this pontiff, but
+in his character, as head of a state, he merits fewer reproaches. He did
+not dispute the rights of other sovereigns; he acknowledged that it
+belonged to kings alone to invest bishops¹¹¹ he reconciled the princes
+whose rivalries destroyed Italy: on placing the imperial crown on the
+head of Berengarius, he endeavoured to ally him with the Greek Emperor
+against the Saracens, their common enemies: he himself marched against
+these Mahometans, fought them with more bravery than belongs to the
+office of a pope, and drove them from the neighbourhood of Rome.
+
+ ¹¹¹ Concil. Gall. vol. 3, p. 565.
+
+It appears that Theodora died previous to the year 928. Marosia, one of
+her daughters, after having united herself in second marriage with Guy
+of Tuscany, dethroned John and cast him into prison, where in a short
+time he died, no doubt a violent death. He had for successors, a Leo VI.
+and a Stephen VII.. creatures of Marosia’s, and finally John XI. a young
+man of twenty to twenty-five years of age, of whom she herself was the
+mother, and whom she had borne to Pope Sergius II. according to
+Fleury¹¹² Baronius¹¹³ Sigowus¹¹⁴ and many others, who adopt on this
+head the relation of Liutprand.¹¹⁵ Muratori¹¹⁶ makes Alberic, the
+first husband of Marosia, the father of John XI. However it be, this
+woman governed Rome, under the pontificate of her son, to the year 932,
+the era of a new revolution. Marosia in her third nuptials took for
+husband Hugues king of Provence, maternal brother of Guy of Tuscany.
+This third spouse being disposed to maltreat Alberic, another son of
+Marosia’s, a party devoted to young Alberic put him at the head of
+affairs: Hugues was driven from the city, and John XI. continued to fill
+in form, but without any actual power, the chair of St. Peter.
+
+ ¹¹² Eccles. Hist. b. 66. n. 5.
+
+ ¹¹³ Annal. Eccl. ad. ann. 931.
+
+ ¹¹⁴ De regnorum Ital. b. 6, p. 400.
+
+ ¹¹⁵ Lib. 3, c. 12, p. 410.
+
+ ¹¹⁶ Annali Italia ad ann. 931.
+
+At this period commenced, in Rome, a secular government which continued
+about thirty years. Alberic with the title of consul or patrician,
+selected the popes, ruled them, and held them in dependence. Out of the
+city, the popes only possessed the property in the land; which they had
+infeoffed in order to secure a part. An armed nobility had arisen in
+their domains, which were now no longer part of their states, or which
+had never so been. They were ignorant, in those barbarous ages, of the
+art of distant government, the art of establishing over extensive
+territories an energetic system of unity, subordination, and connection.
+This art has been perfected only in modern times; and its absence in the
+middle ages, was probably a principal cause of the establishment and
+progress of feudal anarchy. They knew not how to retain an empire of any
+extent, but by parcelling it out to vassals, who were desirous of
+becoming independent, wherever the personal weakness of their liege lord
+permitted them to become so. The pope, therefore, from 932 till towards
+966, was but bishop of Rome, without any secular power, and his
+spiritual influence was very much restricted. Properly speaking, the
+Emperor of the West had also disappeared: for Henry the Fowler did not
+assume this title in his diplomas: he characterised himself only as
+‘patron’ or ‘advocate’ of the Romans:¹¹⁷ and this vain title, below
+even that of patrician, embraced no authority, no duty, no political
+relation. With what independence Alberic ruled his fellow citizens, we
+can judge: he convoked them periodically in national assemblies; he
+preserved or renewed in the midst of them, the republican forms he
+supposed favourable to the support of his personal authority. Alberic
+died in 954; and his son Octavian, who succeeded him, thought it
+requisite to strengthen the civil power by re-annexing it to the
+pontifical dignity: he became pope in 956, and took the title of John
+XII. This double power would have been adequate to the restoration of
+the Holy See, if the extreme youth of John, the mediocrity of his
+talents, and the enterprises of Berengarius II. king of Italy, had not
+led to the re-establishment of the imperial dignity. John having need of
+Otho King of Germany to oppose to Berengarius, he crowned him emperor in
+962.
+
+ ¹¹⁷ Art of verifying dates, vol. 2, p. 10.
+
+Berengarius and his son Adalbert were deposed: Otho reunited to his
+kingdom of Germany, that of Italy, and the imperial crown. In order to
+acquire such extensive power, he made most magnificent promises to the
+Roman Church, and received in return the oaths and the homage of the
+pope. These documents of Otho’s and of John are still in existence:
+Gratian has delivered them to us in his canonical compilation; and if
+their authenticity be disputed, the source is unquestionable.¹¹⁸ Otho
+confirmed the donations of Pepin, of Charlemagne, and of Louis I. he
+extended them perhaps, but expressly reserving to himself, the
+sovereignty over the city of Rome and all the ecclesiastical domains:
+“saving in every respect, he says, our own power and that of our son and
+our successors.”¹¹⁹
+
+ ¹¹⁸ Liutprand, b. 6, c. 6.—Pagi. Crit. Ann. Baron, ann. 962 —Fleury.
+ Eccles. Hist. b. 06, n. 1.
+
+ ¹¹⁹ “This clause,” says Fleury, “shews, that the Emperor always
+ preserved to himself the sovereignty and jurisdiction over Rome,
+ and all places embraced in this donation: and the sequel of
+ history will prove it.”
+
+The constitutions which required the emperor’s consent in the
+installation of a pope were renewed: Otho considered himself even
+invested with a right to depose the Roman pontiffs, and deferred not to
+lay hold on an occasion for exercising it. Scarcely had he left Rome,
+when John XII. measuring with terror the extent of the imperial
+authority, repented having re-established it, and conceived the idea of
+getting rid of it: Berengarius and Adalbert, with whom he had promised
+to hold no intercourse, were to assist him in this undertaking. The
+emperor who was soon apprised of it, received at the same time some
+relation respecting the private conduct of the pontiff: it was not the
+most edifying. Otho, appeared to pay but little attention to these
+recitals:
+
+ “The pope, said he, is a child; the example of wor−
+ “thy men may convert him; prudent remonstrance
+ “may draw him from the precipice down which he
+ “is ready to cast himself.”
+
+John received very ill these paternal counsels; he drew Adalbert to
+Rome, affected receiving him with pomp, collected troops, and openly
+revolted against the emperor, in defiance of the approach of this prince
+and his army. But the forces were too unequal: John was compelled to fly
+to Capua with Adalbert.¹²⁰
+
+ ¹²⁰ Eccles. Hist. b.66. n. 6.
+
+Otho entered Rome, and after receiving from the Romans an oath not to
+recognize any pope not approved of by the emperor, he wrote to John XII.
+a letter, which Fleury¹²¹ relates in these words:
+
+ “Being come to Rome for the service of God,
+ “when we demanded of the bishops and cardinals
+ “the occasion of your absence, they advanced
+ “against you things so shameful that they would be
+ “unworthy the folk of the theatre. All, clergy as
+ “well as laity, accuse you of homicide, perjury, sa−
+ “crilege, incest with your relatives, and with two
+ “sisters, and with having invoked irreverently Ju−
+ “piter, Venus, and other demons. We therefore
+ “beg of you to hasten instantly to exculpate your−
+ “self from all these charges. If you have any appre−
+ “hensions from the insolence of the people, we
+ “promise you that nothing shall be done contrary
+ “to the canons.”
+
+ ¹²¹ Eccles. Hist b. 56. n. 6.
+
+In reply the pope declared that he would excommunicate the bishops who
+should dare to co-operate in the election of a sovereign pontiff. This
+menace did not impede the council assembled by Otho, from deposing John
+XII, and electing Leo VIII., notwithstanding some nobles attached to the
+family of Alberic excited two seditions, one under the very eyes of the
+emperor, the other immediately after his departure. The second of these
+commotions replaced John on the pontifical throne, which he stained on
+this occasion with the most horrible vengeance: he confined himself not
+to excommunications, but caused to be executed or mutilated all who had
+concurred in his deposition. His sudden death suspended the course of
+these cruel executions: he perished from a stroke on the temple, applied
+at night by the hand of some secret enemy, no doubt by one of the
+husbands outraged by the Holy Father¹²² The Romans in contempt of all
+the oaths they had taken to the emperor, gave him a a successor in
+Benedict V: but Leo VIII. who had taken refuge with Otho, was soon led
+back to Rome by this prince; and Benedict the true pope according to
+Baronius¹²³ acknowledged himself the antipope at the feet of the head
+of the empire, stripped himself of his pontifical vestments, sought
+pardon for having dared to assume them, and finally offered his homage
+to Leo as the legitimate successor of St. Peter¹²⁴ The German
+publicists¹²⁵ have no doubt of the authenticity of an act, which Otho
+caused Leo to subscribe at the time, addressed to the clergy and people
+of Rome: it is stated in it, that no person for the future shall have
+the privilege of electing the pope, or other bishop, without the
+emperor’s consent; that the bishops elected by the clergy and the people
+shall not be consecrated until the emperor shall have confirmed the
+election, with the exception, however, of certain prelacies, the
+investiture of which the emperor cedes to the archbishops; that Otho,
+king of the Germans, and his successors in the kingdom of Italy, shall
+have the power in perpetuity of selecting those who shall reign after
+them; and that of nominating the popes, as well as the archbishops and
+bishops who receive from these princes their investiture “by the cross
+and the ring.”
+
+ ¹²² Bellarmine, says John XII, was almost the most vicious of the
+ popes. Fait feri omnium deterrimus. De Rom. pontif. 6. 2. e. 29.
+
+ ¹²³ Ann. Eccles. ad. aim. 964.
+
+ ¹²⁴ Liutprand. I. 6. c. ult.—Vita Joannis xii. vol. 3. Rer. ltd. 1.
+ ii. pa. 328.
+
+ ¹²⁵ See Pleffell. Abr. Chron. of the History of the Public Rights of
+ Germany, ann. 964; Koch’s Sketch of the Revolutions of Europe. 3d
+ period etc.
+
+With the exception of these last words the act is delivered down to us
+in Grotius’s decree; yet some Italian authors consider it apocryphal,
+without, assigning any other reason for this opinion than the enormous
+extent¹²⁶ which this constitution seems to confer on the imperial
+power. We may, however, assert in this place, that though the
+authenticity of this text be not very rigororously insisted on, the
+testimony of contemporary historians¹²⁷ invariably proves, that Otho
+obliged Leo VIII. to subscribe an explicit recognition of the imperial
+rights.
+
+ ¹²⁶ These decrees are inventions in which we find exorbitant
+ concessions to the imperial power, as well in the spiritualities
+ as temporalities of the Church of Rome. Cardinal Baronius in his
+ Ecclesiastical Annals, 964, father Pagi in his Critique on
+ Baronius, and others, have wisely rejected similar impostures.
+ Muratori’s Annals of Italy, year 964. vol. 6. p. 410.
+
+ ¹²⁷ Liutprand. 1. 6, c. 6.—See vol. Pannom. 1. 8. c. 136; Grationi
+ Decretum dis. c. 73; De Marca Concord. 1. 8, c. 12; St Marc. Abd.
+ Hist, of Italy, vol. 4. dog. 1167, 1185.
+
+The recent revolt of John XII. sufficed to excite in the emperor an
+anxiety for this new guarantee: and Leo, his own creature, had no power
+of placing restrictions to it. The act was such as Otho willed it to be
+and this prince, a conqueror and a benefactor, would not rest satisfied
+with an ambiguous formula.
+
+Leo VIII. and Benedict V. died in 965; the commissioners of Otho caused
+the election of John XIII. but the Romans revolted against this new
+pope, and banished him. Otho was obliged to return into Italy, and
+hasten to Rome to subdue the seditious and restore the pontiff. John
+could forgive none of his enemies: he signalized his return by atrocious
+vengeances, of which the emperor condescended to become the accomplice
+and the instrument. They have tarnished the glory of this prince, and
+justified the indifferent reception, at this period, of one of his
+ambassadors to the Greek emperor, Nicephoras Phocas.:
+
+ “The impiety of thy master, said the empe−
+ “ror of Constantinople to the ambassador of Otho,
+ “does not allow us to receive thee honorably: thy
+ “master has become the tyrant of his Roman sub−
+ “ejects; he has exiled some, he has torn out the
+ “eyes of others; he has exterminated one−half of his
+ “people by the sword and by the scaffold.”
+
+The ambassador to whom this discourse was addressed, was the historian
+Liutprand, who himself relates it.
+
+Otho, however, was not cruel by nature; in this instance he only yielded
+to the importunities of the vindictive John.
+
+The successes of Otho the Great, his excursions to Rome from the year
+962 to 966, laid the foundation of the power of the German emperors, his
+successors. He wished the imperial dignity to become forever inseparable
+from the united kingdoms of Germany and Italy; that Christendom in its
+full extent might form a republic which should recognize in the emperor
+its sole temporal head; that it should be the privilege of this supreme
+chief, to convoke councils, command the armies of Christendom, establish
+or depose popes, to preside over, and to create kings. But in order to
+elevate himself to such a pinnacle of greatness, he had need to manœuvre
+the German bishops; they, therefore, received from him enormous
+concessions. He distinguished the cities into two kinds, prefectorial,
+and royal, since imperial, and confided the government of the latter to
+the bishops, who laboured hard to render them episcopal. The bishops
+became Counts and Dukes with royal prerogatives, such as the
+administration of justice, privilege of coining money, collecting
+customs, and other public revenues. It was by the title of fiefs, and on
+condition of following him in his military expeditions, that Otho
+gratified them with such power and wealth: but these dangerous
+benefactions, in abridging the domains of the crown and the revenues of
+the State, served the ends of future anarchy and revolution. The clergy,
+as well the secular as regular, required in most of the countries of
+Europe a formidable power, which would have been further encreased, if
+already some symptoms of rivalry between these two bodies had not
+fettered their common aggrandizement. Converts multiplied from day to
+day, and enriched themselves almost beyond bounds. The Church’s period
+of 1000 years was about to expire; and donations to the church,
+especially to monasteries, passed for the most certain assurance against
+eternal damnation. From the retirement of the cloisters arose important
+personages, before whom the thrones of the world were humbled. Dunstan,
+from Glastonbury Abbey, sprung forward to govern Great Britain, to
+insult queens, and subject kings to penance. Otho the Great was at this
+period the only prince of Christendom who fully ruled the ecclesiastical
+authority: and if there remained among any people, ideas or ‘habitudes’
+of civil independence, it was among the Romans in the centre of
+Christianity itself.
+
+The reign of Otho the Great, is the era to which we would willingly
+refer the origin of the two factions, the papal and imperial, since
+called those of the Guelphs and Ghibelins. But in the tenth century, the
+partisans of the pope, were only citizens, emulous of obtaining the
+independence of their city or republic, and to withdraw their elective
+head from all domination. Some would have even preferred a civil
+magistracy simply, as that of Alberic; they united rather in opposition
+to the emperor, than in favor of the pontiffs chosen without, or in
+defiance of, his authority. Such were the elements of the factions,
+which revolted with John XII. which nominated Benedict V. and which
+repelled, as far as in their power, Leo VIII. and John XIII. The emperor
+had no partizans at Rome save his personal agents, and a few of the
+inhabitants; the rest were subjected only by his presence or his arms.
+Thus this pontifical faction which, in the sequel, appears to have
+supported the most monstrous excesses of pontifical ambition, was
+originally but a republican party, that more than once, it had been easy
+to engage in the destruction of the temporal power of the popes, by
+conferring on the Romans, and on some others of the cities of Italy, a
+suitable government.
+
+Otho died in 973; and from his death to the pontificate of Gerbert or
+Sylvester II. the most remarkable events are, the accession of Hugh
+Capet to the throne of France, the excommunication pronounced against
+his son Robert, and the attempts of Crescentius to force Rome from the
+yokes of Otho II. and Otho HI. the feeble successors of Otho the Great.
+
+Crescentius was the son of Theodora, and, according to Fleury, of Pope
+John X. We behold him governing Rome in quality of Consul towards 980;
+but it is probable that from the year 974, he exercised a considerable
+influence; stormy or weak pontificates restored the civil magistracy.
+Benedict VI. the successor of John XIII. had been dethroned, imprisoned,
+and strangled, or condemned to die of hunger. Boniface VII. the usurper
+of the Holy See, after having plundered the churches, fled with his
+booty to Constantinople: they hesitated not to fill his place, and the
+imperial influence determined the election in favor of Benedict VII. who
+belonged to the family of Alberic, now counts of Tusculum; a powerful
+family, by whom the Emperor Otho II. and his agents, strengthened the
+German party. But this emperor occupied in a war with the Greeks in the
+Duchy of Beneventum, feared to displease the Romans by taking too active
+a part in their affairs. He therefore prevented not Crescentius, who had
+obtained their confidence, from ruling both the city and its bishop. In
+983, when Benedict VII. died, the Romans and their consul elected John
+XVI. Boniface, however, returned from Constantinople, made himself
+master of Rome and of the person of John, caused him to perish in a
+dungeon, and maintained himself during the space of eleven months, at
+the head of the city and of the church. There is reason to think that
+Crescentius contributed to the fall of Boniface, whom a sudden death
+snatched from the vengeance of the people. John XV. elected in 985, had
+disputes with the consul, who exiled him, and did not agree to see him
+until the pope had promised to respect the popular authority. In despite
+of this promise, Otho III. was called into Italy by John, who submitted
+with reluctance to the ascendancy of Crescentius. John died at the
+moment he expected to see himself delivered from this governor. Otho
+III. nominated for pope a German, who took the name of Gregory V.: this
+foreign pontiff elected by the influence of the Counts of Tusculum, on
+the approach of the imperial army, odious on every account to the
+Romans, became still more displeasing to them from German manners and
+hauteur¹²⁸ It was at this moment Crescentius formed the project of
+replacing Rome under the sovereign authority of the Greek emperors,
+masters at once more gentle and more remote, accustomed to respect the
+privileges of the people, and under whose protection the Neapolitans and
+Venetians breathed freely and prospered. Greek ambassadors proceeded to
+Rome under pretence of fulfilling a mission to the court of Otho; they
+conferred with the consul, who deferred not to expel Gregory, and to
+replace him by a Greek named Philogathus, who from being bishop of
+Placentia, became pope or anti-pope under the name of John XVI. But Otho
+came to Rome, and laid hold of this new pontiff, whom Gregory condemned,
+in spite of the prayers of St. Nil, to lose his life by a series of the
+most horrible torments. Crescen-tius had retired to the wall of Adrian;
+they affected to treat with him, they pledged themselves to respect his
+person: he relied on this promise given by the emperor, quitted the
+fortress, submitted himself to Otho, and was instantly beheaded with his
+most faithful partisans.
+
+ ¹²⁸ Bellarmine and others, have attributed to Gregory V. the
+ institution of the seven electorates of the empire: this absurd
+ opinion has been often refuted. See for example, Natal. Alex.
+ Dissert. 18, in secul, 9 and 10; Maimbourg’s Hist, of the decline
+ of the empire, 1. 2, &c.; and Dupin’s Treatise on the
+ ecclesiastical power, p. 270.
+
+It was John XV. who filled the chair of St. Peter, when in 987 Hugh
+Capet dethroned the Carlovingian race, and made himself king of France.
+This prince knew how to make this necessary revolution acceptable to the
+French nobles and bishops; it proceeded without commotion, and above all
+without the intervention of the Roman Court. Hugh did not apply to John
+as Pepin before had done to Zachary; and the happiness of not being
+indebted to the Holy See, for his elevation, was without doubt, one of
+the causes of the security of Hugh, the long duration of his dynasty,
+and the propagation of those maxims of independence, which have
+distinguished and done honour to the Gallican church. These maxims were
+proclaimed from the reign of Hugh, by a bishop of Orleans, and by
+Gerbert archbishop of Rheims¹²⁹ It was in the affair of an archbishop
+of this same city of Rheims, named Arnoul, who had betrayed the new
+king, and whom this prince had deposed. John wished to re-establish
+Arnoul and annul the election of Gerbert; but the monarch was firm, and,
+while he lived, Gerbert remained in the See of Rheims, and Arnoul in the
+prison of Orleans.
+
+ ¹²⁹ Velly’s Hist, of France, vol. 2, p. 275, &c.
+
+Robert, son of Hugh, did not resist with equal success the attempts of
+Gregory V. Robert had married Bertha, although she was his relative in
+the fourth degree, and that he had been godfather of a son that she had
+by the Count of Chartres, her first husband. They exclaimed against a
+marriage made in contempt of two such serious impediments. Too much
+terrified by these clamours, Robert resolved to restore Arnoul to the
+See of Rheims: this complaisance by which he hoped to reconcile himself
+to the See of Rome, appeared but an indication of his weakness. The pope
+did not hesitate to declare the marriage void; he excommunicated the two
+spouses, and Robert, compelled to part Bertha, married Constance. This
+pliability has been much urged against him; but after the
+re-establishment of Arnoul, a perseverance in retaining Bertha would
+have led almost infallibly to fatal consequences. We must consider that
+Robert was the second king of his family; that this new dynasty had
+scarcely reigned ten years; that Gerbert, one of the most judicious men
+of this epoch, had left the King of France in order to attach himself to
+Otho III.; that this emperor had appeared at the council in which
+Gregory V. had excommunicated the son of Hugh; and finally, that these
+anathemas were then so dreadful, that at the present day we can scarcely
+avoid suspecting exaggeration in what is related to us of their
+effects.¹³⁰ It was the first time France beheld herself placed under an
+interdict, and that she received the injunction to suspend the
+celebration of the divine offices; the administration of the sacrament
+to adults, and religious sepulture to the dead. We are assured that
+Robert, when excommunicated, was abandoned by his courtiers, his
+relations, his household, and that even two servants who remained with
+him caused to pass through the fire the things which he had touched.
+
+ ¹³⁰ “I know,” says Bossuet, “that Peter Damien assures us, that no
+ person held intercourse with the king, except two servants for the
+ necessary occasions of life. But, either those of whom the pious
+ Cardinal received this information have exaggerated, or at least
+ we must suppose that the public officers continued to exercise
+ their duties, since without it the government could not subsist an
+ instant. Besides if it were true, that the exercise of certain
+ public offices had been suspended for some time, all history would
+ testify to this interregnum, and relate the confusion which would
+ have resulted from it.” Defence of the Grail. Cler. p. 2,1. 6, c.
+ 27. Bossuet also observes, that at the moment in which Robert was
+ struck with these terrible anathemas, nobody thought or asserted
+ that this excommunication could carry the least attaint to the
+ sovereign authority of this monarch.
+
+This Gerbert whom we have mentioned, became pope after Gregory V. by the
+name of Sylvester II. It was he who, being archbishop of Rheims, and
+seeing himself condemned by John XV. had expressed himself in these
+words:¹³¹
+
+ “If the bishop of
+ “Rome sin against his brother, and that, often warn−
+ “ed, he obey not the church, he ought to be re−
+ “garded as a publican: the more elevated the rank,
+ “the greater the fall. When St. Gregory said, that
+ “the church ought to fear the sentence of its pastors,
+ “whether just or unjust, he did not mean to recom−
+ “mend this fear to the bishops, who do not consti−
+ “tute the flock, but are the heads and leaders thereof.
+ “Let us not furnish our enemies with an occasion to
+ “suppose that the priesthood, which is one in every
+ “church, be in such sort subject to a sovereign pon−
+ “tiff that if this pontiff suffer himself to be corrupted
+ “by money, favor, fear or ignorance, no person can
+ “hence be a bishop, unless he upholds himself by
+ “such means. The church has for a rule, the
+ “Scriptures, the decrees, and the canons of the Holy
+ “See, when these are conformable to Scripture.”
+
+Driven from Rheims, Gerbert was received by Otho the III., who created
+him, first, archbishop of Ravenna, then head of the church in 998. He
+died in 1002, after having in this short pontificate, confirmed as far
+as in his power, the imperial authority at Rome, and refused the
+indications of independence which had agitated her citizens.
+
+We cannot take leave of the 10th centuiy, without lamenting the gross
+ignorance into which Europe was plunged. Possessions were regulated by
+custom, and transactions pursued by remembrance alone. In the midst of
+these people, these nobles, these kings, who knew neither how to read
+nor write, the rudest instruction was, in the clergy suffered to put
+them in possession of the civil administration.¹³²
+
+ ¹³¹ Concilior. vol. 9, p. 744. A discourse which Arnoul bishop of
+ Orleans, pronounced in the Council of Rheims in 991, has been
+ occasionally cited under the name of Gerbert, which discourse may
+ be read in the history of this council revised by Gerbert. This
+ very remarkable document is too long to be inserted here.
+
+ ¹³² Researches on France, b. 8, c. 13.
+
+ “The ecclesiastics, says Pasquier, di−
+ “vide among themselves the keys as well of reli−
+ “gion as of letters, altho’ so to speak, they derived
+ “from these only sufficient provision for their
+ “cubs.”
+
+They alone could spell ancient writings, and trace some letters. They
+assumed the dictating of wills, the regulation of marriages, contracts,
+and public acts; they extorted legacies and donations, they freed
+themselves from the secular jurisdiction, and endeavoured to subject all
+things to a jurisprudence of their own.¹³³
+
+ ¹³³ Velly’s Hist, of France, vol. 2, p. 293.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. ENTERPRISES OF THE POPES OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY
+
+
+A SHORT time after the death of Sylvester II. a patrician, consuls,
+twelve senators, a prefect, and popular assemblies, were seen to
+re-appear at Rome. A second Crescentius, the son perhaps of the first,
+filled the prefectorial office. As to the patrician, who was named John,
+and who was the principal author of the reestablishment of this civil
+magistracy, he is expressly designated to us as son of the first
+Crescentius. But in 1013, Henry II. came to Rome: he received from Pope
+Benedict VIII. the imperial crown: and the Romans, in spite of their
+menaces, lost once more their independence. Baronius¹³⁴ relates a
+diploma in which Henry confirms the donations of his predecessors: it is
+added that Benedict, before receiving this emperor, made him swear that
+he would be faithful to the pope, and regard himself only as the
+defender and advocate of the Roman Church. Glaber,¹³⁵ a contemporary
+historian, after having related this coronation, says, that it appears
+very reasonable, and a thing well established, that no prince could take
+the title of emperor, ‘save he whom the pope shall have chosen and
+clothed with the insignia of this dignity:’ words which seem much less
+to express in this place the sentiment of an individual than an opinion
+generally established in his time.
+
+ ¹³⁴ Ann. Eccles. ad ann. 1014. vol. 9, p. 48.
+
+ ¹³⁵ Hiclor, 1. l, c. ult.
+
+However Mabillon¹³⁶ and Muratori¹³⁷ deny the authenticity of the
+diploma instanced by Baronius; and we see that in 1020, when Benedict
+VIII. resorted to Henry in Germany, this prince confirmed the donations
+of his predecessors with an express reservation of the imperial
+sovereignty.
+
+John XIX. the successor of Benedict, was banished by the Romans, and
+restored by the Emperor Conrade, in 1033, whom he had crowned in 1027.
+After John, who survived his re-establishment but a short time, his
+nephew was elected pope, and took the name of Benedict IX. when he,
+according to Glaber,¹³⁸ was but ten years of age.
+
+ ¹³⁶ Annal. Bened. ann. 1014.
+
+ ¹³⁷ Annals of Italy, year 1014, vol. 6, p. 45.
+
+ ¹³⁸ Lib. 4, c. 6,1. 6, c. 6.
+
+The elevation of an infant to the pontifical throne is not probable; but
+all circumstances concur in proving that Benedict IX. was in 1033 but a
+very young man: he bore to the chair of St. Peter the thoughtlessness
+and irregularities of youth; and he was equally reproached for his
+robberies and assassinations as for his gallantries. Behold how he is
+pouryrayed to us by Victor III. one of his successors and
+contemporaries¹³⁹ :
+
+ ¹³⁹ J Dialo. 1: 3, In app. Chron. Cassin. vol. 1.
+
+ “I am horrified to state how shame−
+ “ful was the life which Benedict led, how dissolute, how
+ “detestable. Therefore I shall commence my rela−
+ “tion at the period when God took pity on his holy
+ “church. After Benedict IX. had wearied the Romans
+ “with his thefts, his murders, his abominations, the
+ “excess of his villainy became insupportable; he
+ “was expelled by the people: and to replace him
+ “they elected for a stipulated price, in contempt of
+ “the holy canons, John, Bishop of Sabine, who filled
+ “the Holy See for three months only, under the
+ “name of Sylvester in. Benedict IX. who was de−
+ “scended from the Consuls of Rome, and whom a
+ “powerful party recalled, wasted the environs of the
+ “city, and by the aid of his soldiers, compelled
+ “Sylvester to retire ignominiously to his bishoprick
+ “of Sabine. Benedict in resuming the tiara, did not
+ “leave behind him his manners, always hateful to the
+ “clergy, and to the people, whom his irregularities
+ “continued to disgust; terrified with the outcry
+ “raised against his crimes, given up besides to volup−
+ “tuous pleasures, and more disposed to live as an
+ “Epicurean than as a pontiff, he adopted the re−
+ “solution of selling the pontificate to the arch−
+ “priest John, who paid him a considerable sum
+ “for it. This John nevertheless passed in the city
+ “for one of the best of the ecclesiastics; and while
+ “Benedict took up his abode in houses of pleasure,
+ “John under the name of Gregory VI. governed the
+ “church two years and three months, till the arrival
+ “of Henry III., king of Germany.”
+
+Such is the picture drawn for us by a pope, of the condition of the Holy
+See, under three popes, his predecessors, from 1033 to 1046.
+
+It may be proper to observe, that Benedict the VIII. his brother John
+XIX. and their nephew, Benedict IX. were of the house of the Alberics
+counts of Tusculum. This is one of the first examples of pontifical
+nepotism, or of the efforts of a family to perpetuate itself in the Holy
+See.
+
+We have seen by the statement of Victor III. that in 1045, there existed
+at the same moment three popes; to wit, Benedict IX. who had retired to
+his castle; Sylvester III. exiled to his original bishopric; and Gregory
+VI. seated at Rome, since 1044. This last pontiff, who had purchased his
+place, wished to reap its fruits, and could not behold them without
+grief considerably lessened from the loss of many domains, usurped by
+seculars from the Holy See. He took up arms to reconquer them, without
+neglecting, however, the excommunication of their possessors. These were
+the principal acts of his pontifical court. He is represented to us, as
+a very ignorant man, even for the age in which he fired; it is doubtful
+whether he could read;¹⁴⁰ and history relates, that a coadjutor was
+given him to perform the pastoral functions, while he was signalizing
+himself by warlike exploits.
+
+ ¹⁴⁰ Amolice Angerius de Viti Pontificum, p. 340.
+
+At the moment of Henry’s arrival, at Rome, the three popes were there,
+Benedict IX. at the palace of the Lateran, Sylvester III. at the
+Vatican, and Gregory VI. or John his coadjutor, at Saint-Mary-Major.
+Henry deposed the whole three without any difficulty, and caused a
+fourth to be elected, Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, who took the name of
+Clement II. To this Clement succeeded Damasius II.
+
+Leo IX. and Victor II. all like himself, the creatures of Henry III. The
+ten years of this emperor’s reign, are one of the epochs during which
+the Romans and the popes have been most decidedly subject to the
+imperial power.
+
+Leo IX. the relative and subject of Henry, indemnified himself for that
+obedience which he could not refuse to this emperor, by acts of
+authority against other sovereigns. He held a council at Rheims in
+defiance of the King of France, Henry I. proclaimed in it the pontifical
+supremacy, and deposed and excommunicated prelates and seculars. In a
+council at Rome, he decreed that the females whom the priests should
+abuse in the bosom of this city, should remain slaves of the palace of
+the Lateran.¹⁴¹ This pontiff, whom they have placed in the catalogue of
+saints, should rather have obtained a place in the rank of warriors. He
+led an army against the Normans, who defeated him, and kept him prisoner
+at Beneventum. His ponticate is memorable from the completion of the
+schism of the Greek church; but the religious discussions which belong
+to the history of this schism, exceed the limits of our subject: the
+principal political result of this division was, to extinguish the
+already very feeble influence of the Emperors of the East over the
+affairs of Italy.
+
+ ¹⁴¹ Fleury’s Eccles. Hist 1. 59, n. 75.
+
+’Tis under Leo IX. that Hildebrand begins to be distinguished, a man the
+most celebrated of his age. Born in Tuscany, where his father, they say,
+was a carpenter, he studied in France, embraced the monastic rule there,
+and returned into Italy to give counsel to Leo IX. Nicholas II. and
+Alexander II. and finally to succeed them in the pontifical throne. The
+idea of a universal theocracy had assumed in his fiery and iron soul the
+character of a passion; all his life was devoted to the undertaking. To
+assure the empire of the priesthood over the rest of mankind, he saw the
+necessity of reforming their manners and concentrating their relations,
+to isolate them more strictly, and to form them into one great family,
+the members of which should no longer recollect having belonged to a
+secular one. Ecclesiastical celibacy was as yet but a general practice,
+introduced into and renewed in almost every church, but in almost all,
+nevertheless, modified by exceptions or transgressions. Hildebrand
+resolved to reduce it to a rigorous law: at his instigation, Stephen IX.
+in 1058 declared marriage incompatible with the priesthood; treated as
+concubines all the priest’s wives; and excommunicated both them and
+their husbands, if the union was not instantly divided. The clergy made
+some resistance; the priests of Milan, especially, objected the
+permission granted them by St. Ambrose to marry, but in first nuptials
+only, and provided it was with a virgin.¹⁴² Hildebrand to cut these
+remonstrances short, classed in the number of heretics the obstinate
+gain-sayers.¹⁴³
+
+ ¹⁴² Landolph Senior. Hist Mediol. 1. 3. et 4;—Rer. Italic. t. 4, p.
+ 96, See.—Cocio. Hist, of Milan, pa. 1, b. 6, &C.
+
+ ¹⁴³ Baron. Ann. Leoies. ad ann. 1069.
+
+Under Nicholas II. Hildebrand changed the mode of electing the popes.
+Until his time, all the Romans, clergy, nobles, and people, had assisted
+in these elections. It was ruled that for the future they should be
+selected by the cardinal bishops alone, to whom the cardinal clerks
+should afterwards be united, and they were to close the matter by
+demanding the approbation of the rest of the clergy, and even that of
+the body of the faithful. The cardinal bishops are no others than the
+seven bishops of the Roman territory: Nicholas, in the same decree calls
+them his fellow countrymen, “comprovinciales episcopi.¹⁴⁴ With respect
+to the cardinal priests or clerks, it was those who administered the
+offices of the twenty-eight principal churches of the city of Rome. Long
+before Nicholas, these twenty-eight priests and these bishops, had been
+designated by the appellation of ‘cardinals’; but now for the first
+time, behold them invested with the exclusive and determinate privilege
+of nominating the new popes: the rest of the clergy and the people
+preserve no more than the power of rejecting the proposed. Such was the
+origin of the Electoral College of Cardinals; a college, however, which
+received subsequently, and by degrees, its present organization. It had,
+as we see, for its first founder, Nicholas II. or rather Hildebrand. Let
+us not omit the clause which terminates this decree:¹⁴⁵
+
+ ¹⁴⁴ Mabillon. Mus. Italic, v. 2. p. 114.—Fra. Pagi. Breviar. Pontif.
+ Roman, vol. 2, p. 374.—Thomassin. Dicipl. vet. et nor. 1.2, c.
+ lid, 116.—Muratori. de origine Cardinalatus. Ant Ital. v. 6. p.
+ 156.
+
+ ¹⁴⁵ Concilior. tom. 9. p. 11,36.—Fleury Hiat.Eccles. 1.60 n 31.
+
+ ‘saving the honour and respect due to king Henry,
+ ‘future emperor, to whom the Apostolic See has given
+ ‘the personal privilege of concurring in the election
+ ‘by consent.’
+
+The rights of the emperor were as yet too firmly founded to permit being
+silent on them: they satisfy themselves by misrepresenting them, and by
+referring to them as a concession granted by the Holy See, as a personal
+privilege with which it was pleased to gratify Henry.
+
+In founding ecclesiastical benefices, kings and nobles had reserved to
+themselves the right of appointing to them; none could possess them
+until after they had been invested by the donor or his heirs. It was a
+simple application of the feudal system to ecclesiastical domains; but
+the Court of Rome complained of the bad selection to which this system
+led, and especially of the bargains which were driven between the
+patrons and the candidates. A vast number of benefices were disposed of
+no doubt: but this traffic has subsisted under every regime; the
+question never has been other than that of knowing for whose benefit it
+should be earned on. Hildebrand armed himself with a sanctified zeal
+against this abuse: to extinquish it, he ventured to dictate for
+Nicholas II. a decree, which prohibited the acceptance of a benefice
+from a layman, even gratuitously.¹⁴⁶ This decree, published in 1059, in
+the same council which confined to the cardinals the election of the
+popes, presented itself under the form of a special rule against simony.
+Little attention was at first given to it, it was rarely carried into
+effect; but we are bound to point it out here as the prelude to the
+quarrels about investitures.
+
+ ¹⁴⁶ Baronins. Ann. ecclea. ad. ann. 1069, 5,32,34.
+
+For a long period, kings and nobles had invested prelates in presenting
+them with a switch or branch, as is practised in the investiture of
+counts and knights. But the clergy, from the tenth century, had more
+than once thought to deprive the patrons of benefices of their
+privileges, by proceeding without delay to the election and consecration
+of the prelate. It seemed allowed on all sides, that the consecration
+rendered the election irrevocable: and if the patron layman had been
+advertised of neither one nor the other, he lost the opportunity of
+bestowing or selling the dignity. To escape this stratagem, the
+sovereigns decreed that, immediately after the death of a prelate, the
+ring and crozier should be transferred to his successor only in
+investing him. Adam de Breme¹⁴⁷ refers to the reign of Louis le
+Débonnaire this form of investiture: but it is infinitely more probable,
+that it was not introduced until under Otho the Great, after the middle
+of the tenth century: it was almost universally established in the
+eleventh.¹⁴⁸ Hildebrand promised to himself its abolition, firstly,
+because it secured to laymen the right of nomination or of sale, and
+further, as it caused two symbols of the ecclesiastical power to pass
+through the hands of the profane.
+
+ ¹⁴⁷ Hist, eccles. 1.1. n. 2.
+
+ ¹⁴⁸ Humbert 1.3. contra Simonaicus c. 7 et 11.
+
+Far from reconciling himself to the continuance of a ceremony, in which
+the secular authority seemed to confer sacerdotal offices, he pretended,
+on the contrary, to erect the head of the church into the supreme
+dispenser of temporal crowns. From the year 1059, he made, in the name
+of Nicholas II. the first essay of this system. Nicholas received the
+homage of the Romans, and created one of their chiefs Duke of Apulia
+Calabria and Sicily, on condition that as vassal of the Apostolic See,
+this chief, named Robert Guiscard, should take to the Roman Church the
+oath of fidelity, pledge himself in the same character to pay it an
+annual tribute, and enter into the same engagement for his
+successors.¹⁴⁹ Such was the origin of the kingdom of Naples; and this
+strange concession stripped the emperors of Constantinople of every
+remnant of sovereignty over Grecia Major. Nicholas II. died in 1063; and
+to elect and instal his successor Alexander II. the imperial consent was
+in no way sought for. The court of Henry IV. then a minor, was offended,
+and caused another to be nominated pope, Cadaloo, who named himself
+Honorous II. Cadaloo defeated the army of Alexander, and succeeded in
+fixing himself in the Vatican; but the duke of Tuscany drove him thence:
+Alexander was recognised as the true pontiff, and Hildebrand continued
+to reign.
+
+ ¹⁴⁹ Baronins. Ann. eccles. ad ann. 1060.—Muratori’s Annals of Italy
+ vol. 6. p. 106.
+
+Hildebrand did not sit in person in St. Peter’s chair until 1073. We may
+be surprised he did not sooner occupy it; some authors think the pride
+and inflexibility of his character indisposed the electors towards him:
+to us it appears more than probable that he in fact did not aspire to
+become pope, provided the pope became the sovereign of kings; for were
+he ambitious of the tiara, if he had desired, as he was capable of
+desiring it, how easily had he triumphed, since the year 1061, or even
+previously, over some feeble resistance. It was to the unlimited
+aggrandizement of the pontifical power, much rather than to his personal
+elevation, his opinions and character impelled him. We perceive in his
+conduct none of the manœuvering which private interest suggests: it
+evinces all the outlines of an inflexible system, the integrity of which
+is never permitted to be compromised by concession or compliance. His
+zeal, which was not merely active but daring, obstinate and
+inconsiderate, proceeded from an incurable persuasion. Hildebrand would
+have been the martyr of theocracy, if circumstances had called for it;
+and they were little short of it. Like all rigid enthusiasts, he
+considered himself disinterested, and became without remorse, the
+scourge of the world. Without doubt, interest is the spring of human
+actions: but the success of an opinion is an interest too; and to
+sacrifice thereto every other, has been in all ages the destiny of some.
+There are those who, cautious of troubling their neighbours, compromise
+only their own happiness; these are the more excusable, as it is perhaps
+to truth they offer so pure and so modest a sacrifice. Others, like
+Hildebrand, think to acquire by the privations they impose upon
+themselves, the privilege of terrifying and tormenting nations: and
+their melancholy errors cost the world a train of misfortunes.
+
+There are attributed to Gregory VII. the papal name of Hildebrand,
+twenty seven maxims which compose a complete declaration of the temporal
+and spiritual supremacy of the Roman Pontiff,¹⁵⁰ comprising in it the
+right of dethroning princes, disposing of crowns, and reforming all
+laws. It is not very certain whether or not he really drew up or
+dictated these articles; but the substance of them and their
+developement will be found in his authenticated letters: they may be
+entitled “The Spirit of Hildebrand;” they were the rule of his conduct,
+the creed which he professed, and would have wished to impose on
+Christendom. In them it is expressly stated that the pope has never
+erred, and that he never can fall into any error; that he alone can
+nominate bishops, convoke councils, preside over them, dissolve them;
+that princes should stoop and kiss his feet; that by him subjects may be
+loosed from their oaths of fidelity; and in a word that there is no name
+upon earth but that of the pope.
+
+ ¹⁵⁰ Dictalus Papæ. Concilior vol. 10 p. 110—Baron. Ann. eccles. ad
+ ann. 1076, sec. 24. De Marca. 1.7, c. 26.8. 9.
+
+With reason has it been remarked how very much circumstances favoured
+the designs of Hildebrand. Since the death of Otho the Great, the German
+Empire had done nothing but weaken itself; Italy was divided into petty
+states; a young king governed France; the Moors ravaged Spain; the
+Normans had just conquered England; the northern kingdoms, newly
+converted, were ignorant of the bounds of the pontifical authority, and
+were to set the example of docility.
+
+When Gregory VII. saw William the Conqueror established in England, he
+did not hesitate prescribing to him to render homage for his kingdom to
+the Apostolic See.¹⁵¹ This strange proposition had for its pretext, the
+alms which the English had paid for about two centuries to the Roman
+Church, and which was called Peter’s pence. The Conqueror, replied that
+perhaps the alms would be continued, but it therefore did not follow,
+that homage should be demanded of those from whom he received charity.
+William at the same time forbad the English from going to Rome, and
+prohibited them acknowledging any other pope than him whom he should
+approve. This trifling affair had no other consequence; and we only
+mention it in this place as it evinces better than any other, that
+Gregory knew not how to fix any bounds to the pretensions of the Holy
+See. Perhaps he imagined that the newness of William’s power in England
+might incline him to wish for the protection of Rome, and make him
+willing to purchase it by an act of vassalage: but it was evincing a
+very false idea of the state of this conqueror’s affairs, his power, his
+character, and his ascendancy over his new subjects. The least
+reflection would have diverted Gregory from so ridiculous a step,
+shameful because useless.
+
+ ¹⁵¹ Fleury Hist. Ecclea. 1. 62, n. 63.
+
+Sardinia, Dalmatia, Russia, were in Gregory’s eyes but fiefs which
+ornamented the tiara. “On behalf of St. Peter,” thus he writes to
+Demetrius the Russian prince, “we have given your crown to your son, who
+receives it from our hands in taking the oath of fidelity to us.” We
+must mention the names of all the princes who reigned in this pope’s
+time, in order to fill up the catalogue of those whom he threatened or
+struck with his excommunications: Nicephoros Bonotiate, the Greek
+emperor, whom he enjoined to abdicate his crown¹⁵² ; Boleslaus, king of
+Poland, whom he declared deprived of his authority, and added that
+Poland should be no longer a king-dom¹⁵³ ; Solomon, king of Hungary,
+whom he sent to learn from the old men of his country, that it belonged
+to the Roman church¹⁵⁴ ; the Princes of Spain, to whom he stated that
+St. Peter was supreme and sovereign lord of their states and domains,
+and that it would be preferable that Spain should fall into the hands of
+the Saracens, than cease to render homage to the vicar of Jesus
+Christ¹⁵⁵ ; Robert Guiscard, his vassal, whose slightest neglect he
+punished with anathemas¹⁵⁶ ; the Duke of Bohemia, of whom he exacted a
+tribute of a hundred marks of silver: Philip I. king of France, whom he
+affected to subject to similar exactions, and whom he denounced to the
+French bishops as a tyrant plunged into infamy and crime, who deserved
+not the name of a monarch, and of whom they would render themselves the
+accomplices, if they did not rigorously resist him.
+
+ ¹⁵² Concil. Rom. ann. 1078.
+
+ ¹⁵³ Dngloss. Hist. Polon. 1. 3. 295.
+
+ ¹⁵⁴ Gregor. Epist 1. 2, ep. 13, 23.—Fleury Hist. Ecoles* L62,n. 9.
+
+ ¹⁵⁵ Fleury Hist eccles. 1. 62. a 9.
+
+ ¹⁵⁶ Greg. Epist 1. 1, 26, 26, 62, 67.—Fleury, 1. 62. n. 9.
+
+ “Imitate, says he to them, the Roman Church your mother; sepa−
+ “rate yourselves from the service and communion of
+ “Philip, if he remain obstinate; let the celebration of
+ “the holy offices be interdicted throughout all France;
+ “and know that, by God’s assistance, we shall deliver
+ “this kingdom from such an oppressor.”
+
+But of all the sovereigns of Europe, the emperor Henry IV. who had the
+principal influence in Italian affairs, was, on this account, the most
+exposed to the thunderbolts of Hildebrand.¹⁵⁷
+
+ ¹⁵⁷ Greg. Epist. 1. 2. ep. 6.—Fleury 1. 62. n. 16.
+
+Against so many potentates, and especially against Henry IV. Gregory had
+no other support, no other ally, than an Italian princess, with little
+talent, but much devotion, this was Matilda, countess of Tuscany. She
+possessed for him a generous and tender friendship; he addressed to her
+also, as a spiritual director, extremely affectionate letters; she lived
+unhappily with Godfrey-le-Bossu, her first husband: from this
+circumstance, and others, rash inductions have been drawn not supported
+by any positive fact.¹⁵⁸ It is not the tender passions we can reproach
+Hildebrand with; and the ascertained consequences of the connexion with
+Matilda, belong only to the history of the pontifical ambition.
+
+This princess gave all her possessions to the Holy See, and three
+distinct monuments have been cited of this famous liberality. The first
+act, subscribed by her in 1077, has not been found. The second, which
+she signed twenty-five years later, when Hildebrand no longer lived, is
+preserved at Rome;¹⁵⁹ and a will is also spoken of, which is not
+forthcoming, but which they say, confirms the two preceding donations.
+There exist indeed some difficulties, respecting these three acts: why
+has the first been allowed to go astray? wherefore do historians say, it
+was signed at Canossa, while it is referred to in the second, as having
+been subscribed at Rome? And this second deed itself, which so
+completely divests the giver, which reserves to her only some life
+enjoyments, how reconcile it with the extensive domains with which she
+continued to enrich monks and canons, from the year 1102, to 1115? Why
+not publish her will, which had, perhaps, explained these apparent
+contradictions? To all these questions we shall reply, that the act of
+1102 subsists; that it expressly renews that of 1077; and that of all
+the donations of which the Holy See hath availed itself, that of Matilda
+is undoubtedly the best authenticated as well as the richest.
+
+ ¹⁵⁸ Apud omnes sanum aliquid sapientes luce clarius con-stabat falsa
+ esse quae dicebantur. Nam et papa tam ésimié tamqne apostolicè
+ vitam instituebat, ut nec minimum sinistri rumoris maculum
+ conversations ejus sublimitas admitteret; et illâ in urbe
+ celiberrimâ atque in tantâ obsequentium fire-quentiâ, obscœnum
+ aliquid perpetrans, latere nequaquam potu-isset. Signa etiam et
+ prodigia quae per orationes papœ frequen-tiùs fiebant, et zelus
+ ejus ferventissimus linguas communie bant.—Lambert Schafur. ad
+ ann. 1177. This chronicler attributes, as we see, to Gregory, the
+ gift of miracles, and concludes from it that his commerce with
+ Matilda was irreproachable. “Nevertheless, says the Jesuit
+ Maimbourg, as the world, from a certain malignity attached to it,
+ has a greater ’penchant’ for believing the evil than the good,
+ especially with persons of some reputation for virtue, this
+ commerce failed not to be of bad effect, and tended to blacken his
+ character of Gregory at this period.”
+
+ ¹⁵⁹ Diss. of St Marc. p. 1231. 1316 of v. 4. of Ab. Hist, of Italy.
+
+In truth, the emperor Henry V. the heir of this Countess, made himself
+master of all she had been possessed of, and which reverted at a later
+period to the Court of Rome; but, with time, the popes have secured a
+part of this inheritance, and have termed it the Patrimony of St. Peter:
+they are indebted for it to the cares of Gregory VII.
+
+Heniy IV. had obtained a victory over the Saxons, when he was addressed
+by two legates, who communicated to him the order, to appear at Rome, in
+order to reply to the accusations brought against him: it related to
+investitures granted by him, ‘by the cross and ring;’ it was requisite
+to obtain pardon, or submit to an excommunication¹⁶⁰ Henry, although he
+despised the menace, thought proper to give the pope some trouble in the
+city of Rome: a tumult took place, and Gregory was seized, struck,
+imprisoned, and ransomed. The effect of this ill-treatment was to cast
+an interest on the person of the pontiff, and to prepare him against a
+more serious vengeance. The emperor in a council at Worms, deposed
+Gregory, who, too confident of the inefficacy of such a decree, replied
+to it by the following:¹⁶¹
+
+ “On the part of the Almighty God, and of my full
+ “authority, I forbid Henry, the son of Henry, to
+ “govern the kingdom of the Teutons and Italy:
+ “I absolve all Christians from the oaths they have
+ “taken, or shall hereafter take to him; and all per−
+ “sons are forbidden to render him services as a “king.”
+
+ ¹⁶⁰ Lamb. Schaf. ad ann. 1074.—Life of Gregory VII. ap. Bell. t. 17.
+ p. 148.
+
+ ¹⁶¹ Concilior. vol. 10. p. 366. Here is, according to Otho of
+ Freisingen, the first example of the deposition of a king by a
+ pope. Lego et relego Roma norum regum et imperatorum gestu, èt
+ nusquam invenio quemquam eorum ante hune à Romano pontifice
+ excommunicatum vel regno privatum. Otho. Fies. Chron. 1. 6, c.
+ 35.— Quanta autem mala, quotbella, bellorumque discriminia, inde
+ subsecuta sunt? Quoties misere Eoma obscessa, capta rastata? Ibid.
+ c. 36.
+
+We would willingly discredit it, but it is proved that these extravagant
+words, snatched from the monarch the fruit of all his victories. The
+civil war was again kindled in the centre of Germany; an army of
+confederates was assembled near Spires, surrounded Henry, opposed to him
+the sentence of the pope, and made him pledge himself to forbear the
+exercise of his power, until the decision, to be pronounced at
+Augsburgh, between him and the pope, in a council over which the latter
+was to preside.
+
+To prevent this last decision, Henry determined to seek pardon of
+Hildebrand; he found him in the fortress of Canossa, where the pontiff
+was shut up with his countess Matilda. The prince presented himself
+without guard, and without retinue: stopped in the second enclosure, he
+suffered himself to be stripped of his vestments and clothed in
+sackcloth. With naked feet, in the month of January 1077, he awaited in
+the midst of the court the Holy Father’s reply. This reply was, that he
+should fast three days before he could be permitted to kiss Hildebrand’s
+feet; and at the end of three days, they would be willing to absolve and
+receive him, under the promise of a perfect submission to the
+forthcoming decision of Augsburgh. Gregory might have foreseen that this
+excess of pride and tyranny would disgust the Italians, by whom he was
+already detested. His power had this disadvantage in their eyed, that it
+was not beheld at a sufficient distance. Lombardy armed itself in behalf
+of Henry, whom the Germans deserted; and while Germany elected another
+emperor Italy chose another pope.¹⁶²
+
+Rodolphus duke of Swabia having been nominated emperor, Gregory
+excommunicated Henry once more. “I take the crown from him he said, and
+give the Teutonic kingdom to Rodolph.” He even made a present to the
+latter of a crown, round which was to be seen an indifferent latin
+verse, of which here follows a translation. “La Pierre a donne a Pierre,
+et Pierre donne a Rodolphe le diademe.”¹⁶³ Peter, a stone, has given to
+Peter, and Peter gives to Rodolph a diadem. At the same time Henry
+elevated to the papacy Guibert the archbishop of Ravenna, and assembled
+an army against Rodolph. In vain Gregory prophesied that Heniy would be
+vanquished, would be exterminated before St. Peter: it was Rodolph who
+fell; he was killed in a skirmish by Godfrey of Bouillon, nephew of
+Matilda. Henry marched down on Rome: after a long seige, he took it by
+assault; and Gregory shut up in the mole of Adrian, continued to
+excommunicate the conqueror.
+
+ ¹⁶² Henry’s Eccles. Hist. 1074, 1080, 1. 62 and 63.
+
+ ¹⁶³ Petra dedit Petro, Petrus diadema Rodolpho.
+
+It will be perceived that the pun is perfect only in the French, the
+English is wholly incapable of it.
+
+The commotions which were prolonged in Germany, compelled Henry to make
+frequent journies. During the siege of Rome, and after his entrance into
+this capital, he quitted it more than once. Robert Guiscard took
+advantage of one of these occasions to deliver Gregory, but still more
+to ravage and pillage the city: he burned one quarter, which has since
+remained almost deserted, that between St. John de Lateran and the
+Coliseum, and reduced to slavery a great number of the inhabitants. This
+was the most memorable result to the Romans, and the most lasting to
+this pontificate¹⁶⁴
+
+Hildebrand, borne away by the Normans to Salerno, terminated his career
+there the 24th of May, 1085, excommunicating Henry to the last, with the
+antipope Guibert, and their adherents¹⁶⁵ So lived and so died Gregory
+VII., whose name, under Gregory XIII., was inscribed in the Roman
+martyrology, to whom Paul V. decreed the honours of an annual
+festival¹⁶⁶ and for whom Benedict XIII. in the 18th century, challenged
+the homage of all Christendom: but we shall see the parliaments of
+France oppose this design with an efficacious resistance.
+
+ ¹⁶⁴ Vita Greg. 7, édita à Card. Arrag. p. 313.—Landulph Sen. I. 3, c.
+ 3, p. 120.—Rer. Jtal. vol. 5, p. 587.
+
+ ¹⁶⁵ Pauli. Beruried. Vit. Greg. VII. c. 110, p. 348.—Sigeb. Chron.
+ ann. 1085.
+
+ ¹⁶⁶ Fleury’s Eccles. Hist. 1. 63, a. 25.—Act. Sonet. Bell. 25. maii.
+
+It is deserving of greater reprehension than Gregory himself merited,
+the canonization, after five hundred years of study and experience, of
+his deplorable wanderings. For the excuse cannot be alleged in favour of
+his panegyrists that his enterprises may find in his enthusiasm, his
+ignorance, and the thick darkness of his age. Pasquier,¹⁶⁷ with too
+much reason describes him as:
+
+ “one of the boldest
+ “combatants for the Roman See, who forgot nothing,
+ “whether of arms, of the pen, or by censures, of what
+ “he conceived to tend to the advantage of the Papacy
+ “or disadvantage of Sovereigns.”
+
+The audacious Gregory VII. had a timid successor in Victor III. It is
+from him we have borrowed the words at the commencement of this chapter,
+to depict some of the preceding popes. Victor III. filled scarcely for a
+year the pontifical chair. He confirmed, however, in a council at
+Beneventum, the decrees passed against investitures.
+
+ ¹⁶⁷ Researches on France, 1. 3. c. 7.
+
+Urban II. who succeeded him, was during ten years a more worthy
+successor of Hildebrand: he instigated against Henry, Conrade, the
+eldest son of this emperor, encouraged this ungrateful son to calumniate
+his father, and recompensed him by crowning him king of Italy.
+Christendom was then divided between Urban II. and Guibert, who had
+taken the name of Clement III. and whom Henry IV. re-established in Rome
+in 1091. Urban till 1096 travelled in France and Northern Italy. Philip,
+king of France, repudiating his Queen Bertha, had married Bertrade:
+Philip was excommunicated in his own States by Urban, his born subject,
+to whom he had given an asylum¹⁶⁸ But these journies of the pontiff are
+especially celebrated by the preaching up of the first crusade.
+
+Hildebrand had conceived¹⁶⁹ the earliest idea of these distant
+expeditions, which were, in aggrandizing the church, to diminish the
+power of the Greek emperors, or compel them to return under the
+domination of the Holy See. He beheld in them an opportunity of
+regulating at once all the movements of the Christian princes, of
+establishing himself judge of all the quarrels which might arise among
+them, to divert them from the Government of their States, and to augment
+by their absence the habitual influence of the clergy over all kinds of
+affairs. The pilgrimages to the Holy Land became under Gregory VII. more
+frequent than they had previously been: the recitals of the pilgrims
+were one day to provoke a general movement. This day did not arrive till
+Urban’s time: a man named Cucupietre, called Peter the Hermit, made to
+the pope a lamentable recital of the vexations which the Christians
+experienced in Palestine; he implored on their behalf powerful succours
+against the Musselmans. Urban dispatched Peter to all the princes and
+churches of Italy, France, and Germany; and after leaving the preacher
+time sufficient to spread his enthusiasm among the people of these
+countries, the crusade was finally proposed in a council or assembly at
+which the pope presided, in an open plain not far from Placentia. There
+were collected upwards of thirty thousand laics alone, independent of
+prelates and priests: the expedition projected was universally
+applauded, but it was applauded alone; no one as yet assumed the cross.
+Urban had better success in France; the crusade was resolved on at
+Clermont, in an assembly at which he presided and harangued. They
+exclaimed “’Tis the will of God;” and these words became the device of
+the crusaders, the number of whom encreased beyond measure. The military
+history of this expedition does not concern us: we have only to observe,
+that the first act of this army was to re-establish ‘en-passant’ pope
+Urban, in the city of Rome, at the end of the year 1096. Henry, driven
+from Italy by the troops of the Countess Matilda, retired to Germany.
+Urban did not die till 1099; and the pontificate of his successor Pascal
+II. belongs principally to the twelfth century.
+
+ ¹⁶⁸ Velly’s Hist, of France, v. 2, p. 493.
+
+ ¹⁶⁹ Fleury. Hist. Eccles. 1. 62. n. 14.
+
+The age which we have passed over, ought to remain for ever famous in
+the history of the popes. If they are not yet recognized as sovereigns,
+if their temporal power has not yet been declared independent, it in
+effect rivals and threatens the throne which ought to govern it. Already
+the Two Sicilies had become fiefs of the Holy See; the donations of
+Matilda have extended, over almost all Middle Italy, the rights or
+pretensions of the court of Rome. But what signify the limits and the
+nature of these temporal possessions, when the spiritual authority no
+longer recognizes restriction, when the gospel ministry transforms
+itself into a universal theocracy, which brands, curses, deposes kings,
+and disposes of their crowns. One man alone, it is true, had fully
+conceived this tremendous system; but the opinions, of which the
+ignorance of this man, as well as his contemporaries, was composed,
+encouraged his undertakings, however monstrous, and political
+circumstances promised him success from them. New dynasties had arisen
+in France, England, and other countries: the French emperors, threatened
+in their own palaces, had lost every remnant of authority in Italy: it
+was sufficient to humble the Emperor of the West; he alone
+counterbalanced in Europe the weight of the Holy See. In attacking him
+one might reckon on the support or neutrality of other monarchs; they
+were jealous of his preponderance: Rome in humiliating them, disposed
+them to reconcile themselves to it by the spectacle of more serious
+outrages reserved for their head; they childishly rejoiced in the great
+share he should have in the common humiliation. They turn, in the mean
+time, against him, the old or new factions which troubled Germany; they
+redouble their insolence and their power by the thunder of the anathemas
+with which they struck him; and if so many efforts did not overthrow
+him, at least, they staggered and weakened him. Such was the war waged
+by Hildebrand, against Heniy IV. the first at the period, or as we may
+term him, the only representative of the civil power in the West. In
+bequeathing this war to his successors, Hildebrand vanquished as he was,
+had pointed out the object, traced the plan, and tempered the arms.¹⁷⁰
+There had needed to complete his work, perhaps, in the course of the
+following century, but two or three successors of his inflexible
+enthusiasm. Giannone accuses him of having forged the Donations of
+Constantine, Pepin, Charlemagne, and Louis-le-Debonnaire. We have seen
+the first of these donations adduced in the eighth century;¹⁷¹ the rest
+are mentioned by writers anterior to the eleventh: all these acts were
+spoken of before Gregory’s time: at the most he could only have arranged
+the texts more categorically, and more favourable to his pretensions. It
+is certain, that no means adopted for the establishment of pontifical
+tyranny would have alarmed his conscience: the most efficacious,
+therefore, appeared to him the most laudable; and, if some of his
+proceedings, judged of after the events, seem to us equally imprudent
+and violent, we should reflect that so enormous an enterprise could only
+be accomplished by audacity in the extreme.
+
+ ¹⁷⁰ Giannone’s Hist, of Italy. 1.10, c. 6.
+
+ ¹⁷¹ Ibid. p. 12.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V. CONTESTS BETWEEN THE POPES AND THE SOVEREIGNS OF THE TWELFTH
+CENTURY
+
+
+WITH the pontifical power, such as Hildebrand would have it, not to gain
+a great deal was to lose a little. Now under the popes of the twelfth
+century it was not much extended: they knew not how to reap the fruits
+of the labours of Gregory VII. Pascal II. however, who reigned near
+twenty years, from 1099 to 1118, very earnestly aspired to universal
+monarchy; but his designs, opposed by circumstances, were still more so
+by the weakness of his character. The antipope Guibert, who died in
+1100, had for a long period for his successors, an Albert, a Theodoric,
+a Maginulph: obscure persons, whose pretensions, nevertheless, though
+weakly supported by a small Dumber of partisans, sufficed to intimidate
+Pascal. He did not press the excommunication of Henry king of England,
+when in 1101, the war of investitures was kindled between this monarch
+and Anselm archbishop of Canterbury. If he evinced greater boldness
+against Philip, king of France, it was, doubtless, because Urban II. had
+commenced the quarrel, and that the notoriety, the censures with which
+this prince had been struck, admitted of no retraction. Pascal II.
+therefore, ventured to send legates into France, who were to
+excommunicate king Philip anew, but still on account of his divorce.
+Indignant at the attempts of these priests, William, count of Poitou,
+and Duke of Aquitain, did himself honour under these circumstances, by a
+courage, that Philip, however, did not imitate.—. Philip demanded
+absolution of the pope, and obtained it, on swearing to renounce
+Bertrade. He came with bare feet in the depth of winter to take, in a
+council at Paris an oath which he did not observe.—We know of no
+authentic act, which re-established the marriage of Bertrade with
+Philip; but they continued to live together without being disturbed by
+the church: the states and rights of their children were never called in
+question.
+
+At the same period that Matilda renewed her donation, Pascal II.
+confirmed the anathemas of his predecessors against Henry IV.¹⁷² and
+raised him an enemy in an ambitious and ungrateful son.
+
+ ¹⁷² He writes in these terms to Robert, Count of Flanders: “Pursue
+ every where with all your power, Henry, the chief of heretics, and
+ his abettors. You can offer to God no more acceptable sacrifice
+ than to combat him who has raised himself against God; who
+ endeavours to deprive the church of the kingdom, and who has been
+ banished by the decree of the Holy Ghost, which the prince of the
+ apostles has pronounced. We appoint this undertaking to you, and
+ also to your vassals for the remission of your sins, and as a
+ means of arriving at the celestial Jerusalem.”
+
+In vain did a paternal letter invite this son to repentance:¹⁷³ it was
+replied, that an excommunicated person was not acknowledged as father,
+or as king.
+
+ ¹⁷³ Velly’s Hist, of France, vol. 2, p. 480.
+
+Loosed from his oaths, and from his duties, by the sovereign pontiff,
+the youthful Henry took up arms, and had himself elected emperor in a
+diet held at Mayence. Henry the elder, retired to the castle of
+Ingelheim: there the archbishops, sent by the Diet, came to summon him
+to surrender to them the crown and other insignia of his power:
+
+ “Thou
+ “hast rent the church of God, said they to him,
+ “thou hast sold the bishopricks, the abbeys, every
+ “ecclesiastical dignity; thou hast in no case res−
+ “pected the sacred canons: for all these causes, it
+ “has pleased the pope and the German princes to
+ “expel thee from the throne as from the church.”
+
+
+ “I adjure you,” replied the monarch,
+ “you archbi−
+ “shop of Cologne, and you of Mayence, who
+ “hold of me your rich prelacies, to declare, what
+ “was the price at which you purchased them of
+ “me. Oh! if I only exacted from you the oath of fide−
+ “lity to me, wherefore do you become the accom−
+ “plices, the chiefs of my enemies? Could you
+ “not wait the termination of a life which so many
+ “misfortunes might abridge, and at least, permit
+ “my own hands to place the crown on the head of “my beloved son.”
+
+But Henry was not speaking to fathers; he addressed himself to
+inflexible prelates:
+
+ “Is it not to us, cried one of them, the privilege
+ “belongs to create kings, and to dethrone them
+ “when we have made a bad choice?”
+
+At these words, the three archbishops fell on their sovereign; they tore
+the imperial crown from his head; and while he assured them, that if he
+suffered at this moment for the sins of his youth, they would not escape
+the punishment due to their sacrilegious disloyalty, they smiled at his
+menace, and to secure impunity for their crime by consummating it
+speedily, they hastened to Mayence, to consecrate and bless in the name
+of God the parricide Henry V.¹⁷⁴
+
+Heniy IV. shut up in Louvain, saw an army of faithful subjects assemble
+around him. At their head he obtained a victory over the rebels; but,
+vanquished without resource, in a second combat, he fell into the hands
+of his enemies, who loaded him with insults. “The hatred of the popes,”
+writes this unhappy sovereign to Henry the I. King of France,¹⁷⁵
+
+ ¹⁷⁴ Otho Friging. Chron. 1. 7, c. 8, 12.—Abb. Ursperg. Chron. p.
+ 243.—Sigon. de Regno Italico. 1. 19.
+
+ ¹⁷⁵ Sigeb. Gemblac. apud Stras, vol. 1, p. 866.—Otho Fris. Chron. 1.
+ 7, c. 12.—Fleury’s eccles. Hist. vol. 66, n. 42.
+
+ “the hatred of the popes, has carried
+ “them so far as to violate the laws of nature; they
+ “have armed my son against me; this son, in con−
+ “tempt of the fidelity he had sworn to me as my
+ “subject, comes to invade my kingdom; and what
+ “I would I could conceal, he has even practised “on my life.”
+
+Escaped from prison, but plunged into extreme misery, the old emperor
+was reduced to solicit in a church, formerly built by his cures, a
+subaltern employment, which he did not obtain. He died; they disinterred
+him; Pascal II. would not allow an excommunicated corpse to repose in
+peace; five years, the remains of an emperor who had distinguished
+himself in sixty-six battles, remained without burial; the clergy of
+liege, who ventured to collect them, was punished for it by anathemas,
+and almost in our own days, a Jesuit named Longueval¹⁷⁶ has adjudged
+the fidelity and boldness of this clergy to have been inexcusable.
+
+ ¹⁷⁶ Hist, of the Gall. Church, vol. 8, p. 187.
+
+The best authenticated history has almost the air of a moral fiction,
+when after 1106, it represents Henry V. and Pascal occupied in avenging
+one upon the other, their common outrages on the rights and repose of
+Henry IV. Henry V. came to Rome, kissed the pope’s feet, and desired to
+be crowned emperor. Pascal deemed the conjuncture a favourable one for
+regaining a formal renunciation of the investitures, which he had just
+condemned in a council held at Troyes. But he had hardly mentioned this
+pretension, when he was arrested, carried off to the Sabine, and
+confined in a fortress. There such a terror seized the Holy Father, that
+he, with sixteen cardinals; signed a treaty, in which he secures to the
+emperor, the right of investiture, provided he mingles with it no
+simony; he did more, he bound himself never to excommunicate Henry V.
+and consented to the inhumation of Henry IV. To seal this compact on the
+faith of the most awful mysteries, a host is divided between the pope
+and the emperor: “As these are divided into two parts, said the pontiff,
+so may he be separated from the kingdom of Jesus Christ, who shall
+violate this treaty.” Such was the oath which Pascal took, and which he
+renewed after he had recovered his liberty.
+
+From this period he had no resource from the reproaches addressed to him
+by the Roman clergy, and which were redoubled in proportion as the
+emperor and his army removed from Rome. Behold, then, the head of the
+church, who permits himself to be taxed with prevarication, who retires
+to Terracina to weep his error, who suffers cardinals to annul his
+decrees and his promises! he was about, he said, to abdicate the tiara;
+happily they opposed this design; and such is the docility of the holy
+pontiff, that he constrains himself to preserve power, in order to make
+a better use of it. Finally, he revokes, in a council, the treaty he had
+the misfortune to subscribe; he declines, however, to excommunicate
+Henry him-himself, so scrupulous is he still of violating his
+engagement! It was the Cardinals who pronounced this anathema in the
+presence of Pascal II. Not only did this Council condemn investitures,
+but furthermore, it termed all those heretics who did not condemn them.
+Henry V. conceived little danger from it. He came into Italy in 1116, to
+take possession of the rich inheritance bequeathed by Matilda to St.
+Peter. She had not transferred either sovereign rights or prerogatives,
+nor yet fiefs, but merely landed property, which the Roman Church was to
+enjoy as the proprietor, ‘jure proprietario’.¹⁷⁷ It matters not—the
+emperor pretends that the countess had no power, even on these grounds,
+to dispose of those domains; and during the whole of the 12th century,
+the popes remained deprived of this inheritance. After having taken
+possession, Henry advanced towards Rome; a sedition had burst out there
+against Pascal, whose long pontificate displeased the great, and whose
+person every one. While the pope fled to Monte Cas-sino, and shut
+himself up in Beneventum, the excommunicated monarch entered Rome, as if
+in triumph, and there received the imperial crown from the hands of
+Bourdin, archbishop of Bruges. Pascal excommunicated Bourdin,
+endeavoured to raise up against Henry, now France, now the Normans
+established in Lower Italy, and, finally, terminated his career, rather
+ingloriously, in the month of January, 1118.
+
+ ¹⁷⁷ Chartula comittissæ Matbildia super concessione bono-rum suorum,
+ Roman, eccles. vol. 6, p. 384. Script, rer. Italic.
+
+His partisans gave him for successor, Gelasius II. whom the Frangipani,
+a family devoted to the emperor, were unwilling to recognize. Gelasius,
+arrested, released, and pursued, took the determination to fly to Gaeta,
+his country, from the time he was aware that Henry approached Rome.
+Henry had Bourdin raised to the papacy, who, having taken the name of
+Gregory VIII. crowned the new emperor. But the moment the latter quitted
+Rome, Gelasius entered it secretly. Driven out by the Frangipani he
+fled, returned, fled again, retired into Provence, and died at Cluni. He
+had reigned but one year, if, indeed, it can be said he reigned at all.
+
+From the time of Gregory VII. to Gelasius II. inclusive, almost all the
+popes, drawn from the shade of the cloister, had borne to the throne the
+obstinacy and asperity of the monastic spirit. Calixtus II. who replaced
+Gelasius, sprung from the house of the counts of Burgundy. The relative
+of the emperor, and of many other monarchs, he possessed at least some
+idea of the art of governing, and of reconciling great interests. He had
+the honour of terminating the disputes about investitures. A diet at
+Worms ruled, that for the future the prelates should be elected only in
+the presence of the emperor, or of his lieutenants:—that in case of
+misunderstanding, the matter should be referred to the emperor, who
+should take the opinion of the bishops: that, finally, the emperor
+should bestow investiture by the sceptre, and not by the crozier and
+ring¹⁷⁸ Calixtus ratified this treaty in the midst of the general
+Lateran Council of 1123. We may also applaud this pontiff for saving the
+life of his rival Bourdin; he contented himself with exposing him to the
+jests of the populace, consigning him for ever to the depths of a
+dungeon, and with causing himself to be represented trampling this
+antipope under his feet.¹⁷⁹ Such was the generosity of this friend!
+Calixtus pressed the king of England to restore a deposed bishop. ‘I
+have sworn,’ replied the king, ‘never to suffer him to re-ascend his
+seat.’ ‘You have sworn,’ said Calixtus, ‘very well, I am pope, and I
+release you from your oath.’ ‘How, replied the monarch, ‘shall I çonfide
+in this bishop’s oaths, or in your’s, if your will alone is necessary to
+cancel them.’
+
+ ¹⁷⁸ Concilior. vol. 10, p. 883.—Abb. Ursperg. Chron. p. 204.
+ —Muratori’s Antiquities of Italy, med. ævi. vol. 6, p. 72.
+ —Schill. de libertate eccles. German. 1. 4, c. 4, p. 545.
+
+ ¹⁷⁹ Art of verifying dates, vol. i. p. 283, 284.
+
+Honorius II. who filled the Holy See from 1124 to 1180, is only
+remarkable for his disputes with Roger, Count of Sicily, whom he wished
+to prevent uniting Apulia and Calabria, an inheritance left him by
+William II. his father, to his States. The pope fearing that Roger might
+become powerful enough to invade the Ecclesiastical States, sent an army
+against him, which was defeated. The king of France, Louis le Gros, was
+then exposed to the censures of the bishops of his own kingdom: the
+seditious conduct of the bishop of Paris having required repressive
+measures, this prelate, whose temporalities were seized, dared to place
+his own diocese, and the possessions of the king, under interdict. The
+most praiseworthy action of Honorius is the removal of this interdict,
+and the having coldly seconded the ardent zeal of St. Bernard, when this
+pious abbot, treating his king as an infidel, a persecutor, a second
+Herod, solicited the pope to bring this affair before the Holy See.
+Louis was indebted for the tranquillity of the last ten years of his
+reign; to the prudence of Honorius, whom St, Bernard accused of
+weak-ness.¹⁸⁰
+
+It was in the pontificate of this Honorius, that the two factions, the
+imperial and the papal, originating as we have seen, in the tenth
+centuiy,¹⁸¹ took, in a more decided form, the distinctions of Guelphs
+and Ghibeli-. nes. These two appellations are the names of two German
+houses, which in 1125, when Henry V. died, disputed the imperial crown.
+One of these families, sometimes called* Salique, sometimes Guiebelinga
+or Waiblinge, reigned in Franconia, and had furnished the four last
+emperors; it was distinguished by its long disputes with the Church: the
+other family, originally of Allfort, possessed Bavaria; and many of its
+heads, devoted to the popes, had borne the name of Welf or Guelpho.
+
+ ¹⁸⁰ Velly’s Hist, of France, vol. iii. p. 73, 74.
+
+ ¹⁸¹ Ibid. p. 88, 89.
+
+The duke of Saxony, Lothaire, chosen at Mayence, as successor to Henry,
+was impatient to manifest his attachment to the house of Guelph, by
+espousing the heiress of Henry duke of Bavaria. The duke of Franconia,
+Conrade, was then in Palestine; he hastened to combat Lothaire,
+re-animated the partisans of the house of Ghibeline, and caused himself
+to be crowned emperor, by the archbishop of Milan, while Honorius II.
+declared himself in favour of the confederate of the house of Guelph.¹⁸²
+
+ ¹⁸² Otto Frising. Chron. 1. 7, c. 17.—De Gestis. Fred. 1. 2, c.
+ 2.—Mase. Comment, de rebus imperii sub Lothario ET. 1. 1, 8. 1. 9.
+ 23; sub Conrade III. 1. 3, p. 141.—Chron. Weingen-tense de Guelfi
+ principibus, apurt Leibnitz, v. 1, p. 781.
+
+At Rome, another powerful family, the Frangipani, had for rivals the
+children of a Jew named Leo, who, opulent, and a convert, had become,
+under these two qualifications, as formidable as famous. Peter de Leon,
+the son of this Jew, sought, under the name of Anaclet, to succeed
+Honorius II. to whom the Frangipani gave for a successor, Innocent IT.
+The two popes were enthroned and consecrated at the same time in Rome:
+but Anaclet proved the strongest there; Innocent took refuge in France,
+where St. Bernard had him acknowledged, and held many councils up to the
+year 1133. Returned to Rome, he crowned the Guelph, Lothaire, emperor,
+in ceding to him the usufruct of Matilda’s domains. Anaclet died; his
+successor Victor abdicated the tiara; the schism was extinguished; and
+Pope Innocent II. considered himself sufficiently firm upon the
+pontifical throne, to menace Count Robert, and the king of France, Louis
+the Young. Roger defeated the troops of Innocent, who, fallen into the
+hands of the conqueror, saw himself compelled to confirm the title of
+king, given to Roger by Anaclet. Louis VII. defended himself with less
+success: exercising the right which all his predecessors had exercised,
+he had refused to ratify the election of an archbishop of Bourges.
+Innocent received the pretended archbishop, consecrated him, and sent
+him to take possession, spoke of the king as of a young man whom it was
+necessary to instruct, that it was not proper he should in anywise
+accustom himself to meddle in the affairs of the church,—and, enraged
+with the opposition of this prince, he laid his kingdom under an
+interdict: a sentence then so much the more terrible, as, echoed by the
+French prelates supported by St. Bernard, it presented to Thibault,
+Count of Champagne, a turbulent and hypocritical vassal, the opportunity
+of exciting a. civil war. Louis armed himself against Thibault, entered
+Vetry, and tarnished his victory by delivering thirteen hundred of its
+unfortunate inhabitants to the flames. This excess was subsequently
+expiated by a crusade which had itself needed expiation.
+
+Celestine III. the successor of Innocent II. took off the interdict laid
+on France, refused to confirm the treaties entered into by his
+predecessors with Roger, king of Sicily, and declared himself against
+Stephen, who had taken possession of the English throne. The pontificate
+of Çelestine II. and that of Lucius II. who followed him, scarcely
+completed two years; but these are memorable from the disturbances which
+agitated the city and environs of Rome.
+
+Arnauld of Brescia, an austere monk, but eloquent and seditious, had
+denounced the ambition and the despotism of the clergy. To maxims of
+independence, which were qualified political heresies, he united certain
+less intelligible errors, which he adopted of Abelard, his master and
+his friend. From 1139, Arnauld, condemned by the second Lateran council,
+had left Italy, and had taken refuge in the territory of Zurich. During
+his exile the Romans, discontented with Innocent II. restored some
+semblance of their former liberty; and these attempts, more bold under
+Çelestine II. became, under Louis, serious undertakings. They created a
+patrician, popular magistrate, and president of a senate composed of
+fifty-six members. The patrician was a brother of the antipope Anaclet;
+the thirteen districts of Rome concurred in the choice of these
+fifty-six senators. Deputies were sent by this senate to Conrade III.
+whom the death of Lothaire had left in full possession of the empire.
+The Romans invited Conrade to come and take in the midst of their city
+the imperial crown:
+
+ “Let your wisdom, said they to
+ “him, call to mind the attempts undertaken by the
+ “popes against your august predecessors. The
+ “popes, their partisans, and the Sicilians, at the pre−
+ “sent time in league with them, prepare for you
+ “still greater outrages. But the senate is restored,
+ “the people have resumed their vigour; this
+ “people and this senate, by which Constantine,
+ “Theodosius, and Justinian governed the world,
+ “and whose vows, prayers and exertions, call you
+ “to a similar degree of power and glory.”
+
+Conrade was perfectly aware of the projects of independence which this
+language harboured, and did not think it prudent to imitate Lucius, who
+also had addressed an epistle to him. Bold against enemies whom Conrade
+had abandoned, and whom Roger threatened, Lucius advanced towards the
+capital; he marched surrounded by priests and soldiers. This parade of
+all his temporal and spiritual arms, however, was useless; a shower of
+stones crushed the double army of the pope, and he himself received a
+mortal wound. His party very hastily gave him a successor; but this
+person, who was named Eugenius III. hastened to quit Rome, lest he
+should see himself compelled to ratify the re-establishment of the
+popular magistracy¹⁸³
+
+ ¹⁸³ Otho. Frising. Chron. 1. 7. c. 22,27,31.—De Gest. Frid. re. 1. 1.
+ e. 21, 22, 27,26.—Moscow de reb. imperii sub Con rado HI. 1. 3,
+ pa. 114.
+
+Eugenius armed against the Romans the inhabitants of Tivoli, and
+nevertheless re-entered Rome only by recognizing the senate. He obtained
+but the abolition of the dignity of patrician, and the re-establishment
+of the prefect. These transactions did not lead to a permanent peace;
+Eugeni us again took flight and passed into France, where he seconded as
+far as possible St. Bernard, the apostle of the fatal crusade of 1147¹⁸⁴
+During the absence of Eugenuis, Arnauld of Brescia returned to Rome,
+followed by two thousand Swiss¹⁸⁵ he proposed restoring the consul, the
+tribunes, the equestrian order of the ancient Republic of Rome, to allow
+the pope the exercise of no civil power, and to limit the power they
+were obliged to leave in the emperor’s hands. Eugenius re-appeared in
+the capital in 1149, quitted again almost immediately, again returned in
+1153 to quit it no more. Imploring the assistance of Barbarossa, who had
+been elected emperor, he offered to crown him, and obtained from this
+prince a promise to receive the pontifical authority at Rome. Louis VII.
+broke at this time his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitain: this divorce,
+the only one perhaps which has had fatal consequences for France, is
+also the only one which has not experienced on the part of the church,
+any sort of opposition. Neither the pope, nor the bishop, nor St.
+Bernard complained of it.
+
+ ¹⁸⁴ This expedition is connected with our subject, only by general
+ considerations, which we have already laid before oar readers—see
+ page 116.
+
+ ¹⁸⁵ Chron. Corbeiens.
+
+Suger, who had advised against it, no longer lived; the French prelates,
+whom Louis condescended to consult, expressly approved of it; and the
+heiress of Guienne and Poictou, repudiated under the usual pretext of
+distant consanguinity, disinherited the daughters whom she had by the
+king of France, married Henry Plantagenet, and added two large provinces
+to Maine and Anjou, already possessed by Henry, who became afterwards
+king of England. Here we behold one of the principal causes of the long
+rivalry of these two kingdoms; and if the clergy, for a long time
+accustomed to pass the limits prescribed by their profession, had
+attempted to trangress them on the present occasion, for once, at least,
+we should have been enabled to bless the abuse of their ecclesiastical
+functions.
+
+That which must render the pontificate of Eugenius III. memorable in the
+History of the Power of the Popes is, the approbation which he bestowed
+on Gratian’s Decree. The name of ‘Decree’ designates in this place, a
+canonical compilation at first entitled ‘Concord of the Discordant
+Canons,’ which was completed in 1152, by the aforesaid Gratian, a
+Benedictine monk bom in Tuscany. The then recent discovery of
+Justinian’s Pandects, caused the revival in Italy of the study of civil
+jurisprudence: the collection of Gratian, became the ‘text’ of
+ecclesiastical jurisprudence; and the first of these studies, soon
+subjected to the other, appeared only as its appendage. This collection
+is divided into three parts, of which one treats of general principles
+and ecclesiastical persons, the second of judgment, and the third of
+sacred things. The tautology, the impertinencies, the irregularity, the
+errors in proper names, the disregard of correctness in the quotations,
+are the smallest faults of the compiler; mutilated passages, canons,
+false decretals, every species of falsehood, abound in this monstrous
+production. Its success was only the more rapid; they began to expound
+it in the schools, to cite it at the tribunals, to invoke it in
+treaties; and it had almost become the general law of Europe, when the
+return of learning slowly dissipated these gross impostures. The clergy
+withdrawn from the secular tribunals; the civil power subjected to the
+ecclesiastical supremacy; the estates of individuals, and the acts which
+determined them, sovereignly regulated, confirmed, annulled, by the
+canons, and by the clergy; the papal power freed from all restriction;
+the sanction of all the laws of the church conferred on the Holy See,
+itself independent of the laws published and confirmed by it: such are
+the actual consequences of this system of jurisprudence. Some churches,
+and that of France in particular, have modified it; but it is preserved
+pure and unaltered in the Roman Church, which has availed itself of it
+in the succeeding centuries to trouble the world. From the end of the
+eighth century the decretals of Isidore had sowed the seeds of the whole
+pontifical power. Gratian has compiled and enriched them. Represented as
+the source of all irrefragable decisions, the universal tribunal
+which-determines all differences, dissipates all doubts, clears up all
+difficulties, the Court of Rome beholds itself consulted from all parts,
+by metropolitans, bishops, chapters, abbots, monks, by lords, by
+princes, and even by private individuals. The pontifical correspondence
+had no limits but in the slowness of the medium of communication; the
+flow of questions multiplied bulb, briefs and epistles; and from these
+fictitious decretals, attributed to the popes of the first ages, sprung
+up and multiplied, from the time of Eugenius III. millions of responses
+and too well authenticated sentences. Matters, religious, civil,
+judicial, domestic, all at this period more or less clogged with
+pretended relations to the spiritual power; general interests, local
+disputes, quarrels of individuals, all was referred as a ‘dernier
+resort’, sometimes in both first and last instance, to the Vicar of
+Jesus Christ; and the Court of Rome obtained that influence in detail,
+if we may so term it, of all the most tremendous, precisely for this
+reason, that each of its consequences, isolated from the rest, appeared
+the more unimportant. Isidore and Gratian have transformed the pope into
+a universal administrator.
+
+Frederick Barbarossa was then the principal obstacle to the progress of
+pontifical power. Young, ambitious and enterprising, he was connected,
+by the ties of blood, with the families of Guelph and Ghibeline. He
+seemed destined to extinguish, or at least to suspend, the fury of the
+two factions. He announced the design of confirming in Italy the
+imperial power; and it could not have been anticipated, that a new
+crusade should divert him as speedily from it, after the misfortunes
+attendant on that of 1147.
+
+In the mean time, Adrian IV. born in a village in the neighbourhood of
+the abbey of St. Alban, mounted the chair of St. Peter in the month of
+December 1154.¹⁸⁶ The king of England, Henry II. congratulated himself
+on seeing an Englishman at the head of the Church, and asked his
+permission to take possession of Ireland, in order to establish
+Christianity there in its primitive purity. Adrian consented to it, with
+this observation, that all the isles, in which the Christian faith had
+been preached, belonged indubitably to the Holy See, even as Henry
+himself acknowledged. The pope, then, did consent to dispose of Ireland
+in favour of the king of England, on condition that the king should
+cause the Roman church to be paid an annual tax of one penny out of each
+house in Ireland. Fleury¹⁸⁷ supposes that John of Salisbury was one of
+the ambassadors sent by the king to the pontiff to solicit Ireland from
+him; but Matthew Paris¹⁸⁸ names the deputies without mentioning John of
+Salisbury; however, the latter might have been commissioned to second
+the application to Adrian, whose intimate friend he was.—They passed
+three months together at Beneventum. There it was that Adrian, having
+asked John what they said of the Roman Church, was answered, that she
+passed for the step-mother rather than the mother of other churches,
+that the Pope himself was a great expense to the world, and that so many
+violences, so much avarice, and so much pride disgusted Christendom. Is
+that, said the pope, your own opinion of the matter? “I am really
+puzzled,” replied John; “but since the Cardinal Guy Clement joins the
+public on this point, I cannot be of a different sentiment. You are most
+Holy Father out of the right way; wherefore exact of your children such
+enormous tributes? and that which you have received freely, why not
+freely bestow it¹⁸⁹ ?” The pope, says Fleury,¹⁹⁰ began to laugh, and to
+exculpate Rome, alleged the fable of the stomach and the other members.
+But in order that the application should be correct, says the same
+historian, it would have been requisite that the Roman Church should
+have extended to other churches similar benefits to those she derived
+from them.
+
+ ¹⁸⁶ Guill. Neubrig, Rer. Angl. 1. 2. c. 6. et 9,—Ciacon. de Vitis
+ pont. Rom. Hadr. 4.
+
+ ¹⁸⁷ Petri Bles. Op. p. 252, 263.—Concilior. v. 9. p. 1143. Hist,
+ eccles. 1. 70. n. 16.
+
+ ¹⁸⁸ Hist. Angl. anno. 1155.
+
+ ¹⁸⁹ Joann. Sarisb: Polycrat. 1. 6. c. 24; 1. 8. c. 22.
+
+ ¹⁹⁰ Hist, eccles. 1.70. n. 15.
+
+At the above period, reigned in Sicily, William sumamed the Bad, who
+enraged at receiving from the pope only the title of lord, in the place
+of that of king, carried hostilities into the ecclesiastical states.¹⁹¹
+Adrian, after having excommunicated him, raised against him the nobles,
+vassals of this prince, promising to support their privileges with an
+invincible constancy, and to have them restored to the heritages of
+which they had been deprived. However, the pope shut up in Beneventum,
+saw himself obliged to capitulate, and to sacrifice the Sicilians who
+had armed themselves in his defence. William of Tyre has blamed him for
+it;¹⁹² but according to Baronius,¹⁹³ we must only pity him, for he
+lacked the means of remaining faithful to his engagements; and he was so
+far from free, that he was constrained to acknowledge, by authentic
+deed, that he enjoyed a perfect liberty. However it was, William the
+Bad, and the pope were reconciled; and there were none discontented save
+the barons, who, on the word of the holy father, had expected never to
+be abandoned.
+
+ ¹⁹¹ Baron. Ann. ecdes. ann. 1154.—Pagi. Act. ann. 1154, n. 4.
+
+ ¹⁹² Lib. 18. c. 2. et segg.
+
+ ¹⁹³ Ann.eccles. ann 1166.—Concilior vol. 10. pa. 1151.
+
+From the commencement of his pontificate Adrian had been relieved of
+Amauld of Brescia. An interdict launched for the first time against the
+churches of Rome, terrified the people, and compeled the senators to
+exile Arnauld, who scarcely out of the city, was delivered to the
+sovereign pontiff by Frederick Barbarossa, and buried alive at the break
+of day, without the knowledge of the people. His ashes were thrown into
+the Tiber, for fear, says Fleury¹⁹⁴ that the people should collect them
+as those of a martyr. But this service rendered by Frederick to Adrian
+did not prevent their becoming enemies. From the year 1155, when
+Frederick came to Rome to receive the imperial crown, the first germs of
+their discord were perceptible.¹⁹⁵ Frederick, after having refused to
+hold the stirrup for the pope, acquitted himself of it with a very bad
+grace. He observed in the palace of the Lateran a picture, in which the
+Emperor Lothaire was represented on his knees before the pontif with the
+well known inscription:
+
+ Rex venit ante fores, jurans prim urbis honores;
+ Post homo, fit paps, sumit, quo dante, coronam:—
+
+that is to say, “the king presents himself at the gates; and after
+having recognised the rights of the city, becomes the vassal of the
+pope, who bestows on him the crown.” Frederick complained of these two
+verses, as well as of the emblems they explained, and obtained but the
+vague promise of their future suppression. They still subsisted when, in
+the month of April, 1157, the pope’s legates presented themselves before
+the emperor, who held a court at Besancon¹⁹⁶ and placed in his hands a
+letter from Adrian. It had for its purport an attack committed in the
+emperor’s states on the person of the Bishop of Lunden.:
+
+ “How, said the pope, can
+ “the impunity of such a crime be explained? Is it
+ “negligence? Can it be indifference? Can the
+ “emperor have forgotten the benefits conferred on
+ “him by the Holy See? Has not the sovereign
+ “pontiff willingly conferred on him the imperial
+ “crown? Are there not other favours still which
+ “he may be disposed to confer?”
+
+This language highly displeased the princes by whom Frederick was
+surrounded; they murmured, they menaced; and when one of the legates
+replied to them, “of whom then does the emperor hold the crown, if he
+holds it not from the pope?” one of the princes no longer restrained his
+indignation; he drew his sword, and he had infallibly cut off the
+legate’s head, if Frederick had not hastened to oppose his imperial
+authority to this violence, and to have the envoys of the Holy See
+conducted to their residences, directing them to depart very early the
+following morning, and to return to Rome by the shortest road, without
+resting at the houses of either bishops or abbots.¹⁹⁷
+
+ ¹⁹⁴ Hist, eccles. 1. 70, n. 4.—Otho Frising. de Gert. Frider. Anoborb.
+ 1. 2, c. 21.—Vit. Adrioni ed à card. Arrag.
+
+ ¹⁹⁵ Otho Frising. de Oert. Frid. 1.2, c. 14,15,20.—Radev. de Gert.
+ Frid. 1.1, c. 11.—Bossnet’s Def. Gull Church. 1.3, e« 18.
+
+ ¹⁹⁶ Radevic. 1. 1, c. 8, 9, 10.
+
+ ¹⁹⁷ Concilior. vol. x. p. 1144.
+
+Adrian took the step of addressing the bishops of Germany; he exhorted
+them to neglect no means of bringing Frederick back to more humble
+sentiments.¹⁹⁸ We have the reply of these prelates;¹⁹⁹ it is judicious
+and firm:
+
+ “Your
+ “words, they say to the holy fathers, have shocked
+ “the whole court, and we cannot approve them.—
+ “The emperor can never suppose, that he holds
+ “from you his dignity: he swears that when the
+ “Church wishes to subject thrones, such ambition
+ “comes not from God; he speaks of figures and
+ “inscriptions which you possess, and which outrage
+ “his authority; he will not suffer, he says, such
+ “gross attempts. We invite you to destroy these
+ “movements of hostility between the empire and
+ “the priesthood; we adjure you to pacify a chris−
+ “tian sovereign, in addressing to him henceforth a
+ “language more conformable to the Gospel.”
+
+At the same time that the bishops wrote this epistle, Frederick prepared
+to pass into Italy.!²⁰⁰ Adrian called to mind William of Sicily and
+perceived that it was time to shew some deference to the emperor.
+Legates more skilful and more complying, came to Augsburgh, and
+presented Frederick with another epistle from Adrian²⁰¹ The pope
+explained in it the terms of his first letter, and the explanation
+amounted to a retraction. “By the word ‘beneffcium,’ he says, we
+understand not a benefice or a fief, but a benefit or a service. In
+speaking of your crown, we do not pretend having conferred it on you; we
+refer only to the honour we have had of placing it on your august head;
+‘contulimus’ that is to say, imposuimus.” This commentary, which by no
+means pleases Baronius,²⁰² satisfied the emperor, and produced between
+this prince and the pope a reconciliation which was not of long
+duration.
+
+In the month of October 1150,²⁰³ Frederick held at Roncaille, between
+Parma and Placentia, an assembly, in which the bishops and abbots
+acknowledged that they held from him their royal privileges.
+Dissatisfied with this declaration, and with the asperity with which the
+officers of the emperor asserted the right of forage over the lands of
+the Roman Church, Adrian wrote an epistle to Frederick which has not
+been preserved; but Radevic, who gives us a relation of it,²⁰⁴ says,
+that it concealed, under humble and gentle terms, much bitterness and
+hauteur. In replying to it, Frederick affected to place, in the
+inscription, his own name before that of the sovereign pontiff.²⁰⁵ It
+was to revert to an ancient custom, to which were substituted for some
+time past forms supposed to be more respectful. This bagatelle nettled
+the holy, father; and history relates, that letters were intercepted
+which he wrote to the Milanese, and other subjects of Frederick, to
+invite them to revolt. We do not possess those letters; but the reply of
+Adrian to the emperor has been transmitted to us.²⁰⁶
+
+ “To place your name before ours, says the servant “of the
+ servants of Christ, is arrogance, is insolence; “and to cause
+ bishops to render homage to you, “those whom the Scriptures call
+ Gods, sons of the “Most High, is to want that faith which you
+ “have sworn to St. Peter, and to us. Hasten then “to amend, lest
+ that in taking to yourself that which “does not belong to you,
+ you lose the crown with “which we have gratified you.”
+
+This epistle²⁰⁷ did not remain unreplied to; the minds of both became
+inflamed, and in despite of the négociations attempted in an assembly at
+Bologna in 1159, war was going to break out, had not the pope died the
+first of September of the same year, at the very moment, says an
+historian²⁰⁸ at which he pronounced the excommunication of Frederick.
+
+ ¹⁹⁸ Concilior, vol. 10, p. 1145.
+
+ ¹⁹⁹ Radev. Gest. Frider. 1.1, c. 16.
+
+ ²⁰⁰ Radev. 1. 17, c. 23.
+
+ ²⁰¹ Concilior. vol. 10, p. 1147.
+
+ ²⁰² Ana. eccles. ann. 1158. 76.—According to Bossuet, this letter of
+ Adrian IV. alone, is requisite to annihilate all the conclusions
+ which the Ultramontanes pretend to deduce from the ceremony of the
+ coronation of kings.
+
+ ²⁰³ Radev.l. 2. c. 1—15.
+
+ ²⁰⁴ Lib. 2. c. 18*
+
+ ²⁰⁵ App. p. 562.
+
+ ²⁰⁶ Concilior vol. 10.
+
+ ²⁰⁷ Ego dixi: Dii estis et filii Excelsi omnes Ps. 81. r. 6.
+
+ ²⁰⁸ Abb. Ursperg. Chron. p. 221.
+
+Alexander III. elected pope after Adrian IV. did not die until 1181. His
+pontificate is the longest of the twelfth century. But four anti-popes,
+who succeeded each other in the lapse of these twenty-eight years, under
+the names of Victor III., Pascal III., Calixtus III., and Innocent III.,
+disputed and weakened the authority of the head of the church. Alexander
+who had been at Besancon as one of the envoys of Adrian, found in
+Frederick Barbarossa a formidable enemy. This emperor seeing that they
+had at the same moment elected two successors of Adrian, Alexander and
+Victor, summoned them to appear at Pavia, where he would decide between
+them in a council convoked by him. Victor appeared there and was
+pronounced the true pontiff. Alexander excommunicated by this council,
+in return excommunicated Frederick and Victor, loosed from their oaths
+the subjects of the former, and took refuge in France, then the usual
+common asylum of the popes expelled from Rome. Returned to this city in
+1165, after the decease of Victor, he left it again in 1167, and behold
+in what way. The Romans besieged by the Germans, conjured him to
+sacrifice to their safety the title disputed with him,:
+
+ “No! he replied, a sovereign
+ “pontiff is not subject, to the judgment of any mor−
+ “tal, neither of kings nor of people, nor yet of the
+ “church; let them know that no power on earth
+ “shall make me descend from the rank to which God
+ “has elevated me;”
+
+and, while the cardinals carried to the citizens of Rome this pontifical
+reply, the holy father stole away without noise.²⁰⁹ Frederick at this
+time supported a famous war against almost all Italy, confederated under
+the name of the League of Lombardy. Alexander III. became the head of
+the Lombards, who gave the name of Alexandria, to a city built by them
+in 1168, at the confluence of the Tanaro and the Bormida. The pope
+excited the Greek emperor Manuel to arm against the emperor of the West,
+and attempted to reconcile the two churches, separated since the
+pontificate of Leo IX. But when Manuel required that the Holy See should
+be established at Constantinople, this condition caused the failure of
+both projects. To occupy a secondary rank in a capital inhabited,
+possessed, and ruled by a secular sovereign, this subordinate situation,
+which for five centuries had suited the successors of St. Peter, was not
+to be listened to by the successors of Gregory VII.
+
+ ²⁰⁹ Vit Alex. III. edit, a card. Arrag. p. 468.—Acerbug Rfp-rena, p.
+ 1151.—-Baron. Ann. eccles. Anji. 1167, s. 11.
+
+As France, so England likewise, acknowledged Alexander III.
+notwithstanding the protection he seemed to grant to Thomas a Becket,
+Archbishop of Canterbury. This prelate elevated by the king, Henry II.,
+to the most eminent dignities, dared to oppose himself to the punishment
+of a priest convicted of assassination, and to determine that the sole
+punishment should be, deprivation of his benefice.
+
+The king wished that the common law should be applied, by the regular
+tribunals, to the frequent crimes of the members of the church; he
+desired that no bishop should without his permission go to Rome or
+appeal to the Holy See, nor excommunicate or suspend a vassal or officer
+of the crown. A parliament at Clarendon adopted these articles: Becket
+after having at first rejected them without examination, next adopted
+them without reserve, lastly accused himself to the pope of having
+betrayed the rights of the clergy, did penance for it, and renounced the
+exercise of his ministry until the sovereign pontiff had absolved him.
+Treated as a rebel by all the peers of Great Britain, as well
+ecclesiastical as secular, he took refuge in France, threatened the king
+with the fate of Nebuchadnezzar, and pronounced anathemas against the
+most faithful ministers and subjects of Henry. This prince attempted to
+recal Becket to reason and his duty: he exhausted every way for the
+purpose, even that of taking for arbiter his rival Louis the Young, king
+of France. Let the archbishop, said he, conduct himself towards me, as
+the most holy of his predecessors did with the least illustrious of
+mine, and I shall be satisfied. An apparent reconciliation led Becket
+back to England; but if he returned it was to excommunicate anew all the
+clerks, curates, canons and bishops, who had declared against him. Henry
+lost all patience; even to that degree that he exclaimed: will none of
+my servants avenge me of the most meddling and ungrateful of men? Four
+assassins went, in effect, to seek the arch-bishop, and dispatched him
+in his church of Canterbury. Alexander, who had condemned the Articles
+of Clarendon, placed Thomas a Becket in the number of the holy martyrs;
+and the king, whose imprudent words had rendered him guilty both of the
+murder and the canonization, finished, by tarnishing with the most
+ignominious penance the rights and dignity of his throne. This quarrel
+has given place to a multitude of letters, as well of Alexander III. as
+of many English and French prelates: a deplorable correspondence, in
+which we behold with what rapidity were propagated the unsocial maxims
+preserved in the decree of Gratian.²¹⁰
+
+ ²¹⁰ Matth. Paris. Hist. mag. p. 82, 83, 101, 104.—Collier’s
+ Ecclesiastical History, vol. 1, s. 12.—Concil. Magnse Britann.
+ vol. 1. p. 434.—Epistolæ et Vita Thomæ Cantuar. &c. Brux. 1682,
+ vol. 2. in 4to.—Natalis Alex. sec. 12, diss. 10, p. 833.—Telly’s
+ Hist, of France, vol. 3, p. 181, 198.
+
+Nevertheless, Alexander III. thought of establishing himself, and
+dreaded the consequences of too long a war with the emperor. He detached
+himself from
+
+Some English writers say that the four assassins, Fitzurse, Tracy,
+Britton and Morville, were so far from having an order to kill Becket,
+that they dared not re-appear at Court after the commission of the
+crime. Hume adds, that the king suspecting the intention of these
+gentlemen from some words which had escaped them, dispatched a messenger
+after them, prohibiting their attacking the person of the prelate, but
+that the messenger arrived too late.
+
+the Lombard League, and came to Venice in 1177, to offer Frederick a
+peace, which the reverses of this prince were to render useful and
+glorious to the church. The pope reaped the fruits of the labours and
+combats of Italy. Frederick acknowledged Alexander, kissed his feet,
+held the stirrup of his horse, and restored the ecclesiastical goods,
+without, however, including herein the inheritance of Matilda, and
+signed a truce for six years²¹¹ For ten years past, Alexander had
+invariably resided at Anagni; he seldom resorted to Rome, where the
+seeds of sedition had not ceased to ferment. He returned to it in 1178;
+his entry was solemn; he received the homage of the people and the oaths
+of the nobles, and held in 1179 the third general council of the
+Lateran. A crown being sent by him to the king of Portugal, Alphonso
+Henriquez, in order that this conqueror should not reign without the
+approbation of the Holy See, he was repaid by an annual tribute of two
+marks of gold.²¹² Such have been the principal events of the
+pontificate of Alexander III. to whom the college of cardinals is
+indebted for the exclusive privilege of electing the popes; he ruled
+that this election should be effected by the union of two thirds of the
+suffrages in favour of one candidate. The memory of this pope has
+remained dear to the Italians, who were pleased at beholding in him the
+defender of their liberties; but he evinced still more zeal for the
+aggrandizement of the ecclesiastical power. They owe greater praise to
+his address and constancy than to his patriotism. He knew how to triumph
+over obstacles, support long reverses, weary out the prosperity of
+Frederick Barbarossa, and subject to the pontifical authority, the enemy
+of the Italian republics.
+
+ ²¹¹ Maratori’s Antiquit Ital. med. ævi. vol. 4, p. 249.— Orig. Guelph,
+ vol. 2, p. 479.
+
+ ²¹² Velly’s Hist, of France, vol. 3, p. 327.
+
+Lucius III. the first elected in the the forms established by Alexander,
+displeased the Romans on this very account, who compelled him to retire
+to Verona. Urban III. and Gregory VIII. proposed a third crusade, which
+was not undertaken until under Clement III. in 1189. To draw France and
+England towards the Holy Land, it was requisite to deaden the ardour of
+the quarrels which, from the divorce of Louis VII., divided the two
+kingdoms. A legate of Clement III. threatened France with a general
+interdict, if Philip Augustus did not hasten to reconcile himself to the
+English.²¹³
+
+ "What do I care for
+ “your interdict, replied Philip: does it belong
+ “to Rome to threaten or disturb my States,
+ “when I think proper to bring back to duty my
+ “rebel vassals? we may plainly see you have got
+ “a relish for the sterling money of the English.”
+
+Philip assumed the cross, nevertheless, as well as Richard, who had
+succeeded his father, Henry, on the throne of England. Frederick
+Barbarossa also took the cross and died in Armenia, in 1100, leaving the
+empire to his son Henry, VI. Clement III. had need to occupy the peoples
+minds with this remote expedition. The papal authority had been weakened
+anew under the short and feeble pontificates of his two predecessors.
+The Romans who had obtained royal privileges, restored them to the Holy
+See, only on condition that the cities of Tusculum and of Tivoli should
+be given up to their vengeance. Tusculum sacked and reduced to cinders
+under Celestin III. took the name of Frescati, when branches of trees²¹⁴
+served to form asylums for those that remained of the inhabitants.
+
+Celestine III. elected in 1191, is the last pope of the 12th centuiy.
+Innocent III. who reigned from 1198 to 1216 ought to be considered
+belonging to the XII. Baronius relates²¹⁵ that in consecrating Heniy
+VI. Çelestine pushed with his foot the imperial crown. Muratori disputes
+the fact,²¹⁶ which proves, according to Baronius, the popes right to
+depose the emperor: in fine there can no finer reason be given for such
+a privilege. However it may be, Celestine excommunicated Heniy VI.
+Leopold Duke of Austria, Alphonso X. king of Leon, and annulled the
+decision of the French bishops, who had approved the repudiation of
+Ingelburg II. the wife of Philip Augustus. It is to be remarked that
+these anathemas although still formidable, had lost a large portion of
+their unfortunate efficacy. Philip took a third wife, without any new
+opposition on the part of Celestine. This pope, for some marcs of
+silver, acknowledged, as king of Sicily, Frederick II. a child of three
+years, son of the emperor Henry VI. In 1197, Henry died, and Germany was
+divided between Philip of Swabia, and Otho of Saxony; the simultaneous
+election of these two emperors became one of the causes of the
+aggrandizement of the pontifical power. Divisions in Germany, rivalry
+between France and England, new governments in almost all the states of
+Italy, expeditions into Palestine, hostilities of the crusaders against
+the emperors of the East, the propagation of the false decretals in the
+West: all concurred to promise the most splendid success to the pontiff,
+who, uniting boldness to skill, should reign sufficiently long to
+conduct a great enterprise: and this pontiff was Innocent III.
+
+ ²¹³ Velly’s Hist, of France, vol. 3, p. 327.
+
+ ²¹⁴ Frasche.
+
+ ²¹⁵ Ann. eccles. ann. 1191.
+
+ ²¹⁶ Ann. d’ltal. ann. 1191.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI. POWER OF THE POPES OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY
+
+
+INNOCENT III. in one and the same year, bestowed in the plenitude of his
+power three royal crowns; to Ioanice, that of Walachia²¹⁷ ; to
+Premislaus, that of Bohemia²¹⁸ ; to Peter II., that of Arragon. Peter
+received his at Rome, and did the pope homage for his states, which
+became tributary to the Holy See.²¹⁹ But Innocent, the dispenser of
+kingdoms, and who even gave away that of Armenia, distinguished himself
+still more frequently by his anathemas. Venice, France, England, the
+emperor, all the great potentates of Europe, have experienced the force
+of his spiritual arms.
+
+ ²¹⁷ Fleury’s Eccles. Hist. 1. 76, n. 14,1. 76, n. 6.
+
+ ²¹⁸ Ibid. 1. 76, n 9.
+
+ ²¹⁹ Ibid. 1. 76, n, 10.
+
+The Venetians, already powerful by their commerce, had assumed the cross
+but for the purpose of extending it; they gained lands and riches in
+meriting indulgences. Alone capable of equipping great fleets, they
+exacted eighty-five thousand crowns of gold for transporting the
+Christian army into Palestine; and, with the assistance of the legions
+they conveyed, conquered important places in Dalmatia. Innocent, in
+order to put a stop to their progress, thought of excluding them from
+the bosom of the Church. But one of the effects of commercial prosperity
+is, to weaken in people’s minds the dread of ecclesiastical censures:
+the Venetians made themselves masters of the city and territory of Zara:
+they continued to fortify and aggrandize themselves; the anathema
+launched against their republic, had no important effect: the pontiff
+abstained from renewing it.
+
+He treated Philip Augustus more rigorously. This monarch of France
+received from Innocent an express order to take back the divorced
+Ingelburg, and send away Agnes or Maria de Meronie, whom he had married
+after this divorce. The king at first assumed an attitude sufficiently
+bold; but the kingdom was under interdict; the divine offices, the
+sacraments, marriages, had ceased; the permitting the beard to grow
+enjoined; the use of flesh forbidden; mutual salutation prohibited. It
+was in vain that Philip humbled himself, he was obliged to ask of the
+pope a new enquiry into the affair; it even became necessary to prevent
+the result of this examination, by declaring that he was about to recall
+Ingelburg. She was indeed allowed the titles of wife and queen, but it
+was in the confinement of a castle. Emboldened by this success, Innocent
+did not hesitate to erect himself into a supreme arbiter between the
+kings of France and England, then armed one against the other. He
+commanded them to assemble their bishops, abbots, and nobles of their
+states, to deliberate on a peace, and to think on the best means of
+restoring the churches and abbeys which had suffered during the war.
+Philip replied that it did not belong to the pope to interfere in the
+disputes of kings, nor especially to convey to them such ordinances.
+Some French lords added, that the order to make peace was but another
+reason for continuing the war.²²⁰ But Innocent replied, that an unjust
+war being a crime, and all crimes having for their judge the Holy
+Church, he fulfilled a pontifical office in disarming them both. On this
+principle says Fleury²²¹ the pope is judge of all the wars between
+Sovereigns: that is, to speak in plain terms, he is the sole Sovereign
+in the world. However it may be, Philip, after having renewed his course
+of conquest, thought proper to consent to a truce, and not irritate too
+far a pontiff determined on the boldest undertakings. He thus deferred,
+but by no means avoided, the excommunication. An anathema against Philip
+was one of the last acts of Innocent III., and one of the results of a
+new war kindled by this pontiff himself, between the king of England and
+France, whom he had affected to reconcile.
+
+ ²²⁰ Ego... nottim facio universil ad quos litteræ présentes
+ pervenerint, quod ego domino meo Ph. illustri regi Franco rum
+ consului, ut neque pacem neque treugam faciat regi Anglis, per
+ violentiam y el per coactionem domini papæ aut alicujus paps. Quod
+ si dominus papa eidam domino regi super hoc aliquam faceret
+ violentiam aut coactionem, concessi domino regi tanquam domino meo
+ ligio et creantavi super omnia qus ab eo teneo, quod ego super hoc
+ ei essem in auxilium de toto posse meo. Acts drawn up in this form
+ in the names of Renaud count of Boulogne, Raoul count of Soissons,
+ and of Odo duke of Burgundy, are to be found in the Chamber of
+ Charters, all under the date of 1202.
+
+ ²²¹ Eccles. Hist 76 m. 60; 1. 79, no. 8.
+
+In fact, this very king of Great Britain whom Innocent had appeared, in
+1204, to support against the French, became, a few years after, one of
+the victims of pontifical despotism. The pope having been desirous, in
+contempt of the canons and the laws, to dispose of the see of Canterbury
+in favour of cardinal Langton, John opposed himself to it only by fits
+of rage which exposed his weakness. Innocent, who knew how to use his
+power with more prudence, employed by degrees, three modes of repressing
+this intractableness: first, an interdict upon the kingdom; next, the
+personal excommunication of the monarch; finally, the deposition of a
+king who had been so fully convicted of obstinacy in his disobedience to
+the Holy See.²²²
+
+ ²²² Bofisuet, Defens. eler. Gallie. 1. 3. c..21.
+
+The English, already dissatisfied with their sovereign, were loosed from
+the oaths which they had taken to him, and the crown of England was
+decreed to Philip Augustus, who, imprudent enough to accept it, evinced
+his gratitude, by releasing Ingelburg from the castle of Etampes, and
+re-calling her to the throne. But while Philip prepared to reap, with
+arms in his hands, the fruits of the pontiff’s liberality, a legate
+named Pandolph, took advantage in England of the fright of the deposed
+king, and presented him the means of recovering his sceptre, by
+accepting it as a pure gift from the hands of the Church. On his knees
+before Pandolph, John placed his hands between those of this priest, and
+pronounced in the presence of the bishops and lords of Ireland, the
+following words,²²³
+
+ “I, John, by the Grace of God, king of
+ “England, and lord of Ireland, for the expiation
+ “of my sins, of my perfect accord, and by the
+ “advice of barons, give to the Roman Church, to
+ “Pope Innocent and his successors, the kingdom of
+ “England and the kingdom of Ireland, with all the
+ “rights attached to the one and the other: I hence−
+ “forward hold them of the Holy See of which I shall
+ “be the faithful vassal, faithful to God, to the Church
+ “of Rome, to the sovereign pontiff, my lord, and to
+ “his successors lawfully elected. I pledge myself
+ “to pay every year, a tax of one thousand marks of
+ “silver; to wit, seven hundred for England, and
+ “three hundred for Ireland.”
+
+ ²²³ Innoc. 3. Epist. 1. 15. ep. 77.—Rymer Act. pub. vol. 1, p. 67.
+
+This discourse is scarcely ended, when the legate is presented with a
+part of the tribute promised to St. Peter: Pandolph casts the money on
+the ground, tramples it under his feet, nevertheless collects it again,
+satisfied with thus expressing the subjection of temporal treasures as
+well as temporal powers.²²⁴ The sceptre and the crown remain in his
+hands: he keeps them five days; and when, after he has obtained some
+additional securities, he finally restores them, he pretends forsooth,
+that they are received as a perfectly gratuitous favour. He now passes
+immediately into France to announce what he has performed in England.—
+Philip learns from Pandolph, that John, the vassal of the pope,
+occupies, under the protection of the Holy See, the throne of Great
+Britain, and that henceforth every enterprise against this kingdom will
+be punished by excommunication. Philip replied, that he took up arms at
+the solicitation of the pope alone, that the preparations for it had
+cost two millions, that a fleet, recently equipped, is in the road at
+Boulogne, that it waits the troops destined to land at Dover, and that
+the time for receding is departed. In the mean time, the rebellion of a
+vassal compels the French monarch to carry the war into Flanders: to
+this vassal the king of England, the emperor Otho IV. and almost all the
+princes of Europe join themselves. But the victory which the French
+obtain at Bouvines, dissipates the hopes of their enemies: Otho is no
+longer emperor, save in name; and John would have been already
+dethroned, if Rome had not obtained for him a truce of five years.
+
+ ²²⁴ Velly’s Hist, of France, vol. 3. pa. 472.
+
+It was the English themselves who at this interval pronounced,
+regardless of the menaces of Rome, the dethronement of their monarch;
+they offered his crown to Louis, son to Philip Augustus. New decrees of
+Innocent’s prohibit both father and son from invading the State of a
+prince, a feudatory of the Holy See. The father affects to disapprove a
+conquest which Rome deems sacrilege, but furnishes, nevertheless, all
+the means for its execution: the son, in fine, embarks; and the
+sovereign pontiff, who clearly sees that the father and son understand
+each other, excommunicates them both. Louis was almost in possession of
+Great Britain, when the death of John gave a different direction to
+men’s thoughts and their affairs.²²⁵
+
+ ²²⁵ Velly’s Hist, of France, vol. 3. pm 468, 475.
+
+As sovereign of Rome, and as possessing in Italy a very galling
+preponderance, the Western Emperor was the most exposed to the attempts
+of Innocent III. To depress the empire, it behoved above all things to
+re-establish at Rome and in the ecclesiastical domains, the pontifical
+authority; the pope commenced, therefore, by turning to account the
+ascendancy which his birth, reputation, and talents, gave him over the
+Romans; he abolished the consulate, and arrogated to himself the
+imperial rights, invested a prefect, installed the public officers, and
+received the oaths of the senators. It was at this moment, says
+Muratori,²²⁶ that the imperial authority at Rome breathed its last
+sigh.
+
+ ²²⁶ “Spiro qua l’ultimo fiato l’autorita degli Augusti in Roms.”
+ Muratori, Annals of Italy, win. 1198.
+
+Out of Rome, Orbitello, Viterbo, Ombria, Romagna, and the March of
+Ancona, acknowledged Innocent III. for their sovereign. Reigning thus
+from one sea to the other, he conceived the hope of conquering Ravenna,
+which was still wanting to him, of possessing himself of the complete
+heritage of Matilda, of subjecting still further the two Sicilies, and,
+especially, prevent-ing their having for master the head of the empire;
+this last point was always a principle in the policy of the Holy See.
+Once should it govern in a direct manner the most part of the Italian
+provinces, it would be content to exercise elsewhere, a spiritual
+supremacy: the States which it could not possess, it would be satisfied
+to bestow, to resume, or to confer on such princes as should render
+themselves worthy by their docility. The conjunctures of the time
+altogether, as we have said, favoured this plan, at the accession of
+Innocent III. Frederick the II. was a child whom his father had caused
+to be elected King of the Romans, and his mother Constance, had placed
+him under the protection and even tutelage of the pope. One of this
+guardian’s first acts was, to deprive his pupil of the title of King of
+the Romans, as well as of the prerogatives attached to the crown of
+Sicily. Between Philip of Swabia, and Otho of Saxony, simultaneously
+nominated emperors, the first of whom represented the house of
+Ghibeline, the second that of Guelph, Innocent determined in favour of
+Otho, even in prejudice of Frederick, whom he considered as a third
+competitor. It was, he said, to the Holy See belonged the privilege of
+judging sovereignly the claims of these competitors of the empire. The
+fortune of war favoured Philip of Swabia, with whom the prudent court of
+Rome already treated, when he was assassinated.—His daughter became the
+wife of Otho the IV. who thus having United all rights and suffrages,
+considered himself sufficiently powerful to refuse the pope the heritage
+of Matilda. Innocent now took the part of fulfilling his obligations as
+a guardian; he opposed his ward, Frederick, to the ungrateful Otho,
+excommunicated this prince, whom he had himself crowned, and raised
+Upper Italy against him. In this conjuncture the Ghibelines were seen
+armed by the pope against an emperor, whom the Guelphs sustained in his
+resistance to the pontiff: an historical phenomenon, which ought not to
+astonish us, as we have already observed, that these two parties were
+attached rather to particular families than to opinions. We may add,
+that it is the fate of permanent factions to experience many unlooked
+for changes, to modify according to circumstances their original
+designs, to retain their names, and their insignia, much longer than
+their thoughts or their sentiments, to preserve, in fine, no other
+invariable interest than that of remaining rivals, and falling foul of
+each other; it suffices then to be, and to be at war, it matters not to
+what end. It was especially the battle of Bouviines, which determined,
+as we have remarked, the fall of Otho IV. and the preponderance of the
+party of Frederick II. Innocent thus reaped in part the fruits of the
+triumph of Philip Augustus.
+
+These disputes were connected with the crusade of 1202, which like that
+of 1095, and those of 1147 and 1189, placed in the hands of the pope the
+clue of all the movements of Europe. Each of these expeditions
+occasioned quarrels between the crusaders and the Greeks, and this
+misunderstanding appeared to Innocent an open for re-conquering the
+Eastern Church, escaped now two centuries from the domination of the
+court of Rome. The Greek empire, worn out by war and by faction, became
+the prey of the crusaders, who, being unable to retain Jerusalem, made
+themselves masters of Constantinople. Baldwin, Count of Flanders, was
+nominated Emperor of the East; after him four other Frenchmen filled
+successively the same throne, while, having taken refuge in Nice, the
+Greek emperors reigned only over some provinces. The palaces and temples
+of Byzantium were plundered, and the booty, collected by the French
+lords was estimated at a quantity of silver of two hundred thousand
+pounds weight. They found it convenient to indemnify themselves in
+Greece for the losses sustained in Palestine; the vow which they had
+made, to combat only infidels, no longer repressed their covetousness;
+the re-establishment of holy places was but a pretext for pillaging the
+rich ones; and already the affectation of sentiments of religion was
+relinquished.:
+
+ “They
+ “cast, says Fleury, the relics into unclean places,
+ “they scattered on the ground the body and blood
+ “of our Lord; they employed the sacred vases
+ “for profane uses, and an insolent woman danced in
+ “the sanctuary and seated herself in the chair of the
+ “priest.”
+
+Innocent, who was not ignorant of these profanations and complained of
+them, did not approve the less of the conquest:²²⁷
+
+ “God, said he, willing to
+ “console the church by the re−union of the schisma−
+ “tics, has caused the empire of the haughty, supersti−
+ “tious and disobedient Greeks to pass over to the
+ “humble, catholic, and submissive Latins.”
+
+ ²²⁷ Hist, eccles. 1. 76. n. 2.; Innoc. III, Epist 1. 8. ep. 69.
+
+Another benefit derived from the crusades was, the application of their
+names to many other leagues formed or fomented by the Roman Church.
+Innocent III. is the inventor of this artifice, which evinces an
+abundant acquaintance with the means of leading minds astray by the
+illusion of words: he applied to the service of his serious political
+designs, the enormous power of a word which, for the period of one
+hundred and ten years, had the effect of exciting through Europe the
+most blind and restless enthusiasm. He preached therefore a crusade
+against England when he had determined on dethroning John; a crusade
+against the Hungarians when he affected to become the arbiter of their
+intestine dissentions; a crusade against a king of Norway, whom also he
+wished to depose; but above all, a crusade against the Albigenses, a
+sect extended through the entire south of France. Raymond VI. Count of
+Tholouse, because he protected the Albigenses his subjects, was
+excommunicated as the abettor of heresy; and, one of the legates, who
+excited these troubles, having received a mortal wound, the states of
+the count, accused without any proof of the assassination, were declared
+vacant, and the prize of the first crusader who possessed himself of
+them. In vain Raymond humbled himself to degradation: in vain he had-the
+more culpable weakness to take up the cross himself against his own
+subjects; Simon de Montford obtained these wretched provinces, purchased
+by torrents of blood, with which he had inundated them. Raymond took
+refuge with his brother-in-law, Peter II. king of Arragon, who, after
+useless intercession with Innocent, took arms against Simon de Montford,
+and perished at the battle of Muret, in 1213. Two years afterwards the
+pope in the midst of a Lateran Council, definitely deposed Raymond,
+granting him a moderate pension, and bestowed his states on Simon, whom
+they dared to name Maccabeus, and who died in 1218 at the siege of
+Thou-louse. We do not mean to exculpate the Albigenses altogether,
+sometimes also denominated Vaudois, because there are numbers residing
+in the valleys of Piedmont, and often Good-men, from the regularity of
+their manners; but, to exterminate thousands of worthy men, because they
+were deceived, and to dethrone him who ruled them, because he did not
+persecute them speedily enough, such excessive severity unveils the
+character and displays the power of Innocent III.²²⁸
+
+ ²²⁸ Velly’s Hist, of France, vol. 3, p. 430, 468.
+
+It is not Without an object that this pope is applauded for the
+establishment of the inquisition. In fact, Lucius III. from the year
+1184, had ordered the bishops to seek ont heretics, to subject them to
+Spiritual, and deliver them over to secular punishments; but this first
+germ of so formidable an institution was developed before the time, when
+Innocent III. thought of sending into Languedoc two Oistertian monks,
+charged to pursue the Albigenses, to excommunicate them, and denounce
+them to the civil authority, which was to confiscate their wealth, or
+proscribe them, under pain of incurring itself ecclesiastical censures.
+Friar Raynier, friar Guy, and the archdeacon Peter of Castelnau, are the
+first inquisitors named and known in history. Innocent enjoined the
+people and their rulers, to obey them; the sovereigns, to proceed
+against the heretics denounced by these missionaries; the people, to
+take up arms against disobedient princes, or those who evinced too
+little zeal. Those first ministers of pontifical vengeance had soon
+fellow helpers, among whom St. Dominick is distinguished; and from the
+year 1215, their functions had acquired sufficient consistence and
+splendour to be solemnly approved in the Lateran council.²²⁹ Without
+doubt, the inquisition, a kind of permanent crusade, had not been
+perfected or consolidated, save under the successors of Innocent: but,
+without the memorable experiment he had the honour of making, it is
+doubtful if it had so tremendously flourished or brought forth its
+fruits.
+
+ ²²⁹ Concilior, vol. 11, p. 142,—Director. Inquis. part 1,c. 2.
+
+Among three hundred popes, or anti-popes, of which history presents us
+with the names, we know none of them more imposing than Innocent III;
+his pontificate is most worthy the attention and study of European
+monarchs: there they may learn to what extent temporal power, united
+with ecclesiastical functions, amplifies and perverts them; to what
+universal supremacy was the papacy destined; in fine, what tyranny did
+it not exercise over princes, and over people, whenever political
+circumstances, even in a small degree, favoured sacerdotal ambition. A
+pope, said Innocent, the vicar of Christ, is superior to man, if he be
+inferior to God—_minor Deo, major homine_; he is the light of day; the
+civil authority is but the pale planet of the night. It was Innocent
+III. who discovered in the chapter of Genesis this celestial theory of
+the two powers, and it was by similar allegories, proofs of the
+ignorance of the age and of his own, that he subjugated the West,
+troubled the East, and governed, and deluged the world with blood.:
+
+ “Sword, sword,” cried he, on learning the descent of the French on England;
+ “sword, sword
+ “spring from the scabbard and sharpen thyself to
+ “exterminate.”
+
+Such were the words of his last address.²³⁰ In the midst of the
+anathemas which he pronounced against Louis and Philip Augustus, he was
+seized with a fever, which, in a very few days brought on a paralysis, a
+lethargy, and finally the death of the most haughty of pontiffs, of the
+most skilful enemy of kings. He had governed the Church, or rather
+Europe, for eighteen years ten months and nine days; it is the most
+brilliant period of the papal power. England, Poland, Portugal, and we
+know not how many other States besides, became his tributaries. All
+historians of this era²³¹ relate, that in a mysterious vision, St.
+Latgarde saw Innocent III. in the midst of flames, and that this pious
+maid having asked him, wherefore he was thus tormented, he answered,
+that he should continue so to be till the day of judgment, for three
+crimes which would have plunged him into the depths of the eternal fire
+of hell, if the holy virgin to which he had dedicated a monastery had
+not averted the divine wrath. We may be allowed to doubt respecting the
+vision: but, says Fleury²³² this relation proves persons of the
+greatest virtue were convinced that this pope had committed enormous
+crimes. What were the three to which St. Lutgarde alluded? It would be
+extremely difficult to select them in the life of Innocent.
+
+ ²³⁰ Ionoc. III. Serm. de consec. pontif. op. yoI. i. p. 180.
+
+ ²³¹ Fleury’s eccles. Hist 1. 77, n. 62.
+
+ ²³² Thom. Cantiprat. in vita St. Lutg. virg. apud Surium 16
+ Jan.—Raynald. ad. ann. 1216.
+
+ ²³³ Hist, eccles. 1. 77, n. 62.
+
+After having had too weak a successor in Honorius III. his place was
+more worthily supplied by Gregory IX. This pope announced his
+pretensions by the extraordinary pomp of his coronation.— Historians²³³
+describe this gorgeous ceremony, in which nothing was omitted which
+could threaten Europe with a universal monarchy. Frederick II. who in
+receiving the imperial crown from the hands of Honorius, had ceded the
+heritage of Matilda, and placed his own son on the throne of the two
+Sicilies, in order that this kingdom should not remain united to the
+domains of the empire; notwithstanding so many compliances, and though
+he was the foster child as it were of the court of Rome, Frederick II.
+became the principal victim of the enterprises of Gregory IX.
+
+ ²³⁴ Fleury’s eccles. Hist. 1. 79, n. 21.
+
+Not content with creating against this prince a new Lombard league,
+Gregory, impatient to remove him from the midst of European affairs,
+summoned him to perform the vow which he had taken to go and combat the
+infidels in Palestine. Frederick embarked, but called back to Brundosium
+by illness, was excommunicated as a perjurer: he resumed his route, and
+for proceeding without absolution he was excommunicated anew. He
+arrives, he compels the sultan of Egypt to abandon Jerusalem, Bethlehem,
+Nazareth, and Sidon to him, yet, because he treats with an infidel and
+signs a truce, he is a third time excommunicated. On returning to
+Europe, he found La Fouille invaded, Italy armed against the empire, and
+his own son drawn by the pontiff into rebellion and almost into
+parricide. He triumphed, nevertheless, over so many enemies, arrested
+and imprisoned his unnatural son, and above all took advantage of a
+sedition of the Romans against the pope. The Romans who had resumed
+under Honorius the love of independence, banished Gregory IX. who,
+compelled to negotiate with the emperor, consented to absolve him for a
+large sum of money. But Gregory, among other pretensions, claimed
+Sardinia as a domain of the Holy See. Frederick claimed it as a fief of
+the empire. Now follows a fourth excommunication, in which Gregory, by
+the authority of ‘Father, Son and Holy Ghost,’ the authority of the
+apostles and his own, anathematizes ‘Frederick, late emperor,’ looses
+from their oaths those who had sworn fidelity to him, and forbids them
+to recognize him as sovereign. This bull, sent to all monarchs, lords,
+and prelates of Christendom, was accompanied by a circular letter, which
+commands the publication of the anathema, to the sound of bells,
+throughout all the churches. Various writings of the Holy Father²³⁴
+represent Frederick as one of the monarchs described in the Apocalypse;
+political and religious crimes of every species are imputed to this
+prince by him, even that of having termed Moses, Jesus, and Mahomet,
+three impostors. Frederick stooped to reply to this torrent of
+accusation and insult; and that the apology should correspond with the
+accusation, he treated Gregory as Balaam, as Antichrist, the great
+dragon, the prince of darkness. By a special epistle²³⁵ to the king of
+France, Louis IX. or St. Louis the pope offered the empire to the
+brother of this monarch, Robert count of Artois, on condition that the
+French should make a crusade against Frederick. St. Louis replied, that
+he saw with astonishment a pope attempt to depose an emperor; that such
+a power belonged to a general council alone, and only on the plea of the
+acknowledged unworthiness of the sovereign; that Frederick on the
+contrary appeared irreproachable; that he had exposed himself to the
+dangers of war and of the sea, for the service of Jesus Christ, while
+Gregory, his implacable enemy, took advantage of his absence to plunder
+him of his States; that the pope, counting for nothing the rivers of
+blood which had flowed to satisfy his ambition or his vengeance, wished
+to subject the emperor, for the sole purpose of afterwards subjugating
+all the other sovereigns; that his offers proceeded less from a
+predilection for the French, than from inveterate hatred for Frederick;
+that he would, however, make inquiry as to the orthodoxy of this prince,
+and if he proved a heretic, would make the most implacable war against
+him, as in such case he would not fear doing with the pope himself. This
+epistle, without doubt, mingled errors of the grossest kind with the
+expression of the most generous resolutions. What! an assembly of
+priests possess the right of dethroning a sovereign! What! the religious
+opinions of a prince be a sufficient motive, with those who did not
+possess the same, to declare war against him! Yes, such were the
+indisputable results of those decretals from which the popes had
+compiled the public law of Christendom.
+
+ ²³⁵ Concilior. vol. 11, p. 340, 346, 357.
+
+ ²³⁶ Matt Paris, ann. 1239, p. 444.—Daniels, Hist, of France, vol. 3.
+ p. 210.—Bossuet Def. Cler. Gall. 1. 4. c. 6.
+
+But the more deplorable this madness, the greater is the homage due to
+the prince, who, fettered by the bands of so many prejudices, could find
+in his own excellent heart a disinterestedness, a loyalty, and a
+courage, worthy of the happiest periods of history.
+
+All the reputation of his exemplary piety was needed by Louis IX. to
+escape the anathemas of Gregory IX. and even the enterprises of the
+French bishops; for he repressed the bishops with firmness, whenever his
+understanding allowed him to perceive the abuses of their spiritual
+functions which they practised. They were seen, for the most trifling
+temporal interest, shut the churches, and suspend the administration of
+the sacraments. Experience had taught them the efficacy of these
+measures; they obtained by this species of pettishness the various
+objects of their desires. But a bishop of Beauvais, and an archbishop of
+Rouen, having employed this system with too little caution, and thinking
+proper to excommunicate some royal officers, St. Louis had their
+temporalities seized, and obtained from the pope a bull which forbade
+the interdiction of the royal chapels.:
+
+ “He had
+ “for a maxim, never to yield a blind respect to the
+ “orders of the ministers of the church, whom he
+ “knew to be subject to the intemperancies of passion
+ “as well as other men.”
+
+Thus does Daniel the historian express himself, the least suspected
+assuredly that we can instance here. Joinville relates how the clergy
+complained bitterly of the little concern of civil officers for
+sentences of excommunication, and how Louis IX. expressed himself so
+decisively, on the necessity of ascertaining the justice of these
+sentences, that they abstained from urging the matter on him. This pious
+monarch one day caused the money levied for the Holy See to be seized,
+being unwilling it should be applied to the accomplishment of the
+ambitious projects of Gregory IX. The pontiff, to be revenged, annulled
+the election of Peter Chariot to the bishoprick of Noyou; this person
+was a natural and a legitimated son of Philip Augustus. Louis IX. was
+not to be shaken; he declared that no other person should possess this
+bishoprick. Gregory, though he exaggerated his pontifical power, though
+he protested, that God had confided to the pope the privileges of empire
+on earth as well as in heaven, confined himself to simple menaces; and
+France was indebted to her pious sovereign for a firmness, which he had
+still further occasion to manifest under the succeeding pontificates.
+
+That of Gregory IX. more particularly memorable for the disputes with
+the emperor Frederick II., is so, likewise, for the publication of an
+ecclesiastical code compiled by Raymond de Pennafort the third general
+of the Dominicans. Since the decree of Gratian, decretals, and
+collections of decretals, had multiplied to that degree that one could
+scarcely see his way among them. Gregory had, to his own decisions,
+caused those of his predecessors from Eugenius III. to be added. There
+resulted from it a collection, of which the subjects are distributed
+into six books. A sorry verse²³⁶ which announces this distribution,
+maybe too faithfully translated and appreciated in the following:
+
+Judges, judgments, the clergy, marriages, and crimes.
+
+ ²³⁷ Judex, judicium, clerus, sponsalia, crimen.
+
+The canonists cite this code under the name of ‘The Decretals of Gregory
+IX.’ or simply ‘The Decretals,’ and sometimes by the word ‘extra,’ that
+is, without the decree of Grattan; which decree had been for two
+centuries the sole source of ecclesiastical jurisprudence. As fruits of
+the vast correspondence of Alexander III., of Innocent III. and of
+Gregory IX., these five books are in every respect worthy to serve as a
+sequel to the decree: they have with it contributed to the propagation
+of maxims subversive of all government.
+
+The election of Sinibald of Fiesque to the papacy, seemed to promise
+some years of peace between the priesthood and the empire: Sinibald had
+for a long time been connected by friendship with Frederick; but the
+cardinal friend became a pontiff enemy, even as the emperor had
+foretold. Innocent IV. the name of this pope, having placed on the
+absolution of Frederick, conditions which he would not accept, war was
+rekindled, and the pope, compelled to fly from Genoa, his country, came
+thence to solicit an asylum in France. Louis IX. consulted his barons,
+who maintained, that the court of Rome was always expensive to its
+guests, that a pope would obscure the royal dignity, and would form in
+the state another independent one.²³⁷ Rejected by the King of France,
+refused also by the King of Arragon, Innocent addressed himself to the
+English, whose reply was not more favourable. What! they say, have we
+not already simony and usury, wherefore then need a pope, who would come
+in person to devour the kingdom and our churches. Very well! cried the
+pontiff incensed at this triple affront; we must finish with Frederick;
+when we have crushed or tamed this great dragon, these petty serpents
+will not dare to raise their heads, and we shall crush them under our
+feet.²³⁸ To attain this object, he holds a general council at Lyons, a
+city which at that time belonged neither to France nor the emperor: the
+archbishops usurped to themselves the sovereignty in it, and maintained
+that it had ceased to be a fief of the empire.²³⁹ There Frederick II.
+was deposed:
+
+ “In virtue, says the pope, of the power to
+ “bind and to loose, which Jesus Christ has given
+ “us in the person of St Peter, we deprive the late
+ “emperor, Frederick, of all honor and dignity; we
+ “prohibit obedience to him, to consider him as em−
+ “peror or king, or to give aid or counsel to him,
+ “under the penalty of excommunication by the act
+ “alone.”
+
+ ²³⁸ Velly, vol. iv. p. 306, 307.
+
+ ²³⁹ Matt. Paris, p. 600.
+
+ ²⁴⁰ While Innocent was at Lyons, some prebends of the church of this
+ city became vacant, and he attempted to bestow them, in the
+ plenitude of his authority, on foreigners, his relatives; but the
+ people, and even the clergy of Lyons, resisted him to his face,
+ and compelled him to relinquish this undertaking.
+
+To annihilate the house of Swabia had been for a long time the most
+ardent wish of the popes, especially of Innocent IV.; but he proclaimed
+almost fruitlessly, a crusade against Frederick: real crusades occupied
+them at the time, that is, expeditions into the East, and the fugitive
+Innocent IV. did not inherit the omnipotence of Innocent III.. The low
+clergy itself no longer adored the pontifical decrees: a curate of
+Paris, announcing to his parishioners that which deposed Frederick,
+addressed them in these remarkable words;:
+
+ “I am igno−
+ “rant my very dear brethren, of the motives of this
+ “anathema, I only know, that there exists between
+ “the pope and the emperor great differences, and an
+ “implacable hatred; which of them is right I can−
+ “not inform you: but I excommunicate as far as
+ “in me lies, him who is wrong, and I absolve him
+ “who is aggrieved in his privileges.”
+
+This is the most sensible sermon which, to our knowledge, has been
+preached in the 17th century. St. Louis, who censured more loudly than
+the curate the deposition of Frederick, went to Cluni, and drew the pope
+there also, whom he would not suffer to enter farther into the kingdom.
+Their first conferences remain secret; and all that can be said of them
+is, that the obstinate pontiff was deaf to the pacific counsel of the
+sainted king. But history²⁴⁰ has handed down to us a little more of the
+details of a second interview, which took place the following year, at
+Cluni also, between Innocent and Louis.:
+
+ “The Holy−
+ “land is in danger, said the king; and no hope ex−
+ “ists of delivering it without the help of the emperor
+ “who holds so many ports, isles, and coasts under
+ “his authority. Most Holy Father, accept his
+ “promises, I beseech you in my own name, and
+ “in the name of the thousands of faithful pil−
+ “grims, in the name of the universal church:
+ “open the arms to him who seeks for mercy:
+ “it is the gospel which commands you to do
+ “so; imitate the goodness of him whose vicar you
+ “are.”
+
+The pope ‘bridling up,’ says Fleury,²⁴¹ persisted in his refusal. Thus
+these two personages, we may say, exchanged their provinces; it was the
+monarch who assumed the charitable language of the gospel, it was the
+priest who preserved the inflexible attitude of presumptuous power. At
+the same period, we behold a sultan of Egypt, Melie-Saleh, giving
+lessons of probity to the successor of St. Peter. Pressed by Innocent
+IV. to abandon, contrary to the faith of treaties, the interests of
+Frederick, Melie-Saleh replied:
+
+ “Your envoy has spoken to us about Jesus
+ “Christ, with whom we are better acquainted than
+ “you are, and whom we more worthily honour.—
+ “You pretend that peace between all nations is the
+ “object of your desires; we do not desire it less
+ “than you. But there exists between us and the
+ “emperor of the West, an alliance, a reciprocal
+ “friendship, which commenced with the reign of the
+ “sultan our father, whom may God receive to glory:
+ “we shall therefore, conclude no treaty unknown to
+ “Frederick, or contrary to his interests.”
+
+ ²⁴¹ Matt. Paris, p. 697. Velly’s Hist, of France, vol. iv. p. 469.—La
+ Chaise’s Hist, of St Louis, p. 449.
+
+ ²⁴² Hist. Eccles. 1. 83. n. 40.
+
+However, after useless attempts at reconciliation, and various
+vicissitudes of success and misfortune, Frederick died in 1250, probably
+strangled, as they say, by his son, Manfred. On receiving this news,
+Innocent IV. invites the heavens and the earth to rejoice; these are the
+very words of a letter which he wrote to the prelates, lords, and people
+of the kingdom of Sicily. He terms Frederick the son of Satan.²⁴²
+
+ ²⁴³ Hist. Eccles. 1. 83, n. 25—26.
+
+Conrade IV. son of Frederick II. was called to succeed him; and, in the
+absence of Conrade, Manfred his brother governed the two Sicilies.
+Innocent declares, that the children of an excommunicated person can
+inherit nothing from their parent; he proclaims a crusade against them,
+and draws into the revolt the Neapolitan nobles. Manfred succeeded in
+subduing them; he took the city of Naples by assault, and compelled the
+pope to fly once more to Genoa. The crusade is again preached against
+the sons of Frederick, and their kingdom is offered to an English
+prince. The quarrels which soon sprang up between the two brothers,
+re-animated the hopes of the Court of Rome; it received the most lively
+expectations from them, when it learned the death of Conrade, when
+Manfred was suspected of parricide, and nothing more was wanting, but to
+destroy the last branch of the house of Swabia, Conradine, a child of
+ten years of age, the son of Conrade, and as grandson, legitimate heir
+of Frederick II. The pope hesitated no longer to erect himself into king
+of Naples: in order to support this title, he levied an army; but this
+army had only a legate for its leader; it was beaten by Manfred.
+Innocent IV. died from despair in consequence, at the moment he had
+entered on a negociation with Louis IX. which had for its basis, the
+conferring on a brother or son of this monarch, the kingdom of the two
+Sicilies. This pope had excited a civil war in Portugal, by deposing the
+king Alphonso II., already interdicted by Gregory IX., and calling to
+the throne a count of Boulogne, brother of Alphonso. Innocent had
+disputes also with the English, who complained loudly of his extortions,
+his breach of the laws, and disregard of treaties.²⁴³
+
+ “The Peter's pence tax did not satisfy him,
+ “they said; he exacted from all the clergy enor−
+ “mous contributions; he had general taxes asses−
+ “sed, and levied, without the king's consent: in
+ “contempt of the right of patrons, he conferred
+ “benefices on Romans, who did not understand
+ “the English tongue, and who exported the money
+ “of the kingdom.”
+
+ ²⁴⁴ Fleury’s Ecclesiastical Hist. 1. 82. n. 28. He relates also, 1.
+ 83, n. 43, the reproaches which Robert Greathead, bishop of
+ Lincoln, a learned and pious prelate, addressed to the Court of
+ Rome, and particularly to Innocent IV. “The pope has not been
+ ashamed to annul the constitutions of his predecessors, with a Non
+ obstante: in which he evinces too great a contempt for them, and
+ gives a precedent for disregarding his own. Although many popes
+ have al-ready afflicted the church, this pope has reduced it to a
+ greater degree of bondage, principally by the usurers he has
+ introduced into England, and who are worse than the Jews. Besides,
+ he has directed the friars preachers and the friars minors, when
+ administering to the dying, to persuade them to bequeath by will
+ their property for the succour of the Holy Land, in order to
+ defraud the heirs of their wealth whether they should live or die.
+ He sells crusaders to the laity as formerly sheep and oxen were
+ sold in the temple, and measures the indulgence by the money which
+ they bestow towards the crusade: furthermore the pope commands the
+ prelates by his letters, to provide such a one with a benèfice,
+ according as he may wish to purchase, although he be a foreigner,
+ illiterate, in every respect unworthy, or ignorant of the language
+ of the country: so that he can neither preach nor hear
+ confessions, neither relieve the poor nor receive the traveller,
+ as he is not a resident.” Fleury adds, that Robert Greathead
+ enlarged on the views of the court of Rome, especially its avarice
+ and dissoluteness. “To swallow up every thing, it drew to itself
+ the wealth of those who died intestate; and in order to pillage
+ with the less restraint, it divided the plunder with the king. The
+ bishop of Lincoln still more laments that the pope employed, in
+ the collection of his extortions, the mendicant friars, learned
+ and virtuous men, thus abusing their obedience by compelling them
+ to mix with that world they had left; he sent them into England
+ with great power as legates in disguise, not being allowed to send
+ there in form and openly unless the king requested it.” Such were,
+ says Fleury, the complaints of the bishop of Lincoln, too sharp
+ indeed, but too well founded, as appears by the writings of the
+ period, even by the epistles of the popes.
+
+Let us observe further, that in publishing crusades against Frederick
+II. and against his son, Innocent granted greater indulgences to them
+than to the expeditions into Palestine. The pope, said the French
+nobles, extends his own sovereignty by crusades against the Christians,
+and leaves our sovereign the task of fighting and suffering for the
+faith. St. Louis was then in the Holy Land, just released from his
+captivity. His mother, Queen Blanche, caused the property of the pope’s
+crusaders against Conrade to be seized: let the pope, said she, maintain
+those who are in his service, and let them begone never to return.²⁴⁴
+Thus did the Guelph crusade miscarry in France, in spite of the
+exertions of the ‘pious preachers’ and ‘pious minors,’ the zealous
+servants of the Holy See. But from the accession of Gregory IX. Italy
+and Germany never ceased to be torn by the factions of Guelph, and
+Ghibeline, which assumed more and more their original direction, the
+latter against the pope, the former against the emperor, and especially
+against the house of Swabia.
+
+ ²⁴⁵ Matt. Paris, p. 713,—Velly’s History of France, vol. v. p.
+ 102—100.
+
+Alexander IV. who succeeded Innocent in 1254, continued to contend with
+Manfred, summoned him, excommunicated him, and designed him for the
+victim of a crusade, which did not, however, take place. The pope
+succeeded only in extorting from the king of England, Henry III. fifty
+thousand pounds sterling. Henry had made a vow to go into Palestine;
+this vow was commuted into a stipulated contribution, destined to the
+support of the war against Manfred. To obtain such a sum, Alexander
+promised the crown of Naples to prince Edward, son of Henry; which did
+not, however, prevent his continuing the negociation with Louis IX. and
+his brother Charles of Anjou. But Alexander was not sufficiently
+favoured by circumstances, and was too little endowed with energetic
+qualifications, to obtain much success; he could scarcely keep his
+ground in the midst of his own domains: a sedition of the Romans
+compelled him to withdraw to Viterbo, and his seven years reign produced
+no important result, unless we consider as such the establishment of the
+inquisition in the bosom of France. We are concerned we cannot conceal,
+that St Louis had solicited as a favour such an institution. It had
+become from the time of Innocent III. much consolidated: in 1229, a
+council at Thoulouse had decreed, that the bishops should depute in each
+parish one clergyman, and two laymen, for the purpose of seeking out
+heretics, denouncing them to the prelates appointed to try them, and
+delivering them to the officers charged with their punishment. Gregory
+IX. in 1233, had invested the Dominicans, or brother preachers, with
+these inquisitorial functions; the church was unquestionably enriched by
+this new power, and St. Louis had the misfortune of not preserving his
+subjects from it. He paid two enormous tributes to the ignorance of his
+age, the crusade, and the inquisition.—He was even not far from assuming
+the Dominican habit, and ceasing to be a king in order to become an
+inquisitor.²⁴⁵ We enter into these particulars, because they are all
+effects of the ascendancy of the popes, of that unbounded extent which
+their temporal royalty gave to their ecclesiastical authority.—
+Alexander IV. was a zealous protector of the monks, especially the
+mendicants. This predilection made him unjust to the universities; he
+was the avowed enemy of that of Paris. The historian of this university,
+Egasse du Boulay,²⁴⁶ tells us, that the death of this pope gave peace
+to the Parisian muses.
+
+ ²⁴⁶ Velly’s Hist, of France, vol. v. p. 193—197.
+
+ ²⁴⁷ Hist. Univ. Paris, vol. iii. p. 365.
+
+It was a Frenchman, born at Troyes, who become pope by the name of Urban
+IV. advanced principally the negociations with the count of Anjou.
+Impatient to exterminate Manfred, Urban saw too well that the
+publication of crusades, indulgencies, the equipment of pontifical
+troops, with all the temporal and spiritual arms of the Holy See, would
+remain powerless, without the active participation of a sovereign,
+interested by the allurement of a crown, to complete the ruin of the
+house of Swabia. Popular commotions rendered the residence of Rome
+rather uneasy to the sovereign pontiff; Urban had retired to Orvieto,
+whence by some mutinous acts, he was again driven to Perugia. He was,
+therefore, solicitous to conclude with Charles of Anjou; although this
+prince had seemed to detach himself from the pope, in accepting the
+dignity of senator of Rome, and the treaty, was about to be signed when
+Urban died: his successor, Clement IV. completed his design.
+
+The incompatibility of the crown of Sicily with the imperial crown, as
+also with the sovereignty over Lombardy, or over Tuscany; the cession of
+Beneventum and its territory to the Holy See: annual tributes and
+subsidies to the church; recognizance of the immunities of the clergy of
+the Two Sicilies; inheritance of this kingdom reserved to the
+descendants of Charles alone; in default thereof, power granted to the
+pope to choose the successors to them. Such were the principal
+conditions of the treaty, which called Charles of Anjou to reign over
+the Neapolitans. He would have subscribed to still more humiliating
+ones. He promised to abdicate before the expiration of three years the
+title of senator of Rome; even to renounce it sooner, if he completed
+before this period the conquest of the kingdom which had been bestowed
+him, and, to neglect nothing to dispose the Romans to concede the
+disposal of this dignity to the sovereign pontiff: he subjected himself
+to interdiction, excommunication, deposition, if he should ever break
+his engagements: he finally pronounced an oath, framed in these
+terms:²⁴⁷
+
+ “I, per−
+ “forming full allegiance and vassalage to the church,
+ “for the kingdom of Sicily, and for all the territory
+ “on this side the Pharos of Messina, to the fron−
+ “tiers of the ecclesiastical state, now and hence−
+ “forward promise to be faithful and obedient to St.
+ “Peter, to the pope my supreme liege, and to his
+ “successors canonically elected; I shall form no
+ “alliance contrary to their interests; and, if from
+ “ignorance I shall be unfortunate enough to form
+ “such, I shall renounce it on the first order which
+ “they may be disposed to signify to me.
+
+ ²⁴⁸ Velly’s Hist, of France, vol. v. p. 326—345.
+
+It was in order to obtain so precarious a crown, to usurp a throne so
+degraded, that Charles of Anjou entered Sicily, animated by his presence
+the Guelphic faction, and set it at variance, from the Alps to Mount
+Etna, with that of the Ghibelines. The latter attached itself more than
+ever to Manfred, who, after some success, fell and perished at the
+battle of Beneventum. The young Conradine, until now eclipsed by
+Manfred, and detained by his mother in Germany, at length appeared:
+everywhere the Ghibelines received him, and strenuously supported him
+against the arms of Charles, and the anathemas of Clement; but, defeated
+at the plain of Tagliaoozzo, he fell into the hands of his rival.
+Charles was ungenerous enough to deliver his disarmed enemy into the
+hands of corrupt judges: distrust and revenge borrowed juridical forms;
+Conradine, at the age of eighteen, was decapitated at Naples, the 26th
+October, 1258; and the most faithful defenders of his indisputable
+rights shared his fate. The Ghibelines were proscribed through all
+Italy; rivers of blood bathed the steps of the subaltern throne, in
+which Charles went to seat himself at a pontiff’s feet. Some writers
+assert that Clement disapproved of the murder of the young prince;
+others accuse him of having advised it, and of having said, that the
+saving of Conradine, would be the ruin of Charles; that the safety of
+Charles exacted the death of Conradine²⁴⁸ However it was, the Holy See
+triumphed by the extinction of the house of Swabia.
+
+ ²⁴⁹ Vita Corradini, mors Caroli; mors Corradini, vita Caroli.
+ Giannone, Istoria di Napoli. 19, c. 4.
+
+Full of the idea of his power²⁴⁹ Clement decided, that all
+ecclesiastical benefices were at the disposal of the pope; that he could
+confer them whether vacant or not vacant, giving them in the latter case
+in reversion, or as they term it in expectancy. Such audacity astonished
+Louis, and the indignation he conceived at it dictated an ordinance,
+known by the name of ‘the pragmatic sanction’ of which the following is
+a summary:
+
+ “The prelates, patrons, and collators to benefices,
+ “shall fully enjoy their privileges.
+ “The cathedral and other churches of the king−
+ “dom shall make their elections freely.
+
+ “The crime of simony shall be banished the
+ “kingdom.
+
+ “Promotions and collations to benefices shall be
+ “made according to common right and the decrees
+ “of councils.
+
+ “The intolerable exactions, by which the court of
+ “Rome has impoverished to such a wretched de−
+ “gree the kingdom, shall cease, save in cases of
+ “urgent necessity, and by consent of the king, and
+ “of the Gallican church.
+
+ “The liberties, franchises, immunities, rights and
+ “privileges, granted by the sovereigns to churches
+ “and monasteries are confirmed.”
+
+ ²⁵⁰ “Nothing proves better,” says a modern author, “the influence of
+ superstition......than the number of crusades preached by order of
+ Clement IV. A crusade into Spain against the Moors, whom they
+ wished to exterminate; a crusade into Hungary, Bohemia and
+ elsewhere, against the Tartars, whose incursions they dreaded; a
+ crusade in favor of the Teutonic knights, against the Pagans of
+ Livonia, of Prussia and of Courland, over whom they Wished to
+ reign; a crusade into England against the barons, whom Henry III.
+ could not subject; a crusade into France and into Italy, to
+ deprive the house of Swabia of the kingdom of Naples and Sicily; a
+ general crusade for the conquest of the Holy Land. The crusaders
+ were often opposed; they were loosed from the obligation to the
+ one, when pressed to the execution of another; indulgences were
+ distributed at the will of the pope; the expenses of the war
+ exhausted kingdoms, and the pope’s bulls kindled flames throughout
+ Europe.” — Millot’s Elements of General History.—Mod. Hist. vol.
+ ii. p. 184, 186.
+
+This act is so important, and does so much honour to Louis IX. that the
+Jesuit Griffet²⁵⁰ disputes its authenticity. We may oppose to Griffet,
+the authority of his brethren Labbe and Cossart;²⁵¹ of Bouchel, of
+Tillet, Fontanon, Pinson, Girard, Lauriere, Egasse du Boulay, in fine,
+that of all the jurisconsults, historians, and even theologians, who
+have had occasion to speak of the pragmatic sanction of St. Louis. But
+further, we see it cited in 1491, by the University of Paris; in 1483,
+in the states held at Tours; in 1461 by the parliament Charles VII. on
+the occasion of the pragmatic published by this king, expresses himself
+in these words: in 1440, by John Juvenal des Ursins,:
+
+ “You are not the first who has done
+ “such things; thus did St. Louis, who is sainted and
+ “canonized, and we must acknowledge he did well,
+ “your father and others have approved it.”
+
+ ²⁵¹ Note upon P. Daniel’s History of France, vol. iv. p. 563
+
+ ²⁵² Concilior. vol. ii. Proofs of the liberties of the Gall. Church,
+ vol. i. pt. 2. p. 28, 60, 66, 76,—pt. 3, p. 41, and, Real’s
+ Science of Government, vol. vii. p. 72.
+
+There is, then, no room to doubt, that the most pious of the French
+kings was the most zealous defender of the liberties of the Gallican
+church; and this glorious resistance, which he made in 1268 to Clement
+IV. expiates the unfortunate consent that he gave to the treaty
+concluded between this pope and Charles of Anjou.
+
+Thirty months elapsed from the death of Clement, to the election of his
+successor, Gregory X. Charles of Anjou profited of this interregnum to
+acquire a great authority in Italy; he aspired even to govern it
+altogether. Gregory X. who, perceived this, endeavoured to oppose four
+obstacles to it: a new crusade; the reconciliation of the Eastern
+church; the restoration of the Western empire, and the extinction of the
+factions of Guelph and Ghibeline. Since the death of Conradine, the
+discord of these factions was almost without object: it survived from
+habit and personal animosities, rather than from opposition of political
+interests. The Guelphs more powerful from day to day, were about
+re-establishing the independence of the Italian cities, and perhaps
+reuniting under a head who was not to be a pope.—To provide against this
+danger, and to keep in check Charles of Anjou, Gregory X. confirmed the
+election of a new German emperor: this was Rodolph of Hapsburg, head of
+the house of Austria. This Rodolph renounced, in favour of the Roman
+church, the heritage of Matilda, and was nevertheless excommunicated,
+for having supported his sovereign rights over the Italian cities, and
+for having neglected to assume the cross. They at length became tired of
+these expeditions into Palestine, where the Christians, driven from the
+pettiest hamlets, scarcely preserved a single asylum. The Greek church,
+apparently reconciled to the second general council of Lyons, was not
+actually so for a long period. The most complete result of the
+pontificate of Gregory X. was the acquisition of the Comtat Venaissin,
+in which, however, the king of France, Philip the Hardy, reserved to
+himself the city of Avignon.
+
+Nicholas III. annulled the oath taken to the emperor by the cities of
+Romagna; he obliged Charles of Anjou to renounce the vicarship of the
+empire, and the dignity of senator of Rome; he even incited Peter of
+Arragon to recover the kingdom of Sicily, which belonged by right of
+inheritance to his wife Constance. On which we must observe, that
+Charles had refused to marry one of his granddaughters to a nephew of
+Nicholas, and that this pontiff sprung from the house of the Ursini, had
+conceived the idea of dividing among his nephews the crowns of Sicily,
+of Tuscany, and of Lombardy, These projects did not succeed.
+
+Martin IV. elected by the influence of Charles of Anjou, laid an
+interdict on the city of Viterbo, excommunicated the Forlivians,
+confiscated whatever they possessed in Rome, excommunicated Peter III.
+king of Arragon, and excommunicated Michael Paleologus, emperor of
+Constantinople. A league of the Venetians, of Charles of Anjou, and the
+pope, had little success. Another crusade was undertaken against Peter
+of Arragon, who beat the crusaders: the Sicilian vespers, not without
+some appearance of justice, were attributed to this prince; a horrible
+massacre, in which the French were the victims, in the year 1282, and
+which Martin IV. and Charles of Anjou might have prevented by a more
+prudent conduct.
+
+When Celestine V. yielding to the advice of the cardinal Benedict
+Cajetan, had abdicated the papacy, this cardinal succeeded him,
+imprisoned him, and under the name of Boniface VIII., disgraced the
+chair of St. Peter, from the year 1294 to 1303. He excommunicated the
+family of the Colonnas, confiscated their estates, and preached a
+crusade against them. They were Ghibelines; Boniface, who had belonged
+to this faction, detested them for it the more. The pope answered in
+plain terms, that the Roman pontiff, established by providence, over
+kings and kingdoms, held the first rank on earth, dissipated every evil
+by his sublime regards, and from the height of his throne, tranquilly
+judged the affairs of men. You know, he writes, to Edward I. that
+Scotland belongs to the Holy See of full right. He treated Albert of
+Austria, elected emperor in 1298, as a usurper, summoned him to appear
+at Rome, and dispensed his subjects from their allegiance; but he
+menaced especially Philip the Fair, king of France.²⁵²
+
+ ²⁵³ Bossuet Def. Cler. Gall. 1. iii. c. 33, 24, 35.
+
+By the bull ‘Clericis Laïcos,’ Boniface had forbidden, under pain of
+excommunication, every member of the secular and regular clergy from
+paying, without the pope’s permission, any tax to their sovereigns, even
+under the title of a gratuitous gift: Philip answered this bull by
+prohibiting the transportation of any sum of money out of the kingdom,
+without permission from under his hand. This measure at first seemed to
+intimidate the pontiff who, modifying his bull, authorised, in cases of
+pressing necessity, the contributions of the Clergy; but a legate soon
+arrived to brave Philip, and summon him to alter his behaviour, if he
+did not desire to expose his kingdom to a general interdict. This
+seditious priest was arrested; his detention set the pope in a rage.:
+
+ “God has appointed me over empires, to pluck up,
+ “to destroy, to undo, to scatter, to build up and to
+ “plant.”
+
+Thus does Boniface express himself in one of his bulls against Philip
+IV. That which is known by the name of ‘Unatn sanctam,’ contains these
+expressions:
+
+ “The temporal sword ought to
+ “be employed by kings and warriors for the church,
+ “according to the order or permission of the pope:
+ “the temporal power is subject to the spiritual, which
+ “institutes and judges it, but which can be judged
+ “of God alone; to resist the spiritual power, is
+ “to resist God, unless they admit the two principles
+ “of the Manicheans.”
+
+An archdeacon, the bearer of these bulls, enjoined the king to
+acknowledge, that he held from the pope his temporal sovereignty.
+Finally, Bonifice excommunicated Philip: he ordered this monarch’s
+confessor to appear at Rome, to render an account of the conduct of his
+penitent; he destined the crown of France to this same emperor, Albert,
+before treated as a criminal, but who now acknowledged by a written
+document.:
+
+ “that the “Apostolic See had transferred from the Greeks to
+ “the Germans the Roman empire, in the person of
+ “Charlemagne; that certain secular and ecclesiasti−
+ “cal princes, hold from the pope the right of electing
+ “the king of the Romans, the destined successor to
+ “the empire; and that the pope grants to kings and
+ “to emperors the power of the sword.”
+
+An euloguim is due to the victorious firmness of Philip, in opposition
+to these extravagancies: the commoners and the nobles of France
+supported him; the clergy, though already imbued with ultramontane
+maxims, was led away by the ascendancy of the two former orders. The
+prelates at all times adhered to the king with a reservation in favour
+of ‘the faith due to the pope’, and thirty-four of them proceeded to
+Rome in defiance of Philip.
+
+A letter of this prince to Boniface, VIII. commences with these words:
+
+ “Philip, by the grace of God,
+ “king of the French, to Boniface pretended pope,
+ “little or no greeting. Let your very great Fatuity
+ “take notice, &c.”
+
+These insulting expressions, but little worthy of him who employed them,
+would have very badly succeeded, addressed to any pope who had at all
+less merited them than Boniface; but his pretensions really bordered on
+delirium, and he was altogether destitute of the political address
+requisite for their success. Three men, in the course of the thirteenth
+century, have checked the menacing progress of the pontifical power.
+Boniface VIII. by disgracing it with his impotent excesses;²⁵³ Philip
+IV., in publishing this discreditable conduct with unpunished insults;
+but above all, Louis IX. whose resistance, edifying like his other good
+works, had assumed against the worldly pride of the popes, the character
+and authority of the religion of Jesus Christ.
+
+ ²⁵⁴ For the manners and religious opinions of this pope, see the
+ pieces published by Dupuy. p. 523—560 of the Hist, of the dispute
+ between Boniface and Philip the Fair. Many witnesses depose, that
+ Boniface spoke with derision of the sacraments, of the mysteries,
+ of the gospel, and even of the immortality of the soul. "We must,"
+ he said, "speak like the people, but we need not think like them.”
+
+Gregory VII. or Boniface VIII. would infallibly have excommunicated
+Louis IX.: the anathemas of the former would have been formidable, those
+of the latter could injure the court of Rome alone.
+
+Boniface caused an ecclesiastical code to be compiled, which bore the
+name of ‘Sexte,’ because it was considered as a sixth book, added to the
+decretals compiled under Gregory IX., by Raymond de Pennafort. This
+sixth book itself is divided into five, which correspond in the
+distribution of their contents with those of Raymond’s collection, and
+embrace, with the decretals of Boniface VIII., those of his predecessors
+since the death of Gregory IX. When so many pontifical laws become
+accumulated in the several codes, ecclesiastical tribunals, of course,
+become requisite in order to apply them: episcopal courts therefore
+sprung up. Father Thomassin fixes their origin under Boniface VIII. and
+this opinion appears to us a more probable one than that which traces
+this institution up to the twelfth century.
+
+By officials, we understand, judges properly so called, attached to the
+cathedrals, and to the sees of archbishops, for the purpose of
+pronouncing special, civil, or even criminal sentences: now this
+character does not sufficiently belong to certain dignitaries mentioned
+in the writings of Peter de Blois, and of which, in 1163, a council of
+Paris complained.—Furthermore, whether in the thirteenth or twelfth
+century, the era of the establishment of ecclesiastical courts is
+certainly long subsequent to the publication of the ‘False Decretals,’
+and to the corruption, of the ancient discipline of the church.
+
+Legates, another instrument of the papal power, were divided into two
+classes: the first, chosen in the very places in which they exercised
+their functions; the second, dispatched from the bosom of the Roman
+court, like arms extended by St. Peter, over the wide extent of
+Christendom. Among the former are also distinguished those who received
+an express and personal mission, and those who born, as it may be said,
+legates, held this title from a privilege annexed to the episcopal or
+metropolitan see which they filled. Of all these various ministers, or
+commissaries of the pontifical government, the most powerful would
+always have been detached from their proper centre, if the very excess
+of their pomp and power had not too often humbled, in every kingdom, the
+prelates they came to eclipse and to rule. Their splendour, defrayed in
+each place by the churches, the monasteries, and the people, excited
+less of admiration than of murmurs; and even, after the third council of
+the Lateran had reduced them to twenty-five horses, they were still
+considered burdensome. It became necessary to dispose of sacred vases in
+order to make them presents; and to purchase at enormous prices the
+decisions, answers, favours, commissions, one had occasion to demand of
+them.
+
+“The legations, says Fleury²⁵⁴ were mines of gold to the cardinals, and
+they usually returned from them loaded with riches.”
+
+Their avarice was so notorious and so unchangeable, that St. Bernard²⁵⁵
+speaks of a disinterested legate as a prodigy; but their pride, more
+intolerable still, displayed too openly beneath the eyes of monarchs,
+the pretensions of the court of Rome, and provoked a signal resistance.
+Very early these Legates ‘a latere’ became unacceptable in France, and
+it was ruled, that none should be received there, save when they should
+have been demanded and approved of by the king: this is one of the
+articles of the Gallican liberties.
+
+ ²⁵⁵ 4th Disc, on Ecclesiastical History, no. 11.
+
+ ²⁵⁶ De Consider. 1. 4, p 4, 5.
+
+The thirteenth century is that in which the popes arrived at their
+highest pitch of power: councils, crusades, anathemas, canonical codes,
+monastic orders, legates, missionaries, inquisitors, all the spiritual
+arms, re-tempered and sharpened by Innocent III. were, during this
+century, directed against thrones, and often triumphed over them.
+Innocent bequeathed a universal monarchy to his successors: they have
+been unacquainted with the means of fully preserving this empire; but,
+in the year 1300, some small portion of wisdom had sufficed to Boniface
+VIII. to have been still the first potentate in Europe, and,
+notwithstanding the disgrace of this last pontificate, the influence of
+the Holy See still continued to sway that of other courts.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. FOURTEENTH CENTURY
+
+
+THE residence of the popes within the walls of Avignon, from 1305 till
+subsequent to the year 1370, and the schism which, in 1378, divided for
+a long time the church between rival pontiffs, are the two leading
+circumstances of the ecclesiastical history of the fourteenth century;
+both have contributed to the decline of the pontifical empire. It is
+true that in leaving Italy the popes sheltered themselves from some
+perils: they removed from the theatre of the commotions which their
+ambitious policy excited or reanimated. It is also true that the
+apprehension of authorising, by so imposing an example, the wandering
+life of the bishops, was no longer worthy of restraining the sovereign
+pontiff: the time was past, in which sacred laws confined each pastor
+within the bosom of his flock; interests had amplified, had reformed
+these humble manners, and dissipated these apostolic scruples. But, to
+disappear from Italy, was to weaken the influence of the Holy See over
+the then most celebrated and enlightened country of Europe; it was to
+desert the post where they had obtained so many victories, the centre in
+which were united all the radii of the power they had achieved; it was
+to renounce the ascendancy which the very name of Rome conveyed, whose
+ancient glory was reflected on the modem pontificates that seemed to
+continue it; it was, in fine, to discontent the Italians, to deprive
+them of the last remains of their ancient consequence, and, by private
+rivalries, to prepare the way for a general schism. We may be astonished
+that this consequence should have been deferred for seventy years; but
+it was inevitable; and this schism, in exposing publicly the ambition of
+the pontiffs, in placing before the eyes of the multitude the picture of
+their scandalous quarrels, in revealing, by their reciprocal
+recriminations, the secret of their vices, dissipated for ever the
+illusion with which the power of their predecessors was environed.
+
+The sojourn of the popes in the Comtat Venaissin, evinces at least that
+the pope could dispense with a residence in Rome; and many other proofs
+unite here to demonstrate, that any other city could become the seat of
+the first pastor of the church. To fix the papacy to a geographical
+point would be, to cut it off from the number of institutions necessary
+to Christianity; for it is, without doubt, impossible that an essential
+article in the gospel establishment should depend on any particular
+locality, changeable at the will of a thousand circumstances.
+
+Not one word in the gospel, or in the writings of the apostles points
+out the city of Rome as the indispensible metropolis of Christianity.
+There is no spot upon earth, where one may not be, a Christian, bishop,
+patriarch, or pope. But this demi-theological discussion exceeds the
+limits of our subject: let us return to the popes of Avignon.
+
+To throw a light on this portion of the history of the papacy, and to
+compensate for the details which would occupy too much space here, we
+shall present in the first place, a slight sketch of the political
+revolutions of the fourteenth century.
+
+In the East, the Turks were masters of Palestine. Ottoman, their head,
+founded the empire which bears his name; he turned to account the
+discord of the Persians, the Saracens, and the Greeks; he deprived them
+of Asiatic, and European provinces. The throne of Constantinople verged
+towards its ruin; seditions menaced it in the city, conspiracies
+encompassed it in the court; and the sons of the emperor were frequently
+the conspirators against him. The Russians were as yet barbarous; but in
+Denmark, Valdemar, taught by adversity, did honour to, and established
+the throne. Under his daughter Margaret, Sweden and Norway, formed with
+Denmark, but one monarchy. Poland, agitated for a long time by the
+Teutonic knights, respired under Casimir III. The English deposed Edward
+II., seconded the activity of Edward III,, and condemned and banished
+the proscriber Richard. In Spain, Peter the Cruel perished at the age of
+thirty-five, the victim of Henry Transtamare who succeeded him. In
+France, Philip the Fair had for successors his three sons, Louis X.,
+Philip the Long, and Charles IV., weak princes, and dupes of their
+barbarous courtiers. After them, Philip of Valois, and John his
+unfortunate son, supported against the English an unsuccessful war: in
+vain did Charles V. devote himself to the reparation of so many evils;
+they recommenced with aggravations during the minority of Charles VI.,
+continued during his derangement, during his whole reign, which was
+prolonged into the fifteenth century.
+
+Since the Sicilian vespers, Sicily had remained subject to the king of
+Arragon, Peter III., who, in spite of the anathemas of Rome, transmitted
+it to his descendants; from the year 1262, Charles of Anjou had only
+reigned over Naples. Robert, the grandson of Charles, contributed in a
+singular degree to fix the popes in Avignon: he thus preserved a more
+immediate influence over the Guelphs, over Florence, over Genoa, and the
+other cities which belonged to this faction. The Holy See had clothed
+Robert with the title of vicar imperial in Italy during the vacancy of
+the empire; and, when the emperors Henry VII. and Louis of Bavaria
+restored once mort the Ghibeline party, Robert served as a counterpoise.
+Joanna, his grand-daughter, married the king of Hungary, Andrew, whom
+she is accused of having murdered; she herself died the victim of
+Charles Durazzo, who, fixing himself after her on the throne of Naples,
+transmitted it to his own children Ladislaus and Joanna II.
+
+The exterior power of the Venetians rose or fell, their territories were
+extended or confined, according to the various success of their eternal
+wars with Hungary and Genoa. They took Smyrna and Treviso; they lost a
+part of Dalmatia; they made themselves masters of Verona, of Vicenza,
+and of Padua; they possessed, but could not preserve Ferrara: but they
+maintained and consolidated the the aristocratical government which
+Gradenigo had given them, and punished the attempted alteration by
+Salieri. Liguria, on the contrary, harassed for ages by intestine
+changes, presented in the fourteenth century a spectacle fickle as ever:
+we behold her obeying in succession a captain, two captains, sometimes
+Genoese, sometimes foreigners; a council of twelve, of twenty-four; a
+mayor; a doge: and, in the intervals of these ephemeral governments,
+receive or reject the yoke of the emperor, of the pope, of the king of
+France, or of the lord of Milan. This last title at this time belonged
+to the family of Visconti. From the thirteenth century, an archbishop of
+Milan, Otho Visconti, had become lord of this city, and had obtained for
+his nephew Matthew the title of vicar imperial of Lombardy. Matthew, at
+the beginning of the fourteenth century, associated with himself his son
+Galeas. Overthrown by the Torriani, restored by Henry VII., and upheld
+by Louis of Bavaria, the Visconti resisted the pope, the king of Naples,
+the Florentines, and the whole Guelphic party. After the emperor
+Venceslas had bestowed on one of these Visconti, John Galeas, the title
+of Duke of Milan, they became powerful enough to defend themselves
+against the head of the empire himself. When Robert, the successor of
+Venceslas, wished to deprive them of the cities of which they had become
+masters, a decisive battle in 1401, confirmed their possession and
+retarded their fall.
+
+The emperors of the fourteenth century were, Albert of Austria, whose
+yoke the Helvetians shook off; Henry VII. of Luxemburgh, who, during a
+reign of five years, began to shed some lustre on the imperial crown;
+Louis of Bavaria, the restless enemy of the popes; Charles IV. or of
+Luxemburgh, their creature; and his son Venceslas, a vindictive monarch,
+deposed in 1400. Robert belongs more pro-properly to the fifteenth
+century.
+
+Thus the Visconti, being substituted for the emperors in Italy, erected
+themselves into heads of the Ghibeline faction, at the same time that
+the Ghelphic escaped from the popes, and submitted to the influence of
+the house of Philip the Fair, sovereign of France and of Naples. The war
+continued between the two Italian factions, without any reference, of
+esteem or of interest, to their ancient chiefs; the pope was as little
+regarded by the Guelphs, as the emperor by the Ghibelines; even the
+latter were seen in arms against the emperor, Charles IV., when he
+suffered himself to be drawn by the pope into the Guelphic party; and
+against Robert, when he had declared war against the Visconti. On their
+side, the Guelphs, whom the weakness of their chiefs, pontiffs, kings of
+France, or of Naples, abandoned to their own exertions, fought only for
+the independence of their cities or the general liberty of Italy. At the
+end of the fourteenth century, Guelphs and Ghibelines, animated by
+similar interests, tended towards the same end; but it was undesigned;
+they would have feared to perceive it; and, when their ancient discord
+had no longer any motive, habit still continued to preserve it.
+
+It results from this statement, that the court of Avignon had for
+rivals, Germany and France: Germany, which preserved till near 1300, the
+management of the Ghibeline faction; France, which protected the popes
+only to rule over them, and which endeavoured to become master in Italy
+of the Guelphic one.
+
+It was requisite to temper, or elude by intrigue, the French influence,
+to repress by anathemas the imperial power, and, when Charles IV.
+devoted himself to the Holy See, to direct against the Visconti, the
+thunders of the church. Such were, in Avignon, the cares of the supreme
+pastors of the flock of Jesus Christ. They taught little, and edified
+less; they were temporal princes, and reign they would.
+
+Benedict XI. the immediate successor of Boniface VIII. reigned but one
+year; he had retired to Perugia, to withdraw from the domination of the
+lords and cardinals who pretended to the government of Rome; the
+Colonnas, proscribed by his predecessor, entered it again. Out of Rome,
+Philip the Fair, aspired to the preponderance; connected at first, with
+the Ghibeline party by the anathemas of Boniface, absolved subsequently
+by Benedict XI., he little dissembled his intention of ruling the Holy
+See. Benedict became uneasy in consequence, and directed enquiries to be
+made after the authors of the outrages which Boniface had experienced.
+An excommunication thundered against the Florentines, for a political
+interest of trifling importance, was perhaps the principal fault which
+Benedict XI. had time to commit: Italian authors have imputed, without
+proof, to Philip the Fair, the premature death of this pontiff.
+
+After an interregnum of nearly a year, the election of Bertrand de
+Gotte, or Clement V. was the work of Philip the Fair, who had reason to
+complain of him: the monarch wished to select, from among his personal
+enemies, a pope who would be altogether indebted to him for the tiara,
+and who would pledge himself to pay dearly for a benefit so little
+merited beforehand. Gotte made six promises to Philip, all of which were
+not redeemed by Clement V. For instance, this pontiff excused himself
+from condemning the memory of Boniface VIII.; and, when the empire
+became vacant by the decease of Albert I., the king of France, who
+canvassed for this place for a French prince, vainly counted on the
+services of the holy father: whilst seconding by a public letter the
+claims of this candidate, Clement transmitted to the electors a secret
+brief, in order to exclude him²⁵⁶ It is certain that there needed only
+this accession to assure to the house of France, already established at
+Naples, a universal preponderance, especially when Clement, despairing
+to reduce the Romans to a tranquil obedience, consented to fix at
+Avignon the pontifical court. Yet he served the king but too faithfully
+in the affair of the templars: inasmuch as sound policy required the
+suppression of this order, insomuch it was accordant, as it ever must be
+with justice and humanity, to dissuade from so many judicial
+assassinations.
+
+ ²⁵⁷ J. Villani. 1. 8, c. 101—Pfeffel. abr. chr. Hist, of Germany,
+ ann. 1308.—Velly’s Hist, of France, vol. 7, p. 393, 395
+
+When Clement V. cancelled a decision of Henry VII. against Robert, King
+of Naples; when he decreed to the same Robert the title of Vicar of the
+empire, he erected himself expressly into a sovereign, and placed the
+emperor in the number of his vassals.²⁵⁷
+
+ “Thus we do, he says, as well in virtue of the indu−
+ “bitable supremacy which we hold over the Roman
+ “empire, as of the full power that Jesus Christ has
+ “given us, to provide for the sovereign’s place dur−
+ “ing the vacancy of the imperial throne.”
+
+He maintained also that Ferrara belonged to the Holy See; and the
+Venetians having taken this place from the house of Este, he
+excommunicated them; declared the doge and all the citizens infamous,
+deprived of every right, incapable, they and their children, to the
+fourth generation, of all secular or ecclesiastical dignity²⁵⁸
+
+But these anathemas were no longer formidable.²⁵⁹
+
+ “The Italians,” as a cardinal then observed,
+ “no
+ “longer dreaded excommunications; the Floren−
+ “tines treated with contempt those of the cardinal
+ “bishop of Ostia, the Bolognese those of Cardinal
+ “Orsini, the Milanese those of the Cardinal
+ “Pellagrue: the spiritual sword terrifies them not,
+ “if the temporal one does not strike them.”
+
+ ²⁵⁸ Fleury’s Eccles. Hist. 1. 92, n. 8.
+
+ ²⁵⁹ Baluz. Vit. Avenion. vol. 1, p. 69,—Fleury’s Eccles. Hist. 1. 91,
+ n. 33.
+
+ ²⁶⁰ Henriçi. Vn. Iter, Ital. vol. 9. Rer. Italic, p. 703.
+
+Clement V. also published a crusade against the Venetians: this very
+Cardinal Pellagrue led an army against them; they were defeated, driven
+from Ferrara, and absolved.
+
+The decretals of Clement V. united to the decrees of the general council
+of Vienna, held in 1313, form a canonic code which is designated “The
+Clementines.” The decretals of John XXII., the successor of Clement, are
+termed the “Extravagantes,” that is to say, supplementary to the
+preceding codes; and the name of “Extravagantes communes” is applied to
+a collection of the statutes of many popes, whether anterior or
+posterior to John. Thus the canon law of the middle age is composed of,
+the decretals forged by Isidore in the eighth century, the decree by
+Gratian in the twelfth, the decretals of Gregory IX., compiled by
+Raymond de Pennafort, in the thirteenth, of the “Sexte of Boniface
+VIII.,” of the “Clementines,” of the "Extravagantes” of John XXII., and
+of the “Extravagantes communes:” to which may be added the collections
+which comprize the bulls published by the popes of the latter ages. Such
+are the sources of the modern jurisprudence of the clergy: such the
+cause and the effect of the temporal power of the pontiff, and the
+unlimited extent of their spiritual authority: such the voluminous codes
+which have taken the place of the pure and simple rules of the primitive
+church; laws which, since the age of St. Louis to 1682, the Gallican
+Church has never ceased to re-assert.
+
+A pontifical interregnum of two years, from Clement V. to John XXII.,
+comprised the entire reign of the king of France, Louis X. or “le
+Hutin.” His brother and successor Philip the Long, received from John
+XXII. a pedantic and high flown epistle²⁶⁰ which will suffice to shew
+what this second Avignon pope would have dared under different
+circumstances. He created bishopricks in France: in authorizing the
+divorce of Charles the Handsome, who repudiated Blanche of Burgundy, he
+conceived a hope that he could subject by degrees a government which
+sought compliances of him. But Philip de Valois, who perceived his
+ambitious designs, threatened to have him burned,²⁶¹ and provoked a
+celebrated discussion on the bounds of the two powers. The king’s
+advocate, Peter de Cugnieres, supported the rights of the civil power by
+arguments, not always of the best description, though much less wretched
+than those made by the prelates to perpetuate the abuse of the
+ecclesiastical jurisdiction. It is, say they, by the exercise of this
+jurisdiction that the clergy are enriched; now the opulence of the
+clergy, the splendor of the bishops and archbishops is one of the prime
+interests of the king and of the kingdom. Philip de Valois, but little
+sensible to this interest, commanded that within the space of a year the
+abuses should be reformed, without the intervention of the Roman or
+Avignon court.
+
+ ²⁶¹ Baluz. Vit Pap. Avenion. v. 1. p, 164—Fleury’s Eccles. Hist. 1.
+ 82. p. 25.
+
+ ²⁶² Brûler.—Millot’s Hist. of France, v. 2, p. 84.
+
+This discussion had not adequate effects; but it was from it appeals as
+of abuse or error sprung, that is to say, appeals from ecclesiastical
+decisions to secular tribunals.²⁶²
+
+After the death of the emperor, Henry VII. Frederick the Handsome, duke
+of Austria, disputed the empire with Louis, duke of Bavaria, whose
+rights were established by victory. However, John XXII, cancelled the
+election of Louis; he maintained that it belonged to the sovereign
+pontiff, to examine and ratify the nomination of the emperors, and that,
+during the vacancy, the imperial government should immediately revert to
+the Holy See, from whence it emanated²⁶³ The pope reproached Louis with
+protecting the Visconti, excommunicated as heretics; their heresy, we
+have seen, was the supporting and directing the Ghibeline party. Louis
+resisted, he kept no bounds in the invectives with which he loaded John.
+While John was deposing the emperor, the emperor caused John to be
+deposed by the clergy, nobility, and citizens of Rome. A Franciscan took
+the name of Nicholas V., and seated himself on the pontifical throne;
+but the repentance and obedience of Nicholas, injured so materially the
+cause of Louis, that he consented to renounce the empire, when John
+died, leaving twenty-five million of florins in his coffers.²⁶⁴
+
+ “This im−
+ “mense treasure, says Fleury, was amassed by his
+ “Holiness’s industry, who, from the year 1319, estab−
+ “lished the reservation of the benefices of all the col−
+ “legiate churches of Christendom, saying, that he
+ “did it in order to do away simony. Furthermore,
+ “in virtue of this reservation, the pope seldom or never
+ “confirms the election of any prelate: but he pro−
+ “motes an archbishop to a bishoprick, and puts an in−
+ “ferior bishop in his place; whence, it often happens
+ “that an archbishop’s see, or patriarchate, becoming
+ “vacant, produces six promotions or more, and a
+ “consequent flow of large sums of money into the
+ “apostolic treasury.”
+
+ ²⁶³ Villaret’s Hist, of France, t. 8, p. 234-253.—Henault’s Abr.
+ Chron. of Hist, of France, ann. 1329, et 1330.
+
+ ²⁶⁴ Fltury’s Eccles. Hist, 1. 93, n. 4.12.
+
+In 1338, Benedict XII. having refused to absolve Louis of Bavaria, the
+Diets of Rensee and of Frankfort declared, that ancient custom conferred
+the vicariate of the vacant empire on the count Palatine of the Rhine;
+that the pretensions of the pope to replace the emperor during an
+interregnum were untenable; that the pope had over the German empire no
+sort of superiority; that it was not his province to regulate, nor
+confirm the elections of the emperors; that the plurality of suffrages
+of the electoral college conferred the empire without the consent of the
+Holy See, and, that to assert the contrary would be a crime of high
+treason.²⁶⁵ The Germans gave to their decree, the name of “Pragmatic
+Sanction,” and, at the same time, it was forbidden to pay any respect to
+the censures fulminated against the head of the empire, to receive bulls
+from Avignon, or keep up any correspondence with the pontifical
+court.²⁶⁶ Four years after the publication of this decree arose Clement
+VI. who demanded of the emperor a perpetual edict, in which the empire
+should be declared a fief of the Holy See, a benefice that none could
+possess without the authority of the sovereign pontiff. This Clement
+said, that none of his predecessors knew how to be a pope; Benedict XII.
+more modest, said to the cardinals his electors: You have elected an
+ass.²⁶⁷
+
+ ²⁶⁵ Eccles. Hist. 1. 94. n. 39.
+
+ ²⁶⁶ Pfeffel ann. 1338.
+
+ ²⁶⁷ Fleury’s Eccl. Hist. 1. 94, n. 611.
+
+Clement renewed the anathemas of John XXII. against Louis of Bavaria; he
+added thereto more solemn imprecations:
+
+ “May the divine wrath! he
+ “cried, may the vengeance of St. Peter, and St.
+ “Paul, fall upon Louis in this world, and in the
+ “next! may the earth swallow him up alive! may
+ “all the elements combine against him! and may his
+ “children famish before the eyes of their father, by
+ “the hands of his enemies!”
+
+But Clement, aware that cursing no longer availed, excited a civil war
+in the heart of Germany, leagued the nobles against Louis, deposed him
+anew, nominated a vicar of the empire in Lombardy, and caused to be
+elected emperor in 1340, the Margrave of Moravia, who took the name of
+Charles IV. Louis of Bavaria, everywhere conqueror, died in 1347, and
+Clement VI. triumphed. About this time a horrible plague ravaged Italy:
+the sovereign pontiff who had founded great hopes on this scourge,
+watched the moment in which the petty princes of Italy, reduced to the
+last degree of weakness, and having no longer an army to oppose to his
+anathemas, would be brought to acknowledge and sue to the pontifical
+authority. To accelerate this event, and second the plague, Clement
+employed money, stratagem, and force, in order to conquer the
+insubordination of the cities and nobles of Romagna; in particular, he
+menaced the Visconti, cited them before the consistory of cardinals, and
+summoned them to restore Bologna to the church; but, when he heard speak
+of twelve thousand horse, and six thousand infantry, who were to make
+their appearance at the court of Avignon with the lords of Milan, he
+took the course of negociation with this powerful house, and for one
+hundred thousand florins, sold it the investiture of Bologna. Avignon he
+had purchased: Joan, queen of Naples, had ceded this place to him for
+eighty thousand florins, which, it is said, were never paid. But Clement
+declared Joan innocent of the murder of her first husband, Andrew; he
+acknowledged the second; he placed difficulties in the way of the
+projects of Louis, king of Hungary, who in order to avenge his brother
+Andrew was about to invade the kingdom of Naples. It was thus that
+Clement VI. paid for Avignon; and, as this city was a fief of the
+empire, the sale was confirmed by Charles IV., who, indebted for his
+crown to the sovereign pontiff could refuse him nothing.
+
+This Pope died in 1352; the picture of his manners, has been drawn by
+Matteo Villani, a contemporary historian, whose expressions Fleury²⁶⁸
+thus translates and softens:
+
+ “He kept up a regal estab−
+ “lishment, had his tables magnificently served, a great
+ “train of knights and equerries, and a numerous
+ “stud of horses, which he often mounted for amuse−
+ “ment. He took great pleasure in aggrandizing his
+ “relations; he purchased extensive lands in France
+ “for them, and made many of them cardinals; but
+ “some of them were too young, and of too scanda−
+ “lous a life. He also made some at the request of
+ “the king of France, who were many of them also
+ “too young. In these promotions, he had regard
+ “to neither learning nor virtue. He himself had a
+ “moderate share of learning; but his manners
+ “were gallant, and unbecoming an ecclesiastic.—
+ “When an archbishop, he preserved no restraint
+ “with women, but went further than the young no−
+ “bles; and when pope, he neither knew how to
+ “refrain nor correct his conduct in this way. Great
+ “ladies, as well as prelates, visited his apartments;
+ “among othes a Countess of Turenne, on whom
+ “he conferred numerous favours. When he was
+ “sick, it was the ladies who waited on him, as female
+ “relations take care of seculars.”
+
+ ²⁶⁸ Eedw. Hiat 1,96, a. 13,
+
+A short time before his death, Clement received a letter written, they
+say, by the archbishop of Milan, John Visconti, and of which the
+following are lines:²⁶⁹
+
+ “Leviathan, prince of darkness, to Pope Clement
+ “his vicar........Your mother, the haughty, salutes
+ “you; Avarice; Lewdness, and your four other
+ “sisters, thank you for your good will, which has
+ “caused them to thrive so well.’
+
+It was during this pontificate that the Romans saw a man of low rank,
+Cola Rienzi, raise himself to a high degree of power. Deputed to Clement
+VI., to invite him to return to Rome, and not being able to prevail on
+him, Rienzi returned to plant the standard of liberty on the capitol,
+proclaimed himself tribune, and governed for several months the ancient
+capital of the universe.
+
+ ²⁶⁹ Fleury’s Eccles. Hist. 1. 9 6,n.9.
+
+The emperor Charles IV. had promised to renounce all claim of
+sovereignty over Rome and the ecclesiastical domains; these were the
+conditions on which Clement VI. had raised him to the empire; Charles
+kept his word. When in 1355 he resumed the imperial crown, he
+acknowledged the absolute independence of the temporal power of the
+popes, and swore never to put his foot in Rome, nor on any spot
+belonging to the Holy See, without the permission of the holy father,
+annulling all the contrary acts of his predecessors, and obliging his
+successors, under penalty of deposition, to the maintenance of the
+engagement entered into by him. This is the first authenticated act
+which elevated the pope into a temporal sovereign, an independent
+monarch: till this period he had been but a vassal of the empire.
+Innocent VI., who reigned in 1355, profited by this event to enrich his
+family.²⁷⁰
+
+ ²⁷⁰ Innocent VI. sent Philip de Cabassole into Germany, to raise the
+ tenth penny on all the ecclesiastical revenues. The following were
+ the complaints of the Germans at the news of this exaction: “The
+ Romans have always looked on Germany as a mine of gold, and have
+ invented various ways of exhausting it. What does the pope give to
+ this kingdom but letters and words? Let him be master of all the
+ benefices as far as the collation; but let him relinquish their
+ revenue to those who do the duty of them. We send money enough
+ into Italy for various merchandize, and to Avignon for our
+ children, who study there or stand for benefices, without
+ mentioning their having to purchase them. None of you are
+ ignorant, my lords, that every year large sums of money are taken
+ from Germany to the pope’s court, for the confirmation of
+ prelates, the obtaining of benefices, the prosecution of suits and
+ appeals to the Holy See; for dispensations, absolutions,
+ indulgences, privileges, and other favours. At all times the
+ archbishops confirmed the elections of their suffragan bishops. It
+ is pope John XXII. alone who, in our time, has taken this right
+ from them by violence. And yet this pope further demands of the
+ clergy, a new and unheard of subsidy; threatening with censures
+ those who will not give it, or who oppose it. Check this evil in
+ its outset, and do not permit the establishment of this shameful
+ servitude.” Vita 2, Lrnoc. VI. and Bahiz. Vit. Pap. A veiv. 1. p.
+ 350.
+
+Charles IV., a prince as weak as he was ambitious, was commonly surnamed
+the emperor of the priests.:
+
+ “You have then,” Petrarch writes to him,
+ “you have promised with an oath never to return to
+ “Rome. What a shame for an emperor, that priests
+ “should have the power or rather the audacity to
+ “compel him to such a renunciation! What pride
+ “in a bishop to deprive a sovereign, the father of
+ “liberty, of liberty itself! And what opprobrium in
+ “him whom the universe should obey, to cease to
+ “be his own master, and obey his vassal!”
+
+This Petrarch, who beheld too nearly the court of Avignon, compares it
+to²⁷¹
+
+ “a labyrinth in which an
+ “imperious Minos casts into the fatal urn the lot of
+ “humanity, where bellows a rapacious Minotaur,
+ “where triumphs a lascivious Venus. There is no
+ “guide, no Ariadne; to chain the monster, to bribe his
+ “hideous porter, there is no means but gold. But
+ “gold there opens heaven, gold in that place buys
+ “Jesus Christ, and, in this impious Babylon, a
+ “future existence, immortality, the resurrection, the
+ “last judgment, are placed with Elysium, Acheron
+ “and the Styx, in the class of fables imposed upon
+ “the grossest credulity.”
+
+ ²⁷¹ Petrarc. Op. Epist. s. tit 7. 8.10. 11.16.—Three sonnets against
+ the Roman Coart—Et, De Vita Solitar. 1.3. 4. c. 3.
+
+Although the weakness of the emperor Charles IV. had opened a new career
+to pontifical ambition, yet the return of some degree of light, and the
+perpetual commotions in the city of Rome, which kept innocent VI. at
+Avignon, which compelled Urban V. to return to it²⁷² and which would
+have sent Gregory XI. back, when he died; finally, the schism with which
+this pope’s death was followed; all these causes concurred in depriving
+the Holy See of the fruits of the policy and enterprises of Clement VI.
+
+ ²⁷² Urban V. when dying, expressed these words: “I firmly believe all
+ that the Holy Catholic Church holds and teaches; and if I ever
+ advanced doctrines contrary to the church I retract and subject
+ them to its censure." Here is one pope, says Fleury, who did not
+ think himself infallible.—Eccles. Hist. 1. 97, n. 18.
+
+In 1378, the cardinals, assembled to give a successor to Gregory XI.
+proclaimed Barthelemi Pregnano, who took the name of Urban VI., and they
+a few months after withdrew to Fondi, where they elected Robert of
+Geneva, or Clement VII.: they pretended that the election of Urban was
+but a formality to appease the fury of a people which wished to control
+their choice. Clement was installed in Avignon: France, Spain, Scotland
+and Sicily acknowledged him: the rest of Europe supported Urban, who
+resided at Rome, and published in England a crusade against France.
+Urban died in 1389, and the cardinals of his party supplied his place by
+Peter Tomacelli or Boniface IX. On the other hand, Clement being
+deceased in 1394, the French cardinals raised to the pontificate Peter
+de Lune, a Spaniard, who was called Benedict XIII. Modes of
+reconciliation were proposed from all quarters; France especially
+evinced her anxiety to extinguish the schism: but neither of the
+pontiffs would lis-ten to relinquishing the tiara; and the spiritual
+arms directed by each pope against the other became harmless in their
+hands. What one did against the supporters of the other; what dangers
+they encountered; what cardinals, what kings, what cities, they
+excommunicated; how many threats, how many bulls, how many censures they
+published, we will not undertake to relate here: we shall only remark,
+that the Church of France, after useless efforts to reestablish concord,
+ended by withdrawing, in the year 1298, from obedience to either one or
+the other pontiff.:
+
+ “We,” says Charles VI.,
+ “supported by
+ “the princes of our blood, and by many others, and
+ “with us the church of our kingdom, as well the
+ “clergy as the people, we, altogether withdraw from
+ “obedience to Pope Benedict XIII. as from that of
+ “his adversary. We desire that henceforth no
+ “person pay to Benedict, his collectors, or other
+ “officers, any ecclesiastical revenues or emoluments:
+ “and we strictly forbid all our subjects from obeying
+ “him or his officers in any matter whatever.”
+
+Villaret²⁷³ adds, that Benedict having caused a report to be spread,
+that the French were desirous to withdraw from obedience to him in order
+to substitute a pope of their own nation, the king to do away such
+suspicions, declared, in his letters, that any pope would be agreeable
+to him, whether African, Arab or Indian, provided he did not dishonour
+by his passions the chair of St. Peter.
+
+The French profited by these events to repress the exactions of the
+pontifical court. The churches were restored the right of freely
+electing their prelates, and collators the disposal of other benefices.
+Boniface IX. had perfected the art of enriching the Holy See; he had, as
+Fleury observed,²⁷⁴ doubly need of money, for himself, and, to support
+Ladislaus at Naples against the house of Anjou. We may read in
+Fleury,²⁷⁵ how the clergy, who possessed benefices at Rome, paid for
+the favour of being examined; how Boniface in the second and third year
+of his pontificate, dated as of the first the bulls for benefices; how
+he exacted compensation for this antedate; how he extended to prelacies
+the right of first fruits, that is, the reservation of the revenue of
+each benefice for the first year; how he kept couriers throughout Italy,
+to be apprised, without delay, of the sickness or death of prelates or
+other dignitaries, and in order to sell twice, or thrice, the same abbey
+or church; how, by clauses of preference, he revoked the reservation,
+and the survivorship, the price of which he had received: how he would
+even annul the preferences which paid a higher price; how in fine, this
+traffick, combining with the plague, and the consequent rapid mortality
+of the incumbents, brought into the treasury of the apostolic see, the
+innumerable contributions of all those who obtained, hoped for, or
+coveted, a rich or a poor ecclesiastical benefice.
+
+ ²⁷³ Hist, of France, vol. xii. p. 270,271.
+
+ ²⁷⁴ Eccles. Hist. 1. 99. n.-26.
+
+ ²⁷⁵ Ibid. n. 26, 27,28.
+
+It was, without doubt, impossible but that these scandalous abuses,
+multiplied and extended through the lapse of time from Hildebrand to
+Boniface IX. and Benedict XIII., should excite the indignation of
+upright minds and honest hearts. The French, much more christianized in
+the fourteenth century than the people of Italy or Germany, evinced, by
+this alone, more zeal in repressing the irregularities and excesses of
+the clergy. They had seconded Philip the Fair against Boniface VIII.;
+under Philip of Valois, Peter de Cugnieres had expressed their
+honourable wishes; and more than twenty years before their renunciation
+of Benedict XIII. as of Boniface IX. they had, under Charles V. enquired
+into the limits of ecclesiastical authority. A monument of this
+discussion has been preserved to us under the title of “The Verger’s
+dream, or Disputation between the clerk and the squire:”²⁷⁶ a work the
+author of which is not well known; but which we would attribute to John
+de Lignano, or to Charles de Louvieres, rather than to any other. The
+clerk in it claims for the successor of St. Peter, the title of
+Vicar-General of Jesus Christ upon earth.—The squire distinguishes two
+eras in our Saviour’s history, one of preaching and humility before his
+death, the other of power and of glory after his resurrection. St Peter,
+according to the squire and the pope as well as St. Peter, can represent
+but the poor and the modest: Jesus, preaching the gospel, and affecting
+over thrones and temporal things, no sort of pretension, acknowledging
+that his kingdom is not of this world, submitting himself to the civil
+power, and, in fine, rendering to Cesar, that which to Cesar belongs.
+
+ ²⁷⁶ “The Verger’s dream,” one of the most ancient monuments of French
+ literature and of the liberties of the Gallican Church, occupies
+ the half of a folio volume, in the collection of proofs of, and
+ treatises on these liberties.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII. FIFTEENTH CENTURY
+
+
+FOUR great councils were held in the fifteenth century, all previous to
+the year 1460. The council of Pisa in 1409: it is not reverenced as an
+oecumenical one; it nevertheless, in deposing. Gregory XII. and Benedict
+XIII. elected Alexander III. to their place. This act did not extinguish
+the schism; on the contrary it occasioned at once three popes.
+
+The council of Constance in 1414: this had greater authority; it caused
+John Huss and Jerome of Prague to be burned; further, it declared the
+superiority of general councils over the popes; a doctrine always
+disapproved of at Rome, and to which Martin V: did not adhere, though
+elected by this very council of Constance. But the church had no longer
+more than two heads, Martin V. and the obstinate Benedict XIII. Gregory
+XII. sent in his resignation; and John XXIII. the successor of Alexander
+V. was thrown into prison, from whence he did not come out until he had
+acknowledged Martin V. There is no vice, no crime, which contemporary
+historians and the council of Constance do not reproach John XXIII. with
+An act of accusation prepared against him, presented, they say, a
+complete catalogue of every mortal crime²⁷⁷ They assert that he had
+seduced three hundred nuns²⁷⁸ according to Theodoric de Nieve²⁷⁹ he
+kept at Bologna two hundred mistresses. These exaggerations discover
+calumny; and the friendship and hospitality with which the Florentines,
+especially the Medicis, a family at this period distinguished, honoured
+a pontiff so weakly established, would suffice to refute or weaken the
+accusations with which, his enemies and his misfortunes have loaded his
+memory. The weakness of his character stimulated the insults of his
+rivals, and his disgraces those of the historian. Stripped of his states
+by Ladislaus, king of Naples, betrayed by Frederick, duke of Austria,
+hunted by the emperor Sigismund, John used too liberally the sole
+resources which remained to him, simony and usury; he brought to
+perfection, even after Boniface IX. the traffic in benefices²⁸⁰ and we
+read²⁸¹ that a note for one thousand florins would be passed him where
+he lent eight hundred for four months.
+
+ ²⁷⁷ Theodor, de Niem. ap. Vonder Hart. vol. ii. p. 389.
+
+ ²⁷⁸ L’Enfant’s Hist, of Coun. of Constance, 1. 2, p. 184.
+
+ ²⁷⁹ Invect. in Joann. 1. 23. p. 6.
+
+ ²⁸⁰ Fleury’s Eccles. Hist. 1. 103, n. 46.
+
+ ²⁸¹ Theodor. Niem. Invect. p. 8.
+
+The council of Basle in 1431: theologians declare it oecumenical to its
+twenty-fifth session only; it held forty-five. This council also humbled
+a good deal the papal authority; and its decrees on this head, as well
+as those of Constance, served to prepare in France the celebrated
+pragmatic sanction, to which we shall revert by and by. The fathers of
+Basle deposed Eugene IV., the successor of Martin V., describing the
+said Eugene as a disturber, a heretic, and a schismatic. Eugene
+excommunicated this third council, and held a fourth at Florence in
+1459. In it the reconciliation of the Greeks was treated of: John
+Paleologus, emperor of the East, was at it, endeavouring to confirm by
+this re-union the throne upon which he tottered; but the priests of
+Constantinople persisted in the schism.
+
+Louis III. of Anjou, had disputed the throne of Naples with Joan II.,
+daughter of Charles Durazzo. Delivered from Louis by Alphonso V. king of
+Arragon, Joan adopted the Arragonese monarch, and her liberator was to
+become her heir. Subsequently some misunderstanding between Alphonso and
+Joan determined her to revert to Louis of Anjou, and to revoke in his
+favour the act of adoption obtained by Alphonso. Joan and Louis died:
+and, two competitors present themselves to reign over Naples, Alphonso
+and Reni, the brothers of Louis. Pope Eugene declares for Alphonso,
+precisely because Reni, more acceptable to the Neapolitans, and to Italy
+generally, would have been too formidable a neighbour for the Holy See.
+This is the principal affair purely political in which the pontiff
+concerned himself. He however obliged Uladislaus, king of Poland and
+Hungary, to break a peace with the Turks, sworn to on the Evangelists
+and on the Koran. A rupture fatal as it was perfidious, and which drew
+after it, in 1444 near Varne, the defeat and death of Uladislaus.
+
+Eugene retained to his death the title of pope, although the counsel of
+Basle had conferred it on the duke of Savoy, Amadeus VIII. whose papal
+name was Felix V. This duke afterwards abdicated the tiara, and the
+church had at last but one head Nicholas V., the successor of Eugene;
+Nicholas, a pacific prelate; the friend of literature, and founder of
+the Vatican library, and one of the most generous protectors of the
+learned Greeks, who took refuge in Italy after Mahomet II. had taken
+Constantinople in 1446.
+
+We have seen that during the first half of the fifteenth century, the
+priesthood, divided, had no means of very seriously threatening great
+empires. This opportunity ought to have been seized on for effecting
+those reformations, provoked by the corruptions which the false
+decretals had produced in the ecclesiastical discipline.
+
+The ancient rules left to the clergy, to the people, and to the
+sovereign, an active part in the election of bishops, and the new law
+reserved to the pope the institution of the incumbents.
+Excommunications, formerly rare and confined to matters altogether
+spiritual, were multiplied after the tenth century against emperors and
+kings, whose power they shook. The popes of the eight first centuries
+never thought of enacting tributes from the newly elected bishops; now,
+the pope demands first fruits of them. Before the decretals, the
+ecclesiastics were in civil and criminal cases amenable to the secular
+tribunals: after the decretals, the pope wished to become, in all sorts
+of causes, the supreme judge of every member of the priesthood. In fine,
+dispensations, pardons, reservations and reversions, and appeals to the
+Holy See, were perpetual; the abuses, become excessive, wearied France
+in an especial manner.
+
+After having withdrawn, as we have said, from obedience to both the
+candidates for the papacy, the Gallican church began to regulate itself
+agreeable to the primitive laws, and received with transport the decrees
+of the councils of Constance and Basle, which limited the power of the
+pope and subjected it to that of the united church. The council of
+Basle, when Eugene IV. had quitted it, sent its decrees to the king of
+France, Charles VII. who communicated them to the great nobles of his
+kingdom, secular as well as ecclesiastical, met together for this
+purpose in the holy chapel of Bourges. The decrees of Basle and of
+Constance, approved and modified by this assembly, formed the pragmatic
+sanction, which was read and proclaimed as the king’s edict, in the
+parliament of Paris, the 3d of July, 1439. It is determined by this
+edict, that general councils ought to be held every ten years, that
+their authority is superior to that of the pope, that the number of
+cardinals should be reduced to twenty-four, that the presentation to
+ecclesiastical benefices should be perfectly free, that the first fruits
+should no longer be demanded, and that neither reservations or
+reversions should be recognised.²⁸² All orders of the state received
+this “pragmatic” with enthusiasm; and the whole course of history
+attests how dear it was to the French.
+
+ ²⁸² We must observe, said the president Henault, that in 1441 the king
+ issued a declaration respecting the pragmatic sanction, implying
+ that his design and that of the assembly at Bourges, was, that the
+ arrangement made between Eugene IV. and his ambassadors should
+ take effect from the day of the date of this pragmatic, without
+ any regard to the date of the Basle decree, issued before the date
+ of the pragmatic; and from this it is concluded, that the decrees
+ of general councils, as respects discipline, have no force in
+ France until after they have received authority from the edicts of
+ our kings.—Ab. Chron. of Hist, of France, ann. 1438.
+
+In Italy the schism had gradually produced a revolution in their
+political views. Under doubtful and rival demi-popes; under the feeble
+influence of the emperors Robert, Sigismund, Robert II. Frederick III.
+the Guelph and Ghibeline factions become almost extinct either from want
+of heads or of standards, or lassitude consequent on four or five
+centuries of madness and misfortune. The Visconti, become the chiefs of
+the Ghibelines, sunk and disappointed, replaced by the Sforza, a family
+just hatched and destined to combat for interests new as itself. The
+Medicis, less recent, laboured to calm the commotions which agitated
+Florence, and indulged the hope of seeing liberty, laws, and literature
+flourish, in the loveliest country they could make their abode.—
+Impelled also by the idea of their advances in the fine arts, other
+cities of Italy aspired to free themselves altogether from the German
+yoke, and to exercise an habitual influence over the people they had
+outstripped in civilisation. This national pride it was which reconciled
+them secretly to the papacy, disposed them to consider it as the centre
+of Italian power, and to mourn over the ancient splendour of this once
+dreaded focus. The middle of the fifteenth century, is the true era in
+which was confirmed, and propagated in Italy, the doctrine elsewhere
+denominated ultramontane, a doctrine which has since been but the mask
+of the political interests of this nation, well or ill understood by
+her. Since then, the Italians have generally abstained from seconding
+the resistance that the English, the Germans, the French, have not
+ceased to oppose to the pretensions of the Roman pontiff, to his worldly
+ambition, and abuse of his spiritual ministry. Already, in the councils
+of Constance and Basle, the Italian prelates were in general remarked
+for the lukewarmness of their zeal in the reformation of ecclesiastical
+irregularities. Terrified no doubt, by the rash boldness of Wickliffe
+and many other innovators, they did not perceive that propriety of
+manners and wise laws would be the most certain security against
+alterations in doctrine; or rather, the preservation of the faith was
+not what they most sincerely desired to secure. Behold then, in what
+disposition the successors of Nicholas V., found the clergy, the
+learned, the rulers, and consequently the people of Italy; and such were
+the points of support on which the pontifical levers went to work, in
+order to put it under way once more.
+
+Six popes, after Nicholas V, governed the church during the second half
+of the fifteenth century: Calixtus III., from 1445 to 1458; Pius II. to
+1464; Paul II. to 1471; Sixtus IV. to 1484; Innocent VIII. to 1492; and
+Alexander IV. for the following years.
+
+Calixtus III. who vainly preached a crusade against the Turks
+established at Constantinople, shewed much more zeal still for the
+particular interests of his family. This pope had three nephews: he
+raised two of them to the cardinalat, which they disgraced by the open
+irregularity of their conduct. He heaped secular dignities on the head
+of the third: he made him duke of Spoleto, and general of the troops of
+the Holy See; he was desirous of making king of Naples, and thus
+terminate the rivalry existing between Ferdinand, the son of Alphonso,
+John, the son of Rene, and other candidates, whose object this kingdom
+was. Calixtus endeavoured to arm the Milanese against Ferdinand, and
+forbad this prince on pain of excommunication from taking the title of
+king: but Calixtus reigned only three years, and his ambitious
+intentions had no durable consequence.
+
+After him came Pius II., who before, under the name of Eneas Sylvius,
+was an author sufficiently distinguished: he had also been secretary to
+the council of Basle, and as such a zealous partisan of the supremacy of
+councils; but finally, when pope, an ardent defender of the omnipotence
+of the Holy See. He even formally retracted all that he had written at
+the dictation of the council; and, by an express bull, Pius II. condemns
+Eneas Sylvius.²⁸³ His bull ‘Execrabilis,’ anathematizes appeals to
+general councils, to one of which France appealed on this very bull.
+Charles VII. still reigned; he maintained the pragmatic sanction; and
+observe in what terms the attorney general Douvet protests against this
+bull:²⁸⁴
+
+ “Since our holy father the pope, to
+ “whom all power has been given for the building up
+ “of the church and not for its destruction, wishes to
+ “disturb and insult our lord the king, the ecclesi−
+ “astics of the kingdom, and even his secular sub
+ “jects, I, John Douvet, attorney general of his
+ “Majesty, do protest such judgments or censures to
+ “be null, according to the decrees of the sacred
+ “canons, which declare void, in many cases, this
+ “sort of decisions; submitting, nevertheless, all
+ “things to the judgment of a general council, to
+ “which our very Christian king purposes to have
+ “recourse, and to which I, in his name, appeal.”
+
+ ²⁸³ "Never did individual,” says Mezerai, “labour more to reduce the
+ power of the popes within the limits of the canons than Eneas
+ Sylvius; and never did pope endeavour more to extend it beyond the
+ bounds of right and of reason, than the same man when he became
+ Pius II.”—Abr. Chron. vol. i. pt. 2, p. 436.
+
+ ²⁸⁴ Proofs of the Liberty of the Gallican Church, vol. i. p. 2, pa.
+ 40.
+
+But Louis XI. succeeded Charles in 1461, and repealed the ‘pragmatic’
+yielding to the solicitations of Pius, who wept for joy at it, ordained
+public festivals, and caused the act of the assembly at Bourges to be
+dragged through the puddle of Rome. Louis had affixed two stipulations
+to his compliance; one, that the pope should favour John of Anjou and
+proclaim him king of Naples; the other, that a legate, a Frenchman by
+birth, should be appointed to invest the incumbents in France. Pius, who
+had made both these promises, fulfilled neither; but he composed verses
+in honour of the king, and sent him a sword, ornamented with diamonds,
+to fight Mahomet II.—Louis highly irritated, directed the parliament
+secretly to oppose the edict which rescinded the pragmatic. This
+opposition it was not difficult to secure, it was sufficient not to
+thwart it: the parliament embraced so rare an opportunity of testifying
+their obedience, by refusing to obey. Louis XI. armed not against the
+Turks; but while Pius II. thus stimulated the kings of Europe to combat
+the new masters of Constantinople, let us see what the holy father
+writes to Mahomet II. himself.²⁸⁵
+
+ “Do you
+ “wish to become the most powerful of mortals?
+ “What prevents your becoming so to−morrow? a
+ “mere trifle certainly, what may be found without
+ “the seeking, some drops of baptismal water.
+ “Prince, but a little water, and we will declare you
+ “emperor of the Greeks and of the East, of the
+ “West also, if need be. In former times, freed
+ “from Astolphus and Didier, by the good offices of
+ “Pepin and of Charlemagne, our predecessors
+ “Stephen, Adrian, and Leo, crowned their liber−
+ “ators. Do you act like Charlemagne and Pepin,
+ “and we shall do as Leo, Adrian and Stephen.”
+
+ ²⁸⁵ Pii secundi pontificis maximi, ad illustrem Mahumetem Turcarum
+ imperatorem, epistola. Tarvisii, Garard de Flandria. 1475, in 4to.
+ We read in fol. 4 and 3: “Parva res omnium qui hodie Vaint,
+ maximum et potentissimum et cla-rissimum te reddere potest Quæris
+ quid sit? Non est inventa difficiles neque procul quærenda; ubique
+ gentium reperitur: id est, aquæ parexillium quo baptizeris. Id si
+ feceris, non erit in orbe princeps qui te gloriâ superet aut
+ tequare potentiâ valeat. Nos te Graecoram et Orientis imperatorem
+ appellabimus Et sicut nostri antecessories, Stephanas, Adrianas,
+ Leo, ad versas Haistulphum et Desi-deritun, gentes Longobardæ
+ reges, Pipinum et Karolum Magnum accersiverunt, et liberati de
+ manu tyrannicâ, imperium à Grœcis ad ipsos liberatores
+ transtulerunt, ita et nos in ecclesiæ necessitatibus patrocinio
+ tuo uteramur, et vicem redderemus beneficii accepti.”
+
+These are plain terms, we see, and disguise nothing of the pontifical
+policy.
+
+To Pius II. succeeded Barbo, a Venetian, so handsome and so vain, that
+he was templed to assume the name of Formosa:²⁸⁶ he contented himself
+with that of Paul II. His efforts to league the Christian sovereigns
+against the Turks, and to have the abrogation of the pragmatic
+registered by the parliament of Paris, were equally unsuccessful; other
+interests occupied the former, and the parliament of Paris was
+obstinate. In vain Cardinal Balne obtained from Louis the deprivation of
+the solicitor general John de Saint Romain: the university united with
+the magistrates in an appeal to a future council. In the mean time
+letters are discovered which prove to Louis that he is betrayed by
+Balne. The cardinal is already cast into prison; but Paul pretends to be
+the sole legitimate judge of a prince of the church, and Balne, after a
+long detention in an iron cage, is finally liberated.
+
+ ²⁸⁶ Art of verifying Dates, vol. i, p. 337.—‘ Formosus’ implies
+ ‘handsome.’
+
+Paul also vainly endeavoured to make himself master of Rimini: in vain
+he armed the Venetians against Robert Malatesti who occupied this place:
+Robert, aided by the Medicis, opposed a formidable army to the
+Venetians, and which, under the command of the Duke d’Urbino, put that
+of the pope to flight²⁸⁷ His holiness received such conditions as his
+conquerors dictated; he loaded the Medicis with invectives, and no
+longer made war but with men of letters;²⁸⁸ he condemned many of these
+to horrible tortures to extort from them the avowal of heresies which
+they never professed; and when their constancy in refusing to make false
+confessions, when all the evidence, all the witnesses proclaimed their
+innocence, the holy father declared they could not leave their dungeons
+until they had completed in them an entire year, having at the time of
+their arrest made a vow not to release them before the expiration of
+this term.
+
+ ²⁸⁷ Muratori’s Annals of Italy, vol., ix. p. 508.
+
+ ²⁸⁸ Art of verifying Dates, vol. i. p. 327.
+
+Platina, one of Paul’s victims, has compiled a history of the popes in
+which, this pontiff is not spared: Platina is doubtlessly here a
+suspicious testimony; but as the reverend Benedictine fathers
+judiciously observe,:
+
+ “his relation is supported by the evidence of James
+ “Piccolomini, cardinal bishop of Pavia, a respect−
+ “able writer, who, both in his commentaries, in
+ “the letter he wrote to Paul himself a short time
+ “after his exaltation, and in that addressed to the
+ “cardinals who had elected him, draws a very un−
+ “favourable portrait of this pope.”
+
+Two nephews, invested the one with the duchy of Sora, the other with the
+county of Imola; an expedition fruitless against the Mahometans;
+alternate alliances and enmities with the Venetians; disturbances
+encouraged in Ferrara, Florence and Naples; arms, stratagems, and
+anathemas, in turn assayed against the enemies of the Holy See: these
+several details of the history of Sixtus IV. would possess greater
+interest if the conspiracy of the Pazzi did not absorb all the attention
+this pontificate can claim.
+
+The Medici had offended Sixtus IV. by some shew of resistance to the
+elevation of his nephews, and to the nomination of the archbishop of
+Pisa, Salviati. Their power, so much the more imposing as it was then
+connected with the most honourable renown, restrained and wearied the
+pontiff, who aspired to become master of Florence and the North of
+Italy. One of the first cares of Sixtus was, to deprive the family of
+the Medicis of the situation of treasurer of the Holy See, in order to
+give it to that of the Pazzi. Till this period, no jealousy was
+manifested between these two illustrious houses, united on the contrary
+by alliances and by mutual services. The Florentine authors exhaust in
+vain their investigations to discover motives or pretexts for the enmity
+of the Pazzi to the Medici. To represent the latter as tyrants, the
+conspirators as liberators, is at once to oppose sound morality and
+contemporary history. No, it is impossible to imagine any other causes
+here than the instigations of the court of Rome, and the hope presented
+to the Pazzi, of invading under the protection of the Holy See, the
+government of Florence, if they were willing to become, not the rivals
+of the Medicis, but their assassins. To the Pazzi were joined the Count
+Riacio, nephew of the pope, the cardinal Riacio, nephew of the Count,
+the archbishop of Pisa, a a brother of this prelate; one Bandini, known
+by the excess of his debaucheries; Montesecco, one of Sixtus’s
+‘condottieri,’ with other robbers and priests. It was arranged to
+poignard Lorenzo and Giulio de Medici, on Sunday, the 26th of April, in
+the church, in the middle of Mass, at the moment of the elevation of the
+host. These circumstances, which added to the crime the character of
+sacrilege, terrified the conscience of Montesecco,²⁸⁹ who had received,
+as the best skilled of them all at assassination, the commission to
+strike Lorenzo; two ecclesiastics took the office on them. But they
+acquitted themselves with less skill than zeal; and Lorenzo, only
+wounded, escaped from their hands, while Giulio expired under the blows
+of Bandini and Francisco Pazzi.
+
+ ²⁸⁹ He said, his courage would never support him in commiting such a
+ crime in a church, and adding to his treason
+ sacrilege.—Machiavellii’s History of Flortnce, 1. 8.
+
+The death of Giulio was instantly revenged: the traitors were seized,
+and exterminated by the populace. The archbishop of Pisa was seen when
+hanged by the side of Francisco Pazzi, biting in his agony the carcase
+of his companion. Montesecco revealed at the foot of the scaffold the
+dark clues and sacred origin of the conspiracy. Bandini, after having
+fled to Constantinople, was sent back by Mahomet 11. to Florence, where
+he was executed: a sultan would not afford an asylum to an assassin that
+a pope did not blush to arm; and while Lorenzo, scarcely recovered from
+his wounds, endeavoured to repress the popular indignation, even while
+he saves the Cardinal Riario, what does Sixtus do? As if his being an
+accomplice was not sufficiently exposed by Montesecco, was not
+abundantly demonstrated by the circumstances themselves, he proclaims it
+himself by the excommunication of Lorenzo de Medicis and the
+Florentines. He terms Lorenzo and the magistrates, children of
+perdition, suckers of iniquity: he declares them and their successors
+born or to be born, incapable of receiving or transmitting any property
+by will or inheritance; he summons the Florentines to deliver Lorenzo up
+to him; and, when he can no longer hope for so unprincipled a treason,
+he raises troops against Florence; he arms some Neapolitans; at any
+price he is desirous to consummate the crime, of which the Pazzi
+succeeded in effecting but the half. In the mean time Italy, Germany,
+and France, interested themselves for the Medicis; Louis XI. himself
+declares that he will restore the ‘pragmatic,’ if the pope does not
+revoke his anathemas: but the descent of the Turks at Otranto was
+requisite, and that the fears and the forces of the courts of Naples and
+of Rome should have to turn their attention to this point, before the
+pontiff would pardon the victim who had escaped his thunders and his
+poignards.²⁹⁰
+
+ ²⁹⁰ Ang. Politian. De Hist, coryurat. Pactianæ comment.— Don Bossi,
+ chron. ann. 1478.—Machiav. Hist, of Flor. 1. 8.— Ammir. Hist.
+ Flor. vol. iii. p. 118, &c.—Valori, Vita Laurent. Med.—Fabr. Vit.
+ ejusdem.—Muratori’s Annals of Italy, years 1478, 1479, &c.
+
+Sixtus, to associate the court of Naples in his vengeance, had abolished
+a quit rent which it paid to the Court of Rome. Innocent VIII. designed
+its re-establishment, as necessary to the undertakings he meditated
+against the Mussulmans. Upon the refusal of king Ferdinand, the pope
+encouraged the Neapolitan barons to revolt, partisans of the Duke of
+Calabria, and little attached to the house of Arragon. He promised, and
+sent them troops; he excommunicated the king, deposed him, and called
+the king of France, Charles VIII. into Italy: but, indolent and
+unskilful, Innocent merited no success; and the eight years of his
+pontificate have left behind but trifling mementos.
+
+Of Alexander VI. the private life is well known; the nature of our
+subject will excuse us from pursuing the details which compose it, of,
+robbery, perjury, revelings, sacrilege, obscenity, incest, poisoning,
+and assassination. Our business is with his politics not his manners. He
+persuaded Charles VIII. to pass into Italy, for the purpose of
+conquering Naples; and, while Charles was preparing for it, Alexander
+entered into negociations with every court, even that of the Sultan, to
+raise up enemies to France. His writing to Bajazet II. that Charles
+menaced Naples but in order to fall on the Ottoman empire; his
+delivering Prince Zizim, the brother of Bajazet, to Charles, by order of
+the Sultan, but delivering him up poisoned, and receiving from the
+latter the price of his crime: such were, in his political career, the
+feats of Alexander VI. Yet this did not prevent his holiness from
+concluding a treaty of alliance with Charles, and almost immediately
+after leaguing with the Venetians and the Emperor Maximilian against the
+same Charles, whose greatest error was, opposing the designs of eighteen
+cardinals who, already wearied with the excesses of Alexander, resolved
+to depose him.
+
+The pope had a daughter named Lucretia, and four sons, of whom one named
+Geoffrey remains almost unknown; another obtained from the King of
+Naples the title of Squillace; another became celebrated under the name
+of Cesar Borgia; and the eldest was Duke of Gandia and Benevenlum. To
+advance Cesar, who was only a cardinal, Charles VIII. was promised
+support in a second expedition of the French into Italy: Charles died
+before it could be undertaken, and Frederick, king of Naples, was then
+resorted to. This prince was required to give his daughter in marriage
+to Cesar, who should be created prince of Tarentum: Frederick having
+rejected this proposal, it was necessary to recur a third time to the
+French, then governed by Louis XII.
+
+Cesar arrived in France: he took with him a bull which authorised Louis
+to part with his first wife; and he instigated him to conquer Naples and
+Milan: Naples, which from the time of Charles of Anjou, had not ceased
+to belong to a French prince; Milan, where Louis was to recover the
+rights he derived from Valentine Visconti, his grandmother: and, to
+prevent his being over-ruled by wiser counsels, his minister, cardinal
+Amboise, was seduced with the hope of being one day the successor of
+Alexander VI. Behold here, how the best of kings, having become the ally
+of the most perfidious of pontiffs, engages in a dangerous war, in which
+the treacheries of Rome snatch from the French the fruits of their
+victories. But the Cardinal Cesar becomes Duke of Valentinois; the
+family of Borgia triumphs over its enemies, and enriches itself with
+their spoils; in fine, Alexander VI. became the first potentate in
+Europe, when a drug which he had prepared for others terminated, by a
+happy mistake, his abominable pontificate.
+
+This pope and his predecessors, since Calixtus, have been much
+reproached with their nepotism, or zeal for the elevation of their
+nephews, their children, and their relations. Certainly we do not mean
+to justify this abuse of the apostolate, this triumph of the interests
+of individuals over those of the religion of Jesus Christ; but, in order
+to clear up as far we are able, by general observations, a history, the
+details of which we could not embrace here, we may say that Nepotism was
+a weakening, a degradation of the political ambition; that the papacy,
+regarded as a means of enriching and aggrandizing families, became, by
+these means alone, less formidable to sovereigns: and, that after the
+extinction of the schism from 1450 to 1500, the civil authority had
+suffered much more frequent attacks, if these domestic cares, these
+family interests, had not so often diverted the popes from the vast
+undertakings necessary to restore the importance of the Holy See.
+Sedulous to humble kings, Innocent III. and Gregory VII. did not busy
+themselves in elevating particular families: they sought to exercise
+themselves, and transmit to their successors, a universal supremacy.
+Many circumstances, which we have pointed out, would have favoured, at
+the middle of the fifteenth century, the re-establishment of this
+enormous power, if the popes had united the austere and disinterested
+enthusiasm of Hildebrand, to the knowledge which must have been
+possessed by the contemporaries of Politiano, and almost of Machiavel.
+It was not that Pius II. wanted sense, nor Paul II. wickedness, nor
+Sixtus IV. perfidy, nor Borgia any vice; but it is not sufficient to be
+unprincipled, a pope must know also how to turn to account the errors of
+others and his own crimes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX. POLICY OF THE POPES OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
+
+
+OF all the periods of modern history, the sixteenth is the fullest of
+tempests, of revolutions, and of important events. It shines with the
+bright lustre of Italian literature; but, it is tinged with all the
+blood which fanaticism could shed in the lapse of an hundred years. Each
+of the eras which divides the duration of this age, is itself a
+memorable event; the league of Cambray in 1508; the concordat of Leo X.
+and Francis I. in 1515: the conquest of Egypt by the Turks, new
+expeditions to the two Indies, the English schism, and the establishment
+of the Jesuits, in 1540; the abdication of Charles V. and the accession
+of Elizabeth in 1558; the council of Trent from 1545 to 1563, and, the
+increase of heresies, the Batavian confederation, the excesses of Philip
+II. and St. Bartholomew’s-day in 1572; the league, the assassination of
+Henry III. by James Clement, in 1589; the victories of Henry IV. his
+recantation, and the edict of Nantz, in 1598. Fifteen popes during these
+tragical events governed the church, almost all of them of distinguished
+talents, and some of an energetic character: but the remembrance of the
+Avignon schism, the permanent scandal of nepotism, the invention of
+printing, the discovery of a new world, the general advancement of
+knowledge, the exertions of Luther and Calvin, the influence of their
+doctrines, and propagation of their errors; so many obstacles were
+opposed to the progress of the pontifical power, that it required
+extreme dexterity in the bishops of Rome to retard its decline.
+
+After the concessions made by the emperor, Charles IV. in 1355 the
+German Sovereigns had lost their ancient preponderance in Italy; and the
+French, in carrying their arms into it, had obtained a considerable
+influence, which was much less opposed by the popes than by the
+Venetians, the princes of Arragon, and the powerful families that ruled
+Florence and Milan. Pope Julius II. nephew of Sixtus IV. resolved to
+enfranchise Italy, that is, to subject it to the court of Rome, to expel
+foreigners, to sow divisions among the rivals of the Holy See, and to
+take advantage of them in order to re-assume in Europe that supremacy
+before aspired to by Gregory VII. and exercised by Innocent III. Gregory
+VII. Innocent III. and Julius II., among so many popes, are the three
+most violent enemies of kings.
+
+After the death of Alexander VI, and during the twenty-seven days of the
+pontificate of Pius III. the Venetians had regained important places
+taken from their republic at the end of the fifteenth century: they
+occupied a part of Romagna; Cesar Borgia had secured the other, as well
+as many cities of the March of Ancona, and of the Duchy of Urbino; the
+Baglioni possessed Perugia; the Bentivoglio, Bologna: divers portions of
+the pontifical domains were then to be recovered. Julius succeeded in
+despoiling Borgia, the Bentivoglio, the Baglioni: but, to subdue the
+Venetians, he concluded against them with the king of France, the
+emperor, and the king of Arragon, the famous league of Cambray.—But,
+soon after, the advancement of Louis XII. rendered him uneasy: he feared
+to allow that of the emperor; he hastens to enter into a secret
+négociation with the Venetians, and promises them, provided they restore
+Faenza and Rimini, to join them in repelling the ‘barbarians’; it is
+thus he calls the French, the Spaniards, and Germans. The Venetians, who
+rejected these offers, were excommunicated, defeated, and absolved by
+submitting to the pope. Then Julius leagued, in fact, with the Venetians
+against the French; he puts on the cuirass, lays siege to, in person,
+and takes Mirandola. Vanquished by Trivulzio, general of the French, he
+excommunicates Louis XII. lays France under an interdict, and endeavours
+to arm England against her. Apostolic legates labour to corrupt the
+French soldiers: the title of defenders of the Holy See rewards the
+ravages of the Swiss; the Genoese are excited to revolt; the states of
+John d’Albret, king of Navarre, the ally of Louis XII. are delivered
+over by the Roman court to the first occupier.²⁹¹
+
+ ²⁹¹ “About this time, 1512, says Flecher, pope Julius piqued against
+ France and her allies, abusing the power which God had given him,
+ and making religion subservient to his own particular passions,
+ went to such lengths as to excommunicate kings and strip them of
+ their kingdoms. The greatness of Louis XII. secured him from these
+ exactions, and France, supported by her internal force, feared
+ neither the violence of the pope, nor the ambition of those who
+ would have taken ad-vantage of it to attack this crown. The evil
+ fell on John d’Albret, king of Navarre, who, not being
+ sufficiently provident to secure himself from surprise, nor
+ powerful enough to defend himself against an armed neighbour,
+ watchful of every opportunity to aggrandize his kingdom, had been
+ ex-communicated because he had united with the king of France,
+ and was finally driven from his states, under the pretence that he
+ had contributed to the convocation and continuance of the council
+ held at Pisa against the Holy See. Ferdinand, in virtue of this
+ bull of excommunication, which it is believed the pope had
+ secretly conveyed to him before he had fulminated it, caused his
+ troops to advance quietly, and put himself in a position to attack
+ the king of Navarre, with whom he was living on good terms, and
+ who suspected nothing. He knew in his conscience he was about
+ committing " an injustice, and doubted not he would be reproached
+ with his invasion: on this account he sent to desire Cardinal
+ Ximenes might come to him in Logrogne, where he was, in order to
+ sanction by his presence, at least in the eyes of his subjects, a
+ war which in other respects had no just grounds.” Life of Cardinal
+ Ximenes, pa. 358, 359. Ed. of 1693.
+
+To crush France, overthrow Florence, such were the designs of Julius
+when he died in 1513, the tenth year of his pontificate. Medals, struck
+by his order, represent him with the tiara on his head, a scourge in his
+hand, pursuing the French, and trampling under his feet the crown of
+France. Julius II. was so much of a temporal prince, that it would be
+hard to discover the bishop in him; he attended too little to even the
+forms of the Apostolat; this was the principal deficiency in his
+policy.²⁹² It was nevertheless in his pontificate that the doctrine of
+the infallibility of the pope was established. Julius II. according to
+Guicciardini,²⁹³ did not merit the title of a great man; and he obtains
+it from those only who, incapable of appreciating the value of words,
+imagine that a sovereign pontiff becomes less illustrious by setting an
+example of the pacific virtues, than in extending the domains of the
+church by the effusion of Christian blood. He was detested even in
+Italy. Before his death, the inhabitants of Bologna, threw down his
+statue, the work of Michael Angelo.
+
+ ²⁹² John Lemaire, a contemporary author, made upon the warlike
+ disposition of Julius II. the following observation: “Still shall
+ we declare another wonderful change it is, the Sultan’s
+ graciousness and tractability towards the Very Christian King,
+ compared with the rigour and obstinacy of this modern pope, who,
+ so martial and quarrelsome in his accoutrements, as if it was a
+ duty of his to cause his terrible and warlike arms to be famous,
+ like the great Tamerlane emperor and sultan of the Tartars, wishes
+ always to be engaged in war, which is as becoming to him as for a
+ dirty monk to dance. Unless he shall make some monstrous world to
+ accord with his own ideas: for hogs will ever feed on
+ acorns.”—Preface to the Treatise on Schisms, p. 5. Julius II.
+
+ ²⁹³ History of Italy. 1. 11. ann. 1513.
+
+Leo X. though he reigned but eight years, has given his name to the age
+in which he lived: the just and invariable effect of liberal protection
+extended to men of letters, when it is bestowed with equal judgment and
+generosity. This pontiff loved power still less for its own sake and the
+vast designs it facilitates, than for the magnificence and
+gratifications it procures. The son of Lorenzo de Medicis, he especially
+interested himself in ways of securing to his family a lasting
+ascendancy in Italy. He destined for his nephew the sovereignty of
+Tuscany, and to his own brother the kingdom of Naples. Louis XII.
+absolved from the anathemas with which Julius had loaded him, was
+pledged to favour the ambition of the Medicis, who, on their part, were
+to support their pretensions to Milan. This alliance, secretly
+stipulated²⁹⁴ not having sufficiently speedy effects, Leo purchased the
+state, of Modena from the emperor Maximilian, which he purposed uniting
+with those Of Reggio, of Parma, and of Placentia, and possibly Ferrara,
+to bestow on his brother, or enrich with them the court of Rome.
+
+ ²⁹⁴ Guicciardini’s Hist, of Italy, 1. 12. The King of France promised
+ to aid the pontiff in the acquisition of the kingdom, of Naples,
+ either for the church or for Giuliano his brother.
+
+After being leagued with the king of France, Francis I. to compel the
+emperor Charles V. to relinquish the kingdom of Naples, incompatible, he
+said, with the empire, the pope formed an alliance against the French
+with this same Charles, whose menaces terrified him to that degree, that
+he acceded in his favour to the re-union of the two crowns. Leo took
+into his pay a body of Swiss troops, and vowed thenceforward so violent
+a hatred to the French, that, when he had heard of their repulsion from
+the Milanese territory, he almost instantly expired, as is asserted from
+joy. He was but forty-six years of age; and notwithstanding the errors
+into which pontifical policy led him, we must regret that he did not
+live to protect for a longer period the advancement of the fine arts. He
+encouraged them like a man worthy of cultivating them; he cherished them
+with a sincere and constant love, with which they never inspire bad
+princes. His interior administration merited the gratitude of the
+Romans:²⁹⁵ their grief when deprived of him was profound; and, a few
+years before, equally pure homage was rendered to him when he escaped a
+conspiracy similar to that of the Pazzi, and in which the same Cardinal
+Riario, one of the accomplices in the former with Sixtus IV. was
+concerned. Guicciardini and other writers have judged too hastily of Leo
+X. For what pope can obtain approbation, if it be not due to him, who
+has done more for Rome than any of his predecessors since Leo IV. and
+who did in Europe but a part of the mischief which tradition and example
+had bequeathed to him.
+
+ ²⁹⁵ They have erected a statue to him with this inscription: Optimo,
+ principi. Leoni. X. Joan. Med. Pont. Max. ob. restitutam.
+ restauratamque. urbem. aucta. sacra, bonasq. artes. adscitos.
+ patres, sublatum, vectigal. datumq. congiarium. S.P.Q.R.P.
+
+The expense which the building the church of St. Peter exacted, obliged
+Leo to have recourse to the sale of indulgences. The clamours of Luther
+against this traffic were the prelude of a great revolution in
+Christendom. Leo X. excommunicated Luther and his followers. Bossuet²⁹⁶
+thinks with reason, that the heresies and schisms of this century might
+have been prevented, if necessary reformations had not been neglected.
+But, in the history of this pontificate, what most relates to the
+present subject is, the concordat concluded between Leo X. and Francis
+I. in 1516.
+
+ ²⁹⁶ Hist, of the Variat. 1. I, n. 1, 2, 3.
+
+In vain Julius II. excommunicated Louis XII. and menaced transferring
+the title of the Very Christian King to the king of England who was
+destined to merit it so badly, Henry VIII.; in vain the fifth council of
+the Lateran published a monitory against the parliament of Paris, and
+all the abettors of the pragmatic sanction, enjoining them to appear at
+Rome to give an account of their conduct: Julius died without shaking
+Louis. This excellent prince himself died at the moment in which Leo was
+preparing to deceive him and the crown of France devolved on Francis I.
+of whom Louis had often said: ‘This great booby will spoil all.’—In
+fact, Francis I. in an interview with Leo at Bologna, consented to a
+concordat, and directed his chancellor Anthony Duprat to digest it in
+unison with two cardinals appointed for this purpose by the pope. The
+principal articles of this concordat are those which import, that for
+the future the chapters of the cathedral and metropolitan churches
+should not proceed in future to the election of bishops; that the king,
+within the term of six months from the date of a see becoming vacant,
+shall present to the pope a doctor or lieutenant of twenty-seven years
+of age at least, who shall be made by the pope incumbent of the vacant
+see; but, if the person proposed does not possess the requisite
+qualifications, the king shall be required to propose another within
+three months, reckoning from the day of the refusal; that moreover the
+pope, without the previous presentation of the king, shall nominate to
+the bishops and archbishops’ sees, which shall become vacant whilst the
+incumbents are in attendance at the court of Rome. It is proper to
+remark that, in granting the nomination to the king, the pope reserved
+to himself the first fruits.²⁹⁷
+
+ ²⁹⁷ On this subject observe the remark of Mezerai: "There never was
+ seen go odd an exchange; the pope, who is a spiritual power,
+ takes the temporal to himself, and bestows the spiritual on a
+ temporal prince.”
+
+Francis I. went himself to the parliament to have the concordat
+registered, and the chancellor Duprat explained the reasons which
+dictated it. They refuse to register it; the king gets angry. The
+parliament places a protest in the hands of the bishop of Langres, that,
+if the registry take place, it will be by constraint, and that they will
+not act in consequence in less conformity with the pragmatic. It is at
+length registered, but in endorsing on the folds of the concordat, that
+it has been read and published at the express command of the king, many
+times reiterated.
+
+The see of Alby became vacant in 1519: the chapter nominated agreeable
+to the pragmatic sanction, and the king according to the concordat; the
+parliament of Paris, deciding between the two candidates, pronounced in
+favor of the one elected by the chapter of Alby. In 1521, a bishop of
+Condom, elected by the chapters of this church, was in the same manner
+supported against him whom the king had nominated. All the causes of
+this kind were similarly decided, until after the imprisonment of
+Francis I. and would have continued so to be, if a declaration of the
+6th of September, 1529, had not referred to the grand council the
+cognizance of all proceedings relative to bishopricks, abbeys, and other
+benefices, the nomination to which had been granted to the king by Leo
+X.
+
+The president Henault²⁹⁸ has collected all the reasons alleged in favor
+of the concordat, and which may be reduced to the two following: 1st,
+kings in founding benefices, and in receiving the church into the state,
+have succeeded to the right of election exercised by the early
+believers: 2dly, simony, intrigue, and ignorance, govern electors, and
+give to the dioceses unworthy pastors.²⁹⁹
+
+ ²⁹⁸ Ab. Chron. of Hist, of France: remark, particul.
+
+ ²⁹⁹ The worst of it was, says Brantome, when they could not agree in
+ their elections, they often came to blows, and cuffed each other
+ with their fists, knocked each other down, wounded nay killed each
+ other......They generally elected him who was the best companion,
+ who loved the girls and was the greatest toper; in short he who
+ was most debauched: others elected, from pity, some wretch of a
+ monk who had been secretly plundering them, or kept his own
+ private purse and starved his poor friars.....The bishops, elected
+ and installed in these great dignities, God knows what lives they
+ led...A dissolute life after dogs, birds, feasts, banquets, clubs,
+ weddings and girls, of whom they kept seraglios...I would add
+ more; but I do not wish to give offence.
+
+But, at bottom, the royal nominations were not the thing which most
+excited the clamours of the parliament; it complained more particularly
+of the first fruits, and the bull of Leo against the pragmatic sanction;
+of the first fruits, which, from St. Louis to Charles VII. all the kings
+of France had prohibited, and which the early popes had declared
+improper and simoniacal, when they were enacted by the emperors; of the
+bull of Leo, which denounces as a public pest, as an impious
+constitution, a pragmatic, founded on the decrees of general councils,
+cherished by the people and promulgated by the sovereign. This bull
+suspended, excommunicated, menaced with loss of temporal possessions,
+civil or ecclesiastic, the French prelates, and even lay lords, who
+should re-demand or regret the pragmatic sanction of Charles VII. In
+fine, they dared to cite in this same bull of Leo X. the bull of
+Boniface VIII. “Unam sanctam,” in which the right of humbling thrones,
+of taking and bestowing crowns, is ascribed to the Roman pontiff. This
+is what provoked the opposition of the parliament; and we must admit,
+apparently, this was neither unreasonable nor contrary to the interests
+of the monarchy.³⁰⁰ If the question had only been to substitute to the
+right of confirming the elections, possessed for a long time by the
+monarch, that of making the choice himself, we have reason to think the
+registry would have experienced much less difficulty.
+
+ ³⁰⁰ Velly’s Hist, of France, vol. xxiii. p. 161, &c.—Gaillard’s Hist,
+ of Francis I. vol. vi. p. 1—120.
+
+Such as it was concluded, in 1516, the concordat could not be pleasing
+to a people who had received with enthusiasm the pragmatic of 1439.
+Under Francis I., under his successors Henry II., Francis II., Charles
+IX., Henry III., the universities and the parliaments seized every
+opportunity of remonstrating against this alteration of the fundamental
+laws of the Gallican church. The states of Orleans under Charles IX.,
+those of Blois under Henry III. expressed the same regret: the clergy
+themselves have often demanded the restoration of the ‘pragmatic;’ they
+said in their remonstrance of 1585, that the king Francis I., when near
+death, had declared to his son, that there was nothing which weighed so
+heavily on his conscience as the concordat.³⁰¹
+
+ ³⁰¹ This mode of thinking on the pragmatic and concordat was so
+ national, so constant, that in 1789 even the petitions prepared
+ for the sessions of the States general unanimously demanded the
+ abolition of the concordat and restoration of the pragmatic
+ sanction.. Summary of the Petitions, vol. i. p. 33; vol. ii. p.
+ 277; vol. iii. p. 409, 410.
+
+After Leo X. Adrian VI. born of very obscure parents, occupied for but
+twenty months the chair of St. Peter. He had taught when a simple doctor
+of Louvain, that the pope was subject to err in matters of faith: far
+from retracting this doctrine when pope, he caused a work to be printed
+in which he professed it.³⁰² On this head, some sophist of Louvain
+might have, after the example of an old Greek sophist, argued in this
+manner:³⁰³
+
+ “If the pope be infalli−
+ “ble, it follows that Adrian must have been so when
+ “he asserted he was not; therefore by this very in−
+ “fallibility they prove it not to exist. Either Ad−
+ “rian deceives himself, and therefore the pope is in−
+ “fallible, or Adrian is right, and then we must ac−
+ “knowledge with him the pope may be de−
+ “ceived.”
+
+ ³⁰² Bossnet. Def. Cler. Gall. Diss. prœria. n. 38. p. 23... The text
+ of Adrian is as follows: “Dico quod, si per Romanam ecclesiam
+ intelligatur caput illius, puta pontifex, certum est quod possit
+ erare, etiam in is quæ tangunt fidem, heræsim per suam
+ determinationem aut decretalem docendo: plures enim fuerunt
+ pontifices Romani hæretici. Idem et novissime fertur de Joanne
+ XXII.” &c. In lib. 4, Sententiæ.
+
+ ³⁰³ The Italians had no love for this pope: Pallavicini, in his Hist,
+ of the Council of Trent, 1. 2, c. 9, n. 1, says, that Adrian VI.
+ was indeed a very good priest, but a very indifferent pope.
+
+The natural and posthumous son of Giulio de Medicis, assassinated in
+1478 by the Pazzi, Clement VII. was elected pope, infallible or not, in
+1223 (?? Ed.).—The successes and genius of Charles V. restored at this
+time to the imperial dignity its ancient splendour and its preponderance
+in the affairs of Italy. Clement wished to place difficulties in the way
+of it; he formed against the emperor a league, which was called holy,
+because the pope was its head, and into which the king of France, the
+king of England, the Venetians, and other Italian governments, entered:
+but the constable of Bourbon, quitting Francis I. for Charles V. led a
+German, and, in great part, Lutheran army against Rome, took this city,
+sacked it, and compelled the people to retire to the castle of Saint
+Angelo. Clement did not leave it, but by pledging himself to deliver it
+up to the officers of the emperor, and to pay three hundred and fifty
+thousand gold ducats. He bound himself, to deliver up to the
+Imperialists Ostia, Civita—Vechia, Citta di Castello, and, to cause to
+be restored to them Parma and Placentia. Not being able to fulfil his
+engagements, the pope escaped in the disguise of a merchant to Orvieto.
+Affected with the great distresses of the pontiff, Francis I. resolved
+to march to his assistance, and made arrangements which compelled
+Charles to become reconciled with Clement. Charles, crowned emperor by
+Clement in 1530, promised to re-establish the Medicis in Florence, for
+the pontiff did not neglect the interests of his family; he married his
+niece Catherine, to the son of Francis I, that niece but too famous in
+the annals of France, down to the year 1589. It was in these
+circumstances Henry VIII. of England thought of putting away his wife,
+Catherine of Arragon, aunt of the emperor, in order to marry Ann Boleyn.
+While the war continued between the Holy See and Charles, Clement seemed
+favourable towards this project, and the bull of divorce was prepared.
+The reconciliation of the pope and the emperor led to quite ah opposite
+decision. In vain did the theologians of England, of France, and of
+Italy, declare, that the marriage of a brother with his brother’s widow
+should be considered void; this was the situation of Henry with
+Catherine of Arragon; Charles dictated to Clement a decision which
+declared the validity and indissolubility of this marriage. Henry is
+excommunicated if he persists in the divorce. The monarch appeals to a
+general council on the matter; the English clergy decide, that the pope
+has no authority over Great Britain: the parliament gives him the title
+of supreme head of the church. Thus is completed a schism it Would have
+been so much the more easy to avoid, as the king abhorring the name of
+heretic, and emulous of the glory of being a very zealous catholic, had
+written against Luther, and obtained from Leo X. the title of defender
+of the faith. Henry, cut off from the church, fell to persecuting alike
+the partisans of the pope and the Lutherans.
+
+Paul III. who reigned from 1534 to the end of the year 1549, confirmed
+the excommunication of Henry, convoked the council of Trent, approved
+the new institution of the Jesuits, and was the first author of the
+bull, “In cœnâ Domini”. Those who appeal from the decrees of the pope to
+a general council, those who favour the appellants, those who say that a
+general council is superior to a sovereign pontiff; those who, without
+consent from Rome, exact from the clergy contributions for the
+necessities of the state; the civil tribunals which presume to try
+bishops, priests, those who are only tonsured, or monks; chancellor,
+vice-chancellors, presidents, counsellors, and, attorney-generals, who
+decide ecclesiastical causes: all those, in fine, who do not admit the
+omnipotence of the Holy See and the absolute independence of the clergy,
+are anathematized by this bull, which, published for the first time on
+holy Thursday, of the year 1536, was to be so published annually on the
+same day: it is on this account, therefore, denominated: In coena
+Domini; for the practice of thus publishing it every year at Rome was
+established in despite of the just remonstrances of sovereigns.
+
+We shall here render homage to certain cardinals and prelates who
+addressed to Paul III. some very judicious, though very useless
+remonstrances.³⁰⁴³⁰⁵
+
+ “You are aware,” they say, “that your predecessors were
+ “willing to be flattered. It was unnecessary to de−
+ “sire it, they would have been sufficiently so without
+ “exacting it; for adulation follows princes as a sha−
+ “dows follows a body, and to this day the throne is
+ “difficult of access to uncompromising truth. But,
+ “in order to secure themselves the better from its
+ “intrusion, your predecessors surrounded them−
+ “selves with skilful doctors, whom they commanded
+ “not to teach duties, but to justify caprices. The
+ “talents of these doctors were to be exercised,
+ “in discovering every thing to be lawful which pre−
+ “sented itself as agreeable. For instance they have
+ “declared the sovereign pontiff absolute master of
+ “the benefices of Christendom; and, as a lord has
+ “the right of selling his domains, that so, they con−
+ “clude, the head of the church can never be guilty
+ “of simony, and that in affairs relating to benefices,
+ “simony can only exist when the seller is not pope.
+ “By this, and similar reasoning, they have arrived
+ “at the sweeping conclusion they were to demon−
+ “strate, to wit, that, that which is pleasing to the
+ “pope is always lawful to him. Behold, holy fa−
+ “ther, the remonstrating cardinals add, behold the
+ “indubitable source from whence have issued as
+ “from the wooden horse, all the abuses, and all the
+ “plagues which have afflicted the church of God.”
+
+ ³⁰⁴ It commences with these words: “Consuererunt Romiani Pontiiicis,”
+ and contains twenty-four paragraphs.
+
+ ³⁰⁵ See Appendix.
+
+Paul III. had destined for his grandson, Octavius Farnese, the States of
+Parma and Placentia: Charles V. who intended to unite them to the duchy
+of Milan, was threatened with the heaviest censures. Afterwards the
+pontiff wished for Parma for the Holy See, and they say, died of grief
+when he learned that Octavios was on the point of obtaining this duchy.
+
+Julius III. by agreement with the emperor, refused the investiture to
+Farnese; but the king of France, Henry II. protected the duke, and sent
+him troops. At this news Julius excommunicated the king of France, and
+threatened to place the kingdom under interdict. Henry was not
+terrified; he forbade his subjects from taking money to Rome, or
+addressing themselves to others than the usual prelates in
+ecclesiastical matters. This firmness softened the holy father, who even
+laboured to reconcile the emperor with the king of France.
+
+After Marcellus II. who reigned but twenty-one days, John Peter Caraffa,
+was elected pope, who took the name of Paul VI.:
+
+ “Although he was se−
+ “venty nine years old,” says Muratori,
+ “his head
+ “was an epitome of Mount Vesuvius near which he
+ “was born. Overbearing, passionate, cruel, inflex−
+ “ible, his zeal for religion, was without prudence,
+ “and without bounds. His savage look, his eyes
+ “hollow, but sparkling and inflamed, presaged a
+ “a severe and sullen government. Paul neverthe−
+ “less began with acts of clemency and liberality
+ “which seemed to belie the apprhensions which
+ “his character had inspired: he so lavished
+ “favors and courtesies, that the Romans erected
+ “a statue to him in the capitol. But his natural tem−
+ “per soon returned, burst the banks, and verified the
+ “most unfortunate forebodings.”
+
+Family interests made him the enemy of Spain: he not only persecuted the
+Sforzi, the Columnas, and other Roman families attached to this power,
+but he entered into a league with France to deprive the Spaniards of the
+kingdom of Naples. The cardinal of Lorain and his brother, the duke of
+Guise, led Henry II. into this league in spite of the constable,
+Montmorenci. But the cardinal Pole, minister of Mary, Queen of England,
+and wife of Philip the Spaniard, had the address to make the French
+monarch sign a truce of five years with the court of Madrid. Paul is
+enraged; his nephew, the cardinal Caraffa, comes to France to complain
+of the treaty they have presumed to make with Spain, without the
+knowledge of the Court of Rome. The duke of Alba, viceroy of Naples is
+dessous of lulling this quarrel; he sends a delegate to the pope, whom
+the pope imprisons. This outrage compels the viceroy to take arms; he
+makes himself master in a short time of a great part of the
+ecclesiastical state. Alarmed at the progress of the duke of Alba, the
+court of France sends an army of twelve thousand men against him,
+commanded by the duke of Guise. But, in the mean time the French lose
+the battle of Saint Quentin: to repair this loss, they are obliged to
+recall Guise and his troops, and the pope is compelled to negotiate with
+the viceroy.
+
+Charles V. in uniting the imperial crown to that of Spain and of the Two
+Sicilies, had obtained, not only in Italy, but in Europe, a
+preponderance vainly disputed by Francis I. The abdication of Charles,
+in 1556, divided his power between his brother Ferdinand, who became
+emperor, and his son, Philip II. who reigned over Spain and Naples. But,
+in spite of this division, this house was nevertheless, during the
+greatest part of the sixteenth century, that which most justly excited
+the jealously of the sovereign pontiffs; and Paul IV. in declaring war
+against him, was led into it by the general policy of the Holy See, as
+much as by family interests and personal resentments. He refused to
+confirm Ferdinand’s election to the empire, and maintained that Charles
+V. had no power to abdicate this dignity without the approbation of the
+Court of Rome³⁰⁶ Frederick had the good sense to dispense with the
+pope’s concurrence, and the succeeding emperors followed his example.
+The most certain means of restraining the pontifical power within just
+bounds was, to suppress in this way, the forms and ceremonies which had
+so importantly contributed to extend it.
+
+ ³⁰⁶ We shall transcribe in our 2d vol. some of the arguments of Paul
+ and his theologians, to prove that the pope was the “superior” of
+ the emperor.
+
+Elizabeth, who succeeded her sister Mary in 1558 on the British throne,
+was disposed by the circumstances of her accession to favor catholicity.
+The impetuous Paul, mistook the prudence of this queen for weakness and
+fear: he replied to the ambassador of Elizabeth, that she was but a
+bastard, and that England was but a fief of the Holy See; that the
+pretended queen ought to commence by suspending the exercise of her
+functions, until the Court of Rome had sovereignly pronounced on her
+claims. A bull declared that all prelates, princes, kings and emperors,
+who fall into heresy, are, by the act itself, deprived of their
+benefices, states, kingdoms and empires, which belong to the first
+catholic who may wish to make himself master of them, and that the said
+heretical princes or prelates never can resume them. From this moment
+Elizabeth no longer hesitated to establish the English schism; she
+embraced, favoured, and propagated heresy: we must blame her no doubt;
+but how can we excuse a pope whose violence led him to such extremities,
+and who refrained not from participating in the conspiracies framed
+against the authority and even life of this sovereign? When after four
+years reign this pontiff died, the Romans broke his statue and cast it
+into the Tiber; scarcely could his body be secured from the fury of the
+populace: the prison of the Inquisition was burned; Paul had made a
+terrible use of this detestable tribunal, and he reproached with
+severity the German princes for their indulgence towards heretics.
+
+Pius IV. exercised against the nephews of Paul the most cruel revenge,
+advised to it, it is said, by the King of Spain, Philip II., the
+implacable enemy of the Caraffa. The Queen of Navarre was summoned by
+this pope to appear at Rome within six months, under the usual penalties
+of excommunication, deprivation, and degradation: menaces almost as
+ridiculous as they were criminal, the only effect of which was to
+irritate the court of. France. But the pontificate of Pius is especially
+remarkable for the termination of the council of Trent, which had lasted
+eighteen years, from 1545 to 1563. The doctrinal decisions of this
+council do not concern us: we shall say something of its legislative
+decrees.
+
+The council of Trent pronounces, in certain cases, excommunication,
+deposition and deprivation, against kings themselves. It ascribes to
+bishops the power to punish the authors and the printers of forbidden
+books, to interdict notaries, change the directions of testators, and
+apply the revenues of hospitals to other uses. It renders the marriages
+of minors, without the consent of parents, valid: it permits
+ecclesiastical judges to have their own decisions against laymen
+executed, by seizure of goods and imprisonment of person; it screens
+from the secular jurisdiction all the members of the clergy, even those
+who have only received simple tonsure; it desires that criminal
+proceedings against bishops should be judged only by the pope; it
+authorises the pope to depose non-resident bishops, and appoint
+successors to them; it subjects in fine its own decrees to the approval
+of the sovereign pontiff, whose unbounded supremacy it recognizes.
+Gregory VII., Innocent III., Boniface VIII., and Julius III., never
+aspired to a more absolute theocracy, more subversive of all civil
+authority and of all social principle.³⁰⁷ In consequence, they
+determined in France, that the council of Trent, infallible in its
+dogmas, was not so in its legislation; and not to be surprised into it,
+they published neither its legislation nor dogmas: the States of Blois
+in 1570, and of Paris in 1614, opposed themselves warmly to this
+publication, demanded by the popes, and solicited even by the clergy of
+France; for we are obliged to avow, that since 1560 the larger
+proportion of this body did not cease, whatever they may say to the
+contrary, to confound its interests with those of the court of Rome; and
+if it appeared for a while to detach itself from it, by the Five
+Articles of 1682, of which we shall shortly treat, it has since amply
+repaid by compliances and connivance, a step into which peculiar
+circumstances had led it.
+
+ ³⁰⁷ We here beheld with what immense auxiliaries the clergy had
+ encompassed and enriched their pastoral office. “They had,” says
+ Pasquin, “extended their spiritual jurisdiction over so many
+ matters and affairs, that the suburbs became thrice as large as
+ the city.”—Researches on France, 1. 3, x. 22.
+
+Pius V. had been grand inquisitor under Paul IV.; he continued to act
+the part when pope: no pontiff has burned more heretics, or persons
+suspected of heresy, at Rome than he. Among the victims of his zeal we
+observe many learned men, and especially Palearius, who had compared the
+Inquisition to a poignard directed against men of letters; “sicam
+districtam in jugula litteratorum.” A bull of Pius V. against certain
+propositions of Michael Baius, was the first signal of a long and
+melancholy quarrel. This pope in renewing and amplifying the bull of
+Paul III. “In cænâ Domini,” commanded it to be published on holy
+thursday throughout all the churches; previously it had been fulminated
+only at Rome:³⁰⁸ it may be said, that Pius V. wished to arm against the
+Holy See the remnant of the Catholic princes, and to condemn them to the
+alternative of renouncing the independence of their crowns or the faith
+of their ancestors.
+
+ ³⁰⁸ In 1580, many French bishops attempted to publish, in their
+ dioceses, the bull “In coena Domini,” but on the complaint of the
+ procureur general, the parliament of Paris ordered the seizure of
+ the temporal revenues of the prelates who should publish this
+ bull, and declared, that any attempt to enforce it would be
+ reputed rebellion and the crime of high treason.
+
+The remonstrances were universal; Philip II. the most superstitious of
+the kings of this period, forbade under severe penalties the publication
+of this bull in his states. By another bull Pius excommunicated
+Elizabeth: an anathema at least superfluous, and which produced no other
+consequence than the execution of John Felton, who had ventured to
+placard this sentence in London. A league entered into between the Pope,
+Spain, and Venice, against the Turks, was successful: Don John of
+Austria, rendered himself illustrious by the victory of Lepanto; and the
+pope was not afraid to apply to this warrior, the bastard of Charles V.
+these words of the Gospel: “There was a man sent from God, and this
+man’s name was John.” Finally, by the power which he said he held from
+God, and in character of pastor charged with examining into the claim of
+those who had merited extraordinary honours by their superior zeal for
+the Holy See, Pius V. decreed the title of grand duke of Tuscany to
+Cosmo de Medicis. The emperor remonstrated in vain: Cosmo with his new
+title had himself crowned at Rome, and took the oath at the hands of the
+pope. But that which is most remarkable here is, the reasons assigned to
+Maximilian by the cardinal Commendon to justify this pontifical act:
+Commendon said, that the pope had deposed Childerick, invested Pepin,
+transferred the empire of the East into the West, appointed the
+electors, confirmed and crowned the emperors; from whence he concludes
+that the pope is the distributor of thrones, of titles, and in some
+sort, the nomenclator of princes, as Adam had been that of animals.
+
+We shall here remark that the same Pius V. who, to avenge some articles
+of the Catholic faith, armed Christian against Christian, wrote to the
+Persians and to the Arabs, that in spite of the diversity of worship, a
+common interest ought to unite Europe and Asia to combat the Mussulmans.
+This apparent contradiction should surprise no one: we know that in
+religious dissensions, hatred is proportionately lively as the
+sentiments recede least from each other.
+
+Gregory XIII. crowned pope the 25th of May, 1572, three months before
+the too celebrated St. Bartholomew’s day, no sooner heard of this
+massacre than he caused cannon to be discharged, and kindled fires, for
+joy: he returned thanks to heaven in a religious ceremony; and history
+records a picture which attested the formal approbation bestowed by the
+pontiff on the assassins of Coligny: “Pontifex Colignii necem probat.”
+In 1584, Gregory also sanctioned the league, on the exposé of the Jesuit
+Mathieu, who was deputed to Rome for this purpose. “For the rest,”
+writes this Jesuit, “the pope does not think it proper to attempt the
+life of the king; but if they can secure his person, and give him those
+who will hold him in rein, he will approve it much.” Gregory even
+avoided signing any writing which the league could take advantage of; he
+assisted them only with the ‘small money’ of the Holy See, said the
+Cardinal of Este: now this money consisted of indulgences.
+
+The dissensions which distracted France at this time had without doubt
+various causes, but among them the abolition of the ‘pragmatic’ and the
+establishment of the concordat were not sufficiently noted. On one side,
+so fatal an alteration in the discipline, in scaring people’s minds, had
+disposed them to receive new doctrinal opinions disapproved by the court
+of Rome; on the other, the ultramontane maxims that the concordat had
+introduced, and that Catherine de Medicis had propagated, inspired
+sentiments of intolerance in those who remained in the communion of the
+Holy See: the ‘pragmatic’ would have preserved France both from heresy
+and from persecuting zeal. Under the reign of the concordat, these two
+seeds of discord, rendering each other fruitful, had enveloped with
+their horrible fruits, the reigns of Charles IX. and Henry III. The new
+interests which the concordat gave to the clergy of France, rendered
+them devoted to the court of Rome, and weakened more and more the ties
+which ought to have held them to the state. They applied themselves so
+to the maintenance and renewal of the maxims of the middle age, that
+Gregory ventured, in this enlightened age, a new publication of the
+decree of Gratian; but the pope, in reforming the calendar, performed a
+service which the people separated from the Romish communion had, for a
+long time, the folly not to profit by.
+
+The successor of Gregory was the too famous Sixtus V., a sanguinary old
+man, who knew how to govern his states only by punishments, and who,
+without advantage to the Holy See, reanimated by bulls the troubles
+which disturbed other kingdoms. He professed a high esteem for Henry IV.
+and for Elizabeth; he excommunicated both, but in some measure for form
+sake alone, and because such a step seemed required in his pontifical
+character. He detested and dreaded Philip II.: he wished to take the
+kingdom of Naples from him; he supported him against England. A solemn
+bull gave Great Britain to Philip, declared Elizabeth a usurper, a
+heretic, and excommunicated; commanded the English to join the Spaniards
+to dethrone her, and promised rewards to those who should deliver her to
+the catholics to be punished for her crimes. Elizabeth with the same
+ceremony excommunicated the pope and the cardinals at St. Paul’s
+cathedral in London. Nevertheless Philip failed in his undertaking, and
+Sixtus was almost as well pleased as Elizabeth at it; he invited this
+princess to carry the war into the heart of Spain.
+
+Notwithstanding his detestation and contempt of the league, Sixtus
+launched his anathemas against the king of Navarre and against the
+prince of Conde, calling them an impious blasted race, heretics,
+relapsed enemies of God and of religion; loosed their present and future
+subjects from their oaths of allegiance, finally declaring these two
+princes and their descendants deprived of all rights, and incapable of
+ever possessing any principality. This bull commences with the most
+insolent display of the pontifical power:
+
+ “superior to all the potentates of the earth,
+ “instituted to hurl from their thrones infidel princes,
+ “and precipitate them into the abyss of hell as the
+ “ministers of the devil.”
+
+The king of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV. acted like Elizabeth; he
+excommunicated Sixtus, ‘styling himself pope,’ and Sixtus applauded this
+courageous resistance. But these bulls, which their author himself
+laughed at, did not serve the less as cause of civil wars; the
+fanaticism they cherished in the catholics, compelled Henry III. to
+persecute the calvinists the more rigorously, to command them to abjure
+or quit the kingdom; while, on his part, the king of Navarre found
+himself compelled to take severe measures against the catholics. Henry
+III. more than ever distracted between the two parties, had neither the
+skill nor the power that such a situation demanded. We behold him
+depriving the king of Navarre of the right of succession to the throne
+of France, and afterwards throwing himself into the arms of this
+generous prince. This reconciliation provoked a Monitory, in which
+Sixtus orders Henry III. to appear at Rome in person, or by Attorney,
+within sixty days, to give an account of his conduct, and declares him
+excommunicated if he do not obey. We must conquer, said the king of
+Navarre to Henry III. whom this anathema had terrified, we must conquer:
+if we are beaten we shall be excommunicated and harassed again and
+again. These censures had preserved so little of their ancient power,
+that a bishop of Chartres said, they were without force at this side of
+the mountains, that they froze in passing the Alps. The poignard of
+James Clement was more efficacious. Henry III. fell beneath the blows of
+the assassin: and, if we may believe the league, Sixtus V. was in an
+extacy at so daring an enterprise, compared it to the incarnation of the
+word and the resurrection of Jesus.
+
+If it were necessary to explain the policy of this pontiff we would say,
+that his real enemy, the rival whom he wished to overthrow, was Philip,
+whom he did not excommunicate, and against whom he dared not do any
+thing openly: circumstances did not permit it. Sixtus hoped, no doubt,
+that the commotions excited in England, and kept up in France by
+pontifical anathemas, would extend further and lead to some result fatal
+to Philip. This display of the papal supremacy, exhibited against the
+kings of Navarre and of England, more truly menaced him who, governing
+Spain, Portugal, Belgia, the Two Sicilies, and a part of the new world,
+surpassed in riches and in greatness every other potentate. To declare
+Great Britain a fief of the Roman church, was to renew abundantly the
+pretensions of the church over the kingdom of Naples; and, when the pope
+erected himself into a sovereign arbiter of kings, he gave it plainly to
+be understood, that an error or a misfortune might suffice to draw after
+it the fall of the most powerful.
+
+Unhappily, the catholicity of Philip was impregnable; Henry IV. was
+satisfied in defending himself against Spain, Queen Elizabeth preferred
+securing her own throne to disturbing those of others, and Sixtus
+finally died too soon.³⁰⁹
+
+After him Urban VII. reigned but thirteen days, Gregory XIV. but ten
+months, and Innocent IX. but eight weeks. Gregory had sufficient time to
+encourage the leaguers, notwithstanding, to excommunicate Henry IV., and
+to levy at a great expense an army of brigands, who ravaged some of the
+provinces of France.
+
+ ³⁰⁹ In execution of a decree of the council of Trent, a decree
+ pronounced in 1546, Sixtus published in 1590, an official edition
+ of the Vulgate; and, in a bull which served as a preface, he
+ declares of his personal knowledge, and with the plenitude of his
+ power, that this was the version consecrated by the holy council,
+ commanding every old edition to be corrected by it, forbidding all
+ persons from publishing any not exactly copied from this model,
+ under penalty of the greater excomunication by the act alone. Who
+ would believe that after such a sentence, this edition, which had
+ been waited for forty and four years, should have been suppressed
+ immediately after the death of Sixtus, and replaced, in 1592, by
+ that which bears the name of Clement VIII. Between these two
+ editions they reckon about two thousand variations, the most of
+ which, however, are trifling. But the edition of Clement has
+ prevailed in the catholic church; it is recognised and revered by
+ it as the true Vulgate. We make this remark as one of those
+ tending to prove, that even in matters of doctrine, the general
+ consent of the churches abrogates, or confirms, the decisions of
+ the popes. “We must admit, says Dumarsais, either that Clement was
+ wrong in revising the Bible of Sixtus V.; or, that Sixtus erred in
+ declaring by his bull, that the edition published by his order was
+ very correct and in its purity.” Exposition of the doctrine of the
+ Gallican church, pa. 163 of the 7 vol. of Dumarais works.
+
+Clement VIII., the last pope of the 16th century, having ordered the
+French to choose a king catholic in name and in deed, the sudden
+Catholicism of Henry turned the tables on the court of Rome, the league,
+and the intrigues of Spain. The pope preferred absolving Henry to seeing
+him reign and prosper in defiance of the Holy See. In truth, the
+representatives of the king, Perron and d’Ossat, lent themselves very
+complaisantly to the ceremonies of the absolution;³¹⁰ and they had not
+much difficulty in obtaining the suppression of the formula: “We
+reinvest him in his royalty.” But the absolved prince took a decisive
+measure against the pretensions of the court of Rome, in securing to the
+Protestants, by the Edict of Nantes, the free exercise of their religion
+and full enjoyment of their civil rights. When the catholic clergy came
+to require of him the publication of the decrees of the council of
+Trent, he evaded the proposition with that ingenious and easy politeness
+which distinguished the manners of the French, and which embellished in
+those of Henry IV. courage, fortitude and truth. Yet this Henry,
+publicly adored by the nation, fanaticism proscribed in secret; and the
+Jesuits, whom the poignards of Barriere and John Chatel had ill served,
+sharpened that of Ravaillac.
+
+ ³¹⁰ Bossuet Def. Clsr. Gall. 1. 3. c. 28.
+
+In 1597, Alphonso II. duke of Ferrara, dying without children, Clement
+resolved to make himself master of this duchy, and made so good a use of
+his spiritual and temporal arms, that he succeeded in this undertaking
+to the exclusion of Cesar d’Este, the heir of Alphonso. This pope and
+his predecessors have been often reproached, since the death of Julius
+II. with a vacillating policy, and an extreme fickleness in their
+enmities and alliances. Let us not mistake these charges for proofs of
+unskilfulness; they evidence only the difficulties of the circumstances,
+and the state of weakness, in which the the schism of Avignon, the
+progress of heresy, and the ascendancy of some princes, had placed the
+Holy See. If during the sixteenth century the chair of St. Peter has
+been almost continually occupied by skilful pontiffs, this age also
+presents to us seated on most of the thrones, celebrated sovereigns,
+whose virtues, talents, or energetic characters, severally recommended
+them to the historian: for example, Henry VIII. and his daughter
+Elizabeth, in England; Louis XII. Francis 1. and Henry IV. in France;
+Charles V. and Philip II. in Spain. None of our modern eras has been
+more fertile in memorable men in all pursuits. And yet the court of Rome
+renounced none of its pretensions; it upheld the traditions of its
+ancient supremacy; it continued to speak in the language of Gregory VII.
+and Innocent III. What more could she do in the midst of so many
+formidable rivals? It was doing much to weather the tempests and
+preserve herself for better times. But these times did not come, and the
+popes of the seventeenth century, far inferior to those of the
+sixteenth, to Julius II. to Leo X. and to Sixtus V. have suffered even
+the hope to be lost of ever re-establishing in Europe the pontifical
+authority.
+
+Among the numerous writings published in the course of this century on
+the liberties of the Gallican church, that of Peter Pithou in 1504 is
+particularly distinguished. Comprised in eighty-three articles, it has
+the form and has almost obtained the authority of a code; for, we find
+it not only quoted in pleadings but in the laws themselves.³¹¹ The
+pragmatic of St Louis in the thirteenth century, the Vergers Dream in
+the fourteenth, the pragmatic of Charles VII. in the fifteenth, Pithou’s
+treatise in the sixteenth, and the Four Articles in 1682, present, among
+the French, an unbroken tradition of the soundest doctrine on the limits
+of the pontifical office.
+
+ ³¹¹ The 50th article of Pithou is cited in the edition of 1719.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X. ATTEMPTS OF THE POPES OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
+
+
+NO pope since the year 1600 united to an energetic ambition talents
+worthy of seconding it. Henceforward the Holy See becomes but a power of
+the second order, which, scarcely capable of bold aggressions, defends
+itself by intrigue, and no longer attacks but by secret machinations.
+The reforms which separated from the Romish Church one part of
+Christendom, serve to deliver the remainder from the pontifical tyranny.
+Everywhere the civil power became confirmed; disturbances even tended
+either to organize and especially to enfranchise it. The annals of the
+popes become more and more detached from the general history of Europe,
+and thus lose all their splendour and a great part of their interest. We
+shall therefore only have to collect into this chapter a very limited
+number of facts, after we shall have considered in a general point of
+view the influence of the Roman court in the seventeenth century over
+the principal courts of Europe.
+
+In England, James I. the successor of Elizabeth had escaped, himself,
+his family and his parliament, from the powder plot, hatched by the
+Jesuits and other agents of the sovereign pontiff. A prodigal and
+consequently indigent king, James had seen the formation of the opposite
+parties of Whigs and Tories. The House of Commons, in which the Whigs
+governed, resisted Charles I.; Charles menaced, they insulted him; he
+takes arms, they compel him to fly; he perishes on a scaffold, the
+ignoble victim of tragical proceeding. The protector of the English
+republic, Cromwell, tyrannizes over it, and renders it powerful: but
+Cromwell dies, and Monk delivers England up to Charles II. The
+inconstancy and contradictions which accumulated during this new reign,
+disclose the indecisive influence of the Roman court; the catholics are
+tolerated, accused, protected, excluded from employments; five Jesuits
+are decapitated; the king dissolves the parliament, and signs the act of
+Habeas Corpus; an anti-papistical oath is enacted, and the duke of York,
+who refuses to take it, is, nevertheless, appointed to the rank of high
+admiral; soon after he succeeds Charles his brother, under the name of
+James II. and wearies by barbarous executions the patience of his
+subjects. James without friends, even among the catholics whom he loaded
+with favours, deserts himself, and loses without a combat his degraded
+sceptre. The English government re-organized itself, and William of
+Nassau, prince of Orange, the son-in-law of James, was called to the
+throne of Great Britain. William, at the same time Statholder in
+Holland, and king of England, governed both countries with energy, and
+triumphed over the conspiracies continually fomented or encouraged
+against him by the Holy See. Thus disturbances and crimes, the weakening
+of catholicity, the restoration of the civil authorities, such have been
+among the English of the seventeenth century the only results of the
+dark manœuvres of the court of Rome.
+
+The peace of Munster, in 1648, proclaimed the independence of the united
+provinces. In spite of the soil, the climate, and their discord,
+Holland, already flourishing, and freed from the Spanish yoke, assumed a
+distinguished rank among the powers escaped from the dominion of the
+Holy See. The king of Spain, Philip III. also lost Artois, which Louis
+XIV. became master of, and Portugal which crowned the duke of Braganza
+king. Charles II. son of Philip IV. lost Franche Comte, died without
+children, and bequeathed his kingdom to a grandson of the king of the
+French. The ascendancy which the popes still possessed over Spain, so
+fallen herself, and who seemed to place herself under French influence,
+was therefore a weak resource.
+
+In Germany, the orthodoxy of the emperors Ferdinand II. Ferdinand III.
+and Leopold, did not check the progress of heresy. After the despotism
+of-Ferdinand II. had disgusted the Germans and the North of Europe, we
+behold the imperial authority decline in the hands of Ferdinand III.;
+and Leopold, ruled for forty-seven years by his ministers, women, and
+confessors, the useless friend of the popes, supported himself only by
+the idea he inspired of his weakness.
+
+After Henry IV. who was assassinated in 1610, the seventeenth century
+presents us with but two kings of France, Louis XIII. and Louis XIV.
+Louis XIII. banished Mary de Medicis his mother, recalled her, and
+banished her once more; he insults her because he fears her: he does not
+esteem Rich-lieu whom he receives as minister and as master. The
+Protestants, always restless and menaced, take arms; Rochelle, their
+bulwark, capitulates after a long siege. Richlieu publishes an act of
+grace: he is too fearful of Rome and the children of Loyala, to crush as
+yet the followers of Calvin.³¹² He is more desirous of humbling the
+great; and terrifies them by the executions of Marillac, of Montmorency,
+and of Cinq-Mars; and, finishing by unworthy means what Henry IV. had
+not time to perfect, he established in the interior of France the
+monarchical power. His death, and that of Louis XIII. led to a stormy
+minority: the Fronde repulsed Mazarin; Mazarin wearied out the Fronde,
+and applied himself to ruling carelessly a frivolous people. What he
+most neglected was the education of the young king, that Louis XIV. who,
+from 1661 to 1716 reigned over the French, and for awhile gave law to
+Europe. The revocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1685, divides this
+long reign into two parts: good services, and triumphs, immortalize the
+first: hypocrisy, fanatacism, vain glory, and misfortunes, filled the
+latter with intrigues, proscriptions, and slow calamities. Yet, whatever
+may have been the misfortunes of Louis XIV. the most glorious
+recollections of French history under its third dynasty belong to his
+reign. The nation whose pride he cherished pardoned the excesses of his;
+and so many of those who surrounded him merited the appellation of just,
+that he has obtained it himself; other princes on the contrary reflect
+their personal greatness on that which surrounds them. But his imposing
+authority for a long time repressed the ambition of the popes; and the
+influence which they exerted over the latter period of his reign, has
+tended much more to injure France than to benefit the Roman Court.
+
+ ³¹² Richlieu rejected the prayers of Urban VIII. who, in his letters
+ to Louis XIII., to the queen, and to Richlieu himself, ceased not
+ to recommend the complete extermination of the Huguenots.
+ “Cæterum, cùm scias quâ curâ custodiendi sint victoriarum fructus,
+ ne marcescant, nemo est qui ambigat a te reliquis omnes
+ hæreticorum in Gallicâ vineâ stabulantium propediem profligatum
+ iri.” Urb. VIII. Epis, ad principes, ann. 6. f. 10. Aux. Arch. of
+ the Empire.
+
+The wars of the Venetians against the Turks, the conspiracy of the
+Spaniards against Venice, in 1618, the sedition of Mazaniello in Naples,
+in 1640, and the enterprizes of some of the Roman pontiffs, are in this
+century the principal events in the annals of Italy. Never was the
+country more disposed to bear and to extend the dominion of the popes:
+but the popes failed in the address necessary to draw the full advantage
+from this disposition: they suffered the fine arts to languish and decay
+about them, while they grew and flourished elsewhere: in this century
+the Italians ceased to be the most enlightened people of Europe, a
+preeminence which they needed, to preserve any share of it, and not
+suffer themselves to be reduced in all respects to a state of
+inferiority.
+
+The most remarkable popes of the seventeenth century were Paul V. Urban
+VIII. Innocent X. Alexander VII. Clement IX. Innocent XI. Alexander
+VIII. and Innocent XII.
+
+The republic of Venice had punished with death, without the intervention
+of the ecclesiastical authority, an Augustine monk convicted of enormous
+crimes; a canon and an abbot were imprisoned for similar reasons; the
+senate forbad the encrease, without its permission, either of convents
+or churches; it prohibited the alienation of lands for the benefit of
+monks or of the clergy. These acts of independence irritated Paul V.; he
+excommunicated the doge and the senators, and laid an interdict on the
+whole republic. He required that within twenty four days the senators,
+revoking their decrees, should deliver into the hands of the nuncio, the
+canon and the abbot they had imprisoned. If, after the twenty-four days,
+the doge and senators persisted in their refusal for three days, the
+divine functions were to cease, not only in Venice, but through all the
+Venetian dominions; and, it was enjoined on all patriarchs, archbishops,
+bishops, vicars-general, and others, under pun of suspension, and
+deprivation of their revenues, to publish and affix in the churches this
+pontifical decree, which Paul pronounced, as he said, by the authority
+of God, the apostles, and his own. The Capuchins, the Theatins, and the
+Jesuits, obeyed the interdict, which was disregarded by the rest of the
+Venetian clergy as it was by the people. Little attention was paid to
+the Theatins and Capuchins; but the Jesuits, more powerful and more
+culpable, were banished for ever. A protest against the anathemas of
+Paul was addressed by the doge to the prelates and clergy; and the
+senate wrote on the same head to all the cities and communes of the
+state. These two pieces are distinguished for their calm energy, which
+mingles no insult, no indication of passion, with the expression of
+unshaken resolution. We have omitted nothing, say the senators, to open
+the eyes of his holiness; but he has closed his ear to our
+remonstrances, as well as to the lessons of Scripture, of the holy
+fathers and of councils; he perseveres in not acknowleging the secular
+authority which God has committed to us, the independence of our
+republic, and the rights of our fellow-citizens. Shall we appeal to a
+general council? our ancestors have done it in similar circumstances;
+but here the injustice is so palpable that a solemn appeal would be
+superfluous. Our cause is too immediately that of our subjects, of our
+allies, of our enemies themselves, that such an excommunication should
+disturb for a moment the external or internal peace of our republic.
+
+In fact, the anathema remained inefficacious within and without.³¹³ In
+vain did the pope employ the Jesuits to raise or indispose the European
+courts against the Venetians. In Spain even, where these Jesuitical
+intrigues were somewhat more successful than elsewhere, the Venetian
+ambassador was admitted to all the ecclesiastical ceremonies, in spite
+of the threats of the nuncio. The governor of Milan, the dukes of Mantua
+and Modena, the grand duke of Tuscany, the viceroy of Naples, openly
+espoused the interests of the excommunicated republic. Sigismund, king
+of Poland, also declared that it was the cause of his kingdom; and the
+duke of Savoy, that it was that of every sovereign in Christendom. The
+court of Vienna blamed the pope’s conduct, and invited Sorance, the
+Venetian ambassador, to a procession of the holy sacrament, in despite
+of the apostolic nuncio, who refused to be present at it. The nuncio
+Barberini did not succeed better in France when he required that
+entrance into the churches should be prohibited the Venetian ambassador.
+Priuli. Abandoned thus at all the courts, and reduced to his own
+spiritual and temporal resources, the sovereign pontiff resolved to levy
+troops against Venice: happily for this papal army, Henry IV. offered
+his mediation, and ended the dispute,³¹⁴ on terms more favourable than
+Paul could have hoped for, although he had formed a ‘board of war:’ it
+was in truth a committee of priests, and a perfectly novel application
+of sacerdotal functions.
+
+ ³¹³ The court of Rome, says Dumarsais, fears only those who do not
+ fear her, and concedes only to those who will not concede to her;
+ she has no power but that derived from the weakness of those who
+ are ignorant of their own rights, and who ascribe to her, what she
+ would never have dared to attribute to herself but for their blind
+ deference.—Exp. of the Doctrine of the Gallican Church, v. 228 of
+ 7th vol. of Dumariais’ Works.
+
+ ³¹⁴ Bossuet. Def. Cler. Gall. 1. 4, c. 12.
+
+Paul V. conspired to disturb England also, by two briefs, in which he
+forbade the catholics to take the oath of allegiance to their king James
+I: he renewed the bull ‘In caena Domini,’ and inserted it in the Roman
+ritual, accompanied by a surplusage of anathemas.³¹⁵ The pretensions of
+this pope gave rise to many publications on the pontifical power. The
+8th of June, 1610, twenty-four days after the assassination of Henry IV.
+the parliament of Paris condemned to the flames a book in which the
+Jesuit Mariana permitted, nay advised, the attempting the lives of
+intractable kings. The 28th of November following, justice was done the
+treatise in which Bellarmin extends over the temporalities of princes
+the spiritual power of the popes.³¹⁶
+
+ ³¹⁵ ‘Pastoralis Romani pontificis vigilantia,’ such are the words of
+ the bull ‘In cænâ Domini,’ renewed by Paul; it has thirty
+ articles, that is, six more than the bull ‘Consuevernnt’ of Paul
+ III.
+
+ ³¹⁶ Bossuet. Def. Cler. Gall. 1. 4, c. 16.
+
+In 1614 the same parliament consigned to the flames a book, equally
+seditious, of the Jesuit Suarez. The court of Rome took a tender
+interest in these three works; that of Suarez is more frequently
+referred to in the correspondence kept up with the nuncio resident in
+France, in 1614: By what right does a parliament judge of points of
+doctrine? What does Suarez teach but the catholic faith? What dogma is
+more sacred than that of the sovereignty of popes over kings; direct
+sovereignty in religious matters, and not less efficacious though
+indirect in political ones? Even if some inaccuracies had glided into
+the book of father Suarez, did it not belong to the Holy See, alone, to
+perceive and ratify them? Such is the substance, during one entire year,
+of the letters written in the popes name to his nuncio Ubaldini³¹⁷
+However, the civil authority found defenders in two Scotch men, William
+Barclay and John his son; then in Anthony de Dominis, who did not spare
+the visible head of the church; but, especially in Edmund Richer, who
+combated with more calmness the ultramontane opinions, and yet was not
+the less the victim of his zeal for the Gallican liberties.³¹⁸
+
+Disputes with the dukes of Parma and of Savoy, the republic of Lucca,
+the Ligurians, and with the Swiss; attempts on the Valtaline; intrigues
+to support the inquisition at Naples, and to favour the Jesuits in
+Spain: these trifling details we shall dispense with, as generally
+tending but to prove the impotence of pontifical ambition from 1505 to
+1621.
+
+Urban VIII. who gave to the cardinals the title of ‘Eminence,’ refused
+to Louis XIV. that of king of Navarre. This refusal, of which there are
+other examples, had for its source the excommunication and deposition of
+John d’Albret by Julius II³¹⁹ To support the sentence of Julius, the
+popes have been as silent as possible on this title of king of Navarre,
+in speaking of the kings of France, heirs to John d’Albret.
+
+ ³¹⁷ Register of Letters from the Secretary of State of Paul V. to the
+ bishop of Montepulciano, nuncio in France, 1613, 1614.—In the
+ Archivet of the Empire.
+
+ ³¹⁸ Bossuet. Def. Cler. Gall. 1. 6, c. 30.
+
+ ³¹⁹ See p. 380.
+
+The parliament refused registering any bulls in which they noticed this
+omission: Urban VIII. was particularly reproached with it. This pontiff
+being desirous to interfere in the differences of the courts of France
+and Spain, on the affair of the Valteline, he had the vexation to learn
+that these two powers had signed the peace without his knowledge.
+Nevertheless he succeeded in uniting to the Holy See the duchy of
+Urbino, with the counties of Montefeltro and Gubbio, the lordship of
+Pesaro, and vicariat of Sinigaglia: these domains were given him by the
+duke Francis Maria, the last branch of the house of Rovere. But cardinal
+Richlieu kept his eyes fixed on the designs of the pontiff; he refused
+an audience to the nuncio Scoti, and never suffered him to be ignorant,
+that the court of France would not consent to a dependence on the Holy
+See. The parliament had a publication of an Italian Jesuit, Santarelli,
+burned, which ascribed to the pope the right of deposing kings,
+condemning them to temporal punishments and loosing their subjects from
+their oath of allegiance. The work of Peter de Marca, on the concord of
+the priesthood and the empire, appeared about this time, and so
+displeased the court of Rome that it refused to confirm the nomination
+of the author to a bishoprick. De Marca had the weakness to modify his
+opinions at the pleasure of this court; and in the sequel, coveting the
+cardinalat, he dictated, a short time before his death, a treatise to
+Baluze on the infallibility of the pope. Intriguing as he was learned,
+de Marca sacrificed his sentiments to his interests: the works of this
+writer are useful from the quotations and facts which they embrace.
+
+A pope could no longer declare war but against petty princes. Urban
+VIII. did so with the duke of Parma, who had refused to the holy
+father’s relatives the price of services he pretended to have rendered
+him. The duke is cited, excommunicated, his duchy of Castro taken
+possession of, which was obliged to be restored him, by treaty, after
+four years of disputing and fighting. But, this war, badly extinguished,
+recommended under Innocent X. the successor of Urban: and, because the
+duke of Parma could not pay soon enough the enormous interests due to
+the ‘Mont-de-piete,’ Castro was confiscated, sacked, and razed, by order
+of the head of the church: on the ruins of this city, a column was
+raised with tills inscription, “Here Castro was.”³²⁰ When a terrible
+war in which two great states engage, two powerful princes, or two blind
+and numerous factions, leads to such disasters, humanity must lament it:
+but, when a pecuniary interest, an obscure and trifling quarrel between
+two petty rivals, leads to the destruction of a city, the depression of
+its inhabitants, and the ruin of their families, and that this useless
+devastation was coolly ordered by one who had conquered without danger,
+and almost without an effort, we are filled with more astonishment than
+indignation; and we could not anticipate such gratuitous severity in a
+prince, if this prince were not a pontiff, and this pontiff not the
+successor of Boniface VIII. Yet, it is astonishing that the popes could
+have been so ignorant of their direct interest in husbanding the Italian
+cities, in attaching them to the Holy See by benefits, and finally, in
+restoring them that degree of prosperity and influence, which would
+enable them to contribute to the re-establishment in Europe of the
+pontifical dominion. Many popes of the sixteenth century acted on this
+policy; and it is in consequence of its neglect by those of the
+fifteenth and seventeenth, that the temporal power of the Roman church
+seems henceforth doomed to languish and become extinct.
+
+ ³²⁰ Qui fu Castro.
+
+A revolution had placed on the throne of Portugal John of Braganza, or
+John IV. whose ancestors had been dispossessed by the king of Spain,
+Philip II. Philip IV. who languished in a disgraceful supineness, did
+not attempt to re-conquer the kingdom of Portugal by arms. The court of
+Madrid had recourse to the pope Innocent X. who refused bulls to the
+bishops nominated by John of Braganza, and declared he would never
+recognize this new monarch. John consulted the universities of his
+States: they replied, if the pope persisted in his refusal, they had
+only to dispense with his bulls.—This was also the opinion of the
+assembly of the French clergy, interrogated on the same point by the
+Portuguese ambassador. This assembly did more, it wrote to the pope,
+respectfully representing to him, that it was but right to grant the
+bulls to the prelates named by John; by which perhaps the French clergy
+evinced too great an interest in foreign affairs; but it shews us what
+its views were of canonical institution, and the right to consider it as
+obtained, when refused by a vain caprice. Furthermore, Innocent at this
+period feared France and Portugal more than Spain: he therefore
+dispatched the bulls, and no longer contested with John of Braganza the
+title of king.
+
+Innocent even detached himself so from the court of Spain, that to
+support the Neapolitans who had revolted against her, he invited the
+duke of Guise, a descendant of the princes of Anjou, former kings of
+Naples, to assert his claims on this kingdom, and endeavour to conquer
+it; but the pope kept none of his promises which seduced the duke; and
+this perfidy was one of the causes which prevented his success. We shall
+observe, that there did not exist at this period any sort of alliance or
+friendship between the courts of France and of Rome. Innocent X. having
+commanded all the cardinals to reside in the capital of Christendom,
+with a prohibition to quit the territories of the Holy See, without the
+permission of the sovereign pontiff, the parliament of Paris annulled
+the decrees as unjustifiable; and cardinal Mazarin forbade the sending
+money from France to the Roman court. In reflecting on this last
+arrangement, the pope perceived he must relinquish the residence of the
+sacred college; but was consoled with the acquisition of the city of
+Albano from the duke Savelli.
+
+But the most remarkable event of the pontificate of Innocent was, the
+opposition he presumed to make to the treaties of Munster and
+Osnabruck.—Long rivalries and bloody wars harrassed, and almost
+exhausted, Europe; these treaties were at length to terminate those
+disasters. But a bull arrives, in which the vicar of the lamb of God
+protests against the peace of the world, and in which he annuls, as far
+as in him lies, the concord of the Christian republic. They have, he
+said, given up ecclesiastical property to the reformed; they have
+permitted to the reprobate the exercise of civil employments; they have,
+without the permission of the Holy See, encreased the number of
+electors; they have preserved privileges in the states to those who have
+ceased to have them in the church; the church abrogates these odious
+articles, these rash concessions, these heretical conventions. Innocent,
+no doubt, suspected, that war would afford more chances to the court of
+Rome, and that the ecclesiastical power had nothing to gain by a peace
+which would restore to the secular governments more stability, activity,
+and interior prosperity: but he was too little acquainted with the
+period at which he published such a bull; he did not perceive, that the
+pontifical ambition, before detested, was now only ridiculed; and he
+compromised by a silly step, which they scarcely deigned to notice, the
+weak remains of the authority of his predecessors.
+
+Not having undertaken a detailed history of all the pontifical
+intrigues, we shall take leave to be silent on the five propositions of
+Jansenius, condemned by Innocent X. and his successor Alexander VII. who
+ordered the signature of a formulary, long famous. These quarrels,
+already deplorable at the end of the seventeenth century, became so
+contemptible in the course of the eighteenth, that success or defeat was
+equally attended with dishonour. In dividing the clergy into two
+parties, almost equally disregarded, these wretched controversies
+weakened the influence of the priesthood, and consequently that of the
+first pontiff. From 1659, Alexander might have perceived the decline of
+his credit in Europe, when, after having attempted to mingle in the
+negociations between France and Spain, he found they had treated without
+him. Nevertheless he ventured three years after to displease the most
+powerful monarch of the age. Crequi, the ambassador of Louis XIV. at
+Rome, was insulted by the pontifical guard, which killed one of his
+pages and fired on the carriage of his lady. Obtaining no satisfaction
+of the pope or of his ministers, Crequi retired to the Florentine
+territories. Louis demanded a solemn reparation: and, not considering
+that adequate which he had been made wait four months for, he marched
+some troops against Rome, and took possession of the city and county of
+Avignon, which a decree of the parliament re-united to the crown the
+26th of July 1663. Alexander did not let slip this opportunity of
+displaying against a great prince the spiritual and temporal arms, only
+until he had solicited in vain the support and concurrence of all the
+catholic states rivals of France. Then the Holy See prudently humbled
+itself, and the cardinal Chigi, nephew of the pope, came to make to
+Louis all the reparation which this monarch required. In Europe no high
+idea existed of the veracity of Alexander: “We have a pope,” writes
+Renaldi, the ambassador of Florence at Rome, “we have a pope who never
+speaks a word of truth.”³²¹
+
+ ³²¹ Mem. of Cardinal de Retz. vol. 5. p. 177, ed. of 1718. In support
+ of this testimony of Renaldi, in our 2d vol. will be found a
+ secret writing in which Alexander VII. contradicts his own public
+ declarations. This document, of eight pages, is wholly in the hand
+ writing of this pontiff, and is dated by him 18th of February,
+ 1664.
+
+This pontiff died in 1664, leaving his family abundantly enriched, and
+the Roman people loaded with nine new subsidies besides the old, which
+had been very scrupulously maintained.
+
+After Clement IX. had suppressed for awhile the disputes excited by the
+formulary, and that the cardinal Altieri had, for the space of six
+years, peacefully governed the church under the name of Clement X. his
+uncle Odescalchi, or Innocent XI. bore with him to the chair of St Peter
+more energy and ambition. He felt for Louis XIV. a personal enmity which
+he could not dissimulate, and which burst forth on two important
+occasions, that of the ‘regale.’ and that of the right of franchise.
+
+The ‘regale’ was a right which the kings of France had for many
+centuries enjoyed, and which consisted in receiving the revenues of the
+vacant sees, and in nominating to the benefices dependent on the bishop.
+Some churches having attempted to emancipate themselves from this law,
+Louis, by an edict of 1673, declared that the ‘regale’ applied to all
+the bishoprics of the kingdom. Two bishops protested against this edict;
+those of Pamiers and of Aleth, known by their opposition to the
+formulary of Alexander VII. These two prelates, refractories to the
+decrees of the popes, were supported by Innocent XI. in their resistance
+to the will and rights of their sovereign. An assembly of the clergy of
+France, having adhered to the king’s edict, and the pope having
+condemned this adhesion, the heat of their disputes led minds on to an
+examination into the rights and pretensions of the pope himself, and the
+four celebrated articles of 1682 were produced.
+
+That the ecclesiastical power does not extend to the temporals of
+sovereigns; that a general council is superior to a pope, as decided by
+the fathers of Constance; that the judgment of the pope in matters of
+faith is not an infallible rule, until after having received the
+approbation of the church; that the laws and customs of the Gallican
+church ought to be maintained: such is the substance of the four
+articles. Innocent XI. condemned them; he refused bulls to the bishops
+nominated by the king, and forgot nothing that might provoke a
+separation; already a patriarchate was spoken of in France, independent
+of the court of Rome.
+
+It is of Innocent XI. that Fontaine speaks in these lines, addressed in
+1688 to the Prince de Conti:
+
+ Pour nouvelles de l’Italie
+ Le pape empire tons les jours—
+ Expliquez, seigneur, ce discours
+ Du coté de la maladie:
+ Car aucun Saint−pere autrement
+ Ne doit empirer nullement
+ Celai−ci, véritablement.
+ N'est envers nous ni saint ni pere, &c.
+
+In English:
+
+ As to the news from Italy,
+ The pope each day grows worse and worse.—
+ Upon the score of malady
+ Explain my lord this strange discourse.
+ In any other sense than this
+ So to decline would be amiss,
+ Yet much I fear the man you paint
+ Will prove to us no other father−saint.
+
+Racine, in 1689, alluded to the same pope in these lines of the prologue
+of ‘Esther’:
+
+ Et l’enfer, couvrant tout de ses vapeurs funèbres,
+ Sur les yeux les plus saints ajete les tenèbres.
+
+In English.:
+
+ “And hell with darkness spreading all the skies
+ “Casts its thick film o’er the most holy eyes.”
+
+Bossuet had been the principal compiler of the four articles; the court
+of Rome, which wished to oppose to him an adversary worthy of him,
+offered the cardinalat to the celebrated Arnauld, if he would write
+against these four maxims. Amauld replied to this proposal as to an
+insult: it became necessary to, he says, “have not concealed the fact,
+that it depended on himself alone to be clothed with the Roman purple,
+and, that to attain a dignity which would have so gloriously washed away
+all the reproaches of heresy which his enemies have dared to make
+against him, it would have cost him nothing but to write against the
+propositions of the clergy of France relative to the pope’s authority.”
+
+Far from accepting these offers, he even wrote against a Flemish doctor
+who had treated these propositions as heretical. One of the king’s
+ministers who read this piece, charmed with the force of its reasoning,
+proposed having it printed at the Louvre; but the jealousy of M.
+Amauld’s enemies carried it against the fidelity of the minister and
+even the interest of the king; it might apply for defenders to an
+humbler rank, to the theologians of Louvain, to Gonzales general of the
+Jesuits, to Roccaberti the Dominican, Sfrondati the Benedictine, and to
+Aguirre, another Benedictine, who was rewarded with a red hat. Their
+writings are forgotten, but the ‘Defence of the four articles,’ remains
+among the number of Bossuet’s best works. We must observe, it was not
+printed till 1730, a delay which can only be ascribed to the intrigues
+of a part of the clergy, already repentant for their firmness in 1682. A
+more correct edition of the work of Bos-suet, and a French translation
+accompanied by notes, appeared in 1745, without privilege, and as issued
+from the press of Amsterdam. No direction of Louis XIV. if we except
+those of his will, has been worse executed than the edict by which he
+commanded that the doctrine of the four articles should be annually
+taught in the schools of theology. The Jesuits have never professed
+them, and the idea of abrogating them has been often entertained from
+the year 1700 to the end of cardinal Fleury’s ministry. If this
+abrogation has not taken place it was, that they feared the
+remonstrances of the Jansenists, and foresaw the credit it would give
+them, by constituting them sole defenders of the liberties of the
+Gallican church. In the matter of the franchises Louis XIV. was perhaps
+wrong. The other catholic monarchs had relinquished this strange
+privilege, by which the palaces of the ambassadors, and even their
+precincts, offered an asylum to malefactors from the pursuit of justice.
+The king of France declared that he never took the conduct of others for
+his rule, but on the contrary, that he meant to serve as their example.
+His ambassador, Lavardin, in 1687, came to Rome to assert the
+‘Franchises’ and affected to brave the pontiff by a pompous entry. The
+censures thundered against Lavardin irritated Louis XIV: Avignon was
+once more taken; and these hasty disputes had led to a decisive rupture,
+if it were not possible to reconcile it with the severities exercised
+since 1685 against the protestants. The proscription of the Calvinists
+restored harmony in this delicate conjuncture between the court of
+France and the Holy See.
+
+Avignon was restored to the successor of Innocent XI. Alexander VIII.
+who condemned equally the Four Articles of 1682. Innocent XII. after
+him, persevered in refusing bulls to the bishops, favourers of the four
+articles, and he obtained from them a letter which he accepted as a
+retraction. It said, in effect,³²²
+
+ “that
+ “all which might have been held decreed in 1682, on
+ “the ecclesiastical power, ought to be held as not de−
+ “creed, since they had no intention of making any
+ “decree, nor of doing prejudice to the churches.”−—
+
+Ambiguous words and most fortuitously framed, which assuredly do not
+tend to confirm the four articles, but which, on the other hand, would
+be quite insignificant, if they did not evince a disposition to abandon
+them. This letter, but little creditable, was one of the effects of the
+revocation of the edict of Nantes, one of the evidences of the decaying
+character of Louis the Great,³²³ and one of the proofs of what we have
+elsewhere³²⁴ asserted, the secret inclination which, since the year
+1560, biassed the French clergy towards the ultramontane system.
+
+ ³²² D’Aguesseau says that “the terms of this letter were coached so
+ that it could only be considered as a testimony of the grief of
+ these bishops, in learning the prejudice which this pope
+ entertained with respect to them, in regard to what had passed in
+ the assembly held at Paris in 1682. They did not avow that these
+ pretensions were well founded.” Whatever d’Aguesseau may say
+ about it, the letter of these bishops does them no honour: it will
+ be found in our second volume.
+
+ ³²³ We shall transcribe in vol. 2, the letter of Louis to the pope,
+ announcing that the edict of March, 1632, would not be executed.
+ This letter is dated, as is that of the bishops, on the 14th of
+ Sept 1693.
+
+ ³²⁴ See page 302.
+
+Happily, the other orders of the state upheld with perseverance the four
+maxims of the clergy, against the clergy itself, and the interests of
+the throne, almost forgotten by the declining monarch. Among the
+magistrates to whom the Gallican church owes the maintenance of her
+ancient doctrine, at this era, the advocate general Talon is
+distinguished, author of a treatise on the authority of kings in the
+administration of the church, one of the best works published on this
+subject. He professed the same principles in the exercise of his duties,
+and especially in a request preferred in 1688. We shall terminate this
+chapter by some extracts from this requisition.:
+
+ “In an assembly held on the subject matter of
+ “the regale, the bishops, aware that the ultramon−
+ “tane doctors, and the emissaries of the Court of
+ “Rome, omitted no care to spread through the
+ “kingdom the new doctrines of the pope’s infalli−
+ “bility, and of the indirect power which Rome en−
+ “deavours to usurp over the temporal power of the
+ “king, this assembly, we say, does not pretend to
+ “make a decision on a doubtful point of contro−
+ “versy, but, to render publie and authentic testi−
+ “mony to an established truth, taught by all the
+ “fathers of the church; confirmed by all the coun−
+ “cils, and especially by those of Constance and
+ “Basle.
+
+ “We have seen however with astonishment, that
+ “the pope looks on this declaration as an insult
+ “offered to his authority; insmuch that the king,
+ “having nominated to the episcopacy some of those
+ “who were present at this assembly, and who are
+ “as meritorious from their piety and virtue as from
+ “their knowledge and learning, of which they have
+ “on various occasions given proof, he has refused
+ “the bulls, under pretence that they do not make
+ “profession of a sound doctrine.
+
+
+ “This refusal which has not the appearance of
+ “reason, does not fail to occasion great scandal, and
+ “to produce irregularities we can scarcely express.
+
+
+ “Who could ever suppose that the pope, whom
+ “we have held up to us as the model of sanctity
+ “and of virtue, should remain so wedded to opinions,
+ “and so jealous of the shadow of an imaginary au−
+ “thority, that he leaves the third of the churches of
+ “France vacant, because we are not disposed to ac−
+ “knowledge his infallibility?
+
+
+ “Those who imbue the pope with these ideas,
+ “do they imagine they can make us change our
+ “sentiments? and are they so blind, that they do
+ “not perceive we are no longer in those wretched
+ “times, when the grossest ignorance, united to the
+ “weakness of governments, and false prejudices,
+ “rendered the decrees of the pope so terrific, how−
+ “ever unjust they may have been; and, that these
+ “disputes and bickerings, far from augmenting their
+ “power, can only serve to excite enquiry into the
+ “origin of their usurpations, and diminish rather
+ “than encrease the veneration of the people.
+
+
+ “We shall say more: the bad use the popes have
+ “made on so many occasions of the authority of
+ “which they are the depositories, in prescribing no
+ “bounds to it but that of their will, has been the
+ “source of the almost innumerable evils with which
+ “the church has been afflicted, and the most speci−
+ “ous pretext for the heresies and schisms which have
+ “sprung up in the last century, as the theologians
+ “assembled by direction of Paul III. honestly con−
+ “fessed, and even, at present, the idea alone of
+ “the infallibility and indirect power, which the com−
+ “plaisance of the Italian doctors confers on the See
+ “of Rome over the * temporal* of kings, is one of
+ “the greatest obstacles which is opposed to the con−
+ “version, not of individuals alone, but, whole provin−
+ “ces; and we cannot too strongly impress, that
+ “these new opinions are no part of the doctrine of
+ “the universal church....
+
+ “The thunders of the Vatican have nothing terri−
+ “ble in them; these are transient fires which go out
+ “in smoke, and which do neither ill nor prejudice
+ “but to those who launch them.
+
+ “The refusal of the pope to grant the bulls to the
+ “bishops nominated by the king, causes a derange−
+ “ment which encreases daily, and which requires a
+ “prompt and efficacious remedy. The councils of
+ “Constance and of Basle having laboured to reduce
+ “to some moderation the usurpations of the court of
+ “Rome, and the confusion which was introduced in
+ “the distribution of benefices, the pragmatic sanction
+ “was subsequently compiled from the decrees of these
+ “councils. But the popes, seeing their authority
+ “diminished by it, exerted eveiy artifice to cause
+ “its abolition; and by the concordat entered into
+ “between Francis I. and pope Leo X., the mode of
+ “appointing to the vacant sees and abbeys was re−
+ “gulated: not only the devolution, or right of pre−
+ “sentation by lapse, but the reversion, was granted
+ “to the pope, with power to admit resignations in fa−
+ “vour of individuals, and many other articles; which
+ “were very burdensome on the ordinary collators,
+ “and altogether opposed to the ancient canons.
+
+ “Besides, our ancestors for a long period have re−
+ “monstrated against the concordat: the ordonnance
+ “of Orleans had restored the elections; and it would
+ “be very advantageous if all ecclesiastical affairs were
+ “arranged in the kingdom, without being obliged to
+ “have recourse to Rome. In the sequel, however,
+ “the concordat was acted on faithfully by us, and
+ “we cannot conceive that the pope by an invincible
+ “obstinacy, wishes now to compel us to deprive him
+ “of the advantages which the court of Rome derives
+ “from a treaty so advantageous to it....
+
+ “After all, those who, before the concordat, were
+ “elected by the clergy and people, and afterwards
+ “by the chapters, in presence of a king’s commissioner,
+ “were they not ordained by the metropolitan,
+ “assisted by the bishops of the province, after the
+ “king had approved of the election? The right
+ “acquired by the king in the concordat, authorised
+ “in this case by the tacit consent of all the Gallican
+ “church, and confirmed by a possession of near two
+ “hundred years, ought so much the less be subject−
+ “ed to change or attack, as, during the four first ages
+ “of the monarchy, they did not resort to Rome to
+ “ask for appointments to benefices; the bishops dis−
+ “posed of all those which became vacant in their
+ “dioceses, and our monarchs almost invariably nomi−
+ “nated to the bishopricks; and, if they occasionally
+ “granted to the clergy or the people, the privilege of
+ “electing a pastor, they more frequently reserved the
+ “selection to themselves; and without the pope
+ “having any concern in it, those who they
+ “elected were immediately consecrated. What
+ “prevents us from following these examples, founded
+ “on this excellent principle, that the right, which all
+ “the faithful had originally in the appointment of a
+ “head, when it could no longer be so exercised,
+ “should pass into the hands of the sovereign, on
+ “whom the people had conferred the government of
+ “the state, of which the church is the nobler
+ “part.”
+
+ “But, with respect to the pope, since he declines
+ “to grant to the king’s nomination the concurrence
+ “of his authority, we may presume that he is de−
+ “sirous of relieving himself from a part of the painful
+ “burden which oppresses him; and, that his infir−
+ “mities not permitting his extending his pastoral vigi−
+ “lance overevery part of his universal church, the lapse
+ "which sometimes takes place in cases of negli−
+ “gence, even of the superior to the inferior, may
+ “authorize bishops to confer the imposition of hands
+ “on those whom the king shall nominate to the
+ “prelacies.”
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+IF the temporal power of the popes has subsisted later than the year
+1701, it is principally because no one was concerned to accelerate its
+inevitable fall. Placed between Milan and Naples, as a barrier to the
+preponderance of either Austria or the Bourbons over Italy, the feeble
+States of the Holy See seemed to belong to the political system of
+Europe, and to contribute to the maintenance of the general equilibrium.
+Each prince being interested in not suffering another to invade them,
+all concurred to retard a revolution, which the progress of general
+knowledge would soon bring about, which would be accomplished of its own
+accord, from the moment they would cease to prevent it, and which, at a
+future time, other circumstances perhaps would render more reconcilable
+with the situation of European affairs.
+
+Besides the general cause which we have pointed out, three particular
+causes have perpetuated, during the eighteenth century, the temporal
+sovereignty of the Roman pontiffs; at first, the ill-enlightened
+devotion of Louis XIV. from 1700 to 1715; in the second place, the
+influence of the Jesuits, as well during these first fifteen years as
+under the ministry of cardinal Fleury from 1726 to 1743; finally, the
+wisdom of the two popes, Lambertini and Ganganelli of whom the one
+governed the church from 1740 to 1758, the other from 1769 to 1774. If,
+like these two, the other popes of the eighteenth century had known how
+to manage and circumscribe their power, they would have preserved,
+perhaps confirmed it: but they aspired to aggrandize it, the spiritual
+arms have continued to serve as instruments to pontifical ambition;
+while they have dared to reproduce the silly doctrines of the supremacy
+and infallibility of the popes; and the Holy See, which might have
+remained a power of the third order, has fallen even below this rank in
+aspiring to reassume the first.
+
+Clement XI. taking advantage of the circumstances in which the king, the
+clergy, the government, and the people of France found themselves,
+published the bull ‘Vineam Domini’ in 1705, the bull ‘Unigenitus’ in
+1713.³²⁵ It is well known what an uproar the latter excited the Holy
+See and the Jesuits had the misfortune to triumph; a defeat had been
+less injurious to them than such a victory. Clement XI. nevertheless
+conceived so high an idea of his own power, that he engaged in a long
+dispute with Victor Amadeus king of Sicily: he re-claimed over the
+Sicilies the same rights in the 18th century, which had been
+relinquished by Urban II. a pope of the eleventh, and the almost
+immediate successor of Hildehrand; he confirmed the excommunications
+launched by the Sicilian bishops against the magistrates of this
+country; he abolished by a constitution, in 1715, a tribunal which for
+six hundred years had exercised the right of deciding sovereignly,
+within this kingdom, many kinds of ecclesiastical affairs.—But this
+constitution which attacked a prince, had not the success of the
+‘Unigenitug’ which a monarch was pledged to support. Clement died
+without having humbled Victor Amadeus.
+
+ ³²⁵ The bull ‘Unigenitus’ is one of those in which the king of France
+ is not designated ‘king of Navarre.’
+
+At the instigation of the Jesuits, Benedict XIII.. in 1729, re-canonized
+the much celebrated Hildebrand, whom Gregory XIII. and Paul V. had
+already inscribed in the catalogue of the blessed. The liturgy was
+enriched by Benedict XIII. with an office to be celebrated the 25th of
+May each year, in honour of St. Hildebrand or St. Gregory VII. A legend
+inserted in this office relates the high achievements of this exemplary
+pontiff:
+
+ “how he
+ “knew how to oppose with generous and athletic
+ “intrepidity, the impious attempts of the emperor
+ “Henry IV. how, like an impenetrable wall, he de−
+ “fended the house of Israel; how he plunged this
+ “same Henry in the deep abyss of misery; how
+ “he excluded him from the communion of the faith−
+ “ful, dethroned him, proscribed him, and absolved
+ “from their duty towards him the subjects who had
+ “pledged fidelity to him.”
+
+Such are the Christian words which Benedict XIII. directed to be recited
+or sung in the churches, for the edification of the faithful and
+instruction of kings. But the parliament of Paris took offence at this
+very pious legend, condemned it as seditious, and forbade its
+publication.—The parliaments of Metz, of Rennes, and Bourdeaux, opposed
+themselves, not less vigorously, to the insertion in the breviaries of
+this novel style of praying to God. There were even French bishops,
+those of Montpelier, Troyes, Metz, Verdun, and Auxerre, who would not
+recognize this new supplement to the divine office, and published
+directions, to refuse expressly the worship of St. Hildebrand. It may be
+proper to observe, that Cardinal Fleury, who then ruled France,
+abstained from mingling his voice with that of those who remonstrated
+against this canonization: in truth, he did not take up more openly the
+defence of the legend;³²⁶ but he knew where to find the members of the
+parliament who had rejected it; he obliged them to register, on the 3rd
+of April 1730, without any modification, the bull ‘Unigenitus’, which
+was not a whit more pleasing to them. In France then they were quit for
+this bull; and the government did not compel the celebration of the
+sainted pontiff who had dethroned an emperor. Benedict was obliged to
+content himself with establishing this devout practice in Italy, where,
+since 1729, all the churches pay religious adoration annually to Gregory
+VII. The sovereigns of Europe are either ignorant of it, or disdain to
+complain of it.
+
+ ³²⁶ He contented himself with neutralizing as much as he could, the
+ effects of the resistance of the bishops, and the resolutions of
+ the parliament. The 18th of February 1730, he wrote to the council
+ “that it sufficed in the present circumstances that the essential,
+ that is, the maxims of the kingdom be secured. Prudence requires
+ that we seek not to encrease the evil rather than cure it. The
+ king desires especially that no mention be made of the mandate of
+ the bishop of Auxerre; he ought to know that it was his duty,
+ before its publication, to have made himself acquainted with the
+ intentions of H. M. on so delicate an affair, and have come to
+ concert the mode in which it should have been expounded.”
+
+In a letter to the first president, dated 24th of February, the same
+year, Fleury testifies ‘much joy’ that kings passed off so well in the
+parliament with respect to the decree by which the briefs of Benedict
+XIII. had been condemned and suppressed; but the cardinal adds: "I have
+forgotten to represent to you, that it would not be suitable that this
+decree should be cried about the streets, for fear of wrong
+interpretations, and the noise that the ill-disposed might make about
+it.”
+
+We cannot avoid remarking, that in this affair the bishop of Auxerre and
+the parliaments defended the rights of the throne and the independence
+of the royal authority, and that their opponent was the prime minister
+of the monarch. Behold the peril to which a young prince was exposed in
+yielding such unlimited confidence to a cardinal.
+
+After Benedict XIII. Clement XII. reigned ten years; an economical and
+charitable pontiff, who did good to his subjects, and little ill to
+foreigners. His successor Lambertini, or Benedict XIV. merits greater
+praise: he was one of the best men and wisest princes that the
+eighteenth century produced. Me mounted the chair of St. Peter the same
+time as Frederick II. the throne of Prussia; and for eighteen years they
+were the two sovereigns the most distinguished by their personal
+qualifications. Frederick, separated as he was from the communion of the
+Holy See, rendered to Benedict those testimonies of esteem which did
+honour to both. Lambertini inspired the schismatic Elizabeth Petrowna,
+empress of Russia, with similar sentiments; and the English, attracted
+to Rome by the celebrity of this pontiff, as well as by the love of the
+arts, of which he was the protector, praised him with enthusiasm when
+they wished to paint him with truth. His amiable mind and gentle manners
+obtained the more approbation, from his knowing how to combine the
+talents and the graces of his age, with the austere virtues of his
+office, and the practice of every religious duty. Benedict XIV. had
+reconciled Europe to the papacy: in beholding him, it were impossible to
+recall to memory a Gregory VII. an Alexander VI. or even a Benedict
+XIII. His evangelical toleration confirmed, in a reasoning age, the
+pontifical throne, shaken by the restless ambition of his predecessors;
+and his successors had needed only to have copied his example, in order
+to secure their temporal enjoyments by the benefits of their pastoral
+office.
+
+But he was succeeded in 1758 by Rezzonico, whose narrow mind and
+incurable self-sufficiency, plunged again the Roman court into the most
+fatal disrepute. He was a second Benedict XIII. a pope of the middle
+ages, cast by mistake into the midst of modern knowledge, inaccessible
+to its influence, and even incapable of perceiving its presence. When
+Portugal, Spain, France, and Naples, bitterly accused the Jesuits, and
+got rid of them but too late, Clement XIII. persevered in upholding and
+falling with them; he seemed to connect with the cause of the Holy See,
+that of a society whose rebellion monarchs would no longer endure. In
+Portugal they had attempted the life of the king, and three Jesuits were
+among the number of those detected; the court of Lisbon asked permission
+of that of Rome to try them in the same manner as their accomplices, by
+the ordinary tribunals; Clement would not allow it. They were obliged to
+accuse one of the three Jesuits, Malagrida, of heresy, not of high
+treason; to seek in writings he had before published, for certain
+mystical errors and extravagant visions, and to deliver him to the
+inquisition, which had him burned as a false prophet, without deigning
+to question him as to the attempt on the life of the monarch. It was
+impossible to accumulate more fully all the iniquities calculated to
+rouse the indignation of Eufope. Priests suspected strongly of the most
+horrible crimes escaped from the secular tribunals, the throne was not
+avenged, but the Inquisition burned a poor enthusiast; Rome exacted the
+impunity of a parricide, and Malagrida, without a trial, perished the
+victim of superstition, and of a detestable policy.
+
+About the same time Ferdinand of Bourbon, duke of Parma, reformed the
+inveterate abuses in the churclies and monasteries, and disregarded the
+rights which the pope arrogated to himself, of conferring benefices, and
+deciding all suits in the territories of Parma, Placentia and Guastalla.
+Clement assembled the cardinals: in the midst of them he condemned as
+sacrilege all the acts of Ferdinand’s administration; he declared
+unlawful whatever he had dared to do in a duchy which appertained to the
+Holy See “in ducatu nostto” he annulled the edicts published by the
+dukes; he directed the anathemas of the ‘holy thursday bull’, “in cœna
+Domini,” against those who drew up these edicts, those who executed
+them, and whoever adhered to them. Ferdinand, by new decrees, suppressed
+the pope’s brief and banished the Jesuits. Naples, Venice, Spain,
+Austria, France, all Europe, took up the duke of Parma’s cause against
+the holy father. The brief is condemned as invasive of the independent
+rights of sovereigns; the parliament of Paris extends this condemnation
+to the bull of holy thursday and, while the king of Naples makes himself
+master of Beneventum and Ponte Corvo, Louis XV. like Louis XIV. resumes
+possession of the Comtat Venaissin; the parliament of Aix declares this
+territory to belong to France, and the count de Rochechouart arrives,
+and thus addresses the vice-legate, governor of Avignon:
+
+ “Sir, the king commands me
+ “to replace Avignon in his hands, and you are so−
+ “licited to withdraw:”
+
+this was the usual formula in such cases. They spoke also of obliging
+the pope to restore Ronciglione; Portugal thought of appointing for
+herself a patriarch: the Romans themselves murmured; and they had in all
+probability taken very decisive measures, if Clement had not departed
+this life the 3d of February 1769,³²⁷ and behold wherefore those arms
+are directed against the church, with which sovereigns are only armed
+to defend her; behold the cause why they dare to attack with arms in
+their hands the pastor of the flock of Jesus Christ, even to seduce the
+people from the authority of their only legitimate sovereign, to invade
+our states, and a patrimony, which is not ours, but that of St. Peter,
+of the church, and of "God.” He alludes to Beneventum, Ponte-Corvo,
+Avignon, &c. and these domains he here calls in direct terms, ‘the
+patrimony of God.’
+
+ ³²⁷ The 19th of June 1768, he wrote, with his own hands, to Maria
+ Theresa, to implore the assistance of this princess against the
+ other sovereigns of Europe. "Thank God,” said he, “we have
+ resisted with a sacerdotal heart unworthy collusions.”
+
+We transcribe these lines from one of the ten Authentic registers which
+contain the letters of Clement XIII. to the sovereigns. These letters
+contain the pleadings on behalf of the Jesuits, for the bull ‘In cœna
+Domini’ and for the omnipotence of the Holy See: invectives against the
+Jansenists, the parliaments and laical authority; much lamentations,
+mysticisms and trifles.
+
+We shall publish in our Second Volume, the allocation pronounced by the
+same pope, the 3d of September 1762, in secret consistory, to abrogate
+all the acts of the parliaments of France against the Jesuits. This
+manuscript was found enclosed in a second paper, on which was to be read
+the following note of the keeper of the Archives, Garampi:
+
+“Allocation which his holiness, our lord the pope, held in his secret
+consistory, the 3d of September 1762, in abrogation of all the acts and
+proceedings of the parliaments of France for the expulsion of the
+Jesuits; which his holiness commanded me to preserve sealed in the
+office of Archives in the castle of St Angelo with the secrets of the
+holy office, and which was to be opened by no one without the special
+authority (oracolo) of his holiness, or of his successors in faith, this
+24th day of August 1763.” Joseph C. Garampi, prefect of the secret
+office of Archives of the Vatican, and that of the castle of St. Angelo,
+with my proper hand.
+
+The conduct of Ganganelli or Clement XIV. was so judicious and so pure
+that Avignon, Ponte-Corvo, and Beneventum, were restored to him. The
+prejudices, but too legitimately entertained against the court of Rome,
+once more began to yield, in the minds of both sovereigns and people,
+and the temporal power of the popes began again to appear compatible
+with the peace of Europe. Two great acts have peculiarly done honor to
+this pontificate; the bull ‘In cœna Domini,’ and the suppression of the
+Jesuits. This society had existed now two hundred and thirty years, and
+had never ceased to be the enemy of kings and people. The particular
+interests which it cultivated attached it only to the court of Rome; it
+embraced by its establishments every country subject to the Holy See,
+and recognized itself, no other country save the church, no other
+sovereign but the pope. Its ambition was to exercise, under the
+protection of Rome, an active influence over courts, families, the
+clergy, youth, and literature. Having become odious since 1610, by
+serious and unjustifiable enterprises, it felt the necessity of uniting,
+with its political intrigues, the affectation of learned labour and
+literary employment. We behold it devoting itself to public education,
+and cultivating every department of literature, obtaining scarcely in
+any an eminent distinction, but producing in almost all a great number
+of men who filled and did honour to the second rank. This success
+restored it, and conferred on it a power which it abused in various ways
+from 1685 to 1750: and its fall, demanded by the people and determined
+by kings, might have drawn after it that of the temporal power of the
+popes, if Ganganelli had not detached the interests of the Holy See from
+those of the Jesuits, and, finally, consummated their abolition. When he
+died, some months after their suppression, they were accused of having
+shortened his days. If it were true that he fell the victim of their
+implacable resentment, as is generally believed, they have by this last
+crime hastened by many years the extreme decrepitude, and hour of
+dissolution, of that pontifical power of which they had been the
+supports. Apparently they were unwilling it should survive them; they
+immolated the man who alone rendered it tolerable. Since the year 1774,
+it has done little else than wander about, exhaust itself, fall into
+agonies, and expire.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII. RECAPITULATION
+
+
+CHRISTIANITY had for a period of seven hundred years, glorified God,
+sanctified man, and given consolation to the earth, before any minister
+of the gospel ever thought of erecting himself into a temporal prince.
+This ambition sprung up in the eighth century, after the dissolution of
+the Roman empire, and the ravages of the barbarians, in the bosom of
+universal ignorance, and of troubles which overturned Europe, but in an
+especial manner rent and divided Italy. But the popes had scarcely
+obtained the exercise of a precarious civil power when, corrupted by
+functions so foreign to their apostolic ministry, unfaithful vicars of
+Christ and of the sovereign, they aspired to be no longer dependent, and
+speedily to rule. Menacing in the ninth century and dissolute in the
+tenth, the pontifical court had weakened itself by the publicity of its
+vices, when the stern Gregory VII. conceived the idea of a universal
+theocracy: an audacious enterprize, weakly sustained by most of the
+pontiffs of the twelfth century, but which Innocent III. realized at the
+opening of the thirteenth; this is the era of the greatest display of
+the spiritual and temporal supremacy of the bishops of Rome.—Their
+residence within the walls of Avignon in the fourteenth century, and the
+schism which was prolonged to the middle of the fifteenth, abated their
+power and even their ambition; after the year 1450, the popes no longer
+thought of any thing but the aggrandizement of their families. Julius
+II. came too late to attempt anew the subjugation of kings; his
+successors during the sixteenth century, to prevent being too much
+humbled themselves, had need of an address which those of the
+seventeenth did not inherit; and the foil of the temporal power of the
+popes has been only retarded, since the year 1700, by the wise conduct
+of two pontiffs and the little attention which the errors of others
+claimed.
+
+The political revolutions which followed the dethronement of Augustulus;
+the elevation of Pepin to the throne of France, and of Charlemagne to
+the empire; the weakness of Louis le Debonnaire, and the partition of
+his states among his children; the imprudence of some kings who
+solicited against one another the thunders of the Vatican; the
+fabrication of the decretals; the propagation of a canonical
+jurisprudence contrary to the ancient laws of the church; the rivalry of
+two houses in Germany; the schemes of independence adopted, by some
+Italian cities; the crusades, the inquisition, and the innumerable
+multitude of monastic establishments: such were the causes which
+produced, confirmed, extended, and for so long a period sustained the
+temporal power of the popes, and favoured the abuse of their spiritual
+functions.
+
+This power had for its effects the corruption of manners, the vices of
+the clergy, heresies, schisms, civil wars, eternal commotions, the
+deepest misery in the states immediately under the government of the
+popes, and the most terrible disasters to those which they aspired to
+rule. The popes of the first seven centuries generally set an example of
+the Christian and sacerdotal virtues: the generality of their successors
+have proved bad princes without being good bishops. We have rendered our
+homage to some: for instance, to a Gregory II. in the eighth century; a
+Leo IV. in the ninth; to Calixtus II. Honorius II. and Alexander III. in
+the twelfth; to Nicholas V. in the fifteenth; to Leo X. in the
+sixteenth; and to Benedict XIV. and Clement XIV. in the eighteenth. We
+would have been pleased in having much more opportunity to praise; but
+when we reflect on the confused mixture of the sacred ministry with
+political power, upon this amalgamation so calculated to deprave both of
+these heterogeneous elements, we are not astonished at finding much
+fewer good governors in the catalogue of popes than in the list of any
+other description of sovereigns.
+
+All these bitter fruits of pontifical dominion have contributed to
+destroy it: eventually, so many abuses, excesses, and scandals, rendered
+Christian Europe justly indignant. But, causes more direct, and which we
+have in succession noted, have since the middle of the thirteenth
+century shaken the edifice of this intolerable tyranny: let it suffice
+that we here recall a few of them; the holy opposition of Louis IX. the
+firmness of Philip the Fair; the frenzy of Boniface VIII. the
+irregularities of the court of Avignon; the schism of the West; the
+pragmatic sanction of Charles VII. the restoration of letters; the
+invention of printing; the despotism of the popes of the fifteenth
+century; the ambitious designs of Sixtus IV. the crimes of Alexander VI.
+the ascendancy of Charles V. the progress of heresy in Germany, England,
+and other countries; the troubles in France under the son of Hemy II.
+the wise administration of Henry IV. the Edict of Nantes; the Four
+Articles of 1682; the dissensions arising from the formulary of
+Alexander VII. and the bull, ‘Unigenitus,’ of Clement XI.; lastly, the
+Quixotic enterprises of Benedict XIII., Clement XIII. and other pontiffs
+of the eighteenth century. No! the Papal power can never survive so much
+disgrace: its hour is come; and there remains no alternative to the
+popes, but to become, as they had been during the first seven centuries,
+humble pastors, edifying apostles: it is a destiny abundantly noble.
+
+Once relieved from the burden of temporal affairs, and devoted to their
+evangelical ministry, they would be so much the less tempted to abuse
+their sacred office; as there exists to bound their spiritual authority,
+efficacious means which have been taught by experience. It would even be
+superfluous to revert to the decrees of the councils of Constance and
+Basle; or to the pragmatic sanction of 1439: the Four Articles of 1682
+are sufficient.
+
+The king of France, Henry IV. had given the example of another security
+against the pontifical enterprises, when, by his edict of Nantes, he
+permitted the free exercise of a religion which was not that of the
+state, and of which he had the happiness to acknowledge and abjure the
+errors. Toleration of all modes of adoring the Deity is a debt due from
+sovereigns to their subjects; the gospel which directs the preaching of
+truths and the enlightening those who are in error, forbids by this very
+act itself the persecuting of them; for persecution must rather confirm
+in heresy or extort hypocritical abjurations, which deprave morality and
+outrage religion. All the Christian kings who have harassed religious
+sects, have been in their turn disturbed by the popes, and obliged to
+resist them: St. Louis himself did not escape this just ordination of
+Providence. To know how far a prince yields to the yoke of the pontiffs;
+we have only to look to what degree he limits the consciences of his
+subjects; his own independence is to be measured by the religious
+liberty which he permits to them: it is necessary, if he wish not to be
+subjected himself, that he inflexibly refuse to priests, or to the
+prince of priests, the proscription of modes of worship which differ
+from the dominant church.
+
+The liberty, or if you please, the toleration of these various
+professions, supposes in those who exercise them the perfect enjoyment
+of every right, civil and political, granted to other subjects; whence
+it follows, that legislation should altogether detach from the religious
+system the particular situation of individuals, and consequently the
+circumstances of births, marriages, divorces, burials, which tend to
+determine it. Here the ecclesiastical office is confined to exhorting
+the faithful to the observance of certain precepts, or to religious
+advice, and administering to them the rites of the church or the
+sacraments, instituted to sanctify the various periods of human life. It
+is to civil legislation, and to it alone, can belong the establishment
+of offices purely civil to verify these acts, to invest them with the
+forms it has prescribed, and which ought to ensure the public
+authenticity of them, and guarantee all their effects. Now such a
+legislation is in itself one of the firmest barriers against
+ecclesiastical usurpation, and the fatal influence which the head of the
+clergy would willingly exercise in the bosom of empires and of families.
+
+The history of the first ages of Christianity would, perhaps, point out
+other preservatives against the pontifical ambition. It should be the
+endeavour to substitute the ancient laws of the church, in place of
+those of the middle age, framed to give a separate interest to the
+clerical body, and render it devoted to the court of Rome, in loosing it
+from all domestic and patriotic ties. We must avow that these delicate
+reformations should be matured by time, and carried into effect with
+circumspection: it is requisite that, induced by publish wish, and as it
+were enacted by public opinion, they should be previously agreed upon,
+and looked for with hope before being established. But, to submit to a
+regime purely civil all the circumstances which determine the personal
+state, to tolerate the various modes of worship which may desire
+peaceably to exist around the established one; to render to the articles
+of 1682 the most sacred authority; and, above all, to abolish for ever
+the temporal power of the popes; these four steps, as easy as they were
+salutary, have been but too long deferred: no obstacle, no fear, no
+anticipation, can advise to defer them; and without doubt they will for
+a long period be sufficient to prevent the principal abuses of the
+spiritual office.
+
+Among these abuses, however, there are two that we conceive it our duty
+to point out more particularly: the one consists in excommunications,
+the other in the refusal of canonical investiture.
+
+Although the Christian churches were only individual associations, they
+ought to possess the right of excluding from their bosom vicious or
+dissentient members, who, by their scandalous conduct or discord,
+disturbed the sacred harmony of those assemblies. From this so natural
+right, the exercise of which had for a long period been as gentle as it
+was secret, sprung up, in the middle ages those thundering anathemas,
+which shook thrones and overturned empires. It was no longer either vice
+or error which was excommunicated: the sacred thunder served only to
+avenge the temporal interests of the clergy and of the sovereign
+pontiff. Who can particularize the number of emperors, kings, and other
+princes who, from the eighth century to the eighteenth, have been struck
+by this, often formidable, arm? To confine ourselves to the
+very-christian kings of France, we may count, between Charlemagne and
+Louis the Just, twelve sovereigns who have suffered ecclesiastical
+censures: in the ninth century, Louis-le-Debonnaire and Charles the
+Bold; in the tenth, Robert; in the eleventh, Philip I.; in the twelfth,
+Louis VII. and Philip Augustus; in the sixteenth, Louis XII. Henry II.
+Henry III. and Henry IV. Now of all these excommunicated kings Henry the
+IV. alone could have been accused of heresy: the orthodoxy of the others
+was without reproach; there was no question but that of their political
+relations with Rome, and the independence claimed for their crown. But,
+the excessive, the profane use of these anathemas, brought them into
+such discredit, that in the present day it would be as ridiculous to
+fear them as it would be to renew them.
+
+Stripped of all temporal power, and become the subject of one of the
+princes of Europe, will the pope excommunicate his own sovereign? Such
+audacity or extravagance is not by any means probable. It is true that
+past ages offer examples of it; but, at the present time, too just an
+idea is formed of such anathemas; it would now be regarded but as a
+seditious libel, a public instigation to revolt, an insult on the
+majesty of the sovereign and of the laws, a penal though an impotent
+attempt.
+
+Will the sovereign under whom the pope shall live, permit him to
+excommunicate foreign princes, whether allies or enemies? we cannot
+imagine such an imprudence. We have, no doubt, beheld monarchs thus
+direct against their rivals those spiritual arms which were soon after
+turned against themselves: but experience has sufficed to deter them
+from a description of warfare as uncertain as it is ungenerous. Besides,
+where shall we now find a nation, a mob even, ignorant enough not to be
+aware that they are only expressive of pontifical caprice or spleen, or
+a puerile regret for some foolish prerogative?
+
+In fine, will the sovereign of the pope permit his other subjects,
+magistrates, public officers, or private individuals, to be struck by
+ecclesiastical censures? we will never suppose it. In a regulated state
+every condemnation is pronounced in the name of the prince, by the
+officers specially appointed for this description of judicial functions;
+and no public censure should emanate from an authority foreign to
+his.—Let us add, that from the moment the church becomes incorporated
+with the state, it ceases to be a distinct association: Christianity
+becomes an institution recognized by the laws: and the acts of the
+religious ‘regime,’ from the time they require publicity, belong to the
+general administration. Thenceforward if it belong to the bishops, the
+pope, or the councils, to condemn dogmatical errors, without the
+intervention of the sovereign, at least their persons remain under his
+protection, and ought not to be officially marked out or disgraced, but
+agreeable to the forms prescribed by him.
+
+It now remains for us to speak of canonical institution.
+
+That each newly elected bishop should pay homage to the head of the
+church, is an act of communion with the Holy See extremely commendable.
+That the nominator of this bishop should be expressly approved by the
+pope, is a practice calculated to draw closer the ties which ought to
+connect the first pastor with all the others. That the pope should even
+profit of this circumstance to examine the qualifications of the
+elected, and to remonstrate against an improper choice, is also a
+security of the honour of the clergy and the discreet administration of
+the dioceses; it is also a means of enlightening the religion of the
+prince, and providing against surprise or error. But, that the pope
+should refuse investiture to a prelate whom the sovereign thinks
+irreproachable, or that, from considerations foreign to the person of
+the individual elected, from motives merely political, or, because of
+certain differences between the sovereign and the pope, the latter
+should persevere in with-holding all canonical investiture; so criminal
+an abuse of a respectable office authorizes a reversion to the ancient
+privilege of nomination. We have collected, in concluding the tenth
+chapter, the principles professed on this head by the advocate general
+Talon at the close of the seven-, teenth century; about which time
+Bossuet traced the origin of bulls of investiture and acknowledged their
+novelty.³²⁸
+
+ “As the pope,” he says, “gives
+ “bulls for the investiture of bishops, Bellarmin fixes
+ “on this point, which he exhibits as an important
+ “proof in favor of his opinion. But he does not
+ “condescend to observe how modern this practice
+ “is, and how often the church has united with the
+ “Greeks and other Orientals, yet leaving them in
+ “full possession of their ancient customs, and with−
+ “out obliging them to look for bulls.... The church
+ “of Carthage possessed the absolute right of or−
+ “daining the bishops dependent on it, as also the
+ “bishops of Ephesus, of Cesarea in Cappadocia,
+ “and Heraclia. Our Gallic churches and those of
+ “Spain enjoyed the same privilege.”
+
+ ³²⁸ Def. of the Clergy of France, 1. 8. c. 15.
+
+These two authorities, Talon and Bossuet, might suffice; but it may not
+be useless to establish on this important point a chronological series
+of facts and of evidence.
+
+We read in the Acts of the Apostles³²⁹ that the bishops are appointed
+by the Holy Ghost to rule the church of God: neither this verse of
+Scripture, nor any other sacred text, makes mention of the pope as a
+universal pastor by whom all the rest are to be ordained. We should
+vainly seek for the slightest vestige of a bull of ordination, granted
+by the sovereign pontiff to the bishops of the earlier ages: for
+example, to St. Cyprian, St. Chrysostom, St. Basil, St. Ambrose, or St.
+Augustine. St. Cyprian, on the contrary, having adopted an erroneous
+opinion, was scarcely in communion with the pope. The Council of Nice³³⁰
+directs that each diocesan bishop may be confirmed by his metropolitan
+or archbishop; a regulation which leaves no pretext for supposing that
+the bishop of Rome had, in this respect, any function to perform. Three
+popes of the fifth century, Zosimus, Leo the Great, and Gelasius, have
+spoken of the installation of prelates, claiming for the metropolitan,
+and for him alone, the right of investiture. Zosimus³³¹ says, that the
+Apostolic See itself ought to respect this prerogative of the
+metropolitans. That a bishop should be required by the people, elected
+by the clergy, consecrated by the bishops of the province, under the
+presidency of the metropolitan, is all that is insisted on by Leo I.³³²
+and lastly, Gelasius³³³ decides, that when the metropolitan is dead, it
+belongs to the provincial bishops to confirm and consecrate his
+successors. A council of Toledo in 681,³³⁴ confers the same right on
+the bishop of the metropolis; and this doctrine was so well established
+in Spain, that before the thirteenth century, the bishops of this
+kingdom had never applied to the pope for bulls of investiture or
+confirmation.
+
+ ³²⁹ C. xx. v. 28.
+ ³³⁰ Can. 4. Council. Hord. vol. 1. Col. 783.
+
+ ³³¹ Epist. 7.
+
+ ³³² Epist. 8.
+
+ ³³³ Epist. ad Episco. Dardan.
+
+ ³³⁴ Canon 6.
+
+Many authors fix the origin of this pretension of the pope in the
+pontificate of Alexander III, 1159, 118-1.
+
+Potestas sane vel confirm&tio pertiaebit per singulas provincias ad
+metropolitanum episcopum.
+
+See a like regulation in the twelfth canon of the Council of Laodicea.
+
+“We may easily suppose,” they add, “that the metropolitans of Germany,
+and especially those who are also electors of the empire, have borne
+with much unwillingness this great diminution of their rights, with
+respect to the confirmation of the new bishops, elected in their
+respective provinces; and the grievances drawn up at Constance under
+the emperor Sigismund, by the deputies of the provinces of Germany, and
+laid before the Council of Constance afterwards, by deputies of the same
+nation, as Galdart relates, clearly evinces: [here follows what we read
+in the 3d chapter]: Every time that it becomes necessary to proceed to
+an election, after it shall have been terminated, let it be examined
+according to legal form by the immediate superior; and, if found
+canonical, let it be confirmed; and let not the sovereign pontiff be
+allowed in any way to attempt any the smallest thing to the contrary,
+unless that the elected be immediately subject to him; in which case he
+may intimate his prohibition; or, unless they have acted in some way
+contrary to the regular forms: in such case, as he is bound to the
+observance of the law, so is it allowable to him when any thing is done
+contrary to that law, or attempted to be done, to reform it, and even
+correct and punish the transgressors. We have before proved, that this
+latter power belongs to the sovereign pontiff of common right. Although
+the council of Constance in the 36th session, to prevent the peace of
+the church being disturbed, ratified the confirmation of bishopricks,
+made by popes whom it deposed shortly after; and, although it directed
+the expediting and signing in its name the bulls which had never been
+given to bishops who had abdicated, or who were driven from their sees;
+it, nevertheless, thought seriously at the same time of reducing the
+confirmation of bishops to the terms of the ancient law, since, in the
+decree of the 40th session, by which it prescribed to the pope who was
+about to be elected, by way of salutary caution, many points of the
+great-est importance, to which in the sequel a better form was to have
+been given, it inserted in the 5th article that of the confirmation of
+electors. But what the council of Constance only premeditated, we know
+that the council of Basle carried more fully into effect: for, after
+having annulled the reservation as well general as particular, it only
+allowed, that in cases where the church or the commonweal might suffer
+damage, the sovereign pontiff might be resorted to for the confirma*
+tion of canonical elections; adding, that if the confirmation was
+refused at Rome, the new election should devolve on the chapters. For
+the rest, it clearly directs, that the elections be made without
+impediment; and confirmed after examination, agreeable to the
+disposition of the common law. The grievances of Mayence, drawn up after
+the council of Basle in 1440, and reported in Scakenburg under the term
+‘project of a concordat’ are entirely in unison with these complaints;
+they explain the meaning of these words ‘according to the disposition of
+the common law,’ when they assert, that according to common right, the
+privilege of confirming elections should be restored to the immediate
+superior: the election being terminated, they say, the decree of
+“election ought to be presented to the immediate superior” to whom
+belongs the right of confirmation; this superior ought, in this matter,
+examine with care the form of the election, the merits of the elected,
+and every other circumstance relating thereto; so that if the election
+ought to be affirmed, it maybe so judicially. The father of the diocesan
+synod of Freisingen in Bavaria adopted, in the same year 1440, these
+projects of the States of the Empire, &c.
+
+It is nevertheless to the eleventh century we may trace up in many
+churches the custom of an oath, by which each newly elected prelate
+bound himself “to defend the domains of St. Peter against every
+aggressor; to preserve, augment, and extend, the rights, honours,
+privileges, and powers, of the lord pope and his successors; to observe,
+and with all his power cause to be observed, the decrees, ordonances,
+reservations, provisions, and directions whatever, emanating from the
+court of Rome; to persecute and combat heretics and schismatics to the
+utmost extremity, with all who will not render to the sovereign pontiff
+all the obedience which the sovereign pontiff pleases to exact.”
+
+This oath, who can believe it? has been taken by bishops whose
+sovereigns were not catholic princes.
+
+How are we to conceive that sovereigns, catholic or not, could have
+allowed their subjects to enter into engagements so opposed to the good
+order of society at large:—it was complained of in Hungary, in Tuscany,
+and in the kingdom of Naples; and the prelates of Germany placed
+restrictions on this formula. But it is in itself so revolting, and
+besides so foreign to the discipline of the ten first centuries of the
+church, that we cannot believe they mean seriously to allege it as a
+proof of the necessity of bulls of investiture.
+
+Some French authors have observed how the public and notorious
+dissensions between pope Innocent XI. and Louis XIV. seemed to present a
+favorable opportunity for re-establishing the ancient discipline, and
+for terminating this shameful subjection, which drew after it the
+obligation of soliciting and obtaining pontifical bulls for consistorial
+benefices. By so doing, there would not only remain in the kingdom
+immense sums of money, now sent every year to Rome, but the bishops
+would again enter into their ancient rights, and the clergy, as well
+regular as secular, would be in consequence better governed.—On the
+Government of the Church translated from the Latin of Febronius, vol. i.
+c. 4. s. 3.—For original see Appendix B.
+
+Another formula was introduced in the thirteenth century, to wit, that
+by which the prelates were termed “bishops.... by the grace of the Holy
+Apostolic See.” An archbishop of Nicosia first employed it in 1251, and
+was followed in it by many of his brethren. The French bishops did not
+adopt it till a later period; and some suppressed it as incorrect,
+abusive, and novel: Bossuet termed himself ‘bishop by the divine
+permission.’
+
+At the close of the fourteenth century, when the Castilians had
+withdrawn from their obedience to Peter de Lune, Henry III. king of
+Castile, commanded the archbishops to invest the bishops.³³⁵ —The king
+of France did the same, when, at the same period, the Gallican church
+refused to recognize any of the three contending popes. In 1587 the
+bishop of Constance was consecrated, installed, and put into full
+possession of his office ten years before the bulls from Rome were
+received; this is attested by the pleadings of the advocate-general
+Servin, wherein the right of dispensing with these bulls is proved by
+the ancient discipline of the church. This was, as we have seen, the
+doctrine of the French bishops consulted by the court of Portugal;³³⁶
+it was that of Simond, of Peter de Marca, of Thomassin, and of Talon and
+Bossuet.
+
+ ³³⁵ Gonzales de Avila. History of the Antiquities of the city of
+ Salamanca, 1. 3, c. 14.
+
+ ³³⁶ See page 298. (Ism. Bull.) Libelli duo pro eccl. Lucitanicis:
+ Parisiis in 1655, in 4to.—Narratio...rerum quæ acci-derant super
+ confirmaodis......episcopis Lusitanie; Ulypsip. 1667, in 4to.
+
+Simond³³⁷ observes, that before the fifteenth century, when Gaul was
+subject to the Romans, the bishops, elected by the people and the
+clergy, were invested only by the metripolitan.
+
+De Macra,³³⁸ desires they may banish from Christian schools, the novel
+and unheard-of doctrine, unknown to the twelve first centurics, which
+inculcates the belief that the bishops receive their authority from the
+pope; he is of opinion, that many circumstances may fully authorize the
+bishops to dispense with the modern custom of appointments termed
+canonical, and the reverting to natural and divine right, without any
+respect to the forms introduced by the new law; and father Thomassin³³⁹
+assures us that, notwithstanding the efforts he has made to discover in
+antiquity some vestiges of this institution, he has found, on the
+contrary, that the ancient bishops, and especially those of the East,
+ascended their sees without the popes having been made acquainted with
+it. Lastly, in 1718, the council of Regency consulted the Sorbonne on
+this point, which decided, that, circumstances or occasion requiring, it
+might restore to their ancient privileges of investing, without
+pontifical bulls, the prelates legitimately elected. This is surely
+enough to demonstrate that these bulls are in no wise necessary, and
+that, at least, they may be considered as obtained, when they are
+refused from motives foreign to the personal qualifications of the
+elected.
+
+ ³³⁷ Præfat. ad App. Concil. Gall. v. 2.
+
+ ³³⁸ De concord, sacerd. et imperii.
+
+ ³³⁹ Discip. Eccles. vol. 2, p. 2,1. 2, c. 8
+
+The historical details of this feeble and too hasty essay, rather
+glanced at than fully developed, expose slightly, at least, the dangers
+of the temporal sovereignty of the pope, and the limits which ought to
+confine his spiritual authority. These limits had need to be assigned by
+a victorious hand, capable of setting bounds to all subaltern ambition,
+and unaccustomed to suffer any restrictions to be put on the progress of
+civilization, the diffusion of knowledge, and the glory of a great
+empire. The abolition of the terrestrial power of the pontiffs, is one
+of the greatest benefits Europe can be indebted for to a Hero. The
+destiny of a new founder of the Western Empire is, to repair the errors
+of Charlemagne, to surpass him in wisdom, and therefore in power; to
+govern and consolidate the States which Charles knew only how to conquer
+and rule; in fine, to render eternal the glory of an august reign, in
+securing, by energetical establishments, the prosperity of succeeding
+sceptres.³⁴⁰
+
+ ³⁴⁰ “The re-establishment of metropolitans in their ancient rights,”
+ says the bishop of Novarra, “confers the means of providing,
+ without any injurious delay, for the vacant churches. It was for
+ this purpose that the famous council of Nice conferred on the
+ metropolitan alone the ordination of bishops: all the succeeding
+ councils have been unwilling to recognize as bishop him who was
+ not ordained by the decree of his metropolitan. The Roman pontiffs
+ themselves have asserted this general doctrine of the church to
+ the year 1051; and it was religiously observed during upwards of a
+ thousand years. The bishop consecrated by the metropolitan and by
+ his suffragans proceeded at once to the government of his church,
+ and was installed by the clergy of the vacant see. Antiquity knew
+ of no canonical institution or oath of fidelity to the Roman
+ pontiffs, to which they would subject the episcopacy in these
+ latter times, and by which they restricted its divine and original
+ authority. Such are the true and invariable principles, is the
+ constant and pure doctrine, of the church.” Address of the bishop
+ of Novara to his His Imperial Highness the prince Viceroy of
+ Italy. Moniteur 11th February 1811. The bishop of Forli professes
+ the same principles. “The ordinary power of bishops,” says he, “is
+ derived immediately from Christ.... In whatsoever place a bishop
+ is to be found, whether at Rome, at Gubbio, at Constantinople, at
+ Reggio, at Alexandria, or at Favi, he has the same character and
+ posseses the same authority. All are equally successors of the
+ apostles, so says St. Jerome.... After the abdication of
+ Necturius, the council of Ephesus wrote to the clergy of
+ Constantinople to take charge of this church, in order to render
+ account thereof to him who by the divine will should be ordained
+ thereto by command of the emperor....For upwards of a thousand
+ years, no canonical investment was known in the church, nor oath
+ of fidelity to the pope; obligations fatal to the ordinary
+ authority of the episcopacy,” &c.—Moniteur, 16 Feb. 1811. “I am
+ perfectly satisfied,” says the bishop of Verona, “that the
+ spiritual jurisdiction which a bishop exercises is derived to him
+ immediately from God, and that he may be placed in his see by the
+ competent power, in virtue of the canonical decrees of the
+ universal church....Bishops are not the vicars of the sovereign
+ pontiff, but the true ordinaries of their dioceses....In the
+ council of Trent, the most learned bishops strongly defended the
+ prerogatives of the episcopacy.”—Moniteur, 1st of March, 1811. The
+ bishop of Verona, whose expressions we have above transcribed,
+ published about thirty years since a volume in 4vo, entitled ‘De
+ Finibus Sacerdotii et Imperii,’ a learned and judicious work which
+ the court of Rome hastened to condemn.—For original see Appendix
+ C.
+
+
+
+
+CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
+
+
+ FIRST CENTURY.
+
+ YEAR
+
+ 1. St Peter, 66
+
+ 2. St. Lin, son of Hercolanus,
+ born at Volterra in Toscany, died in 78
+
+ 3. St. Anaclet, or Clet, died in 91
+
+ 4. St. Clement, son of Faustinas, born at Rome, died in 100
+
+
+ SECOND CENTURY.
+
+ 5. St. Evanstas, born in Syria, died in 109
+
+ 6. St. Alexander I. 119
+
+ 7. St. Sixtus I. born at Rome, 127
+
+ 8. St. Telesphore, 139
+
+ 9. St. Hyginus, died in 142
+
+ 10. St. Pius I. 157
+
+ 11. St. Anacetus, 168
+
+ 12. St. Soter, born at Fondi, 177
+
+ 13. St. Eleutberius, died the last day of the year 192
+
+ 14. St. Victor, 202
+
+
+ THIRD CENTURY.
+
+ 15. St. Zephirinus, died in 219
+
+ 16. St. Calixtus I. 14th October, 222
+
+ 17. St. Urban I. 25th May, 230
+
+ 18. St. Pontien, 28th Sept. 235
+
+ 19. St. Antherus, 3rd Jan. 236
+
+ 20. St. Fabian, 28th Jan. 250
+
+ 21. St. Cornelius, 14th Sept. 253
+
+ 22. St. Lucius, I. 4th or 5th March, 255
+
+ 28. St. Stephen I. 2nd Aug. 257
+
+ 24. St. Sixtus II. 6th Aug. 258
+
+ 25. St. Dionysius, 26th Dec. 269
+
+ 26. St. Felix I. 22nd Dec. 274
+
+ 27. St. Eutychian, 7th or 8th Dec. 283
+
+ 28. St. Caius, 22nd April, 296
+
+ 29. St. Marcellinus, 24th Oct. 304
+
+
+ FOURTH CENTURY.
+
+ 30. St. Marcellus, a Roman by birth, died 16th Jan. 310
+
+ 31. St. Eusebius, 26th Sept. 310
+
+ 32. St. Miltiades or Melchiades, died 10th or 11th Jan. 314
+
+ 33. St. Sylvester I. born at Rome, died 31st Dec. 335
+ Pretended donation of Constantine.
+ Council of Nice, 1st oecumenical, in 325
+
+ 34. St. Mark, died the 7th Oct. 336
+
+ 35. St. Julius I. a Roman by birth, died 13th April, 352
+
+ 36. St. Liberius, 24th April, 366
+ Felix II. antipope, 22nd Nov. 365
+ 37. St Damasiuc, a Roman, 10th or 11th Dec. 384
+ Council of Constantinople 2nd oecum. 381.
+ 38. St. Siricius, a Roman, died 25th Nov, 398
+ The first of whom we have an authentic decree
+ 39. St. Anastasius I. a Roman, died in 401 or 402
+
+
+ FIFTH CENTURY.
+
+ 40. St. Innocent I. died 12th March 417
+
+ 41. St. Zosimus, born in Greece, died 26th Dec. 418
+
+ 42. St. Boniface I. a Roman, son of the priest
+ Jocundus, died 4th Sept. 422
+ 43. St. Celestine I. a Roman, 30th July, 432
+ Council of Ephesus, 3rd oecumen. in 431.
+ 44. St. Sixtus III. a Roman, 18th Aug. 440
+
+ 46. St. Leo I. or the Great, born at Rome, one of
+ the doctors of the Latin Church,
+ died 6th or 8th Nov. 461
+ Council of Chalcedon, 4th oecumen. 451.
+ 46. St. Hilary, a Sardinian, died 21st Feb. 468
+
+ 47. St. Simplicius, native of Tivoli, died 25th Feb. 483
+
+ 48. St. Felix III. a Roman, 24th or 25th Feb. 492
+
+ 49. St. Gelaaias, born at Rome, 19th Nov. 498
+
+ 50. St. Anastasias II. 17th Nov. 498
+
+
+ SIXTH CENTURY.
+
+ 51. Symmachas, born in Sardinia, died the 9th July 514
+
+ 52. Hormisdas, born at Frusignone in Campania died 6th Aug. 523
+
+ 53. St. John I. a Toscan, 18th May, 525
+
+ 54. Felix IV. a Samnite, in 530
+
+ 55. Boniface II. born at Rome, of Gothic origin, died 532
+
+ 56. John II. called Mercnrins, born at Rome, died 535
+
+ 57. Agapit, son of the priest Gordian, died the 22d of April 536
+
+ 58. Sylverius, a native of Campania son of pope Hormisdas 538
+
+ 59. Vigilias, son of the Consul John, elected pope
+ Nov. 537, before the death of Sylverius,
+ died at Syracuse, 10th Jan. 555
+ 2nd Council of Constantinople, and
+ 6th œcumenical, held in 553
+
+ 60. Pelagias I. died 1st March, 560
+
+ 61. John III. called Cateline, born at Rome, died 13th July 575
+
+ 62. Benedict Bonosius, 30th July, 557
+
+ 63. Pelagias II. died 8th Feb. 590
+
+ 64. St. Gregory I. or the Great, born at Rome, one
+ of the fathers or doctors of the Latin Cburch
+ 12th March, 604
+
+
+ SEVENTH CENTURY.
+
+ 65. Sabinian, died 22nd Feb. 606
+
+ 66. Boniface III. 607
+
+ 67. Boniface IV. native of Valeria, country of the Moors, 615
+
+ 68. St. Dens Dedit, a Roman, 3rd Dec. 618
+
+ 69. Boniface V. born at Naples, died 22d Oct. 626
+
+ 70. Honoriua I. a native of Campania, son of the
+ consul Petronius, died 12th Oct. 638
+ AN INTERREGNUM OF TWENTY MONTHS
+
+ 71. Severinus, born at Rome, consecrated in May, died 640
+
+ 72. John IV. of Dalmatia, 11th Oct. 642
+
+ 73. Theodore I. born at Jerusalem, died 13th May,
+ The first who received the title of sovereign
+ pontiff. 649
+
+ 74. St. Martin I. of Todi, 17th Sept. 654
+
+ 75. St. Eugene I. a Roman, 1st Jan. 657
+
+ 76. Vitalian, born at Segni, 27th Jan. 662
+
+ 77. Adeodat, a Roman, in June, 676
+
+ 78. Donus or Domnas, a Roman, 11th April, 678
+
+ 79. Agathon, a Sicilian, 10th June,
+ Third Council of Constantinople, the 6th
+ oecumenical, held in 680 and 681. 682
+
+ 80. St. Leo II. a Sicilian, died in 683 or 684
+
+ 81. Benedict II. a Roman, died 7th May, 685
+
+ 82. John V. a Syrian, 7th Aug. 687
+
+ 83. Conon, born in Sicily, of Thracian origin, died Sept. 687
+
+ 84. St. Sergius I. born at Palermo, of Antiochian 8th Sept. 701
+
+
+ EIGHTH CENTURY.
+
+ 85. John VI. a Greek, died 9th Jan. 705
+
+ 86. John VII. a Greek, 17th Oct. 707
+
+ 87. St.Sinnius, a Syrian, 7th Feb. 708
+
+ 88. Constantine, a Syrian, 9th April, 715
+
+ 89. St. Gregory II. a Roman, died the 10th Feb. 731
+ Quarrel with the Emperor Leo the Isaurian.
+
+ 90. Gregory III. a Syrian, 27th Nov. 741
+ Excommunication of the Iconoclastes
+ —Roman Republic.
+
+ 91. Zachary, a Greek, 14th March, 752
+ Accession of Pepin the Short.
+ Stephen elected pope in 752
+ died before being consecrated.
+
+ 92. Stephen II. died 25th April, 757
+ Pretended sacred donation of Pepin,
+ letters of St. Peter, &c.
+
+ 93. Paul I. brother of the preceding, died 28th Jan. 767
+
+ 94. Stephen III. a Sicilian, 1st Feb. 772
+
+ 95. Adrian I. son of Theodale, duke of Rome, 25th Dec. 795
+ Charlemagne in Italy.
+ Second Council of Nice, 7th oecumenical, in 787.
+
+ 96. Leo III. a Roman, 11th June, 816
+ Charlemagne crowned emperor in 800.
+ False decretals
+
+
+ NINTH CENTURY.
+
+ 97. Stephen IV. installed 22d June 816, died 24th Jan. 817
+
+ 98. Pascal I. a Roman, installed 25th Jan. 817, died May 824
+
+ 99. Eugene II. born at Rome installed and died in Aug. 827
+
+ 100. Valentine, born at Rome installed and died, 827
+
+ 101. Gregory IV. installed at the close of 827, died in Jan. 844
+ Humiliation of the emperor Louis−le−Debonairre.
+
+ 102. Sergius II. installed the 27th January 844, 27th Jan. 847
+
+ 103. St. Louis IV, elected in 847, died 17th July, 855
+ Leonine City, pages 48, 50.
+
+ 104. Benedict III. installed 29th Sept. 855, died 8th April 858
+
+ 105. Nicholas I. a Roman, installed 24th April 858 died Nov. 867
+
+ 106. Adrian II. a Roman, installed 14th Dec. 867, died in 872
+ 4th Council of. Constantinople, the 8th
+ œcumenical, held in 869.
+
+ 107. John VIII. installed the 14th December 872, died Dec. 888
+ Charles the Bold crowned emperor in 875,
+ and Charles the Fat in 880.
+
+ 108. Marinas, installed the end of December 882, died in May, 884
+
+ 109. Adrian III. a Roman, installed in 884, died in Sept. 885
+
+ 110. Stephen V. a Roman installed in Sept. 885, died 7th Aug. 891
+
+ 111. Formosus, installed in Sept. 891, died in April 896
+
+ 112. Boniface VI. installed and died in 896
+
+ 113. Stephen VI. installed in 896, strangled 897
+
+ 114. Romanus, born at Rome, installed 20th Aug. 897
+
+ 115. Theodore II. installed and died in 898
+
+ 116. John IX. a native of Tibar or Tivoli, died 900
+
+
+
+ TENTH CENTURY.
+
+ 117. Benedict IV. elected in December, 900, died in October 903
+
+ 118. Leo V. a native of Ardee, installed 28th Oct. 903,
+ banished in Nov. 903
+
+ 119. Christophas, a Roman, installed in November, 903,
+ banished in Jane, 904
+
+ 120. Sergios III. installed in 905, died in August, 911
+
+ 121. Anastasias III. a Roman, installed Aug. 911, died Oct. 913
+
+ 122. Landon, installed in 913, died April, 914
+
+ 123. John X. installed the end of April, 914, died in prison 928
+ The lover of Theodora, the conqueror of
+ the Saracens, dethroned by Marosia
+
+ 124. Leo VI. installed Jan. 928, died the 3rd of February 929
+
+ 125. Steshen VII. installed in March 929, died in Mar. 931
+
+ 126. John XI. son of Marosia, and it is said of
+ Sergios III. born in 906, installed on 20th
+ March, 931, died in prison, in Jan. 936
+
+ 127. Leo VII. inst. in Jan. 936, died in July, 939
+
+ 128. Stephen VIII. inst. July, 939, died Nov. 942
+
+ 129. Martin III. a Roman, installed March, 942, died Jan. 945
+
+ 130. Agapit II. a Roman, installed March, 946, died end of 955
+
+ 131. John XII. Octavian, born at Rome in 938, of
+ the patrician Alberic, and afterwards patri−
+ cian himself in 954, installed in Jan. 956;
+ banished in 963 by the emperor Otho the Great, 963
+
+ 132. Leo VIII. installed the 6th Dec. 963, died 17th March, 965
+
+ 133. Benedict V. elected after the death of John XII.
+ May, 964 and died at Hamburg, the 5th of Jnly, 965
+
+ 134. John XIII. called Poole Blanche, born at Rome,
+ installed the 1st Oct. 965, died 6th Sept. 972
+
+ 135. Benedict VI. installed at the end of 972, strangled in 974
+
+ 136. Boniface, Francon, son of Femicio, Anti−pope,
+ under the name of Boniface VIII. died in 975
+
+ 137. Donas II. elected pope after the expulsion of
+ Francon or Boniface, died 25th Dec. 974
+
+ 138. Benedict VII. a Roman, nephew of the patrician Alberic,
+ installed in 975, died 10th of July 983
+
+ 139. John XIV. installed by the emperor Otho II.
+ in Nov. 983, banished by Francon or Boniface
+ in the month of March following put to death 20th Aug 984
+ John XV. who died before the month of July
+ is not counted: he is distinct from the following,
+ to whom the name of John XV. remains.
+
+ 140. John XV. a Roman, son of the priest Leo,
+ installed in July, 906; banished by the
+ consul Creseentius in 987, restored by Otho III. died 996
+
+ 141. Gregory V. Brunon, son of Duke Otho, and grandson
+ of the Emperor Otho I. installed 3d May,
+ banished by Creseentius in 997
+
+ 142. John XVI. Philagathus, a Greek, installed by Cresentius
+ in 997, put to death by order of Gregory V.
+ who died 9th Feb. 999, 998
+
+ 143. Sylvester II. Gerbert, born in Auvergne, archbishop
+ of Rheims, afterwards of Ravenna, installed Pope,
+ 2d April, 999, died the 11th May, 1003
+
+
+ ELEVENTH CENTURY.
+
+
+ 144. John XVII. Siccon or Secco, installed 9th Jan. 1003,
+ died 1st Oct. 1003
+
+ 145. John XVIII. Phasian, born at Rome of the priest Orso,
+ installed 26th Dec. 1003, abdicated the end of May
+ 1009, and died 18th July, 1009
+
+ 146. Sergius IV. Petrus Bucca Porci, Peter Groin,
+ installed in 1009, died in 1112
+
+ 147. Benedict VIII. John of Tusculum, died in 1024
+ Coronation of Henry II. emperor in 1013.
+
+ 148. John XIX. a Roman, of Tusculum, brother of the
+ preceding, formerly consul, duke, senator:
+ installed pope in Aug. 1024; banished by the Romans;
+ restored by the emperor Conrade, died in 1033
+
+ 149. Benedict IX. Theophylacte, of Tusculum, nephew of
+ the two preceding, installed in 1033; banished
+ and restored in 1038; banished again in 1044,
+ and restored in 1047; retired in 1048
+
+ 150. Sylvester III. John, bishop of Sabine,
+ pope in 1044, 1045, 1046
+
+ 151. Gregory VI. John Gratian, pope in 1044, 1045, 1046
+
+ Benedict IX. Sylvester III. and Gregory VI.
+ all three, popes at the same time,
+ were deposed by the emperor Henry III.
+
+
+ 152. Clement II. Suidger, a Saxon (bishop of Bamberg)
+ installed pope the 35th Dec. 1046, died 9th Oct. 1047
+
+ Return of Benedict IX.
+
+
+ 153. Damasius II. Poppon, bishop of Brixen, Installed pope
+ the 17th July, 1048, at the moment of the retiring
+ of Benedict, died 8th Aug. same year, 1048
+
+ 154. St. Leo IX. Brunon, son of Hugues, count of Egesbeim
+ in Alsace, born in 1002, installed pope in Feb. 1049
+ died the 10th April 1054
+ The Greek schism is completed under this pontificate.
+
+ 155. Victor II. Gebehard, son of Hardulg, count of Calw
+ in Swabia, installed the 13th April, 1055,
+ died, in Tuscany, the 29th July, 1057
+
+ 156. Stephen IX. Frederick, son of Gothelon, duke of
+ Basse−Lorraine, installed the 3d Aug. died March 1058
+
+ 157. Benedict X. John, bishop of Veletri, elected pope
+ 30th March, 1058, resigned the 18th Jan. 1060
+
+ 158. Nicholas II. Gerard, born in Burgundy, installed the
+ 18th Jan. 1059, died the 21st or 22d July, 1061
+ Election of the popes by the cardinals.
+ Quarrel respecting investitures.
+
+ 159. Alexander II. Anselm Badage, a Milanese, installed
+ the 30th Sept. 1061, died the 21st April, 1073
+ Cadaloo or Honorius II. antipope
+
+ 160. Gregory VII. or Hildebrand, born near Soane in Tuscany,
+ elected pope the 22d April, 1073, died 25th May 1085
+
+ Quarrels with all the sovereigns.—Excommunication
+ and deposition of the Emperor Henry IV.
+
+ Donation of the Countess Matilda
+
+ Gaibert or Clement III. antipope.
+
+ Between Gregory VII. and Victor III. the
+ Holy See is vacant one year.
+
+
+ 161. Victor III. Didier, sprang from the house of the dukes
+ of Capua, elected the 34th May, 1086, died Sept. 1087
+
+ 162. Urban II. Otton or Odon, born at Rheims, bishop of
+ Ostia, elected pope 12th March, 1088, died 1099
+ Excommunication of Philip king of France.
+ First crusade in 1095.
+ Death of the antipope Guihert 1100.
+
+
+ TWELFTH CENTURY.
+
+
+ 163. Pascal II. Rainier, born at Bleda, in the diocese of
+ Viterbo, elected pope the 13th Aug. 1099, died June 1118
+ Degradation of the emperor Henry IV.—
+ Quarrels’s of the pope with Henry V.
+ Albert, Theodoric, Maginulfe, antipopes
+ after Guibert.
+
+ 164. Gelasius II. John of Gaôte, elected pope the 25th Jan.
+ 1118, died at Cloni 29th Jan. 1119
+ Bourdin or Gregory VIII. antipope
+
+ 165. Calixtus II. Gui, born at Quingey, of a count
+ of Burgundy, archbishop of Vienne,
+ elected pope the 1. Feb. 1119, died Dec. 1194
+ End of quarrel about investitures.
+ First council of the Lateran,
+ 9th œcumenical, in 1123
+
+ 166. Honorius II. Lambert, born at Fagnano, installed
+ the 21st of Dec. 1124, died 14th Feb. 1130
+
+ 167. Innocent II. Gregorie of the house of the Papi,
+ elected 15th Feb. 1130, died the 24th Sept. 1143
+ Quarrells with the king of France, Louis
+ the Young, &c.
+ Peter of Leon, antipope under the name of
+ Anaclet, and after him, Gregory or Victor IV.
+ Second council of the Lateran, tenth
+ œcumenical, in 1139.
+
+ 168. Celestine II. Gui, a Tuscan, elected 26th
+ Sept. 1143, died 9th March 1144
+
+ 169. Lucius II. Gerard, born at Bologna, installed
+ the 12th March, 1144, died the 25th Feb. 1145
+ Arnauld of Brescia.
+
+ 170. Eugenius III. Bernard, born at Pisa, elected
+ 7th of Feb. 1145, died the 7th of July 1153
+ Crusade of 1147.
+ Decree of Gratian published in 1152.
+
+ 171. Anastasius IV. Conrade, born at Rome, elected the
+ 9th July 1153, died 2d December, 1154
+
+ 172. Adrian IV. born at St. Albans in England, elected
+ 3rd Dec. 1154, died 1st September 1159
+ Disputes with the emperor Frederick Barbarossa
+
+ 173. Alexander III. Roland, of Sienna, of the house of
+ Bandinclli, elected 7th of Sept. died 30th of Aug. 1181
+
+ Octavian or Victor III. Pascal III. Ca−
+ lixtus III. and Innocent III. antipopes.
+ Lombard−league against Frederick Barba−
+ rossa.—Alexandria; Thomas a Becket
+ &c.—3rd Council of the Lateran, 11th
+ oecumenical, in 1179.
+
+
+ 174. Lucius III. Ubalde, born at Lucca, elected the
+ 1st September 1181, died the 24th Nov. 1185
+
+ 175. Urbanlll. Hubert Crivelli, elected 25th of Nov. 1185,
+ died at Ferrara, 19th October. 1187
+
+ 176. Gregory VIII. Albert, born at Beneventum, elected
+ 20th Oct. 1187, died 17th December 1187
+
+ 177. Clement III. Paul or Paulin Scolaro, born at Rome,
+ elected 19th December 1187, died 27th March, 1191
+ Crusade in 1189.
+
+ 178. Celestine III. Hyacinth Bobocard, born in 1108,
+ elected pope 30th March 1191, died 8th of Jan. 1198
+
+
+ THIRTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+
+ 179. Innocent III. Lothaire, of the house of the counts of
+ Segni, born in i 160, elected pope 8th Jan. 1198,
+ consecrated 23d Feb. following, died 16th July, 1216
+
+ Disputes with the Venetians, with the
+ king of France Philip Augustus, with
+ John king of England, with the emperor
+ Otho IV. &c.
+ Crusade of 1203; taking of Constantinople
+ by the crusaders.
+ Crusade against the Albigeoses; Inquisition;
+ Twelfth Council of Lateran, twelfth œcumenical,
+ in 1215.
+
+ 180. Honorius III. Cencio Savelli, a Roman, elected at
+ Perugia, 18th July 1216, consecrated
+ 24th of same month, died 18th March, 1227
+
+ 181. Gregory IX. Ugolin, of the family of the counts
+ of Segni, a native of Anagni, bishop of Ostia,
+ elected and installed pope the 19th March,
+ 1227, died when nearly one hundred years
+ old, 21st Aug. 1224
+ The emperor Frederick II. four times ex−
+ communicated.
+ Body of decretals compiled by Raymond
+ de Pennafort.
+
+ 182. Celestine IV. Geoflrey de Castiglione, a noble
+ Milanese, a Cistertian monk, bishop of Sabine,
+ elected pope at the end of Oct. 1241, died Nov. 1241
+
+ Between Celestine IV. and Innocent IV.
+ the Holy See is vacant for 19 months.
+
+ 183. Innocent IV. Sinibald de Fiesqne, a noble
+ Genoese, elected pope at Anagni, 25th
+ Jane, 1243, consecrated 29th of the same,
+ died at Naples, 7th Dec. 1254
+ Council of Lyons, 13th œcumenical, in 1245.
+
+ The emperor Frederick II. deposed:—
+ Conferences of Louis IX. and Innocent
+ at Clusi: Crusade against Conrade IV.
+ and Manfred the son of Frederick.
+
+ 184. Alexander IV. Reinald, of the family of the
+ counts of Segni, bishop of Ostia, elected
+ pope the 12th Dec. 1254, died at Viterbo, 25th May, 1261
+
+ Excommunication of Manfred: Negociation with
+ Louis IX. and Charles of Anjou, respecting the
+ kingdom of Naples
+
+ 185. Urban IV. Jacques−Pantaleon Court−Palais,
+ born at Troyes in Champagne, archdeacon
+ of Liege, bishop of Verdan, patriarch of Je−
+ rusalem, elected pope at Viterbo, 29th Aug.
+ 1261, consecrated 4th Sept. following, died 2d Aug. 1264
+
+ 186. Clement IV. Gui de Foulques, born at Saint−
+ Gilles−le−Rhone, bishop of Puy, archbi−
+ shop of Narbonne, cardinal, bishop of Sabine,
+ elected pope at Perguia, the 5th Feb. 1265,
+ crowned 26th of same month at Viterbo,
+ where he died the 29th Nov. 1268
+
+ Charles of Anjou called to the throne of
+ Naples: Death of Concradine the 28th
+ Oct. 1268: Pragmatic Sanction of Saint
+ Louis
+
+ The Holy See remains vacant from the
+ 29th Nov. 1268 to the 1st Sept. 1271.
+
+ 187. Gregory X. Thealde or Thibaud, of the family
+ of the Visconti of Placentia, canon of Lyons,
+ archbishop of Liege, elected pope 1st Sept.
+ 1271 consecrated 27th Nov. of same year,
+ died at Arezzo, the 10th Jan. 1276
+
+ Coronation and excommunication of the
+ emperors Rhodolph of Hapsburg, &c.
+ Second Council of Lyons, 14th oœcumenical in 1274.
+
+ 188. Innocent V. Peter de Tarantaise, a Dominican,
+ cardinal, bishop of Ostia, elected pope at
+ Arezzo, 21st Feb. 1276, crowned at Rome, 23d
+ of the same, died 22d June, 1276
+
+ 189. Adrian V. Ottoboni, a Genoese, cardinal
+ deacon, elected pope 11th July, 1276, died 1276
+
+ 190. John XXI. Pierre, a Portuguese, cardinal,
+ bishop of Tusculum, elected pope at Viterbo
+ 13th Sept. 1276, crowned 20th of the same;
+ died 16th or 17th May, 1277
+
+ 191. Nicholas III. John Gaétan, a Roman, of the
+ Orsini family, cardinal deacon, elected pope
+ at Viterbo, 25th Nov. 1277, after a vacancy
+ of six months, crowned at Rome 36th Dec.
+ the same year, died 22d Aug. 1280
+
+ 192. Martin IV. Simon de Brion, cardinal priest,
+ elected pope at Viterbo, 22d Feb. 1281,
+ crowned at Orvicto, 23d March, same year,
+ died the 28th March, 1285
+
+ Sicilian vespers in 1282
+
+ 193. Honorius IV. James Savelli, a noble Roman,
+ cardinal deacon, elected pope at Perugia,
+ 2d April, 1285, consecrated at Rome, 4th of
+ May following, died 3d April, 1287
+
+ 194. Nicholas IV. Jerome, a native of Ascoli,
+ brother minor, cardinal, bishop of Palestrina,
+ elected pope in 1288, died 4th April, 1292
+
+ Vacancy of two years.
+
+ 195. St. Celestine V. Peter Mouron, a native of
+ Isernia in the kingdom of Naples, elected
+ pope at Perugia, 5th July 1294, consecrated
+ 24th Aug. following, abdicated 13th Dec.
+ of the same year, and died 19th May, 1296
+
+ 196. Boniface VIII. Cajatan, a native of Anagni,
+ cardinal legate, elected pope 24th December
+ 1294, consecrated 2d January, 1295, died October 1303
+ Proscription of the family of Colonna.
+
+ Quarrels with the king of France, Philip
+ the Fair.
+
+
+ FOURTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+
+ 197. Benedict XI. Nicholas Bocasin, of Treviso,
+ the son of a shepherd; ninth general of the
+ Dominicans, cardinal bishop of Ostia,
+ elected pope 22d Oct. 1303, and crowned the
+ 37th, died at Perugia the 6th or 7th of July, 1304
+
+ A vacancy of eleven months
+
+ 198. Clement V. Bertrand de Gotte, born at Villandran
+ in the diocese of Bourdeaux, bishop
+ of Comminges, elected pope at Perngia the
+ 5th of June, 1305, crowned at Lyons the
+ 14th Nov. of same year, died at Roquemaur
+ near Avignon, the 20th April, 1314
+
+ The Holy See transferred to Avignon,
+ suppression of the Templars.—Excommunication
+ of the Venetians.—Clementines,
+
+ Council of Vienna, 15th œcumenical, in
+ 1311.
+
+ From Clement V. to John XXII. an in−
+ terregnum of two years.
+
+ 199. John XX, James d’Euse, born at Cahors,
+ cardinal, bishop of Porto, elected pope at
+ Lyons the 7th of Aug. 1316, died 4th Dec. 1334
+
+ Excommunication of the emperor Louis of
+ Bavaria.
+
+ Peter de Corbieres, a Franciscan, anti−
+ pope under the name of Nicholas V.
+
+ Treasures of John XXII.—His 4 extravagants.
+
+ 200. Benedict XII. James Fournier, born at Laver−
+ dun, in the county of Foix, cardinal,
+ elected pope 20th Dec. 1334, crowned at
+ Avignon 8th January 1335, died 25th Apr. 1342
+
+ Pragmatic Sanction of the Germans
+
+ 201. Clement VI. Peter Roger, born in the diocese
+ of Limoges, a monk of the Chaiae—Dieu,
+ archbishop of Rouen, cardinal, elected pope
+ 7th May, 1342 and crowned the 19th,
+ died at Villeneuve, near Avignon, 6th Dec. 1352
+
+ Anathemas against Louis of Bavaria.—
+ Joan II. queen of Naples, sells Avignon
+ to the pope, &c.
+
+ 202. Innocent VI. Stephen d’Albert, born in the
+ diocese of Limoges, bishop of Noyou, in
+ Clermont, cardinal, bishop of Ostia, elected
+ pope, 18th Dec. 1352, and crowned the 30th
+ died at Avignon the 12th Sept. 1362
+
+ Cessions of the emperor Charles IV. and
+ beginning of the sovereignty of
+ the popes in 1355.
+
+ 203. Urban V. William, son of Orimond, lord of
+ Grisac in Gevaudan, a Benedictine, elect−
+ ed pope in Sept. 1362, and crowned the 6th
+ of November, died 19th December, 1570
+
+ He was compelled to return from Rome
+ to Avignon
+
+ 204. Gregory XI. Peter Roger, born in the diocese
+ of Limoges, nephew of Clement VI. cardi−
+ nal, elected pope the 30th Dec. 1370,
+ crowned the 5th Jan. 1371, died at
+ Rome the 27th March, 1378
+
+ After the death of Gregory XI. in 1278,
+ the schism of Avignon; and, of the West.
+
+ 205. Urban VI. Bartholomew Piegnano, a Neapo−
+ litan, elected pope at Rome the 9th of April
+ 1378, crowned the 18th, died the 18th Oct. 1389
+
+ 206. Clement VII. Robert, of the house of the
+ counts of Geneva, canon of Paris, bishop
+ of Therouane and Cambray, cardinal legate,
+ elected pope at Fondi the 21st Sept. 1358,
+ acknowledged in France, England, died 16th Sept. 1394
+
+ 207. Boniface IX. Peter or Perrin Tomacelli,
+ called the cardinal of Naples, elected by
+ fourteen cardinals the 2d Nov. 1289, to suc−
+ ceed Urban VI.; died 1404
+
+ 208. Benedict XIII. Peter de Lune, a Spaniard,
+ born in 1325, cardinal deacon, elected the
+ 28th Sept. 1394, to succeed Clement VII.
+ died at Rimini the 18th Oct. 1417
+
+ France withdrew from obedience to
+ either pontiff
+
+
+ FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+ 209. Innocent VII. Cosma de Megliorati, born at
+ Sulmone, cardinal, elected the 17th October,
+ 1404, to succeed Boniface IX. crowned in
+ November the same year, died 6th of Nov. 1406
+
+ 210. Gregory XII. Ange Corrario, Venetian, car−
+ dinal, elected the 30th Nov. 1406, to suc−
+ ceed Innocent VII. ; abdicated the 4th
+ July 1415, died at the age of ninety−
+ two the 18th Oct. at Rimini, 1417
+
+ Council of Pisa in 1409; it deposes Gre−
+ gory XII. and Benedict XIII.; it elects
+ Alexander V.
+
+ 211. Alexander V. Peter Philarge, born in the Isle
+ of Candia, bishop of Vicenza and Novara,
+ archbishop of Milan, cardinal, elected pope,
+ in the Council of Pisa, the 26th June, 1409,
+ crowned 7th July, the same year,
+ died at Bologna, May, 1410
+
+ 212. John XXIII. Balthasar. Cossa, bora at Naples,
+ of a noble family, cardinal deacon,
+ elected at Bologna by sixteen cardinals, the
+ 17th May; 1410, to succeed Alexander V.
+ is deposed by the Council of Constance,
+ 29th May, 1415, died 22d of Nov. 1419
+
+ Council of Constance, from the 5th Nov.
+ 1414, to the 22d April, 1418; 16th œcu−
+ menical
+
+ 213. Martin V. Otho Colonna, a Roman, cardinal
+ deacon, elected pope at the Council of Con−
+ stance, the 11th Nov. 1417, crowned the
+ 2l3th: he entered Rome the 22d Sept. 1420,
+ died the 21st Feb. 1431
+
+ 214. Clement VIII. Gilles de Mugnos, canon of Bar−
+ celona, elected by two cardinals in 1424, to
+ succeed Benedict XIII. or Peter de Lune,
+ abdicates the 26th July, 1429
+
+ 216. Eugene IV. Gabriel Condolmere, a Venetian,
+ cardinal, bishop of Sienna, elected in the
+ month of March 1431, to succeed Martin V.
+ crowned the 11th of the same month;
+ declares for the Orsini against the Colon−
+ lias; is deposed by the Council of Basle,
+ 22d of June, 1439, died the 23d of Feb. 1440
+
+ Council of Basle, from the 23d of July,
+
+ 1431, to the month of May 1043, the 17th
+ œcumenical Council of Florence, from the 26th Feb.
+
+ 1439, to the 26th April, 1442, 18th œcu−
+ menical
+
+ Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VIII. in
+ 1439
+
+ 216. Felix V. Amadeus VIII. duke of Savoy, elected
+ pope by the Council of Basle, the 6th of Nov.
+ 1439, crowned the 24th of July, 1440,
+ renounced the pontificate the 9th April, 1449
+
+ 217. Nicholas V. Thomas de Sarzane, a Tuscan,
+ cardinal, bishop of Bologna, elected 6th
+ Nov. 1447, to succeed Eugene IV. and
+ crowned pope the 18th of the same month,
+ died the 24th March, 1455
+
+ End of the schism in the West in 1449.
+
+ Taking of Constantinople by the Turks
+ in 1453
+
+ 218. Calixtus, III. Alphonso Borgia, born in 1377
+ at Valencia in Spain, cardinal, archbishop
+ of Valencia, elected pope the 8th April,
+ 1455, and crowned the 20th, died 8th Aug. 1458
+
+ 219. Plus II. Piccolomini, born in 1405 near Sienna,
+ an author under the name of Eneae Sylvias,
+ cardinal, bishop of. Sienna, elected pope in 1468,
+ died at Ancona, in July, 1464
+
+ Bull ‘Execrabiiis.’—Abrogation of the
+ Pragmatic of Louis XI.—Letter of Pius II.
+ to Mahomet II.
+
+ 220. Paul II. Peter Barbo, born at Venice in 1417,
+ cardinal of St. Mark, elected pope the 31st
+ Aug. 1464, crowned the 16th of Sept. the
+ same year, died the 28th July, 1471
+
+ 221. Sixtes IV. Francisco d’Albeacola de la Rovere,
+ born in 1413 at Celles near Savona, a
+ Franciscan, cardinal, elected pope 9th Aug.
+ 1471; died the 13th Aug. 1484
+
+ Conspiracy of the Pazzi against the Me−
+ dici at Florence in 1478
+
+ 222. Innocent VIII. John Baptist Cibo, a noble
+ Genoese, of Greek extraction, born in 1432,
+ cardinal, elected pope the 29th Aug. 1484,
+ crowned 12th Sept. same year,
+ died the 26th July, 1492
+
+ 222. Alexander VI. Rodrigo Borgia, born at Valencia
+ in Spain in 1431, cardinal, archbishop
+ of Valencia, elected pope llth Aug. 1492,
+ crowned the 26th: died the 18th Aug. 1503
+
+ He betrayed Charles VIII. Louis XII.
+
+
+ SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+ 224. Pius III. Peter Piccolomini, nephew of Pius
+ II. cardinal of Sienna, elected pope the 22d
+ Sept. 1603, crowned the 8th Oct. same year,
+ died the 18th of same month. 1503
+
+ 225. Julius II. Julian de la Rovere, born in 1441
+ near Savona, nephew of Sixtus IV. bishop
+ of Carpentras, Albano, Ostia, Bologna, and
+ Avignon, cardinal, elected pope 1st of Nov.
+ 1503, and crowned the 19th, died the 21st Feb. 1513
+
+ League of Cambray.—Louis XII. excommunicated &c.
+
+ Fifth Council of the Lateran, 19th œcumenical,
+ in 1512, 1517.
+
+ 226. Leo X. John de Medicis, son of Lorenzo,
+ born at Florence in 1447, cardinal deacon,
+ elected pope the 11th of March 1513, died 1st Dec. 1521
+
+ Excommunication of Luther.—Concordat
+ with Francis the I. in 1516
+
+ 227. Adrian VI. Adrian Florent, born in 1459,
+ cardinal, bishop of Tortosa, elected pope
+ the 9th of January, 1522 died Sept. 1523
+
+ 228. Clement VII., natural and posthumous son of Julian
+ de Medicis, born at Florence in
+ 1478, archbishop of Florence, cardinal, elected
+ pope 19th Nov. 1523, and crowned the 25th; died Sept 1534
+
+ Holy league against Charles V.—Excommunication
+ of the king of England, Henry VIII.
+
+ 229. Paul III. Alexander Famese, born at Rome
+ in 1466, bishop of Ostia, dean of the sacred
+ college, elected pope the 13th Octo. 1534,
+ crowned the 7th of Nov. died 10th Nov. 1549
+
+ Bull “In cœna Domini,”
+ Council of Trent, from 1545 to 4th Dec.
+ 1563, and last œcumenical.
+
+ 230. Julius III. John Maria del Monte, born at
+ Rome, the 10th Sept. 1487, bishop of Pales−
+ trina, archbishop of Siponte, cardinal, elected
+ pope the 8th of February 1550, and crowned
+ the 20th; died the 23rd of March, 1555
+
+ Excommunication of the king of France,
+ Henry II.
+
+ 231. Marcellus II. Marcel Servin, born at Monte
+ Pulciano, cardinal, elected pope 9th of April,
+ crowned the 26th, and died the 30th same month 1555
+
+ 232. Paul IV. John Peter Caraffa, a noble Venetian,
+ born in 1476, cardinal, elected pope
+ 25th May 1555, crowned the 26th; died 18th Aug. 1559
+
+ The enemy of Spain.—Excommunication
+ of Elizabeth, Queen of England
+
+ 233. Pius IV. John Angelo de Medicis, born at
+ Milan in 1499, cardinal, elected pope the
+ 26th Dec. 1559, and crowned the 6th of Jan.
+ 1550; died the 9th Dec. 1565
+
+ Proscribes the nephews of his predecessors
+
+ 234. Pius V. Michael Ghisleri, a Ligurian, born the
+ 17th Jan. 1504, a Dominican, cardinal, elect−
+ ed pope the 7th Jan. 1556, and crowned the
+ 17th ; died the 1st of May, 1572
+
+ Canonized by Clement XI. in 1712
+ Pius renews the bull: “In cœna Domini.”
+ He bestows on Cosmo de Medecis the title
+ of Grand Duke of Tuscany
+
+ 235. Gregory XIII. Hugues Buon−Compagno,
+ born at Bologna in 1502, bishop of Vesti,
+ cardinal, elected pope 13th of May 1572,
+ and crowned the 25th; died 10th of April, 1585
+
+ Massacre of St. Bartholomew’s−day the
+ 24th of Aug. 1572.—The league
+
+ 236. Sixtus V. Felix Peretti, born at Montalto,
+ in the Marche of Ancona, the 12th Dec.
+ 1521, a herdsman, Cordelier, bishop of St.
+ Agatha, cardinal, elected pope the 24th of
+ April, 1585, died 27th Aug. 1590
+
+ Anathemas against Elizabeth, against
+ Henry IV. king of Navarre, &c.—Henry
+ III. assassinated by James Clement.—
+ The power of Philip II. king of Spain,
+ detestable to Sixtus Quintus
+
+ 237. Urban VII. John Baptist Castagna, born at
+ Rome in 1521, son of a Genoese gentleman,
+ archbishop of Rossano, cardinal, elected
+ pope the 15th Sept. 1520, died the 27th of Sept. 1590
+
+ 238. Gregory XIV. Nicholas Sfondrate, born at
+ Cremona in 1535, bishop of Cremona, cardinal,
+ elected pope the 3rd Dec. 1590, and
+ crowned the 8th; died the 15th October 1591
+
+ 239. Innocent IX. John Anthony Facchinetti, born
+ at Bologna in 1519, bishop of Nicastro in
+ Calabria, elected pope the 29th Oct. 1591,
+ crowned the 3rd Nov. died the 30th Dec. 1591
+
+ 240. Clement VIII. Hippolytus Aldobrandiri, born
+ at Fano in 1536, cardinal, elected pope
+ the 30th of Jan. 1593, crowned eight days
+ after, died in the month of March 1605
+
+ Abjuration and absolution of Henry IV.
+
+ Pithou’s Treatise on the Liberties of the
+ Gallican Church, published in 1594
+
+
+ SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+ 241. Leo XI. Alexander Octavian de Medicis,
+ born at Florence in 1535, cardinal, elected
+ pope 1st of April, and died 27th of April, 1605
+
+ 242. Paul V. Camillus Borghese, born at Rome,
+ cardinal, elected pope 16th May 1605, and
+ crowned the 29th, died 28th January 1621
+
+ Excommunication of the Venetians.—
+ Troubles excited in England.—Bull “In
+ Cœna Domini,” &c.
+
+ 243. Gregory XV. Alexander Ludovisi, born 9th
+ Jan. 1554 at Bologna, archbishop of this
+ city, cardinal, elected pope 9th Feb. 1621, died 1623
+
+ 244. Urban VIII. Maffeus Barberini, of an ancient
+ Florentine family, archbishop of Nazareth,
+ cardinal, elected pope 6th Aug. 1623, and
+ crowned the 29th Sept. died 29th July, 1644
+
+ Excommunication of the Duke of Parma
+
+ 245. Innocent X. J. B. Pamphili, born at Rome
+ 7th May 1574, cardinal in 1629, elected
+ pope 15th Sept 1644, and crowned 29th, died 7th Jan. 1655
+
+ Destruction of Castro.—Refusal of bulls
+ to the Portuguese bishops nominated by
+ John of Braganza.—The Duke of Guise
+ invited to Naples and betrayed.—Bull
+ against the Peace of Munster
+
+ 246. Alexander VII. Fabio Chigi, born at Sienna,
+ the 15th of Feb. 1599, legate, nuncio,
+ cardinal in 1652, elected pope the
+ 7th of April, 1655, died the 22d of May 1667
+
+ Formulary.—The embassador of Louis
+ XIV. insulted at Rome, See.
+
+ 247. Clement IX. Julius Rospigliosi, born at Pistoi in 1600
+ cardinal in 1657, elected pope the 20th June, 1667
+ died the 9th Dec. 1669
+
+ 248 Clement X. J. B. Emile Altieri, born at Rome
+ in 1590, cardinal in 1669, elected pope the
+ 27th April, 1670, died the 22d July, 1676
+
+ 249. Innocent XI. Benedict Odescalchi, born at
+ Como in 1611, cardinal in 1647, elected
+ pope the 21st Sept. 1676, died 12th Aug. 1689
+
+ The Four Articles of 1682
+
+ 250. Alexander VIII. Peter Ottoboni, born at Venice
+ the 19th April 1610, bishop of Brescia,
+ of Frescati, a cardinal in 1652, elected
+ pope the 6th October 1689, died the 1st of Feb. 1691
+
+ 251. Innocent XII. Anthony Pignatelli, born at
+ Naples the 13th March 1615, archbishop
+ of Naples, cardinal, elected pope the 13th
+ July 1691, and crowned the 15th of the
+ same, died the 27th Sept. 1700
+
+ Refusal of bulls of Investiture
+
+
+ EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
+
+ 252. Clement XI. John Francis Albani, born at
+ Pesaro the 22d July 1649, cardinal in 1690,
+ elected pope the 23d November 1700, and
+ consecrated the 30th, died the 19th March, 1721
+
+ Bull ‘Vineam Domini’ in 1705.—Bull
+ ‘Unigenitus’ in 1713.—Quarrels with Vic−
+ tor Amadeus, king of Sicily
+
+ 253. Innocent XIII. Michael Angelo Conti, Segni,
+ born at Rome the 15th May 1655, bishop
+ of Viterbo, cardinal in 1707, elected pope
+ the 8th May 1721, and crowned the 18th;
+ died the 7th Mar. 1724
+
+ 254. Benedict XIII. Peter Francis Orsini, born
+ the 2d Feb. 1649, a Dominican, cardinal,
+ archbishop of Beneventum, elected pope
+ the 29th May, 1724, and crowned the 4th
+ June; died the 21st Feb. 1730
+
+ Legend of Gregory VII.
+
+ 255. Clement XII. Lorenzo Corsini, born at Rome
+ the 7th April, cardinal in 1706, bishop
+ of Frescati, elected pope the 12th July,
+ 1780, and crowned the 16th, died 6th Feb. 1740
+
+ 256. Benedict XIV. Prosper Lambertini, born at
+ Bologna, the 81st March 1675, cardinal in
+ 1728, archbishop of Bologna, elected pope
+ the 17th Aug. 1740, died the 3d of May, 1758
+ Esteemed by all Europe
+
+ 257. Clement XIII. Charles Rezzonico, a noble
+ Venetian, born the 7th of March 1693, cardinal
+ in 1737, bishop of Padua, elected
+ pope the 6th July 1758, and crowned the
+ 16th; died the 2d February, 1769
+
+ Affair of Malagrida in Portugal.—Quarrels
+ with the Duke of Parma
+
+ 258. Clement XIV. Vincent Antoine Ganganelli,
+ born the 31st October 1705, at St. Archangelo
+ near Ripaini, Cordelier, cardinal in
+ 1765, elected pope the 19th May, 1769,
+ crowned the 4th of June, of same year,
+ died the 22d Sept. 1774
+
+ Abrogation of the bull ‘In cœna Domini.’
+
+ —Suppression of the Jesuits
+
+ 259. Pius VI. John Angelo Braschi, born at Cesena
+ the 27th Dec. 1717, cardinal in 1773,
+ elected pope the 15th Feb. 1775, crowned
+ the 22d of the same month, died 29th Aug. 1799
+
+
+ N.B. In the above Chronological Table of thee Popes, the names of Clement VII. Benedict XIII. Clement VIII. and Felix V. be found twice: the latter however are considered as the true successors of St. Peter; this distinction is refused, or but partially allowed, to the first Clement VII. to Peter de Lune, to Gilles de Jugnos, and to Amadeus Duke of Savoy.
+
+END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.
+
+
+
+
+ENDNOTES AND
+
+
+
+
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