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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre> +<p>Title: A Source Book of Mediæval History</p> +<p> Documents Illustrative of European Life and Institutions from the German Invasions to the Renaissance</p> +<p>Editor: Frederic Austin Ogg</p> +<p>Release Date: March 21, 2012 [eBook #39227]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SOURCE BOOK OF MEDIæVAL HISTORY***</p> +<p> </p> +<h4>E-text prepared by Melissa McDaniel<br /> + and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> + (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br /> + from page images generously made available by<br /> + Internet Archive<br /> + (<a href="http://www.archive.org">http://www.archive.org</a>)</h4> +<p> </p> +<div class="tnbox"> +<p class="center"><b>Transcriber's Note:</b></p> +<p>Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. +Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation in the original +document have been preserved.</p> +</div> +<table border="0" style="background-color: #f6f2f2;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Note: + </td> + <td> + Images of the original pages are available through + Internet Archive. See + <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/sourcebookofmedi00oggfuoft"> + http://www.archive.org/details/sourcebookofmedi00oggfuoft</a> + </td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<h1><span class="s08">A SOURCE BOOK OF</span><br /><br /> +MEDIÆVAL HISTORY<br /><br /> + +<span class="s05">DOCUMENTS ILLUSTRATIVE OF EUROPEAN LIFE AND</span><br /> +<span class="s05">INSTITUTIONS FROM THE GERMAN INVASIONS</span><br /> +<span class="s05">TO THE RENAISSANCE</span></h1> + +<p class="p4 center">EDITED BY<br /> +FREDERIC AUSTIN OGG, A.M.<br /><br /> + +<span class="s07">ASSISTANT IN HISTORY IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY</span><br /> +<span class="s07">AND INSTRUCTOR IN SIMMONS COLLEGE</span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p4"> +<img src="images/logo100.jpg" width="100" height="109" alt="Printer's Logo" /> +</div> + +<p class="p4 center">NEW YORK · : · CINCINNATI · : · CHICAGO</p> + +<p class="center b11">AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a></span></p> + +<p class="p6 center"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1907, by</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">FREDERIC AUSTIN OGG</span></p> + +<p class="center s08"><span class="smcap">Entered at Stationers' Hall, London</span><br /> +<span class="s08">W. P. 4</span></p> + +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">3</a></span></p> + +<p>This book has been prepared in consequence of a conviction, derived +from some years of teaching experience, (1) that sources, of +proper kind and in carefully regulated amount, can profitably be +made use of by teachers and students of history in elementary college +classes, in academies and preparatory schools, and in the more advanced +years of the average high school, and (2) that for mediæval +history there exists no published collection which is clearly adapted +to practical conditions of work in such classes and schools.</p> + +<p>It has seemed to me that a source book designed to meet the requirements +of teachers and classes in the better grade of secondary +schools, and perhaps in the freshman year of college work, ought to +comprise certain distinctive features, first, with respect to the character +of the selections presented, and, secondly, in regard to general +arrangement and accompanying explanatory matter. In the choice +of extracts I have sought to be guided by the following considerations: +(1) that in all cases the materials presented should be of real +value, either for the historical information contained in them or for +the more or less indirect light they throw upon mediæval life or conditions; +(2) that, for the sake of younger students, a relatively large proportion +of narrative (annals, chronicles, and biography) be introduced +and the purely documentary material be slightly subordinated; (3) that, +despite this principle, documents of vital importance, such as <i>Magna +Charta</i> and <i>Unam Sanctam</i>, which cannot be ignored in even the most +hasty or elementary study, be presented with some fulness; and (4) that, +in general, the rule should be to give longer passages from fewer sources, +rather than more fragmentary ones from a wider range.</p> + +<p>With respect to the manner of presenting the selections, I have +sought: (1) to offer careful translations—some made afresh from the +printed originals, others adapted from good translations already available—but +with as much simplification and modernization of language +as close adherence to the sense will permit. Literal, or nearly literal, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">4</a></span> +translations are obviously desirable for maturer students, but, because +of the involved character of mediæval writings, are rarely readable, +and are as a rule positively repellent to the young mind; (2) to provide +each selection, or group of selections, with an introductory explanation, +containing the historical setting of the extract, with perhaps +some comment on its general significance, and also a brief sketch of +the writer, particularly when he is an authority of exceptional importance, +as Einhard, Joinville, or Froissart; and (3) to supply, in foot-notes, +somewhat detailed aid to the understanding of obscure allusions, +omitted passages, and especially place names and technical terms.</p> + +<p>For permission to reprint various translations, occasionally verbatim +but usually in adapted form, I am under obligation to the following: +Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin and Co., publishers of Miss Henry's translation +of Dante's <i>De Monarchia</i>; Messrs. Henry Holt and Co., +publishers of Lee's <i>Source Book of English History</i>; Messrs. Ginn and +Co., publishers of Robinson's <i>Readings in European History</i>; Messrs. +Charles Scribner's Sons, publishers of Thatcher and McNeal's <i>Source +Book for Mediæval History</i>; Messrs. G. P. Putnam's Sons, publishers +of Robinson and Rolfe's <i>Petrarch</i>; and Professor W. E. Lingelbach, of +the University of Pennsylvania, representing the University of Pennsylvania +<i>Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European +History</i>.</p> + +<p>In the preparation of the book I have received invaluable assistance +from numerous persons, among whom the following, at least, should +be named: Professor Samuel B. Harding, of the University of Indiana, +who read the entire work in manuscript and has followed its progress +from the first with discerning criticism; Professor Charles H. Haskins, +of Harvard University, who has read most of the proof-sheets, and +whose scholarship and intimate acquaintance with the problems of +history teaching have contributed a larger proportion of whatever +merits the book possesses than I dare attempt to reckon up; and +Professors Charles Gross and Ephraim Emerton, likewise of Harvard, +whose instruction and counsel have helped me over many hard places.</p> + +<p>The final word must be reserved for my wife, who, as careful amanuensis, +has shared the burden of a not altogether easy task.</p> + +<p class="left65"> +FREDERIC AUSTIN OGG.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cambridge, Mass.</span> +</p> + +<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2> + +<h3>THE NATURE AND USE OF HISTORICAL SOURCES</h3> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">5</a></span></p> + +<p>If one proposes to write a history of the times of Abraham Lincoln, +how shall one begin, and how proceed? Obviously, the first thing +needed is information, and as much of it as can be had. But how shall +information, accurate and trustworthy, be obtained? Of course there +are plenty of books on Lincoln, and histories enough covering the +period of his career to fill shelf upon shelf. It would be quite possible +to spread some dozens of these before one's self and, drawing simply +from them, work out a history that would read well and perhaps +have a wide sale. And such a book might conceivably be worth while. +But if you were reading it, and were a bit disposed to query into the +accuracy of the statements made, you would probably find yourself +wondering before long just where the writer got his authority for this +or that assertion; and if, in foot-note or appendix, he should seem to +satisfy your curiosity by citing some other biography or history, you +would be quite justified in feeling that, after all, your inquiry remained +unanswered,—for whence did this second writer get <i>his</i> authority? If +<span class="sidebar">The question +of authority +in a book +of history</span> +you were thus persistent you would probably get hold of the volume +referred to and verify, as we say, the statements of fact +or opinion attributed to it. When you came upon them +you might find it there stated that the point in question +is clearly established from certain of Lincoln's own letters or +speeches, which are thereupon cited, and perhaps quoted in part. +At last you would be satisfied that the thing must very probably be +true, for there you would have the words of Lincoln himself upon it; +or, on the other hand, you might discover that your first writer had +merely adopted an opinion of somebody else which did not have behind +it the warrant of any first-hand authority. In either case you might +well wonder why, instead of using and referring only to books of other +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">6</a></span> +later authors like himself, he did not go directly to Lincoln's own works, +get his facts from them, and give authority for his statements at first +hand. And if you pushed the matter farther it would very soon occur +to you that there are some books on Lincoln and his period which are +not carefully written, and therefore not trustworthy, and that your +author may very well have used some of these, falling blindly into their +errors and at times wholly escaping the correct interpretation of things +which could be had, in incontrovertible form, from Lincoln's own pen, +or from the testimony of his contemporaries. In other words, you +would begin to distrust him because he had failed to go to the +"sources" for his materials, or at least for a verification of them.</p> + +<p>How, then, shall one proceed in the writing of history in order to +make sure of the indispensable quality of accuracy? Clearly, the first +thing to be borne in mind is the necessity of getting information through +channels which are as direct and immediate as possible. Just as in +ascertaining the facts regarding an event of to-day it would be desirable +to get the testimony of an eye-witness rather than an account +after it had passed from one person to another, suffering more or less +distortion at every step, so, in seeking a trustworthy description of the +<span class="sidebar">The superiority +of direct +sources of +knowledge</span> +battle of Salamis or of the personal habits of Charlemagne, +the proper course would be to lay hold first of +all of whatever evidence concerning these things has +come down from Xerxes's or Charlemagne's day to our own, and to put +larger trust in this than in more recent accounts which have been played +upon by the imagination of their authors and perhaps rendered wholly +misleading by errors consciously or unconsciously injected into them. +The writer of history must completely divest himself of the notion that +a thing is true simply because he finds it in print. He may, and +should, read and consider well what others like himself have written +upon his subject, but he should be wary of accepting what he finds in +such books without himself going to the materials to which these +writers have resorted and ascertaining whether they have been used +with patience and discrimination. If his subject is Lincoln, he should, +for example, make sure above everything else, of reading exhaustively +the letters, speeches, and state papers which have been preserved, +in print or in manuscript, from Lincoln's pen. Similarly, he should +examine with care all letters and communications of every kind transmitted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">7</a></span> +to Lincoln. Then he should familiarize himself with the writings +of the leading men of Lincoln's day, whether in the form of letters, +diaries, newspaper and magazine articles, or books. The files, indeed, +of all the principal periodicals of the time should be gone through in +quest of information or suggestions not to be found in other places. +And, of course, the vast mass of public and official records would be +invaluable—the journals of the two houses of Congress, the dispatches, +orders, and accounts of the great executive departments, the arguments +before the courts, with the resulting decisions, and the all but numberless +other papers which throw light upon the practical conditions and +achievements of the governing powers, national, state, and local. However +much one may be able to acquire from the reading of later biographies +and histories, he ought not to set about the writing of a new +book of the sort unless he is willing to toil patiently through all these +first-hand, contemporary materials and get some warrant from them, +as being nearest the events themselves, for everything of importance +that he proposes to say. This rule is equally applicable and urgent +whatever the subject in hand—whether the age of Pericles, the Roman +Empire, the Norman conquest of England, the French Revolution, or +the administrations of George Washington—though, obviously, the +character and amount of the contemporary materials of which one can +avail himself varies enormously from people to people and from period +to period.</p> + +<p>History is unlike many other subjects of study in that our knowledge +of it, at best, must come to us almost wholly through indirect +means. That is to say, all our information regarding the past, and most +of it regarding our own day, has to be obtained, in one form or another, +through other people, or the remains that they have left behind them. +No one of us can know much about even so recent an event as the +<span class="sidebar">Indirect +character of +all historical +knowledge</span> +Spanish-American War, except by reading newspapers, +magazines and books, talking with men who had part +in it, or listening to public addresses concerning it—all +indirect means. And, of course, when we go back of the memory of +men now living, say to the American Revolution, nobody can lay claim +to an iota of knowledge which he has not acquired through indirect +channels. In physics or chemistry, if a student desires, he can reproduce +in the laboratory practically any phenomenon which he finds +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">8</a></span> +described in his books; he need not accept the mere word of his text +or of his teacher, but can actually behold the thing with his own eyes. +Such experimentation, however, has no place in the study of history, +for by no sort of art can a Roman legion or a German comitatus or the +battle of Hastings be reproduced before mortal eye.</p> + +<p>For our knowledge of history we are therefore obliged to rely absolutely +upon human testimony, in one form or another, the value of +such testimony depending principally upon the directness with which +it comes to us from the men and the times under consideration. If it +reaches us with reasonable directness, and represents a well authenticated +means of studying the period in question from the writings or other +<span class="sidebar">An "historical +source" +defined</span> +traces left by that period, it is properly to be included +in the great body of materials which we have come to +call historical sources. An historical source may be +defined as any product of human activity or existence that can be +used as direct evidence in the study of man's past life and institutions. +A moment's thought will suggest that there are "sources" of numerous +and widely differing kinds. Roughly speaking, at least, they fall into +two great groups: (1) those in writing and (2) those in some form other +than writing. The first group is by far the larger and more important. +Foremost in it stand annals, chronicles, and histories, written from time +to time all along the line of human history, on the cuneiform +tablets of the Assyrians or the parchment rolls of the mediæval monks, +in the polished Latin of a Livy or the sprightly French of a Froissart. +Works of pure literature also—epics, lyrics, dramas, essays—because +of the light that they often throw upon the times in which they were +written, possess a large value of the same general character. Of nearly +equal importance is the great class of materials which may be called +documentary—laws, charters, formulæ, accounts, treaties, and official +<span class="sidebar">Written +sources</span> +orders or instructions. These last are obviously of +largest value in the study of social customs, land +tenures, systems of government, the workings of courts, ecclesiastical +organizations, and political agencies—in other words, of <i>institutions</i>—just +as chronicles and histories are of greatest service in unraveling the +<i>narrative</i> side of human affairs.</p> + +<p>Of sources which are not in the form of writing, the most important +are: (1) implements of warfare, agriculture, household economy, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">9</a></span> +the chase, large quantities of which have been brought to light in +various parts of the world, and which bear witness to the manner of +life prevailing among the peoples who produced and used them; (2) coins, +hoarded up in treasuries or buried in tombs or ruins of one sort or another, +<span class="sidebar">Sources +other than +in writing</span> +frequently preserving likenesses of important sovereigns, with +dates and other materials of use especially in fixing +chronology; (3) works of art, surviving intact or with +losses or changes inflicted by the ravages of weather +and human abuse—the tombs of the Egyptians, the sculpture of the +Greeks, the architecture of the Middle Ages, or the paintings of the +Renaissance; (4) other constructions of a more practical character, +particularly dwelling-houses, roads, bridges, aqueducts, walls, gates, +fortresses, and ships,—some well preserved and surviving as they were +first fashioned, others in ruins, and still others built over and more or +less obscured by modern improvement or adaptation.</p> + +<p>These are some of the things to which the writer of history must go +for his facts and for his inspiration, and it is to these that the +student, whose business is to learn and not to write, ought occasionally +to resort to enliven and supplement what he finds in the books. As +there are many kinds of sources, so there are many ways in which such +materials may be utilized. If, for example, you are studying the life of +the Greeks and in that connection pay a visit to a museum of fine arts +and scrutinize Greek statuary, Greek vases, and Greek coins, you +are very clearly using sources. If your subject is the church life of +the later Middle Ages and you journey to Rheims or Amiens or Paris +to contemplate the splendid cathedrals in these cities, with their spires +<span class="sidebar">Various +ways of using +sources</span> +and arches and ornamentation, you are, in every +proper sense, using sources. You are doing the same +thing if you make an observation trip to the Egyptian +pyramids, or to the excavated Roman forum, or if you traverse the +line of old Watling Street—nay, if you but visit Faneuil Hall, or tramp +over the battlefield of Gettysburg. Many of these more purely "material" +sources can be made use of only after long and sometimes +arduous journeys, or through the valuable, but somewhat less +satisfactory, medium of pictures and descriptions. Happily, however, +the art of printing and the practice of accumulating enormous +libraries have made possible the indefinite duplication of <i>written</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">10</a></span> +sources, and consequently the use of them at almost any time and in +almost any place. There is but one Sphinx, one Parthenon, one Sistine +Chapel; there are not many Roman roads, feudal castles, or Gothic +cathedrals; but scarcely a library in any civilized country is without +a considerable number of the monumental <i>documents</i> of human history—the +funeral oration of Pericles, the laws of Tiberius Gracchus, Magna +Charta, the theses of Luther, the Bill of Rights, the Constitution of the +United States—not to mention the all but limitless masses of histories, +biographies, poems, letters, essays, memoirs, legal codes, and official +records of every variety which are available for any one who seriously +desires to make use of them.</p> + +<p>But why should the younger student trouble himself, or be troubled, +with any of these things? Might he not get all the history he can be +expected to know from books written by scholars who have given their +lives to exploring, organizing, and sifting just such sources? There can +be no question that schools and colleges to-day have the use of better +text-books in history than have ever before been available, and that +truer notions of the subject in its various relations can be had from even +the most narrow devotion to these texts than could be had from the +study of their predecessors a generation ago. If the object of studying +history were solely to acquire facts, it would, generally speaking, be a +waste of time for high school or younger college students to wander far +from text-books. But, assuming that history is studied not alone for +the mastery of facts but also for the broadening of culture, and for certain +kinds of mental training, the properly regulated use of sources by the +student himself is to be justified on at least three grounds: (1) Sources +<span class="sidebar">The value +of sources +to the student</span> +help to an understanding of the point of view of the men, +and the spirit of the age under consideration. The +ability to dissociate one's self from his own surroundings +and habits of thinking and to put himself in the company of Cæsar, of +Frederick Barbarossa, or of Innocent III., as the occasion may require, +is the hardest, but perhaps the most valuable, thing that the student +of history can hope to get. (2) Sources add appreciably to the vividness +and reality of history. However well-written the modern description +of Charlemagne, for example, the student ought to find a somewhat +different flavor in the account by the great Emperor's own friend +and secretary, Einhard; and, similarly, Matthew Paris's picture of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">11</a></span> +the raving and fuming of Frederick II. at his excommunication by +Pope Gregory ought to bring the reader into a somewhat more intimate +appreciation of the character of the proud German-Sicilian emperor. +(3) The use of sources, in connection with the reading of secondary +works, may be expected to train the student, to some extent at least, +in methods of testing the accuracy of modern writers, especially when +the subject in hand is one that lends itself to a variety of interpretations. +In the sources the makers of history, or those who stood close +to them, are allowed to speak for themselves, or for their times, and the +study of such materials not only helps plant in the student's mind the +conception of fairness and impartiality in judging historical characters, +but also cultivates the habit of tracing things back to their origins and +verifying what others have asserted about them. So far as practicable +the student of history, from the age of fourteen and onwards, should be +encouraged to develop the critical or judicial temperament along with +the purely acquisitive.</p> + +<p>In preparing a source book, such as the present one, the purpose is to +further the study of the most profitable sources by removing some of +the greater difficulties, particularly those of accessibility and language. +Clearly impracticable as anything like historical "research" undoubtedly +is for younger students, it is none the less believed that there are +abundant first-hand materials in the range of history which such students +will not only find profitable but actually enjoy, and that any +<span class="sidebar">Simplicity +of many +mediæval +sources</span> +acquaintance with these things that may be acquired +in earlier studies will be of inestimable advantage subsequently. +It is furthermore believed, contrary to the +assertions that one sometimes hears, that the history of the Middle +Ages lends itself to this sort of treatment with scarcely, if any, less +facility than that of other periods. Certainly Gregory's Clovis, Asser's +Alfred, Einhard's Charlemagne, and Joinville's St. Louis are living personalities, +no less vividly portrayed than the heroes of a boy's storybook. +Tacitus's description of the early Germans, Ammianus's account +of the crossing of the Danube by the Visigoths and his pictures of the +Huns, Bede's narrative of the Saxon invasion of Britain, the affectionate +letter Stephen of Blois to his wife and children, the portrayal +of the sweet-spirited St. Francis by the Three Companions, and Froissart's +free and easy sketch of the battle of Crécy are all interesting, easily +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">12</a></span> +comprehended, and even adapted to whet the appetite for a larger acquaintance +with these various people and events. Even solid documents, +like the Salic law, the Benedictine Rule, the Peace of Constance, +and the Golden Bull, if not in themselves exactly attractive, +may be made to have a certain interest for the younger student when +he realizes that to know mediæval history at all he is under the imperative +necessity of getting much of the framework of things either from +such materials or from text-books which essentially reproduce them. +It is hoped that at least a reasonable proportion of the selections +herewith presented may serve in some measure to overcome for the +student the remote and intangible character which the Middle Ages +have much too commonly, though perhaps not unnaturally, been felt +to possess.</p> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">13</a></span></p> + +<table summary="Table of Contents"> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec"><span class="s07">SECTION</span></td> +<td class="td_pg"><span class="s07">PAGE</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER I.—THE EARLY GERMANS</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">1. A Sketch by Cæsar</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">2. A Description by Tacitus</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER II.—THE VISIGOTHIC INVASION</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">3. The Visigoths Cross the Danube (376)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">4. The Battle of Adrianople (378)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER III.—THE HUNS</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">5. Description by a Græco-Roman Poet and a Roman Historian</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER IV.—THE EARLY FRANKS</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">6. The Deeds of Clovis as Related by Gregory of Tours</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">7. The Law of the Salian Franks</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER V.—THE ANGLES AND SAXONS IN +BRITAIN</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">8. The Saxon Invasion (cir. 449)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">9. The Mission of Augustine (597)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER VI.—THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE +CHRISTIAN CHURCH</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">10. Pope Leo's Sermon on the Petrine Supremacy</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">11. The Rule of St. Benedict</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">12. Gregory the Great on the Life of the Pastor</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER VII.—THE RISE OF MOHAMMEDANISM</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">13. Selections from the Koran</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_97">97</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">14</a></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER VIII.—THE BEGINNINGS OF THE +CAROLINGIAN DYNASTY OF FRANKISH KINGS</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">14. Pepin the Short Takes the Title of King (751)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER IX.—THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">15. Charlemagne the Man</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">16. The War with the Saxons (772-803)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">17. The Capitulary Concerning the Saxon Territory (cir. 780)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">18. The Capitulary Concerning the Royal Domains (cir. 800)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">19. An Inventory of one of Charlemagne's Estates</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">20. Charlemagne Crowned Emperor (800)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">21. The General Capitulary for the <i>Missi</i> (802)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">22. A Letter of Charlemagne to Abbot Fulrad</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">23. The Carolingian Revival of Learning</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER X.—THE ERA OF THE LATER +CAROLINGIANS</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">24. The Oaths of Strassburg (842)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">25. The Treaty of Verdun (843)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">26. A Chronicle of the Frankish Kingdom in the Ninth Century</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">27. The Northmen in the Country of the Franks</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">28. Later Carolingian Efforts to Preserve Order</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">29. The Election of Hugh Capet (987)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XI.—ALFRED THE GREAT IN WAR AND +IN PEACE</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">30. The Danes in England</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">31. Alfred's Interest in Education</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">32. Alfred's Laws</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XII.—THE ORDEAL</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">33. Tests by Hot Water, Cold Water, and Fire</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XIII.—THE FEUDAL SYSTEM</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">34. Older Institutions Involving Elements of Feudalism</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">35. The Granting of Fiefs</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_214">214</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">15</a></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">36. The Ceremonies of Homage and Fealty</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">37. The Mutual Obligations of Lords and Vassals</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">38. Some of the More Important Rights of the Lord</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">39. The Peace and the Truce of God</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XIV.—THE NORMAN CONQUEST</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">40. The Battle of Hastings: the English and the Normans</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">41. William the Conqueror as Man and as King</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XV.—THE MONASTIC REFORMATION +OF THE TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND TWELFTH +CENTURIES</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">42. The Foundation Charter of the Monastery of Cluny (910)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">43. The Early Career of St. Bernard and the Founding of Clairvaux</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">44. A Description of Clairvaux</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XVI.—THE CONFLICT OVER INVESTITURE</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">45. Gregory VII.'s Conception of the Papal Authority</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">46. Letter of Gregory VII. to Henry IV. (1075)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_264">264</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">47. Henry IV.'s Reply to Gregory's Letter (1076)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_269">269</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">48. Henry IV. Deposed by Gregory (1076)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_272">272</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">49. The Penance of Henry IV. at Canossa (1077)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">50. The Concordat of Worms (1122)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XVII.—THE CRUSADES</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">51. Speech of Pope Urban II. at the Council of Clermont (1095)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">52. The Starting of the Crusaders (1096)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">53. A Letter from a Crusader to his Wife</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XVIII.—THE GREAT CHARTER</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">54. The Winning of the Great Charter</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_297">297</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">55. Extracts from the Charter</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_303">303</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">16</a></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XIX.—THE REIGN OF SAINT LOUIS</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">56. The Character and Deeds of the King as Described by +Joinville</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_311">311</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XX.—MUNICIPAL ORGANIZATION AND +ACTIVITY</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">57. Some Twelfth Century Town Charters</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">58. The Colonization of Eastern Germany</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">59. The League of Rhenish Cities (1254)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_334">334</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XXI.—UNIVERSITIES AND STUDENT +LIFE</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">60. Privileges Granted to Students and Masters</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">61. The Foundation of the University of Heidelberg (1386)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_345">345</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">62. Mediæval Students' Songs</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_351">351</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XXII.—THE FRIARS</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">63. The Life of St. Francis</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_362">362</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">64. The Rule of St. Francis</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_373">373</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">65. The Will of St. Francis</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_376">376</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XXIII.—THE PAPACY AND THE TEMPORAL +POWERS IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">66. The Interdict Laid on France by Innocent III. (1200)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_380">380</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">67. The Bull "Unam Sanctam" of Boniface VIII. (1302)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_383">383</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">68. The Great Schism and the Councils of Pisa and Constance</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_389">389</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">69. The Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges (1438)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_393">393</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XXIV.—THE EMPIRE IN THE TWELFTH, +THIRTEENTH, AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">70. The Peace of Constance (1183)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_398">398</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">71. Current Rumors Concerning the Life and Character of +Frederick II.</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_402">402</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">72. The Golden Bull of Charles IV. (1356)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_409">409</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">17</a></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XXV.—THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">73. An Occasion of War between the Kings of England and France</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_418">418</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">74. Edward III. Assumes the Arms and Title of the King of +France</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_421">421</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">75. The Naval Battle of Sluys (1340)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_424">424</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">76. The Battle of Crécy (1346)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_427">427</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">77. The Sack of Limoges (1370)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_436">436</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">78. The Treaties of Bretigny (1360) and Troyes (1420)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_439">439</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XXVI.—THE BEGINNINGS OF THE +ITALIAN RENAISSANCE</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">79. Dante's Defense of Italian as a Literary Language</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_445">445</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">80. Dante's Conception of the Imperial Power</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_452">452</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">81. Petrarch's Love of the Classics</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_462">462</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">82. Petrarch's Letter to Posterity</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_469">469</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XXVII.—FORESHADOWINGS OF THE +REFORMATION</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="td_sec">83. The Reply of Wyclif to the Summons of Pope Urban VI. +(1384)</td> +<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_474">474</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h2>A SOURCE BOOK OF MEDIÆVAL<br /> +HISTORY</h2> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">19</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.<br /> +THE EARLY GERMANS</h3> + +<h4>1. A Sketch by Cæsar</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>One of the most important steps in the expansion of the Roman +Republic was the conquest of Gaul by Julius Cæsar just before the middle +of the first century <span class="s07">B.C.</span> Through this conquest Rome entered deliberately +upon the policy of extending her dominion northward from +the Mediterranean and the Alps into the regions of western and central +Europe known to us to-day as France and Germany. By their wars +in this direction the Romans were brought into contact with peoples +concerning whose manner of life they had hitherto known very little. +There were two great groups of these peoples—the Gauls and the +Germans—each divided and subdivided into numerous tribes and clans. +In general it may be said that the Gauls occupied what we now call +France and the Germans what we know as Belgium, Holland, Denmark, +Germany, and Austria. The Rhine marked a pretty clear boundary +between them.</p> + +<p>During the years 58-50 <span class="s07">B.C.</span>, Julius Cæsar, who had risen to the +proconsulship through a long series of offices and honors at Rome, +served the state as leader of five distinct military expeditions in this +country of the northern barbarians. The primary object of these +campaigns was to establish order among the turbulent tribes of Gauls +and to prepare the way for the extension of Roman rule over them. +This great task was performed very successfully, but in accomplishing +it Cæsar found it necessary to go somewhat farther than had at first +been intended. In the years 55 and 54 <span class="s07">B.C.</span>, he made two expeditions +to Britain to punish the natives for giving aid to their Celtic kinsfolk +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">20</a></span> +in Gaul, and in 55 and 53 he crossed the Rhine to compel the Germans +to remain on their own side of the river and to cease troubling the Gauls +by raids and invasions, as they had recently been doing. When (about +51 <span class="s07">B.C.</span>) he came to write his <i>Commentaries on the Gallic War</i>, it is +very natural that he should have taken care to give a brief sketch of +the leading peoples whom he had been fighting, that is, the Gauls, the +Britons, and the Germans. There are two places in the <i>Commentaries</i> +where the Germans are described at some length. At the beginning +of Book IV. there is an account of the particular tribe known as the +Suevi, and in the middle of Book VI. there is a longer sketch of the +Germans in general. This latter is the passage translated below. Of +course we are not to suppose that Cæsar's knowledge of the Germans +was in any sense thorough. At no time did he get far into their +country, and the people whose manners and customs he had an +opportunity to observe were only those who were pressing down upon, +and occasionally across, the Rhine boundary—a mere fringe of the +great race stretching back to the Baltic and, at that time, far eastward +into modern Russia. We may be sure that many of the more remote +German tribes lived after a fashion quite different from that which +Cæsar and his legions had an opportunity to observe on the Rhine-Danube +frontier. Still, Cæsar's account, vague and brief as it is, has +an importance that can hardly be exaggerated. These early Germans +had no written literature and but for the descriptions of them left by +a few Roman writers, such as Cæsar, we should know almost nothing +about them. If we bear in mind that the account in the <i>Commentaries</i> +was based upon very keen, though limited, observation, we can get out +of it a good deal of interesting information concerning the early ancestors +of the great Teutonic peoples of the world to-day.</p> +</div> +<p class="source"> +Source—Julius Cæsar, <i>De Bello Gallico</i> ["The Gallic War"], Bk. VI., +Chaps. 21-23.</p> + +<p><b>21.</b> The customs of the Germans differ widely from those of +the Gauls;<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> for neither have they Druids to preside over religious +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">21</a></span> +services,<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> nor do they give much attention to sacrifices. They +count in the number of their gods those only whom they can +see, and by whose favors they are clearly aided; +that is to say, the Sun, Vulcan,<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> and the Moon. +<span class="sidebar">Their +religion</span> +Of other deities they have never even heard. Their whole life +is spent in hunting and in war. From childhood they are trained +in labor and hardship....</p> + +<p><b>22.</b> They are not devoted to agriculture, and the greater +portion of their food consists of milk, cheese, and flesh. No one +<span class="sidebar">Their system +of land tenure</span> +owns a particular piece of land, with fixed limits, +but each year the magistrates and the chiefs +assign to the clans and the bands of kinsmen who have assembled +together as much land as they think proper, and in whatever +place they desire, and the next year compel them to move to +some other place. They give many reasons for this custom—that +the people may not lose their zeal for war through habits +established by prolonged attention to the cultivation of the +soil; that they may not be eager to acquire large possessions, +and that the stronger may not drive the weaker from their +property; that they may not build too carefully, in order to +avoid cold and heat; that the love of money may not spring up, +from which arise quarrels and dissensions; and, finally, that the +common people may live in contentment, since each person +sees that his wealth is kept equal to that of the most powerful.</p> + +<p><b>23.</b> It is a matter of the greatest glory to the tribes to lay +waste, as widely as possible, the lands bordering their territory, +thus making them uninhabitable.<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> They regard it as the best +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">22</a></span> +proof of their valor that their neighbors are forced to withdraw +from those lands and hardly any one dares set foot there; at the +same time they think that they will thus be more secure, since +the fear of a sudden invasion is removed. When a tribe is either +repelling an invasion or attacking an outside people, magistrates +<span class="sidebar">Leaders and +officers in war +and peace</span> +are chosen to lead in the war, and these are given +the power of life and death. In times of peace +there is no general magistrate, but the chiefs of +the districts and cantons render justice among their own people +and settle disputes.<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> Robbery, if committed beyond the borders +of the tribe, is not regarded as disgraceful, and they say that it is +practised for the sake of training the youth and preventing +idleness. When any one of the chiefs has declared in an assembly +that he is going to be the leader of an expedition, and that +those who wish to follow him should give in their names, they +who approve of the undertaking, and of the man, stand up and +promise their assistance, and are applauded by the people. +Such of these as do not then follow him are looked upon as +deserters and traitors, and from that day no one has any faith +in them.</p> + +<p>To mistreat a guest they consider to be a crime. They protect +<span class="sidebar">German +hospitality</span> + +from injury those who have come among them for +any purpose whatever, and regard them as sacred. +To them the houses of all are open and food is freely supplied.</p> +<h4>2. A Description by Tacitus</h4> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">23</a></span></p> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>Tacitus (54-119),<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> who is sometimes credited with being the +greatest of Roman historians, published his treatise on the <i>Origin, +Location, Manners, and Inhabitants of Germany</i> in the year 98. This +was about a century and a half after Cæsar wrote his <i>Commentaries</i>. +During this long interval we have almost no information as to how the +Germans were living or what they were doing. There is much uncertainty +as to the means by which Tacitus got his knowledge of them. We +may be reasonably sure that he did not travel extensively through the +country north of the Rhine; there is, in fact, not a shred of evidence +that he ever visited it at all. He tells us that he made use of Cæsar's +account, but this was very meager and could not have been of much +service. We are left to surmise that he drew most of his information +from books then existing but since lost, such as the writings of +Posidonius of Rhodes (136-51 <span class="s07">B.C.</span>) and Pliny the Elder (23-79). +These sources were doubtless supplemented by the stories of officials +and traders who had been among the Germans and were afterwards +interviewed by the historian. Tacitus's essay, therefore, while written +with a desire to tell the truth, was apparently not based on first-hand +information. The author nowhere says that he had <i>seen</i> this or that +feature of German life. We may suppose that what he really did was +to gather up all the stories and reports regarding the German barbarians +which were already known to Roman traders, travelers, and soldiers, +sift the true from the false as well as he could, and write out in first class +Latin the little book which we know as the <i>Germania</i>. The theory that +the work was intended as a satire, or sermon in morals, for the benefit +of a corrupt Roman people has been quite generally abandoned, and +this for the very good reason that there is nothing in either the treatise's +contents or style to warrant such a belief. Tacitus wrote the book +because of his general interest in historical and geographical subjects, +and also, perhaps, because it afforded him an excellent opportunity to +display a literary skill in which he took no small degree of pride. That +it was published separately instead of in one of his larger histories may +have been due to public interest in the subject during Trajan's wars in +the Rhine country in the years 98 and 99. The first twenty-seven +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">24</a></span> +chapters, from which the selections below are taken, treat of the Germans +in general—their origin, religion, family life, occupations, military tactics, +amusements, land system, government, and social classes; the last +nineteen deal with individual tribes and are not so accurate or so valuable. +It will be found interesting to compare what Tacitus says with +what Cæsar says when both touch upon the same topic. In doing so it +should be borne in mind that there was a difference in time of a century +and a half between the two writers, and also that while Tacitus probably +did not write from experience among the Germans, as Cæsar did, he +nevertheless had given the subject a larger amount of deliberate study.</p> +</div> +<p class="source">Source—C. Cornelius Tacitus, <i>De Origine, Situ, Moribus, ac Populis Germanorum</i> +[known commonly as the "Germania"], Chaps. 4-24, +<i>passim</i>. Adapted from translation by Alfred J. Church and William +J. Brodribb (London, 1868), pp. 1-16. Text in numerous +editions, as that of William F. Allen (Boston, 1882) and that of +Henry Furneau (Oxford, 1894).</p> + +<p><b>4.</b> For my own part, I agree with those who think that the +tribes of Germany are free from all trace of intermarriage with +<span class="sidebar">Physical characteristics</span> +foreign nations, and that they appear as a distinct, +unmixed race, like none but themselves. +Hence it is that the same physical features are to be observed +throughout so vast a population. All have fierce blue eyes, reddish +hair, and huge bodies fit only for sudden exertion. They are +not very able to endure labor that is exhausting. Heat and thirst +they cannot withstand at all, though to cold and hunger their +climate and soil have hardened them.</p> + +<p><b>6.</b> Iron is not plentiful among them, as may be inferred from +the nature of their weapons.<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> Only a few make use of swords or +long lances. Ordinarily they carry a spear (which they call a +<i>framea</i>), with a short and narrow head, but so sharp and easy to +handle that the same weapon serves, according to circumstances, +for close or distant conflict. As for the horse-soldier, he is satisfied +with a shield and a spear. The foot-soldiers also scatter +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">25</a></span> +showers of missiles, each man having several and hurling them +to an immense distance, and being naked or lightly clad with a +little cloak. They make no display in their equipment. Their +shields alone are marked with fancy colors. Only a few have +corselets,<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> and just one or two here and there a metal or leather +<span class="sidebar">Their weapons +and mode of +fighting</span> +helmet.<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> Their horses are neither beautiful nor +swift; nor are they taught various wheeling +movements after the Roman fashion, but are +driven straight forward so as to make one turn to the right in +such a compact body that none may be left behind another. On +the whole, one would say that the Germans' chief strength is in +their infantry. It fights along with the cavalry, and admirably +adapted to the movements of the latter is the swiftness of certain +foot-soldiers, who are picked from the entire youth of their +country and placed in front of the battle line.<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> The number of +these is fixed, being a hundred from each <i>pagus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> and from this +they take their name among their countrymen, so that what was +at the outset a mere number has now become a title of honor. +Their line of battle is drawn up in the shape of a wedge. To +yield ground, provided they return to the attack, is regarded as +prudence rather than cowardice. The bodies of their slain +they carry off, even when the battle has been indecisive. To +abandon one's shield is the basest of crimes. A man thus disgraced +is not allowed to be present at the religious ceremonies, or +to enter the council. Many, indeed, after making a cowardly +escape from battle put an end to their infamy by hanging themselves.<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">26</a></span></p> + +<p><b>7.</b> They choose their kings<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> by reason of their birth, but their +generals on the ground of merit. The kings do not enjoy unlimited +or despotic power, and even the generals command more +by example than by authority. If they are energetic, if they take +a prominent part, if they fight in the front, they lead because +they are admired. But to rebuke, to imprison, even to flog, is +allowed to the priests alone, and this not as a punishment, or at +the general's bidding, but by the command of the god whom +they believe to inspire the warrior. They also carry with them +<span class="sidebar">The Germans +in battle</span> +into battle certain figures and images taken +from their sacred groves.<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> The thing that most +strengthens their courage is the fact that their troops are not +made up of bodies of men chosen by mere chance, but are arranged +by families and kindreds. Close by them, too, are those +dearest to them, so that in the midst of the fight they can hear +the shrieks of women and the cries of children. These loved ones +are to every man the most valued witnesses of his valor, and at +the same time his most generous applauders. The soldier brings +his wounds to mother or wife, who shrinks not from counting +them, or even demanding to see them, and who provides food +for the warriors and gives them encouragement.</p> + +<p><b>11.</b> About matters of small importance the chiefs alone take +counsel, but the larger questions are considered by the entire +tribe. Yet even when the final decision rests with the people +the affair is always thoroughly discussed by the chiefs. Except +in the case of a sudden emergency, the people hold their assemblies +on certain fixed days, either at the new or the full moon; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">27</a></span> +for these they consider the most suitable times for the transaction +<span class="sidebar">Their popular +assemblies</span> +of business. Instead of counting by days, as we do, +they count by nights, and in this way designate +both their ordinary and their legal engagements. They regard +the night as bringing on the day. Their freedom has one disadvantage, +in that they do not all come together at the same time, +or as they are commanded, but two or three days are wasted in +the delay of assembling. When the people present think proper, +they sit down armed. Silence is proclaimed by the priests who, +on these occasions, are charged with the duty of keeping order. +The king or the leader speaks first, and then others in order, as +age, or rank, or reputation in war, or eloquence, give them right. +The speakers are heard more because of their ability to persuade +than because of their power to command. If the speeches are +displeasing to the people, they reject them with murmurs; if they +are pleasing, they applaud by clashing their weapons together, +which is the kind of applause most highly esteemed.<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> + +<p><b>13.</b> They transact no public or private business without being +armed, but it is not allowable for any one to bear arms until he +has satisfied the tribe that he is fit to do so. Then, in the presence +of the assembly, one of the chiefs, or the young man's father, or +some kinsman, equips him with a shield and a spear. These arms +are what the toga is with the Romans, the first honor with which +a youth is invested. Up to this time he is regarded as merely a +member of a household, but afterwards as a member of the state. +Very noble birth, or important service rendered by the father, +secures for a youth the rank of chief, and such lads attach themselves +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">28</a></span> +to men of mature strength and of fully tested valor. It is no +<span class="sidebar">The chiefs and +their companions</span> +shame to be numbered among a chief's companions.<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> The companions +have different ranks in the band, according +to the will of the chief; and there is great +rivalry among the companions for first place in +the chief's favor, as there is among the chiefs for the possession +of the largest and bravest throng of followers. It is an honor, as +well as a source of strength, to be thus always surrounded by a +large body of picked youths, who uphold the rank of the chief in +peace and defend him in war. The fame of such a chief and his +band is not confined to their own tribe, but is spread among +foreign peoples; they are sought out and honored with gifts in +order to secure their alliance, for the reputation of such a band +may decide a whole war.</p> + +<p><b>14.</b> In battle it is considered shameful for the chief to allow +any of his followers to excel him in valor, and for the followers +not to equal their chief in deeds of bravery. To survive the chief +and return from the field is a disgrace and a reproach for life. +To defend and protect him, and to add to his renown by courageous +fighting is the height of loyalty. The chief fights for +victory; the companions must fight for the chief. If their native +state sinks into the sloth of peace and quiet, many noble youths +<span class="sidebar">The German +love of war</span> +voluntarily seek those tribes which are waging +some war, both because inaction is disliked by +their race and because it is in war that they win renown most +readily; besides, a chief can maintain a band only by war, for +the men expect to receive their war-horse and their arms from +their leader. Feasts and entertainments, though not elegant, are +plentifully provided and constitute their only pay. The means of +such liberality are best obtained from the booty of war. Nor +are they as easily persuaded to plow the earth and to wait for the +year's produce as to challenge an enemy and earn the glory of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">29</a></span> +wounds. Indeed, they actually think it tame and stupid to +acquire by the sweat of toil what they may win by their blood.<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p> + +<p><b>15.</b> When not engaged in war they pass much of their time in +the chase, and still more in idleness, giving themselves up to +sleep and feasting. The bravest and most warlike do no work; +they give over the management of the household, of the home, +and of the land to the women, the old men, and the weaker +<span class="sidebar">Life in times +of peace</span> +members of the family, while they themselves +remain in the most sluggish inactivity. It is +strange that the same men should be so fond of idleness and yet +so averse to peace.<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> It is the custom of the tribes to make their +chiefs presents of cattle and grain, and thus to give them the +means of support.<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> The chiefs are especially pleased with gifts +from neighboring tribes, which are sent not only by individuals, +but also by the state, such as choice steeds, heavy armor, trappings, +and neck-chains. The Romans have now taught them to +accept money also.</p> + +<p><b>16.</b> It is a well-known fact that the peoples of Germany have +no cities, and that they do not even allow buildings to be erected +close together.<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> They live scattered about, wherever a spring, or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">30</a></span> +a meadow, or a wood has attracted them. Their villages are not +arranged in the Roman fashion, with the buildings connected +and joined together, but every person surrounds his dwelling +with an open space, either as a precaution against the disasters +<span class="sidebar">Lack of cities +and towns</span> +of fire, or because they do not know how to build. +They make no use of stone or brick, but employ +wood for all purposes. Their buildings are mere rude masses, +without ornament or attractiveness, although occasionally they +are stained in part with a kind of clay which is so clear and +bright that it resembles painting, or a colored design....</p> + +<p><b>23.</b> A liquor for drinking is made out of barley, or other grain, +and fermented so as to be somewhat like wine. The dwellers +<span class="sidebar">Their food +and drink</span> + +along the river-bank<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> also buy wine from traders. +Their food is of a simple variety, consisting of +wild fruit, fresh game, and curdled milk. They satisfy their +hunger without making much preparation of cooked dishes, and +without the use of any delicacies at all. In quenching their +thirst they are not so moderate. If they are supplied with as +much as they desire to drink, they will be overcome by their +own vices as easily as by the arms of an enemy.</p> + +<p><b>24.</b> At all their gatherings there is one and the same kind of +amusement. This is the dancing of naked youths amid swords and +<span class="sidebar">German +amusements</span> +lances that all the time endanger their lives. Experience +gives them skill, and skill in turn gives +grace. They scorn to receive profit or pay, for, however reckless +their pastime, its reward is only the pleasure of the spectators. +Strangely enough, they make games of chance a serious employment, +even when sober, and so venturesome are they about winning +or losing that, when every other resource has failed, on the +final throw of the dice they will stake even their own freedom. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">31</a></span> +He who loses goes into voluntary slavery and, though the younger +and stronger of the players, allows himself to be bound and sold. +Such is their stubborn persistency in a bad practice, though they +themselves call it honor. Slaves thus acquired the owners trade +off as speedily as possible to rid themselves of the scandal of +such a victory.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">32</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.<br /> +THE VISIGOTHIC INVASION</h3> +<h4>3. The Visigoths Cross the Danube (376)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The earliest invasion of the Roman Empire which resulted in the permanent +settlement of a large and united body of Germans on Roman +soil was that of the Visigoths in the year 376. This invasion was +very far, however, from marking the first important contact of the German +and Roman peoples. As early as the end of the second century +<span class="s07">B.C.</span> the incursions of the Cimbri and Teutones (113-101) into southern +Gaul and northern Italy had given Rome a suggestion of the danger +which threatened from the northern barbarians. Half a century later, +the Gallic campaigns of Cæsar brought the two peoples into conflict for +the first time in the region of the later Rhine boundary, and had the +very important effect of preventing the impending Germanization of +Gaul and substituting the extension of Roman power and civilization in +that quarter. Roman imperial plans on the north then developed along +ambitious lines until the year 9 <span class="s07">A.D.</span>, when the legions of the Emperor +Augustus, led by Varus, were defeated, and in large part annihilated, in +the great battle of the Teutoberg Forest and the balance was turned +forever against the Romanization of the Germanic countries. Thereafter +for a long time a state of equilibrium was preserved along the +Rhine-Danube frontier, though after the Marcomannic wars in the latter +half of the second century the scale began to incline more and more +against the Romans, who were gradually forced into the attitude of +defense against a growing disposition of the restless Germans to push +the boundary farther south.</p> + +<p>During the more than three and a half centuries intervening between +the battle of the Teutoberg and the crossing of the Danube by the Visigoths, +the intermingling of the two peoples steadily increased. On the +one hand were numerous Roman travelers and traders who visited the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">33</a></span> +Germans living along the frontier and learned what sort of people they +were. The soldiers of the legions stationed on the Rhine and Danube +also added materially to Roman knowledge in this direction. But much +more important was the influx of Germans into the Empire to serve as +soldiers or to settle on lands allotted to them by the government. Owing +to a general decline of population, and especially to the lack of a sturdy +middle class, Rome found it necessary to fill up her army with foreigners +and to reward them with lands lying mainly near the frontiers, but often +in the very heart of the Empire. The over-population of Germany furnished +a large class of excellent soldiers who were ready enough to accept +the pay of the Roman emperor for service in the legions, even if rendered, +as it often was, against their kinsmen who were menacing the weakened +frontier. From this source the Empire had long been receiving a large +infusion of German blood before any considerable tribe came within its +bounds to settle in a body. Indeed, if there had occurred no sudden and +startling overflows of population from the Germanic countries, such as +the Visigothic invasion, it is quite possible that the Roman Empire +might yet have fallen completely into the hands of the Germans by +the quiet and gradual processes just indicated. As it was, the pressure +from advancing Asiatic peoples on the east was too great to be +withstood, and there resulted, between the fourth and sixth centuries, a +series of notable invasions which left almost the entire Western Empire +parceled out among new Germanic kingdoms established by force on +the ruins of the once invincible Roman power. The breaking of the +frontier by the West Goths (to whom the Emperor Aurelian, in 270, +had abandoned the rich province of Dacia), during the reign of Gratian +in the West and of Valens in the East, was the first conspicuous step +in this great transforming movement.</p> + +<p>The ferocious people to whose incursions Ammianus refers as the cause +of the Visigothic invasion were the Huns [see <a href="#Page_42">p. 42</a>], who had but +lately made their first appearance in Europe. Already by 376 the Ostrogothic +kingdom of Hermaneric, to the north of the Black Sea, had fallen +before their onslaught, and the wave of conquest was spreading rapidly +westward toward Dacia and the neighboring lands inhabited by the +Visigoths. The latter people were even less able to make effectual resistance +than their eastern brethren had been. Part of them had become +Christians and were recognizing Fridigern as their leader, while the remaining +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">34</a></span> +pagan element acknowledged the sway of Athanaric. On the +arrival of the Huns, Athanaric led his portion of the people into the +Carpathian Mountains and began to prepare for resistance, while +the Christians, led by Fridigern and Alaf (or Alavivus), gathered on +the Danube and begged permission to take refuge across the river in +Roman territory. Athanaric and his division of the Visigoths, having +become Christians, entered the Empire a few years later and settled +in Moesia.</p> + +<p>Ammianus Marcellinus, author of the account of the Visigothic invasion +given below, was a native of Antioch, a soldier of Greek ancestry +and apparently of noble birth, and a member of the Eastern emperor's +bodyguard. Beyond these facts, gleaned from his <i>Roman History</i>, we +have almost no knowledge of the man. The date of his birth is unknown, +likewise that of his death, though from his writings it appears that he +lived well toward the close of the fourth century. His <i>History</i> began +with the accession of Nerva, 96 <span class="s07">A.D.</span>, approximately where the accounts +by Tacitus and Suetonius end, and continued to the death of his master +Valens in the battle of Adrianople in 378. It was divided into thirty-one +books; but of these thirteen have been lost, and some of those which +survive are imperfect. Although the narrative is broken into rather +provokingly here and there by digressions on earthquakes and eclipses +and speculations on such utterly foreign topics as the theory of the destruction +of lions by mosquitoes, it nevertheless constitutes an invaluable +source of information on the men and events of the era which it +covers. Its value is greatest, naturally, on the period of the Visigothic +invasion, for in dealing with these years the author could describe events +about which he had direct and personal knowledge. Ammianus is to be +thought of as the last of the old Roman school of historians.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Ammianus Marcellinus, <i>Rerum Gestarum Libri qui Supersunt</i>, Bk. +XXXI., Chaps. 3-4. Translated by Charles D. Yonge under the +title of <i>Roman History during the Reigns of the Emperors Constantius, +Julian, Jovianus, Valentinian, and Valens</i> (London, 1862), +pp. 584-586. Text in edition of Victor Gardthausen (Leipzig, +1875), Vol. II., pp. 239-240.</p> + +<p>In the meantime a report spread extensively through the other +nations of the Goths [i.e., the Visigoths], that a race of men, +hitherto unknown, had suddenly descended like a whirlwind +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">35</a></span> +from the lofty mountains, as if they had risen from some secret +recess of the earth, and were ravaging and destroying everything +that came in their way. Then the greater part of the population +(which, because of their lack of necessities, had deserted +Athanaric), resolved to flee and to seek a home remote from all +knowledge of the barbarians; and after a long deliberation as to +where to fix their abode, they resolved that a retreat into Thrace +<span class="sidebar">Visigoths ask +permission to +settle within +the Empire</span> +was the most suitable, for these two reasons: first +of all, because it is a district most abundant in +grass; and in the second place, because, by the +great breadth of the Danube, it is wholly separated from the barbarians +[i.e., the Goths], who were already exposed to the thunderbolts +of foreign warfare. And the whole population of the tribe +adopted this resolution unanimously. Accordingly, under the +command of their leader Alavivus, they occupied the banks of +the Danube; and having sent ambassadors to Valens,<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> they humbly +entreated that they might be received by him as his subjects, +promising to live peaceably and to furnish a body of auxiliary +troops, if any necessity for such a force should arise.</p> + +<p>While these events were passing in foreign countries, a terrible +rumor arose that the tribes of the north were planning new and +<span class="sidebar">Rumors of +Gothic movements +reach +Rome</span> +unprecedented attacks upon us,<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> and that over +the whole region which extends from the country +of the Marcomanni and Quadi to Pontus,<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> a +barbarian host composed of various distant nations which had +suddenly been driven by force from their own country, was now, +with all their families, wandering about in different directions +on the banks of the river Danube.</p> + +<p>At first this intelligence was treated lightly by our people, because +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">36</a></span> +they were not in the habit of hearing of any wars in those +remote regions until after they had been terminated either by victory +or by treaty. But presently the belief in these occurrences +grew stronger, being confirmed, moreover, by the arrival of +the foreign ambassadors who, with prayers and earnest entreaties, +<span class="sidebar">Their coming +represented as +a blessing to +the Empire</span> +begged that the people thus driven from +their homes and now encamped on the other side of +the river might be kindly received by us. The affair +seemed a cause of joy rather than of fear, according to the skilful +flatterers who were always extolling and exaggerating the good +fortune of the Emperor; congratulating him that an embassy had +come from the farthest corners of the earth unexpectedly, offering +him a large body of recruits, and that, by combining the +strength of his own nation with these foreign forces, he would +have an army absolutely invincible; observing farther that, by +the payment for military reinforcements which came in every +year from the provinces, a vast treasure of gold might be accumulated +in his coffers.</p> + +<p>Full of this hope, he sent several officers to bring this ferocious +people and their wagons into our territory. And such great +<span class="sidebar">The crossing of +the Danube</span> +pains were taken to gratify this nation, which was +destined to overthrow the empire of Rome, that +not one was left behind, not even of those who were stricken with +mortal disease. Moreover, having obtained permission of the +Emperor to cross the Danube and to cultivate some districts in +Thrace, they crossed the stream day and night, without ceasing, +embarking in troops on board ships and rafts, and canoes made +of the hollow trunks of trees. In this enterprise, since the Danube +is the most difficult of all rivers to navigate, and was at that time +swollen with continual rains, a great many were drowned, who, +because they were too numerous for the vessels, tried to swim +across, and in spite of all their exertions were swept away by +the stream.</p> + +<p>In this way, through the turbulent zeal of violent people, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">37</a></span> +ruin of the Roman Empire was brought on. This, at all events, +is neither obscure nor uncertain, that the unhappy officers who +<span class="sidebar">Number of the +invaders</span> + +were intrusted with the charge of conducting +the multitude of the barbarians across the river, +though they repeatedly endeavored to calculate their numbers, +at last abandoned the attempt as useless; and the man who +would wish to ascertain the number might as well attempt to +count the waves in the African sea, or the grains of sand tossed +about by the zephyr.<a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p> + +<h4>4. The Battle of Adrianople (378)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>Before crossing the Danube the Visigoths had been required by the +Romans to give up their arms, and also a number of their children to be +held as hostages. In return it was understood that the Romans would +equip them afresh with arms sufficient for their defense and with food +supplies to maintain them until they should become settled in their +new homes. So far as our information goes, it appears that the Goths +fulfilled their part of the contract, or at least were willing to do so. But +the Roman officers in Thrace saw an opportunity to enrich themselves +by selling food to the famished barbarians at extortionate prices, and a +few months of such practices sufficed to arouse all the rage and resentment +of which the untamed Teuton was capable. In the summer of 378 +the Goths broke out in open revolt and began to avenge themselves by +laying waste the Roman lands along the lower Danube frontier. The +Eastern emperor, Valens, hastened to the scene of insurrection, but only +to lose the great battle of Adrianople, August 9, 378, and to meet his own +death. "The battle of Adrianople," says Professor Emerton, "was one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">38</a></span> +of the decisive battles of the world. It taught the Germans that they +could beat the legions in open fight and that henceforth it was for them +to name the price of peace. It broke once for all the Rhine-Danube +frontier." Many times thereafter German armies, and whole tribes, +were to play the rôle of allies of Rome; but neither German nor Roman +could be blinded to the fact that the decadent empire of the south lay at +the mercy of the stalwart sons of the northern wilderness.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Ammianus Marcellinus, <i>Rerum Gestarum Libri qui Supersunt</i>, Bk. +XXXI., Chaps. 12-14. Translated by Charles D. Yonge + [see <a href="#Page_34">p. 34</a>], pp. 608-615 <i>passim</i>. Text in edition of Victor Gardthausen +(Leipzig, 1875), Vol. II., pp. 261-269.</p> + +<p>He [Valens] was at the head of a numerous force, neither unwarlike +nor contemptible, and had united with them many +<span class="sidebar">The Goths approach +the Roman +army</span> +veteran bands, among whom were several officers +of high rank—especially Trajan, who a little +while before had been commander of the forces. +And as, by means of spies and observation, it was ascertained that +the enemy was intending to blockade with strong divisions the +different roads by which the necessary supplies must come, he +sent a sufficient force to prevent this, dispatching a body of the +archers of the infantry and a squadron of cavalry with all speed +to occupy the narrow passes in the neighborhood. Three days +afterwards, when the barbarians, who were advancing slowly +because they feared an attack in the unfavorable ground which +they were traversing, arrived within fifteen miles from the station +of Nice<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> (which was the aim of their march), the Emperor, with +wanton impetuosity, resolved on attacking them instantly, because +those who had been sent forward to reconnoitre (what +led to such a mistake is unknown) affirmed that the entire body +of the Goths did not exceed ten thousand men....<a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">39</a></span></p> + +<p>When the day broke which the annals mark as the fifth of the +Ides of August [Aug. 9] the Roman standards were advanced +with haste. The baggage had been placed close to the walls of +Adrianople, under a sufficient guard of soldiers of the legions. +The treasures and the chief insignia of the Emperor's rank were +within the walls, with the prefect and the principal members of +<span class="sidebar">The battle +begins</span> +the council.<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> Then, having traversed the broken +ground which divided the two armies, as the +burning day was progressing towards noon, at last, after marching +eight miles, our men came in sight of the wagons of the enemy, +which had been reported by the scouts to be all arranged in a circle. +According to their custom, the barbarian host raised a fierce and +hideous yell, while the Roman generals marshalled their line of +battle. The right wing of the cavalry was placed in front; the +chief portion of the infantry was kept in reserve....<a name="FNanchor_29" id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p> + +<p>And while arms and missiles of all kinds were meeting in +fierce conflict, and Bellona,<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> blowing her mournful trumpet, was +raging more fiercely than usual, to inflict disaster on the Romans, +our men began to retreat; but presently, aroused by the reproaches +of their officers, they made a fresh stand, and the battle +increased like a conflagration, terrifying our soldiers, numbers +of whom were pierced by strokes of the javelins hurled at them, +and by arrows.</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">40</a></span></p> + +<p>Then the two lines of battle dashed against each other, like the +beaks of ships and, thrusting with all their might, were tossed to +and fro like the waves of the sea. Our left wing had advanced +actually up to the wagons, with the intent to push on still farther +if properly supported; but they were deserted by the rest of +the cavalry, and so pressed upon by the superior numbers of +<span class="sidebar">The fury of +the conflict</span> +the enemy that they were overwhelmed and beaten down like +the ruin of a vast rampart. Presently our infantry +also was left unsupported, while the various +companies became so huddled together that a soldier +could hardly draw his sword, or withdraw his hand after he had +once stretched it out. And by this time such clouds of dust arose +that it was scarcely possible to see the sky, which resounded +with horrible cries; and in consequence the darts, which were +bearing death on every side, reached their mark and fell with +deadly effect, because no one could see them beforehand so as +to guard against them. The barbarians, rushing on with their +enormous host, beat down our horses and men and left no spot +to which our ranks could fall back to operate. They were so +closely packed that it was impossible to escape by forcing a way +through them, and our men at last began to despise death and +again taking to their swords, slew all they encountered, while +with mutual blows of battle-axes, helmets and breastplates were +dashed in pieces.</p> + +<p>Then you might see the barbarian, towering in his fierceness, +hissing or shouting, fall with his legs pierced through, or his +right hand cut off, sword and all, or his side transfixed, and +still, in the last gasp of life, casting around him defiant glances. +The plain was covered with corpses, showing the mutual ruin of +the combatants; while the groans of the dying, or of men fearfully +wounded, were intense and caused much dismay on all sides. Amid +all this great tumult and confusion our infantry were exhausted +by toil and danger, until at last they had neither strength left to +fight nor spirits to plan anything. Their spears were broken by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">41</a></span> +the frequent collisions, so that they were forced to content themselves +with their drawn swords, which they thrust into the +<span class="sidebar">The Romans +put to flight</span> +dense battalions of the enemy, disregarding their +own safety, and seeing that every possibility +of escape was cut off from them.... The sun, now high +in the heavens (having traversed the sign of Leo and reached +the abode of the heavenly Virgo<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a>) scorched the Romans, who +were emaciated by hunger, worn out with toil, and scarcely able +to support even the weight of their armor. At last our columns +were entirely beaten back by the overpowering weight of the +barbarians, and so they took to disorderly flight, which is the +only resource in extremity, each man trying to save himself as +best he could....</p> + +<p>Scarcely one third of the whole army escaped. Nor, except +the battle of Cannæ, is so destructive a slaughter recorded in our +annals;<a name="FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> though, even in the times of their prosperity, the Romans +have more than once been called upon to deplore the +uncertainty of war, and have for a time succumbed to evil +Fortune.</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">42</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER III.<br /> +THE HUNS</h3> + +<h4>5. Descriptions by a Graeco-Roman Poet and a Roman Historian</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The Huns, a people of Turanian stock, were closely related to the ancestors +of the Magyars, or the modern Hungarians. Their original +home was in central Asia, beyond the great wall of China, and they were +in every sense a people of the plains rather than of the forest or of the +sea. From the region of modern Siberia they swept westward in successive +waves, beginning about the middle of the fourth century, traversed +the "gateway of the nations" between the Caspian Sea and the +Ural Mountains, and fell with fury upon the German tribes (mainly the +Goths) settled in eastern and southern Europe. The descriptions of +them given by Claudius Claudianus and Ammianus Marcellinus set +forth their characteristics as understood by the Romans a half-century +or more before the invasion of the Empire by Attila. There is no +reason to suppose that either of these authors had ever seen a Hun, or +had his information at first hand. When both wrote the Huns were yet +far outside the Empire's bounds. Tales of soldiers and travelers, which +doubtless grew as they were told, must have supplied both the poet +and the historian with all that they knew regarding the strange Turanian +invaders. This being the case, we are not to accept all that they +say as the literal truth. Nevertheless the general impressions which one +gets from their pictures cannot be far wrong.</p> + +<p>Claudius Claudianus, commonly regarded as the last of the Latin +classic poets, was a native of Alexandria who settled at Rome about +395. For ten years after that date he occupied a position at the court +of the Emperor Honorius somewhat akin to that of poet-laureate. +Much of his writing was of a very poor quality, but his descriptions +were sometimes striking, as in the stanza given below. On Ammianus +Marcellinus see <a href="#Page_34">p. 34</a>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">43</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Sources—(a) Claudius Claudianus, <i>In Rufinum</i> ["Against Rufinus"], Bk. I., +323-331. Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Auctores +Antiquissimi</i>, Vol. X., pp. 30-31. Translated in Thomas Hodgkin, +<i>Italy and Her Invaders</i> (Oxford, 1880), Vol. II., p. 2.</p> + +<p class="source_add">(b) Ammianus Marcellinus, <i>Rerum Gestarum Libri qui Supersunt</i>, +Bk. XXXI., Chaps. 2-4 [see <a href="#Page_34">p. 34</a>]. Translated in Hodgkin, +<i>ibid.</i>, pp. 34-38.</p> + +<p class="center">(a)</p> +<div class="poem"> +<p>There is a race on Scythia's<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> verge extreme</p> +<p>Eastward, beyond the Tanais'<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> chilly stream.</p> +<p>The Northern Bear<a name="FNanchor_35" id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> looks on no uglier crew:</p> +<p>Base is their garb, their bodies foul to view;</p> +<p>Their souls are ne'er subdued to sturdy toil</p> +<p>Or Ceres' arts:<a name="FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> their sustenance is spoil.</p> +<p>With horrid wounds they gash their brutal brows,</p> +<p>And o'er their murdered parents bind their vows.</p> +<p>Not e'en the Centaur-offspring of the Cloud<a name="FNanchor_37" id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p> +<p>Were horsed more firmly than this savage crowd.</p> +<p>Brisk, lithe, in loose array they first come on,</p> +<p>Fly, turn, attack the foe who deems them gone.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center">(b)</p> +<p>The nation of the Huns, little known to ancient records, but +spreading from the marshes of Azof to the Icy Sea,<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> surpasses +all other barbarians in wildness of life. In the first days of infancy, +deep incisions are made in the cheeks of their boys, in order +that when the time comes for whiskers to grow there, the sprouting +hairs may be kept back by the furrowed scars; and hence +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">44</a></span> +they grow to maturity and to old age beardless. They all, +however, have strong, well-knit limbs and fine necks. Yet they +<span class="sidebar">Physical appearance +of the +Huns</span> +are of portentous ugliness and so crook-backed +that you would take them for some sort of two-footed +beasts, or for the roughly-chipped stakes +which are used for the railings of a bridge. And though they do +just bear the likeness of men (of a very ugly type), they are so +little advanced in civilization that they make no use of fire, nor +of any kind of relish, in the preparation of their food, but feed +upon the roots which they find in the fields, and the half-raw +flesh of any sort of animal. I say half-raw, because they give it +a kind of cooking by placing it between their own thighs and the +backs of their horses. They never seek the shelter of houses, +which they look upon as little better than tombs, and will enter +only upon the direst necessity; nor would one be able to find +among them even a cottage of wattled rushes; but, wandering at +large over mountain and through forest, they are trained to endure +from infancy all the extremes of cold, of hunger, and of +thirst.</p> + +<p>They are clad in linen raiment, or in the skins of field-mice +sewed together, and the same suit serves them for use in-doors +<span class="sidebar">Their dress</span> +and out. However dingy the color of it may +become, the tunic which has once been hung around their necks +is never laid aside nor changed until through long decay the rags +of it will no longer hold together. Their heads are covered with +bent caps, their hairy legs with the skins of goats; their shoes, +never having been fashioned on a last, are so clumsy that they +cannot walk comfortably. On this account they are not well +adapted to encounters on foot; but on the other hand they +are almost welded to their horses, which are hardy, though +of ugly shape, and on which they sometimes ride woman's +fashion. On horseback every man of that nation lives night and +day; on horseback he buys and sells; on horseback he takes his +meat and drink, and when night comes on he leans forward upon +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">45</a></span> +the narrow neck of his horse and there falls into a deep sleep, or +wanders into the varied fantasies of dreams.</p> + +<p>When a discussion arises upon any matter of importance they +come on horseback to the place of meeting. No kingly sternness +overawes their deliberations, but being, on the whole, well-contented +with the disorderly guidance of their chiefs, they do +not scruple to interrupt the debates with anything that comes +into their heads. When attacked, they will sometimes engage +in regular battle. Then, going into the fight in order of columns, +<span class="sidebar">Their mode +of fighting</span> +they fill the air with varied and discordant cries. +More often, however, they fight in no regular +order of battle, but being extremely swift and sudden in their +movements, they disperse, and then rapidly come together +again in loose array, spread havoc over vast plains and, flying +over the rampart, pillage the camp of their enemy almost before +he has become aware of their approach. It must be granted +that they are the nimblest of warriors. The missile weapons +which they use at a distance are pointed with sharpened bones +admirably fastened to the shaft. When in close combat they +fight without regard to their own safety, and while the enemy +is intent upon parrying the thrusts of their swords they throw a +net over him and so entangle his limbs that he loses all power of +walking or riding.</p> + +<p>Not one among them cultivates the ground, or ever touches a +plow-handle. All wander abroad without fixed abodes, without +<span class="sidebar">Their nomadic +character</span> +home, or law, or settled customs, like perpetual +fugitives, with their wagons for their only habitations. +If you ask them, not one can tell you what is his place +of origin. They are ruthless truce-breakers, fickle, always ready +to be swayed by the first breath of a new desire, abandoning +themselves without restraint to the most ungovernable rage.</p> + +<p>Finally, like animals devoid of reason, they are utterly ignorant +of what is proper and what is not. They are tricksters with +words and full of dark sayings. They are never moved by either +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">46</a></span> +religious or superstitious awe. They burn with unquenchable +thirst for gold, and they are so changeable and so easily moved +to wrath that many times in the day they will quarrel with their +comrades on no provocation, and be reconciled, having received +no satisfaction.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">47</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IV.<br /> +THE EARLY FRANKS</h3> + +<h4>6. The Deeds of Clovis as Related by Gregory of Tours</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The most important historical writer among the early Franks was +a bishop whose full name was Georgius Florentius Gregorius, but who +has commonly been known ever since his day as Gregory of Tours. +The date of his birth is uncertain, but it was probably either 539 or +540. He was not a Frank, but a man of mixed Roman and Gallic +descent, his parentage being such as to rank him among the nobility +of his native district, Auvergne. At the age of thirty-four he was elected +bishop of Tours, and this important office he held until his death in +594. During this long period of service he won distinction as an able +church official, as an alert man of affairs, and as a prolific writer on +ecclesiastical subjects. Among his writings, some of which have been +lost, were a book on the Christian martyrs, biographies of several holy +men of the Church, a commentary on the Psalms, and a treatise on +the officers of the Church and their duties.</p> + +<p>But by far his largest and most important work was his <i>Ecclesiastical +History of the Franks</i>, in ten books, written well toward the end of +his life. It is indeed to be regarded as one of the most interesting pieces +of literature produced in any country during the Middle Ages. For +his starting point Gregory went back to the Garden of Eden, and what +he gives us in his first book is only an amusing but practically worthless +account of the history of the world from Adam to St. Martin of +Tours, who died probably in 397. In the second book, however, he +comes more within the range of reasonable tradition, if not of actual +information, and brings the story down to the death of Clovis in 511. +In the succeeding eight books he reaches the year 591, though it is +thought by some that the last four were put together after the author's +death by some of his associates. However that may be, we may rest +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">48</a></span> +assured that the history grows in accuracy as it approaches the period +in which it was written. Naturally it is at its best in the later books, +where events are described that happened within the writer's lifetime, +and with many of which he had a close connection. Gregory was +a man of unusual activity and of wide acquaintance among the influential +people of his day. He served as a counselor of several Frankish +kings and was a prominent figure at their courts. The shrine of +St. Martin of Tours<a name="FNanchor_39" id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> was visited by pilgrims from all parts of the Christian +world and by conversation with them Gregory had an excellent +opportunity to keep informed as to what was going on among the Franks, +and among more distant peoples as well. He was thus fortunately situated +for one who proposed to write the history of his times. As a +bishop of the orthodox Church he had small regard for Arians and other +heretics, and so was in some ways less broad-minded than we could +wish; and of course he shared the superstition and ignorance of his age, +as will appear in some of the selections below. Still, without his extensive +history we should know far less than we now do concerning the +Frankish people before the seventh century. He mixes legend with fact +in a most confusing manner, but with no intention whatever to deceive. +The men of the earlier Middle Ages knew no other way of writing +history and their readers were not critical as we are to-day. The +passages quoted below from Gregory's history give some interesting +information concerning the Frankish conquerors of Gaul, and at the +same time show something of the spirit of Gregory himself and of the +people of his times.</p> + +<p>Particularly interesting is the account of the conversion of Clovis +and of the Franks to Christianity. When the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, +Vandals, Lombards, and Burgundians crossed the Roman frontiers +and settled within the bounds of the old Empire they were all Christians +in name, however much their conduct might be at variance with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">49</a></span> +their profession. The Franks, on the other hand, established themselves +in northern Gaul, as did the Saxons in Britain, while they were +yet pagans, worshipping Woden and Thor and the other strange deities +of the Germans. It was about the middle of the reign of King Clovis, +or, more definitely, in the year 496, that the change came. In his +<i>Ecclesiastical History</i> Gregory tells us how up to this time all the influence +of the Christian queen, Clotilde, had been exerted in vain to +bring her husband to the point of renouncing his old gods. In his wars +and conquests the king had been very successful and apparently he +was pretty well satisfied with the favors these old gods had showered +upon him and was unwilling to turn his back upon such generous +patrons. But there came a time, in 496, in the course of the war with +the Alemanni, when the tide of fortune seemed to be turning against +the Frankish king. In the great battle of Strassburg the Franks were +on the point of being beaten by their foe, and Clovis in desperation +made a vow, as the story goes, that if Clotilde's God would grant him +a victory he would immediately become a Christian. Whatever may +have been the reason, the victory was won and the king, with characteristic +German fidelity to his word, proceeded to fulfill his pledge. +Amid great ceremony he was baptized, and with him three thousand +of his soldiers the same day. The great majority of Franks lost little +time in following the royal example.</p> + +<p>Two important facts should be emphasized in connection with this +famous incident. The first is the peculiar character of the so-called +"conversion" of Clovis and his Franks. We to-day look upon religious +conversion as an inner experience of the individual, apt to be +brought about by personal contact between a Christian and the person +who is converted. It was in no such sense as this, however, that the +Franks—or any of the early Germans, for that matter—were made +Christian. They looked upon Christianity as a mere portion of Roman +civilization to be adopted or let alone as seemed best; but if it were +adopted, it must be by the whole tribe or nation, not by individuals +here and there. In general, the German peoples took up Christianity, +not because they became convinced that their old religions were false, +but simply because they were led to believe that the Christian faith +was in some ways better than their own and so might profitably be +taken advantage of by them. Clovis believed he had won the battle +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">50</a></span> +of Strassburg with the aid of the Christian God when Woden and +Thor were about to fail him; therefore he reasoned that it would be a +good thing in the future to make sure that the God of Clotilde should +always be on his side, and obviously the way to do this was to become +himself a Christian. He did not wholly abandon the old gods, but +merely considered that he had found a new one of superior power. +Hence he enjoined on all his people that they become Christians; and +for the most part they did so, though of course we are not to suppose +that there was any very noticeable change in their actual conduct and +mode of life, at least for several generations.</p> + +<p>The second important point to observe is that, whereas all of the other +Germanic peoples on the continent had become Christians of the +Arian type, the Franks accepted Christianity in its orthodox form such +as was adhered to by the papacy. This was sheer accident. The +Franks took the orthodox rather than the heretical religion simply +because it was the kind that was carried to them by the missionaries, +not at all because they were able, or had the desire, to weigh the two +creeds and choose the one they liked the better. But though they +became orthodox Christians by accident, the fact that they became +such is of the utmost importance in mediæval history, for by being +what the papacy regarded as true Christians rather than heretics they +began from the start to be looked to by the popes for support. Their +kings in time became the greatest secular champions of papal interests, +though relations were sometimes far from harmonious. This virtual +alliance of the popes and the Frankish kings is a subject which will +repay careful study.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Gregorius Episcopus Turonensis, <i>Historia Ecclesiastica Francorum</i> +[Gregory of Tours, "Ecclesiastical History of the Franks"], Bk. II., +Chaps. 27-43 <i>passim</i>. Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, +Scriptores Rerum Merovingicarum</i>, Vol. I., Part 1, pp. 88-89, 90-95, +98-100, 158-159.</p> + +<p><b>27.</b> After all these things Childeric<a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> died and his son Clovis ruled +in his stead. In the fifth year of the new reign Syagrius, son of +Ægidius, was governing as king of the Romans in the town of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">51</a></span> +Soissons, where his father had held sway before him.<a name="FNanchor_41" id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> Clovis +now advanced against him with his kinsman Ragnachar, who +also held a kingdom, and gave him an opportunity to select a +field of battle. Syagrius did not hesitate, for he was not at all +afraid to risk an encounter. In the conflict which followed, +however, the Roman soon saw that his army was doomed to +destruction; so, turning and fleeing from the field, he made all +<span class="sidebar">The battle of +Soissons (486)</span> +haste to take refuge with King Alaric at Toulouse.<a name="FNanchor_42" id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> +Clovis then sent word to Alaric that he +must hand over the defeated king at once if he did not wish to +bring on war against himself. Fearing the anger of the Franks, +therefore, as the Goths continually do, Alaric bound Syagrius +with chains and delivered him to the messengers of King Clovis. +As soon as the latter had the prisoner in his possession he put +him under safe guard and, after seizing his kingdom, had him +secretly slain.<a name="FNanchor_43" id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p> + +<p>At this time the army of Clovis plundered many churches, for +the king was still sunk in the errors of idolatry. Upon one occasion +the soldiers carried away from a church, along with other +ornaments of the sacred place, a remarkably large and beautiful +vase. The bishop of that church sent messengers to the king to +<span class="sidebar">The story of +the broken +vase</span> +ask that, even if none of the other holy vessels +might be restored, this precious vase at least +might be sent back. To the messengers Clovis +could only reply: "Come with us to Soissons, for there all the +booty is to be divided. If when we cast lots the vase shall fall +to me, I will return it as the bishop desires."</p> + +<p>When they had reached Soissons and all the booty had been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">52</a></span> +brought together in the midst of the army the king called attention +to the vase and said, "I ask you, most valiant warriors, to +allow me to have the vase in addition to my rightful share." +Then even those of his men who were most self-willed answered: +"O glorious king, all things before us are thine, and we ourselves +are subject to thy control. Do, therefore, what pleases thee best, +for no one is able to resist thee." But when they had thus +spoken, one of the warriors, an impetuous, jealous, and vain man, +raised his battle-ax aloft and broke the vase in pieces, crying as +he did so, "Thou shalt receive no part of this booty unless it fall +to you by a fair lot." And at such a rash act they were all +astounded.</p> + +<p>The king pretended not to be angry and seemed to take no +notice of the incident, and when it happened that the broken +vase fell to him by lot he gave the fragments to the bishop's +messengers; nevertheless he cherished a secret indignation in +his heart. A year later he summoned all his soldiers to come +fully armed to the Campus Martius, so that he might make an +<span class="sidebar">Clovis's +revenge</span> +inspection of his troops.<a name="FNanchor_44" id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> After he had reviewed +the whole army he finally came across the very +man who had broken the vase at Soissons. "No one," cried out +the king to him, "carries his arms so awkwardly as thou; for +neither thy spear nor thy sword nor thy ax is ready for use," and +he struck the ax out of the soldier's hands so that it fell to the +ground. Then when the man bent forward to pick it up the +king raised his own ax and struck him on the head, saying, +"Thus thou didst to the vase at Soissons." Having slain him, +he dismissed the others, filled with great fear....<a name="FNanchor_45" id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">53</a></span></p> + +<p><b>30.</b> The queen did not cease urging the king to acknowledge the +true God and forsake idols, but all her efforts failed until at length +a war broke out with the Alemanni.<a name="FNanchor_46" id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> Then of necessity he was +compelled to confess what hitherto he had wilfully denied. It +happened that the two armies were in battle and there was great +slaughter.<a name="FNanchor_47" id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> The army of Clovis seemed about to be cut in pieces. +Then the king raised his hands fervently toward the heavens +and, breaking into tears, cried: "Jesus Christ, who Clotilde declares +to be the son of the living God, who it is said givest help to +the oppressed and victory to those who put their trust in thee, +I invoke thy marvellous help. If thou wilt give me victory over +my enemies and I prove that power which thy followers say they +have proved concerning thee, I will believe in thee and will be +baptized in thy name; for I have called upon my own gods and +it is clear that they have neglected to give me aid. Therefore I +am convinced that they have no power, for they do not help those +<span class="sidebar">Clovis decides +to become a +Christian (496)</span> +who serve them. I now call upon thee, and I +wish to believe in thee, especially that I may +escape from my enemies." When he had offered +this prayer the Alemanni turned their backs and began to flee. +And when they learned that their king had been slain, they submitted +at once to Clovis, saying, "Let no more of our people +perish, for we now belong to you." When he had stopped the +battle and praised his soldiers for their good work, Clovis returned +in peace to his kingdom and told the queen how he had won the +victory by calling on the name of Christ. These events took +place in the fifteenth year of his reign.<a name="FNanchor_48" id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">54</a></span></p> + +<p><b>31.</b> Then the queen sent secretly to the blessed Remigius, bishop +of Rheims, and asked him to bring to the king the gospel of +salvation. The bishop came to the court where, little by little, +he led Clovis to believe in the true God, maker of heaven and +earth, and to forsake the idols which could help neither him nor +any one else. "Willingly will I hear thee, O holy father," declared +the king at last, "but the people who are under my authority +are not ready to give up their gods. I will go and consult them +about the religion concerning which you speak." When he had +come among them, and before he had spoken a word, all the people, +through the influence of the divine power, cried out with +one voice: "O righteous king, we cast off our mortal gods and +we are ready to serve the God who Remigius tells us is immortal."</p> + +<p>When this was reported to the bishop he was beside himself +with joy, and he at once ordered the baptismal font to be prepared. +The streets were shaded with embroidered hangings; +the churches were adorned with white tapestries, exhaling sweet +odors; perfumed tapers gleamed; and all the temple of the +<span class="sidebar">The baptism +of Clovis and +his warriors</span> +baptistry was filled with a heavenly odor, so +that the people might well have believed that +God in His graciousness showered upon them the +perfumes of Paradise. Then Clovis, having confessed that the +God of the Trinity was all-powerful, was baptized in the name +of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, and was +anointed with the holy oil with the sign of the cross. More than +three thousand of his soldiers were baptized with him....</p> + +<p><b>35.</b> Now when Alaric, king of the Goths, saw that Clovis was +conquering many nations, he sent messengers to him, saying, "If +it please my brother, let us, with the favor of God, enter into an +alliance." Clovis at once declared his willingness to do as Alaric +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">55</a></span> +suggested and the two kings met on an island in the Loire, near +the town of Amboise in the vicinity of Tours.<a name="FNanchor_49" id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> There they talked, +ate, and drank together, and after making mutual promises of +friendship they departed in peace.</p> + +<p><b>37.</b> But Clovis said to his soldiers: "It is with regret that I see +the Arian heretics in possession of any part of Gaul. Let us, +with the help of God, march against them and, after having conquered +them, bring their country under our own control." This +proposal was received with favor by all the warriors and the +army started on the campaign, going towards Poitiers, where +<span class="sidebar">Clovis resolves +to take the +Visigoths' +lands in Gaul</span> +Alaric was then staying. As a portion of the +troops passed through the territory about Tours, +Clovis, out of respect for the holy St. Martin, +forbade his soldiers to take anything from the country except +grass for the horses. One soldier, having come across some hay +which belonged to a poor man said, "Has, then, the king given us +permission to take only grass? O well! hay is grass. To take it +would not be to violate the command." And by force he took +the hay away from the poor man. When, however, the matter +was brought to the king's attention he struck the offender with +his sword and killed him, saying, "How, indeed, may we hope +for victory if we give offense to St. Martin?" This was enough +thereafter to prevent the army from plundering in that country.</p> + +<p>When Clovis arrived with his forces at the banks of the Vienne +he was at a loss to know where to cross, because the heavy rains +<span class="sidebar">Miraculous incidents +of the +campaign</span> +had swollen the stream. During the night he +prayed that the Lord would reveal to him a +passage. The following morning, under the +guidance of God, a doe of wondrous size entered the river in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">56</a></span> +plain sight of the army and crossed by a ford, thus pointing out +the way for the soldiers to get over. When they were in the +neighborhood of Poitiers the king saw at some distance from his +tent a ball of fire, which proceeded from the steeple of the church +of St. Hilary<a name="FNanchor_50" id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> and seemed to him to advance in his direction, as +if to show that by the aid of the light of the holy St. Hilary he +would triumph the more easily over the heretics against whom +the pious priest had himself often fought for the faith. Clovis +then forbade his army to molest any one or to pillage any property +in that part of the country.</p> + +<p>Clovis at length engaged in battle with Alaric, king of the +Goths, in the plain of Vouillé at the tenth mile-stone from +Poitiers.<a name="FNanchor_51" id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> The Goths fought with javelins, but the Franks +charged upon them with lances. Then the Goths took to flight, +as is their custom,<a name="FNanchor_52" id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> and the victory, with the aid of God, fell to +Clovis. He had put the Goths to flight and killed their king, +<span class="sidebar">The Visigoths +defeated by +Clovis (507)</span> +Alaric, when all at once two soldiers bore down +upon him and struck him with lances on both +sides at once; but, owing to the strength of his +armor and the swiftness of his horse, he escaped death. After +the battle Amalaric, son of Alaric, took refuge in Spain and ruled +wisely over the kingdom of his father.<a name="FNanchor_53" id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> Alaric had reigned +twenty-two years. Clovis, after spending the winter at Bordeaux +and carrying from Toulouse all the treasure of the king, +advanced on Angoulême. There the Lord showed him such +favor that at his very approach the walls of the city fell down of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">57</a></span> +their own accord.<a name="FNanchor_54" id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> After driving out the Goths he brought the +place under his own authority. Thus, crowned with victory, +he returned to Tours and bestowed a great number of presents +upon the holy church of the blessed Martin.<a name="FNanchor_55" id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p> + +<p><b>40.</b> Now while Clovis was living at Paris he sent secretly to the +son of Sigibert,<a name="FNanchor_56" id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> saying: "Behold now your father is old and +lame. If he should die his kingdom would come to you and my +friendship with it." So the son of Sigibert, impelled by his +ambition, planned to slay his father. And when Sigibert set +out from Cologne and crossed the Rhine to go through the +Buchonian forest,<a name="FNanchor_57" id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> his son had him slain by assassins while he +was sleeping in his tent, in order that he might gain the kingdom +for himself. But by the judgment of God he fell into the pit +which he had digged for his father. He sent messengers to Clovis +to announce the death of his father and to say: "My father is +dead and I have his treasures, and likewise the kingdom. Now +send trusted men to me, that I may give them for you whatever +you would like out of his treasury." Clovis replied: "I thank +you for your kindness and will ask you merely to show my +messengers all your treasures, after which you may keep them +yourself." And when the messengers of Clovis came, the son of +Sigibert showed them the treasures which his father had collected. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">58</a></span> +And while they were looking at various things, he said: "My +father used to keep his gold coins in this little chest." And +<span class="sidebar">Other means +by which Clovis +extended +his power</span> +they said, "Put your hand down to the bottom, +that you may show us everything." But when he +stooped to do this, one of the messengers struck +him on the head with his battle-ax, and thus he met the fate +which he had visited upon his father.</p> + +<p>Now when Clovis heard that both Sigibert and his son were +dead, he came to that place and called the people together and +said to them: "Hear what has happened. While I was sailing +on the Scheldt River, Cloderic, son of Sigibert, my relative, +attacked his father, pretending that I had wished him to slay +him. And so when his father fled through the Buchonian forest, +the assassins of Cloderic set upon him and slew him. But while +Cloderic was opening his father's treasure chest, some man +unknown to me struck him down. I am in no way guilty of these +things, for I could not shed the blood of my relatives, which is +very wicked. But since these things have happened, if it seems +best to you, I advise you to unite with me and come under my +protection." And those who heard him applauded his speech, +and, raising him on a shield, acknowledged him as their king. +Thus Clovis gained the kingdom of Sigibert and his treasures, +and won over his subjects to his own rule. For God daily confounded +his enemies and increased his kingdom, because he +walked uprightly before Him and did that which was pleasing in +His sight.</p> + +<p><b>42.</b> Then Clovis made war on his relative Ragnachar.<a name="FNanchor_58" id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> And +when the latter saw that his army was defeated, he attempted +to flee; but his own men seized him and his brother Richar and +brought them bound before Clovis. Then Clovis said: "Why +<span class="sidebar">The removal +of remaining +rivals</span> +have you disgraced our family by allowing yourself +to be taken prisoner? It would have been +better for you had you been slain." And, raising his battle-ax, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">59</a></span> +he slew him. Then, turning to Richar, he said, "If you had +aided your brother he would not have been taken;" and he slew +him with the ax also. Thus by their death Clovis took their +kingdom and treasures. And many other kings and relatives +of his, who he feared might take his kingdom from him, were +slain, and his dominion was extended over all Gaul.</p> + +<p><b>43.</b> And after these things he died at Paris and was buried in +the basilica of the holy saints which he and his queen, Clotilde, +had built. He passed away in the fifth year +<span class="sidebar">The death +of Clovis (511)</span> +after the battle of Vouillé, and all the days of +his reign were thirty years.</p> + +<h4>7. The Law of the Salian Franks</h4> +<div class="intro"> +<p>When the Visigoths, Lombards, and other Germanic peoples settled +within the bounds of the Roman Empire they had no such thing as +written law. They had laws, and a goodly number of them, but these +laws were handed down from generation to generation orally, having +never been enacted by a legislative body or decreed by a monarch in +the way that laws are generally made among the civilized peoples of +to-day. In other words, early Germanic law consisted simply of an +accumulation of the immemorial custom of the tribe. When, for +example, a certain penalty had been paid on several occasions by +persons who had committed a particular crime, men came naturally +to regard that penalty as the one regularly to be paid by <i>any one</i> proved +guilty of the same offense; so that what was at first only habit gradually +became hardened into law—unwritten indeed, but none the less binding. +The law thus made up, moreover, was personal rather than territorial +like that of the Romans and like ours to-day. That is, the same +laws did not apply to all the people throughout any particular country +or region. If a man were born a Visigoth he would be subject to Visigothic +law throughout life, no matter where he might go to live. So +the Burgundian would always have the right to be judged by Burgundian +law, and the Lombard by the Lombard law. Obviously, in +regions where several peoples dwelt side by side, as in large portions +of Gaul, Spain, and northern Italy, there was no small amount of confusion +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">60</a></span> +and the courts had to be conducted in a good many different +ways.</p> + +<p>After the Germans had been for some time in contact with the Romans +they began to be considerably influenced by the customs and +ways of doing things which they found among the more civilized people. +They tried to master the Latin language, though, on the whole, +they succeeded only so well as to create the new "Romance" tongues +which we know as French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian. They +adopted the Roman religion, i.e., Christianity. And, among the most +important things of all, they took up the Roman idea of having their +law written out rather than in the uncertain shape of mere tradition. +In this work of putting the old customary law in written form the way +was led by the Salian branch of the Franks. Just when the Salic code +was drawn up is not known, but the work was certainly done at some +time during the reign of Clovis, probably about the year 496. The +portions of this code which are given below will serve to show the +general character of all the early Germanic systems of law—Visigothic, +Lombard, Burgundian, and Frisian, as well as Frankish; for among +them all there was much uniformity in principles, though considerable +variation in matters of detail. Like the rest, the Salic law was fragmentary. +The codes were not intended to embrace the entire law of +the tribe, but simply to bring together in convenient form those portions +which were most difficult to remember and which were most useful +for ready reference. In the Salic code, for instance, we find a large +amount of criminal law and of the law of procedure, but only a few +touches of the law of property, or indeed of civil law of any sort. There +is practically nothing in the way of public or administrative law. Many +things are not mentioned which we should expect to find treated and, +on the other hand, some things are there which we should not look for +ordinarily in a code of law. The greater portion is taken up with +an enumeration of penalties for various crimes and wrongful acts. +These are often detailed so minutely as to be rather amusing from our +modern point of view. Yet every one of the sixty-five chapters of +the code has its significance and from the whole law can be gleaned +an immense amount of information concerning the manner of life which +prevailed in early Frankish Gaul. For the Merovingian period in +general the Salic law is our most valuable documentary source of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">61</a></span> +knowledge, just as for the same epoch the <i>Ecclesiastical History</i> of +Gregory of Tours is our most important narrative source.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in Heinrich Geffcken, <i>Lex Salica</i> ["The Salic Law"], Leipzig, +1898; also Heinrich Gottfried Gengler, <i>Germanische Rechtsdenkmäler</i> +["Monuments of German Law"], Erlangen, 1875, pp. 267-303. +Adapted from translation in Ernest F. Henderson, <i>Select Historical +Documents of the Middle Ages</i> (London, 1896), pp. 176-189.</p> + +<p class="center">I.</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> If any one be summoned before the <i>mallus</i><a name="FNanchor_59" id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> by the king's +law, and do not come, he shall be sentenced to 600 <i>denarii</i>, +which make 15 <i>solidi</i>.<a name="FNanchor_60" id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p> + +<p><b>2.</b> But he who summons another, and does not come himself, +if a lawful impediment have not delayed him, shall be +<span class="sidebar">Summonses to +the meetings +of the local +courts</span> +sentenced to 15 <i>solidi</i>, to be paid to him whom +he summoned.</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> And he who summons another shall go +with witnesses to the home of that man, and, if he be not at home, +shall enjoin the wife, or any one of the family, to make known to +him that he has been summoned to court.</p> + +<p><b>4.</b> But if he be occupied in the king's service he cannot summon +him. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">62</a></span></p> + +<p><b>5.</b> And if he shall be inside the hundred attending to his own +affairs, he can summon him in the manner just explained.</p> + +<p class="center">XI.</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> If any freeman steal, outside of a house, something worth +2 <i>denarii</i>, he shall be sentenced to 600 <i>denarii</i>, which make 15 +<i>solidi</i>.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> But if he steal, outside of a house, something worth 40 +<span class="sidebar">Theft by +a slave</span> +<i>denarii</i>, and it be proved on him, he shall be +sentenced, besides the amount and the fines for +delay, to 1,400 <i>denarii</i>, which make 35 <i>solidi</i>.</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> If a freeman break into a house and steal something worth +2 <i>denarii</i>, and it be proved on him, he shall be sentenced to 15 +<i>solidi</i>.</p> + +<p><b>4.</b> But if he shall have stolen something worth more than 5 +<i>denarii</i>, and it be proved on him, he shall be sentenced, besides +the value of the object and the fines for delay, to 1,400 +<i>denarii</i>, which make 35 <i>solidi</i>.</p> + +<p><b>5.</b> But if he shall have broken, or tampered with, the lock, +and thus have entered the house and stolen anything from it, +he shall be sentenced, besides the value of the object and the +fines for delay, to 1,800 <i>denarii</i>, which make 45 <i>solidi</i>.</p> + +<p><b>6.</b> And if he shall have taken nothing, or have escaped by +flight, he shall, for the housebreaking alone, be sentenced to +1,200 <i>denarii</i>, which make 30 <i>solidi</i>.</p> + +<p class="center">XII.</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> If a slave steal, outside of a house, something worth 2 +<span class="sidebar">Theft by +a freeman</span> +<i>denarii</i>, besides paying the value of the object +and the fines for delay, he shall be stretched out +and receive 120 blows.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> But if he steal something worth 40 <i>denarii</i>, he shall pay +6 <i>solidi</i>. The lord of the slave who committed the theft shall +restore to the plaintiff the value of the object and the fines for +delay. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">63</a></span></p> + +<p class="center">XIV.</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> If any one shall have assaulted and robbed a freeman, and +it be proved on him, he shall be sentenced to 2,500 <i>denarii</i>, which +<span class="sidebar">Robbery with +assault</span> +make 63 <i>solidi</i>.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> If a Roman shall have robbed a Salian +Frank, the above law shall be observed.</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> But if a Frank shall have robbed a Roman, he shall be +sentenced to 35 <i>solidi</i>.</p> + +<p class="center">XV.</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> If any one shall set fire to a house in which people were +sleeping, as many freemen as were in it can make complaint +<span class="sidebar">The crime of +incendiarism</span> +before the <i>mallus</i>; and if any one shall have been +burned in it, the incendiary shall be sentenced to +2,500 <i>denarii</i>, which make 63 <i>solidi</i>.<a name="FNanchor_61" id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p> + +<p class="center">XVII.</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> If any one shall have sought to kill another person, and +the blow shall have missed, he on whom it was proved shall be +sentenced to 2,500 <i>denarii</i>, which make 63 <i>solidi</i>.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> If any person shall have sought to shoot another with a +<span class="sidebar">Various deeds +of violence</span> +poisoned arrow, and the arrow has glanced aside, +and it shall be proved on him, he shall be sentenced +to 2,500 <i>denarii</i>, which make 63 <i>solidi</i>.</p> + +<p><b>5.</b> If any one shall have struck a man so that blood falls to +the floor, and it be proved on him, he shall be sentenced to 600 +<i>denarii</i>, which make 15 <i>solidi</i>.</p> + +<p><b>6.</b> But if a freeman strike a freeman with his fist so that blood +does not flow, he shall be sentenced for each blow—up to 3 +blows—to 120 <i>denarii</i>, which make 3 <i>solidi</i>.<a name="FNanchor_62" id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">64</a></span></p> + +<p class="center">XIX.</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> If any one shall have given herbs to another, so that he +die, he shall be sentenced to 200 <i>solidi</i>, or shall surely be given +<span class="sidebar">Use of poison +or witchcraft</span> +over to fire.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> If any person shall have bewitched another, +and he who was thus treated shall escape, the author of the +crime, having been proved guilty of it, shall be sentenced to 2,500 +<i>denarii</i>, which make 63 <i>solidi</i>.</p> + +<p class="center">XXX.</p> + +<p><b>6.</b> If any man shall have brought it up against another that +<span class="sidebar">Punishment +for slander</span> +he has thrown away his shield, and shall not have +been able to prove it, he shall be sentenced to +120 <i>denarii</i>, which make 3 <i>solidi</i>.<a name="FNanchor_63" id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p> + +<p><b>7.</b> If any man shall have called another "gossip" or "perjurer," +and shall not have been able to prove it, he shall be sentenced +to 600 <i>denarii</i>, which make 15 <i>solidi</i>.</p> + +<p class="center">XXXIV.</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> If any man shall have cut 3 staves by which a fence is +bound or held together, or shall have stolen or cut the heads of +3 stakes, he shall be sentenced to 600 <i>denarii</i>, which make 15 +<i>solidi</i>.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> If any one shall have drawn a harrow through another's +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">65</a></span> +field of grain after the seed has sprouted, or shall have gone +<span class="sidebar">The offense +of trespass</span> + +through it with a wagon where there was no road, +he shall be sentenced to 120 <i>denarii</i>, which make +3 <i>solidi</i>.</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> If any one shall have gone, where there is no road or path, +through another's field after the grain has grown tall, he shall +be sentenced to 600 <i>denarii</i>, which make 15 <i>solidi</i>.</p> + +<p class="center">XLI.</p> + +<p><b><a name="Sect1" id="Sect1"></a>1.</b> If any one shall have killed a free Frank, or a barbarian +living under the Salic law, and it shall have been proved on him, +he shall be sentenced to 8,000 <i>denarii</i>.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> But if he shall have thrown him into a well or into the +<span class="sidebar">Punishments +for homicide</span> +water, or shall have covered him with branches +or anything else, to conceal him, he shall be +sentenced to 24,000 <i>denarii</i>, which make 600 <i>solidi</i>.</p> + +<p><b><a name="Sect3" id="Sect3"></a>3.</b> If any one shall have slain a man who is in the service of the +king, he shall be sentenced to 24,000 <i>denarii</i>, which make 600 +<i>solidi</i>.<a name="FNanchor_64" id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p> + +<p><b>4.</b> But if he shall have put him in the water, or in a well, and +covered him with anything to conceal him, he shall be sentenced +to 72,000 <i>denarii</i>, which make 1,000 <i>solidi</i>.</p> + +<p><b>5.</b> If any one shall have slain a Roman who eats in the king's +palace, and it shall have been proved on him, he shall be sentenced +to 12,000 <i>denarii</i>, which make 300 <i>solidi</i>.<a name="FNanchor_65" id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p> + +<p><b><a name="Sect6" id="Sect6"></a>6.</b> But if the Roman shall not have been a landed proprietor +and table companion of the king, he who killed him shall be sentenced +to 4,000 <i>denarii</i>, which make 100 <i>solidi</i>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">66</a></span></p> + +<p><b>7.</b> If he shall have killed a Roman who was obliged to +pay tribute, he shall be sentenced to 63 <i>solidi</i>.</p> + +<p><b>9.</b> If any one shall have thrown a freeman into a well, and he +has escaped alive, he [the criminal] shall be sentenced to 4,000 +<i>denarii</i>, which make 100 <i>solidi</i>.</p> + +<p class="center">XLV.</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> If any one desires to migrate to another village, and if one +or more who live in that village do not wish to receive him—even +<span class="sidebar">Right of +migration</span> +if there be only one who objects—he shall +not have the right to move there.</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> But if any one shall have moved there, and within 12 +months no one has given him warning, he shall remain as secure +as the other neighbors.</p> + +<p class="center">L.</p> + +<p>1. If any freeman or leet<a name="FNanchor_66" id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> shall have made to another a promise +to pay, then he to whom the promise was made shall, within 40 +<span class="sidebar">Enforcement +of debt</span> +days, or within such time as was agreed upon +when he made the promise, go to the house of +that man with witnesses, or with appraisers. And if he [the +debtor] be unwilling to make the promised payment, he shall be +sentenced to 15 <i>solidi</i> above the debt which he had promised.</p> + +<p class="center">LIX.</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> If any man die and leave no sons, the father and mother +shall inherit, if they survive.</p> + +<p><span class="sidebar">Rights of +inheritance</span> +<b>2.</b> If the father and mother do not survive, +and he leave brothers or sisters, they shall inherit.</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> But if there are none, the sisters of the father shall inherit.</p> + +<p><b>4.</b> But if there are no sisters of the father, the sisters of the +mother shall claim the inheritance. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">67</a></span></p> + +<p><b>5.</b> If there are none of these, the nearest relatives on the +father's side shall succeed to the inheritance.</p> + +<p><b>6.</b> Of Salic land no portion of the inheritance shall go to a +woman; but the whole inheritance of the land shall belong to the +male sex.<a name="FNanchor_67" id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p> + +<p class="center">LXII.</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> If any one's father shall have been slain, the sons shall have +half the compounding money [wergeld]; and the other half, the +<span class="sidebar">Payment of +wergeld</span> +nearest relatives, as well on the mother's as on +the father's side, shall divide among themselves.<a name="FNanchor_68" id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p> + +<p><b>2.</b> But if there are no relatives, paternal or maternal, that +portion shall go to the fisc.<a name="FNanchor_69" id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">68</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER V.<br /> +THE ANGLES AND SAXONS IN BRITAIN</h3> + +<h4>8. The Saxon Invasion (cir. 449)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The Venerable Bede, the author of the passage given below, was +born about 673 in Northumberland and spent most of his life in the +Benedictine abbey of Jarrow on the Tyne, where he died in 735. He +was a man of broad learning and untiring industry, famous in all parts +of Christendom by reason of the numerous scholarly books that he +wrote. The chief of these was his <i>Ecclesiastical History of the English +People</i>, covering the period from the first invasion of Britain by Cæsar +(<span class="s07">B.C.</span> 55) to the year 731. In this work Bede dealt with many matters +lying properly outside the sphere of church history, so that it +is exceedingly valuable for the light which it throws on both the military +and political affairs of the early Anglo-Saxons in Britain. As an +historian Bede was fair-minded and as accurate as his means of information +permitted.</p> + +<p>The Angle and Saxon seafarers from the region we now know as +Denmark and Hanover had infested the shores of Britain for two centuries +or more before the coming of Hengist and Horsa which Bede +here describes. The withdrawal of the Roman garrisons about the +year 410 left the Britons at the mercy of the wilder Picts and Scots of +the north and west, and as a last resort King Vortigern decided to call +in the Saxons to aid in his campaign of defense. Such, at least, is the +story related by Gildas, a Romanized British chronicler who wrote about +the year 560, and this was the view adopted by Bede. Recent writers, +as Mr. James H. Ramsay in his <i>Foundations of England</i>, are inclined +to cast serious doubts upon the story because it seems hardly probable +that any king would have taken so foolish a step as that attributed +to Vortigern.<a name="FNanchor_70" id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> At any rate, whether by invitation or for pure love +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">69</a></span> +of seafaring adventure, certain it is that the Saxons and Angles made +their appearance at the little island of Thanet, on the coast of Kent, +and found the country so much to their liking that they chose to remain +rather than return to the over-populated shores of the Baltic. +There are many reasons for believing that people of Germanic stock +had been settled more or less permanently in Britain long before the +traditional invasion of Hengist and Horsa. Yet we are justified in +thinking of this interesting expedition as, for all practical purposes, the +beginning of the long and stubborn struggle of Germans to possess the +fruitful British isle. While Visigoths and Ostrogoths, Vandals and +Lombards were breaking across the Rhine-Danube frontier and finding +new homes in the territories of the Roman Empire, the Angles, +Saxons, and Jutes from the farther north were led by their seafaring +instincts to make their great movement, not by land, but by water, +and into a country which the Romans had a good while before been +obliged to abandon. There they were free to develop their own peculiar +Germanic life and institutions, for the most part without undergoing +the changes which settlement among the Romans produced in the case +of the tribes whose migrations were towards the Mediterranean.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Bæda, <i>Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum</i> [Bede, "Ecclesiastical +History of the English People"], Bk. I., Chaps. 14-15. Translated +by J. A. Giles (London, 1847), pp. 23-25.</p> + +<p>They consulted what was to be done,<a name="FNanchor_71" id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> and where they should +seek assistance to prevent or repel the cruel and frequent incursions +<span class="sidebar">The Britons +decide to call +in the Saxons</span> +of the northern nations. And they all +agreed with their king, Vortigern, to call over to +their aid, from the parts beyond the sea, the +Saxon nation; which, as the outcome still more plainly showed, +appears to have been done by the inspiration of our Lord Himself, +that evil might fall upon them for their wicked deeds.</p> + +<p>In the year of our Lord 449,<a name="FNanchor_72" id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> Martian, being made emperor +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">70</a></span> +with Valentinian, the forty-sixth from Augustus, ruled the +Empire seven years. Then the nation of the Angles, or Saxons, +being invited by the aforesaid king, arrived in Britain with three +long ships, and had a place assigned them to reside in by the same +king, in the eastern part of the island,<a name="FNanchor_73" id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> that they might thus +appear to be fighting for their country, while their real intentions +were to enslave it. Accordingly they engaged with the +enemy, who were come from the north to give battle, and obtained +the victory; which, being known at home in their own +country, as also the fertility of the islands and the cowardice of +the Britons, a larger fleet was quickly sent over, bringing a still +greater number of men, who, being added to the former, made +<span class="sidebar">The Saxons +settle in the +island</span> +up an invincible army. The newcomers received +from the Britons a place to dwell, upon condition +that they should wage war against their enemies +for the peace and security of the country, while the Britons +agreed to furnish them with pay.</p> + +<p>Those who came over were of the three most powerful nations +of Germany—Saxons, Angles, and Jutes. From the Jutes are +descended the people of Kent and of the Isle of Wight, and +those also in the province of the West Saxons who are to this day +called Jutes, seated opposite to the Isle of Wight. From the +Saxons, that is, the country which is now called Old Saxony, +came the East Saxons, the South Saxons, and the West Saxons. +From the Angles, that is, the country which is called Anglia, +and which is said, from that time, to remain desert to this day, +between the provinces of the Jutes and the Saxons, are descended +the East Angles, the Midland Angles, Mercians, all the race of +the Northumbrians, that is, of those nations that dwell on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">71</a></span> +north side of the River Humber, and the other nations of the +English.</p> + +<p>The first two commanders are said to have been Hengist and +Horsa. Horsa, being afterwards slain in battle by the Britons,<a name="FNanchor_74" id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> +<span class="sidebar">Hengist and +Horsa</span> +was buried in the eastern part of Kent, where a +monument bearing his name is still in existence. +They were the sons of Victgilsus, whose father was Vecta, son +of Woden; from whose stock the royal races of many provinces +trace their descent. In a short time swarms of the aforesaid +nations came over into the island, and they began to increase so +much that they became a terror to the natives themselves who +had invited them. Then, having on a sudden entered into a +league with the Picts, whom they had by this time repelled by +<span class="sidebar">The Saxons +turn against +the Britons</span> +the force of their arms, they began to turn their +weapons against their confederates. At first +they obliged them to furnish a greater quantity +of provisions; and, seeking an occasion to quarrel, protested that +unless more plentiful supplies were brought them they would +break the confederacy and ravage all the island; nor were they +backward in putting their threats in execution.</p> + +<p>They plundered all the neighboring cities and country, spread +the conflagration from the eastern to the western sea without +any opposition, and covered almost every part of the +island. Public as well as private structures were overturned; +<span class="sidebar">Their devastation +of the +country</span> +the priests were everywhere slain before the altars; +the prelates and the people, without any respect +of persons, were destroyed with fire and sword; +nor were there any to bury those who had been thus cruelly +slaughtered. Some of the miserable remainder, being taken in +the mountains, were butchered in heaps. Others, driven by +hunger, came forth and submitted themselves to the enemy for +food, being destined to undergo perpetual servitude, if they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">72</a></span> +were not killed upon the spot. Some, with sorrowful hearts, fled +beyond the seas. Others, continuing in their own country, led +a miserable life among the woods, rocks, and mountains, with +scarcely enough food to support life, and expecting every moment +to be their last.<a name="FNanchor_75" id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a></p> + +<h4>9. The Mission of Augustine (597)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>How or when the Christian religion was first introduced into Britain +cannot now be ascertained. As early as the beginning of the third +century the African church father Tertullian referred to the Britons +as a Christian people, and in 314 the British church was recognized +by the Council of Arles as an integral part of the church universal. +Throughout the period of Roman control in the island Christianity +continued to be the dominant religion. When, however, in the fifth +century and after, the Saxons and Angles invaded the country and +the native population was largely killed off or driven westward (though +not so completely as some books tell us), Christianity came to be pretty +much confined to the Celtic peoples of Ireland and Wales. The invaders +were still pagans worshiping the old Teutonic deities Woden, +Thor, Freya, and the rest, and though an attempt at their conversion +was made by a succession of Irish monks, their pride as conquerors +seems to have kept them from being greatly influenced. At any rate, +the conversion of the Angles and Saxons was a task which called for +a special evangelistic movement from no less a source than the head +of the Church. This movement was set in operation by Pope Gregory I. +(Gregory the Great) near the close of the sixth century. It is reasonable +to suppose that the impulse came originally from Bertha, the +Frankish queen of King Ethelbert of Kent, who was an ardent Christian +and very desirous of bringing about the conversion of her adopted +people. In 596 Augustine (not to be confused with the celebrated +bishop of Hippo in the fifth century) was sent by Pope Gregory at the +head of a band of monks to proclaim the religion of the cross to King +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">73</a></span> +Ethelbert, and afterwards to all the Angles and Saxons and Jutes in +the island. On Whitsunday, June 2, 597, Ethelbert renounced his old +gods and was baptized into the Christian communion. The majority +of his people soon followed his example and four years later Augustine +was appointed "Bishop of the English." After this encouraging beginning +the Christianizing of the East, West, and South Saxons went +steadily forward.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Bæda, <i>Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum</i>, Bk. I., Chaps. 23, +25-26. Adapted from translation by J. A. Giles (London, 1847), +pp. 34-40 <i>passim</i>.</p> + +<p>In the year of our Lord 582, Maurice, the fifty-fourth from +Augustus, ascended the throne,<a name="FNanchor_76" id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> and reigned twenty-one years. +In the tenth year of his reign, Gregory, a man renowned for learning +and piety, was elected to the apostolical see of Rome, and +presided over it thirteen years, six months and ten days.<a name="FNanchor_77" id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> He, +<span class="sidebar">Pope Gregory +I. sends +missionaries +to Britain</span> +being moved by divine inspiration, in the fourteenth +year of the same emperor, and about the +one hundred and fiftieth after the coming of the +English into Britain, sent the servant of God, Augustine,<a name="FNanchor_78" id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> and +with him several other monks who feared the Lord, to preach +the word of God to the English nation. They, in obedience to +the Pope's commands, having undertaken that work, were on +their journey seized with a sudden fear and began to think of +returning home, rather than of proceeding to a barbarous, +fierce, and unbelieving nation, to whose very language they +<span class="sidebar">They become +frightened at +the outlook</span> +were strangers; and this they unanimously +agreed was the safest course.<a name="FNanchor_79" id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> In short, they +sent back Augustine, who had been appointed +to be consecrated bishop in case they were received by the English, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">74</a></span> +that he might, by humble entreaty, obtain consent of the +holy Gregory, that they should not be compelled to undertake +so dangerous, toilsome, and uncertain a journey. The Pope, in +reply, sent them an encouraging letter, persuading them to proceed +in the work of the divine word, and rely on the assistance of +the Almighty. The substance of this letter was as follows:</p> + +<p>"Gregory, the servant of the servants of God, to the servants +of our Lord. Forasmuch as it had been better not to begin a +good work than to think of abandoning that +<span class="sidebar">Gregory's letter +of encouragement</span> +which has been begun, it behooves you, my +beloved sons, to fulfill the good work which, by +the help of our Lord, you have undertaken. Let not, therefore, +the toil of the journey nor the tongues of evil-speaking men deter +you. With all possible earnestness and zeal perform that which, +by God's direction, you have undertaken; being assured that +much labor is followed by an eternal reward. When Augustine, +your chief, returns, whom we also constitute your abbot,<a name="FNanchor_80" id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> humbly +obey him in all things; knowing that whatsoever you shall do by +his direction will, in all respects, be helpful to your souls. Almighty +God protect you with his grace, and grant that I, in the +heavenly country, may see the fruits of your labor; inasmuch as, +though I cannot labor with you, I shall partake in the joy of the +reward, because I am willing to labor. God keep you in safety, +my most beloved sons. Dated the 23rd of July, in the fourteenth +year of the reign of our pious and most august lord, Mauritius +Tiberius, the thirteenth year after the consulship of our said +lord."</p> + +<p>Augustine, thus strengthened by the confirmation of the +blessed Father Gregory, returned to the work of the word of +God, with the servants of Christ, and arrived in Britain. The +powerful Ethelbert was at that time king of Kent. He had extended +his dominions as far as the great River Humber, by which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">75</a></span> +the Southern Saxons are divided from the Northern.<a name="FNanchor_81" id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> On the +east of Kent is the large isle of Thanet containing according to +<span class="sidebar">Augustine +and his companions +arrive +in Kent</span> + +the English reckoning 600 families, divided from +the other land by the River Wantsum, which is +about three furlongs over and fordable only in +two places, for both ends of it run into the sea.<a name="FNanchor_82" id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> In this island +landed the servant of our Lord, Augustine, and his companions, +being, as is reported, nearly forty men. By order of the blessed +Pope Gregory, they had taken interpreters of the nation of +the Franks,<a name="FNanchor_83" id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> and sending to Ethelbert, signified that they were +come from Rome and brought a joyful message, which most undoubtedly +assured to all that took advantage of it everlasting +joys in heaven and a kingdom that would never end, with the +living and true God. The king, having heard this, ordered that +they stay in that island where they had landed, and that they +be furnished with all necessaries, until he should consider what +to do with them. For he had before heard of the Christian religion, +having a Christian wife of the royal family of the Franks, +called Bertha;<a name="FNanchor_84" id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> whom he had received from her parents upon +condition that she should be permitted to practice her religion +with the Bishop Luidhard, who was sent with her to preserve +her faith.<a name="FNanchor_85" id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p> + +<p>Some days after, the king came to the island, and sitting in +the open air, ordered Augustine and his companions to be brought +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">76</a></span> +into his presence. For he had taken precaution that they should +not come to him in any house, lest, according to an ancient superstition, +if they practised any magical arts, they might impose +upon him, and so get the better of him. But they came furnished +with divine, not with magic virtue, bearing a silver cross for +their banner, and the image of our Lord and Savior painted on a +board; and singing the litany, they offered up their prayers to +the Lord for the eternal salvation both of themselves and of +<span class="sidebar">Augustine +preaches to +King Ethelbert</span> +those to whom they were come. When Augustine +had sat down, according to the king's commands, +and preached to him and his attendants there +present the word of life, the king answered thus: "Your words +and promises are very fair, but as they are new to us, and of +uncertain import, I cannot approve of them so far as to forsake +that which I have so long followed with the whole English nation. +But because you are come from afar into my kingdom, and, as I +conceive, are desirous to impart to us those things which you +believe to be true and most beneficial, we will not molest you, +but give you favorable entertainment and take care to supply +you with necessary sustenance; nor do we forbid you to +preach and win as many as you can to your religion." Accordingly +he permitted them to reside in the city of Canterbury, +which was the metropolis of all his dominions, and, according to +his promise, besides allowing them sustenance, did not refuse +them liberty to preach. It is reported that, as they drew near +to the city, after their manner, with the holy cross and the image +of our sovereign Lord and King, Jesus Christ, they sang this +litany together: "We beseech thee, O Lord, in all Thy mercy, +that Thy anger and wrath be turned away from this city, and +from Thy holy house, because we have sinned. Hallelujah."</p> + +<p>As soon as they entered the dwelling-place assigned them, +they began to imitate the course of life practised in the primitive +Church; applying themselves to frequent prayer, watching, +and fasting; preaching the word of life to as many as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">77</a></span> +they could; despising all worldly things as not belonging to them; +receiving only their necessary food from those they taught; living +<span class="sidebar">The life of the +missionaries at +Canterbury</span> + +themselves in all respects in conformity with +what they prescribed for others, and being always +disposed to suffer any adversity, and even to die +for that truth which they preached. In short, several believed +and were baptized, admiring the simplicity of their innocent life, +and the sweetness of their heavenly doctrine. There was, on the +east side of the city, a church dedicated to the honor of St. Martin, +built whilst the Romans were still in the island, wherein the +queen, who, as has been said before, was a Christian, used to +pray.<a name="FNanchor_86" id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> In this they first began to meet, to sing, to pray, to say +mass, to preach, and to baptize, until the king, being converted +to the faith, allowed them to preach openly, and build or repair +churches in all places.</p> + +<p>When he, among the rest, induced by the unspotted life of +these holy men, and their pleasing promises, which by many +<span class="sidebar">Ethelbert +converted</span> +miracles they proved to be most certain, believed +and was baptized, greater numbers began daily to +flock together to hear the word, and forsaking their heathen rites, +to associate themselves, by believing, to the unity of the church +of Christ. Their conversion the king encouraged in so far that +he compelled none to embrace Christianity, but only showed more +affection to the believers, as to his fellow-citizens in the heavenly +kingdom. For he had learned from his instructors and guides to +salvation that the service of Christ ought to be voluntary, not +by compulsion. Nor was it long before he gave his teachers a settled +residence in his metropolis of Canterbury, with such possessions +of different kinds as were necessary for their subsistence.<a name="FNanchor_87" id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">78</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VI.<br /> +THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH</h3> + +<h4>10. Pope Leo's Sermon on the Petrine Supremacy</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>In tracing the history of the great ecclesiastical institution known +as the papacy, the first figure that stands out with considerable clearness +is that of Leo I., or Leo the Great, who was elected bishop of Rome +in the year 440. Leo is perhaps the first man who, all things considered, +can be called "pope" in the modern sense of the term, although +certain of his predecessors in the bishop's seat at the imperial capital had +long claimed and exercised a peculiar measure of authority over their +fellow bishops throughout the Empire. Almost from the earliest days +of Christianity the word <i>papa</i> (pope) seems to have been in common +use as an affectionate mode of addressing any bishop, but after the +fourth century it came to be applied in a peculiar manner to the bishop +of Rome, and in time this was the only usage, so far as western Europe +was concerned, which survived. The causes of the special development +of the Roman bishopric into the powerful papal office were numerous. +Rome's importance as a city, and particularly as the political head +of the Mediterranean world, made it natural that her bishop should +have something of a special dignity and influence. Throughout western +Europe the Roman church was regarded as a model and its bishop was +frequently called upon for counsel and advice. Then, when the seat +of the imperial government was removed to the East by Constantine, +the Roman bishop naturally took up much of the leadership in the West +which had been exercised by the emperor, and this added not a little in +the way of prestige. On the whole the Roman bishops were moderate, +liberal, and sensible in their attitude toward church questions, thereby +commending themselves to the practical peoples of the West in a way +that other bishops did not always do. The growth of temporal possessions, +especially in the way of land, also made the Roman bishops more +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">79</a></span> +independent and able to hold their own. And the activity of such men +as Leo the Great in warding off the attacks of the German barbarians, +and in providing popular leadership in the absence of such leadership +on the part of the imperial authorities, was a not unimportant item.</p> + +<p>After all, however, these are matters which have always been regarded +by the popes themselves as circumstances of a more or less +transitory and accidental character. It is not upon any or all of them +that the papacy from first to last has sought to base its high claims +to authority. The fundamental explanation, from the papal standpoint, +for the peculiar development of the papal power in the person +of the bishops of Rome is contained in the so-called theory of the +"Petrine Supremacy," which will be found set forth in Pope Leo's +sermon reproduced in part below. The essential points in this theory +are: (1) that to the apostle Peter, Christ committed the keys of the +kingdom of heaven and the supremacy over all other apostles on earth; +(2) that Peter, in the course of time, became the first bishop of Rome; +and (3) that the superior authority given to Peter was transmitted to +all his successors in the Roman bishopric. It was fundamentally on +<i>these</i> grounds that the pope, to quote an able Catholic historian, was +believed to be "the visible representative of ecclesiastical unity, the +supreme teacher and custodian of the faith, the supreme legislator, the +guardian and interpreter of the canons, the legitimate superior of all +bishops, the final judge of councils—an office which he possessed in his +own right, and which he actually exercised by presiding over all ecumenical +synods, through his legates, and by confirming the acts of the +councils as the Supreme Head of the Universal Catholic Church."<a name="FNanchor_88" id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> +Modern Protestants discard certain of the tenets which go to make up +the Petrine theory, but it is essential that the student of history bear +in mind that the people of the Middle Ages never doubted its complete +and literal authenticity, nor questioned that the authority of the +papal office rested at bottom upon something far more fundamental than +a mere fortunate combination of historical circumstances. Whatever +one's personal opinions on the issues involved, the point to be insisted +upon is that in studying mediæval church life and organization the universal +acceptance of these beliefs and conclusions be never lost to view.</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">80</a></span></p> + +<p>Leo was pope from 440 to 461 and it has been well maintained that he +was the first occupant of the office to comprehend the wide possibilities +of the papal dignity in the future. In his sermons and letters he vigorously +asserted the sovereign authority of his position, and in his influence +on the events of his time, as for example the Council of Chalcedon +in 451, he sought with no little success to bring men to a general +acknowledgment of this authority.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in Jacques Paul Migne, <i>Patroligiæ Cursus Completus</i> ["Complete +Collection of Patristic Literature"], First Series, Vol. LIV., +cols. 144-148. Translated in Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, +<i>Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian +Church</i> (New York, 1895), Second Series, Vol. XII., pp. 117-118.</p> + +<p>Although, therefore, dearly beloved, we be found both weak +and slothful in fulfilling the duties of our office, because, whatever +devoted and vigorous action we desire to undertake, we are +hindered in by the frailty of our nature, yet having the unceasing +propitiation of the Almighty and perpetual Priest [Christ], who +being like us and yet equal with the Father, brought down His +Godhead even to things human, and raised His Manhood even +to things Divine, we worthily and piously rejoice over His dispensation, +whereby, though He has delegated the care of His +sheep to many shepherds, yet He has not Himself abandoned +the guardianship of His beloved flock. And from His overruling +<span class="sidebar">The apostle +Peter still with +his Church</span> + +and eternal protection we have received the +support of the Apostle's aid also, which assuredly +does not cease from its operation; and the strength +of the foundation, on which the whole superstructure of the +Church is reared, is not weakened by the weight of the temple +that rests upon it. For the solidity of that faith which was +praised in the chief of the Apostles is perpetual; and as that +remains which Peter believed in Christ, so that remains which +Christ instituted in Peter.</p> + +<p>For when, as has been read in the Gospel lesson,<a name="FNanchor_89" id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> the Lord +had asked the disciples whom they believed Him to be amid the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">81</a></span> +various opinions that were held, and the blessed Peter had replied, +saying, "Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God," +<span class="sidebar">Christ's commission +to +Peter</span> + +the Lord said, "Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-Jona, +because flesh and blood hath not revealed +it to thee, but My Father, which is in heaven. +And I say to thee, that thou art Peter, and upon this rock will I +build My church, and the gates of Hell shall not prevail against +it. And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven. +And whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth, shall be bound in +heaven; and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth, shall be +loosed also in heaven." [Matt. xvi. 16-19.]</p> + +<p>The dispensation of Truth therefore abides, and the blessed +Peter persevering in the strength of the Rock, which he has +received, has not abandoned the helm of the Church, which he +undertook. For he was ordained before the rest in such a way +that from his being called the Rock, from his being pronounced +the Foundation, from his being constituted the Doorkeeper of +the kingdom of heaven, from his being set as the Umpire to bind +and to loose, whose judgments shall retain their validity in +<span class="sidebar">Peter properly +rules the +Church through +his successors +at Rome</span> + +heaven—from all these mystical titles we might +know the nature of his association with Christ. +And still to-day he more fully and effectually +performs what is intrusted to him, and carries +out every part of his duty and charge in Him and with Him, +through whom he has been glorified. And so if anything is +rightly done and rightly decreed by us, if anything is won from +the mercy of God by our daily supplications, it is of his work and +merits whose power lives and whose authority prevails in his +see....<a name="FNanchor_90" id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a></p> + +<p>And so, dearly beloved, with becoming obedience we celebrate +to-day's festival<a name="FNanchor_91" id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> by such methods, that in my humble person he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">82</a></span> +may be recognized and honored, in whom abides the care of all +the shepherds, together with the charge of the sheep commended +to him, and whose dignity is not belittled even in so unworthy an +<span class="sidebar">Leo claims to +be only Peter's +representative</span> + +heir. And hence the presence of my venerable +brothers and fellow-priests, so much desired and +valued by me, will be the more sacred and +precious, if they will transfer the chief honor of this service in +which they have deigned to take part to him whom they know +to be not only the patron of this see, but also the primate of all +bishops. When therefore we utter our exhortations in your ears, +holy brethren, believe that he is speaking whose representative +we are. Because it is his warning that we give, and nothing else +but his teaching that we preach, beseeching you to "gird up the +loins of your mind," and lead a chaste and sober life in the fear of +God, and not to let your mind forget his supremacy and consent +to the lusts of the flesh.</p> + +<p>Short and fleeting are the joys of this world's pleasures which +endeavor to turn aside from the path of life those who are called +to eternity. The faithful and religious spirit, therefore, must +desire the things which are heavenly and, being eager for the +<span class="sidebar">An exhortation +to Christian +constancy</span> +divine promises, lift itself to the love of the incorruptible +Good and the hope of the true Light. +But be assured, dearly-beloved, that your labor, +whereby you resist vices and fight against carnal desires, is +pleasing and precious in God's sight, and in God's mercy will +profit not only yourselves but me also, because the zealous +pastor makes his boast of the progress of the Lord's flock. "For +ye are my crown and joy," as the Apostle says, if your faith, +which from the beginning of the Gospel has been preached in all +<span class="sidebar">The peculiar +privilege of +the church at +Rome</span> +the world, has continued in love and holiness. +For though the whole Church, which is in all +the world, ought to abound in all virtues, yet you +especially, above all people, it becomes to excel in deeds of piety, +because, founded as you are on the very citadel of the Apostolic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">83</a></span> +Rock, not only has our Lord Jesus Christ redeemed you in common +with all men, but the blessed Apostle Peter has instructed +you far beyond all men.</p> + +<h4>11. The Rule of St. Benedict</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>A very important feature of the church life of the early Middle Ages +was the tendency of devout men to withdraw from the active affairs +of the world and give themselves up to careers of self-sacrificing piety. +Sometimes such men went out to live alone in forests or other obscure +places and for this reason were called anchorites or hermits; but more +often they settled in groups and formed what came to be known as +monasteries. The idea that seclusion is helpful to the religious life was +not peculiar to Christianity, for from very early times Brahmins and +Buddhists and other peoples of the Orient had cherished the same +view; and in many cases they do so still. Monasticism among Christians +began naturally in the East and at first took the form almost wholly +of hermitage, just as it had done among the adherents of other Oriental +religions, though by the fourth century the Christian monks of Syria +and Egypt and Asia Minor had come in many cases to dwell in established +communities. In general the Eastern monks were prone to extremes +in the way of penance and self-torture which the more practical +peoples of the West were not greatly disposed to imitate. Monasticism +spread into the West, but not until comparatively late—beginning in +the second half of the fourth century—and the character which it there +assumed was quite unlike that prevailing in the East. The Eastern ideal +was the life of meditation with as little activity as possible, except perhaps +such as was necessary in order to impose hardships upon one's self. +The Western ideal, on the other hand, while involving a good deal of +meditation and prayer, put much emphasis on labor and did not call +for so complete an abstention of the monk from the pursuits and pleasures +of other men.</p> + +<p>In the later fifth century, and earlier sixth, several monasteries of +whose history we know little were established in southern Gaul, especially +in the pleasant valley of the Rhone. Earliest of all, apparently, +and destined to become the most influential was the abbey of St. Martin +at Tours, founded soon after St. Martin was made bishop of Tours in 372. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">84</a></span> +But the development of Western monasticism is associated most of all +with the work of St. Benedict of Nursia, who died in 543. Benedict was +the founder of several monasteries in the vicinity of Rome, the most important +being that of Monte Cassino, on the road from Rome to Naples, +which exists to this day. One should guard, however, against the mistake +of looking upon St. Benedict as the introducer of monasticism in the +West, of even as the founder of a new monastic <i>order</i> in the strict sense of +the word. The great service which he rendered to European monasticism +consisted in his working out for his monasteries in Italy an elaborate +system of government which was found so successful in practice that, +in the form of the Benedictine Rule (<i>regula</i>), it came to be the constitution +under which for many centuries practically all the monks of Western +countries lived. That it was so widely adopted was due mainly +to its definite, practical, common-sense character. Its chief injunctions +upon the monks were poverty, chastity, obedience, piety, and labor. +All these were to be attained by methods which, although they may +seem strange to us to-day, were at least natural and wholesome when +judged by the ideas and standards prevailing in early mediæval times. +Granted the ascetic principle upon which the monastic system rested, +the Rule of St. Benedict must be regarded as eminently moderate and +sensible. It sprang from an acute perception of human nature and +human needs no less than from a lofty ideal of religious perfection. +The following extracts will serve to show its character.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in Jacques Paul Migne, <i>Patrologiæ Cursus Completus</i>, First +Series, Vol. LXVI., cols. 245-932 <i>passim</i>. Adapted from translation +in Ernest F. Henderson, <i>Select Historical Documents of the +Middle Ages</i> (London, 1896), pp. 274-314.</p> + +<p><i>Prologue....</i> We are about to found, therefore, a school +for the Lord's service, in the organization of which we trust that +we shall ordain nothing severe and nothing burdensome. But +even if, the demands of justice dictating it, something a trifle +irksome shall be the result, for the purpose of amending vices or +preserving charity, thou shalt not therefore, struck by fear, flee +the way of salvation, which cannot be entered upon except +through a narrow entrance.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> <i>What the abbot should be like.</i> An abbot who is worthy to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">85</a></span> +preside over a monastery ought always to remember what he is +called, and carry out with his deeds the name of a Superior. +For he is believed to be Christ's representative, since he is called +by His name, the apostle saying: "Ye have received the spirit of +adoption of sons, whereby we call Abba, Father" [Romans viii. +15]. And so the abbot should not (grant that he may not) teach, +or decree, or order, anything apart from the precept of the Lord; +but his order or teaching should be characterized by the marks +of divine justice in the minds of his disciples. Let the abbot +<span class="sidebar">Responsibility +of the abbot +for the character +and deeds +of the monks</span> + +always be mindful that, at the terrible judgment +of God, both things will be weighed in the balance, +his teaching and the obedience of his disciples. +And let the abbot know that whatever of uselessness +the father of the family finds among the sheep is laid to +the fault of the shepherd. Only in a case where the whole diligence +of their pastor shall have been bestowed on an unruly and +disobedient flock, and his whole care given to their wrongful +actions, shall that pastor, absolved in the judgment of the Lord, +be free to say to the Lord with the prophet: "I have not hid Thy +righteousness within my heart; I have declared Thy faithfulness +and Thy salvation, but they, despising, have scorned me" [Psalms +xl. 10]. And then let the punishment for the disobedient +sheep under his care be that death itself shall prevail against +<span class="sidebar">He must teach +by example as +well as by precept</span> + +them. Therefore, when any one receives the name +of abbot, he ought to rule over his disciples with +a double teaching; that is, let him show forth all +good and holy things by deeds more than by words. So that to +ready disciples he may set forth the commands of God in words; +but to the hard-hearted and the more simple-minded, he may +show forth the divine precepts by his deeds.</p> + +<p>He shall make no distinction of persons in the monastery. +One shall not be more cherished than another, unless it be the +one whom he finds excelling in good works or in obedience. A +free-born man shall not be preferred to one coming from servitude, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">86</a></span> +unless there be some other reasonable cause. But if, by +the demand of justice, it seems good to the abbot, he shall do +this, no matter what the rank shall be. But otherwise they shall +keep their own places. For whether we be bond or free, we are all +<span class="sidebar">His duty to encourage, +to admonish, +and to +punish</span> + +one in Christ; and, under one God, we perform an +equal service of subjection. For God is no respecter +of persons. Only in this way is a distinction +made by Him concerning us, if we are found humble +and surpassing others in good works. Therefore let him [the +abbot] have equal charity for all. Let the same discipline be +administered in all cases according to merit.... He +should, that is, rebuke more severely the unruly and the turbulent. +The obedient, moreover, and the gentle and the patient, +he should exhort, that they may progress to higher things. +But the negligent and scorners, we warn him to admonish and +reprove. Nor let him conceal the sins of the erring; but, in order +that he may prevail, let him pluck them out by the roots as soon +as they begin to spring up.</p> + +<p>And let him know what a difficult and arduous thing he has +undertaken—to rule the souls and uplift the morals of many. +And in one case indeed with blandishments, in another with rebukes, +in another with persuasion—according to the quality +or intelligence of each one—he shall so conform and adapt +himself to all that not only shall he not allow injury to come to +the flock committed to him, but he shall rejoice in the increase +of a good flock. Above all things, let him not, deceiving himself +or undervaluing the safety of the souls committed to him, give +more heed to temporary and earthly and passing things; but let +him always reflect that he has undertaken to rule souls for which +he is to render account.</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> <i>About calling in the brethren to take counsel.</i> Whenever +anything of importance is to be done in the monastery, the abbot +shall call together the whole congregation,<a name="FNanchor_92" id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> and shall himself +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">87</a></span> +explain the matter in question. And, having heard the advice +of the brethren, he shall think it over by himself, and shall do +<span class="sidebar">The monks to +be consulted +by the abbot</span> + +what he considers most advantageous. And for +this reason, moreover, we have said that all +ought to be called to take counsel, because often +it is to a younger person that God reveals what is best. The +brethren, moreover, with all subjection of humility, ought so to +give their advice that they do not presume boldly to defend +what seems good to them; but it should rather depend on the +judgment of the abbot, so that, whatever he decides to be best, +they should all agree to it. But even as it behooves the disciples +to obey the master, so it is fitting that he should arrange +all matters with care and justice. In all things, indeed, let +<span class="sidebar">The Rule to be +followed by +every one as a +guide</span> + +every one follow the Rule as his guide; and let +no one rashly deviate from it. Let no one +in the monastery follow the inclination of his +own heart. And let no one boldly presume to dispute with +his abbot, within or without the monastery. But, if he +should so presume, let him be subject to the discipline of the +Rule.</p> + +<p><b>33.</b> <i>Whether the monks should have anything of their own.</i> +More than anything else is this special vice to be cut off root and +<span class="sidebar">No property to +be owned by +the monks individually</span> + +branch from the monastery, that one should presume +to give or receive anything without the +order of the abbot, or should have anything of +his own. He should have absolutely not anything, neither a +book, nor tablets, nor a pen—nothing at all. For indeed it is +not allowed to the monks to have their own bodies or wills in +their own power. But all things necessary they must expect +from the Father of the monastery; nor is it allowable to have +anything which the abbot has not given or permitted. All +things shall be held in common; as it is written, "Let not any +man presume to call anything his own." But if any one shall +have been discovered delighting in this most evil vice, being +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">88</a></span> +warned once and again, if he do not amend, let him be subjected +to punishment.<a name="FNanchor_93" id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a></p> + +<p><b>48.</b> <i>Concerning the daily manual labor.</i> Idleness is the enemy +of the soul.<a name="FNanchor_94" id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> And therefore, at fixed times, the brothers ought +to be occupied in manual labor; and again, at fixed times, in +sacred reading.<a name="FNanchor_95" id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> Therefore we believe that both seasons ought +to be arranged after this manner,—so that, from Easter until the +Calends of October,<a name="FNanchor_96" id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> going out early, from the first until the +fourth hour they shall do what labor may be necessary. From +<span class="sidebar">Daily schedule +for the summer +season</span> + +the fourth hour until about the sixth, they shall +be free for reading. After the meal of the sixth +hour, rising from the table, they shall rest in their +beds with all silence; or, perchance, he that wishes to read may +read to himself in such a way as not to disturb another. And +the <i>nona</i> [the second meal] shall be gone through with more +moderately about the middle of the eighth hour; and again they +shall work at what is to be done until Vespers.<a name="FNanchor_97" id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> But, if the emergency +or poverty of the place demands that they be occupied in +picking fruits, they shall not be grieved; for they are truly monks +if they live by the labors of their hands, as did also our fathers +and the apostles. Let all things be done with moderation, however, +on account of the faint-hearted.</p> + +<p>In days of Lent they shall all receive separate books from the +library, which they shall read entirely through in order. These +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">89</a></span> +books are to be given out on the first day of Lent. Above all +there shall be appointed without fail one or two elders, who shall +<span class="sidebar">Reading during +Lent</span> + +go round the monastery at the hours in which the +brothers are engaged in reading, and see to it that +no troublesome brother be found who is given to idleness and +trifling, and is not intent on his reading, being not only of no use +to himself, but also stirring up others. If such a one (may it not +happen) be found, he shall be reproved once and a second time. +If he do not amend, he shall be subject under the Rule to such +punishment that the others may have fear. Nor shall brother +join brother at unsuitable hours. Moreover, on Sunday all shall +engage in reading, excepting those who are assigned to various +duties. But if any one be so negligent and lazy that he will not +or can not read, some task shall be imposed upon him which he +can do, so that he be not idle. On feeble or delicate brothers +such a task or art is to be imposed, that they shall neither be idle +nor so oppressed by the violence of labor as to be driven to take +flight. Their weakness is to be taken into consideration by the +abbot.</p> + +<p><b>53.</b> <i>Concerning the reception of guests.</i> All guests who come +shall be received as though they were Christ. For He Himself +<span class="sidebar">Hospitality +enjoined</span> + +said, "I was a stranger and ye took me in" [Matt. +xxv. 35]. And to all fitting honor shall be +shown; but, most of all, to servants of the faith and to pilgrims. +When, therefore, a guest is announced, the prior or the brothers +shall run to meet him, with every token of love. And first they +shall pray together, and thus they shall be joined together in +peace.</p> + +<p><b>54.</b> <i>Whether a monk should be allowed to receive letters or anything.</i> +By no means shall it be allowed to a monk—either from +his relatives, or from any man, or from one of his fellows—to +receive or to give, without order of the abbot, letters, presents, or +any gift, however small. But even if, by his relatives, anything +has been sent to him, he shall not presume to receive it, unless +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">90</a></span> +it has first been shown to the abbot. But if the latter order +<span class="sidebar">Power of abbot +to dispose of +articles sent to +the monks</span> +it to be received, it shall be in the power of the abbot to give it +to whomsoever he wishes. And the brother to +whom it happened to have been sent shall not +be displeased; that an opportunity be not given +to the devil. Whoever, moreover, presumes to do otherwise +shall be subject to the discipline of the Rule.</p> + +<h4>12. Gregory the Great on the Life of the Pastor</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>Gregory the Great, whose papacy extended from 590 to 604, was a +Roman of noble and wealthy family, and in many ways the ablest man +who had yet risen to the papal office. The date of his birth is not recorded, +but it was probably about 540, some ten years after St. Benedict +of Nursia had established his monastery at Monte Cassino. He was +therefore a contemporary of the historian Gregory of Tours [see <a href="#Page_47">p. 47</a>]. +The education which he received was that which was usual with young +Romans of his rank in life, and it is said that in grammar, rhetoric, logic, +and law he became well versed, though without any claim to unusual +scholarship. He entered public life and in 570 was made prætor of the +city of Rome. All the time, however, he was struggling with the strange +attractiveness which the life of the monk had for him, and in the end, +upon the death of his father, he decided to forego the career to which his +wealth and rank entitled him and to seek the development of his higher +nature in seclusion. With the money obtained from the sale of his great +estates he established six monasteries in Sicily and that of St. Andrew +at Rome. In Gregory's case, however, retirement to monastic life did +not mean oblivion, for soon he was selected by Pope Pelagius II., as +resident minister (<i>apocrisiarius</i>) at Constantinople and in this important +position he was maintained for five or six years. After returning +to Rome he became abbot of St. Andrews, and in 590, as the records +say, he was "demanded" as pope.</p> + +<p>Gregory was a man of very unusual ability and the force of his strong +personality made his reign one of the great formative epochs in papal +history. Besides his activity in relation to the affairs of the world in +general, he has the distinction of being a literary pope. His letters +and treatises were numerous and possessed a quality of thought and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">91</a></span> +style which was exceedingly rare in his day. The most famous of his +writings, and justly so, is the <i>Liber Regulæ Pastoralis</i>, known commonly +to English readers as the "Pastoral Care," or the "Pastoral Rule." +This book was written soon after its author became pope (590) and was +addressed to John, bishop of Ravenna, in reply to inquiries received +from him respecting the duties and obligations of the clergy. Though +thus put into form for a special purpose, there can be no doubt that +it was the product of long thought, and in fact in his <i>Magna Moralia</i>, +or "Commentary on the Book of Job," written during his residence at +Constantinople, Gregory declared his purpose some day to write just +such a book. Everywhere throughout Europe the work was received +with the favor it deserved, and in Spain, Gaul, and Italy its influence +upon the life and manners of the clergy was beyond estimate. Even +in Britain, after King Alfred's paraphrase of it in the Saxon tongue +had been made, three hundred years later [see <a href="#Page_193">p. 193</a>], it was a real +power for good. The permanent value of Gregory's instructions regarding +the life of the clergy arose not only from the lofty spirit in +which they were conceived and the clear-cut manner in which they +were expressed, but from their breadth and adaptation to all times and +places. There are few books which the modern pastor can read with +greater profit. The work is in four parts: (1) on the selection of men +for the work of the Church; (2) on the sort of life the pastor ought to +live; (3) on the best methods of dealing with the various types of people +which every pastor will be likely to encounter; and (4) on the necessity +that the pastor guard himself against egotism and personal ambition. +The passages below are taken from the second and third parts.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Gregorius Magnus, <i>Liber Regulæ Pastoralis</i> [Gregory the Great, +"The Book of the Pastoral Rule"]. Text in Jacques Paul Migne, +<i>Patroligiæ Cursus Completus</i>, First Series, Vol. LXXVII., cols. +12-127 <i>passim</i>. Adapted from translation in Philip Schaff and +Henry Wace, <i>Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of +the Christian Church</i> (New York, 1895), Second Series, Vol. XII., +pp. 9-71 <i>passim</i>.</p> + +<p>The conduct of a prelate<a name="FNanchor_98" id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> ought so far to be superior to the +conduct of the people as the life of a shepherd is accustomed to +exalt him above the flock. For one whose position is such that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">92</a></span> +the people are called his flock ought anxiously to consider how +great a necessity is laid upon him to maintain uprightness. It +<span class="sidebar">The qualities +which ought to +be united in +the pastor</span> + +is necessary, then, that in thought he should be +pure, in action firm; discreet in keeping silence, +profitable in speech; a near neighbor to every one +in sympathy, exalted above all in contemplation; a familiar friend +of good livers through humility, unbending against the vices of +evil-doers through zeal for righteousness; not relaxing in his care +for what is inward by reason of being occupied in outward things, +nor neglecting to provide for outward things in his anxiety for +what is inward.</p> + +<p>The ruler should always be pure in thought, inasmuch as no +impurity ought to pollute him who has undertaken the office +<span class="sidebar">Purity of heart +essential</span> + +of wiping away the stains of pollution in the +hearts of others also; for the hand that would +cleanse from dirt must needs be clean, lest, being itself sordid +with clinging mire, it soil all the more whatever it touches.</p> + +<p>The ruler should always be a leader in action, that by his living +he may point out the way of life to those who are put under him, +<span class="sidebar">He must teach +by example</span> + +and that the flock, which follows the voice and +manners of the shepherd, may learn how to walk +rather through example than through words. For he who is +required by the necessity of his position to <i>speak</i> the highest +things is compelled by the same necessity to <i>do</i> the highest +things. For that voice more readily penetrates the hearer's +heart, which the speaker's life commends, since what he commands +by speaking he helps the doing by showing.</p> + +<p>The ruler should be discreet in keeping silence, profitable in +speech; lest he either utter what ought to be suppressed or suppress +what he ought to utter. For, as incautious speaking leads +into error, so indiscreet silence leaves in error those who might +have been instructed. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">93</a></span></p> + +<p>The ruler ought also to understand how commonly vices pass +themselves off as virtues. For often niggardliness excuses itself +under the name of frugality, and on the other hand extravagance +conceals itself under the name of liberality. Often inordinate +carelessness is believed to be loving-kindness, and unbridled +wrath is accounted the virtue of spiritual zeal. Often hasty +action is taken for promptness, and tardiness for the deliberation +<span class="sidebar">He must be +able to distinguish +virtues +and vices</span> +of seriousness. Whence it is necessary for the +ruler of souls to distinguish with vigilant care +between virtues and vices, lest stinginess get +possession of his heart while he exults in seeming frugality in +expenditure; or, while anything is recklessly wasted, he glory in +being, as it were, compassionately liberal; or, in overlooking what +he ought to have smitten, he draw on those that are under him +to eternal punishment; or, in mercilessly smiting an offense, he +himself offend more grievously; or, by rashly anticipating, mar +what might have been done properly and gravely; or, by putting +off the merit of a good action, change it to something worse.</p> + +<p>Since, then, we have shown what manner of man the pastor +ought to be, let us now set forth after what manner he should +<span class="sidebar">No one kind +of teaching +adapted to +all men</span> + +teach. For, as long before us Gregory Nazianzen,<a name="FNanchor_99" id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> +of reverend memory, has taught, one and +the same exhortation does not suit all, inasmuch +as all are not bound together by similarity of character. For +the things that profit some often hurt others; seeing that also, +for the most part, herbs which nourish some animals are fatal to +others; and the gentle hissing that quiets horses incites whelps; +and the medicine which abates one disease aggravates another; +and the food which invigorates the life of the strong kills little +children. Therefore, according to the quality of the hearers +ought the discourse of teachers to be fashioned, so as to suit all +and each for their several needs, and yet never deviate from the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">94</a></span> +art of common edification. For what are the intent minds of +hearers but, so to speak, a kind of harp, which the skilful player, +in order to produce a tune possessing harmony, strikes in various +ways? And for this reason the strings render back a melodious +sound, because they are struck indeed with one quill, but not +with one kind of stroke. Whence every teacher also, that he +may edify all in the one virtue of charity, ought to touch the +hearts of his hearers out of one doctrine, but not with one and +the same exhortation.</p> + +<p>Differently to be admonished are these that follow:</p> + +<p>Men and women.</p> + +<p>The poor and the rich.</p> + +<p>The joyful and the sad.</p> + +<p>Prelates and subordinates.</p> + +<p>Servants and masters.</p> + +<p>The wise of this world and the dull. +<span class="sidebar">Various classes +of hearers +to be distinguished</span> +</p> + +<p>The impudent and the bashful.</p> + +<p>The forward and the faint-hearted.</p> + +<p>The impatient and the patient.</p> + +<p>The kindly disposed and the envious.</p> + +<p>The simple and the insincere.</p> + +<p>The whole and the sick.</p> + +<p>Those who fear scourges, and therefore live innocently; and +those who have grown so hard in iniquity as not to be corrected +even by scourges.</p> + +<p>The too silent, and those who spend time in much speaking.</p> + +<p>The slothful and the hasty.</p> + +<p>The meek and the passionate.</p> + +<p>The humble and the haughty.</p> + +<p>The obstinate and the fickle.</p> + +<p>The gluttonous and the abstinent.</p> + +<p>Those who mercifully give of their own, and those who would +fain seize what belongs to others.</p> + +<p>Those who neither seize the things of others nor are bountiful +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">95</a></span> +with their own; and those who both give away the things they +have, and yet cease not to seize the things of others.</p> + +<p>Those who are at variance, and those who are at peace.</p> + +<p>Lovers of strife and peacemakers.</p> + +<p>Those who understand not aright the words of sacred law; +and those who understand them indeed aright, but speak them +without humility.</p> + +<p>Those who, though able to preach worthily, are afraid through +excessive humility; and those whom imperfection or age debars +from preaching, and yet rashness impels to it.</p> + +<p>(Admonition 7)<a name="FNanchor_100" id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a>. Differently to be admonished are the wise of +this world and the dull. For the wise are to be admonished that +they leave off knowing what they know<a name="FNanchor_101" id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a>; the dull also are to be +admonished that they seek to know what they know not. In +the former this thing first, that they think themselves wise, is to +be overcome; in the latter, whatsoever is already known of +<span class="sidebar">How the wise +and the dull +are to be admonished</span> + +heavenly wisdom is to be built up; since, being in +no wise proud, they have, as it were, prepared +their hearts for supporting a building. With +those we should labor that they become more wisely foolish<a name="FNanchor_102" id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a>, +leave foolish wisdom, and learn the wise foolishness of God: to +these we should preach that from what is accounted foolishness +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">96</a></span> +they should pass, as from a nearer neighborhood, to true +wisdom.</p> + +<p>But in the midst of these things we are brought back by the +earnest desire of charity to what we have already said above; +that every preacher should give forth a sound more by his deeds +than by his words, and rather by good living imprint footsteps +for men to follow than by speaking show them the way to walk +in. For that cock, too, whom the Lord in his manner of speech +takes to represent a good preacher, when he is now preparing to +crow, first shakes his wings, and by smiting himself makes himself +more awake; since it is surely necessary that those who give +utterance to words of holy preaching should first be well awake +<span class="sidebar">Emphasis on +the importance +of setting a +right example</span> + +in earnestness of good living, lest they arouse +others with their voice while themselves torpid +in performance; that they should first shake +themselves up by lofty deeds, and then make others solicitous +for good living; that they should first smite themselves with the +wings of their thoughts; that whatsoever in themselves is unprofitably +torpid they should discover by anxious investigation, +and correct by strict self-discipline, and then at length set in +order the life of others by speaking; that they should take heed +to punish their own faults by bewailings, and then denounce +what calls for punishment in others; and that, before they give +voice to words of exhortation, they should proclaim in their +deeds all that they are about to speak.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">97</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VII.<br /> +THE RISE OF MOHAMMEDANISM</h3> + +<h4>13. Selections from the Koran</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The Koran comprises all of the recorded speeches and sayings of +the prophet Mohammed and it has for nearly fifteen centuries been the +absolute law and gospel of the Mohammedan religion. The teachings +and revelations which are contained in it are believed by Mohammedans +to have proceeded directly from God. They were delivered orally by +Mohammed from time to time in the presence of his followers and +until after the prophet's death in 632 no attempt was made to put them +in organized written form. Many of the disciples, however, remembered +the words their master had uttered, at least until they could inscribe +them on palm leaves, bits of wood, bleached bones, or other such +articles as happened to be at hand. In the reign of Abu-Bekr (632-634), +Mohammed's successor, it became apparent that unless some measure +was adopted to bring these scattered sayings together they were in a +fair way to be lost for all time to come. Hence the caliph intrusted to +a certain young man by the name of Zaid the task of collecting and +putting in some sort of system all the teachings that had survived, +whether in written form or merely in the minds of men. Zaid had +served Mohammed in a capacity which we should designate perhaps +as that of secretary, and so should have been well qualified for the +work. In later years (about 660) the Koran, or "the reading," as the +collection began to be called, was again thoroughly revised. Thereafter +all older copies were destroyed and no farther changes in any +respect were ever made.</p> + +<p>The Koran is made up of one hundred and fourteen chapters, called +<i>surahs</i>, arranged loosely in the order of their length, beginning with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">98</a></span> +the longest. This arrangement does not correspond either to the dates +at which the various passages were uttered by the prophet or to any +sequence of thought and meaning, so that when one takes up the book +to read it as it is ordinarily printed it seems about as confused as anything +can well be. Scholars, however, have recently discovered the +chronological order of the various parts and this knowledge has already +come to be of no little assistance in the work of interpretation. Like +all sacred books, the Koran abounds in repetitions; yet, taken all in +all, it contains not more than two-thirds as many verses as the New +Testament, and, as one writer has rather curiously observed, it is not +more than one-third as lengthy as the ordinary Sunday edition of the +New York <i>Herald</i>. The teachings which are most emphasized are (1) +the unity and greatness of God, (2) the sin of worshipping idols, (3) +the certainty of the resurrection of the body and the last judgment, +(4) the necessity of a belief in the Scriptures as revelations from God +communicated through angels to the line of prophets, (5) the luxuries +of heaven and the torments of hell, (6) the doctrine of predestination, +(7) the authoritativeness of Mohammed's teachings, and (8) the four +cardinal obligations of worship (including purification and prayer), +fasting, pilgrimages, and alms-giving. Intermingled with these are +numerous popular legends and sayings of the Arabs before Mohammed's +day, stories from the Old and New Testaments derived from Jewish +and Christian settlers in Arabia, and certain definite and practical +rules of everyday conduct. The book is not only thus haphazard in +subject-matter but it is also very irregular in interest and elegance. +Portions of it abound in splendid imagery and lofty conceptions, and +represent the literary quality of the Arabian language at its best, though +of course this quality is very largely lost in translation. The later +surahs—those which appear first in the printed copy—are largely argumentative +and legislative in character and naturally fall into a more +prosaic and monotonous strain. From an almost inexhaustible maze +of precepts, exhortations, and revelations, the following widely separated +passages have been selected in the hope that they will serve to +show something of the character of the Koran itself, as well as the +nature of some of the more important Mohammedan beliefs and ideals. +It will be found profitable to make a comparison of Christian beliefs +on the same points as drawn from the New Testament. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">99</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in Edward William Lane, <i>Selections from the Kur-án</i>, edited by +Stanley Lane-Poole (London, 1879), <i>passim</i>.</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<p>In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sidebar">The opening<br /> +prayer<a name="FNanchor_103" id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></span></p> + +<div class="poem"> +<p>Praise be to God, the Lord of the Worlds,</p> +<p>The Compassionate, the Merciful,</p> +<p>The King of the day of judgment.</p> +<p>Thee do we worship, and of Thee seek we help.</p> +<p>Guide us in the right way,</p> +<p>The way of those to whom Thou hast been gracious,</p> +<p>Not of those with whom Thou art wroth, nor of the erring.<a name="FNanchor_104" id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<p class="i4">Say, He is God, One [God];</p> +<p class="i4">God, the Eternal.</p> +<p class="i4">He begetteth not nor is begotten,</p> +<p class="i4">And there is none equal unto Him.<a name="FNanchor_105" id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sidebar">The "throne +verse"</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>God! There is no God but He, the <i>Ever</i>-living, the Ever-Subsisting. +Slumber seizeth Him not, nor sleep. To Him belongeth +whatsoever is in the Heavens and whatsoever +is in the Earth. Who is he that shall intercede +with Him, unless by His permission? He knoweth what [hath +been] before them and what [shall be] after them, and they shall +not compass aught of His knowledge save what He willeth. His +Throne comprehendeth the Heavens and the Earth, and the care +of them burdeneth Him not. And He is the High, The Great.<a name="FNanchor_106" id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></p> +</div> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">100</a></span></p> + +<div class="poem"> +<p>When the earth is shaken with her shaking,</p> +</div> +<p><span class="sidebar">The day of<br /> +resurrection</span></p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="sn"> +<p>And the earth hath cast forth her dead,</p> +<p>And man shall say, 'What aileth her?'</p> +<p>On that day shall she tell out her tidings,</p> +<p>Because thy Lord hath inspired her,</p> +<p>On that day shall men come one by one to behold their works,</p> +<p>And whosoever shall have wrought an ant's weight of good shall behold it,</p> +<p>And whosoever shall have wrought an ant's weight of ill shall behold it.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class="poem"> +<p>When the heaven shall be cloven asunder,</p> +<p>And when the stars shall be scattered,</p> +<p>And when the seas shall be let loose,</p> +<p>And when the graves shall be turned upside-down,<a name="FNanchor_107" id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></p> +<p><i>Every</i> soul shall know what it hath done and left undone.</p> +<p>O man! what hath seduced thee from thy generous Lord,</p> +<p>Who created thee and fashioned thee and disposed thee aright?</p> +<p>In the form which pleased Him hath He fashioned thee.</p> +<p>Nay, but ye treat the Judgment as a lie.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="sidebar">The coming<br /> +judgment</span></p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="sn"> +<p>Verily there are watchers over you,</p> +<p>Worthy recorders,</p> +<p>Knowing what ye do.</p> +<p>Verily in delight shall the righteous dwell;</p> +<p>And verily the wicked in Hell [-Fire];</p> +<p>They shall be burnt at it on the day of doom,</p> +<p>And they shall not be hidden from it.</p> +<p>And what shall teach thee what the Day of Judgment is?</p> +<p>Again: What shall teach thee what is the Day of Judgment?</p> +<p><i>It is</i> a day when one soul shall be powerless for another soul; and all on that day shall be in the hands of God.</p> +</div> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">101</a></span></p> + +<div class="poem"> +<p>When one blast shall be blown on the trumpet,</p> +<p>And the earth shall be raised and the mountains, and be broken to dust with one breaking,</p> +<p>On that day the Calamity shall come to pass:</p> +<p>And the heavens shall cleave asunder, being frail on that day,</p> +<p>And the angels on the sides thereof; and over them on that day eight <i>of the angels</i> shall bear the throne of thy Lord.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="sidebar">The reward<br /> +of the<br /> +righteous</span></p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="sn"> +<p>On that day ye shall be presented <i>for the reckoning</i>; none of your secrets shall be hidden.</p> +<p>And as to him who shall have his book<a name="FNanchor_108" id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> given to him in his right hand, he shall say, 'Take ye, read my book;'</p> +<p>Verily I was sure I should come to my reckoning.</p> +<p>And his [shall be] a pleasant life</p> +<p>In a lofty garden,</p> +<p>Whose clusters [shall be] near at hand.</p> +<p>'Eat ye and drink with benefit on account of that which ye paid beforehand in the past days.'</p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<p>But as to him who shall have his book given to him in his left hand, he shall say, 'O would that I had not had my book given to me,</p> +<p>Nor known what [was] my reckoning!</p> +</div> +<p><span class="sidebar">The fate of<br /> +the wicked</span></p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="sn"> +<p>O would that <i>my death</i> had been the ending <i>of me</i>!</p> +<p>My wealth hath not profited me!</p> +<p>My power is passed from me!'</p> +<p>'Take him and chain him,</p> +<p>Then cast him into hell to be burnt,</p> +<p>Then in a chain of seventy cubits bind him:</p> +<p>For he believed not in God, the Great,</p> +<p>Nor urged to feed the poor;</p> +<p>Therefore he shall not have here this day a friend,</p> +<p>Nor any food save filth</p> +<p>Which none but the sinners shall eat.'</p> +</div> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">102</a></span></p> +<div class="poem"> +<p>When the Calamity shall come to pass</p> +<p>There shall not be <i>a soul</i> that will deny its happening,</p> +<p>[It will be] an abaser <i>of some</i>, an exalter <i>of others</i>;</p> +<p>When the earth shall be shaken with a <i>violent</i> shaking,</p> +<p>And the mountains shall be crumbled with a violent crumbling,</p> +<p>And shall become fine dust scattered abroad;</p> +<p>And ye shall be three classes.<a name="FNanchor_109" id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></p> +<p>And the people of the right hand, what shall be the people of the right hand!</p> +<p>And the people of the left hand, what the people of the left hand!</p> +</div> +<p><span class="sidebar">"The<br /> +preceders"</span></p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="sn"> +<p>And the Preceders, the Preceders!<a name="FNanchor_110" id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a></p> +<p>These [shall be] the brought-nigh [unto God]</p> +<p>In the gardens of delight,—</p> +<p>A crowd of the former generations,</p> +<p>And a few of the latter generations,</p> +<p>Upon inwrought couches,</p> +<p>Reclining thereon, face to face.</p> +<p>Youths ever-young shall go unto them round about</p> +<p>With goblets and ewers and a cup of flowing wine,</p> +<p>Their [heads] shall ache not with it, neither shall they be drunken;</p> +<p>And with fruits of the [sorts] which they shall choose,</p> +<p>And the flesh of birds of the [kinds] which they shall desire.</p> +<p>And damsels with eyes like pearls laid up</p> +<p><i>We will give them</i> as a reward for that which they have done.</p> +<p>Therein shall they hear no vain discourse nor accusation of sin,</p> +<p>But [only] the saying, 'Peace! Peace!'</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">103</a></span></p> + +<div class="poem"> +<p>And the people of the right hand—what [shall be] the people of the right hand!</p> +<p>[They shall dwell] among lote-trees without thorns</p> +</div> +<p><span class="sidebar">The<br /> +pleasures<br /> +of paradise</span></p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="sn"> +<p>And bananas loaded with fruit,</p> +<p>And a shade <i>ever-spread</i>,</p> +<p>And water <i>ever</i>-flowing,</p> +<p>And fruits abundant</p> +<p>Unstayed and unforbidden,<a name="FNanchor_111" id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></p> +<p>And couches raised.<a name="FNanchor_112" id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a></p> +<p>Verily we have created them<a name="FNanchor_113" id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> by a [peculiar] creation,</p> +<p>And have made them virgins,</p> +<p>Beloved of their husbands, of equal age [with them],</p> +<p>For the people of the right hand,</p> +<p>A crowd of the former generations</p> +<p>And a crowd of the latter generations.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<p>And the people of the left hand—what [shall be] the people of the left hand!</p> +<p>[They shall dwell] amidst burning wind and scalding water,</p> +<p>And a shade of blackest smoke,</p> +<p>Not cool and not grateful.</p> +<p>For before this they were blest with worldly goods,</p> +<p>And they persisted in heinous sin,</p> +<p>And said, 'When we shall have died and become dust and bones, shall we indeed be raised to life,</p> +</div> +<p><span class="sidebar">The<br /> +torments<br /> +of hell</span></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">104</a></span></p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="sn"> +<p>And our fathers the former generations?'</p> +<p>Say, verily the former and the latter generations</p> +<p>Shall be gathered together for the appointed time of a known day.</p> +<p>Then ye, O ye erring, belying [people],</p> +<p>Shall surely eat of the tree of Ez-Zakkoom,<a name="FNanchor_114" id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a></p> +<p>And fill therewith [your] stomachs,</p> +<p>And drink thereon boiling water,</p> +<p>And ye shall drink as thirsty camels drink.—</p> +<p>This [shall be] their entertainment on the day of retribution.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">105</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VIII.<br /> +THE BEGINNINGS OF THE CAROLINGIAN DYNASTY OF FRANKISH +KINGS</h3> +<h4>14. Pepin the Short Takes the Title of King (751)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>During the seventh and eighth centuries the Merovingian line of +Frankish kings degenerated to a condition of weakness both pitiable +and ridiculous. As the royal family became less worthy, the powers of +government gradually slipped from its hands into those of a series of +ministers commonly known by the title of Mayor of the Palace (<i>Maior +Domus</i>). The most illustrious of these uncrowned sovereigns was +Charles Martel, the victor over the Saracens near Poitiers, in whose +time the Frankish throne for four years had no occupant at all. Martel +contrived to make his peculiar office hereditary, and at his death in +741 left it to be filled jointly by his two elder sons, Karlmann and +Pepin the Short. They decided that it would be to their interest to +keep up the show of Merovingian royalty a little longer and in 743 +allowed Childeric III. to mount the throne—a weakling destined to +be the last of his family to wear the Frankish crown. Four years later +Karlmann renounced his office and withdrew to the monastery of +Monte Cassino, southeast of Rome, leaving Pepin sole "mayor" and +the only real ruler of the Franks. Before many more years had passed, +the utter uselessness of keeping up a royal line whose members were +notoriously unfit to govern had impressed itself upon the nation to +such an extent that when Pepin proceeded to put young Childeric in +a monastery and take the title of king for himself, nobody offered the +slightest objection. The sanction of the Pope was obtained for the act +because Pepin thought that his course would thus be made to appear +less like an outright usurpation. The Pope's reward came four years +later when Pepin bestowed upon him the lands in northern and central +Italy which eventually constituted, in the main, the so-called States of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">106</a></span> +the Church. In later times, after the reign of Pepin's famous son +Charlemagne, the new dynasty established by Pepin's elevation to the +throne came to be known as the Carolingian (from <i>Karolus</i>, or Charles).</p> + +<p>The following account of the change from the Merovingian to the +Carolingian line is taken from the so-called <i>Lesser Annals of Lorsch</i>. +At the monastery of Lorsch, as at nearly every other such place in the +Middle Ages, records or "annals" of one sort or another were pretty +regularly kept. They were often very inaccurate and their writers +had a curious way of filling up space with matters of little importance, +but sometimes, as in the present instance, we can get from them some +very interesting information. The monastery of Lorsch was about +twelve miles distant from Heidelberg, in southern Germany.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—<i>Annales Laurissenses Minores</i> ["Lesser Annals of Lorsch"]. Text +in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Scriptores</i> (Pertz ed.), Vol. I., +p. 116.</p> + +<p>In the year 750<a name="FNanchor_115" id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> of the Lord's incarnation Pepin sent ambassadors +to Rome to Pope Zacharias,<a name="FNanchor_116" id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> to inquire concerning the kings +of the Franks who, though they were of the royal line and were +called kings, had no power in the kingdom, except that charters +and privileges were drawn up in their names. They had absolutely +no kingly authority, but did whatever the Major Domus of +the Franks desired.<a name="FNanchor_117" id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> But on the first day of March in the Campus +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">107</a></span> +Martius,<a name="FNanchor_118" id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> according to ancient custom, gifts were offered to these +kings by the people, and the king himself sat in the royal seat +with the army standing round him and the Major Domus in his +presence, and he commanded on that day whatever was decreed +by the Franks; but on all other days thenceforward he remained +quietly at home. Pope Zacharias, therefore, in the exercise of his +apostolic authority, replied to their inquiry that it seemed to him +better and more expedient that the man who held power in the +kingdom should be called king and be king, rather than he +who falsely bore that name. Therefore the aforesaid pope commanded +the king and people of the Franks that Pepin, who was +exercising royal power, should be called king, and should be established +on the throne. This was therefore done by the anointing +of the holy archbishop Boniface in the city of Soissons. Pepin +was proclaimed king, and Childeric, who was falsely called king, +was shaved and sent into a monastery.</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">108</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IX.<br /> +THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE</h3> + +<h4>15. Charlemagne the Man</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>Biographical writings make up a not inconsiderable part of mediæval +literature, but unfortunately the greater portion of them are +to be trusted in only a limited degree by the student of history. Many +biographies, especially the lives of the saints and other noted Christian +leaders, were prepared expressly for the purpose of giving the world +concrete examples of how men ought to live. Their authors, therefore, +were apt to relate only the good deeds of the persons about +whom they wrote, and these were often much exaggerated for the sake +of effect. The people of the time generally were superstitious and easily +appealed to by strange stories and the recital of marvelous events. +They were not critical, and even such of them as were able to read at +all could be made to believe almost anything that the writers of books +cared to say. And since these writers themselves shared in the superstition +and credulousness of the age, naturally such biographies as were +written abounded in tales which anybody to-day would know at a +glance could not be true. To all this Einhard's <i>Life of Charles the Great</i> +stands as a notable exception. It has its inaccuracies, but it still +deserves to be ranked almost in a class of its own as a trustworthy +biographical contribution to our knowledge of the earlier Middle Ages.</p> + +<p>Einhard (or Eginhard) was a Frank, born about 770 near the Odenwald +in Franconia. After being educated at the monastery of Fulda he +was presented at the Frankish court, some time between 791 and 796, +where he remained twenty years as secretary and companion of the +king, and later emperor, Charlemagne. He was made what practically +corresponds to a modern minister of public works and in that capacity +is thought to have supervised the building of the palace and basilica +of the temple at Aachen, the palace of Ingelheim, the bridge over the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">109</a></span> +Rhine at Mainz, and many other notable constructions of the king, +though regarding the precise work of this sort which he did there is a +general lack of definite proof. Despite the fact that he was a layman, +he was given charge of a number of abbeys. His last years were spent +at the Benedictine monastery of Seligenstadt, where he died about 840. +There is a legend that Einhard's wife, Emma, was a daughter of Charlemagne, +but this is to be regarded as merely a twelfth-century invention.</p> + +<p>The <i>Vita Caroli Magni</i> was written as an expression of the author's +gratitude to his royal friend and patron, though it did not appear +until shortly after the latter's death in 814. "It contains the history +of a very great and distinguished man," says Einhard in his preface, +"but there is nothing in it to wonder at, besides his deeds, except the +fact that I, who am a barbarian, and very little versed in the Roman +language, seem to suppose myself capable of writing gracefully and +respectably in Latin." It is considered ordinarily that Einhard endeavored +to imitate the style of the Roman Suetonius, the biographer +of the first twelve Cæsars, though in reality his writing is perhaps +superior to that of Suetonius and there are scholars who hold that +if he really followed a classical model at all that model was Julius +Cæsar. Aside from the matter of literary style, there can be no reasonable +doubt that the idea of writing a biography of his master was suggested +to Einhard by the biographies of Suetonius, particularly that +of the Emperor Augustus. Despite his limitations, says Mr. Hodgkin, +the fact remains that "almost all our real, vivifying knowledge of +Charles the Great is derived from Einhard, and that the <i>Vita Caroli</i> +is one of the most precious literary bequests of the early Middle Ages."<a name="FNanchor_119" id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> +Certainly few mediæval writers had so good an opportunity as did +Einhard to know the truth about the persons and events they undertook +to describe.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Einhard, <i>Vita Caroli Magni</i> ["Life of Charles the Great"], Chaps. +22-27. Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Scriptores</i> (Pertz +ed.), Vol. II., pp. 455-457. Adapted from translation by Samuel +Epes Turner in "Harper's School Classics" (New York, 1880), +pp. 56-65.</p> + +<p><b>22.</b> Charles was large and strong, and of lofty stature, though +not excessively tall. The upper part of his head was round, his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">110</a></span> +eyes very large and animated, nose a little long, hair auburn, and +face laughing and merry. His appearance was always stately +and dignified, whether he was standing or sitting, although his +neck was thick and somewhat short and his abdomen rather +prominent. The symmetry of the rest of his body concealed +these defects. His gait was firm, his whole carriage manly, and +<span class="sidebar">Personal +appearance</span> +his voice clear, but not so strong as his size led +one to expect. His health was excellent, except +during the four years preceding his death, when he was subject +to frequent fevers; toward the end of his life he limped a little +with one foot. Even in his later years he lived rather according +to his own inclinations than the advice of physicians; the latter +indeed he very much disliked, because they wanted him to give +up roasts, to which he was accustomed, and to eat boiled meat +instead. In accordance with the national custom, he took frequent +exercise on horseback and in the chase, in which sports +scarcely any people in the world can equal the Franks. He enjoyed +the vapors from natural warm springs, and often indulged +in swimming, in which he was so skilful that none could surpass +him; and hence it was that he built his palace at Aix-la-Chapelle, +and lived there constantly during his later years....<a name="FNanchor_120" id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a></p> + +<p><b>23.</b> His custom was to wear the national, that is to say, the +Frankish, dress—next his skin a linen shirt and linen breeches, +and above these a tunic fringed with silk; while hose fastened by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">111</a></span> +bands covered his lower limbs, and shoes his feet. In winter he +protected his shoulders and chest by a close-fitting coat of otter +or marten skins. Over all he flung a blue cloak, and he always +had a sword girt about him, usually one with a gold or silver hilt +and belt. He sometimes carried a jeweled sword, but only on +<span class="sidebar">Manner +of dress</span> +great feast-days or at the reception of ambassadors +from foreign nations. He despised foreign +costumes, however handsome, and never allowed himself to be +robed in them, except twice in Rome, when he donned the Roman +tunic, chlamys,<a name="FNanchor_121" id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> and shoes; the first time at the request of Pope +Hadrian,<a name="FNanchor_122" id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> the second to gratify Leo, Hadrian's successor.<a name="FNanchor_123" id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> On +great feast-days he made use of embroidered clothes, and shoes +adorned with precious stones; his cloak was fastened with a +golden buckle, and he appeared crowned with a diadem of gold +and gems; but on other days his dress differed little from that of +ordinary people.</p> + +<p><b>24.</b> Charles was temperate in eating, and especially so in +drinking, for he abhorred drunkenness in anybody, much more +in himself and those of his household; but he could not easily +abstain from food, and often complained that fasts injured his +health. He gave entertainments but rarely, only on great feast-days, +and then to large numbers of people. His meals consisted +ordinarily of four courses, not counting the roast, which his huntsmen +were accustomed to bring in on the spit; he was more fond +of this than of any other dish. While at table, he listened to +reading or music. The subjects of the readings were the stories +and deeds of olden time. He was fond, too, of St. Augustine's +books, and especially of the one entitled <i>The City of God</i>.<a name="FNanchor_124" id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">112</a></span> +He was so moderate in the use of wine and all sorts of drink that +he rarely allowed himself more than three cups in the course of a +<span class="sidebar">Every-day +life</span> +meal. In summer, after the midday meal, he +would eat some fruit, drain a single cup, put off +his clothes and shoes, just as he did for the night, and rest for two +or three hours. While he was dressing and putting on his shoes, +he not only gave audience to his friends, but if the Count of the +Palace<a name="FNanchor_125" id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> told him of any suit in which his judgment was necessary, +he had the parties brought before him forthwith, heard the +case, and gave his decision, just as if he were sitting in the judgment-seat. +This was not the only business that he transacted at +this time, but he performed any duty of the day whatever, +whether he had to attend to the matter himself, or to give +commands concerning it to his officers.</p> + +<p><b>25.</b> Charles had the gift of ready and fluent speech, and could +express whatever he had to say with the utmost clearness. He +was not satisfied with ability to use his native language merely, +but gave attention to the study of foreign ones, and in particular +was such a master of Latin that he could speak it as well as his +native tongue; but he could understand Greek better than he +could speak it. He was so eloquent, indeed, that he might have +been taken for a teacher of oratory. He most zealously cherished +the liberal arts, held those who taught them in great esteem, and +conferred great honors upon them. He took lessons in grammar +of the deacon Peter of Pisa, at that time an aged man.<a name="FNanchor_126" id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> Another +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">113</a></span> +deacon, Albin of Britain, surnamed Alcuin, a man of Saxon birth, +who was the greatest scholar of the day, was his teacher in other +<span class="sidebar">Education +and accomplishments</span> +branches of learning.<a name="FNanchor_127" id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> The king spent much +time and labor with him studying rhetoric, dialectic, +and especially astronomy. He learned to +make calculations, and used to investigate with much curiosity +and intelligence the motions of the heavenly bodies. He also +tried to write, and used to keep tablets and blanks in bed under +his pillow, that at leisure hours he might accustom his hand to +form the letters; however, as he began his efforts late in life, and +not at the proper time, they met with little success.</p> + +<p><b>26.</b> He cherished with the greatest fervor and devotion the +principles of the Christian religion, which had been instilled into +him from infancy. Hence it was that he built the beautiful +basilica at Aix-la-Chapelle, which he adorned with gold and silver +and lamps, and with rails and doors of solid brass. He had the +columns and marbles for this structure brought from Rome and +Ravenna, for he could not find such as were suitable elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_128" id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> +He was a constant worshipper at this church as long as his health +permitted, going morning and evening, even after nightfall, +<span class="sidebar">Interest in religion +and the +Church</span> +besides attending mass. He took care that all +the services there conducted should be held in +the best possible manner, very often warning +the sextons not to let any improper or unclean thing be brought +into the building, or remain in it. He provided it with a number +of sacred vessels of gold and silver, and with such a quantity +of clerical robes that not even the door-keepers, who filled the +humblest office in the church, were obliged to wear their everyday +clothes when in the performance of their duties. He took +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">114</a></span> +great pains to improve the church reading and singing, for he +was well skilled in both, although he neither read in public nor +sang, except in a low tone and with others.</p> + +<p><b>27.</b> He was very active in aiding the poor, and in that open +generosity which the Greeks call alms; so much so, indeed, that +he not only made a point of giving in his own country and his +own kingdom, but when he discovered that there were Christians +living in poverty in Syria, Egypt, and Africa, at Jerusalem, +Alexandria, and Carthage, he had compassion on their wants, +and used to send money over the seas to them. The reason that +he earnestly strove to make friends with the kings beyond seas +was that he might get help and relief to the Christians living +<span class="sidebar">Generosity +and charities</span> + +under their rule. He cared for the Church Of St. +Peter the Apostle at Rome above all other holy +and sacred places, and heaped high its treasury with a vast wealth +of gold, silver, and precious stones. He sent great and countless +gifts to the popes;<a name="FNanchor_129" id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> and throughout his whole reign the wish that +he had nearest his heart was to re-establish the ancient authority +of the city of Rome under his care and by his influence, and to +defend and protect the Church of St. Peter, and to beautify and +enrich it out of his own store above all other churches. Nevertheless, +although he held it in such veneration, only four times<a name="FNanchor_130" id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> did +he repair to Rome to pay his vows and make his supplications +during the whole forty-seven years that he reigned.<a name="FNanchor_131" id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a></p> + +<h4>16. The War with the Saxons (772-803)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>When Charlemagne became sole ruler of the Franks, in 771, he +found his kingdom pretty well hemmed in by a belt of kindred, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">115</a></span> +though more or less hostile, Germanic peoples. The most important +of these were the Visigoths in northern Spain, the Lombards in the +Po Valley, the Bavarians in the region of the upper Danube, and the +Saxons between the Rhine and the Elbe. The policy of the new king, +perhaps only dimly outlined at the beginning of the reign but growing +ever more definite as time went on, was to bring all of these neighboring +peoples under the Frankish dominion, and so to build up a great +state which should include the whole Germanic race of western and +northern continental Europe. Most of the king's time during the first +thirty years, or two-thirds, of the reign was devoted to this stupendous +task. The first great step was taken in the conquest of the Lombards in +774, after which Charlemagne assumed the title of King of the Lombards. +In 787 Bavaria was annexed to the Frankish kingdom, the +settlement in this case being in the nature of a complete absorption +rather than a mere personal union such as followed the Lombard conquest. +The next year an expedition across the Pyrenees resulted in the +annexation of the Spanish March—a region in which the Visigoths had +managed to maintain some degree of independence against the Saracens. +In all these directions little fighting was necessary and for one +reason or another the sovereignty of the Frankish king was recognized +without much delay or resistance.</p> + +<p>The problem of reducing the Saxons was, however, a very different +one. The Saxons of Charlemagne's day were a people of purest Germanic +stock dwelling in the land along the Rhine, Ems, Weser, and +Elbe, and inland as far as the low mountains of Hesse and Thuringia—the +regions which now bear the names of Hanover, Brunswick, Oldenburg, +and Westphalia. The Saxons, influenced as yet scarcely at all +by contact with the Romans, retained substantially the manner of +life described seven centuries earlier by Tacitus in the <i>Germania</i>. They +lived in small villages, had only the loosest sort of government, and +clung tenaciously to the warlike mythology of their ancestors. Before +Charlemagne's time they had engaged in frequent border wars with +the Franks and had shown capacity for making very obstinate resistance. +And when Charlemagne himself undertook to subdue them he entered +upon a task which kept him busy much of the time for over thirty years, +that is, from 772 to 803. In all not fewer than eighteen distinct campaigns +were made into the enemy's territory. The ordinary course +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">116</a></span> +of events was that Charlemagne would lead his army across the Rhine +in the spring, the Saxons would make some little resistance and then +disperse or withdraw toward the Baltic, and the Franks would leave +a garrison and return home for the winter. As soon as the enemy's +back was turned the Saxons would rally, expel or massacre the garrison, +and assert their complete independence of Frankish authority. The +next year the whole thing would have to be done over again. There +were not more than two great battles in the entire contest; the war +consisted rather of a monotonous series of "military parades," apparent +submissions, revolts, and re-submissions. As Professor Emerton puts +it, "From the year 772 to 803, a period of over thirty years, this war +was always on the programme of the Frankish policy, now resting for +a few years, and now breaking out with increased fury, until finally +the Saxon people, worn out with the long struggle against a superior +foe, gave it up and became a part of the Frankish Empire."<a name="FNanchor_132" id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a></p> + +<p>It is to be regretted that we have no Saxon account of the great +contest except the well-meant, but very inadequate, history by Widukind, +a monk of Corbie, written about the middle of the tenth century. +However, the following passage from Einhard, the secretary and +biographer of Charlemagne, doubtless describes with fair accuracy the +conditions and character of the struggle. A few of the writer's strongest +statements regarding Saxon perfidy should be accepted only with some +allowance for Frankish prejudice.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Einhard, <i>Vita Caroli Magni</i>, Chap. 7. Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ +Historica, Scriptores</i> (Pertz ed.), Vol. II., pp. 446-447. +Adapted from translation by Samuel Epes Turner in "Harper's +School Classics" (New York, 1880), pp. 26-28.</p> + +<p>No war ever undertaken by the Frankish nation was carried +on with such persistence and bitterness, or cost so much labor, +because the Saxons, like almost all the tribes of Germany, were +a fierce people, given to the worship of devils and hostile to our +religion, and did not consider it dishonorable to transgress and +violate all law, human and divine. Then there were peculiar +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">117</a></span> +circumstances that tended to cause a breach of peace every day. +Except in a few places, where large forests or mountain-ridges +<span class="sidebar">Lack of a natural +frontier</span> +intervened and made the boundaries certain, the +line between ourselves and the Saxons passed +almost in its whole extent through an open country, so that +there was no end to the murders, thefts, and arsons on both sides. +In this way the Franks became so embittered that they at last +resolved to make reprisals no longer, but to come to open war +with the Saxons.</p> + +<p>Accordingly, war was begun against them, and was waged for +thirty-three successive years<a name="FNanchor_133" id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> with great fury; more, however, +to the disadvantage of the Saxons than of the Franks. It could +doubtless have been brought to an end sooner, had it not been +for the faithlessness of the Saxons. It is hard to say how often +they were conquered, and, humbly submitting to the king, +<span class="sidebar">Faithlessness +of the Saxons</span> +promised to do what was enjoined upon them, +gave without hesitation the required hostages, +and received the officers sent them from the king. They were +sometimes so much weakened and reduced that they promised +to renounce the worship of devils and to adopt Christianity; but +they were no less ready to violate these terms than prompt to +accept them, so that it is impossible to tell which came easier to +them to do; scarcely a year passed from the beginning of the war +without such changes on their part. But the king did not suffer +his high purpose and steadfastness—firm alike in good and evil +fortune—to be wearied by any fickleness on their part, or to be +turned from the task that he had undertaken; on the contrary, +<span class="sidebar">Charlemagne's +settlement of +Saxons in Gaul +and Germany</span> +he never allowed their faithless behavior to go unpunished, +but either took the field against them +in person, or sent his counts with an army to wreak +vengeance and exact righteous satisfaction.<a name="FNanchor_134" id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> At last, after conquering +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">118</a></span> +and subduing all who had offered resistance, he took +ten thousand of those who lived on the banks of the Elbe, and +settled them, with their wives and children, in many different +bodies here and there in Gaul and Germany. The war that had +lasted so many years was at length ended by their acceding to +<span class="sidebar">The terms of peace</span> +the terms offered by the king; which were renunciation +of their national religious customs and +the worship of devils, acceptance of the sacraments of the Christian +religion,<a name="FNanchor_135" id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> and union with the Franks to form one people.</p> + +<h4>17. The Capitulary Concerning the Saxon Territory (cir. 780)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>Just as the Saxons were the most formidable of Charlemagne's +foes to meet and defeat in open battle, so were they the most difficult +to maintain in anything like orderly allegiance after they had been +tentatively conquered. This was true in part because of their untamed, +freedom-loving character, but also in no small measure because +of the thoroughgoing revolution which the Frankish king sought to +work in their conditions of life, and especially in their religion. Before +the Saxon war was far advanced it had very clearly assumed the character +of a crusade of the Christian Franks against the "pagans of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">119</a></span> +north." And when the Saxon had been brought to give sullen promise +of submission, it was his dearest possession—his fierce, heroic mythology—that +was first to be swept away. By the stern decree of the conqueror +Woden and Thor and Freya must go. In their stead was to be set up +the Christian religion with its churches, its priests, its fastings, its ceremonial +observances. Death was to be the penalty for eating meat during +Lent, if done "out of contempt for Christianity," and death also for +"causing the body of a dead man to be burned in accordance with +pagan rites." Even for merely scorning "to come to baptism," or +"wishing to remain a pagan," a man was to forfeit his life. The selections +which follow are taken from the capitulary <i>De Partibus Saxoniæ</i>, +which was issued by Charlemagne probably at the Frankish assembly +held at Paderborn in 780. If this date is correct (and it cannot be far +wrong) the regulations embodied in the capitulary were established +for the Saxon territories when there perhaps seemed to be a good +prospect of peace but when, as later events showed, there yet remained +twenty-three years of war before the final subjugation. From the +beginning of the struggle the Church had been busy setting up new +centers of influence—some abbeys and especially the great bishoprics +of Bremen, Minden, Paderborn, Verden, Osnabrück, and Halberstadt—among +the Saxon pagans, and the primary object of Charlemagne in +this capitulary was to give to these ecclesiastical foundations the +task of civilizing the country and to protect them, together with his +counts or governing agents, while they should be engaged in this work. +The severity of the Saxon war was responsible for the unusually +stringent character of this body of regulations. In 797, at a great +assembly at Aix-la-Chapelle, another capitulary for the Saxons was +issued, known as the <i>Capitulum Saxonicum</i>, and in this the harsh +features of the earlier capitulary were considerably relaxed. By 797 +the resistance of the Saxons was pretty well broken, and it had become +Charlemagne's policy to give his conquered subjects a government +as nearly as possible like that the Franks themselves enjoyed. The +chief importance of Charlemagne's conquests toward the east lies in +the fact that by them broad stretches of German territory were brought +for the first time within the pale of civilization.</p> + +<p>These capitularies, like the hundreds of others that were issued by the +various kings of the Franks, were edicts or decrees drawn up under the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">120</a></span> +king's direction, discussed and adopted in the assembly of the people, +and published in the local districts of the kingdom by the counts +and bishops. They were of a less permanent and fixed character +than the so-called "leges," or laws established by long usage and +custom.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges</i> (Boretius ed.), Vol. I., +No. 26, pp. 68-70. Translated by Dana C. Munro in <i>University +of Pennsylvania Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. VI., No. 5, pp. +2-5.</p> + +<p>First, concerning the greater chapters it has been enacted:<a name="FNanchor_136" id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a></p> + +<p>It is pleasing to all that the churches of Christ, which are now +being built in Saxony and consecrated to God, should not have +less, but greater and more illustrious honor than the shrines of +the idols have had.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> If any one shall have fled to a church for refuge, let no one +presume to expel him from the church by violence, but he shall +<span class="sidebar">The churches +as a place of +refuge</span> +be left in peace until he shall be brought to the +judicial assemblage; and on account of the honor +due to God and the saints, and the reverence due +to the church itself, let his life and all his members be granted to +him. Moreover, let him plead his cause as best he can and he +shall be judged; and so let him be led to the presence of the lord +king, and the latter shall send him where it shall seem fitting +to his clemency.</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> If any one shall have entered a church by violence and +shall have carried off anything in it by force or theft, or +shall have burned the church itself, let him be punished by +death.<a name="FNanchor_137" id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">121</a></span></p> + +<p><b>4.</b> If any one, out of contempt for Christianity, shall have +<span class="sidebar">Offenses +against the +Church</span> + +despised the holy Lenten feast and shall have eaten +flesh, let him be punished by death. But, nevertheless, +let it be taken into consideration by a priest, +lest perchance any one from necessity has been led to eat flesh.<a name="FNanchor_138" id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a></p> + +<p><b>5.</b> If any one shall have killed a bishop or priest or deacon +let him likewise be punished capitally.</p> + +<p><b>6.</b> If any one, deceived by the devil, shall have believed, after +the manner of the pagans, that any man or woman is a witch +and eats men, and on this account shall have burned the person, +or shall have given the person's flesh to others to eat, or shall +have eaten it himself, let him be punished by a capital sentence.</p> + +<p><b>7.</b> If any one, in accordance with pagan rites, shall have +caused the body of a dead man to be burned, and shall have reduced +his bones to ashes, let him be punished capitally.</p> + +<p><b>8.</b> If any one of the race of the Saxons hereafter, concealed +among them, shall have wished to hide himself unbaptized, +<span class="sidebar">Refusal to be +baptized</span> +and shall have scorned to come to baptism, +and shall have wished to remain a pagan, let +him be punished by death.</p> + +<p><b>9.</b> If any one shall have sacrificed a man to the devil, and, +after the manner of the pagans, shall have presented him as a +victim to the demons, let him be punished by death.</p> + +<p><b>10.</b> If any one shall have formed a conspiracy with the pagans +against the Christians, or shall have wished to join with them +<span class="sidebar">Conspiracy +against Christians</span> +in opposition to the Christians, let him be punished +by death; and whosoever shall have consented +fraudulently to this same against the +king and the Christian people, let him be punished by death.</p> + +<p><b>11.</b> If any one shall have shown himself unfaithful to the +lord king, let him be punished with a capital sentence. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">122</a></span></p> + +<p><b>13.</b> If any one shall have killed his lord or lady, let him be +punished in a like manner.</p> + +<p><b>14.</b> If, indeed, for these mortal crimes secretly committed +any one shall have fled of his own accord to a priest, and after +confession shall have wished to do penance, let him be freed by +the testimony of the priest from death....<a name="FNanchor_139" id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a></p> + +<p><b>18.</b> On the Lord's day no meetings or public judicial assemblages +shall be held, unless perchance in a case of great necessity, +<span class="sidebar">Observance +of the Sabbath +and of festival +days</span> +or when war compels it, but all shall go to +church to hear the word of God, and shall be free +for prayers or good works. Likewise, also, on the +special festivals they shall devote themselves to God and to the +services of the Church, and shall refrain from secular assemblies.</p> + +<p><b>19.</b> Likewise, it has been pleasing to insert in these decrees +that all infants shall be baptized within a year; and we have +<span class="sidebar">Baptism of +infants</span> +decreed this, that if any one shall have refused +to bring his infant to baptism within the course +of a year, without the advice or permission of the priest, if he is +a noble he shall pay 120 <i>solidi</i><a name="FNanchor_140" id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> to the treasury; if a freeman, 60; +if a <i>litus</i>, 30.<a name="FNanchor_141" id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a></p> + +<p><b>20.</b> If any one shall have contracted a prohibited or illegal +marriage, if a noble, 60 <i>solidi</i>; if a freeman, 30; if a <i>litus</i>, 15.</p> + +<p><b>21.</b> If any one shall have made a vow at springs or trees or +<span class="sidebar">Keeping up +heathen rites</span> +groves,<a name="FNanchor_142" id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> or shall have made an offering after the +manner of the heathen and shall have partaken +of a repast in honor of the demons, if he shall be a noble, 60 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">123</a></span> +<i>solidi</i>; if a freeman, 30; if a <i>litus</i>, 15. If, indeed, they have not +the means of paying at once, they shall be given into the service +of the Church until the <i>solidi</i> are paid.</p> + +<p><b>22.</b> We command that the bodies of Saxon Christians shall be +carried to the church cemeteries, and not to the mounds of the +pagans.</p> + +<p><b>23.</b> We have ordered that diviners and soothsayers shall be +handed over to the churches and priests.</p> + +<p><b>24.</b> Concerning robbers and malefactors who shall have fled +from one county to another, if any one shall receive them into +<span class="sidebar">Fugitive +criminals</span> +his protection and shall keep them with him for +seven nights,<a name="FNanchor_143" id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> except for the purpose of bringing +them to justice, let him pay our ban.<a name="FNanchor_144" id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> Likewise, if a count<a name="FNanchor_145" id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> shall +have concealed them, and shall be unwilling to bring them forward +so that justice may be done, and is not able to excuse himself for +this, let him lose his office.</p> + +<p><b>26.</b> No one shall presume to impede any man coming to us +to seek justice; and if anyone shall have attempted to do this, +he shall pay our ban.</p> + +<p><b>34.</b> We have forbidden that Saxons shall hold public assemblies +in general, unless perchance our <i>missus</i><a name="FNanchor_146" id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> shall have caused +them to come together in accordance with our +<span class="sidebar">Public +assemblies</span> +command; but each count shall hold judicial +assemblies and administer justice in his jurisdiction. And this +shall be cared for by the priests, lest it be done otherwise.<a name="FNanchor_147" id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">124</a></span></p> + +<h4>18. The Capitulary Concerning the Royal Domains (cir. 800)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The revenues which came into Charlemagne's treasury were derived +chiefly from his royal domains. There was no system of general taxation, +such as modern nations maintain, and the funds realized from +gifts, fines, rents, booty, and tribute money, were quite insufficient to +meet the needs of the court, modest though they were. Charlemagne's +interest in his villas, or private farms, was due therefore not less to his +financial dependence upon them than to his personal liking for thrifty +agriculture and thoroughgoing administration. The royal domains of +the Frankish kingdom, already extensive at Charlemagne's accession, +were considerably increased during his reign. It has been well said +that Charlemagne was doubtless the greatest landed proprietor of the +realm and that he "supervised the administration of these lands as a +sovereign who knows that his power rests partly on his riches."<a name="FNanchor_148" id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> He +gave the closest personal attention to his estates and was always watchful +lest he be defrauded out of even the smallest portion of their products +which was due him. The capitulary <i>De Villis</i>, from which the +following passages have been selected, is a lengthy document in which +Charlemagne sought to prescribe clearly and minutely the manifold +duties of the stewards in charge of these estates. We may regard it, +however, as in the nature of an ideal catalogue of what the king would +like to have on his domains rather than as a definite statement of +what was always actually to be found there. From it may be gleaned +many interesting facts regarding rural life in western Europe during +the eighth and ninth centuries. Its date is uncertain, but it was about +800—possibly somewhat earlier.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges</i> (Boretius ed.), Vol. I., +No. 32, pp. 82-91. Translated by Roland P. Falkner in <i>Univ. of +Pa. Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. III., No. 2, pp. 2-4.</p> + +<p><b>62.</b><a name="FNanchor_149" id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> We desire that each steward shall make an annual statement +of all our income, with an account of our lands cultivated +by the oxen which our plowmen drive, and of our lands which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">125</a></span> +the tenants of farms ought to plow;<a name="FNanchor_150" id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> an account of the pigs, of +the rents,<a name="FNanchor_151" id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> of the obligations and fines; of the game taken in our +forests without our permission; of the various compositions;<a name="FNanchor_152" id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> of +the mills, of the forest, of the fields, and of the bridges and ships; +of the freemen and the districts under obligations to our treasury; +<span class="sidebar">Report to be +made to the +king by his +stewards each +Christmas-tide</span> +of markets, vineyards, and those who owe wine to us; of +the hay, fire-wood, torches, planks, and other kinds +of lumber; of the waste-lands; of the vegetables, +millet, and panic;<a name="FNanchor_153" id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> and of the wool, flax, and hemp; +of the fruits of the trees; of the nut trees, larger and +smaller; of the grafted trees of all kinds; of the gardens; of the +turnips; of the fish-ponds; of the hides, skins, and horns; of the +honey and wax; of the fat, tallow and soap; of the mulberry wine, +cooked wine, mead, vinegar, beer, wine new and old; of the new +grain and the old; of the hens and eggs; of the geese; of the number +of fishermen, smiths, sword-makers, and shoe-makers; of the bins +and boxes; of the turners and saddlers; of the forges and mines, +that is iron and other mines; of the lead mines; of the colts and +fillies. They shall make all these known to us, set forth separately +and in order, at Christmas, in order that we may know what and +how much of each thing we have.</p> + +<p><b>23.</b> On each of our estates our stewards are to have as many +<span class="sidebar">Domestic +animals</span> +cow-houses, pig-sties, sheep-folds, stables for +goats, as possible, and they ought never to be without +these. And let them have in addition cows furnished by our +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">126</a></span> +serfs<a name="FNanchor_154" id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> for performing their service, so that the cow-houses and +plows shall be in no way diminished by the service on our demesne. +And when they have to provide meat, let them have +steers lame, but healthy, and cows and horses which are not +mangy, or other beasts which are not diseased and, as we have +said, our cow-houses and plows are not to be diminished for this.</p> + +<p><b>34.</b> They must provide with the greatest care that whatever +is prepared or made with the hands, that is, lard, smoked meat, +<span class="sidebar">Cleanliness +enjoined</span> +salt meat, partially salted meat, wine, vinegar, +mulberry wine, cooked wine, <i>garns</i>,<a name="FNanchor_155" id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> mustard, +cheese, butter, malt, beer, mead, honey, wax, flour, all should +be prepared and made with the greatest cleanliness.</p> + +<p><b>40.</b> That each steward on each of our domains shall always +have, for the sake of ornament, swans, peacocks, pheasants, +ducks, pigeons, partridges, turtle-doves.</p> + +<p><b>42.</b> That in each of our estates, the chambers shall be provided +with counterpanes, cushions, pillows, bed-clothes, coverings +<span class="sidebar">Household +furniture</span> +for the tables and benches; vessels of brass, lead, +iron and wood; andirons, chains, pot-hooks, adzes, +axes, augers, cutlasses, and all other kinds of tools, so that it +shall never be necessary to go elsewhere for them, or to borrow +them. And the weapons, which are carried against the enemy, +shall be well-cared for, so as to keep them in good condition; and +when they are brought back they shall be placed in the chamber.</p> + +<p><b>43.</b> For our women's work they are to give at the proper time, +as has been ordered, the materials, that is the linen, wool, woad,<a name="FNanchor_156" id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> +vermilion, madder,<a name="FNanchor_157" id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> wool-combs, teasels,<a name="FNanchor_158" id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> soap, grease, vessels, +and the other objects which are necessary.</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">127</a></span></p> + +<p><b>44.</b> Of the food products other than meat, two-thirds shall be +sent each year for our own use, that is of the vegetables, fish, +<span class="sidebar">Supplies to be +furnished the +king</span> +cheese, butter, honey, mustard, vinegar, millet, +panic, dried and green herbs, radishes, and in +addition of the wax, soap and other small products; and they +shall tell us how much is left by a statement, as we have said +above; and they shall not neglect this as in the past; because +from those two-thirds, we wish to know how much remains.</p> + +<p><b>45.</b> That each steward shall have in his district good workmen, +namely, blacksmiths, gold-smith, silver-smith, shoe-makers, +<span class="sidebar">Workmen on +the estates</span> +turners, carpenters, sword-makers, fishermen, +foilers, soap-makers, men who know how to make +beer, cider, berry, and all the other kinds of beverages, bakers to +make pastry for our table, net-makers who know how to make +nets for hunting, fishing and fowling, and the others who are too +numerous to be designated.</p> + +<h4>19. An Inventory of One of Charlemagne's Estates</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>In the following inventory we have a specimen of the annual statements +required by Charlemagne from the stewards on his royal domains. +The location of Asnapium is unknown, but it is evident that +this estate was one of the smaller sort. Like all the rest, it was liable +occasionally to become the temporary abiding place of the king. The +detailed character of the inventory is worthy of note, as is also the +number of industries which must have been engaged in by the inhabitants +of the estate and its dependent villas.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges</i> (Pertz ed.), Vol. I., +pp. 178-179.</p> + +<p>We found in the imperial estate of Asnapium a royal house +<span class="sidebar">Buildings on +the estate of +Asnapium</span> +built of stone in the very best manner, having +3 rooms. The entire house was surrounded with +balconies and it had 11 apartments for women. +Underneath was 1 cellar. There were 2 porticoes. There +were 17 other houses built of wood within the court-yard, with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">128</a></span> +a similar number of rooms and other fixtures, all well constructed. +There was 1 stable, 1 kitchen, 1 mill, 1 granary, and 3 barns.</p> + +<p>The yard was enclosed with a hedge and a stone gateway, and +above was a balcony from which distributions can be made. +There was also an inner yard, surrounded by a hedge, well arranged, +and planted with various kinds of trees.</p> + +<p>Of vestments: coverings for 1 bed, 1 table-cloth, and 1 towel.</p> + +<p>Of utensils: 2 brass kettles; 2 drinking cups; 2 brass cauldrons; +1 iron cauldron; 1 frying-pan; 1 gramalmin; 1 pair of andirons; +1 lamp; 2 hatchets; 1 chisel; 2 augers; 1 axe; 1 knife; 1 large +plane; 1 small plane; 2 scythes; 2 sickles; 2 spades edged with +iron; and a sufficient supply of utensils of wood.</p> + +<p>Of farm produce: old spelt<a name="FNanchor_159" id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> from last year, 90 baskets which +can be made into 450 weight<a name="FNanchor_160" id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> of flour; and 100 measures<a name="FNanchor_161" id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> of +<span class="sidebar">Supplies of +various sorts</span> +barley. From the present year, 110 baskets of +spelt, of which 60 baskets had been planted, but +the rest we found; 100 measures of wheat, 60 sown, the rest we +found; 98 measures of rye all sown; 1,800 measures of barley, +1,100 sown, the rest we found; 430 measures of oats; 1 measure +of beans; 12 measures of peas. At 5 mills were found 800 measures +of small size. At 4 breweries, 650 measures of small size, +240 given to the prebendaries,<a name="FNanchor_162" id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> the rest we found. At 2 bridges, +60 measures of salt and 2 shillings. At 4 gardens, 11 shillings. +Also honey, 3 measures; about 1 measure of butter; lard, from +last year 10 sides; new sides, 200, with fragments and fats; cheese +from the present year, 43 weights.</p> + +<p>Of cattle: 51 head of larger cattle; 5 three-year olds; 7 two-year +olds; 7 yearlings; 10 two-year old colts; 8 yearlings; 3 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">129</a></span> +stallions; 16 cows; 2 asses; 50 cows with calves; 20 young bulls; +38 yearling calves; 3 bulls; 260 hogs; 100 pigs; 5 boars; 150 +<span class="sidebar">Kinds and number +of animals</span> +sheep with lambs; 200 yearling lambs; 120 rams; +30 goats with kids; 30 yearling kids; 3 male goats; +30 geese; 80 chickens; 22 peacocks.</p> + +<p>Also concerning the manors<a name="FNanchor_163" id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> which belong to the above mansion. +In the villa of Grisio we found domain buildings, where +there are 3 barns and a yard enclosed by a hedge. There were, +besides, 1 garden with trees, 10 geese, 8 ducks, 30 chickens.</p> + +<p>In another villa we found domain buildings and a yard surrounded +by a hedge, and within 3 barns; 1 arpent<a name="FNanchor_164" id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> of vines; 1 +garden with trees; 15 geese; 20 chickens.</p> + +<p>In a third villa, domain buildings, with 2 barns; 1 granary; 1 +garden and 1 yard well enclosed by a hedge.</p> + +<p>We found all the dry and liquid measures just as in the palace. +We did not find any goldsmiths, silversmiths, blacksmiths, +huntsmen, or persons engaged in other services.</p> + +<p>The garden herbs which we found were lily, putchuck,<a name="FNanchor_165" id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> mint, +parsley, rue, celery, libesticum, sage, savory, juniper, leeks, garlic, +<span class="sidebar">Vegetables +and trees</span> +tansy, wild mint, coriander, scullions, onions, +cabbage, kohlrabi,<a name="FNanchor_166" id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> betony.<a name="FNanchor_167" id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> Trees: pears, apples, +medlars, peaches, filberts, walnuts, mulberries, quinces.<a name="FNanchor_168" id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">130</a></span></p> + +<h4>20. Charlemagne Crowned Emperor (800)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The occasion of Charlemagne's presence in Rome in 800 was a conflict +between Pope Leo III. and a faction of the populace led by two +nephews of the preceding pope, Hadrian I. It seems that in 799 Leo +had been practically driven out of the papal capital and imprisoned +in a neighboring monastery, but that through the planning of a subordinate +official he had soon contrived to escape. At any rate he got +out of Italy as speedily as he could and made his way across the Alps +to seek aid at the court of Charlemagne. The Frankish king was still +busy with the Saxon war and did not allow the prospect of a papal +visit to interfere with his intended campaign; but at Paderborn, in +the very heart of the Saxon country, where he could personally direct +the operations of his troops, he established his headquarters and awaited +the coming of the refugee pope. The meeting of the two dignitaries +resulted in a pledge of the king once more to take up the burden of +defending the Roman Church and the Vicar of Christ, this time not +against outside foes but against internal disturbers. After about a +year Charlemagne repaired to Rome and called upon the Pope and his +adversaries to appear before him for judgment. When the leaders +of the hostile faction refused to comply, they were summarily condemned +to death, though it is said that through the generous advice +of Leo they were afterwards released on a sentence of exile. During +the ceremonies which followed in celebration of Christmas occurred +the famous coronation which is described in the two passages given +below.</p> + +<p>Although the coronation has been regarded as so important as to +have been called "the central event of the Middle Ages,"<a name="FNanchor_169" id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> it is by no +means an easy task to determine precisely what significance it was +thought to have at the time. We can look back upon it now and see +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">131</a></span> +that it marked the beginning of the so-called "Holy Roman Empire"—a +creation that endured in <i>fact</i> only a very short time but whose name +and theory survived all the way down to Napoleon's reorganization of +the German states in 1806. One view of the matter is that Charlemagne's +coronation meant that a Frankish king had become the successor +of Emperor Constantine VI., just deposed at Constantinople, +and that therefore the universal Roman Empire was again to be ruled +from a western capital as it had been before the time of the first Constantine. +It will be observed that extract (a), taken from the Annals +of Lauresheim, and therefore of German origin, at least suggests this +explanation. But, whether or not precisely this idea was in the mind +of those who took part in the ceremony, in actual fact no such transfer +of universal sovereignty from Constantinople to the Frankish capital +ever took place. The Eastern Empire lived right on under its own +line of rulers and, so far as we know, aside from some rather vague +negotiations for a marriage of Charlemagne and the Empress Irene, +the new western Emperor seems never to have contemplated the extension +of his authority over the East. His great aspiration had been +to consolidate all the Germanic peoples of western continental Europe +under the leadership of the Franks; that, by 800, he had practically done; +he had no desire to go farther. His dominion was always limited strictly +to the West, and at the most he can be regarded after 800 as not more +than the reviver of the old western half of the Empire, and hence as +the successor of Romulus Augustulus. But even this view is perhaps +somewhat strained. The chroniclers of the time liked to set up fine +theories of the sort, and later it came to be to the interest of papal and +imperial rivals to make large use, in one way or another, of such theories. +But we to-day may look upon the coronation as nothing more +than a formal recognition of a condition of things already existing. +By his numerous conquests Charlemagne had drawn under his control +such a number of peoples and countries that his position had come to +be that which we think of as an emperor's rather than that of simple +king of the Franks. The Pope did not give Charlemagne his empire; +the energetic king had built it for himself. At the most, what Leo did +was simply to bestow a title already earned and to give with it presumably +the blessing and favor of the Church, whose devoted servant +Charlemagne repeatedly professed to be. That the idea of imperial +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">132</a></span> +unity still survived in the West is certain, and without doubt many +men looked upon the ceremony of 800 as re-establishing such unity; +but as events worked out it was not so much Charlemagne's empire +as the papacy itself that was the real continuation of the power of the +Cæsars. Conditions had so changed that it was impossible in the +nature of things for Charlemagne to be a Roman emperor in the old +sense. The coronation gave him a new title and new prestige, but +no new subjects, no larger army, no more princely income. The basis +of his power continued to be, in every sense, his Frankish kingdom. +The structural element in the revived empire was Frankish; the Roman +was merely ornamental.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Sources—(a) <i>Annales Laureshamensis</i> ["Annals of Lauresheim"], Chap. 34. +Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Scriptores</i> (Pertz ed.), +Vol. I., p. 38.</p> + +<p class="source_add">(b) <i>Vitæ Pontificorum Romanorum</i> ["Lives of the Roman Pontiffs"]. +Text in Muratori, <i>Rerum Italicarum Scriptores</i>, Vol. III., pp. 284-285.</p> + +<p class="center">(a)</p> + +<p>And because the name of emperor had now ceased among the +Greeks, and their empire was possessed by a woman,<a name="FNanchor_170" id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a> it seemed +both to Leo the pope himself, and to all the holy fathers who +were present in the self-same council,<a name="FNanchor_171" id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> as well as to the rest of +the Christian people, that they ought to take to be emperor +Charles, king of the Franks, who held Rome herself, where the +Cæsars had always been wont to sit, and all the other regions +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">133</a></span> +which he ruled through Italy and Gaul and Germany; and inasmuch +as God had given all these lands into his hand, it seemed +right that with the help of God, and at the prayer of the whole +Christian people, he should have the name of emperor also. +[The Pope's] petition King Charles willed not to refuse,<a name="FNanchor_172" id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> but submitting +himself with all humility to God, and at the prayer of +the priests, and of the whole Christian people, on the day of the +nativity of our Lord Jesus Christ, he took on himself the name +of emperor, being consecrated by the Pope Leo.... For +this also was done by the will of God ... that the heathen +might not mock the Christians if the name of emperor should +have ceased among them.</p> + +<p class="center">(b)</p> + +<p>After these things, on the day of the birth of our Lord Jesus +Christ, when all the people were assembled in the Church of the +blessed St. Peter,<a name="FNanchor_173" id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> the venerable and gracious Pope with his own +hands crowned him [Charlemagne] with an exceedingly precious +crown. Then all the faithful Romans, beholding the choice of +such a friend and defender of the holy Roman Church, and of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">134</a></span> +the pontiff, did by the will of God and of the blessed Peter, the +key-bearer of the heavenly kingdom, cry with a loud voice, "To +Charles, the most pious Augustus, crowned of God, the great and +peace-giving Emperor, be life and victory." While he, before +the altar of the church, was calling upon many of the saints, it +was proclaimed three times, and by the common voice of all he +was chosen to be emperor of the Romans. Then the most holy +high priest and pontiff anointed Charles with holy oil, and also +his most excellent son to be king,<a name="FNanchor_174" id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a> upon the very day of the birth +of our Lord Jesus Christ.</p> + +<h4>21. The General Capitulary for the Missi (802)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>Throughout the larger part of Charlemagne's dominion the chief +local unit of administration was the county, presided over by the count. +The count was appointed by the Emperor, generally from among the +most important landed proprietors of the district. His duties included +the levy of troops, the publication of the royal decrees or capitularies, +the administration of justice, and the collection of revenues. On the +frontiers, where the need of defense was greatest, these local officers +exercised military functions of a special character and were commonly +known as "counts of the march," or dukes, or sometimes as margraves. +In order that these royal officials, in whatever part of the country, +might not abuse their authority as against their fellow-subjects, or +engage in plots against the unity of the empire, Charlemagne devised a +plan of sending out at stated intervals men who were known as <i>missi +dominici</i> ("the lord's messengers") to visit the various counties, hear +complaints of the people, inquire into the administration of the counts, +and report conditions to the Emperor. They were to serve as connecting +links between the central and local governments and as safeguards +against the ever powerful forces of disintegration. Such itinerant +royal agents had not been unknown in Merovingian times, and they +had probably been made use of pretty frequently by Charles Martel +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">135</a></span> +and Pepin the Short. But it was Charlemagne who reduced the employment +of <i>missi</i> to a system and made it a fixed part of the governmental +machinery of the Frankish kingdom. This he did mainly by +the <i>Capitulare Missorum Generale</i>, promulgated early in 802 at an +assembly at the favorite capital Aix-la-Chapelle. The whole empire +was divided into districts, or <i>missaticæ</i>, and each of these was to be +visited annually by two of the <i>missi</i>. A churchman and a layman +were usually sent out together, probably because they were to have +jurisdiction over both the clergy and the laity, and also that they +might restrain each other from injustice or other misconduct. They +were appointed by the Emperor, at first from his lower order of vassals, +but after a time from the leading bishops, abbots, and nobles of the +empire. They were given power to depose minor officials for misdemeanors, +and to summon higher ones before the Emperor. By 812, +at least, they were required to make four rounds of inspection each +year.</p> + +<p>In the capitulary for the <i>missi</i> Charlemagne took occasion to include +a considerable number of regulations and instructions regarding the +general character of the local governments, the conduct of local officers, +the manner of life of the clergy, the management of the monasteries, +and other things of vital importance to the strength of the empire +and the well-being of the people. The capitulary may be regarded as +a broad outline of policy and conduct which its author, lately become +emperor, wished to see realized throughout his vast dominion.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges</i> (Boretius ed.), Vol. I., +No. 33, pp. 91-99. Translated by Dana C. Munro in <i>Univ. of +Pa. Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. VI., No. 5, pp. 16-27.</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> Concerning the embassy sent out by the lord emperor.</p> + +<p>Therefore, the most serene and most Christian lord emperor +Charles has chosen from his nobles the wisest and most prudent +<span class="sidebar">The missi +sent out</span> +men, both archbishops and some of the other +bishops also, and venerable abbots and pious +laymen, and has sent them throughout his whole kingdom, and +through them he would have all the various classes of persons +mentioned in the following chapters live in accordance with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">136</a></span> +the correct law. Moreover, where anything which is not right +and just has been enacted in the law, he has ordered them to +inquire into this most diligently and to inform him of it. He +desires, God granting, to reform it. And let no one, through his +cleverness or craft, dare to oppose or thwart the written law, as +many are wont to do, or the judicial sentence passed upon him, +or to do injury to the churches of God, or the poor, or the widows, +or the wards, or any Christian. But all shall live entirely in +accordance with God's precept, honestly and under a just rule, +and each one shall be admonished to live in harmony with his +fellows in his business or profession; the canonical clergy<a name="FNanchor_175" id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> ought +to observe in every respect a canonical life without heeding base +gain; nuns ought to keep diligent watch over their lives; laymen +and the secular clergy<a name="FNanchor_176" id="FNanchor_176" href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> ought rightly to observe their laws without +malicious fraud; and all ought to live in mutual charity and +perfect peace.</p> + +<p>And let the <i>missi</i> themselves make a diligent investigation +whenever any man claims that an injustice has been done him +by any one, just as they desire to deserve the grace of omnipotent +God and to keep their fidelity promised to Him, so that in all +cases, in accordance with the will and fear of God, they shall +administer the law fully and justly in the case of the holy churches +of God and of the poor, of wards and widows, and of the whole +people. And if there be anything of such a nature that they, +<span class="sidebar">The duties +of the missi</span> +together with the provincial counts, are not able +of themselves to correct it and to do justice +concerning it, they shall, without any reservation, refer it, together +with their reports, to the judgment of the emperor; and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">137</a></span> +the straight path of justice shall not be impeded by any one on +account of flattery or gifts, or on account of any relationship, +or from fear of the powerful.<a name="FNanchor_177" id="FNanchor_177" href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a></p> + +<p><b>2.</b> Concerning the fidelity to be promised to the lord emperor.</p> + +<p>He has commanded that every man in his whole kingdom, +whether ecclesiastic or layman, and each one according to his +<span class="sidebar">Oath to +be taken to +Charlemagne +as emperor</span> +vow and occupation, should now promise to him +as emperor the fidelity which he had previously +promised to him as king; and all of those who had +not yet made that promise should do likewise, down to those +who were twelve years old. And that it shall be announced to +all in public, so that each one might know, how great and how +many things are comprehended in that oath; not merely, as many +have thought hitherto, fidelity to the lord emperor as regards his +life, and not introducing any enemy into his kingdom out of +enmity, and not consenting to or concealing another's faithlessness +to him; but that all may know that this oath contains in +itself the following meaning:</p> + +<p><b><a name="c3" id="c3"></a>3.</b> First, that each one voluntarily shall strive, in accordance +with his knowledge and ability, to live completely in the holy +<span class="sidebar">What the +new oath +was to mean</span> +service of God, in accordance with the precept +of God and in accordance with his own promise, +because the lord emperor is unable to give to +all individually the necessary care and discipline.</p> + +<p><b>4.</b> Secondly, that no man, either through perjury or any +other wile or fraud, or on account of the flattery or gift of any +one, shall refuse to give back or dare to take possession of or +conceal a serf of the lord emperor, or a district, or land, or anything +that belongs to him; and that no one shall presume, through +perjury or other wile, to conceal or entice away his fugitive fiscaline +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">138</a></span> +serfs<a name="FNanchor_178" id="FNanchor_178" href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> who unjustly and fraudulently say that they are +free.</p> + +<p><b>5.</b> That no one shall presume to rob or do any injury fraudulently +to the churches of God, or widows, or orphans, or pilgrims;<a name="FNanchor_179" id="FNanchor_179" href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a> +for the lord emperor himself, under God and His saints, has constituted +himself their protector and defender.</p> + +<p><b>6.</b> That no one shall dare to lay waste a benefice<a name="FNanchor_180" id="FNanchor_180" href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> of the lord +emperor, or to make it his own property.</p> + +<p><b>7.</b> That no one shall presume to neglect a summons to war +from the lord emperor; and that no one of the counts shall be so +presumptuous as to dare to excuse any one of those who owe +military service, either on account of relationship, or flattery, or +gifts from any one.</p> + +<p><b>8.</b> That no one shall presume to impede at all in any way +a ban<a name="FNanchor_181" id="FNanchor_181" href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> or command of the lord emperor, or to tamper with his +work, or to impede, or to lessen, or in any way to act contrary +to his will or commands. And that no one shall dare to neglect +to pay his dues or tax.</p> + +<p><b><a name="c9" id="c9"></a>9.</b> That no one, for any reason, shall make a practice in court +of defending another unjustly, either from any desire of gain +when the cause is weak, or by impeding a just judgment by his +skill in reasoning, or by a desire of oppressing when the cause is +<span class="sidebar">Justice to +be rendered +in the courts</span> +weak. But each one shall answer for his own +cause or tax or debt, unless any one is infirm or +ignorant of pleading;<a name="FNanchor_182" id="FNanchor_182" href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a> for these the <i>missi</i>, or the +chiefs who are in the court, or the judge who knows the case in +question, shall plead before the court; or, if it is necessary, such +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">139</a></span> +a person may be allowed as is acceptable to all and knows the +case well; but this shall be done wholly according to the convenience +of the chiefs or <i>missi</i> who are present. But in every +case it shall be done in accordance with justice and the law; and +no one shall have the power to impede justice by a gift, reward, +or any kind of evil flattery, or from any hindrance of relationship. +And no one shall unjustly consent to another in anything, but +with all zeal and good-will all shall be prepared to carry out +justice.</p> + +<p>For all the above mentioned ought to be observed by the imperial +oath.<a name="FNanchor_183" id="FNanchor_183" href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a></p> + +<p><b>10.</b> [We ordain] that bishops and priests shall live according +to the canons<a name="FNanchor_184" id="FNanchor_184" href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> and shall teach others to do the same.</p> + +<p><b>11.</b> That bishops, abbots, and abbesses who are in charge of +others, with the greatest veneration shall strive to surpass their +<span class="sidebar">Obligations +of the clergy</span> +subjects in this diligence and shall not oppress +their subjects with a harsh rule or tyranny, but +with a sincere love shall carefully guard the flock committed to +them with mercy and charity, or by the examples of good works.</p> + +<p><b><a name="c14" id="c14"></a>14.</b> That bishops, abbots and abbesses, and counts shall be +mutually in accord, following the law in order to render a just +judgment with all charity and unity of peace, and that they shall +live faithfully in accordance with the will of God, so that always +everywhere through them and among them a just judgment +shall be rendered. The poor, widows, orphans, and pilgrims +shall have consolation and defense from them; so that we, +through the good-will of these, may deserve the reward of eternal +life rather than punishment.</p> + +<p><b>19.</b> That no bishops, abbots, priests, deacons, or other members +of the clergy shall presume to have dogs for hunting, or +hawks, falcons, and sparrow-hawks, but each shall observe fully +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">140</a></span> +the canons or rule of his order.<a name="FNanchor_185" id="FNanchor_185" href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> If any one shall presume to do +so, let him know that he shall lose his office. And in addition he +shall suffer such punishment for his misconduct that the others +will be afraid to possess such things for themselves.</p> + +<p><b><a name="c27" id="c27"></a>27.</b> And we command that no one in our whole kingdom shall +dare to deny hospitality to rich, or poor, or pilgrims; that is, let +no one deny shelter and fire and water to pilgrims traversing +our country in God's name, or to any one traveling for the love +of God, or for the safety of his own soul.</p> + +<p><b>28.</b> Concerning embassies coming from the lord emperor. +That the counts and <i>centenarii</i><a name="FNanchor_186" id="FNanchor_186" href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> shall provide most carefully, as +<span class="sidebar">The missi +to be helped +on their way</span> +they desire the good-will of the lord emperor, for +the <i>missi</i> who are sent out, so that they may go +through their territories without any delay; and +the emperor commands all everywhere that they see to it that no +delay is encountered anywhere, but they shall cause the <i>missi</i> to +go on their way in all haste and shall provide for them in such a +manner as they may direct.</p> + +<p><b>32.</b> Murders, by which a multitude of the Christian people +perish, we command in every way to be shunned and to be +<span class="sidebar">The crime +of murder</span> +forbidden.... Nevertheless, lest sin should +also increase, in order that the greatest enmities +may not arise among Christians, when by the persuasions of +the devil murders happen, the criminal shall immediately +hasten to make amends and with all speed shall pay to the relatives +of the murdered man the fitting composition for the evil +done. And we forbid firmly that the relatives of the murdered +man shall dare in any way to continue their enmities on account +of the evil done, or shall refuse to grant peace to him who asks it, +but, having given their pledges, they shall receive the fitting composition +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">141</a></span> +and shall make a perpetual peace; moreover, the guilty +one shall not delay to pay the composition....<a name="FNanchor_187" id="FNanchor_187" href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> But if any +one shall have scorned to make the fitting composition, he shall +be deprived of his property until we shall render our decision.<a name="FNanchor_188" id="FNanchor_188" href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a></p> + +<p><b>39.</b> That in our forests no one shall dare to steal our game, +which we have already many times forbidden to be done; and +<span class="sidebar">Theft of game +from the royal +forests</span> +now we again strictly forbid that any one shall +do so in the future; just as each one desires to +preserve the fidelity promised to us, so let him +take heed to himself....</p> + +<p><b>40.</b> Lastly, therefore, we desire all our decrees to be known +in the whole kingdom through our <i>missi</i> now sent out, either +among the men of the Church, bishops, abbots, priests, deacons, +canons, all monks or nuns, so that each one in his ministry or +profession may keep our ban or decree, or where it may be fitting +to thank the citizens for their good-will, or to furnish aid, or +where there may be need still of correcting anything.... +Where we believe there is anything unpunished, we shall so strive +to correct it with all our zeal and will that with God's aid we +may bring it to correction, both for our own eternal glory and +that of all our faithful.</p> + +<h4>22. A Letter of Charlemagne to Abbot Fulrad</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>In Charlemagne's governmental and military system the clergy, +both regular and secular, had a place of large importance. From early +Frankish times the bishoprics and monasteries had been acquiring +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">142</a></span> +large landed estates on which they enjoyed peculiar political and +judicial privileges. These lands came to the church authorities partly +by purchase, largely by gift, and not infrequently through concessions +by small land-holders who wished to get the Church's favor and protection +without actually moving off the little farms they had been +accustomed to cultivate. However acquired, the lands were administered +by the clergy with larger independence than was apt to be allowed +the average lay owner. Still, they were as much a part of the +empire as before and the powerful bishops and abbots were expected to +see that certain services were forthcoming when the Emperor found himself +in need of them. Among these was the duty of leading, or sending, +a quota of troops under arms to the yearly assembly. In the selection +below we have a letter written by Charlemagne some time between +804 and 811 to Fulrad, abbot of St. Quentin (about sixty miles northeast +of Paris), respecting the fulfilment of this important obligation. +The closing sentence indicates very clearly the price exacted by the +Emperor in return for concessions of temporal authority to ecclesiastical +magnates.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges</i> (Boretius ed.), Vol. I., +No. 75, p. 168.</p> + +<p>In the name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost. Charles, +most serene, august, crowned of God, great pacific Emperor, +who, by God's mercy, is King of the Franks and Lombards, to +Abbot Fulrad.</p> + +<p>Let it be known to you that we have determined to hold our +general assembly<a name="FNanchor_189" id="FNanchor_189" href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> this year in the eastern part of Saxony, on the +River Bode, at the place which is known as Strassfurt.<a name="FNanchor_190" id="FNanchor_190" href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> Therefore, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">143</a></span> +we enjoin that you come to this meeting-place, with all your +men well armed and equipped, on the fifteenth day before the +Kalends of July, that is, seven days before the festival of St. +John the Baptist.<a name="FNanchor_191" id="FNanchor_191" href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a> Come, therefore, so prepared with your men +to the aforesaid place that you may be able to go thence well +equipped in any direction in which our command shall direct; +that is, with arms and accoutrements also, and other provisions +for war in the way of food and clothing. Each +horseman will be expected to have a shield, a +lance, a sword, a dagger, a bow, and quivers with +arrows; and in your carts shall be implements of various kinds, +that is, axes, planes, augers, boards, spades, iron shovels, and +<span class="sidebar">The troops +to be brought: +their equipment</span> +other utensils which are necessary in an army. In the wagons +also should be supplies of food for three months, dating from the +time of the assembly, together with arms and clothing for six +months. And furthermore we command that you see to it that +you proceed peacefully to the aforesaid place, through whatever +part of our realm your journey shall be made; that is, that you +presume to take nothing except fodder, wood, and water. And +let the followers of each one of your vassals march along with the +carts and horsemen, and let the leader always be with them +until they reach the aforesaid place, so that the absence of a +lord may not give to his men an opportunity to do evil.</p> + +<p>Send your gifts,<a name="FNanchor_192" id="FNanchor_192" href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> which you ought to present to us at our +assembly in the middle of the month of May, to the place where +<span class="sidebar">Gifts for +the Emperor</span> +we then shall be. If it happens that your journey +shall be such that on your march you are able +in person to present these gifts of yours to us, we shall be greatly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">144</a></span> +pleased. Be careful to show no negligence in the future if you +care to have our favor.</p> + +<h4>23. The Carolingian Revival of Learning</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>One of Charlemagne's chief claims to distinction is that his reign, +largely through his own influence, comprised the most important +period of the so-called Carolingian renaissance, or revival of learning. +From the times of the Frankish conquest of Gaul until about the middle +of the eighth century, education in western Europe, except in Ireland +and Britain, was at a very low ebb and literary production quite insignificant. +The old Roman intellectual activity had nearly ceased, +and two or three centuries of settled life had been required to bring +the Franks to the point of appreciating and encouraging art and letters. +Even by Charlemagne's time people generally were far from being +awake to the importance of education, though a few of the more far-sighted +leaders, and especially Charlemagne himself, had come to +lament the gross ignorance which everywhere prevailed and were +ready to adopt strong measures to overcome it. Charlemagne was +certainly no scholar, judged even by the standards of his own +time; but had he been the most learned man in the world his interest +in education could not have been greater. Before studying the selection +given below, it would be well to read what Einhard said about +his master's zeal for learning and the amount of progress he made +personally in getting an education [see <a href="#Page_112">pp. 112</a>—<a href="#Page_113">113</a>].</p> + +<p>The most conspicuous of Charlemagne's educational measures was +his enlarging and strengthening of the Scola Palatina, or Palace School. +This was an institution which had existed in the reign of his father +Pepin, and probably even earlier. It consisted of a group of scholars +gathered at the Frankish court for the purpose of studying and writing +literature, educating the royal household, and stimulating learning +throughout the country. It formed what we to-day might call an +academy of sciences. Under Charlemagne's care it came to include +such men of distinction as Paul the Deacon, historian of the Lombards, +Paulinus of Aquileia, a theologian, Peter of Pisa, a grammarian, and +above all Alcuin, a skilled teacher and writer from the school of York +in England. Its history falls into three main periods: (1) from the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">145</a></span> +middle of the eighth century to the year 782—the period during which +it was dominated by Paul the Deacon and his Italian colleagues; +(2) from 782 to about 800, when its leading spirit was Alcuin; and +(3) from 800 to the years of its decadence in the later ninth century, +when Frankish rather than foreign names appear most prominently in +its annals.</p> + +<p>It was Charlemagne's ideal that throughout his entire dominion +opportunity should be open to all to obtain at least an elementary +education and to carry their studies as much farther as they liked. +To this end a regular system of schools was planned, beginning with +the village school, in charge of the parish priest for the most elementary +studies, and leading up through monastic and cathedral schools to +the School of the Palace. In the intermediate stages, corresponding +to our high schools and academies to-day, the subjects studied were +essentially the same as those which received attention in the Scola +Palatina. They were divided into two groups: (1) the <i>trivium</i>, including +grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic (or philosophy), and (2) the +<i>quadrivium</i>, including geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music. +The system thus planned was never fully put in operation throughout +Frankland, for after Charlemagne's death the work which he had so +well begun was seriously interfered with by the falling off in intellectual +aggressiveness of the sovereigns, by civil war, and by the ravages of +the Hungarian and Norse invaders [see <a href="#Page_163">p. 163</a>]. A capitulary of +Louis the Pious in 817, for example, forbade the continuance of secular +education in monastic schools. Still, much of what had been +done remained, and never thereafter did learning among the Frankish +people fall to quite so low a stage as it had passed through in the sixth +and seventh centuries.</p> + +<p>Charlemagne's interest in education may be studied best of all in +his capitularies. In the extract below we have the so-called letter +<i>De Litteris Colendis</i>, written some time between 780 and 800, which, +though addressed personally to Abbot Baugulf, of the monastery of +Fulda, was in reality a capitulary establishing certain regulations +regarding education in connection with the work of the monks. To +the Church was intrusted the task of raising the level of intelligence +among the masses, and the clergy were admonished to bring together +the children of both freemen and serfs in schools in which they might +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">146</a></span> +be trained, even as the sons of the nobles were trained at the royal +court.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges</i> (Boretius ed.), Vol. I., +No. 29, pp. 78-79. Adapted from translation by Dana C. Munro in +<i>Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. VI., No. 5, pp. 12-14.</p> + +<p>Charles, by the grace of God, king of the Franks and Lombards +and Patrician of the Romans.<a name="FNanchor_193" id="FNanchor_193" href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a> To Abbot Baugulf, and to all the +congregation—also to the faithful placed under your care—we +have sent loving greetings by our ambassadors in the name +of all-powerful God.</p> + +<p>Be it known, therefore, to you, devoted and acceptable to +God, that we, together with our faithful, have deemed it expedient +<span class="sidebar">Men of the +Church charged +with the work +of education</span> +that the bishoprics and monasteries intrusted +by the favor of Christ to our control, in +addition to the order of monastic life and the +relationships of holy religion, should be zealous also in the cherishing +of letters, and in teaching those who by the gift of God are +able to learn, according as each has capacity. So that, just as +the observance of the rule<a name="FNanchor_194" id="FNanchor_194" href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a> adds order and grace to the integrity +of morals, so also zeal in teaching and learning may do the same +for sentences, to the end that those who wish to please God by +living rightly should not fail to please Him also by speaking correctly. +For it is written, "Either from thy words thou shall be +justified or from thy words thou shalt be condemned" [Matt., xii. +37]. Although right conduct may be better than knowledge, +nevertheless knowledge goes before conduct. Therefore each one +ought to study what he desires to accomplish, in order that so +much the more fully the mind may know what ought to be done. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">147</a></span> +as the tongue speeds in the praises of all-powerful God without +the hindrances of mistakes. For while errors should be shunned +<span class="sidebar">Even the clergy +often unable +to speak and +write correctly</span> +by all men, so much the more ought they to be +avoided, as far as possible, by those who are +chosen for this very purpose alone.<a name="FNanchor_195" id="FNanchor_195" href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a> They ought +to be the specially devoted servants of truth. For often in +recent years when letters have been written to us from monasteries, +in which it was stated that the brethren who dwelt +there offered up in our behalf sacred and pious prayers, we +have recognized, in most cases, both correct thoughts and +uncouth expressions; because what pious devotion dictated +faithfully to the mind, the tongue, uneducated on account of +the neglect of study, was not able to express in the letter without +error. Whence it happened that we began to fear lest perchance, +as the skill in writing was less, so also the wisdom for understanding +the Holy Scriptures might be much less than it rightly ought +to be. And we all know well that, although errors of speech are +dangerous, far more dangerous are errors of the understanding.</p> + +<p>Therefore, we exhort you not only not to neglect the study of +letters, but also with most humble mind, pleasing to God, to +<span class="sidebar">Education essential +to an +understanding +of the Scriptures</span> +study earnestly in order that you may be able +more easily and more correctly to penetrate the +mysteries of the divine Scriptures. Since, moreover, +images [similes], tropes<a name="FNanchor_196" id="FNanchor_196" href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> and like figures +are found in the sacred pages, nobody doubts that each one in +reading these will understand the spiritual sense more quickly +if previously he shall have been fully instructed in the mastery +of letters. Such men truly are to be chosen for this work as have +both the will and the ability to learn and a desire to instruct +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">148</a></span> +others. And may this be done with a zeal as great as the earnestness +with which we command it. For we desire you to be, as +the soldiers of the Church ought to be, devout in mind, learned +in discourse, chaste in conduct, and eloquent in speech, so that +when any one shall seek to see you, whether out of reverence for +God or on account of your reputation for holy conduct, just as +he is edified by your appearance, he may also be instructed by +the wisdom which he has learned from your reading or singing, +and may go away gladly, giving thanks to Almighty God.</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">149</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER X.<br /> +THE ERA OF THE LATER CAROLINGIANS</h3> + +<h4>24. The Oaths of Strassburg (842)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The broad empire of Germanic peoples built up by Charlemagne was +extremely difficult to hold together. Even before the death of its +masterful creator, in 814, it was already showing signs of breaking up, +and after that event the process of dissolution set in rapidly. It will +not do to look upon this falling to pieces as caused entirely by the +weakness of Charlemagne's successors. The trouble lay deeper, in the +natural love of independence common to all the Germans, in the wide +differences that had come to exist among Saxons, Lombards, Bavarians, +Franks, and other peoples in the empire, and finally in the prevailing +ill-advised principle of royal succession by which the territories making +up the empire, like those composing the old Frankish kingdom, were +regarded as personal property to be divided among the sovereign's +sons, just as was the practice respecting private possessions. As a +consequence of these things the generation following the death of +Charlemagne was a period of much confusion in western Europe. The +trouble first reached an acute stage in 817 when Emperor Louis the +Pious, Charlemagne's son and successor, was constrained to make a +division of the empire among his three sons, Lothair, Pepin, and Louis. +The Emperor expressly stipulated that despite this arrangement there +was to be still "one sole empire, and not three"; but it is obvious that +the imperial unity was at least pretty seriously threatened, and when, +in 823, Louis's second wife, Judith of Bavaria, gave birth to a son and +immediately set up in his behalf an urgent demand for a share of the +empire, civil war among the rival claimants could not be averted. In the +struggle that followed the distracted Emperor completely lost his throne +for a time (833). Thereafter he was ready to accept almost any arrangement +that would enable him to live out his remaining days in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">150</a></span> +peace. When he died, in 840, two of the sons, Louis the German and +Judith's child, who came to be known as Charles the Bald, combined +against their brother Lothair (Pepin had died in 838) with the purpose +of wresting from him the imperial crown, which the father, shortly +before his death, had bestowed upon him. At least they were determined +that this mark of favor from the father should not give the +older brother any superiority over them. In the summer of 841 the +issue was put to the test in a great battle at Fontenay, a little distance +east of Orleans, with the result that Lothair was badly defeated. In +February of the following year Louis and Charles, knowing that Lothair +was still far from regarding himself as conquered, bound themselves +by oath at Strassburg, in the valley of the Rhine, to keep up their +joint opposition until they should be entirely successful.</p> + +<p>The pledges exchanged on this occasion are as interesting to the +student of language as to the historian. The army which accompanied +Louis was composed of men of almost pure Germanic blood and speech, +while that with Charles was made up of men from what is now southern +and western France, where the people represented a mixture of Frankish +and old Roman and Gallic stocks. As a consequence Louis took +the oath in the <i>lingua romana</i> for the benefit of Charles's soldiers, and +Charles reciprocated by taking it in the <i>lingua teudisca</i>, in order that +the Germans might understand it. Then the followers of the two +kings took oath, each in his own language, that if their own king should +violate his agreement they would not support him in acts of hostility +against the other brother, provided the latter had been true to his word. +The <i>lingua romana</i> employed marks a stage in the development of the +so-called Romance languages of to-day—French, Spanish, and Italian—just +as the <i>lingua teudisca</i> approaches the character of modern Teutonic +languages—German, Dutch, and English. The oaths and the +accompanying address of the kings are the earliest examples we have +of the languages used by the common people of the early Middle Ages. +Latin was of course the language of literature, records, and correspondence, +matters with which ordinary people had little or nothing to +do. The necessity under which the two kings found themselves of +using two quite different modes of speech in order to be understood +by all the soldiers is evidence that already by the middle of the ninth +century the Romance and Germanic languages were becoming essentially +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">151</a></span> +distinct. It was prophetic, too, of the fast approaching cleavage +of the northern and southern peoples politically.</p> + +<p>Nithardus, whose account of the exchange of oaths at Strassburg +is translated below, was an active participant in the events of the +first half of the ninth century. He was born about 790, his mother +being Charlemagne's daughter Bertha and his father the noted courtier +and poet Angilbert. In the later years of Charlemagne's reign, and +probably under Louis the Pious and Charles the Bald, he was in charge +of the defense of the northwest coasts against the Northmen. He +fought for Charles the Bald at Fontenay and was frequently employed +in those troublous years between 840 and 843 in the fruitless negotiations +among the rival sons of Louis. Neither the date nor the manner +of his death is known. There are traditions that he was killed +in 858 or 859 while fighting the Northmen; but other stories just as +well founded tell us that he became disgusted with the turmoil of the +world, retired to a monastery, and there died about 853. His history +of the wars of the sons of Louis the Pious (covering the period +840-843) was undertaken at the request of Charles the Bald. The +first three books were written in 842, the fourth in 843. Aside from +a rather too favorable attitude toward Charles, the work is very trustworthy, +and the claim is even made by some that among all of the +historians of the Carolingian period, not even Einhard excepted, no +one surpassed Nithardus in spirit, method, and insight. It may further +be noted that Nithardus was the first historical writer of any importance +in the Middle Ages who was not some sort of official in the Church.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Nithardus, <i>Historiarum Libri IV.</i> ["Four Books of Histories"], +Bk. III., Chaps. 4-5. Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, +Scriptores</i> (Pertz ed.), Vol. II., pp. 665-666.</p> + +<p>Lothair was given to understand that Louis and Charles were +supporting each other with considerable armies.<a name="FNanchor_197" id="FNanchor_197" href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a> Seeing that +his plans were crushed in every direction, he made a long but +profitless expedition and abandoned the country about Tours. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">152</a></span> +At length he returned into France,<a name="FNanchor_198" id="FNanchor_198" href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a> worn out with fatigue, as +was also his army. Pepin,<a name="FNanchor_199" id="FNanchor_199" href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a> bitterly repenting that he had been +<span class="sidebar">Movements +of the hostile +parties in 841-842</span> +on Lothair's side, withdrew into Aquitaine. +Charles, learning that Otger, bishop of Mainz, +objected to the proposed passage of Louis by +way of Mainz to join his brother, set out by way of the city of +Toul<a name="FNanchor_200" id="FNanchor_200" href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a> and entered Alsace at Saverne. When Otger heard of +this, he and his supporters abandoned the river and sought +places where they might hide themselves as speedily as possible. +On the fifteenth of February Louis and Charles came together in +the city formerly called Argentoratum, now known as Strassburg, +and there they took the mutual oaths which are given herewith, +Louis in the <i>lingua romana</i> and Charles in the <i>lingua teudisca</i>. +Before the exchange of oaths they addressed the assembled people, +each in his own language, and Louis, being the elder, thus began:</p> + +<p>"How often, since the death of our father, Lothair has pursued +my brother and myself and tried to destroy us, is known to you +all. So, then, when neither brotherly love, nor Christian feeling, +nor any reason whatever could bring about a peace between us +upon fair conditions, we were at last compelled to bring the matter +before God, determined to abide by whatever issue He might +decree. And we, as you know, came off victorious;<a name="FNanchor_201" id="FNanchor_201" href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a> our brother +was beaten, and with his followers got away, each as best he +<span class="sidebar">The speech +of Louis the +German</span> +could. Then we, moved by brotherly love and +having compassion on our Christian people, were +not willing to pursue and destroy them; but, +still, as before, we begged that justice might be done to each. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">153</a></span> +He, however, after all this, not content with the judgment of +God, has not ceased to pursue me and my brother with hostile +purpose, and to harass our peoples with fire, plunder, and murder. +Wherefore we have been compelled to hold this meeting, and, +since we feared that you might doubt whether our faith was +fixed and our alliance secure, we have determined to make our +oaths thereto in your presence. And we do this, not from any +unfair greed, but in order that, if God, with your help, shall grant +us peace, we may the better provide for the common welfare. +But if, which God forbid, I shall dare to violate the oath which I +shall swear to my brother, then I absolve each one of you from +your allegiance and from the oath which you have sworn to +me."</p> + +<p>After Charles had made the same speech in the <i>lingua romana</i>, +Louis, as the elder of the two, swore first to be faithful to his +alliance:</p> + +<p><i>Pro Deo amur et pro christian poblo et nostro commun salvament, +dist di in avant, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat, si</i> +<span class="sidebar">The oath +of Louis</span> +<i>salvaraeio cist meon fradre Karlo et in adiudha +et in cadhuna cosa, si cum om per dreit son fradra +salvar dist, in o quid il mi altresi fazet; et ab Ludher nul plaid +numquam prindrai, qui meon vol cist meon fradre Karle in damno +sit.</i><a name="FNanchor_202" id="FNanchor_202" href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a></p> + +<p>When Louis had taken this oath, Charles swore the same thing +in the <i>lingua teudisca</i>:</p> + +<p><i>In Godes minna ind in thes christianes folches ind unser bedhero +gealtnissi, fon thesemo dage frammordes, so fram so mir</i> +<span class="sidebar">The oath +of Charles</span> +<i>Got gewizci indi madh furgibit, so haldih tesan +minan bruodher, soso man mit rehtu sinan +bruodher scal, in thiu, thaz er mig sosoma duo; indi mit Ludheren +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">154</a></span> +in nohheiniu thing ne gegango, the minan willon imo ce scadhen +werhen.</i></p> + +<p>The oath which the subjects of the two kings then took, each +[people] in its own language, reads thus in the <i>lingua romana</i>:</p> + +<p><i>Si Lodhwigs sagrament qua son fradre Karlo jurat, conservat,</i> +<span class="sidebar">The oath +taken by the +subjects of the +two kings</span> +<i>et Karlus meos sendra, de suo part, non lo stanit, +si io returnar non lint pois, ne io ne neuls cui eo +returnar int pois, in nulla aiudha contra Lodhuwig +nun li iver.</i><a name="FNanchor_203" id="FNanchor_203" href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a></p> + +<p>And in the <i>lingua teudisca</i>:</p> + +<p><i>Oba Karl then eid then, er sineno bruodher Ludhuwige gesuor, +geleistit, indi Ludhuwig min herro then er imo gesuor, forbrihchit, +obih ina es irwenden ne mag, noh ih no thero nohhein then ih es +irwended mag, widhar Karle imo ce follusti ne wirdhic.</i></p> + +<h4>25. The Treaty of Verdun (843)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>After the meeting at Strassburg, Charles and Louis advanced against +Lothair, who now abandoned Aachen and retreated southward past +Châlons-sur-Marne toward Lyons. When the brothers had come into +the vicinity of Châlons-sur-Saône, they were met by ambassadors from +Lothair who declared that he was weary of the struggle and was ready +to make peace if only his imperial dignity should be properly recognized +and the share of the kingdom awarded to him should be somewhat +the largest of the three. Charles and Louis accepted their brother's +overtures and June 15, 842, the three met on an island in the Saône +and signed preliminary articles of peace. It was agreed that a board +of a hundred and twenty prominent men should assemble October 1 at +Metz, on the Moselle, and make a definite division of the kingdom. +This body, with the three royal brothers, met at the appointed time, +but adjourned to Worms, and subsequently to Verdun, on the upper +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">155</a></span> +Meuse, in order to have the use of maps at the latter place. The treaty +which resulted during the following year was one of the most important +in all mediæval times. Unfortunately the text of it has not survived, +but all its more important provisions are well known from +the writings of the chroniclers of the period. Two such accounts of +the treaty, brief but valuable, are given below.</p> + +<p>Louis had been the real sovereign of Bavaria for sixteen years and +to his kingdom were now added all the German districts on the right +bank of the Rhine (except Friesland), together with Mainz, Worms, +and Speyer on the left bank, under the general name of <i>Francia +Orientalis</i>. Charles retained the western countries—Aquitaine, Gascony, +Septimania, the Spanish March, Burgundy west of the Saône, +Neustria, Brittany, and Flanders—designated collectively as <i>Francia +Occidentalis</i>.<a name="FNanchor_204" id="FNanchor_204" href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a> The intervening belt of lands, including the two capitals +Rome and Aachen, and extending from Terracina in Italy to the North +Sea, went to Lothair.<a name="FNanchor_205" id="FNanchor_205" href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> With it went the more or less nominal imperial +dignity. In general, Louis's portion represented the coming Germany +and Charles's the future France. But that of Lothair was utterly lacking +in either geographical or racial unity and was destined not long +to be held together. Parts of it, particularly modern Alsace and Lorraine, +have remained to this day a bone of contention between the +states on the east and west. "The partition of 843," says Professor +Emerton, "involved, so far as we know, nothing new in the relations +of the three brothers to each other. The theory of the empire was +preserved, but the meaning of it disappeared. There is no mention +of any actual superiority of the Emperor (Lothair) over his brothers, +and there is nothing to show that the imperial name was anything +but an empty title, a memory of something great which men could not +quite let die, but which for a hundred years to come was to be powerless +for good or evil."<a name="FNanchor_206" id="FNanchor_206" href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a> The empire itself was never afterwards united +under the rule of one man, except for two years (885-887) in the time +of Charles the Fat.</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">156</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Sources—(a) <i>Annales Bertiniani</i> ["Annals of Saint Bertin"]. Translated +from text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Scriptores</i> (Pertz +ed.), Vol. I., p. 440.</p> + +<p class="source_add">(b) <i>Rudolfi Fuldensis Annales</i> ["Annals of Rudolph of Fulda"]. +Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Scriptores</i> (Pertz ed.), +Vol. I., p. 362.</p> + +<p class="center">(a)</p> + +<p>Charles set out to find his brothers, and they met at Verdun. +By the division there made Louis received for his share all the +<span class="sidebar">A statement +from the annals +of Saint +Bertin</span> +country beyond the Rhine,<a name="FNanchor_207" id="FNanchor_207" href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a> and on this side +Speyer, Worms, Mainz, and the territories belonging +to these cities. Lothair received that +which is between the Scheldt and the Rhine toward the sea, and +that lying beyond Cambrésis, Hainault, and the counties adjoining +on this side of the Meuse, down to the confluence of the Saône +and Rhone, and thence along the Rhone to the sea, together with +the adjacent counties. Charles received all the remainder, extending +to Spain. And when the oath was exchanged they went +their several ways.</p> + +<p class="center">(b)</p> + +<p>The realm had from early times been divided in three portions, +and in the month of August the three kings, coming together at +<span class="sidebar">Another from +those of Rudolph +of Fulda</span> +Verdun in Gaul, redivided it among themselves. +Louis received the eastern part, Charles the western. +Lothair, who was older than his brothers, +received the middle portion. After peace was firmly established +and oaths exchanged, each brother returned to his dominion to +control and protect it. Charles, presuming to regard Aquitaine +as belonging properly to his share, was given much trouble by +his nephew Pepin,<a name="FNanchor_208" id="FNanchor_208" href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> who annoyed him by frequent incursions and +caused great loss.</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">157</a></span></p> + +<h4>26. A Chronicle of the Frankish Kingdom in the Ninth Century</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The following passages from the Annals of Xanten are here given +for two purposes—to show something of the character of the period +of the Carolingian decline, and to illustrate the peculiar features of +the mediæval chronicle. Numerous names, places, and events neither +very clearly understood now, nor important if they were understood, +occur in the text, and some of these it is not deemed worth while to +attempt to explain in the foot-notes. The selection is valuable for the +general impressions it gives rather than for the detailed facts which +it contains, though some of the latter are interesting enough.</p> + +<p>Annals as a type of historical writing first assumed considerable +importance in western Europe in the time of Charles Martel and +Charlemagne. Their origin, like that of most forms of mediæval literary +production, can be traced directly to the influence of the Church. +The annals began as mere occasional notes jotted down by the monks +upon the "Easter tables," which were circulated among the monasteries +so that the sacred festival might not fail to be observed at the proper +date. The Easter tables were really a sort of calendar, and as they +were placed on parchment having a broad margin it was very natural +that the monks should begin to write in the margin opposite the various +years some of the things that had happened in those years. An Easter +table might pass through a considerable number of hands and so have +events recorded upon it by a good many different men. All sorts of +things were thus made note of—some important, some unimportant—and +of course it is not necessary to suppose that everything written +down was actually true. Many mistakes were possible, especially as +the writer often had only his memory, or perhaps mere hearsay, to +rely upon. And when, as frequently happened, these scattered Easter +tables were brought together in some monastery and there revised, +fitted together, and written out in one continuous chronicle, there were +chances at every turn for serious errors to creep in. The compilers +were sometimes guilty of wilful misrepresentation, but more often +their fault was only their ignorance, credulity, and lack of critical +discernment. In these annals there was no attempt to write history +as we now understand it; that is, the chroniclers did not undertake +to work out the causes and results and relations of things. They merely +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">158</a></span> +recorded year by year such happenings as caught their attention—the +succession of a new pope, the death of a bishop, the coronation of +a king, a battle, a hail-storm, an eclipse, the birth of a two-headed +calf—all sorts of unimportant, and from our standpoint ridiculous, +items being thrown in along with matters of world-wide moment. +Heterogeneous as they are, however, the large collections of annals +that have come down to us have been used by modern historians with +the greatest profit, and but for them we should know far less than we +do about the Middle Ages, and especially about the people and events +of the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries.</p> + +<p>The Annals of Xanten here quoted are the work originally of a number +of ninth century monks. The fragments from which they were +ultimately compiled are thought to have been brought together at +Cologne, or at least in that vicinity. They cover especially the years +831-873.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—<i>Annales Xantenses</i> ["Annals of Xanten"]. Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ +Historica, Scriptores</i> (Pertz ed.), Vol. II., p. 227. Adapted +from translation in James H. Robinson, <i>Readings in European +History</i> (New York, 1904), Vol. I., pp. 158-162.</p> + +<p><b>844.</b> Pope Gregory departed this world and Pope Sergius +followed in his place.<a name="FNanchor_209" id="FNanchor_209" href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a> Count Bernhard was killed by Charles. +Pepin, king of Aquitaine, together with his son and the son of +Bernhard, routed the army of Charles,<a name="FNanchor_210" id="FNanchor_210" href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> and there fell the abbot +Hugo. At the same time King Louis advanced with his army +against the Wends,<a name="FNanchor_211" id="FNanchor_211" href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a> one of whose kings, Gestimus by name, +was killed; the rest came to Louis and pledged him their fidelity, +which, however, they broke as soon as he was gone. Thereafter +Lothair, Louis, and Charles came together for council in Diedenhofen, +and after a conference they went their several ways in +peace.</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">159</a></span></p> + +<p><b>845.</b> Twice in the canton of Worms there was an earthquake; +the first in the night following Palm Sunday, the second in the +<span class="sidebar">The Northmen +in Frisia and +Gaul</span> +holy night of Christ's Resurrection. In the same +year the heathen<a name="FNanchor_212" id="FNanchor_212" href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> broke in upon the Christians +at many points, but more than twelve thousand +of them were killed by the Frisians. Another party of invaders +devastated Gaul; of these more than six hundred men perished. +Yet, owing to his indolence, Charles agreed to give them many +thousand pounds of gold and silver if they would leave Gaul, and +this they did. Nevertheless the cloisters of most of the saints +were destroyed and many of the Christians were led away +captive.</p> + +<p>After this had taken place King Louis once more led a force +against the Wends. When the heathen had learned this they +sent ambassadors, as well as gifts and hostages, to Saxony, and +asked for peace. Louis then granted peace and returned home +from Saxony. Thereafter the robbers were afflicted by a terrible +pestilence, during which the chief sinner among them, by the +name of Reginheri, who had plundered the Christians and the +holy places, was struck down by the hand of God. They then +took counsel and threw lots to determine from which of their gods +they should seek safety; but the lots did not fall out happily, and +on the advice of one of their Christian prisoners that they should +cast their lot before the God of the Christians, they did so, and +the lot fell happily. Then their king, by the name of Rorik, +together with all the heathen people, refrained from meat and +drink for fourteen days, when the plague ceased, and they sent +back all their Christian prisoners to their country.</p> + +<p><b>846.</b> According to their custom, the Northmen plundered +eastern and western Frisia and burned the town +<span class="sidebar">The Northmen +again in Frisia</span> +of Dordrecht, with two other villages, before +the eyes of Lothair, who was then in the castle of Nimwegen, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">160</a></span> +but could not punish the crime. The Northmen, with their boats +filled with immense booty, including both men and goods, returned +to their own country.</p> + +<p>In the same year Louis sent an expedition from Saxony +against the Wends across the Elbe. He personally, however, +went with his army against the Bohemians, whom we call Beuwinitha, +but with great risk.... Charles advanced against +the Britons, but accomplished nothing.</p> + +<p>At this same time, as no one can mention or hear without great +sadness, the mother of all churches, the basilica of the apostle +<span class="sidebar">Rome +attacked by +the Saracens</span> +Peter, was taken and plundered by the Moors, or +Saracens, who had already occupied the region of +Beneventum.<a name="FNanchor_213" id="FNanchor_213" href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a> The Saracens, moreover, slaughtered +all the Christians whom they found outside the walls +of Rome, either within or without this church. They also carried +men and women away prisoners. They tore down, among many +others, the altar of the blessed Peter, and their crimes from day to +day bring sorrow to Christians. Pope Sergius departed life this +year.</p> + +<p><b>847.</b> After the death of Sergius no mention of the apostolic +see has come in any way to our ears. Rabanus [Maurus], master +and abbot of Fulda,<a name="FNanchor_214" id="FNanchor_214" href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> was solemnly chosen archbishop as the successor +of Bishop Otger, who had died. Moreover, the Northmen +here and there plundered the Christians and engaged in a battle +with the counts Sigir and Liuthar. They continued up the Rhine +as far as Dordrecht, and nine miles farther to Meginhard, when +they turned back, having taken their booty.</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">161</a></span></p> + +<p><b>848.</b> On the fourth of February, towards evening, it lightened +and there was thunder heard. The heathen, as was their custom, +<span class="sidebar">An outbreak +of heresy +repressed</span> +inflicted injury on the Christians. In the same +year King Louis held an assembly of the people +near Mainz. At this synod a heresy was brought +forward by a few monks in regard to predestination. These +were convicted and beaten, to their shame, before all the people. +They were sent back to Gaul whence they had come, and, thanks +be to God, the condition of the Church remained uninjured.</p> + +<p><b>849.</b> While King Louis was ill, his army of Bavaria took its +way against the Bohemians. Many of these were killed and the +remainder withdrew, much humiliated, into their own country. +The heathen from the North wrought havoc in Christendom +as usual and grew greater in strength; but it is painful to say +more of this matter.</p> + +<p><b>850.</b> On January 1st of that season, in the octave of the Lord,<a name="FNanchor_215" id="FNanchor_215" href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> +towards evening, a great deal of thunder was heard and a mighty +flash of lightning seen; and an overflow of water afflicted the +human race during this winter. In the following summer an all +too great heat of the sun burned the earth. Leo, pope of the +<span class="sidebar">Further ravages +by the +Northmen and +the Saracens</span> +apostolic see, an extraordinary man, built a fortification +around the church of St. Peter the apostle. +The Moors, however, devastated here and there +the coast towns in Italy. The Norman Rorik, brother of the +above-mentioned younger Heriold, who earlier had fled dishonored +from Lothair, again took Dordrecht and did much evil +treacherously to the Christians. In the same year so great a +peace existed between the two brothers—Emperor Lothair and +King Louis—that they spent many days together in Osning +[Westphalia] and there hunted, so that many were astonished +thereat; and they went each his way in peace.</p> + +<p><b>851.</b> The bodies of certain saints were sent from Rome to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">162</a></span> +Saxony—that of Alexander, one of seven brethren, and those of +Romanus and Emerentiana. In the same year the very noble +Empress, Irmingard by name, wife of the Emperor Lothair, +<span class="sidebar">The Northmen +again in Frisia +and Saxony</span> +departed this world. The Normans inflicted +much harm in Frisia and about the Rhine. A +mighty army of them collected by the River +Elbe against the Saxons, and some of the Saxon towns were +besieged, others burned, and most terribly did they oppress the +Christians. A meeting of our kings took place on the Maas +[Meuse].</p> + +<p><b>852.</b> The steel of the heathen glistened; excessive heat; a +famine followed. There was not fodder enough for the animals. +The pasturage for the swine was more than sufficient.</p> + +<p><b>853.</b> A great famine in Saxony, so that many were forced to +live on horse meat.</p> + +<p><b>854.</b> The Normans, in addition to the very many evils which +<span class="sidebar">The Northmen +burn the church +of St. Martin +at Tours</span> +they were everywhere inflicting upon the Christians, +burned the church of St. Martin, bishop +of Tours, where his body rests.</p> + +<p><b>855.</b> In the spring Louis, the eastern king, sent his son of the +same name to Aquitaine to obtain possession of the heritage of +his uncle Pepin.</p> + +<p><b>856.</b> The Normans again chose a king of the same name as +the preceding one, and related to him, and the Danes made a +fresh incursion by sea, with renewed forces, against the Christians.</p> + +<p><b>857.</b> A great sickness prevailed among the people. This produced +a terrible foulness, so that the limbs were separated from +the body even before death came.</p> + +<p><b>858.</b> Louis, the eastern king, held an assembly of the people +of his territory in Worms.</p> + +<p><b>859.</b> On the first of January, as the early Mass was being said, +a single earthquake occurred in Worms and a triple one in Mainz +before daybreak.</p> + +<p><b>860.</b> On the fifth of February thunder was heard. The king +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">163</a></span> +returned from Gaul after the whole empire had gone to destruction, +and was in no way bettered.</p> + +<p><b>861.</b> The holy bishop Luitbert piously furnished the cloister +which is called the Freckenhorst with many relics of the saints, +<span class="sidebar">Sacred relics +brought together +at the +Freckenhorst</span> +namely, of the martyrs Boniface and Maximus, +and of the confessors Eonius and Antonius, +and added a portion of the manger of the Lord +and of His grave, and likewise of the dust of the Lord's feet as He +ascended to heaven. In this year the winter was long and the +above-mentioned kings again had a secret consultation on the +island near Coblenz, and they laid waste everything round +about.</p> + +<h4>27. The Northmen in the Country of the Franks.</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>Under the general name of Northmen in the ninth and tenth centuries +were included all those peoples of pure Teutonic stock who +inhabited the two neighboring peninsulas of Denmark and Scandinavia. +In this period, and after, they played a very conspicuous part in the +history of western Europe—at first as piratical invaders along the +Atlantic coast, and subsequently as settlers in new lands and as conquerors +and state-builders. <i>Northmen</i> was the name by which the +people of the continent generally knew them, but to the Irish they +were known as <i>Ostmen</i> or <i>Eastmen</i>, and to the English as <i>Danes</i>, while +the name which they applied to themselves was <i>Vikings</i> ["Creekmen"]. +Their prolonged invasions and plunderings, which fill so large a place +in the ninth and tenth century chronicles of England and France, were +the result of several causes and conditions: (1) their natural love of +adventure, common to all early Germanic peoples; (2) the fact that +the population of their home countries had become larger than the +limited resources of these northern regions would support; (3) the +proximity of the sea on every side, with its fiords and inlets inviting +the adventurer to embark for new shores; and (4) the discontent of +the nobles, or jarls, with the growing rigor of kingly government. In +consequence of these and other influences large numbers of the people +became pirates, with no other occupation than the plundering of the +more civilized and wealthier countries to the east, west, and south. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">164</a></span> +Those from Sweden visited most commonly the coasts of Russia, those +from Norway went generally to Scotland and Ireland, and those from +Denmark to England and France. In fast-sailing vessels carrying +sixty or seventy men, and under the leadership of "kings of the sea" +who never "sought refuge under a roof, nor emptied their drinking-horns +at a fireside," they darted along the shores, ascended rivers, +converted islands into temporary fortresses, and from thence sallied +forth in every direction to burn and pillage and carry off all the booty +upon which they could lay hands. So swift and irresistible were their +operations that they frequently met with not the slightest show of +opposition from the terrified inhabitants.</p> + +<p>It was natural that Frankland, with its numerous large rivers flowing +into the ocean and leading through fertile valleys dotted with towns +and rich abbeys, should early have attracted the marauders; and in +fact they made their appearance there as early as the year 800. Before +the end of Charlemagne's reign they had pillaged Frisia, and a monkish +writer of the time tells us that upon one occasion the great Emperor +burst into tears and declared that he was overwhelmed with sorrow +as he looked forward and saw what evils they would bring upon his +offspring and people. Whether or not this story is true, certain it is +that before the ninth century was far advanced incursions of the +barbarians—"the heathen," as the chroniclers generally call them—had +come to be almost annual events. In 841 Rouen was plundered +and burned; in 843 Nantes was besieged, the bishop killed, and many +captives carried off; in 845 the invaders appeared at Paris and were +prevented from attacking the place only by being bribed; and so the +story goes, until by 846 we find the annalists beginning their melancholy +record of the year's events with the matter-of-course statement +that, "according to their custom," the Northmen plundered such and +such a region [see <a href="#Page_159">p. 159</a>]. Below are a few passages taken from the +Annals of Saint-Bertin, the poem of Abbo on the siege of Paris, and the +Chronicle of Saint-Denys, which show something of the character of +the Northmen's part in early French history, first as mere invaders +and afterwards as permanent settlers.</p> + +<p>The Annals of Saint-Bertin are so called because they have been +copied from an old manuscript found in the monastery of that name. +The period which they cover is 741-882. Several writers evidently +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">165</a></span> +had a hand in their compilation. The portion between the dates 836 +and 861 is attributed to Prudence, bishop of Troyes, and that between +861 and 882 to Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims.</p> + +<p>Abbo, the author of the second selection given below, was a monk +of St. Germain des Prés, at Paris. He wrote a poem in which he undertook +to give an account of the siege of Paris by the Northmen in 885 +and 886, and of the struggles of the Frankish people with the invaders +to the year 896. As literature the poem has small value, but for the +historian it possesses some importance.</p> + +<p>The account of Rollo's conversion comes from a history of the Normans +written in the twelfth century by William of Jumièges. The +work covers the period 851-1137, its earlier portions (to 996) being +based on an older history written by Dudo, dean of St. Quentin, in the +eleventh century. The Chronicle of St.-Denys was composed at a +later time and served to preserve most of the history recorded by +Dudo and William of Jumièges.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Sources—(a) <i>Annales Bertiniani</i> ["Annals of St. Bertin"]. Text in <i>Monumenta +Germaniæ Historica Scriptores</i> (Pertz ed.), Vol. I., pp. +439-454.</p> + +<p class="source_add">(b) Abbonis Monachi S. Germani Parisiensis, <i>De Bellis Parisiacæ +Urbis, et Odonis Comitis, post Regis, adversus Northmannos +urbem ipsam obsidentes, sub Carolo Crasso Imp. ac Rege Francorum</i> +[Abbo's "Wars of Count Odo with the Northmen in the +Reign of Charles the Fat"]. Text in Bouquet, <i>Recueil des Historiens +des Gaules et de la France</i>, Vol. VIII., pp. 4-26.</p> + +<p class="source_add">(c) <i>Chronique de Saint-Denys d'après Dudo et Guillaume de Jumièges</i> +["Chronicle of St. Denys based on Dudo and William +of Jumièges"], Vol. III., p. 105.</p> + +<p class="center">(a) <span class="smcap">The Earlier Ravages of the Northmen</span></p> + +<p><b>843</b>. Pirates of the Northmen's race came to Nantes, killed +the bishop and many of the clergy and laymen, both men and +women, and pillaged the city. Thence they set out to plunder +the lands of lower Aquitaine. At length they arrived at a certain +island<a name="FNanchor_216" id="FNanchor_216" href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> and carried materials thither from the mainland to build +themselves houses; and they settled there for the winter, as if +that were to be their permanent dwelling-place.</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">166</a></span></p> + +<p><b>844.</b> The Northmen ascended the Garonne as far as Toulouse +and pillaged the lands along both banks with impunity. Some, +after leaving this region went into Galicia<a name="FNanchor_217" id="FNanchor_217" href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> and perished, part of +them by the attacks of the cross-bowmen who had come to resist +them, part by being overwhelmed by a storm at sea. But others +of them went farther into Spain and engaged in long and desperate +combats with the Saracens; defeated in the end, they withdrew.</p> + +<p><b>845.</b> The Northmen with a hundred ships entered the Seine on +the twentieth of March and, after ravaging first one bank and +<span class="sidebar">The Northmen +bought off at +Paris</span> +then the other, came without meeting any resistance +to Paris. Charles<a name="FNanchor_218" id="FNanchor_218" href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> resolved to hold out +against them; but seeing the impossibility of +gaining a victory, he made with them a certain agreement and +by a gift of 7,000 livres he bought them off from advancing farther +and persuaded them to return.</p> + +<p>Euric, king of the Northmen, advanced, with six hundred +vessels, along the course of the River Elbe to attack Louis of +Germany.<a name="FNanchor_219" id="FNanchor_219" href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> The Saxons prepared to meet him, gave battle, and +with the aid of our Lord Jesus Christ won the victory.</p> + +<p>The Northmen returned [from Paris] down the Seine and coming +to the ocean pillaged, destroyed, and burned all the regions +along the coast.</p> + +<p><b>846.</b> The Danish pirates landed in Frisia.<a name="FNanchor_220" id="FNanchor_220" href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a> They were able to +force from the people whatever contributions they wished and, +being victors in battle, they remained masters of almost the +entire province.</p> + +<p><b>847.</b> The Northmen made their appearance in the part of Gaul +inhabited by the Britons<a name="FNanchor_221" id="FNanchor_221" href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a> and won three victories. Noménoé,<a name="FNanchor_222" id="FNanchor_222" href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">167</a></span> +although defeated, at length succeeded in buying them off with +presents and getting them out of his country.</p> + +<p><b>853-854.</b> The Danish pirates, making their way into the +country eastward from the city of Nantes, arrived without +<span class="sidebar">The burning +of Tours</span> +opposition, November eighth, before Tours. This +they burned, together with the church of St. +Martin and the neighboring places. But that incursion had been +foreseen with certainty and the body of St. Martin had been +removed to Cormery, a monastery of that church, and from there +to the city of Orleans. The pirates went on to the château of +Blois<a name="FNanchor_223" id="FNanchor_223" href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> and burned it, proposing then to proceed to Orleans and +destroy that city in the same fashion. But Agius, bishop of +Orleans, and Burchard, bishop of Chartres,<a name="FNanchor_224" id="FNanchor_224" href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a> had gathered soldiers +and ships to meet them; so they abandoned their design and returned +to the lower Loire, though the following year [855] they +ascended it anew to the city of Angers.<a name="FNanchor_225" id="FNanchor_225" href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a></p> + +<p><b>855.</b> They left their ships behind and undertook to go overland +to the city of Poitiers;<a name="FNanchor_226" id="FNanchor_226" href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a> but the Aquitanians came to meet +them and defeated them, so that not more than 300 escaped.</p> + +<p><b>856.</b> On the eighteenth of April, the Danish pirates came to +the city of Orleans, pillaged it, and went away without meeting +<span class="sidebar">Orleans +pillaged</span> +opposition. Other Danish pirates came into the +Seine about the middle of August and, after +plundering and ruining the towns on the two banks of the river, +and even the monasteries and villages farther back, came to a +well located place near the Seine called Jeufosse, and, there +quietly passed the winter.</p> + +<p><b>859.</b> The Danish pirates having made a long sea-voyage (for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">168</a></span> +they had sailed between Spain and Africa) entered the Rhone, +where they pillaged many cities and monasteries and established +themselves on the island called Camargue.... They devastated +everything before them as far as the city of Valence.<a name="FNanchor_227" id="FNanchor_227" href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> Then +after ravaging all these regions they returned to the island where +they had fixed their habitation. Thence they went on toward +Italy, capturing and plundering Pisa and other cities.</p> + +<p class="center">(b) <span class="smcap">The Siege of Paris</span></p> + +<p><b>885.</b> The Northmen came to Paris with 700 sailing ships, not +counting those of smaller size which are commonly called barques. +At one stretch the Seine was lined with the vessels for more than +two leagues, so that one might ask in astonishment in what +cavern the river had been swallowed up, since it was not to be +seen. The second day after the fleet of the Northmen arrived +<span class="sidebar">The Northmen +arrive at the +city</span> +under the walls of the city, Siegfred, who was +then king only in name<a name="FNanchor_228" id="FNanchor_228" href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a> but who was in command +of the expedition, came to the dwelling of the +illustrious bishop. He bowed his head and said: "Gauzelin, have +compassion on yourself and on your flock. We beseech you to +listen to us, in order that you may escape death. Allow us only +the freedom of the city. We will do no harm and we will see to +it that whatever belongs either to you or to Odo shall be strictly +respected." Count Odo, who later became king, was then the +defender of the city.<a name="FNanchor_229" id="FNanchor_229" href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> The bishop replied to Siegfred, "Paris has +been entrusted to us by the Emperor Charles, who, after God, +king and lord of the powerful, rules over almost all the world. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">169</a></span> +He has put it in our care, not at all that the kingdom may be +ruined by our misconduct, but that he may keep it and be assured +of its peace. If, like us, you had been given the duty of defending +these walls, and if you should have done that which you ask us to +do, what treatment do you think you would deserve?" Siegfred +replied, "I should deserve that my head be cut off and thrown +to the dogs. Nevertheless, if you do not listen to my demand, +on the morrow our war machines will destroy you with poisoned +arrows. You will be the prey of famine and of pestilence and +these evils will renew themselves perpetually every year." So +saying, he departed and gathered together his comrades.</p> + +<p>In the morning the Northmen, boarding their ships, approached +the tower and attacked it.<a name="FNanchor_230" id="FNanchor_230" href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a> They shook it with their engines +<span class="sidebar">The attack +upon the tower</span> +and stormed it with arrows. The city resounded +with clamor, the people were aroused, the bridges +trembled. All came together to defend the tower. There Odo, +his brother Robert,<a name="FNanchor_231" id="FNanchor_231" href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a> and the Count Ragenar distinguished themselves +for bravery; likewise the courageous Abbot Ebolus,<a name="FNanchor_232" id="FNanchor_232" href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a> the +nephew of the bishop. A keen arrow wounded the prelate, while +at his side the young warrior Frederick was struck by a sword. +Frederick died, but the old man, thanks to God, survived. There +perished many Franks; after receiving wounds they were lavish +of life. At last the enemy withdrew, carrying off their dead. +The evening came. The tower had been sorely tried, but its +foundations were still solid, as were also the narrow <i>baies</i> which +surmounted them. The people spent the night repairing it with +boards. By the next day, on the old citadel had been erected a +new tower of wood, a half higher than the former one. At sunrise +the Danes caught their first glimpse of it. Once more the latter +engaged with the Christians in violent combat. On every side +arrows sped and blood flowed. With the arrows mingled the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">170</a></span> +stones hurled by slings and war-machines; the air was filled with +<span class="sidebar">Fierce +fighting</span> +them. The tower which had been built during the night groaned +under the strokes of the darts, the city shook with +the struggle, the people ran hither and thither, the +bells jangled. The warriors rushed together to defend the tottering +tower and to repel the fierce assault. Among these warriors +two, a count and an abbot [Ebolus], surpassed all the rest in +courage. The former was the redoubtable Odo who never experienced +<span class="sidebar">The bravery of +Count Odo</span> +defeat and who continually revived the +spirits of the worn-out defenders. He ran along +the ramparts and hurled back the enemy. On those who were +secreting themselves so as to undermine the tower he poured oil, +wax, and pitch, which, being mixed and heated, burned the Danes +and tore off their scalps. Some of them died; others threw +themselves into the river to escape the awful substance....<a name="FNanchor_233" id="FNanchor_233" href="#Footnote_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a></p> + +<p>Meanwhile Paris was suffering not only from the sword outside +but also from a pestilence within which brought death to many +noble men. Within the walls there was not ground in which to +bury the dead.... Odo, the future king, was sent to Charles, +emperor of the Franks,<a name="FNanchor_234" id="FNanchor_234" href="#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> to implore help for the stricken city.</p> + +<p>One day Odo suddenly appeared in splendor in the midst of +three bands of warriors. The sun made his armor glisten and +<span class="sidebar">Odo's mission +to Emperor +Charles the +Fat</span> +greeted him before it illuminated the country +around. The Parisians saw their beloved chief +at a distance, but the enemy, hoping to prevent +his gaining entrance to the tower, crossed the Seine and took up +their position on the bank. Nevertheless Odo, his horse at a +gallop, got past the Northmen and reached the tower, whose +gates Ebolus opened to him. The enemy pursued fiercely the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">171</a></span> +comrades of the count who were trying to keep up with him +and get refuge in the tower. [The Danes were defeated in the +attack.]</p> + +<p>Now came the Emperor Charles, surrounded by soldiers of all +nations, even as the sky is adorned with resplendent stars. A +<span class="sidebar">Terms of peace +arranged by +Charles</span> +great throng, speaking many languages, accompanied +him. He established his camp at the foot +of the heights of Montmartre, near the tower. +He allowed the Northmen to have the country of Sens to plunder;<a name="FNanchor_235" id="FNanchor_235" href="#Footnote_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a> +and in the spring he gave them 700 pounds of silver on condition +that by the month of March they leave France for their +own kingdom.<a name="FNanchor_236" id="FNanchor_236" href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a> Then Charles returned, destined to an early +death.<a name="FNanchor_237" id="FNanchor_237" href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a></p> + +<p class="center">(c) <span class="smcap">The Baptism of Rollo and the Establishment of the +Normans in France<a name="FNanchor_238" id="FNanchor_238" href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a></span></p> + +<p>The king had at first wished to give to Rollo the province of +Flanders, but the Norman rejected it as being too marshy. Rollo +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">172</a></span> +refused to kiss the foot of Charles when he received from him the +duchy of Normandy. "He who receives such a gift," said the +bishops to him, "ought to kiss the foot of the king." "Never," +replied he, "will I bend the knee to any one, or kiss anybody's +foot." Nevertheless, impelled by the entreaties of the Franks, +he ordered one of his warriors to perform the act in his stead. +This man seized the foot of the king and lifted it to his lips, +kissing it without bending and so causing the king to tumble +over backwards. At that there was a loud burst of laughter +and a great commotion in the crowd of onlookers. King Charles, +<span class="sidebar">Rollo receives +Normandy +from Charles +the Simple</span> +Robert, Duke of the Franks,<a name="FNanchor_239" id="FNanchor_239" href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> the counts and +magnates, and the bishops and abbots, bound +themselves by the oath of the Catholic faith to +Rollo, swearing by their lives and their bodies and by the honor +of all the kingdom, that he might hold the land and transmit it to +his heirs from generation to generation throughout all time to +come. When these things had been satisfactorily performed, +the king returned in good spirits into his dominion, and Rollo +with Duke Robert set out for Rouen.</p> + +<p>In the year of our Lord 912 Rollo was baptized in holy water +in the name of the sacred Trinity by Franco, archbishop of +<span class="sidebar">Rollo becomes +a Christian</span> +Rouen. Duke Robert, who was his godfather, +gave to him his name. Rollo devotedly honored +God and the Holy Church with his gifts.... The pagans, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">173</a></span> +seeing that their chieftain had become a Christian, abandoned +their idols, received the name of Christ, and with one accord +desired to be baptized. Meanwhile the Norman duke made +ready for a splendid wedding and married the daughter of the +king [Gisela] according to Christian rites.</p> + +<p>Rollo gave assurance of security to all those who wished to +dwell in his country. The land he divided among his followers, +and, as it had been a long time unused, he improved it by the +construction of new buildings. It was peopled by the Norman +warriors and by immigrants from outside regions. The duke +<span class="sidebar">His work +in Normandy</span> +established for his subjects certain inviolable +rights and laws, confirmed and published by the +will of the leading men, and he compelled all his people to live +peaceably together. He rebuilt the churches, which had been +entirely ruined; he restored the temples, which had been destroyed +by the ravages of the pagans; he repaired and added to +the walls and fortifications of the cities; he subdued the Britons +who rebelled against him; and with the provisions obtained +from them he supplied all the country that had been granted +to him.</p> + +<h4>28. Later Carolingian Efforts to Preserve Order</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The ninth century is chiefly significant in Frankish history as an +era of decline of monarchy and increase of the powers and independence +of local officials and magnates. Already by Charlemagne's death, in +814, the disruptive forces were at work, and under the relatively weak +successors of the great Emperor the course of decentralization went +on until by the death of Charles the Bald, in 877, the royal authority +had been reduced to a condition of insignificance. This century was +the formative period <i>par excellence</i> of the feudal system—a type of +social and economic organization which the conditions of the time +rendered inevitable and under which great monarchies tended to be +dissolved into a multitude of petty local states. Large landholders began +to regard themselves as practically independent; royal officials, particularly +the counts, refused to be parted from their positions and used +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">174</a></span> +them primarily to enhance their own personal authority; the churches +and monasteries stretched their royal grants of immunity so far as +almost to refuse to acknowledge any obligations to the central government. +In these and other ways the Carolingian monarchy was shorn +of its powers, and as it was quite lacking in money, lands, and soldiers +who could be depended on, there was little left for it to do but to legislate +and ordain without much prospect of being able to enforce its +laws and ordinances. The rapidity with which the kings of the period +were losing their grip on the situation comes out very clearly from a study +of the capitularies which they issued from time to time. In general +these capitularies, especially after about 840, testify to the disorder +everywhere prevailing, the usurpations of the royal officials, and the +popular contempt of the royal authority, and reiterate commands +for the preservation of order until they become fairly wearisome to +the reader. Royalty was at a bad pass and its weakness is reflected +unmistakably in its attempts to govern by mere edict without any backing +of enforcing power. In 843, 853, 856, 857, and many other years +of Charles the Bald's reign, elaborate decrees were issued prohibiting +brigandage and lawlessness, but with the tell-tale provision that violators +were to be "admonished with Christian love to repent," or that +they were to be punished "as far as the local officials could remember +them," or that the royal agents were themselves to take oath not to +become highway robbers! Sometimes the king openly confessed his +weakness and proceeded to implore, rather than to command, his subjects +to obey him.</p> + +<p>The capitulary quoted below belongs to the last year of the short +reign of Carloman (882-884), son of Louis the Stammerer and grandson +of Charles the Bald. It makes a considerable show of power, ordaining +the punishment of criminals as confidently as if there had really +been means to assure its enforcement. But in truth all the provisions +in it had been embodied in capitularies of Carloman's predecessors with +scarcely perceptible effect, and there was certainly no reason to expect +better results now. With the nobles practicing, if not asserting, independence, +the churches and monasteries heeding the royal authority +hardly at all, the country being ravaged by Northmen and the people +turning to the great magnates for the protection they could no longer +get from the king, and the counts and <i>missi dominici</i> making +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">175</a></span> +their lands and offices the basis for hereditary local authority, the +king had come to be almost powerless in the great realm where less +than a hundred years before Charlemagne's word, for all practical +purposes, was law. Even Charlemagne himself, however, could have +done little to avert the state of anarchy which conditions too strong +for any sovereign to cope with had brought about.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges</i> (Boretius ed.), +Vol. II., pp. 371-375.</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> According to the custom of our predecessors, we desire +that in our palace shall prevail the worship of God, the honor of +<span class="sidebar">The keeping of +the peace enjoined</span> +the king, piety, concord, and a condition of peace; +and that that peace established in our palace +by the sanction of our predecessors shall extend +to, and be observed throughout, our entire kingdom.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> We desire that all those who live at our court, and all who +come there, shall live peaceably. If any one, in breach of the +peace, is guilty of violence, let him be brought to a hearing at +our palace, by the authority of the king and by the order of our +<i>missus</i>, as it was ordained by the capitularies of our predecessors, +that he may be punished according to a legal judgment and may +pay a triple composition with the royal ban.<a name="FNanchor_240" id="FNanchor_240" href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a></p> + +<p><b>3.</b> If the offender has no lord, or if he flees from our court, +our <i>missus</i> shall go to find him and shall order him, in our name, +to appear at the palace.<a name="FNanchor_241" id="FNanchor_241" href="#Footnote_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a> If he should be so rash as to disdain to +come, let him be brought by force. If he spurns both us and our +<i>missus</i>, and while refusing to obey summons is killed in resisting, +and any of his relatives or friends undertake to exercise against +our agents who have killed him the right of vengeance,<a name="FNanchor_242" id="FNanchor_242" href="#Footnote_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a> we will +oppose them there and will give our agents all the aid of our royal +authority.</p> + +<p><b>5.</b> The bishop of the diocese in which the crime shall have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">176</a></span> +been committed ought, through the priest of the place, to give +three successive invitations to the offender to repent and to +<span class="sidebar">The bishop's +part in repressing +crime</span> +make reparation for his fault in order to set +himself right with God and the church that he +has injured. If he scorns and rejects this summons +and invitation, let the bishop wield upon him the pastoral +rod, that is to say, the sentence of excommunication; and let +him separate him from the communion of the Holy Church until +he shall have given the satisfaction that is required.</p> + +<p><b>9.</b> In order that violence be entirely brought to an end and +order restored, it is necessary that the bishop's authority should +<span class="sidebar">Obligations of +lay officials +to restrain +violence</span> +be supplemented by that of the public officials. +Therefore we and our faithful have judged it +expedient that the <i>missi dominici</i> should discharge +faithfully the duties of their office.<a name="FNanchor_243" id="FNanchor_243" href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> The count shall enjoin to +the viscount,<a name="FNanchor_244" id="FNanchor_244" href="#Footnote_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> to his <i>vicarii</i> and <i>centenarii</i>,<a name="FNanchor_245" id="FNanchor_245" href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a> and to all the public +officials, as well as to all Franks who have a knowledge of the +law, that all should give as much aid as they can to the Church, +both on their own account and in accord with the requests of +the clergy, every time they shall be called upon by the bishop, the +officers of the bishop, or even by the needy. They should do this +for the love of God, the peace of the Holy Church, and the fidelity +that they owe to us.</p> + +<h4>29. The Election of Hugh Capet (987).</h4> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">177</a></span></p> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The election of Hugh Capet as king of France in 987 marked the +establishment of the so-called Capetian line of monarchs, which occupied +the French throne in all not far from eight centuries—a record +not equaled by any other royal house in European history. The circumstances +of the election were interesting and significant. For more +than a hundred years there had been keen rivalry between the Carolingian +kings and one of the great ducal houses of the Franks, known as +the Robertians. In the disorder which so generally prevailed in France +in the ninth and tenth centuries, powerful families possessing extensive +lands and having large numbers of vassals and serfs were able to make +themselves practically independent of the royal power. The greatest of +these families was the Robertians, the descendants of Robert the Strong, +father of the Odo who distinguished himself at the siege of Paris in +885-886 [see <a href="#Page_170">p. 170</a>]. Between 888 and 987 circumstances brought it +about three different times that members of the Robertian house were +elevated to the Frankish throne (Odo, 888-898; Robert I., 922-923; +and Rudolph—related to the Robertians by marriage only,—923-936). +The rest of the time the throne was occupied by Carolingians (Charles +the Simple, 898-922; Louis IV., 936-954; Lothair, 954-986; and Louis V., +986-987). With the death of the young king Louis V., in 987, the +last direct descendant of Charlemagne passed away and the question +of the succession was left for solution by the nobles and higher +clergy of the realm. As soon as the king was dead, such of these magnates +as were assembled at the court to attend the funeral bound +themselves by oath to take no action until a general meeting could +be held at Senlis (a few miles north of Paris) late in May, 987. The +proceedings of this general meeting are related in the passage below. +Apparently it had already been pretty generally agreed that the man +to be elected was Hugh Capet, great-grandson of Robert the Strong +and the present head of the famous Robertian house, and the speech +of Adalbero, archbishop of Rheims, of which Richer gives a resumé, +was enough to ensure this result. There was but one other claimant of +importance. That was the late king's uncle, Charles of Lower Lorraine. +He was not a man of force and Adalbero easily disposed of his candidacy, +though the rejected prince was subsequently able to make his successful +rival a good deal of trouble. Hugh owed his election to his large material +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">178</a></span> +resources, the military prestige of his ancestors, the active support +of the Church, and the lack of direct heirs of the Carolingian dynasty.</p> + +<p>Richer, the chronicler whose account of the election is given below, +was a monk living at Rheims at the time when the events occurred +which he describes. His "Four Books of Histories," discovered only in +1833, is almost our only considerable source of information on Frankish +affairs in the later tenth century. In his writing he endeavored to round +out his work into a real history and to give more than the bare outline +of events characteristic of the mediæval annalists. In this he was +only partially successful, being at fault mainly in indulging in too much +rhetoric and in allowing partisan motives sometimes to guide him in what +he said. His partisanship was on the side of the fallen Carolingians. The +period covered by the "Histories" is 888-995; they are therefore roughly +continuous chronologically with the Annals of Saint Bertin [see <a href="#Page_164">p. 164</a>].</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Richer, <i>Historiarum Libri IV.</i> ["Four Books of Histories"], Bk. IV., +Chaps. 11-12. Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Scriptores</i> +(Pertz ed.), Vol. III., pp. 633-634.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, at the appointed time the magnates of Gaul who +had taken the oath came together at Senlis. When they had all +taken their places in the assembly and the duke<a name="FNanchor_246" id="FNanchor_246" href="#Footnote_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a> had given the +sign, the archbishop<a name="FNanchor_247" id="FNanchor_247" href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a> spoke to them as follows:<a name="FNanchor_248" id="FNanchor_248" href="#Footnote_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a></p> + +<p>"King Louis, of divine memory, having been removed from +the world, and having left no heirs, it devolves upon us to take +<span class="sidebar">Adalbero's +speech at +Senlis</span> +serious counsel as to the choice of a successor, so +that the state may not suffer any injury through +neglect and the lack of a leader. On a former +occasion<a name="FNanchor_249" id="FNanchor_249" href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> we thought it advisable to postpone that deliberation +in order that each of you might be able to come here and, in the +presence of the assembly, voice the sentiment which God should +have inspired in you, and that from all these different expressions +of opinion we might be able to find out what is the general will.</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">179</a></span></p> + +<p>"Here we are assembled. Let us see to it, by our prudence +and honor, that hatred shall not destroy reason, that love shall +<span class="sidebar">Election, not +heredity, the +true basis of +Frankish kingship</span> +not interfere with truth. We are aware that +Charles<a name="FNanchor_250" id="FNanchor_250" href="#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> has his partisans, who claim that the +throne belongs to him by right of birth. But if +we look into the matter, the throne is not acquired +by hereditary right, and no one ought to be placed at the +head of the kingdom unless he is distinguished, not only by nobility +of body, but also by strength of mind—only such a one as +honor and generosity recommend.<a name="FNanchor_251" id="FNanchor_251" href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a> We read in the annals of +rulers of illustrious descent who were deposed on account of +their unworthiness and replaced by others of the same, or even +lesser, rank.<a name="FNanchor_252" id="FNanchor_252" href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a></p> + +<p>"What dignity shall we gain by making Charles king? He is +not guided by honor, nor is he possessed of strength. Then, too, +he has compromised himself so far as to have become the dependent +of a foreign king<a name="FNanchor_253" id="FNanchor_253" href="#Footnote_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> and to have married a girl taken from +among his own vassals. How could the great duke endure that +a woman of the low rank of vassal should become queen and +<span class="sidebar">Objections +to Charles +of Lorraine</span> +rule over him? How could he tender services +to this woman, when his equals, and even his +superiors, in birth bend the knee before him and +place their hands under his feet? Think of this seriously and +you will see that Charles must be rejected for his own faults +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">180</a></span> +rather than on account of any wrong done by others. Make a +decision, therefore, for the welfare rather than for the injury of +the state. If you wish ill to your country, choose Charles to be +king; if you have regard for its prosperity, choose Hugh, the +illustrious duke.... Elect, then, the duke, a man who is +<span class="sidebar">Election of +Hugh Capet +urged</span> +recommended by his conduct, by his nobility, +and by his military following. In him you will +find a defender, not only of the state, but also of +your private interests. His large-heartedness will make him a +father to you all. Who has ever fled to him for protection without +receiving it? Who that has been deserted by his friends has +he ever failed to restore to his rights?"</p> + +<p>This speech was applauded and concurred in by all, and by +unanimous consent the duke was raised to the throne. He was +<span class="sidebar">The beginning +of his reign</span> +crowned at Noyon<a name="FNanchor_254" id="FNanchor_254" href="#Footnote_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a> on the first of June<a name="FNanchor_255" id="FNanchor_255" href="#Footnote_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a> by the +archbishop and the other bishops as king of the +Gauls, the Bretons, the Normans, the Aquitanians, the Goths, +the Spaniards and the Gascons.<a name="FNanchor_256" id="FNanchor_256" href="#Footnote_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a> Surrounded by the nobles of +the king, he issued decrees and made laws according to royal +custom, judging and disposing of all matters with success.</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">181</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XI.<br /> +ALFRED THE GREAT IN WAR AND IN PEACE</h3> + +<h4>30. The Danes in England</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The earliest recorded visit of the Danes, or Northmen, to England +somewhat antedates the appearance of these peoples on the Frankish +coast in the year 800. In 787 three Danish vessels came to shore at +Warham in Dorset and their sailors slew the unfortunate reeve who +mistook them for ordinary foreign merchants and tried to collect +port dues from them. Thereafter the British coasts were never free +for many years at a time from the depredations of the marauders. +In 793 the famous church at Lindisfarne, in Northumberland, was +plundered; in 795 the Irish coasts began to suffer; in 833 a fleet of +twenty-five vessels appeared at the mouth of the Thames; in 834 twelve +hundred pillagers landed in Dorset; in 842 London and Rochester +were sacked and their population scattered; in 850 a fleet of 350 ships +carrying perhaps ten or twelve thousand men, wintered at the mouth +of the Thames and in the spring caused London again to suffer; and +from then on until the accession of King Alfred, in 871, destructive +raids followed one another with distressing frequency.</p> + +<p>The account of the Danish invasions given below is taken from +a biography of King Alfred commonly attributed to Asser, a monk of +Welsh origin connected with the monastery of St. David (later bishop +of Sherborne) and a close friend and adviser of the great king. It gives +us some idea of the way in which Alfred led his people through the +darkest days in their history, and of the settlement known as the +"Peace of Alfred and Guthrum" by which the Danish leader became +a Christian and the way was prepared for the later division of the English +country between the two contending peoples. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">182</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Johannes Menevensis Asserius, <i>De rebus gestis Ælfredi Magni</i> +[Asser, "The Deeds of Alfred the Great"], Chaps. 42-55 <i>passim</i>. +Adapted from translation by J. A. Giles in <i>Six Old English +Chronicles</i> (London, 1866), pp. 56-63.</p> + +<p>In the year 871 Alfred, who up to that time had been of only +secondary rank, while his brothers were alive, by God's permission, +undertook the government of the whole kingdom, welcomed +by all the people. Indeed, if he had cared to, he might have done +so earlier, even while his brother was still alive;<a name="FNanchor_257" id="FNanchor_257" href="#Footnote_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> for in wisdom +<span class="sidebar">Alfred becomes +king +(871)</span> +and other qualities he excelled all of his brothers, +and, moreover, he was courageous and victorious +in all his wars. He became king almost against +his will, for he did not think that he could alone withstand the +numbers and the fierceness of the pagans, though even during +the lifetime of his brothers he had carried burdens enough for +many men. And when he had ruled one month, with a small +band of followers and on very unequal terms, he fought a battle +with the entire army of the pagans. This was at a hill called +Wilton, on the south bank of the River Wily, from which river +the whole of that district is named.<a name="FNanchor_258" id="FNanchor_258" href="#Footnote_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a> And after a long and fierce +engagement the pagans, seeing the danger they were in, and +no longer able to meet the attacks of their enemies, turned their +backs and fled. But, oh, shame to say, they deceived the English, +who pursued them too boldly, and, turning swiftly about, gained +the victory. Let no one be surprised to learn that the Christians +had only a small number of men, for the Saxons had been +worn out by eight battles with the pagans in one year. In +these they had slain one king, nine dukes, and innumerable +troops of soldiers. There had also been numberless skirmishes, +<span class="sidebar">The struggle +with the Danes</span> +both by day and by night, in which Alfred, with +his ministers and chieftains and their men, were +engaged without rest or relief against the pagans. How many +thousands of pagans fell in these skirmishes God only knows, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">183</a></span> +over and above the numbers slain in the eight battles before mentioned. +In the same year the Saxons made peace with the invaders, +on condition that they should take their departure, and +they did so.</p> + +<p>In the year 877 the pagans, on the approach of autumn, +partly settled in Exeter<a name="FNanchor_259" id="FNanchor_259" href="#Footnote_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a> and partly marched for plunder into +Mercia.<a name="FNanchor_260" id="FNanchor_260" href="#Footnote_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a> The number of that disorderly horde increased every +day, so that, if thirty thousand of them were slain in one battle, +others took their places to double the number. Then King Alfred +commanded boats and galleys, i.e., long ships, to be built +throughout the kingdom, in order to offer battle by sea to +the enemy as they were coming.<a name="FNanchor_261" id="FNanchor_261" href="#Footnote_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a> On board these he placed +<span class="sidebar">Alfred's plan +to meet the +pagans on the +sea</span> + +sailors, whom he commanded to keep watch on +the seas. Meanwhile he went himself to Exeter, +where the pagans were wintering and, having +shut them up within the walls, laid siege to the town. He also +gave orders to his sailors to prevent the enemy from obtaining +any supplies by sea. In a short time the sailors were encountered +by a fleet of a hundred and twenty ships full of armed soldiers, +who were on their way to the relief of their countrymen. As soon +as the king's men knew that the ships were manned by pagan +soldiers they leaped to their arms and bravely attacked those +barbaric tribes. The pagans, who had now for almost a month +been tossed and almost wrecked among the waves of the sea, +fought vainly against them. Their bands were thrown into +confusion in a very short time, and all were sunk and drowned +in the sea, at a place called Swanwich.<a name="FNanchor_262" id="FNanchor_262" href="#Footnote_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">184</a></span></p> + +<p>In 878, which was the thirtieth year of King Alfred's life, the +pagan army left Exeter and went to Chippenham. This latter +place was a royal residence situated in the west of Wiltshire, on +the eastern bank of the river which the Britons called the Avon. +They spent the winter there and drove many of the inhabitants +of the surrounding country beyond the sea by the force of their +arms, and by the want of the necessities of life. They reduced +almost entirely to subjection all the people of that country.</p> + +<p>The same year, after Easter, King Alfred, with a few followers, +made for himself a stronghold in a place called Athelney,<a name="FNanchor_263" id="FNanchor_263" href="#Footnote_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a> and +<span class="sidebar">Alfred in +refuge at +Athelney</span> +from thence sallied, with his companions and the +nobles of Somersetshire, to make frequent assaults +upon the pagans. Also, in the seventh week +after Easter, he rode to Egbert's stone, which is in the eastern +part of the wood that is called Selwood.<a name="FNanchor_264" id="FNanchor_264" href="#Footnote_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a> Here he was met +by all the folk of Somersetshire and Wiltshire and Hampshire, +who had not fled beyond the sea for fear of the pagans; and +when they saw the king alive after such great tribulation they +received him, as he deserved, with shouts of joy, and encamped +there for one night. At dawn on the following day the king broke +camp and went to Okely, where he encamped for one night. +The next morning he moved to Ethandune<a name="FNanchor_265" id="FNanchor_265" href="#Footnote_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a> and there fought +bravely and persistently against the whole army of the pagans. +<span class="sidebar">The battle of +Ethandune and +the establishment +of peace +(878)</span> +By the help of God he defeated them with great +slaughter and pursued them flying to their fortification. +He at once slew all the men and carried +off all the booty that he could find outside the +fortress, which he immediately laid siege to with his entire army. +And when he had been there fourteen days the pagans, driven +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">185</a></span> +by famine, cold, fear, and finally by despair, asked for peace on +the condition that they should give the king as many hostages +as he should ask, but should receive none from him in return. +Never before had they made a treaty with any one on such terms. +The king, hearing this, took pity upon them and received such +hostages as he chose. Then the pagans swore that they would +immediately leave the kingdom, and their king, Guthrum, +promised to embrace Christianity and receive baptism at Alfred's +hands. All of these pledges he and his men fulfilled as they had +promised.<a name="FNanchor_266" id="FNanchor_266" href="#Footnote_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a></p> + +<h4>31. Alfred's Interest in Education</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>As an epoch of literary and educational advancement the reign of +Alfred in England (871-901) was in many respects like that of Charlemagne +among the Franks (768-814). Like Charlemagne, Alfred grew +up with very slight education, at least of a literary sort; but both sovereigns +were strongly dissatisfied with their ignorance, and both made +earnest efforts to overcome their own defects and at the same time +to raise the standard of intelligence among their people at large. When +one considers how crowded were the reigns of both with wars and the +pressing business of administration, such devotion to the interests of +learning appears the more deserving of praise.</p> + +<p>In the first passage below, taken from Asser's life of Alfred, the +anxiety of the king for the promotion of his own education and that +of his children is clearly and strongly stated. We find him following +Charlemagne's plan of bringing scholars from foreign countries. He +brought them, too, from parts of Britain not under his direct control, +and used them at the court, or in bishoprics, to perform the work of +instruction. Curiously enough, whereas Charlemagne had found the +chief of his Palace School, Alcuin, in England, Alfred was glad to +secure the services of two men (Grimbald and John) who had made +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">186</a></span> +their reputations in monasteries situated within the bounds of the old +Frankish empire.</p> + +<p>Aside from some native songs and epic poems, all the literature +known to the Saxon people was in Latin, and but few persons in the +kingdom knew Latin well enough to read it. The king himself did not, +until about 887. It was supposed, of course, that the clergy were +able to use the Latin Bible and the Latin ritual of the Church, but +when Alfred came to investigate he found that even these men were +often pretty nearly as ignorant as the people they were charged to +instruct. What the king did, then, was to urge more study on the part +of the clergy, under the direction of such men as Plegmund, Asser, Grimbald, +John, and Werfrith. The people in general could not be expected +to master a foreign language; hence, in order that they might +not be shut off entirely from the first-hand use of books, Alfred undertook +the translation of certain standard works from the Latin into the +Saxon. Those thus translated were Boethius's <i>Consolations of Philosophy</i>, +Orosius's <i>Universal History of the World</i>, Bede's <i>Ecclesiastical +History of England</i>, and Pope Gregory the Great's <i>Pastoral Rule</i>. The +second passage given below is Alfred's preface to his Saxon edition of +the last-named book, taking the form of a letter to the scholarly +Bishop Werfrith of Worcester. The <i>Pastoral Rule</i> [see <a href="#Page_90">p. 90</a>] was +written by Pope Gregory the Great (590-604) as a body of instructions +in doctrine and conduct for the clergy. Alfred's preface, as a +picture of the ruin wrought by the long series of Danish wars, is of +the utmost importance in the study of ninth and tenth century England, +as well as a most interesting revelation of the character of the +great king.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Sources—(a) Asser, <i>De rebus gestis Ælfredi Magni</i>, Chaps. 75-78. Adapted +from translation by J. A. Giles in <i>Six Old English Chronicles</i> +(London, 1866), pp. 68-70.</p> + +<p class="source_add">(b) King Alfred's West-Saxon Version of Pope Gregory's <i>Pastoral +Rule</i>. Edited by Henry Sweet in the Publications of the +Early English Text Society (London, 1871), p. 2.</p> + +<p class="center">(a)</p> + +<p>Ethelwerd, the youngest [of Alfred's children],<a name="FNanchor_267" id="FNanchor_267" href="#Footnote_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a> by the divine +counsels and the admirable prudence of the king, was consigned +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">187</a></span> +to the schools of learning, where, with the children of almost all +the nobility of the country, and many also who were not noble, +he prospered under the diligent care of his teachers. Books in +both languages, namely, Latin and Saxon, were read in the school.<a name="FNanchor_268" id="FNanchor_268" href="#Footnote_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> +<span class="sidebar">The education +of Alfred's +children</span> +They also learned to write, so that before they +were of an age to practice manly arts, namely, +hunting and such pursuits as befit noblemen, +they became studious and clever in the liberal arts. Edward<a name="FNanchor_269" id="FNanchor_269" href="#Footnote_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a> +and Ælfthryth<a name="FNanchor_270" id="FNanchor_270" href="#Footnote_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a> were reared in the king's court and received +great attention from their attendants and nurses; nay, they continue +to this day with the love of all about them, and showing +friendliness, and even gentleness, towards all, both natives and +foreigners, and in complete subjection to their father. Nor, +among their other studies which pertain to this life and are fit +for noble youths, are they suffered to pass their time idly and +unprofitably without learning the liberal arts; for they have +carefully learned the Psalms and Saxon books, especially the +Saxon poems, and are continually in the habit of making use of +books.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the king, during the frequent wars and other +hindrances of this present life, the invasions of the pagans, and +<span class="sidebar">The varied activities +of the +king</span> +his own infirmities of body, continued to carry +on the government, and to practice hunting in +all its branches; to teach his workers in gold and +artificers of all kinds, his falconers, hawkers and dog-keepers; to +build houses, majestic and splendid, beyond all the precedents of +his ancestors, by his new mechanical inventions; to recite the +Saxon books, and especially to learn by heart the Saxon poems, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">188</a></span> +and to make others learn them.<a name="FNanchor_271" id="FNanchor_271" href="#Footnote_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> And he alone never desisted +from studying most diligently to the best of his ability. He attended +the Mass and other daily services of religion. He was +<span class="sidebar">His devout +character</span> +diligent in psalm-singing and prayer, at the hours +both of the day and of the night. He also went +to the churches, as we have already said, in the night-time to +pray, secretly and unknown to his courtiers. He bestowed alms +and gifts on both natives and foreigners of all countries. He was +affable and pleasant to all, and curiously eager to investigate +things unknown. Many Franks, Frisians, Gauls, pagans, Britons, +Scots, and Armoricans,<a name="FNanchor_272" id="FNanchor_272" href="#Footnote_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a> noble and low-born, came voluntarily +to his domain; and all of them, according to their nation and +deserving, were ruled, loved, honored and enriched with money +and power.<a name="FNanchor_273" id="FNanchor_273" href="#Footnote_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> Moreover, the king was in the habit of hearing the +divine Scriptures read by his own countrymen, or, if by any +chance it so happened, in company with foreigners, and he attended +to it with care and solicitude. His bishops, too, and all +ecclesiastics, his earls and nobles, ministers<a name="FNanchor_274" id="FNanchor_274" href="#Footnote_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a> and friends, were +loved by him with wonderful affection, and their sons, who were +reared in the royal household, were no less dear to him than his +own. He had them instructed in all kinds of good morals, and, +among other things, never ceased to teach them letters night and +day.</p> + +<p>But, as if he had no consolation in all these things, and though +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">189</a></span> +he suffered no other annoyance, either from within or without, +he was harassed by daily and nightly affliction, so that he +<span class="sidebar">Regret at his +lack of education</span> +complained to God and to all who were admitted +to his intimate fondness, that Almighty God had +made him ignorant of divine wisdom, and of +the liberal arts—in this emulating the pious, the wise, and +wealthy Solomon, king of the Hebrews, who at first, despising all +present glory and riches, asked wisdom of God and found both, +namely, wisdom and worldly glory; as it is written: "Seek first +the kingdom of God and his righteousness, and all these things +shall be added unto you." But God, who is always the observer +of the thoughts of the mind within and the author of all good +intentions, and a most plentiful helper that good desires may be +formed (for He would not prompt a man to good intentions, unless +He also amply supplied that which the man justly and properly +wishes to have) stimulated the king's mind within: as it is written, +"I will hearken what the Lord God will say concerning me." +He would avail himself of every opportunity to procure co-workers +in his good designs, to aid him in his strivings after wisdom that +he might attain to what he aimed at. And, like a prudent bee, +which, going forth in summer with the early morning from its cell, +steers its rapid flight through the uncertain tracks of ether and +descends on the manifold and varied flowers of grasses, herbs, +and shrubs, discovering that which pleases most, that it may +bear it home, so did he direct his eyes afar and seek without +that which he had not within, that is, in his own kingdom.<a name="FNanchor_275" id="FNanchor_275" href="#Footnote_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a></p> + +<p>But God at that time, as some relief to the king's anxiety, +yielding to his complaint, sent certain lights to +<span class="sidebar">Learned men +from Mercia +brought to the +English court</span> +illuminate him, namely, Werfrith, bishop of the +church of Worcester, a man well versed in divine +Scripture, who, by the king's command, first turned the books +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">190</a></span> +of the Dialogues of Pope Gregory and Peter, his disciple, from +Latin into Saxon, and sometimes putting sense for sense, interpreted +them with clearness and elegance. After him was Plegmund,<a name="FNanchor_276" id="FNanchor_276" href="#Footnote_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a> +a Mercian by birth, archbishop of the church of Canterbury, +a venerable man, and endowed with wisdom; Ethelstan +also,<a name="FNanchor_277" id="FNanchor_277" href="#Footnote_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a> and Werwulf,<a name="FNanchor_278" id="FNanchor_278" href="#Footnote_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a> his priests and chaplains,<a name="FNanchor_279" id="FNanchor_279" href="#Footnote_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a> Mercians by birth +and learned. These four had been invited from Mercia by King +Alfred, who exalted them with many honors and powers in the +kingdom of the West Saxons, besides the privileges which Archbishop +Plegmund and Bishop Werfrith enjoyed in Mercia. By +their teaching and wisdom the king's desires increased unceasingly, +and were gratified. Night and day, whenever he had +leisure, he commanded such men as these to read books to him, +for he never suffered himself to be without one of them; wherefore +he possessed a knowledge of every book, though of himself he +could not yet understand anything of books, for he had not yet +learned to read anything.<a name="FNanchor_280" id="FNanchor_280" href="#Footnote_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a></p> + +<p>But the king's commendable desire could not be gratified even +<span class="sidebar">Grimbald and +John brought +from the continent</span> +in this; wherefore he sent messengers beyond the +sea to Gaul, to procure teachers, and he invited +from thence Grimbald,<a name="FNanchor_281" id="FNanchor_281" href="#Footnote_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a> priest and monk, a venerable +man and good singer, adorned with every kind of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">191</a></span> +ecclesiastical training and good morals, and most learned in +holy Scripture. He also obtained from thence John,<a name="FNanchor_282" id="FNanchor_282" href="#Footnote_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> also priest +and monk, a man of most energetic talents, and learned in all +kinds of literary science, and skilled in many other arts. By +the teaching of these men the king's mind was much enlarged, +and he enriched and honored them with much influence.</p> + +<p class="center">(b)</p> + +<p>King Alfred greets Bishop Werfrith with loving words and with +friendship.</p> + +<p>I let it be known to thee that it has very often come into my +mind what wise men there formerly were throughout England, +<span class="sidebar">Alfred writes +to Bishop Werfrith +on the +state of learning +in England</span> +both within the Church and without it; also what +happy times there were then and how the kings +who had power over the nation in those days +obeyed God and His ministers; how they cherished +peace, morality, and order at home, and at the same time enlarged +their territory abroad; and how they prospered both in +war and in wisdom. Often have I thought, also, of the sacred +orders, how zealous they were both in teaching and learning, +and in all the services they owed to God; and how foreigners +came to this land in search of wisdom and instruction, which +things we should now have to get from abroad if we were to have +them at all.</p> + +<p>So general became the decay of learning in England that there +were very few on this side of the Humber<a name="FNanchor_283" id="FNanchor_283" href="#Footnote_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a> who could understand +the rituals<a name="FNanchor_284" id="FNanchor_284" href="#Footnote_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a> in English, or translate a letter from Latin into +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">192</a></span> +English; and I believe that there were not many beyond the +Humber who could do these things. There were so few, in fact, +that I cannot remember a single person south of the Thames +when I came to the throne. Thanks be to Almighty God that we +now have some teachers among us. And therefore I enjoin thee +to free thyself, as I believe thou art ready to do, from worldly +matters, that thou mayst apply the wisdom which God has given +thee wherever thou canst. Consider what punishments would +come upon us if we neither loved wisdom ourselves nor allowed +other men to obtain it. We should then care for the name only +of Christian, and have regard for very few of the Christian +virtues.</p> + +<p>When I thought of all this I remembered also how I saw the +country before it had been all ravaged and burned; how the +churches throughout the whole of England stood filled with +treasures and books. There was also a great multitude of God's +servants, but they had very little knowledge of books, for they +could not understand anything in them because they were not +written in their own language.<a name="FNanchor_285" id="FNanchor_285" href="#Footnote_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a> When I remembered all this I +<span class="sidebar">Learning in +the days before +the Danish +invasions</span> +wondered extremely that the good and wise men +who were formerly all over England and had +learned perfectly all the books, did not wish to +translate them into their own language. But again I soon +answered myself and said: "Their own desire for learning was +so great that they did not suppose that men would ever become +so indifferent and that learning would ever so decay; and they +wished, moreover, that wisdom in this land might increase with +our knowledge of languages." Then I remembered how the +law was first known in Hebrew and when the Greeks had learned +it how they translated the whole of it into their own tongue,<a name="FNanchor_286" id="FNanchor_286" href="#Footnote_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a> and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">193</a></span> +all other books besides. And again the Romans, when they had +learned it, translated the whole of it into their own language.<a name="FNanchor_287" id="FNanchor_287" href="#Footnote_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a> +And also all other Christian nations translated a part of it into +their languages.</p> + +<p>Therefore it seems better to me, if you agree, for us also to +translate some of the books which are most needful for all men +<span class="sidebar">Plan to translate +Latin +books into +English</span> +to know into the language which we can all +understand. It shall be your duty to see to it, +as can easily be done if we have tranquility +enough,<a name="FNanchor_288" id="FNanchor_288" href="#Footnote_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a> that all the free-born youth now in England, who are +rich enough to be able to devote themselves to it, be set to learn +as long as they are not fit for any other occupation, until they are +well able to read English writing. And let those afterwards be +taught more in the Latin language who are to continue learning +and be promoted to a higher rank.</p> + +<p>When I remembered how the knowledge of Latin had decayed +through England, and yet that many could read English writing, +I began, among other various and manifold troubles of this +kingdom, to translate into English the book which is called in +<span class="sidebar">The translation +of Pope +Gregory's Pastoral +Care</span> +Latin <i>Pastoralis</i>, and in English <i>The Shepherd's +Book</i>, sometimes word for word, and sometimes +according to the sense, as I had learned it from +Plegmund, my archbishop, and Asser, my bishop, and Grimbald, +my mass-priest, and John, my mass-priest. And when I had +learned it, as I could best understand it and most clearly interpret +it, I translated it into English.</p> + +<p>I will send a copy of this book to every bishopric in my kingdom, +and on each copy there shall be a clasp worth fifty mancuses.<a name="FNanchor_289" id="FNanchor_289" href="#Footnote_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a> +And I command in God's name that no man take the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">194</a></span> +clasp from the book, or the book from the minster.<a name="FNanchor_290" id="FNanchor_290" href="#Footnote_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a> It is uncertain +how long there may be such learned bishops as, thanks be +to God, there now are almost everywhere; therefore, I wish these +copies always to remain in their places, unless the bishop desires +to take them with him, or they be loaned out anywhere, or any +one wishes to make a copy of them.</p> + +<h4>32. Alfred's Laws</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>Here are a few characteristic laws included by Alfred in the code +which he drew up on the basis of old customs and the laws of some of +the earlier Saxon kings. On the nature of the law of the early Germanic +peoples, see <a href="#Page_59">p. 59</a>.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in Benjamin Thorpe, <i>The Ancient Laws and Institutes of +England</i> (London, 1840), pp. 20-44 <i>passim</i>.</p> + +<p>If any one smite his neighbor with a stone, or with his fist, and +he nevertheless can go out with a staff, let him get him a physician +and do his work as long as he himself cannot.</p> + +<p>If an ox gore a man or a woman, so that they die, let it be +stoned, and let not its flesh be eaten. The owner shall not be +liable if the ox were wont to push with its horns for two or three +days before, and he knew it not; but if he knew it, and would not +shut it in, and it then shall have slain a man or a woman, let it +be stoned; and let the master be slain, or the person killed be +paid for, as the "witan"<a name="FNanchor_291" id="FNanchor_291" href="#Footnote_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a> shall decree to be right.</p> + +<p>Injure ye not the widows and the stepchildren, nor hurt them +anywhere; for if ye do otherwise they will cry unto me and I will +hear them, and I will slay you with my sword; and I will cause +that your own wives shall be widows, and your children shall be +stepchildren.</p> + +<p>If a man strike out another's eye, let him pay sixty shillings, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">195</a></span> +and six shillings, and six pennies, and a third part of a penny, as +'bot.'<a name="FNanchor_292" id="FNanchor_292" href="#Footnote_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a> If it remain in the head, and he cannot see anything +with it, let one-third of the 'bot' be remitted.</p> + +<p>If a man strike out another's tooth in the front of his head, +<span class="sidebar">Penalties for +various crimes +of violence</span> +let him make 'bot' for it with eight shillings; if +it be the canine tooth, let four shillings be paid +as 'bot.' A man's grinder is worth fifteen shillings.</p> + +<p>If the shooting finger be struck off, the 'bot' is fifteen shillings; +for its nail it is four shillings.</p> + +<p>If a man maim another's hand outwardly, let twenty shillings +be paid him as 'bot,' if he can be healed; if it half fly off, then +shall forty shillings be paid as 'bot.'</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">196</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XII.<br /> +THE ORDEAL</h3> + +<h4>33. Tests by Hot Water, Cold Water, and Fire</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>Among the early Germans the settling of disputes and the testing +of the guilt or innocence of an accused person were generally accomplished +through the employment of one or both of two very interesting +judicial practices—compurgation and the ordeal. According to the +German conception of justice, when one person was accused of wrongdoing +by another and chose to defend himself, he was not under obligation +to prove directly that he did not commit the alleged misdeed; +rather it was his business to produce, if he could, a sufficient number +of persons who would take oath that they believed the accused to +be a trustworthy man and that he was telling the truth when he +denied that he was guilty. The persons brought forward to take this +oath were known as compurgators, or "co-swearers," and the legal +act thus performed was called compurgation. The number of compurgators +required to free a man was usually from seven to twelve, +though it varied greatly among different tribes and according to the +rank of the parties involved. Naturally they were likely to be relatives +or friends of the accused man, though it was not essential that they +be such. It was in no wise expected that they be able to give facts or +evidence regarding the case; in other words, they were not to serve at +all as witnesses, such as are called in our courts to-day.</p> + +<p>If the accused succeeded in producing the required number of compurgators, +and they took the oath in a satisfactory manner, the defendant +was usually declared to be innocent and the case was dropped. +If, however, the compurgators were not forthcoming, or there appeared +some irregularity in their part of the procedure, resort would +ordinarily be had to the ordeal. The ordeal was essentially an appeal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">197</a></span> +to the gods for decision between two contending parties. It was based +on the belief that the gods would not permit an innocent person to +suffer by reason of an unjust accusation and that when the opportunity +was offered under certain prescribed conditions the divine power would +indicate who was in the right and who in the wrong. The ordeal, having +its origin far back in the times when the Germans were pagans +and before their settlements in the Roman Empire, was retained in +common usage after the Christianizing and civilizing of the barbarian +tribes. The administering of it simply passed from the old pagan +priests to the Christian clergy, and the appeals were directed to the +Christian's God instead of to Woden and Thor. Under Christian influence, +the wager of battle (or personal combat to settle judicial questions), +which had been exceedingly common, was discouraged as much +as possible, and certain new modes of appeal to divine authority were +introduced. Throughout the earlier Middle Ages the chief forms of +the ordeal were: (1) the ordeal by walking through fire; (2) the ordeal +by hot iron, in which the accused either carried a piece of hot iron a +certain distance in his hands or walked barefoot over pieces of the +same material; (3) the ordeal by hot water, in which the accused was +required to plunge his bared arm into boiling water and bring forth a +stone or other object from the bottom; (4) the ordeal by cold water, +in which the accused was thrown, bound hand and foot, into a pond or +stream, to sink if he were innocent, to float if he were guilty; (5) the +ordeal of the cross, in which the accuser and accused stood with arms +outstretched in the form of a cross until one of them could endure the +strain of the unnatural attitude no longer; (6) the ordeal of the sacrament, +in which the accused partook of the sacrament, the idea being +that divine vengeance would certainly fall upon him in so doing if he +were guilty; (7) the ordeal of the bread and cheese, in which the accused, +made to swallow morsels of bread and cheese, was expected to +choke if he were guilty; and (8) the judicial combat, which was generally +reserved for freemen, and which, despite the opposition of the +Church, did not die out until the end of the mediæval period.</p> + +<p>The three passages quoted below illustrate, respectively, the ordeal +by hot water, by cold water, and by fire. The first (a) is a story told +by the Frankish historian Gregory of Tours [see <a href="#Page_46">p. 46</a>]. The second (b) +is an explanation of the cold water ordeal written by Hincmar, an archbishop +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">198</a></span> +of Rheims in the ninth century. The third (c) is an account, +by Raymond of Agiles, of how Peter Bartholomew was put to the +test by the ordeal of fire. This incident occurred at Antioch during +the first crusade. Peter Bartholomew had just discovered a lance +which he claimed was the one thrust into the side of Christ at the +crucifixion and, some of the crusaders being skeptical as to the genuineness +of the relic, the discoverer was submitted to the ordeal by fire to +test the matter.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Sources—(a) Gregorius Episcopus Turonensis, <i>Libri Miraculorum</i> [Gregory +of Tours, "Books of Miracles"], Chap. 80. Text in <i>Monumenta +Germaniæ Historica, Scriptores Merovingicarum</i>, Vol. I., p. 542. +Translated by Arthur C. Howland in <i>Univ. of Pa. Translations +and Reprints</i>, Vol. IV., No. 4, pp. 10-11.</p> + +<p class="source_add">(b) Hincmari Archiepiscopi Rhemensis, <i>De divortio Lotharii regis +et Tetbergæ reginæ</i> [Hincmar, Archbishop of Rheims, "The Divorce +of King Lothair and Queen Teutberga"], Chap. 6. Text in +Migne, <i>Patroligiæ Cursus Completus</i>, Second Series, Vol. CXXV., +cols. 668-669. Translated by Arthur C. Howland, <i>ibid</i>.</p> + +<p class="source_add">(c) Raimundus de Agiles, <i>Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Jerusalem</i> +[Raimond of Agiles, "History of the Franks who captured +Jerusalem"], Chap. 18. Text in Migne, <i>Patrologiæ Cursus Completus</i>, +Second Series, Vol. CLV., cols. 619-621.</p> + +<p>An Arian presbyter, disputing with a deacon of our religion, +made venomous assertions against the Son of God and the Holy +Ghost, as is the habit of that sect.<a name="FNanchor_293" id="FNanchor_293" href="#Footnote_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a> But when the deacon had +discoursed a long time concerning the reasonableness of our faith, +and the heretic, blinded by the fog of unbelief, continued to reject +the truth (according as it is written, "Wisdom shall not enter +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span> +the mind of the wicked") the former said: "Why weary ourselves +<span class="sidebar">A challenge to +the ordeal by +hot water</span> +with long discussions? Let acts demonstrate the truth. +Let a kettle be heated over the fire and some one's +ring be thrown into the boiling water. Let him +who shall take it from the heated liquid be approved +as a follower of the truth, and afterwards let the other +party be converted to the knowledge of this truth. And do thou +understand, O heretic, that this our party will fulfill the conditions +with the aid of the Holy Ghost; thou shalt confess that there +is no inequality, no dissimilarity, in the Holy Trinity." The +heretic consented to the proposition and they separated, after +appointing the next morning for the trial. But the fervor of +faith in which the deacon had first made this suggestion began +to cool through the instigation of the enemy [i.e., Satan]. Rising +with the dawn, he bathed his arm in oil and smeared it with +ointment. But nevertheless he made the round of the sacred +places and called in prayer on the Lord. What more shall I say? +About the third hour they met in the market place. The people +came together to see the show. A fire was lighted, the kettle was +<span class="sidebar">Preparations +for the ordeal</span> + +placed upon it, and when it grew very hot the +ring was thrown into the boiling water. The +deacon invited the heretic to take it out of the water first. But +he promptly refused, saying, "Thou who didst propose this trial +art the one to take it out." The deacon, all of a tremble, bared +his arm. And when the heretic presbyter saw it besmeared with +ointment he cried out: "With magic arts thou hast thought to +protect thyself, that thou hast made use of these salves, but what +thou hast done will not avail." While they were thus quarreling, +there came up a deacon from Ravenna named Iacinthus, who +inquired what the trouble was about. When he learned the truth, +he drew his arm out from under his robe at once and plunged his +right hand into the kettle. Now the ring that had been thrown +in was a little thing and very light, so that it was tossed about +by the water as chaff would be blown about by the wind; and, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">200</a></span> +searching for it a long time, he found it after about an hour. +Meanwhile the flame beneath the kettle blazed up mightily, so +that the greater heat might make it difficult for the ring to be +followed by the hand; but the deacon extracted it at length and +<span class="sidebar">Result of the +ordeal</span> +suffered no harm, protesting rather that at the +bottom the kettle was cold while at the top it was +just pleasantly warm. When the heretic beheld this, he was +greatly confused and audaciously thrust his hand into the kettle +saying, "My faith will aid me." As soon as his hand had been +thrust in, all the flesh was boiled off the bones clear up to the +elbow. And so the dispute ended.</p> + +<p class="center">(b)</p> + +<p>Now the one about to be examined is bound by a rope and cast +into the water because, as it is written, "each one shall be holden +with the cords of his iniquity." And it is manifest that he is bound +for two reasons, namely, that he may not be able to practice any +fraud in connection with the judgment, and that he may be drawn +out at the right time if the water should receive him as innocent, +so that he perish not. For as we read that Lazarus, who had been +dead four days (by whom is signified each one buried under a +load of crimes), was buried wrapped in bandages and, bound by +the same bands, came forth from the sepulchre at the word of +<span class="sidebar">How the ordeal +of cold +water is to be +conducted</span> +the Lord and was loosed by the disciples at His +command; so he who is to be examined by this +judgment is cast into the water bound, and is +drawn forth again bound, and is either immediately set free by +the decree of the judges, being purged, or remains bound until +the time of his purgation and is then examined by the court.... +And in this ordeal of cold water whoever, after the invocation +of God, who is the Truth, seeks to hide the truth by a +lie, cannot be submerged in the waters above which the voice of +the Lord God has thundered; for the pure nature of the water +recognizes as impure, and therefore rejects as inconsistent with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">201</a></span> +itself, such human nature as has once been regenerated by the +waters of baptism and is again infected by falsehood.</p> + +<p class="center">(c)</p> + +<p>All these things were pleasing to us and, having enjoined on +him a fast, we declared that a fire should be prepared upon the +day on which the Lord was beaten with stripes and put upon +the cross for our salvation. And the fourth day thereafter was +the day before the Sabbath. So when the appointed day came +round, a fire was prepared after the noon hour. The leaders and +the people to the number of 60,000 came together. The priests +<span class="sidebar">Preparations +for the ordeal +by fire</span> +were there also with bare feet, clothed in ecclesiastical +garments. The fire was made of dry +olive branches, covering a space thirteen feet +long; and there were two piles, with a space about a foot wide +between them. The height of these piles was four feet. Now +when the fire had been kindled so that it burned fiercely, I, Raimond, +in the presence of the whole multitude, said: "If Omnipotent +God has spoken to this man face to face, and the blessed Andrew +has shown him our Lord's lance while he was keeping his +vigil,<a name="FNanchor_294" id="FNanchor_294" href="#Footnote_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a> let him go through the fire unharmed. But if it is false, +let him be burned, together with the lance, which he is to carry +in his hand." And all responded on bended knees, "Amen."</p> + +<p>The fire was growing so hot that the flames shot up thirty +cubits high into the air and scarcely any one dared approach +<span class="sidebar">Peter Bartholomew +passes +through the +flames</span> +it. Then Peter Bartholomew, clothed only in +his tunic and kneeling before the bishop of Albar,<a name="FNanchor_295" id="FNanchor_295" href="#Footnote_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a> +called God to witness that "he had seen Him +face to face on the cross, and that he had heard from Him those +things above written."... Then, when the bishop had +placed the lance in his hand, he knelt and made the sign of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">202</a></span> +the cross and entered the fire with the lance, firm and unterrified. +For an instant's time he paused in the midst of the flames, +and then by the grace of God passed through.... But +when Peter emerged from the fire so that neither his tunic was +burned nor even the thin cloth with which the lance was wrapped +up had shown any sign of damage, the whole people received him, +after he had made over them the sign of the cross with the lance +in his hand and had cried, "God help us!" All the people, I +say, threw themselves upon him and dragged him to the ground +and trampled on him, each one wishing to touch him, or to get a +piece of his garment, and each thinking him near some one else. +And so he received three or four wounds in the legs where the +flesh was torn away, his back was injured, and his sides bruised. +Peter had died on the spot, as we believe, had not Raimond Pelet, +a brave and noble soldier, broken through the wild crowd with a +band of friends and rescued him at the peril of their lives.... +After this, Peter died in peace at the hour appointed to him by +God, and journeyed to the Lord; and he was buried in the place +where he had carried the lance of the Lord through the fire.<a name="FNanchor_296" id="FNanchor_296" href="#Footnote_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">203</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XIII.<br /> +THE FEUDAL SYSTEM</h3> + +<h4>34. Older Institutions Involving Elements of Feudalism</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The history of the feudal system in Europe makes up a very large +part of the history of the Middle Ages, particularly of the period between +the ninth and the fourteenth centuries. This is true because +feudalism, in one way or another, touched almost every phase of the +life of western Europe during this long era. More than anything else, +it molded the conditions of government, the character and course of +war, the administration of justice, the tenure of land, the manner of +everyday life, and even the relations of the Church with sovereigns +and people. "Coming into existence," says a French historian, "in +the obscure period that followed the dissolution of the Carolingian +empire, the feudal régime developed slowly, without the intervention +of a government, without the aid of a written law, without any general +understanding among individuals; rather only by a gradual transformation +of customs, which took place sooner or later, but in about the same +way, in France, Italy, Christian Spain, and Germany. Then, toward +the end of the eleventh century, it was transplanted into England and +into southern Italy, in the twelfth and thirteenth into the Latin states +of the East, and beginning with the fourteenth into the Scandinavian +countries. This régime, established thus not according to a general +plan but by a sort of natural growth, never had forms and usages that +were everywhere the same. It is impossible to gather it up into a +perfectly exact picture, which would not be in contradiction to several +cases."<a name="FNanchor_297" id="FNanchor_297" href="#Footnote_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a></p> + +<p>The country in which feudalism reached its fullest perfection was +France and most of the passages here given to illustrate the subject +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">204</a></span> +have to do with French life and institutions. In France, speaking generally, +feudalism took shape during the ninth and tenth centuries, +developed steadily until the thirteenth, and then slowly declined, +leaving influences on society which have not yet all disappeared. When +the system was complete—say by the tenth century—we can see in it +three essential elements which may be described as the personal, the +territorial, and the governmental. The personal element, in brief, was +the relation between lord and vassal under which the former gave +protection in return for the latter's fidelity. The territorial element +was the benefice, or fief, granted to the vassal by the lord to be used +on certain conditions by the former while the title to it remained with +the latter. The governmental element was the rights of jurisdiction +over his fief usually given by a lord to his vassal, especially if the fief +were an important one. At one time it was customary to trace back +all these features of the feudal system to the institutions of Rome. +Later it became almost as customary to trace them to the institutions +of the early Germans. But recent scholarship shows that it is quite +unnecessary, in fact very misleading, to attempt to ascribe them wholly +to either Roman or German sources, or even to both together. All that +we can say is that in the centuries preceding the ninth these elements +all existed in the society of western Europe and that, while something +very like them ran far back into old Roman and German times, they +existed in sixth and seventh century Europe primarily because conditions +were then such as to <i>demand</i> their existence. Short extracts to +illustrate the most important of these old feudal elements are given +below. It should constantly be borne in mind that no one of these +things—whether vassalage, the benefice, or the immunity—was in itself +feudalism. Most of them could, and did, exist separately, and it was +only when they were united, as commonly became the case in the ninth +and tenth centuries, that the word feudalism can properly be brought +into use, and then only as applied to the complete product.</p> + +<p class="center">(1) <span class="smcap">Vassalage</span></p> + +<p>For the personal element in feudalism it is possible to find two prototypes, +one Roman and the other German. The first was the institution +of the later Empire known as the <i>patrocinium</i>—the relation established +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">205</a></span> +between a powerful man (patron) and a weak one (client) when the +latter pledged himself to perform certain services for the former in +return for protection. The second was the German <i>comitatus</i>—a band +of young warriors who lived with a prince or noble and went on campaigns +under his leadership. The <i>patrocinium</i> doubtless survived in +Roman Gaul long after the time of the Frankish invasion, but it is not +likely that the <i>comitatus</i> ever played much part in that country. It +seems that, with the exception of the king, the Frankish men of influence +did not have bands of personal followers after the settlement +on Roman soil. But, wholly aside from earlier practices, the conditions +which the conquest, and the later struggles of the rival kings, +brought about made it still necessary for many men who could not +protect themselves or their property to seek the favor of some one who +was strong enough to give them aid. The name which came to be +applied to the act of establishing this personal relation was <i>commendation</i>. +The man who promised the protection was the lord, and the man +who pledged himself to serve the lord and be faithful to him was the +<i>homo</i>, after the eighth century known as the vassal (<i>vassus</i>). In the +eighth century, when the power of the Merovingian kings was ebbing +away and the people were left to look out for themselves, large numbers +entered into the vassal relation; and in the ninth century, when +Carolingian power was likewise running low and the Northmen, Hungarians, +and Saracens were ravaging the country, scarcely a free man +was left who did not secure for himself the protection of a lord. The +relation of vassalage was first recognized as legal in the capitularies of +Charlemagne. Here is a Frankish formula of commendation dating +from the seventh century—practically a blank application in which the +names of the prospective lord and vassal could be inserted as required.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Eugene de Rozière, <i>Recueil Général des Formules usitées dans l'Empire +des Francs du V<sup>e</sup> au X<sup>e</sup> siècle</i> ["General Collection of Formulae +employed in the Frankish Empire from the Fifth to the Tenth +Century"], Vol. I., p. 69. Translated by Edward P. Cheyney in +<i>Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. IV., No. 3, pp. 3-4.</p> + +<p>To that magnificent lord ——, I, ——. Since it is +well known to all how little I have wherewith to feed and clothe +myself, I have therefore petitioned your piety, and your good-will +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">206</a></span> +has decreed to me, that I should hand myself over, or commend +myself, to your guardianship, which I have thereupon +done; that is to say, in this way, that you should aid and succor +me, as well with food as with clothing, according as I shall be +able to serve you and deserve it.</p> + +<p>And so long as I shall live I ought to provide service and +honor to you, compatible with my free condition;<a name="FNanchor_298" id="FNanchor_298" href="#Footnote_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a> and I shall +not, during the time of my life, have the right to withdraw from +your control or guardianship; but must remain during the days +of my life under your power or defense. Wherefore it is proper +that if either of us shall wish to withdraw himself from these +agreements, he shall pay —— shillings to the other party, +and this agreement shall remain unbroken.<a name="FNanchor_299" id="FNanchor_299" href="#Footnote_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a></p> + +<p>(Wherefore it is fitting that they should make or confirm +between themselves two letters drawn up in the same form on +this matter; which they have thus done.)</p> + +<div class="intro"> +<p class="center">(2) <span class="smcap">The Benefice</span></p> + +<p>The benefice, or grant of land to a vassal by a lord, by the Church, +or by the king, had its origin among the Franks in what were known +as the <i>precaria</i> of the Church. At the time of the Frankish settlement +in Gaul, it was quite customary for the Church to grant land to men in +answer to <i>preces</i> ("prayers," or requests), on condition that it might +be recalled at any time and that the temporary holder should be unable +to enforce any claims as against the owner. For the use of such land a +small rent in money, in produce, or in service was usually paid. This +form of tenure among the Franks was at first restricted to church +lands, but by the eighth century lay owners, even the king himself, had +come to employ it. The term <i>precarium</i> dropped out of use and all such +grants, by whomsoever made, came to be known as benefices ("benefits," +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">207</a></span> +or "favors"). The ordinary vassal might or might not once have +had land in his own name, but if he had such he was expected to give +over the ownership of it to his lord and receive it back as a benefice to +be used on certain prescribed conditions. In time it became common, +too, for lords to grant benefices out of their own lands to landless vassals. +A man could be a vassal without having a benefice, but rarely, +at least after the eighth century, could he have a benefice without entering +into the obligations of vassalage. Benefices were at first granted +by the Church with the understanding that they might be recalled at +any time; later they were granted by Church, kings, and seigniors for +life, or for a certain term of years; and finally, in the ninth and tenth +centuries, they came generally to be regarded as hereditary. By the +time the hereditary principle had been established, the name "fief" +(<i>feodum</i>, <i>feudum</i>—whence our word feudal) had supplanted the older +term "benefice." The tendency of the personal element of vassalage and +the territorial element of the benefice, or fief, to merge was very strong, +and by the tenth century nearly every vassal was also a fief-holder. +The following formulæ belong to the seventh century. The first (a) is +for the grant of lands to a church or monastery; the second (b) for +their return to the grantor as a <i>precarium</i>—or what was known a +century later as a benefice.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Eugène de Rozière, <i>Recueil Général des Formules</i>, Vol. I., p. 473. +Translated by E. P. Cheyney in <i>Univ. of Pa. Translations and +Reprints</i>, Vol. IV., No. 3, pp. 6-8.</p> + +<p class="center">(a)</p> + +<p>I, ——, in the name of God. I have settled in my mind +that I ought, for the good of my soul, to make a gift of something +from my possessions, which I have therefore done. And this +is what I hand over, in the district named ——, in the place +of which the name is ——, all those possessions of mine +which there my father left me at his death, and which, as against +my brothers, or as against my co-heirs, the lot legitimately +brought me in the division,<a name="FNanchor_300" id="FNanchor_300" href="#Footnote_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a> or those which I was able afterward +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">208</a></span> +to add to them in any way, in their whole completeness, that is +<span class="sidebar">Description of +property yielded +to a church +or monastery</span> +to say, the courtyard with its buildings, with slaves, houses, +lands (cultivated and uncultivated), meadows, +woods, waters, mills, etc. These, as I have said +before, with all the things adjacent or belonging +to them, I hand over to the church, which was built in honor +of Saint ——, to the monastery which is called ——, +where the Abbot —— is acknowledged to rule regularly +over God's flock. On these conditions: that so long as life +remains in my body, I shall receive from you as a benefice for +<span class="sidebar">Terms of +the contract</span> +usufruct the possessions above described, and the +due payment I will make to you and your successors +each year, that is —— [amount named]. And my son +shall have the same possessions for the days of his life, and shall +make the above-named payment; and if my children should +survive me, they shall have the same possessions during the days +of their lives and shall make the same payment; and if God shall +give me a son from a legitimate wife, he shall have the same +possessions for the days of his life only, after the death of whom +the same possessions, with all their improvements, shall return +to your hands to be held forever; and if it should be my chance +to beget sons from a legitimate marriage, these shall hold the +same possessions after my death, making the above-named +payment, during the time of their lives. If not, however, after +my death, without subterfuge of any kind, by right of your +authority, the same possessions shall revert to you, to be retained +forever. If any one, however (which I do not believe +will ever occur)—if I myself, or any other person—shall wish +to violate the firmness and validity of this grant, the order of +truth opposing him, may his falsity in no degree succeed; and +<span class="sidebar">Penalty for +faithlessness</span> +for his bold attempt may he pay to the aforesaid +monastery double the amount which his +ill-ordered cupidity has been prevented from abstracting; and +moreover let him be indebted to the royal authority for —— +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">209</a></span> +solidi of gold; and, nevertheless, let the present charter remain +inviolate with all that it contains, with the witnesses placed +below.</p> + +<p>Done in ——, publicly, those who are noted below +being present, or the remaining innumerable multitude of +people.</p> + +<p class="center">(b)</p> + +<p>In the name of God, I, Abbot ——, with our commissioned +brethren. Since it is not unknown how you, ——, +by the suggestion of divine exhortation, did grant to —— +[monastery named], to the church which is known to be constructed +in honor of Saint ——, where we by God's authority +exercise our pastoral care, all your possessions which +you seemed to have in the district named, in the vill [village] +named, which your father on his death bequeathed to you there, +or which by your own labor you were able to gain there, or +which, as against your brother or against ——, a co-heir, +<span class="sidebar">The property +again described</span> +a just division gave you, with courtyard and +buildings, gardens and orchards, with various +slaves, —— by name, houses, lands, meadows, +woods (cultivated and uncultivated), or with all the dependencies +and appurtenances belonging to it, which it would +be extremely long to enumerate, in all their completeness; but +<span class="sidebar">Returned to +the original +owner to be +used by him</span> +afterwards, at your request, it has seemed proper +to us to cede to you the same possessions to be +held for usufruct; and you will not neglect to pay +at annual periods the due <i>census</i> [i.e., the rental] hence, that is +—— [amount named]. And if God should give you a son by +your legal wife, he shall have the same possessions for the days +of his life only, and shall not presume to neglect the above payment, +and similarly your sons which you are seen to have at +present, shall do for the days of their lives; after the death of +whom, all the possessions above-named shall revert to us and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">210</a></span> +our successors perpetually. Moreover, if no sons shall have +been begotten by you, immediately after your death, without +any harmful contention, the possessions shall revert to the rulers +or guardians of the above-named church, forever. Nor may any +one, either ourselves or our successors, be successful in a rash +attempt inordinately to destroy these agreements, but just as +the time has demanded in the present <i>precaria</i>, may that be +sure to endure unchanged which we, with the consent of our +brothers, have decided to confirm.</p> + +<p>Done in ——, in the presence of —— and of others +whom it is not worth while to enumerate. [Seal of the same +abbot who has ordered this <i>precaria</i> to be made.]</p> + +<div class="intro"> +<p class="center">(3) <span class="smcap">The Immunity</span></p> + +<p>The most important element in the governmental phase of feudalism +was what was known as the immunity. In Roman law immunity +meant exemption from taxes and public services and belonged especially +to the lands owned personally by the emperors. Such exemptions +were, however, sometimes allowed to the lands of imperial officers +and of men in certain professions, and in later times to the lands held +by the Church. How closely this Roman immunity was connected +with the feudal immunity of the Middle Ages is not clear. Doubtless +the institution survived in Gaul, especially on church lands, long after +the Frankish conquest. It is best, however, to look upon the typical +Frankish immunity as of essentially independent origin. From the +time of Clovis, the kings were accustomed to make grants of the sort +to land-holding abbots and bishops, and by the time of Charlemagne +nearly all such prelates had been thus favored. But such grants were +not confined to ecclesiastics. Even in the seventh and eighth centuries +lay holders of royal benefices often received the privileges of the immunity +also. Speaking generally, the immunity exempted the lands +to which it applied from the jurisdiction of the local royal officials, +especially of the counts. The lands were supposed to be none the less +ultimately subject to the royal authority, but by the grant of immunity +the sovereign took their financial and judicial administration from the +counts, who would ordinarily have charge, and gave it to the holders of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">211</a></span> +the lands. The counts were forbidden to enter the specified territories to +collect taxes or fines, hold courts, and sometimes even to arrange for +military service. The layman, or the bishop, or the abbot, who held +the lands performed these services and was responsible only to the +crown for them. The king's chief object in granting the immunity was +to reward or win the support of the grantees and to curtail the authority +of his local representatives, who in many cases threatened to become +too powerful for the good of the state; but by every such grant +the sovereign really lost some of his own power, and this practice came +to be in no small measure responsible for the weakness of monarchy in +feudal times.</p> + +<p>The first of the extracts below (a) is a seventh-century formula for +the grant of an immunity by the king to a bishop. The second (b) +is a grant made by Charlemagne, in 779, confirming an old immunity +enjoyed by the monastery at Châlons-sur-Saône.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Sources—(a) Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Legum Sectio V., +Formulæ</i>, Part I., pp. 43-44.</p> + +<p class="source_add">(b) Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges</i> (Pertz ed.), +Vol. II., p. 287. Adapted from translation in Ephraim Emerton, +<i>Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages</i> (new ed., +Boston, 1903), p. 246.</p> + +<p class="center">(a)</p> + +<p>We believe that we give our royal authority its full splendor +if, with benevolent intentions, we bestow upon churches—or +upon any persons—the favors which they merit, and if, with the +aid of God, we give a written assurance of the continuance of +these favors. We wish, then, to make known that at the request +of a prelate, lord of —— [the estate named] and bishop +of —— [the church named], we have accorded to him, for +the sake of our eternal salvation, the following benefits: that in +the domains of the bishop's church, both those which it possesses +<span class="sidebar">A formula for +a grant of immunity</span> +to-day and those which by God's grace it may +later acquire, no public official shall be permitted +to enter, either to hold courts or to exact fines, +on any account; but let these prerogatives be vested in full in +the bishop and his successors. We ordain therefore that neither +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">212</a></span> +you nor your subordinates,<a name="FNanchor_301" id="FNanchor_301" href="#Footnote_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a> nor those who come after you, nor +any person endowed with a public office, shall ever enter the +domains of that church, in whatever part of our kingdom they +may be situated, either to hold trials or to collect fines. All the +taxes and other revenues which the royal treasury has a right to +demand from the people on the lands of the said church, whether +they be freemen or slaves, Romans or barbarians, we now bestow +on the said church for our future salvation, to be used by the +officials of the church forever for the best interests of the church.</p> + +<p class="center">(b)</p> + +<p>Charles, by the grace of God King of the Franks and Lombards +and Patrician of the Romans, to all having charge of our +affairs, both present and to come:</p> + +<p>By the help of the Lord, who has raised us to the throne of +this kingdom, it is the chief duty of our clemency to lend a +gracious ear to the need of all, and especially ought we devoutly +to regard that which we are persuaded has been granted by preceding +kings to church foundations for the saving of souls, and +not to deny fitting benefits, in order that we may deserve to be +partakers of the reward, but to confirm them in still greater +security.</p> + +<p>Now the illustrious Hubert, bishop and ruler of the church of +St. Marcellus, which lies below the citadel of Châlons,<a name="FNanchor_302" id="FNanchor_302" href="#Footnote_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a> where the +<span class="sidebar">The old immunity +enjoyed +by the +monastery at +Châlons</span> +precious martyr of the Lord himself rests in the +body, has brought it to the attention of our +Highness that the kings who preceded us, or +our lord and father of blessed memory, Pepin, the +preceding king, had by their charters granted complete immunities +to that monastery, so that in the towns or on the lands +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">213</a></span> +belonging to it no public judge, nor any one with power of hearing +cases or exacting fines, or raising sureties, or obtaining +lodging or entertainment, or making requisitions of any kind, +should enter.</p> + +<p>Moreover, the aforesaid bishop, Hubert, has presented the +original charters of former kings, together with the confirmations +of them, to be read by us, and declares the same favors to +be preserved to the present day; but desiring the confirmation +of our clemency, he prays that our authority may confirm this +grant anew to the monastery.</p> + +<p>Wherefore, having inspected the said charters of former kings, +we command that neither you, nor your subordinates, nor your +successors, nor any person having judicial powers, shall presume +to enter into the villages which may at the present time be in +possession of that monastery, or which hereafter may have been +bestowed by God-fearing men [or may be about to be so bestowed].<a name="FNanchor_303" id="FNanchor_303" href="#Footnote_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a> +<span class="sidebar"><b>The immunity +confirmed</b></span> +Let no public officer enter for the hearing of cases, +or for exacting fines, or procuring sureties, or +obtaining lodging or entertainment, or making +any requisitions; but in full immunity, even as the favor of former +kings has been continued down to the present day, so in the +future also shall it, through our authority, remain undiminished. +And if in times past, through any negligence of abbots, or luke-warmness +of rulers, or the presumption of public officers, anything +has been changed or taken away, removed or withdrawn, +from these immunities, let it, by our authority and favor, be +restored. And, further, let neither you nor your subordinates +presume to infringe upon or violate what we have granted.</p> + +<p>But if there be any one, <i>dominus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_304" id="FNanchor_304" href="#Footnote_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a> <i>comes</i> [count], <i>domesticus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_305" id="FNanchor_305" href="#Footnote_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a> +<i>vicarius</i>,<a name="FNanchor_306" id="FNanchor_306" href="#Footnote_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a> or one vested with any judicial power whatsoever, by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">214</a></span> +the indulgence of the good or by the favor of pious Christians or +kings, who shall have presumed to infringe upon or violate these +<span class="sidebar">Penalties for +its violation</span> +immunities, let him be punished with a fine of six +hundred <i>solidi</i>,<a name="FNanchor_307" id="FNanchor_307" href="#Footnote_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a> two parts to go to the library of +this monastery, and the third part to be paid into our treasury, +so that impious men may not rejoice in violating that which +our ancestors, or good Christians, may have conceded or granted. +And whatever our treasury may have had a right to expect from +this source shall go to the profit of the men of this church of +St. Marcellus the martyr, to the better establishment of our +kingdom and the good of those who shall succeed us.</p> + +<p>And that this decree may firmly endure we have ordered it to +be confirmed with our own hand under our seal.</p> + +<h4>35. The Granting of Fiefs</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The most obvious feature of feudalism was a peculiar divided tenure +of land under which the title was vested in one person and the use in +another. The territorial unit was the fief, which in extent might be +but a few acres, a whole county, or even a vast region like Normandy +or Burgundy. Fiefs were granted to vassals by contracts which bound +both grantor and grantee to certain specific obligations. The two +extracts below are examples of the records of such feudal grants, +bearing the dates 1167 and 1200 respectively. It should be remembered, +however, that fiefs need not necessarily be land. Offices, payments +of money, rights to collect tolls, and many other valuable things +might be given by one man to another as fiefs in just the same way +that land was given. Du Cange, in his <i>Glossarium Mediæ et Infimæ +Latinitatis</i>, mentions eighty-eight different kinds of fiefs, and it has +been said that this does not represent more than one-fourth of the total +number. Nevertheless, the typical fief consisted of land. The term +might therefore be defined in general as the land for which the vassal, +or hereditary possessor, rendered to the lord, or hereditary proprietor, +services of a special character which were considered honorable, such +as military aid and attendance at courts. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">215</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Sources—(a) Nicolas Brussel, <i>Nouvel Examen de l'Usage général des Fiefs en +France pendant le XI, le XII, le XIII, et le XIV<sup>e</sup> Siècle</i> ["New +Examination of the Customs of Fiefs in the 11th, the 12th, the +13th, and the 14th Century"], Paris, 1727, Vol. I., p. 3, note. +Translated by Edward P. Cheyney in <i>Univ. of Pa. Translations +and Reprints</i>, Vol. IV., No. 3, pp. 15-16.</p> + +<p class="source_add">(b) Maximilien Quantin, <i>Recueil de Pièces du XIII<sup>e</sup> Siècle</i> ["Collection +of Documents of the Thirteenth Century"], Auxerre, +1873, No. 2, pp. 1-2. Translated by Cheyney, <i>ibid.</i></p> + +<p class="center">(a)</p> + +<p>In the name of the Holy and Undivided Trinity, Amen. I, +Louis,<a name="FNanchor_308" id="FNanchor_308" href="#Footnote_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a> by the grace of God king of the French, make known to +all present as well as to come, that at Mante in our presence, +Count Henry of Champagne<a name="FNanchor_309" id="FNanchor_309" href="#Footnote_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a> conceded the fief of Savigny to +<span class="sidebar">The count of +Champagne +grants a fief to +the bishop of +Beauvais</span> +Bartholomew, bishop of Beauvais,<a name="FNanchor_310" id="FNanchor_310" href="#Footnote_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a> and his successors. +And for that fief the said bishop has +made promise and engagement for one knight +and justice and service to Count Henry;<a name="FNanchor_311" id="FNanchor_311" href="#Footnote_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a> and +he also agreed that the bishops who shall come after him will +do likewise. In order that this may be understood and known +to posterity we have caused the present charter to be attested +by our seal. Done at Mante, in the year of the Incarnate Word, +1167; present in our palace those whose names and seals are +appended: seal of Thiebault, our steward; seal of Guy, the +butler; seal of Matthew, the chamberlain; seal of Ralph, the +constable. Given by the hand of Hugh, the chancellor.</p> + +<p class="center">(b)</p> + +<p>I, Thiebault, count palatine of Troyes,<a name="FNanchor_312" id="FNanchor_312" href="#Footnote_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a> make known to those +present and to come that I have given in fee<a name="FNanchor_313" id="FNanchor_313" href="#Footnote_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a> to Jocelyn d'Avalon +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">216</a></span> +and his heirs the manor which is called Gillencourt,<a name="FNanchor_314" id="FNanchor_314" href="#Footnote_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a> which is of +the castellanerie<a name="FNanchor_315" id="FNanchor_315" href="#Footnote_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a> of La Ferté-sur-Aube; and whatever the same +Jocelyn shall be able to acquire in the same manor I have granted +to him and his heirs in enlargement of that fief. I have granted, +moreover, to him that in no free manor of mine will I retain men +who are of this gift.<a name="FNanchor_316" id="FNanchor_316" href="#Footnote_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a> The same Jocelyn, moreover, on account +of this has become my liege man, saving, however, his allegiance +<span class="sidebar">A grant by +Count Thiebault</span> +to Gerad d'Arcy, and to the lord duke of Burgundy, +and to Peter, count of Auxerre.<a name="FNanchor_317" id="FNanchor_317" href="#Footnote_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a> Done +at Chouaude, by my own witness, in the year of +the Incarnation of our Lord 1200, in the month of January. +Given by the hand of Walter, my chancellor.</p> + +<h4>36. The Ceremonies of Homage and Fealty</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The personal relation between lord and vassal was established by +the double ceremony of homage and fealty. Homage was the act by +which the vassal made himself the man (<i>homo</i>) of the lord, while fealty +was the oath of fidelity to the obligations which must ordinarily be +assumed by such a man. The two were really distinct, though because +they almost invariably went together they finally became confounded in +the popular mind. The details of the ceremonies varied much in different +times and places, but, in general, when homage was to be performed, +the prospective vassal presented himself before his future seigneur +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">217</a></span> +bareheaded and without arms; knelt, placed his hands in those of the +seigneur, and declared himself his man; then he was kissed by the seigneur +and lifted to his feet. In the act of fealty, the vassal placed his hand +upon sacred relics, or upon the Bible, and swore eternal faithfulness to +his seigneur. The so-called "act of investiture" generally followed, the +seigneur handing over to the vassal a bit of turf, a stick, or some other +object symbolizing the transfer of the usufruct of the property in question. +The whole process was merely a mode of establishing a binding +contract between the two parties. Below we have: (<i>a</i>) a mediæval +definition of homage, taken from the customary law of Normandy; +(<i>b</i>) an explanation of fealty, given in an old English law-book; (<i>c</i>) a +French chronicler's account of the rendering of homage and fealty to +the count of Flanders in the year 1127; and (<i>d</i>) a set of laws governing +homage and fealty, written down in a compilation of the ordinances +of Saint Louis (king of France, 1226-1270), but doubtless showing substantially +the practice in France for a long time before King Louis's day.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Sources—(a) <i>L'Ancienne Coutume de Normandie</i> ["The Old Custom of +Normandy"], Chap. 29.</p> + +<p class="source_add">(b) Sir Thomas Lyttleton, <i>Treatise of Tenures in French and +English</i> (London, 1841), Bk. II., Chap. 2, p. 123.</p> + +<p class="source_add">(c) Galbert de Bruges, <i>De Multro, Traditione, et Occisione gloriosi +Karoli comitis Flandriarum</i> ["Concerning the Murder, Betrayal, +and Death of the glorious Charles, Count of Flanders"]. +Text in Henri Pirenne, <i>Histoire du Meurtre de Charles le Bon, +comte de Flandre, par Galbert de Bruges</i> (Paris, 1891). Translated +by Edward P. Cheyney in <i>Univ. of Pa. Translations and +Reprints</i>, Vol. IV., No. 3, p. 18.</p> + +<p class="source_add">(d) <i>Les Établissements de Saint Louis</i> ["The Ordinances of St. +Louis"], Bk. II., Chap. 19. Text in Paul Viollet's edition (Paris, +1881), Vol. II., pp. 395-398.</p> + +<p class="center">(a)</p> + +<p>Homage is a pledge to keep faith in respect to matters that are +right and necessary, and to give counsel and aid. He who +<span class="sidebar">A Norman +definition +of homage</span> +would do homage ought to place his hands between +those of the man who is to be his lord, and +speak these words: "I become your man, to keep +faith with you against all others, saving my allegiance to the +duke of Normandy." +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">218</a></span></p> + +<p class="center">(b)</p> + +<p>And when a free tenant shall swear fealty to his lord, let him +place his right hand on the book<a name="FNanchor_318" id="FNanchor_318" href="#Footnote_318" class="fnanchor">[318]</a> and speak thus: "Hear thou +this, my lord, that I will be faithful and loyal to you and will +keep my pledges to you for the lands which I claim to hold of +<span class="sidebar">The oath +of fealty</span> +you, and that I will loyally perform for you the +services specified, so help me God and the saints." +Then he shall kiss the book; but he shall not kneel when he +swears fealty, nor take so humble a posture as is required in +homage.</p> + +<p class="center">(c)</p> + +<p>Through the whole remaining part of the day those who had +been previously enfeoffed by the most pious count Charles, did +homage to the count,<a name="FNanchor_319" id="FNanchor_319" href="#Footnote_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a> taking up now again their fiefs and offices +and whatever they had before rightfully and legitimately obtained. +On Thursday, the seventh of April, homages were again +made to the count, being completed in the following order of +faith and security:</p> + +<p>First they did their homage thus. The count asked if he was +willing to become completely his man, and the other replied, +<span class="sidebar">The rendering +of homage and +fealty to the +count of Flanders</span> +"I am willing"; and with clasped hands, surrounded +by the hands of the count, they were +bound together by a kiss. Secondly, he who had +done homage gave his fealty to the representative +of the count in these words, "I promise on my faith that I will +in future be faithful to Count William, and will observe my +homage to him completely, against all persons, in good faith and +without deceit." Thirdly, he took his oath to this upon the +relics of the saints. Afterwards, with a little rod which the count +held in his hand, he gave investitures to all who by this agreement +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">219</a></span> +had given their security and homage and accompanying +oath.</p> + +<p class="center">(d)</p> + +<p>If any one would hold from a lord in fee, he ought to seek his +lord within forty days. And if he does not do it within forty days, +the lord may and ought to seize his fief for default of homage, +and the things which are found there he should seize without +compensation; and yet the vassal should be obliged to pay to +his lord the redemption.<a name="FNanchor_320" id="FNanchor_320" href="#Footnote_320" class="fnanchor">[320]</a> When any one wishes to enter into +the fealty of a lord, he ought to seek him, as we have said above, +and should speak as follows: "Sir, I request you, as my lord, to +<span class="sidebar">An ordinance +of St. Louis on +homage and +fealty</span> +put me in your fealty and in your homage for +such and such a thing situated in your fief, which +I have bought." And he ought to say from what +man, and this one ought to be present and in the fealty of the +lord;<a name="FNanchor_321" id="FNanchor_321" href="#Footnote_321" class="fnanchor">[321]</a> and whether it is by purchase or by escheat<a name="FNanchor_322" id="FNanchor_322" href="#Footnote_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a> or by inheritance +he ought to explain; and with his hands joined, to +speak as follows: "Sir, I become your man and promise to you +fealty for the future as my lord, towards all men who may live +or die, rendering to you such service as the fief requires, making +to you your relief as you are the lord." And he ought to say +whether for guardianship,<a name="FNanchor_323" id="FNanchor_323" href="#Footnote_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a> or as an escheat, or as an inheritance, +or as a purchase.</p> + +<p>The lord should immediately reply to him: "And I receive +you and take you as my man, and give you this kiss as a sign +of faith, saving my right and that of others," according to the +usage of the various districts. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">220</a></span></p> + +<h4>37. The Mutual Obligations of Lords and Vassals</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The feudal relation was essentially one of contract involving reciprocal +relations between lord and vassal. In the following letter, written +in the year 1020 by Bishop Fulbert of Chartres<a name="FNanchor_324" id="FNanchor_324" href="#Footnote_324" class="fnanchor">[324]</a> to the duke of Aquitaine, +we find laid down the general principles which ought to govern +the discharge of these mutual obligations. It is affirmed that there +were six things that no loyal vassal could do, and these are enumerated +and explained. Then comes the significant statement that these +negative duties must be supplemented with positive acts for the service +and support of the lord. What some of these acts were will appear in +the extracts in §<a href="#S38">38</a>. Bishop Fulbert points out also that the lord is +himself bound by feudal law not to do things detrimental to the safety, +honor, or prosperity of his vassal. The letter is an admirable statement +of the spirit of the feudal system at its best. Already by 1020 a +considerable body of feudal customs having the force of law had come +into existence and it appears that Fulbert had made these customs the +subject of some special study before answering the questions addressed +to him by Duke William.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in Martin Bouquet, <i>Recueil des Historiens des Gaules et de la +France</i> ["Collection of the Historians of Gaul and of France"], +Vol. X., p. 463.</p> + +<p>To William, most illustrious duke of the Aquitanians, Bishop +Fulbert, the favor of his prayers:</p> + +<p>Requested to write something regarding the character of +fealty, I have set down briefly for you, on the authority of the +books, the following things. He who takes the oath of fealty to +<span class="sidebar">What the vassal +owes the +lord</span> +his lord ought always to keep in mind these six +things: what is harmless, safe, honorable, useful, +easy, and practicable.<a name="FNanchor_325" id="FNanchor_325" href="#Footnote_325" class="fnanchor">[325]</a> <i>Harmless</i>, which means +that he ought not to injure his lord in his body; <i>safe</i>, that he +should not injure him by betraying his confidence or the defenses +upon which he depends for security; <i>honorable</i>, that he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">221</a></span> +should not injure him in his justice, or in other matters that relate +to his honor; <i>useful</i>, that he should not injure him in his +property; <i>easy</i>, that he should not make difficult that which his +lord can do easily; and <i>practicable</i>, that he should not make +impossible for the lord that which is possible.</p> + +<p>However, while it is proper that the faithful vassal avoid these +injuries, it is not for doing this alone that he deserves his holding: +for it is not enough to refrain from wrongdoing, unless that +which is good is done also. It remains, therefore, that in the +same six things referred to above he should faithfully advise and +aid his lord, if he wishes to be regarded as worthy of his benefice +and to be safe concerning the fealty which he has sworn.</p> + +<p>The lord also ought to act toward his faithful vassal in the +same manner in all these things. And if he fails to do this, he +<span class="sidebar">The obligations +of the +lord</span> +will be rightfully regarded as guilty of bad faith, +just as the former, if he should be found shirking, +or willing to shirk, his obligations would be +perfidious and perjured.<a name="FNanchor_326" id="FNanchor_326" href="#Footnote_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a></p> + +<p>I should have written to you at greater length had I not been +busy with many other matters, including the rebuilding of our +city and church, which were recently completely destroyed by +a terrible fire. Though for a time we could not think of anything +but this disaster, yet now, by the hope of God's comfort, +and of yours also, we breathe more freely again.</p> + +<h4><a name="S38" id="S38"></a>38. Some of the More Important Rights of the Lord</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The obligations of vassals to lords outlined in the preceding selection +were mainly of a moral character—such as naturally grew out of the +general idea of loyalty and fidelity to a benefactor. They were largely +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">222</a></span> +negative and were rather vague and indefinite. So far as they went, +they were binding upon lords and vassals alike. There were, however, +several very definite and practical rights which the lords possessed with +respect to the property and persons of their dependents. Some of these +were of a financial character, some were judicial, and others were +military. Five of the most important are illustrated by the passages +given below.</p> + +<p class="center">(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">Aids</span></p> + +<p>Under the feudal system the idea prevailed that the vassal's purse +as well as his body was to be at the lord's service. Originally the +right to draw upon his vassals for money was exercised by the lord +whenever he desired, but by custom this ill-defined power gradually +became limited to three sorts of occasions when the need of money +was likely to be especially urgent, i.e., when the eldest son was knighted, +when the eldest daughter was married, and when the lord was to be +ransomed from captivity. In the era of the crusades, the starting of +the lord on an expedition to the Holy Land was generally regarded as +another emergency in which an aid might rightfully be demanded. +The following extract from the old customary law of Normandy represents +the practice in nearly all feudal Europe.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—<i>L'Ancienne Coutume de Normandie</i>, Chap. 35.</p> + +<p>In Normandy there are three chief aids. The first is to help +make the lord's eldest son a knight; the second is to marry his +eldest daughter; the third is to ransom the body of the lord +from prison when he shall be taken captive during a war for the +<span class="sidebar">The three +aids</span> +duke.<a name="FNanchor_327" id="FNanchor_327" href="#Footnote_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a> By this it appears that the <i>aide de chevalerie</i> +[knighthood-aid] is due when the eldest son +of the lord is made a knight. The eldest son is he who has the +dignity of primogeniture.<a name="FNanchor_328" id="FNanchor_328" href="#Footnote_328" class="fnanchor">[328]</a> The <i>aide de mariage</i> [marriage-aid] is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">223</a></span> +due when the eldest daughter is married. The <i>aide de rançon</i> +[ransom-aid] is due when it is necessary to deliver the lord from +the prisons of the enemies of the duke. These aids are paid in +some fiefs at the rate of half a relief, and in some at the rate of +a third.<a name="FNanchor_329" id="FNanchor_329" href="#Footnote_329" class="fnanchor">[329]</a></p> + +<div class="intro"> + +<p class="center">(<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap">Military Service</span></p> + +<p>From whatever point of view feudalism is regarded—whether as a +system of land tenure, as a form of social organization, or as a type of +government—the military element in it appears everywhere important. +The feudal period was the greatest era of war the civilized world has +ever known. Few people between the tenth and fourteenth centuries, +except in the peasant classes, were able to live out their lives entirely +in peace. Of greatest value to kings and feudal magnates, greater even +than money itself, was a goodly following of soldiers; hence the almost +universal requirement of military service by lords from their vassals. +Fiefs were not infrequently granted out for no other purpose than to +get the military service which their holders would owe. The amount +of such service varied greatly in different times and places, but the +following arrangement represents the most common practice.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—<i>Les Établissements de Saint Louis</i>, Bk. I., Chap. 65. Text in Paul +Viollet's edition (Paris, 1881), Vol. II., pp. 95-96.</p> + +<p>The baron and the vassals of the king ought to appear in his +army when they shall be summoned, and ought to serve at their +own expense for forty days and forty nights, with whatever number +of knights they owe.<a name="FNanchor_330" id="FNanchor_330" href="#Footnote_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a> And he possesses the right to exact +<span class="sidebar">The conditions +of military service</span> +from them these services when he wishes and +when he has need of them. If, however, the king +shall wish to keep them more than forty days and +forty nights at their own expense, they need not remain unless +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">224</a></span> +they desire.<a name="FNanchor_331" id="FNanchor_331" href="#Footnote_331" class="fnanchor">[331]</a> But if he shall wish to retain them at his cost for +the defense of the kingdom, they ought lawfully to remain. +But if he shall propose to lead them outside of the kingdom, +they need not go unless they are willing, for they have already +served their forty days and forty nights.</p> + +<div class="intro"> + +<p class="center">(<i>c</i>) <span class="smcap">Wardship and Marriage</span></p> + +<p>Very important among the special prerogatives of the feudal lord +was his right to manage, and enjoy the profits of, fiefs inherited by +minors. When a vassal died, leaving an heir who was under age, the +lord was charged with the care of the fief until the heir reached his or +her majority. On becoming of age, a young man was expected to take +control of his fief at once. But a young woman remained under wardship +until her marriage, though if she married under age she could get +possession of her fief immediately, just as she would had she waited +until older. The control of the marriage of heiresses was largely in the +hands of their lords, for obviously it was to the lord's interest that no +enemy of his, nor any shiftless person, should become the husband of +his ward. The lord could compel a female ward to marry and could +oblige her to accept as a husband one of the candidates whom he offered +her; but it was usually possible for the woman to purchase exemption +from this phase of his jurisdiction. After the thirteenth century the +right of wardship gradually declined in France, though it long continued +in England. The following extract from the customs of Normandy +sets forth the typical feudal law on the subject.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—<i>L'Ancienne Coutume de Normandie</i>, Chap. 33.</p> + +<p>Heirs should be placed in guardianship until they reach the +age of twenty years; and those who hold them as wards should +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">225</a></span> +give over to them all the fiefs which came under their control +by reason of wardship, provided they have not lost anything by +judicial process.... When the heirs pass out of the condition +of wardship, their lords shall not impose upon them any +reliefs for their fiefs, for the profits of wardship shall be reckoned +in place of the relief.</p> + +<p>When a female ward reaches the proper age to marry, she +should be married by the advice and consent of her lord, and by +<span class="sidebar">The marriage +of a female +ward</span> +the advice and consent of her relatives and +friends, according as the nobility of her ancestry +and the value of her fief may require; and +upon her marriage the fief which has been held in guardianship +should be given over to her. A woman cannot be freed from +wardship except by marriage; and let it not be said that she is +of age until she is twenty years old. But if she be married at +the age at which it is allowable for a woman to marry, the fact of +her marriage makes her of age and delivers her fief from wardship.</p> + +<p>The fiefs of those who are under wardship should be cared +for attentively by their lords, who are entitled to receive the +<span class="sidebar">The lord's obligation +to care +for the fief of +his ward</span> +produce and profits.<a name="FNanchor_332" id="FNanchor_332" href="#Footnote_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a> And in this connection let +it be known that the lord ought to preserve in +their former condition the buildings, the manor-houses, +the forests and meadows, the gardens, the ponds, the +mills, the fisheries, and the other things of which he has the profits. +And he should not sell, destroy, or remove the woods, the houses, +or the trees.</p> + +<div class="intro"> +<p class="center">(<i>d</i>) <span class="smcap">Reliefs</span></p> + +<p>A relief was a payment made to the lord by an heir before entering +upon possession of his fief. The history of reliefs goes back to the time +when benefices were not hereditary and when, if a son succeeded his +father in the usufruct of a piece of property, it was regarded as an unusual +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">226</a></span> +thing—a special favor on the part of the owner to be paid for by +the new tenant. Later, when fiefs had become almost everywhere +hereditary, the custom of requiring reliefs still survived. The amount +was at first arbitrary, being arranged by individual bargains; but in +every community, especially in France, the tendency was toward a fixed +custom regarding it. Below are given some brief extracts from English +Treasury records which show how men in England between the years +1140 and 1230 paid the king for the privilege of retaining the fiefs held +by their fathers.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Thomas Madox, <i>History and Antiquities of the Exchequer of the +Kings of England</i> (London, 1769), Vol. I., pp. 312-322 <i>passim</i>.</p> + +<p>Walter Hait renders an account of 5 marks of silver for the +relief of the land of his father.</p> + +<p>Walter Brito renders an account of £66, 13s. and 4d. for the +relief of his land.</p> + +<p>Richard of Estre renders an account of £15 for the relief for +3 knights' fees which he holds from the honor of Mortain.</p> + +<p>Walter Fitz Thomas, of Newington, owes 28s. 4d. for having +a fourth part of one knight's fee which had been seized into the +hand of the king for default of relief.</p> + +<p>John of Venetia renders an account of 300 marks for the fine +of his land and for the relief of the land which was his father's +which he held from the king <i>in capite</i>.<a name="FNanchor_333" id="FNanchor_333" href="#Footnote_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a></p> + +<p>John de Balliol owes £150 for the relief of 30 knights' fees +which Hugh de Balliol, his father, held from the king <i>in capite</i>, +that is 100s. for each fee.</p> + +<p>Peter de Bruce renders an account of £100 for his relief for +the barony which was of Peter his father.</p> + +<div class="intro"> +<p class="center">(<i>e</i>) <span class="smcap">Forfeiture</span></p> + +<p>The lord's most effective means of compelling his vassals to discharge +their obligations was his right to take back their fiefs for breach +of feudal contract. Such a breach, or felony, as it was technically +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">227</a></span> +called, might consist in refusal to render military service or the required +aids, ignoring the sovereign authority of the lord, levying war against +the lord, dishonoring members of the lord's family, or, as in the case +below, refusing to obey the lord's summons to appear in court. In +practice the lords generally found it difficult to enforce the penalty of +forfeiture and after the thirteenth century the tendency was to substitute +money fines for dispossession, except in the most aggravated +cases. The following is an account of the condemnation of Arnold +Atton, a nobleman of south France, by the feudal court of Raymond, +count of Toulouse, in the year 1249. The penalty imposed was the +loss of the valuable château of Auvillars.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Teulet, <i>Layettes du Trésor des Cartes</i> ["Bureau of Treasury +Accounts "], No. 3778, Vol. III., p. 70. Translated by Edward P. +Cheyney in <i>Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. IV., +No. 3. pp. 33-34.</p> + +<p>Raymond, by the grace of God count of Toulouse, marquis of +Provence, to the nobleman Arnold Atton, viscount of Lomagne, +greeting:</p> + +<p>Let it be known to your nobility by the tenor of these presents +what has been done in the matter of the complaints which we +have made about you before the court of Agen; that you have +not taken the trouble to keep or fulfill the agreements sworn by +you to us, as is more fully contained in the instrument drawn up +there, sealed with our seal by the public notary; and that you +have refused contemptuously to appear before the said court for +the purpose of doing justice, and have otherwise committed +multiplied and great delinquencies against us. As your faults +<span class="sidebar">The court's +sentence upon +Arnold Atton</span> +have required, the aforesaid court of Agen has +unanimously and concordantly pronounced sentence +against you, and for these matters have +condemned you to hand over and restore to us the château of +Auvillars and all that land which you hold from us in fee, to be +had and held by us by right of the obligation by which you have +bound it to us for fulfilling and keeping the said agreements.</p> + +<p>Likewise it has declared that we are to be put into possession +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">228</a></span> +of the said land and that it is to be handed over to us, on account +of your contumacy, because you have not been willing to appear +before the same court on the days which were assigned to you. +Moreover, it has declared that you shall be held and required +to restore the said land in whatsoever way we wish to receive it, +with few or many, in peace or in anger, in our own person, by +right of lordship. Likewise it has declared that you shall restore +to us all the expenses which we have incurred, or the court +itself has incurred, on those days which were assigned to you, +or because of those days, and has condemned you to repay these +to us.<a name="FNanchor_334" id="FNanchor_334" href="#Footnote_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a></p> + +<p>Moreover, it has declared that the nobleman Gerald d'Armagnac, +whom you hold captive, you shall liberate, and deliver him +free to us. We demand, moreover, by right of our lordship that +you liberate him.</p> + +<p>We call, therefore, upon your discretion in this matter, strictly +enjoining you and commanding that you obey the aforesaid +sentences in all things and fulfill them in all respects and in no +way delay the execution of them.</p> + +<h4>39. The Peace and the Truce of God</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>War rather than peace was the normal condition of feudal society. +Peasants were expected to settle their disputes in the courts of law, +but lords and seigneurs possessed a legal right to make war upon their +enemies and were usually not loath to exercise it. Private warfare was +indeed so common that it all the time threatened seriously the lives and +property of the masses of the people and added heavily to the afflictions +which flood, drought, famine, and pestilence brought repeatedly +upon them. The first determined efforts to limit, if not to abolish, +the ravages of private war were made by the Church, partly because +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">229</a></span> +the Church itself often suffered by reason of them, partly because its +ideal was that of peace and security, and partly because it recognized +its duty as the protector of the poor and oppressed. Late in the tenth +century, under the influence of the Cluniacs [see <a href="#Page_245">p. 245</a>], the clergy of +France, both secular and regular, began in their councils to promulgate +decrees which were intended to establish what was known as the Peace +of God. These decrees, which were enacted by so many councils between +989 and 1050 that they came to cover pretty nearly all France, proclaimed +generally that any one who should use violence toward women, peasants, +merchants, or members of the clergy should be excommunicated. The +principle was to exempt certain classes of people from the operations +of war and violence, even though the rest of the population should +continue to fight among themselves. It must be said that these decrees, +though enacted again and again, had often little apparent effect.</p> + +<p>Effort was then made in another direction. From about 1027 the +councils began to proclaim what was known as the Truce of God, +sometimes alone and sometimes in connection with the Peace. The +purport of the Truce of God was that all men should abstain from warfare +and violence during a certain portion of each week, and during +specified church festivals and holy seasons. At first only Sunday was +thus designated; then other days, until the time from Wednesday night +to Monday morning was all included; then extended periods, as Lent, +were added, until finally not more than eighty days remained of the +entire year on which private warfare was allowable. As one writer has +stated it, "the Peace of God was intended to protect certain classes +at all times and the Truce to protect all classes at certain times." It +was equally difficult to secure the acquiescence of the lawless nobles +in both, and though the efforts of the Church were by no means without +result, we are to think of private warfare as continuing quite common +until brought gradually to an end by the rise of strong monarchies, +by the turning of men to commerce and trade, and by the drawing off +of military energies into foreign and international wars.</p> + +<p>The decree given below, which combines features of both the Peace +and the Truce, was issued by the Council of Toulouges (near Perpignan) +in 1041, or, as some scholars think, in 1065. Its substance was many +times reënacted, notably by the Council of Clermont, in 1095, upon the +occasion of the proclamation of the first Crusade. It should have procured +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">230</a></span> +about 240 days of peace in every year and reduced war to about +120 days, but, like the others, it was only indifferently observed.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in Martin Bouquet, <i>Recueil des Historiens des Gaules et de la +France</i> ["Collection of the Historians of Gaul and of France"], +Paris, 1876, Vol. XI., pp. 510-511.</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> This Peace has been confirmed by the bishops, by the +abbots, by the counts and viscounts and the other God-fearing +nobles in this bishopric, to the effect that in the future, beginning +with this day, no man may commit an act of violence in a church, +<span class="sidebar">Acts of violence +forbidden +in or near +churches</span> +or in the space which surrounds it and which +is covered by its privileges, or in the burying-ground, +or in the dwelling-houses which are, or +may be, within thirty paces of it.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> We do not include in this measure the churches which have +been, or which shall be, fortified as châteaux, or those in which +plunderers and thieves are accustomed to store their ill-gotten +booty, or which give them a place of refuge. Nevertheless we +desire that such churches be under this protection until complaint +of them shall be made to the bishop, or to the chapter. +If the bishop or chapter<a name="FNanchor_335" id="FNanchor_335" href="#Footnote_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a> act upon such information and lay hold +of the malefactors, and if the latter refuse to give themselves up to +the justice of the bishop or chapter, the malefactors and all their +possessions shall not be immune, even within the church. A +man who breaks into a church, or into the space within thirty +paces around it, must pay a fine for sacrilege, and double this +amount to the person wronged.</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> Furthermore, it is forbidden that any one attack the clergy, +who do not bear arms, or the monks and religious persons, or do +<span class="sidebar">Attacks upon +the clergy +prohibited</span> +them any wrong; likewise it is forbidden to despoil +or pillage the communities of canons, monks, and +religious persons, the ecclesiastical lands which +are under the protection of the Church, or the clergy, who do not +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">231</a></span> +bear arms; and if any one shall do such a thing, let him pay a +double composition.<a name="FNanchor_336" id="FNanchor_336" href="#Footnote_336" class="fnanchor">[336]</a></p> + +<p><b>5.</b> Let no one burn or destroy the dwellings of the peasants +and the clergy, the dove-cotes and the granaries. Let no man +dare to kill, to beat, or to wound a peasant or serf, or the wife of +either, or to seize them and carry them off, except for misdemeanors +which they may have committed; but it is not forbidden +<span class="sidebar">Protection extended +to the +peasantry</span> +to lay hold of them in order to bring them to +justice, and it is allowable to do this even before +they shall have been summoned to appear. Let +not the raiment of the peasants be stolen; let not their ploughs, +or their hoes, or their olive-fields be burned.</p> + +<p><b>6.</b> ... Let any one who has broken the peace, and has +not paid his fines within a fortnight, make amends to him whom +he has injured by paying a double amount, which shall go to the +bishop and to the count who shall have had charge of the case.</p> + +<p><b>7.</b> The bishops of whom we have spoken have solemnly confirmed +the Truce of God, which has been enjoined upon all +<span class="sidebar">The Truce +of God confirmed</span> +Christians, from the setting of the sun of the +fourth day of the week, that is to say, Wednesday, +until the rising of the sun on Monday, the second +day.... If any one during the Truce shall violate it, let +him pay a double composition and subsequently undergo the +ordeal of cold water.<a name="FNanchor_337" id="FNanchor_337" href="#Footnote_337" class="fnanchor">[337]</a> When any one during the Truce shall kill +<span class="sidebar">Penalties for +violations of +the Truce</span> +a man, it has been ordained, with the approval of +all Christians, that if the crime was committed +intentionally the murderer shall be condemned to +perpetual exile, but if it occurred by accident the slayer shall +be banished for a period of time to be fixed by the bishops and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">232</a></span> +the canons. If any one during the Truce shall attempt to seize +a man or to carry him off from his château, and does not succeed +in his purpose, let him pay a fine to the bishop and to the +chapter, just as if he had succeeded. It is likewise forbidden +during the Truce, in Advent and Lent, to build any château +or fortification, unless it was begun a fortnight before the +time of the Truce. It has been ordained also that at all times +disputes and suits on the subject of the Peace and Truce of God +shall be settled before the bishop and his chapter, and likewise +for the peace of the churches which have before been enumerated. +When the bishop and the chapter shall have pronounced +sentences to recall men to the observance of the Peace and the +Truce of God, the sureties and hostages who show themselves +hostile to the bishop and the chapter shall be excommunicated +by the chapter and the bishop, with their protectors and partisans, +as guilty of violating the Peace and the Truce of the +Lord; they and their possessions shall be excluded from the +Peace and the Truce of the Lord.</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">233</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XIV.<br /> +THE NORMAN CONQUEST</h3> + +<h4>40. The Battle of Hastings: the English and the Normans</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The Northmen, under the leadership of the renowned Rollo, got +their first permanent foothold in that important part of France since +known as Normandy in the year 911 [see <a href="#Page_171">p. 171</a>]. Almost from the +beginning the new county (later duchy) increased rapidly both in +territorial extent and in political influence. The Northmen, or Normans, +were a vigorous, ambitious, and on the whole very capable people, +and they needed only the polishing which peaceful contact with the +French could give to make them one of the most virile elements in the +population of western Europe. They gave up their old gods and accepted +Christianity, ceased to speak their own language and began the +use of French, and to a considerable extent became ordinary soldiers +and traders instead of the wild pirates their forefathers had been. The +spirit of unrest, however, and the love of adventure so deeply ingrained +in their natures did not die out, and we need not be surprised to learn +that they continued still to enjoy nothing quite so much as war, especially +if it involved hazardous expeditions across seas. Some went +to help the Christians of Spain against the Saracens; some went to aid +the Eastern emperors against the Turks; others went to Sicily and +southern Italy, where they conquered weak rulers and set up principalities +of their own; and finally, under the leadership of Duke William +the Bastard, in 1066, they entered upon the greatest undertaking of all, +i.e., the conquest of England and the establishment of a Norman +chieftain upon the throne of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom.</p> + +<p>Duke William was one of the greatest and most ambitious feudal +lords of France—more powerful really than the French king himself. +He had overcome practically all opposition among his unruly vassals +in Normandy, and by 1066, when the death of King Edward the Confessor +occurred in England, he was ready to engage in great enterprises +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">234</a></span> +which gave promise of enhanced power and renown. He had long +cherished a claim to the English throne, and when he learned that in +utter disregard of this claim the English witan had chosen Harold, +son of the West Saxon Earl Godwin, to be Edward's successor, he prepared +to invade the island kingdom and force an acknowledgment of +what he pretended at least to believe were his rights. Briefly stated, +William claimed the English throne on the ground (1) that through his +wife Matilda, a descendant of Emma, Edward the Confessor's mother, +he was a nearer heir than was Harold, who was only the late king's +brother-in-law; (2) that on the occasion of a visit to England in 1051 +Edward had promised him the inheritance; and (3) that Harold himself, +when some years before he had been shipwrecked on the coast of +Normandy, had sworn on sacred relics to help him gain the crown. +There is some doubt as to the actual facts in connection with both of +these last two points, but the truth is that all of William's claims taken +together were not worth much, since the recognized principle of the +English government was that the king should be chosen by the wisemen, +or witan. Harold had been so chosen and hence was in every way the +legitimate sovereign.</p> + +<p>William, however, was determined to press his claims and, after +obtaining the blessing of the Pope (Alexander II.), he gathered +an army of perhaps 65,000 Normans and adventurers from all +parts of France and prepared a fleet of some 1,500 transports at the +mouth of the Dive to carry his troops across the Channel. September +28, 1066, the start was made and the following day the host landed +at Pevensey in Sussex. Friday, the 29th, Hastings was selected and +fortified to serve as headquarters. The English were taken at great disadvantage. +Only two days before the Normans crossed the Channel +Harold with all the troops he could muster had been engaged in a great +battle at Stamford Bridge, in Northumberland, with Harold Hardrada, +king of Norway, who was making an independent invasion. The English +had won the fight, but they were not in a position to meet the +Normans as they might otherwise have been. With admirable energy, +however, Harold marched his weary army southward to Senlac, a hill +near the town of Hastings, and there took up his position to await an +attack by the duke's army. The battle came on Saturday, October 14, +and after a very stubborn contest, in which Harold was slain, it resulted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">235</a></span> +in a decisive victory for the Normans. Thereafter the conquest +of the entire kingdom, while by no means easy, was inevitable.</p> + +<p>William of Malmesbury, from whose <i>Chronicle of the Kings of England</i> +our account of the battle and of the two contending peoples is taken, was +a Benedictine monk, born of a Norman father and an English mother. +He lived about 1095-1150 and hence wrote somewhat over half a century +after the Conquest. While thus not strictly a contemporary, he +was a man of learning and discretion and there is every reason to believe +that he made his history as accurate as he was able, with the materials +at his command. His parentage must have enabled him to understand +both combatants in an unusual degree and, though his sympathies were +with the conquerors, we may take his characterizations of Saxon and +Norman alike to be at least fairly reliable. His <i>Chronicle</i> covers the +period 449-1135, and for the years after 1066 it is the fullest, most +carefully written, and most readable account of English affairs that we +have.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Guilielmus Monachi Malmesburiensis, <i>De gestis regum Anglorum</i> +[William of Malmesbury, "Chronicle of the Kings of England"], +Bk. III. Adapted from translation by John Sharpe (London, +1815), pp. 317-323.</p> + +<p>The courageous leaders mutually prepared for battle, each +according to his national custom. The English passed the night<a name="FNanchor_338" id="FNanchor_338" href="#Footnote_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a> +without sleep, in drinking and singing, and in the morning proceeded +without delay against the enemy. All on foot, armed +with battle-axes, and covering themselves in front by joining +<span class="sidebar">How the English +prepared +for battle</span> +their shields, they formed an impenetrable body +which would assuredly have secured their safety +that day had not the Normans, by a pretended +flight, induced them to open their ranks, which until that time, +according to their custom, had been closely knit together. +King Harold himself, on foot, stood with his brothers near the +standard in order that, so long as all shared equal danger, none +could think of retreating. This same standard William sent, +after his victory, to the Pope. It was richly embroidered with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">236</a></span> +gold and precious stones, and represented the figure of a man +fighting.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, the Normans passed the whole night in +confessing their sins, and received the communion of the Lord's +body in the morning. Their infantry, with bows and arrows, +formed the vanguard, while their cavalry, divided into wings, +<span class="sidebar">How the Normans +prepared</span> +was placed in the rear. The duke, with serene +countenance, declaring aloud that God would +favor his as being the righteous side, called for his arms; and +when, through the haste of his attendants, he had put on his +hauberk<a name="FNanchor_339" id="FNanchor_339" href="#Footnote_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a> the rear part before, he corrected the mistake with a +laugh, saying, "The power of my dukedom shall be turned into +a kingdom." Then starting the song of Roland,<a name="FNanchor_340" id="FNanchor_340" href="#Footnote_340" class="fnanchor">[340]</a> in order that +the warlike example of that hero might stimulate the soldiers, +and calling on God for assistance, the battle commenced on both +sides, and was fought with great ardor, neither side yielding +ground during the greater part of the day.</p> + +<p>Observing this, William gave a signal to his troops, that, +pretending flight, they should withdraw from the field.<a name="FNanchor_341" id="FNanchor_341" href="#Footnote_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a> By +means of this device the solid phalanx of the English opened for +the purpose of cutting down the fleeing enemy and thus brought +upon itself swift destruction; for the Normans, facing about, +<span class="sidebar">William's +strategem</span> +attacked them, thus disordered, and compelled +them to fly. In this manner, deceived by stratagem, +they met an honorable death in avenging their country; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">237</a></span> +nor indeed were they at all without their own revenge, for, by +frequently making a stand, they slaughtered their pursuers in +heaps. Getting possession of a higher bit of ground, they drove +back the Normans, who in the heat of pursuit were struggling up +the slope, into the valley beneath, where, by hurling their javelins +and rolling down stones on them as they stood below, the +English easily destroyed them to a man. Besides, by a short +passage with which they were acquainted, they avoided a deep +ditch and trod underfoot such a multitude of their enemies in +that place that the heaps of bodies made the hollow level with +the plain. This alternating victory, first of one side and then +of the other, continued as long as Harold lived to check the retreat; +but when he fell, his brain pierced by an arrow, the flight +of the English ceased not until night.<a name="FNanchor_342" id="FNanchor_342" href="#Footnote_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a></p> + +<p>In the battle both leaders distinguished themselves by their +bravery. Harold, not content with the duties of a general and +with exhorting others, eagerly assumed himself the work of a +common soldier. He was constantly striking down the enemy +<span class="sidebar">The valor +of Harold</span> +at close quarters, so that no one could approach +him with impunity, for straightway both horse +and rider would be felled by a single blow. So it was at long +range, as I have said, that the enemy's deadly arrow brought +him to his death. One of the Norman soldiers gashed his thigh +with a sword, as he lay prostrate; for which shameful and cowardly +action he was branded with ignominy by William and +expelled from the army.</p> + +<p>William, too, was equally ready to encourage his soldiers by +his voice and by his presence, and to be the first to rush forward +to attack the thickest of the foe. He was everywhere fierce and +furious. He lost three choice horses, which were that day killed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">238</a></span> +under him. The dauntless spirit and vigor of the intrepid general, +however, still held out. Though often called back by the +<span class="sidebar">William's bravery +and ardor</span> +thoughtful remonstrance of his bodyguard, he +still persisted until approaching night crowned him +with complete victory. And no doubt the hand of God so protected +him that the enemy could draw no blood from his person, +though they aimed so many javelins at him.</p> + +<p>This was a fatal day to England, and melancholy havoc was +wrought in our dear country during the change of its lords.<a name="FNanchor_343" id="FNanchor_343" href="#Footnote_343" class="fnanchor">[343]</a> +For it had long before adopted the manners of the Angles, which +had indeed altered with the times; for in the first years of their +arrival they were barbarians in their look and manner, warlike +in their usages, heathen in their rites.</p> + +<p>After embracing the faith of Christ, by degrees and, in process +of time, in consequence of the peace which they enjoyed, they +consigned warfare to a secondary place and gave their whole +attention to religion. I am not speaking of the poor, the meanness +of whose fortune often restrains them from overstepping +<span class="sidebar">Religious zeal +of the Saxons +before the Conquest</span> +the bounds of justice; I omit, too, men of ecclesiastical +rank, whom sometimes respect for their +profession and sometimes the fear of shame +suffers not to deviate from the true path; I speak +of princes, who from the greatness of their power might have +full liberty to indulge in pleasure. Some of these in their own +country, and others at Rome, changing their habit, obtained a +heavenly kingdom and a saintly fellowship. Many others during +their whole lives devoted themselves in outward appearance +to worldly affairs, but in order that they might expend their +treasures on the poor or divide them amongst monasteries. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">239</a></span></p> + +<p>What shall I say of the multitudes of bishops, hermits, and +abbots? Does not the whole island blaze with such numerous +relics of its own people that you can scarcely pass a village of +any consequence without hearing the name of some new saint? +And of how many more has all remembrance perished through +the want of records?</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, the attention to literature and religion had +gradually decreased for several years before the arrival of the +Normans. The clergy, contented with a little confused learning, +could scarcely stammer out the words of the sacraments; +and a person who understood grammar was an object of wonder +and astonishment.<a name="FNanchor_344" id="FNanchor_344" href="#Footnote_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a> The monks mocked the rule of their order +<span class="sidebar">Recent decline +of learning and +religion</span> +by fine vestments and the use of every kind of +food. The nobility, given up to luxury and +wantonness, went not to church in the morning +after the manner of Christians, but merely, in a careless manner, +heard matins and masses from a hurrying priest in their chambers, +amid the blandishments of their wives. The community, +left unprotected, became a prey to the most powerful, who +amassed fortunes, either by seizing on their property or by selling +their persons into foreign countries; although it is characteristic +of this people to be more inclined to reveling than to the +accumulation of wealth.</p> + +<p>Drinking in parties was an universal practice, in which occupation +they passed entire nights as well as days. They consumed +their whole substance in mean and despicable houses, +unlike the Normans and French, who live frugally in noble and +splendid mansions. The vices attendant on drunkenness, which +enervate the human mind, followed; hence it came about that +when they resisted William, with more rashness and precipitate +fury than military skill, they doomed themselves and their +country to slavery by a single, and that an easy, victory.<a name="FNanchor_345" id="FNanchor_345" href="#Footnote_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a> For +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">240</a></span> +nothing is less effective than rashness; and what begins with +violence quickly ceases or is repelled. The English at that time +<span class="sidebar">The English +people described</span> +wore short garments, reaching to the mid-knee; +they had their hair cropped, their beards shaven, +their arms laden with golden bracelets, their skin +adorned with tattooed designs. They were accustomed to eat +until they became surfeited, and to drink until they were sick. +These latter qualities they imparted to their conquerors; as for +the rest, they adopted their manners. I would not, however, +have these bad characteristics ascribed to the English universally; +I know that many of the clergy at that day trod the path +of sanctity by a blameless life. I know that many of the laity, +of all ranks and conditions, in this nation were well-pleasing to +God. Be injustice far from this account; the accusation does not +involve the whole, indiscriminately. But as in peace the mercy +of God often cherishes the bad and the good together, so, equally, +does His severity sometimes include them both in captivity.</p> + +<p>The Normans—that I may speak of them also—were at that +time, and are even now, exceedingly particular in their dress +and delicate in their food, but not so to excess. They are a race +accustomed to war, and can hardly live without it; fierce in rushing +against the enemy, and, where force fails to succeed, ready +<span class="sidebar">A description +of the Normans</span> +to use stratagem or to corrupt by bribery. As +I have said, they live in spacious houses with +economy, envy their superiors, wish to excel their +equals, and plunder their subjects, though they defend them +from others; they are faithful to their lords, though a slight +offense alienates them. They weigh treachery by its chance of +success, and change their sentiments for money. The most +hospitable, however, of all nations, they esteem strangers worthy +of equal honor with themselves; they also intermarry with their +vassals. They revived, by their arrival, the rule of religion +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">241</a></span> +which had everywhere grown lifeless in England.<a name="FNanchor_346" id="FNanchor_346" href="#Footnote_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a> You might +see churches rise in every village, and monasteries in the towns +and cities, built after a style unknown before; you might behold +the country flourishing with renewed rites; so that each wealthy +man accounted that day lost to him which he had neglected to +signalize by some beneficent act.</p> + +<h4>41. William the Conqueror as Man and as King</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>In the following passage, taken from the Saxon Chronicle, we have +an interesting summary of the character of the Conqueror and of his +conduct as king of England. Both the good and bad sides of the +picture are clearly brought out and perhaps it is not quite easy to say +which is given the greater prominence. On the one hand there is +William's devotion to the Church, his establishment of peace and order, +his mildness in dealing with all but those who had antagonized him, +and the virtue of his personal life; on the other is his severity, rapacity, +and pride, his heavy taxes and his harsh forest laws. As one writer +says, "the Conquest was bad as well as good for England; but the +harm was only temporary, the good permanent." It is greatly to the +credit of the English chronicler that he was able to deal so fairly with +the character of one whom he had not a few patriotic reasons for maligning.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—<i>The Saxon Chronicle.</i> Translated by J. A. Giles (London, 1847), +pp. 461-462.</p> + +<p>If any one would know what manner of man King William +was, the glory that he obtained, and of how many lands he was +lord, then will we describe him as we have known him, we who +have looked upon him and who once lived at his court. This +King William, of whom we are speaking, was a very wise and a +great man, and more honored and more powerful than any of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">242</a></span> +his predecessors. He was mild to those good men who loved +God, but severe beyond measure towards those who withstood +<span class="sidebar">William's +religious zeal</span> +his will. He founded a noble monastery on the +spot where God permitted him to conquer England, +and he established monks in it, and he made it very rich.<a name="FNanchor_347" id="FNanchor_347" href="#Footnote_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a> +In his days the great monastery at Canterbury was built,<a name="FNanchor_348" id="FNanchor_348" href="#Footnote_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a> and +many others also throughout England; moreover, this land was +filled with monks who lived after the rule of St. Benedict; and +such was the state of religion in his days that all who would +might observe that which was prescribed by their respective +orders.</p> + +<p>King William was also held in much reverence. He wore his +crown three times every year when he was in England: at Easter +he wore it at Winchester,<a name="FNanchor_349" id="FNanchor_349" href="#Footnote_349" class="fnanchor">[349]</a> at Pentecost at Westminster,<a name="FNanchor_350" id="FNanchor_350" href="#Footnote_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a> and at +Christmas at Gloucester.<a name="FNanchor_351" id="FNanchor_351" href="#Footnote_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a> And at these times all the men of +<span class="sidebar">His strong +government</span> +England were with him, archbishops, bishops, +abbots and earls, thanes<a name="FNanchor_352" id="FNanchor_352" href="#Footnote_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a> and knights.<a name="FNanchor_353" id="FNanchor_353" href="#Footnote_353" class="fnanchor">[353]</a> So also +was he a very stern and a wrathful man, so that none durst +do anything against his will, and he kept in prison those earls +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">243</a></span> +who acted against his pleasure. He removed bishops from their +sees<a name="FNanchor_354" id="FNanchor_354" href="#Footnote_354" class="fnanchor">[354]</a> and abbots from their offices, and he imprisoned thanes, +and at length he spared not his own brother Odo. This Odo was +a very powerful bishop in Normandy. His see was that of +Bayeux,<a name="FNanchor_355" id="FNanchor_355" href="#Footnote_355" class="fnanchor">[355]</a> and he was foremost to serve the king. He had an +earldom in England, and when William was in Normandy he +[Odo] was the first man in this country [England], and him did +William cast into prison.<a name="FNanchor_356" id="FNanchor_356" href="#Footnote_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a></p> + +<p>Amongst other things, the good order that William established +is not to be forgotten. It was such that any man, who was himself +aught, might travel over the kingdom with a bosom full of +gold unmolested; and no man durst kill another, however great +the injury he might have received from him. He reigned over +England, and being sharp-sighted to his own interest, he surveyed +the kingdom so thoroughly that there was not a single +<span class="sidebar">The extent of +his power</span> +hide of land throughout the whole of which he +knew not the possessor, and how much it was +worth, and this he afterwards entered in his register.<a name="FNanchor_357" id="FNanchor_357" href="#Footnote_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a> The land +of the Britons [Wales] was under his sway, and he built castles +therein; moreover he had full dominion over the Isle of Man;<a name="FNanchor_358" id="FNanchor_358" href="#Footnote_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a> +Scotland also was subject to him, from his great strength; the +land of Normandy was his by inheritance, and he possessed the +earldom of Maine;<a name="FNanchor_359" id="FNanchor_359" href="#Footnote_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a> and had he lived two years longer, he would +have subdued Ireland by his prowess, and that without a battle.<a name="FNanchor_360" id="FNanchor_360" href="#Footnote_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a></p> + +<p>Truly there was much trouble in these times, and very great +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">244</a></span> +distress. He caused castles to be built and oppressed the poor. +The king was also of great sternness, and he took from his subjects +many marks of gold, and many hundred pounds of silver, +and this, either with or without right, and with little need. He +was given to avarice, and greedily loved gain.<a name="FNanchor_361" id="FNanchor_361" href="#Footnote_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a> He made large +forests for the deer, and enacted laws therewith, so that whoever +killed a hart or a hind should be blinded. As he forbade killing +<span class="sidebar">His faults +as a ruler</span> +the deer, so also the boars; and he loved the tall +stags as if he were their father. He also commanded +concerning the hares, that they should go free.<a name="FNanchor_362" id="FNanchor_362" href="#Footnote_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a> The +rich complained and the poor murmured, but he was so sturdy +that he recked nought of them; they must will all that the king +willed, if they would live, or would keep their lands, or would hold +their possessions, or would be maintained in their rights. Alas +that any man should so exalt himself, and carry himself in his +pride over all! May Almighty God show mercy to his soul, and +grant him the forgiveness of his sins! We have written concerning +him these things, both good and bad, that virtuous men +may follow after the good, and wholly avoid the evil, and +may go in the way that leadeth to the kingdom of heaven.</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">245</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XV.<br /> +THE MONASTIC REFORMATION OF THE TENTH, ELEVENTH, +AND TWELFTH CENTURIES</h3> + +<h4>42. The Foundation Charter of the Monastery of Cluny (910)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>Throughout the earlier Middle Ages the Benedictine Rule [see +<a href="#Page_83">p. 83</a>] was the code under which were governed practically all the +monastic establishments of western Europe. There was a natural +tendency, however, for the severe and exacting features of the Rule to +be softened considerably in actual practice. As one writer puts it, "the +excessive abstinence and many other of the mechanical observances of +the rule were soon found to have little real utility when simply enforced +by a rule, and not practiced willingly for the sake of self-discipline." +The obligation of manual labor, for example, was frequently dispensed +with in order that the monks might occupy themselves with the studies +for which the Benedictines have always been famous. Too often such +relaxation was but a pretext for the indulgence of idleness or vice. +The disrepute into which such tendencies brought the monastics in +the tenth and eleventh centuries gave rise to numerous attempts to +revive the primitive discipline, the most notable of which was the so-called +"Cluniac movement."</p> + +<p>The monastery of Cluny, on the borders of Aquitaine and Burgundy, +was established under the terms of a charter issued by William the +Pious, duke of Aquitaine and count of Auvergne, September 11, 910. +The conditions of its foundation, set forth in the text of the charter +given below, were in many ways typical. The history of the monastery +was, however, quite exceptional. During the invasions and civil wars +of the latter half of the ninth century, many of the monasteries of western +Europe had fallen under the control of unscrupulous laymen who +used them mainly to satisfy their greed or ambition, and in consequence +by the time that Cluny was founded the standard of monastic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">246</a></span> +life and service had been seriously impaired. The monks had grown +worldly, education was neglected, and religious services had become +empty formalities. Powerful nobles used their positions of advantage +to influence, and often to dictate, the election of bishops and abbots, +and the men thus elected were likely enough to be unworthy of their +offices in both character and ability. The charter of the Cluny monastery, +however, expressly provided that the abbot should be chosen by +canonical election, i.e., by the monks, and without any sort of outside +interference. The life of the monastery was to be regulated by the +Benedictine Rule, though with rather less stress on manual labor and +rather more on religious services and literary employment. Cluny, +indeed, soon came to be one of the principal centers of learning in western +Europe, as well as perhaps the greatest administrator of charity.</p> + +<p>Another notable achievement of Cluny was the building up of the so-called +"Cluny Congregation." Hitherto it had been customary for monasteries +to be entirely independent of one another, even when founded +by monks sent out from a parent establishment. Cluny, however, kept +under the control of her own abbot all monasteries founded by her +agents and made the priors of these monasteries directly responsible +to him. Many outside abbeys were drawn into the new system, so that +by the middle of the twelfth century the Cluny congregation was comprised +of more than two thousand monasteries, all working harmoniously +under a single abbot-general. The majority of these were in France, but +there were many also in Spain, Italy, Poland, Germany, and England. +It was the Cluny monks who gave the Pope his chief support in the +struggle to free the Church from lay investiture and simony and to +enforce the ideal of a celibate clergy. This movement for reform may +properly be said, indeed, to have originated with the Cluniacs and to +have been taken up only later by the popes, chiefly by Gregory VII. +By the end of the eleventh century Cluniac discipline had begun to +grow lax and conditions were gradually shaped for another wave of +monastic reform, which came with the establishment of the Carthusians +(in 1084) and of the Cistercians (in 1098). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">247</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in Martin Bouquet, <i>Recueil des Historiens des Gaules et de la +France</i> ["Collection of the Historians of Gaul and of France"] +(Paris, 1874), Vol. IX., pp. 709-711.</p> + +<p>To all who think wisely it is evident that the providence of +God has made it possible for rich men, by using well their temporal +possessions, to be able to merit eternal rewards.... +I, William, count and duke, after diligent reflection, and desiring +to provide for my own safety while there is still time, have +decided that it is advisable, indeed absolutely necessary, that +<span class="sidebar">Motives +for Duke +William's +benefaction</span> +from the possessions which God has given me I +should give some portion for the good of my soul. +I do this, indeed, in order that I who have thus increased +in wealth may not at the last be accused of having spent all +in caring for my body, but rather may rejoice, when fate at length +shall snatch all things away, in having preserved something for +myself. I cannot do better than follow the precepts of Christ +and make His poor my friends. That my gift may be durable and +not transitory I will support at my own expense a congregation +of monks. And I hope that I shall receive the reward of the +righteous because I have received those whom I believe to be +righteous and who despise the world, although I myself am not +able to despise all things.<a name="FNanchor_363" id="FNanchor_363" href="#Footnote_363" class="fnanchor">[363]</a></p> + +<p>Therefore be it known to all who live in the unity of the faith +and who await the mercy of Christ, and to those who shall succeed +them and who shall continue to exist until the end of the +world, that, for the love of God and of our Saviour Jesus Christ, +I hand over from my own rule to the holy apostles, namely, +<span class="sidebar">The land and +other property +ceded</span> +Peter and Paul, the possessions over which I hold +sway—the town of Cluny, with the court and +demesne manor, and the church in honor of St. +Mary, the mother of God, and of St. Peter, the prince of the +apostles, together with all the things pertaining to it, the villas, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">248</a></span> +the chapels, the serfs of both sexes, the vines, the fields, the +meadows, the woods, the waters and their outlets, the mills, the +incomes and revenues, what is cultivated and what is not, all +without reserve. These things are situated in or about the +county of Mâcon<a name="FNanchor_364" id="FNanchor_364" href="#Footnote_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a>, each one marked off by definite bounds. I +give, moreover, all these things to the aforesaid apostles—I, +William, and my wife Ingelberga—first for the love of God; then +for the soul of my lord King Odo, of my father and my mother; +for myself and my wife,—for the salvation, namely, of our souls +and bodies; and not least, for that of Ava, who left me these +things in her will; for the souls also of our brothers and sisters +and nephews, and of all our relatives of both sexes; for our faithful +ones who adhere to our service; for the advancement, also, +and integrity of the Catholic religion. Finally, since all of us +Christians are held together by one bond of love and faith, let +this donation be for all—for the orthodox, namely, of past, +present, or future times.</p> + +<p>I give these things, moreover, with this understanding, that +in Cluny a monastery shall be constructed in honor of the holy +apostles Peter and Paul, and that there the monks shall congregate +and live according to the rule of St. Benedict, and that +<span class="sidebar">A monastery +to be established.</span> +they shall possess and make use of these same +things for all time. In such wise, however, that +the venerable house of prayer which is there shall +be faithfully frequented with vows and supplications, and that +heavenly conversations shall be sought after with all desire and +with the deepest ardor; and also that there shall be diligently +directed to God prayers and exhortations, as well for me as for +all, according to the order in which mention has been made of +them above. And let the monks themselves, together with all +aforesaid possessions, be under the power and dominion of the +abbot Berno, who, as long as he shall live, shall preside over +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">249</a></span> +them regularly according to his knowledge and ability.<a name="FNanchor_365" id="FNanchor_365" href="#Footnote_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a> But +after his death, those same monks shall have power and permission +<span class="sidebar">Election of +abbots to be +"canonical"</span> +to elect any one of their order whom +they please as abbot and rector, following the will +of God and the rule promulgated by St. Benedict—in +such wise that neither by the intervention of our own or +of any other power may they be impeded from making a purely canonical +election. Every five years, moreover, the aforesaid monks +shall pay to the church of the apostles at Rome ten shillings to +supply them with lights; and they shall have the protection of +those same apostles and the defense of the Roman pontiff; and +those monks may, with their whole heart and soul, according to +their ability and knowledge, build up the aforesaid place.</p> + +<p>We will, further, that in our times and in those of our successors, +according as the opportunities and possibilities of that +<span class="sidebar">Works of charity +enjoined</span> +place shall allow, there shall daily, with the greatest +zeal, be performed works of mercy towards +the poor, the needy, strangers, and pilgrims.<a name="FNanchor_366" id="FNanchor_366" href="#Footnote_366" class="fnanchor">[366]</a> It has pleased us +also to insert in this document that, from this day, those same +monks there congregated shall be subject neither to our yoke, +nor to that of our relatives, nor to the sway of the royal might, +nor to that of any earthly power. And, through God and all His +saints, and by the awful day of judgment, I warn and admonish +that no one of the secular princes, no count, no bishop, not even +the pontiff of the aforesaid Roman see, shall invade the property +of these servants of God, or alienate it, or diminish it, or exchange +it, or give it as a benefice to any one, or set up any prelate +over them against their will.<a name="FNanchor_367" id="FNanchor_367" href="#Footnote_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">250</a></span></p> + +<h4>43. The Early Career of St. Bernard and the Founding of Clairvaux</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The most important individual who had part in the twelfth century +movement for monastic reform was unquestionably St. Bernard, of +whom indeed it has been said with reason that for a quarter of a century +there was no more influential man in Europe. Born in 1091, he came +upon the scene when times were ripe for great deeds and great careers, +whether with the crusading hosts in the East or in the vexed swirl of +secular and ecclesiastical affairs in the West. Particularly were the +times ripe for a great preacher and reformer—one who could avail himself +of the fresh zeal of the crusading period and turn a portion of it to +the regeneration of the corrupt and sluggish spiritual life which in far +too great a measure had crept in to replace the earlier purity and devotion +of the clergy. The need of reform was perhaps most conspicuous +in the monasteries, for many monastic establishments had not been +greatly affected by the Cluniac movement of the previous century, and +in many of those which had been touched temporarily the purifying +influences had about ceased to produce results. It was as a monastic +reformer that St. Bernard rendered greatest service to the Church of +his day, though he was far more than a mere zealot. He was, says +Professor Emerton, more than any other man, representative of the +spirit of the Middle Ages. "The monastery meant to him, not a place of +easy and luxurious retirement, where a man might keep himself pure +from earthly contact, nor even a home of learning, from which a man +might influence his world. It meant rather a place of pitiless discipline, +whereby the natural man should be reduced to the lowest terms and +thus the spiritual life be given its largest liberty. The aim of Bernard +was nothing less than the regeneration of society through the presence +in it of devoted men, bound together by a compact organization, and +holding up to the world the highest types of an ideal which had already +fixed itself in the imagination of the age."<a name="FNanchor_368" id="FNanchor_368" href="#Footnote_368" class="fnanchor">[368]</a></p> + +<p>The founding of Clairvaux by St. Bernard, in 1115, was not the beginning +of a new monastic order; the Cistercians, to whom the establishment +properly belonged, had originated at Cîteaux seventeen years +before. But in later times St. Bernard was very properly regarded as a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">251</a></span> +second founder of the Cistercians, and the story of his going forth from +the parent house to establish the new one affords an excellent illustration +of the spirit which dominated the leaders in monastic reform in +the eleventh and twelfth centuries and of the methods they employed +to keep alive the lofty ideals of the old Benedictine system; and, although +individual monasteries were founded under the most diverse +circumstances, the story is of interest as showing us the precise way in +which one monastic house took its origin. By the time of St. Bernard's +death (1153) not fewer than a hundred and fifty religious houses had +been regenerated under his inspiration.</p> + +<p>We are fortunate in possessing a composite biography of the great +reformer which is practically contemporary. It is in five books, the first +of which was written by William, abbot of St. Thierry of Rheims; the +second by Arnold, abbot of Bonneval, near Chartres; and the third, +fourth, and fifth by Geoffrey, a monk of Clairvaux and a former secretary +of St. Bernard. William of St. Thierry (from whose portion of the +biography selection "a" below is taken) wrote about 1140, Arnold and +Geoffrey soon after Bernard's death in 1153.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Sources—(a) Guillaume de Saint-Thierry, <i>Bernardus Clarævallensis</i> [William +of Saint Thierry, "Life of St. Bernard"], Bk. I., Chaps. 1-4.</p> + +<p class="source_add">(b) The <i>Acta Sanctorum</i>. Translated in Edward L. Cutts, <i>Scenes +and Characters of the Middle Ages</i> (London, 1872), pp. 11-12.</p> + +<p class="center">(a)</p> + +<p>Saint Bernard was born at Fontaines in Burgundy [near +Dijon], at the castle of his father. His parents were famed +among the famous of that age, most of all because of their piety. +His father, Tescelin, was a member of an ancient and knightly +family, fearing God and scrupulously just. Even when engaged +in holy war he plundered and destroyed no one; he contented +himself with his worldly possessions, of which he had an abundance, +and used them in all manner of good works. With both +<span class="sidebar">Bernard's +parents</span> +his counsel and his arms he served temporal lords, +but so as never to neglect to render to the sovereign +Lord that which was due Him. Bernard's mother, Alith, +of the castle Montbar, mindful of holy law, was submissive to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">252</a></span> +her husband and, with him, governed the household in the fear +of God, devoting herself to deeds of mercy and rearing her children +in strict discipline. She bore seven children, six boys and +one girl, not so much for the glory of her husband as for that +of God; for all the sons became monks and the daughter a +nun....<a name="FNanchor_369" id="FNanchor_369" href="#Footnote_369" class="fnanchor">[369]</a></p> + +<p>As soon as Bernard was of sufficient age his mother intrusted +his education to the teachers in the church at Châtillon<a name="FNanchor_370" id="FNanchor_370" href="#Footnote_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a> and +did everything in her power to enable him to make rapid progress. +The young boy, abounding in pleasing qualities and endowed +with natural genius, fulfilled his mother's every expectation; +for he advanced in his study of letters at a speed beyond +his age and that of other children of the same age. But in secular +matters he began already, and very naturally, to humble himself +<span class="sidebar">His early +characteristics</span> +in the interest of his future perfection, for +he exhibited the greatest simplicity, loved to be +in solitude, fled from people, was extraordinarily thoughtful, +submitted himself implicitly to his parents, had little desire to +converse, was devoted to God, and applied himself to his studies +as the means by which he should be able to learn of God through +the Scriptures....</p> + +<p>Determined that it would be best for him to abandon the +world, he began to inquire where his soul, under the yoke of +Christ, would be able to find the most complete and sure repose. +The recent establishment of the order of Cîteaux<a name="FNanchor_371" id="FNanchor_371" href="#Footnote_371" class="fnanchor">[371]</a> suggested +itself to his thought. The harvest was abundant, but the +<span class="sidebar">He decides to +become a monk +at Cîteaux</span> +laborers were few, for hardly any one had sought +happiness by taking up residence there, because of +the excessive austerity of life and the poverty +which there prevailed, but which had no terrors for the soul truly +seeking God. Without hesitation or misgivings, he turned his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">253</a></span> +steps to that place, thinking that there he would be able to find +seclusion and, in the secret of the presence of God, escape the +importunities of men; wishing particularly there to gain a refuge +from the vain glory of the noble's life, and to win purity of soul, +and perhaps the name of saint.</p> + +<p>When his brothers, who loved him according to the flesh, +discovered that he intended to become a monk, they employed +every means to turn him to the pursuit of letters and to attach +him to the secular life by the love of worldly knowledge. Without +doubt, as he has himself declared, he was not a little moved +by their arguments. But the memory of his devout mother +urged him importunately to take the step. It often seemed to +him that she appeared before him, reproaching him and reminding +him that she had not reared him for frivolous things of that +sort, and that she had brought him up in quite another hope. +Finally, one day when he was returning from the siege of a +château called Grancey, and was coming to his brothers, who +were with the duke of Burgundy, he began to be violently tormented +by these thoughts. Finding by the roadside a church, +he went in and there prayed, with flooded eyes, lifting his hands +toward Heaven and pouring out his heart like water before the +Lord. That day fixed his resolution irrevocably. From that +<span class="sidebar">His struggle +and his victory</span> +hour, even as the fire consumes the forests and +the flame ravages the mountains, seizing everything, +devouring first that which is nearest but advancing to +objects farther removed, so did the fire which God had kindled +in the heart of his servant, desiring that it should consume it, +lay hold first of his brothers (of whom only the youngest, incapable +yet of becoming a monk, was left to console his old +father), then his parents, his companions, and his friends, from +whom no one had ever expected such a step....</p> + +<p>The number of those who decided to take upon themselves +monastic vows increased and, as one reads of the earliest sons +of the Church, "all the multitude of those who believed were of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">254</a></span> +one mind and one heart" [Acts v. 32]. They lived together and +no one else dared mingle with them. They had at Châtillon a +house which they possessed in common and in which they held +meetings, dwelt together, and held converse with one another. +<span class="sidebar">Bernard and +his companions +at Châtillon</span> +No one was so bold as to enter it, unless he were +a member of the congregation. If any one entered +there, seeing and hearing what was done +and said (as the Apostle declared of the Christians of Corinth), +he was convinced by their prophecies and, adoring the Lord and +perceiving that God was truly among them, he either joined himself +to the brotherhood or, going away, wept at his own plight +and their happy state....</p> + +<p>At that time, the young and feeble establishment at Cîteaux, +under the venerable abbot Stephen,<a name="FNanchor_372" id="FNanchor_372" href="#Footnote_372" class="fnanchor">[372]</a> began to be seriously weakened +by its paucity of numbers and to lose all hope of having +successors to perpetuate the heritage of holy poverty, for everybody +revered the life of these monks for its sanctity but held aloof +from it because of its austerity. But the monastery was suddenly +<span class="sidebar">They enter +Cîteaux</span> +visited and made glad by the Lord in a +happy and unhoped-for manner. In 1113, fifteen +years after the foundation of the monastery, the servant of God, +Bernard, then about twenty-three years of age, entered the +establishment under the abbot Stephen, with his companions +to the number of more than thirty, and submitted himself to the +blessed yoke of Christ. From that day God prospered the house, +and that vine of the Lord bore fruit, putting forth its branches +from sea to sea.</p> + +<p>Such were the holy beginnings of the monastic life of that +man of God. It is impossible to any one who has not been imbued +as he with the spirit of God to recount the illustrious deeds +of his career, and his angelic conduct, during his life on earth. +He entered the monastery poor in spirit, still obscure and of no +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">255</a></span> +fame, with the intention of there perishing in the heart and +memory of men, and hoping to be forgotten and ignored like a +lost vessel. But God ordered it otherwise, and prepared him as +a chosen vessel, not only to strengthen and extend the monastic +order, but also to bear His name before kings and peoples to the +ends of the earth....</p> + +<p>At the time of harvest the brothers were occupied, with the +fervor and joy of the Holy Spirit, in reaping the grain. Since +he [Bernard] was not able to have part in the labor, they bade +him sit by them and take his ease. Greatly troubled, he had +<span class="sidebar">Bernard prays +for and obtains +the ability to +reap</span> +recourse to prayer and, with much weeping, implored +the Lord to grant him the strength to become +a reaper. The simplicity of his faith did not +deceive him, for that which he asked he obtained. Indeed from +that day he prided himself in being more skilful than the others at +that task; and he was the more given over to devotion during +that labor because he realized that the ability to perform it +was a direct gift from God. Refreshed by his employments of +this kind, he prayed, read, or meditated continuously. If an +opportunity for prayer in solitude offered itself, he seized it; but +in any case, whether by himself or with companions, he preserved +a solitude in his heart, and thus was everywhere alone. He read +gladly, and always with faith and thoughtfulness, the Holy +Scriptures, saying that they never seemed to him so clear as +when read in the text alone, and he declared his ability to discern +their truth and divine virtue much more readily in the +<span class="sidebar">His devotion +and knowledge +of the Scriptures</span> +source itself than in the commentaries which +were derived from it. Nevertheless, he read +humbly the saints and orthodox commentators +and made no pretense of rivaling their knowledge; but, submitting +his to theirs, and tracing it faithfully to its sources, he +drank often at the fountain whence they had drawn. It is thus +that, full of the spirit which has divinely inspired all Holy Scripture, +he has served God to this day, as the Apostle says, with so +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">256</a></span> +great confidence, and such ability to instruct, convert, and sway. +And when he preaches the word of God, he renders so clear and +agreeable that which he takes from Scripture to insert in his +discourse, and he has such power to move men, that everybody, +both those clever in worldly matters and those who possess +spiritual knowledge, marvel at the eloquent words which fall +from his lips.</p> + +<p class="center">(b)</p> + +<p>Twelve monks and their abbot, representing our Lord and His +apostles, were assembled in the church. Stephen placed a cross +in Bernard's hands, who solemnly, at the head of his small band, +walked forth from Cîteaux.... Bernard struck away to +the northward. For a distance of nearly ninety miles he kept +this course, passing up by the source of the Seine, by Châtillon, +of school-day memories, until he arrived at La Ferté, about +<span class="sidebar">Site selected +for the new +monastery</span> +equally distant between Troyes and Chaumont, +in the diocese of Langres, and situated on the +river Aube.<a name="FNanchor_373" id="FNanchor_373" href="#Footnote_373" class="fnanchor">[373]</a> About four miles beyond La Ferté +was a deep valley opening to the east. Thick umbrageous forests +gave it a character of gloom and wildness; but a gushing stream +of limpid water which ran through it was sufficient to redeem +every disadvantage.</p> + +<p>In June, 1115, Bernard took up his abode in the "Valley of +Wormwood," as it was called, and began to look for means of +shelter and sustenance against the approaching winter. The +<span class="sidebar">The first building +constructed</span> +rude fabric which he and his monks raised with +their own hands was long preserved by the pious +veneration of the Cistercians. It consisted of +a building covered by a single roof, under which chapel, dormitory, +and refectory were all included. Neither stone nor +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">257</a></span> +wood hid the bare earth, which served for a floor. Windows +scarcely wider than a man's head admitted a feeble light. In +this room the monks took their frugal meals of herbs and water. +Immediately above the refectory was the sleeping apartment. +It was reached by a ladder, and was, in truth, a sort of loft. +Here were the monks' beds, which were peculiar. They were +made in the form of boxes, or bins, of wooden planks, long and +wide enough for a man to lie down in. A small space, hewn out +with an axe, allowed room for the sleeper to get in or out. The +inside was strewn with chaff, or dried leaves, which, with the +woodwork, seem to have been the only covering permitted....</p> + +<p>The monks had thus got a house over their heads; but they +had very little else. They had left Cîteaux in June. Their +journey had probably occupied them a fortnight; their clearing, +preparations, and building, perhaps two months; and thus they +were near September when this portion of their labor was accomplished. +Autumn and winter were approaching, and they +had no store laid by. Their food during the summer had been +a compound of leaves intermixed with coarse grain. Beech-nuts +and roots were to be their main support during the winter. +<span class="sidebar">Hardships +encountered</span> +And now to the privations of insufficient food +was added the wearing out of their shoes and +clothes. Their necessities grew with the severity of the season, +until at last even salt failed them; and presently Bernard heard +murmurs. He argued and exhorted; he spoke to them of the +fear and love of God, and strove to rouse their drooping spirits +by dwelling on the hopes of eternal life and Divine recompense. +Their sufferings made them deaf and indifferent to their abbot's +words. They would not remain in this valley of bitterness; they +would return to Cîteaux. Bernard, seeing they had lost their +trust in God, reproved them no more; but himself sought in +earnest prayer for release from their difficulties. Presently a +voice from heaven said, "Arise, Bernard, thy prayer is granted +thee." Upon which the monks said, "What didst thou ask of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">258</a></span> +the Lord?" "Wait, and ye shall see, ye of little faith," was the +reply; and presently came a stranger who gave the abbot ten +livres.</p> + +<h4>44. A Description of Clairvaux</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The following is an interesting description of the abbey of Clairvaux, +written by William of St. Thierry, the friend and biographer of Bernard. +After giving an account of the external appearance and surroundings +of the monastery, the writer goes on to portray the daily life and devotion +of the monks who resided in it. In reading the description it +should be borne in mind that Clairvaux was a new establishment, +founded expressly to further the work of monastic reform, and that +therefore at the time when William of St. Thierry knew it, it exhibited +a state of piety and industry considerably above that to be found in +the average abbey of the day.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Guillaume de Saint-Thierry, <i>Bernardus Clarævallensis</i> [William +of Saint Thierry, "Life of St. Bernard"], Bk. I., Chap. 7. Translated +in Edward L. Cutts, <i>Scenes and Characters of the Middle +Ages</i> (London, 1872), pp. 12-14.</p> + +<p>At the first glance as you entered Clairvaux by descending the +hill you could see that it was a temple of God; and the still, +silent valley bespoke, in the modest simplicity of its buildings, +the unfeigned humility of Christ's poor. Moreover, in this valley +full of men, where no one was permitted to be idle, where one +and all were occupied with their allotted tasks, a silence deep +<span class="sidebar">The solitude +of Clairvaux</span> +as that of night prevailed. The sounds of labor, or +the chants of the brethren in the choral service, +were the only exceptions. The orderliness of this silence, and +the report that went forth concerning it, struck such a reverence +even into secular persons that they dreaded breaking it,—I will +not say by idle or wicked conversation, but even by proper +remarks. The solitude, also, of the place—between dense forests +in a narrow gorge of neighboring hills—in a certain sense recalled +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">259</a></span> +the cave of our father St. Benedict,<a name="FNanchor_374" id="FNanchor_374" href="#Footnote_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a> so that while they strove +to imitate his life, they also had some similarity to him in their +habitation and loneliness....</p> + +<p>Although the monastery is situated in a valley, it has its +foundations on the holy hills, whose gates the Lord loveth more +than all the dwellings of Jacob. Glorious things are spoken of +it, because the glorious and wonderful God therein worketh great +marvels. There the insane recover their reason, and although +their outward man is worn away, inwardly they are born again. +<span class="sidebar">Marvelous +works accomplished +there</span> + +There the proud are humbled, the rich are made +poor, and the poor have the Gospel preached to +them, and the darkness of sinners is changed +into light. A large multitude of blessed poor from the ends of +the earth have there assembled, yet have they one heart and +one mind; justly, therefore, do all who dwell there rejoice with +no empty joy. They have the certain hope of perennial joy, of +their ascension heavenward already commenced. In Clairvaux, +they have found Jacob's ladder, with angels upon it; some +descending, who so provide for their bodies that they faint not +on the way; others ascending, who so rule their souls that their +bodies hereafter may be glorified with them.</p> + +<p>For my part, the more attentively I watch them day by day, +the more do I believe that they are perfect followers of Christ +in all things. When they pray and speak to God in spirit and +in truth, by their friendly and quiet speech to Him, as well +<span class="sidebar">The piety of +the monks</span> +as by their humbleness of demeanor, they are +plainly seen to be God's companions and friends. +When, on the other hand, they openly praise God with psalms, +how pure and fervent are their minds, is shown by their posture +of body in holy fear and reverence, while by their careful pronunciation +and modulation of the psalms, is shown how sweet to +their lips are the words of God—sweeter than honey to their +mouths. As I watch them, therefore, singing without fatigue +from before midnight to the dawn of day, with only a brief interval, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">260</a></span> +they appear a little less than the angels, but much more +than men....</p> + +<p>As regards their manual labor, so patiently and placidly, with +such quiet countenances, in such sweet and holy order, do they +perform all things, that although they exercise themselves at +many works, they never seem moved or burdened in anything, +whatever the labor may be. Whence it is manifest that that +Holy Spirit worketh in them who disposeth of all things with +sweetness, in whom they are refreshed, so that they rest even +<span class="sidebar">Their manual +labor</span> +in their toil. Many of them, I hear, are bishops +and earls, and many illustrious through their +birth or knowledge; but now, by God's grace, all distinction of +persons being dead among them, the greater any one thought +himself in the world, the more in this flock does he regard himself +as less than the least. I see them in the garden with hoes, in the +meadows with forks or rakes, in the fields with scythes, in the +forest with axes. To judge from their outward appearance, +their tools, their bad and disordered clothes, they appear a race +of fools, without speech or sense. But a true thought in my mind +tells me that their life in Christ is hidden in the heavens. Among +them I see Godfrey of Peronne, Raynald of Picardy, William of +St. Omer, Walter of Lisle, all of whom I knew formerly in the +old man, whereof I now see no trace, by God's favor. I knew +them proud and puffed up; I see them walking humbly under +the merciful hand of God.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">261</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XVI.<br /> +THE CONFLICT OVER INVESTITURE</h3> + +<h4>45. Gregory VII.'s Conception of the Papal Authority</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>Hildebrand, who as pope was known as Gregory VII., was born +about the year 1025 in the vicinity of the little Tuscan town of Soana. +His education was received in the rich monastery of Saint Mary on the +Aventine, of which one of his uncles was abbot. At the age of twenty-five +he became chaplain to Pope Gregory VI., after whose fall from +power he sought seclusion in the monastery at Cluny. In 1049, however, +he again appeared in Italy, this time in the rôle of companion to +the new pontiff, Leo IX. In a few years he became sub-deacon and +cardinal and was intrusted with the municipal affairs and financial interests +of the Holy See. He served as papal legate in France and in +1057 was sent to Germany to obtain the consent of Empress Agnes to +the hurried election of Stephen IX. While in these countries he became +convinced that the evil conditions—simony, lay investiture, and +non-celibacy of the clergy—which the Cluniacs were seeking to reform +would never be materially improved by the temporal powers, and consequently +that the only hope of betterment lay in the establishing of +an absolute papal supremacy before which kings, and even emperors, +should be compelled to bow in submission. In April, 1073, Hildebrand +himself was made pope, nominally by the vote of the College of Cardinals, +but really by the enthusiastic choice of the Roman populace. His +whole training and experience had fitted him admirably for the place +and had equipped him with the capacity to make of his office something +more than had any of his predecessors. When he became pope +it was with a very lofty ideal of what the papacy should be, and the +surprising measure in which he was able to realize this ideal entitles +him without question to be regarded as the greatest of all mediæval +popes. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">262</a></span></p> + +<p>In the document given below, the so-called <i>Dictatus Papæ</i>, Pope Gregory's +conception of the nature of the papal power and its proper place +in the world is stated in the form of a clear and forcible summary. +Until recently the <i>Dictatus</i> was supposed to have been written by Gregory +himself, but it has been fairly well demonstrated that it was composed +not earlier than 1087 and was therefore the work of some one else +(Gregory died in 1085). It conforms very closely to a collection of the +laws of the Church published in 1087 by a certain cardinal by the name +of Deusdedit. The document loses little or none of its value by reason +of this uncertainty as to its authorship, for it represents Pope Gregory's +views as accurately as if he were known to have written it. In judging +Gregory's theories it should be borne in mind (1) that it was not personal +ambition, but sincere conviction, that lay beneath them; (2) that the +temporal states which existed in western Europe in Gregory's day were +rife with feudal anarchy and oppression and often too weak to be capable +of rendering justice; and (3) that Gregory claimed, not that the Church +should actually assume the management of the civil government +throughout Europe, but only that in cases of notorious failure of temporal +sovereigns to live right and govern well, the supreme authority +of the papacy should be brought to bear upon them, either to depose +them or to compel them to mend their ways. It is worthy of note, +however, that Gregory was careful to lay the foundations of a formidable +political power in Italy, chiefly by availing himself of the practices of +feudalism, as seen, for example, in the grant of southern Italy to the +Norman Robert Guiscard to be held as a fief of the Roman see.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in Michael Doeberl, <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica Selecta</i> +(München, 1889), Vol. III., p. 17.</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> That the Roman Church was founded by God alone.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> That the Roman bishop alone is properly called universal.<a name="FNanchor_375" id="FNanchor_375" href="#Footnote_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">263</a></span></p> + +<p><b>3.</b> That he alone has the power to depose bishops and reinstate +them.</p> + +<p><b>4.</b> That his legate, though of inferior rank, takes precedence +of all bishops in council, and may give sentence of deposition +against them.</p> + +<p><b>5.</b> That the Pope has the power to depose [bishops] in their +absence.<a name="FNanchor_376" id="FNanchor_376" href="#Footnote_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a></p> + +<p><b>6.</b> That we should not even stay in the same house with those +who are excommunicated by him.</p> + +<p><b>8.</b> That he alone may use the imperial insignia.<a name="FNanchor_377" id="FNanchor_377" href="#Footnote_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a></p> + +<p><b>9.</b> That the Pope is the only person whose feet are kissed by +all princes.</p> + +<p><b>11.</b> That the name which he bears belongs to him alone.<a name="FNanchor_378" id="FNanchor_378" href="#Footnote_378" class="fnanchor">[378]</a></p> + +<p><b>12.</b> That he has the power to depose emperors.<a name="FNanchor_379" id="FNanchor_379" href="#Footnote_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a></p> + +<p><b>13.</b> That he may, if necessity require, transfer bishops from +one see to another.</p> + +<p><b>16.</b> That no general synod may be called without his consent.</p> + +<p><b>17.</b> That no action of a synod, and no book, may be considered +canonical without his authority.<a name="FNanchor_380" id="FNanchor_380" href="#Footnote_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a></p> + +<p><b>18.</b> That his decree can be annulled by no one, and that he +alone may annul the decrees of any one.</p> + +<p><b>19.</b> That he can be judged by no man.</p> + +<p><b>20.</b> That no one shall dare to condemn a person who appeals +to the apostolic see.</p> + +<p><b>22.</b> That the Roman Church has never erred, nor ever, by +the testimony of Scripture, shall err, to all eternity.<a name="FNanchor_381" id="FNanchor_381" href="#Footnote_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">264</a></span></p> + +<p><b>26.</b> That no one can be considered Catholic who does not agree +with the Roman Church.</p> + +<p><b>27.</b> That he [the Pope] has the power to absolve the subjects +of unjust rulers from their oath of fidelity.</p> + +<h4>46. Letter of Gregory VII. to Henry IV. (December, 1075)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The high ideal of papal supremacy over temporal sovereigns which +Gregory cherished when he became pope in 1073, and which is set +forth so forcibly in the <i>Dictatus</i>, was one whose validity no king or +emperor could be brought to recognize. It involved an attitude of +inferiority and submissiveness which monarchs felt to be quite inconsistent +with the complete independence which they claimed in the +management of the affairs of their respective states. Perhaps one may +say that the theory in itself, as a mere expression of religious sentiment, +was not especially obnoxious; many an earlier pope had proclaimed it +in substance without doing the kings and emperors of Europe material +injury. It was the firm determination and the aggressive effort of +Gregory to reduce the theory to an actual working system that precipitated +a conflict.</p> + +<p>The supreme test of Gregory's ability to make the papal power felt in +the measure that he thought it should be came early in the pontificate in +the famous breach with Henry IV. of Germany. Henry at the time was +not emperor in name, but only "king of the Romans," the imperial +coronation not yet having taken place.<a name="FNanchor_382" id="FNanchor_382" href="#Footnote_382" class="fnanchor">[382]</a> For all practical purposes, +however, he may be regarded as occupying the emperor's position, since +all that was lacking was the performance of a more or less perfunctory +ceremony. Henry's specific grievances against the Pope were that the +latter had declared it a sin for an ecclesiastic to be invested with his +office by a layman, though this was almost the universal practice in +Germany, and that he had condemned five of the king's councilors for +simony,<a name="FNanchor_383" id="FNanchor_383" href="#Footnote_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a> suspended the archbishop of Bremen, the bishops of Speyer +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">265</a></span> +and Strassburg, and two Lombard bishops, and deposed the bishop of +Florence. Half of the land and wealth of Germany was in the hands +of bishops and abbots who, if the Pope were to have his way, would be +released from all practical dependence upon the king and so would be +free to encourage and take part in the feudal revolts which Henry was +exerting himself so vigorously to crush. June 8, 1075, on the banks of +the Unstrutt, the king won a signal victory over the rebellious feudal +lords, after which he felt strong enough to defy the authority of +Gregory with impunity. He therefore continued to associate with the +five condemned councilors and, in contempt of recent papal declarations +against lay investiture, took it upon himself to appoint and invest +a number of bishops and abbots, though always with extreme care that +the right kind of men be selected. Pope Gregory was, of course, not +the man to overlook such conduct and at once made vigorous protest. +The letter given below was written in December, 1075, and is one of a +considerable series which passed back and forth across the Alps prior +to the breaking of the storm in 1076-1077. At this stage matters had +not yet got beyond the possibility of compromise and reconciliation; +in fact Gregory writes as much as anything else to get the king's own +statement regarding the reports of his conduct which had come to +Rome. The tone of the letter is firm, it is true, but conciliatory. The +thunder of subsequent epistles to the recreant Henry had not yet been +brought into play.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in Michael Doeberl, <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica Selecta</i> +(München, 1889), Vol. III., pp. 18-22. Adapted from translation +in Oliver J. Thatcher and Edgar H. McNeal, <i>Source Book for Mediæval +History</i> (New York, 1905), pp. 147-150.</p> + +<p>Gregory, bishop, servant of the servants of God, to Henry, the +king, greeting and apostolic benediction,—that is, if he be obedient +to the apostolic see as is becoming in a Christian king:</p> + +<p>It is with some hesitation that we have sent you our apostolic +benediction, knowing that for all our acts as pope we must +render an account to God, the severe judge. It is reported that +you have willingly associated with men who have been excommunicated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">266</a></span> +by decree of the Pope and sentence of a synod.<a name="FNanchor_384" id="FNanchor_384" href="#Footnote_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a> If +this be true, you are very well aware that you can receive the +blessing neither of God nor of the Pope until you have driven +<span class="sidebar">Henry exhorted +to confess +his sins</span> +them from you and have compelled them to do +penance, and have also yourself sought absolution +and forgiveness for your transgressions with due +repentance and good works. Therefore we advise you that, if +you realize your guilt in this matter, you immediately confess +to some pious bishop, who shall absolve you with our permission, +prescribing for you penance in proportion to the fault, and who +shall faithfully report to us by letter, with your permission, the +nature of the penance required.</p> + +<p>We wonder, moreover, that you should continue to assure us +by letter and messengers of your devotion and humility; that +you should call yourself our son and the son of the holy mother +Church, obedient in the faith, sincere in love, diligent in devotion; +and that you should commend yourself to us with all zeal +of love and reverence—whereas in fact you are constantly +disobeying the canonical and apostolic decrees in important +matters of the faith.... Since you confess yourself a son +of the Church, you should treat with more honor the head of +the Church, that is, St. Peter, the prince of the apostles. If you +are one of the sheep of the Lord, you have been entrusted to +<span class="sidebar">The Pope's +claim to authority +over +temporal +princes</span> +him by divine authority, for Christ said to him: +"Peter, feed my sheep" [John, xxi. 16]; and again: +"And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom +of Heaven; and whatsoever thou shalt bind +on earth shall be bound in heaven; and whatsoever thou shalt +loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven" [Matt., xvi. 19]. And +since we, although an unworthy sinner, exercise his authority by +divine will, the words which you address to us are in reality addressed +directly to him. And although we read or hear only the +words, he sees the heart from which the words proceed. Therefore +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span> +your highness should be very careful that no insincerity be +found in your words and messages to us; and that you show due +reverence, not to us, indeed, but to omnipotent God, in those +things which especially make for the advance of the Christian +faith and the well-being of the Church. For our Lord said to the +apostles and to their successors: "He that heareth you heareth +me, and he that despiseth you despiseth me" [Luke, x. 16]. +For no one will disregard our admonitions if he believes that the +decrees of the Pope have the same authority as the words of the +apostle himself....<a name="FNanchor_385" id="FNanchor_385" href="#Footnote_385" class="fnanchor">[385]</a></p> + +<p>Now in the synod held at the apostolic seat to which the divine +will has called us (at which some of your subjects also were +present) we, seeing that the Christian religion had been weakened +by many attacks and that the chief and proper motive, +that of saving souls, had for a long time been neglected and +slighted, were alarmed at the evident danger of the destruction +of the flock of the Lord, and had recourse to the decrees and the +<span class="sidebar">Abuses in the +Church to be +corrected</span> +doctrine of the holy fathers. We decreed nothing +new, nothing of our invention; but we decided +that the error should be abandoned and the single +primitive rule of ecclesiastical discipline and the familiar way +of the saints should be again sought out and followed.<a name="FNanchor_386" id="FNanchor_386" href="#Footnote_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a> For we +know that no other door to salvation and eternal life lies open +to the sheep of Christ than that which was pointed out by Him +who said: "I am the door: by me if any man enter in he shall be +saved, and find pasture" [John, x. 9]; and this, we learn from +the gospels and from the sacred writings, was preached by the +apostles and observed by the holy fathers. And we have decided +that this decree—which some, placing human above divine +honor, have called an unendurable weight and an immense +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">268</a></span> +burden, but which we call by its proper name, that is, the truth +and light necessary to salvation—is to be received and observed +not only by you and your subjects, but also by all princes and +peoples of the earth who confess and worship Christ; for it is +greatly desired by us, and would be most fitting to you, that +as you are greater than others in glory, in honor, and in virtue, +so you should be more distinguished in devotion to Christ.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, that this decree may not seem to you beyond +measure grievous and unjust, we have commanded you by your +faithful ambassadors to send to us the wisest and most pious men +whom you can find in your kingdom, so that if they can show +or instruct us in any way how we can temper the sentence +<span class="sidebar">Gregory disposed +to treat +Henry fairly</span> +promulgated by the holy fathers without offense +to the eternal King or danger to our souls, we +may consider their advice. But, even if we had +not warned you in so friendly a manner, it would have been only +right on your part, before you violated the apostolic decrees, to +ask justice of us in a reasonable manner in any matter in which +we had injured or affected your honor. But from what you +have since done and decreed it is evident how little you care +for our warnings, or for the observance of justice.</p> + +<p>But since we hope that, while the long-suffering patience of +God still invites you to repent, you may become wiser and your +heart may be turned to obey the commands of God, we warn +you with fatherly love that, knowing the rule of Christ to be +over you, you should consider how dangerous it is to place your +honor above His, and that you should not interfere with the +liberty of the Church which He has deigned to join to Himself +by heavenly union, but rather with faithful devotion you should +offer your assistance to the increasing of this liberty to omnipotent +God and St. Peter, through whom also your glory may be +enhanced. You ought to recognize what you undoubtedly owe +to them for giving you victory over your enemies,<a name="FNanchor_387" id="FNanchor_387" href="#Footnote_387" class="fnanchor">[387]</a> that as they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">269</a></span> +have gladdened you with great prosperity, so they should see +that you are thereby rendered more devout. And in order that +<span class="sidebar">Henry's obligation +to serve +and obey the +papacy</span> +the fear of God, in whose hands is all power and +all rule, may affect your heart more than these +our warnings, you should recall what happened +to Saul, when, after winning the victory which he gained by +the will of the prophet, he glorified himself in his triumph and +did not obey the warnings of the prophet, and how God reproved +him; and, on the other hand, what grace King David acquired +by reason of his humility, as well as his other virtues.</p> + +<h4>47. Henry IV.'s Reply to Gregory's Letter (January, 1076)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>In 1059, when Nicholas II. was pope and Hildebrand was yet only a +cardinal, a council assembled at the Lateran decreed that henceforth +the right of electing the sovereign pontiff should be vested exclusively +in the college of cardinals, or in other words, in seven cardinal bishops +in the vicinity of Rome and a certain number of cardinal priests and +deacons attached to the parishes of the city. The people and clergy +generally were deprived of participation in the election, except so far +as merely to give their consent. Hildebrand seems to have been the +real author of the decree. Nevertheless, in 1073, when he was elevated +to the papal chair, the decree of 1059 was in a measure ignored, for he +was elected by popular vote and his choice was only passively sanctioned +by the cardinals. When, therefore, the quarrel between him and +Henry IV. came on, the latter was not slow to make use of the weapon +which Hildebrand's (or Gregory's) uncanonical election placed in his +hands. In replying, January 24, 1076, to the papal letter of December, +1075, he bluntly addresses himself to "Hildebrand, not pope, but +false monk," and writes a stinging epistle in the tone thus assumed +in his salutation. In his arraignment of Gregory the king doubtless +went far beyond the truth; but the fact remains that Gregory's dominating +purposes in the interest of the papal authority threatened to cut +deeply into the independence of all temporal sovereigns, and therefore +rendered such resistance as Henry offered quite inevitable. In the interim +between receiving the Pope's letter and dispatching his reply +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">270</a></span> +Henry had convened at Worms a council of the German clergy, and +this body had decreed that Gregory, having wrongfully ascended the +papal throne, should be compelled forthwith to abdicate it.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in Michael Doeberl, <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica Selecta</i> +(München, 1889), Vol. III., pp. 24-25. Translated in Oliver J. +Thatcher and Edgar H. McNeal, <i>Source Book for Mediæval History</i> +(New York, 1905), pp. 151-152.</p> + +<p>Henry, king not by usurpation, but by the holy ordination +of God, to Hildebrand, not pope, but false monk.</p> + +<p>This is the salutation which you deserve, for you have never +held any office in the Church without making it a source of confusion +and a curse to Christian men, instead of an honor and a +blessing. To mention only the most obvious cases out of many, +you have not only dared to lay hands on the Lord's anointed, +the archbishops, bishops, and priests, but you have scorned +<span class="sidebar">Gregory declared +to be +only a demagogue</span> +them and abused them, as if they were ignorant +servants not fit to know what their master was +doing. This you have done to gain favor with +the vulgar crowd. You have declared that the bishops know +nothing and that you know everything; but if you have such +great wisdom you have used it not to build but to destroy. +Therefore we believe that St. Gregory, whose name you have +presumed to take, had you in mind when he said: "The heart of +the prelate is puffed up by the abundance of subjects, and he +thinks himself more powerful than all others." All this we have +endured because of our respect for the papal office, but you have +mistaken our humility for fear, and have dared to make an +attack upon the royal and imperial authority which we received +<span class="sidebar">The papal +claim to temporal +supremacy +rejected</span> +from God. You have even threatened to take it +away, as if we had received it from you, and as if +the Empire and kingdom were in your disposal +and not in the disposal of God. Our Lord Jesus Christ has +called us to the government of the Empire, but He never +called you to the rule of the Church. This is the way you +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">271</a></span> +have gained advancement in the Church: through craft you have +obtained wealth; through wealth you have obtained favor; +through favor, the power of the sword; and through the power +of the sword, the papal seat, which is the seat of peace; and then +from the seat of peace you have expelled peace. For you have +incited subjects to rebel against their prelates by teaching them +to despise the bishops, their rightful rulers. You have given to +laymen the authority over priests, whereby they condemn and +depose those whom the bishops have put over them to teach +them. You have attacked me, who, unworthy as I am, have +yet been anointed to rule among the anointed of God, and who, +according to the teaching of the fathers, can be judged by no +one save God alone, and can be deposed for no crime except +infidelity. For the holy fathers in the time of the apostate +Julian<a name="FNanchor_388" id="FNanchor_388" href="#Footnote_388" class="fnanchor">[388]</a> did not presume to pronounce sentence of deposition +against him, but left him to be judged and condemned by God. +<span class="sidebar">Henry +also cites +Scripture</span> +St. Peter himself said, "Fear God, honor the +king" [1 Pet., ii. 17]. But you, who fear not God, +have dishonored me, whom He hath established. +St. Paul, who said that even an angel from heaven should be +accursed who taught any other than the true doctrine, did not +make an exception in your favor, to permit you to teach false +doctrines. For he says, "But though we, or an angel from +heaven, preach any other gospel unto you than that which we +have preached unto you, let him be accursed" [Gal., i. 8]. Come +down, then, from that apostolic seat which you have obtained +by violence; for you have been declared accursed by St. Paul +for your false doctrines, and have been condemned by us and +our bishops for your evil rule. Let another ascend the throne +of St. Peter, one who will not use religion as a cloak of violence, +but will teach the life-giving doctrine of that prince of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">272</a></span> +apostles. I, Henry, king by the grace of God, with all my +bishops, say unto you: "Come down, come down, and be accursed +through all the ages."</p> + +<h4>48. Henry IV. Deposed by Pope Gregory (1076)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The foregoing letter of Henry IV. was received at Rome with a storm +of disapproval and the envoys who bore it barely escaped with their +lives. A council of French and Italian bishops was convened in the Lateran +(Feb. 24, 1076), and the king's haughty epistle, together with the +decree of the council at Worms deposing Gregory, were read and allowed +to have their effect. With the assent of the bishops, the Pope pronounced +the sentence of excommunication against Henry and formally +released all the latter's Christian subjects from their oath of allegiance. +Naturally the action of Gregory aroused intense interest throughout +Europe. In Germany it had the intended effect of detaching many +influential bishops and abbots from the imperial cause and stirring +the political enemies of the king to renewed activity. The papal +ban became a pretext for the renewal of the hostility on part of +his dissatisfied subjects which Henry had but just succeeded in +suppressing.</p> + +<p>In the first part of the papal decree Gregory seeks to defend himself +against the charges brought by Henry and the German clergy to the +effect that he had mounted the papal throne through personal ambition +and the employment of unbecoming means. It was indisputable +that his election had not been strictly in accord with the decree +of 1059, but it seems equally true that, as Gregory declares, he was +placed at the helm of the Church contrary to his personal desires.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in Michael Doeberl, <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica Selecta</i> +(München, 1889), Vol. III., p. 26. Translated in Oliver J. Thatcher +and Edgar H. McNeal, <i>Source Book for Mediæval History</i> (New +York, 1905), pp. 155-156.</p> + +<p>St. Peter, prince of the apostles, incline thine ear unto me, +I beseech thee, and hear me, thy servant, whom thou hast +nourished from mine infancy and hast delivered from mine +enemies that hate me for my fidelity to thee. Thou art my witness, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">273</a></span> +as are also my mistress, the mother of God, and St. Paul +thy brother, and all the other saints, that the Holy Roman Church +<span class="sidebar">Gregory denies +that he ever +sought the +papal office</span> +called me to its government against my own will, +and that I did not gain thy throne by violence; +that I would rather have ended my days in exile +than have obtained thy place by fraud or for worldly ambition. +It is not by my efforts, but by thy grace, that I am set to rule +over the Christian world which was especially intrusted to thee +by Christ. It is by thy grace, and as thy representative that +God has given to me the power to bind and to loose in heaven +and in earth. Confident of my integrity and authority, I now +declare in the name of the omnipotent God, the Father, Son, +and Holy Spirit, that Henry, son of the Emperor Henry,<a name="FNanchor_389" id="FNanchor_389" href="#Footnote_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a> is +<span class="sidebar">Henry +deposed by +papal decree</span> +deprived of his kingdom of Germany and Italy. +I do this by thy authority and in defense of the +honor of thy Church, because he has rebelled +against it. He who attempts to destroy the honor of the Church +should be deprived of such honor as he may have held. He has +refused to obey as a Christian should; he has not returned to +God from whom he had wandered; he has had dealings with +excommunicated persons; he has done many iniquities; he has +despised the warnings which, as thou art witness, I sent to him +for his salvation; he has cut himself off from thy Church, and +has attempted to rend it asunder; therefore, by thy authority, +I place him under the curse. It is in thy name that I curse him, +that all people may know that thou art Peter, and upon thy +rock the Son of the living God has built his Church, and the +gates of Hell shall not prevail against it.</p> + +<h4>49. The Penance of Henry IV. at Canossa (1077)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>In his contest with the Pope, Henry's chances of winning were from +the outset diminished by the readiness of his subjects to take advantage +of his misfortunes to recover political privileges they had lost under his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">274</a></span> +vigorous rule. In October, 1076, the leading German nobles, lay and +clerical, encouraged by the papal decree of the preceding February, +assembled at Tribur, near Mainz, and proceeded to formulate a plan +of action. Henry, with the few followers who remained faithful, awaited +the result at Oppenheim, just across the Rhine. The magnates at last +agreed that unless Henry could secure the removal of the papal ban +within a year he should be deposed from the throne. By the Oppenheim +Convention he was forced to promise to revoke his sentence of +deposition against Gregory and to offer him his allegiance. The promise +was executed in a royal edict of the same month. Seeing that there +remained no hope in further resistance, and hearing that Gregory was +about to present himself in Germany to compel a final adjustment of +the affair, Henry fled from Speyer, where he had been instructed by +the nobles to remain, and by a most arduous winter journey over the +Alps arrived at last at the castle of Canossa, in Tuscany,<a name="FNanchor_390" id="FNanchor_390" href="#Footnote_390" class="fnanchor">[390]</a> where the +Pope, on his way to Germany, was being entertained by one of his +allies, the Countess Matilda. Gregory might indeed already have been +on the Rhine but that he had heard of the move Henry was making and +feared that he was proposing to stir up revolt in the papal dominions. +The king was submissive, apparently conquered; yet Gregory was loath +to end the conflict at this point. He had hoped to establish a precedent +by entering German territory and there disposing of the crown according +to his own will. But it was a cardinal rule of the Church that a +penitent sincerely seeking absolution could not be denied, and in his +request Henry was certainly importunate enough to give every appearance +of sincerity. Accordingly, the result of the meeting of king [Emperor] +and Pope at Canossa was that the ban of excommunication was +revoked by the latter, while the former took an oath fully acknowledging +the papal claims.</p> + +<p>Inasmuch as he had saved his crown and frustrated the design of +Gregory to cross the mountains into Germany, Henry may be said +to have won a temporary advantage; and this was followed within a +few years, when the struggle broke out again, by the practical expulsion +of Gregory from Rome and his death in broken-hearted exile (1085). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">275</a></span> +Nevertheless the moral effect of the Canossa episode, and of the events +which followed, in the long run operated decidedly against the king's +position and the whole imperial theory. The document below is a +letter of Gregory to the German magnates giving an account of the +submission of the king at Canossa, and including the text of the oath +which he there took.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in Michael Doeberl, <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica Selecta</i> +(München, 1889), Vol. III., pp. 33-34. Adapted from translation +in Ernest F. Henderson, <i>Select Historical Documents of the Middle +Ages</i> (London, 1896), pp. 385-388.</p> + +<p>Gregory, bishop, servant of the servants of God, to all the +archbishops, bishops, dukes, counts, and other princes of the +realm of the Germans who defend the Christian faith, greeting +and apostolic benediction.</p> + +<p>Inasmuch as for love of justice you assumed common cause +and danger with us in the struggle of Christian warfare, we have +taken care to inform you, beloved, with sincere affection, how +the king, humbled to penance, obtained the pardon of absolution +and how the whole affair has progressed from his entrance into +Italy to the present time.</p> + +<p>As had been agreed with the legates who had been sent to us +on your part,<a name="FNanchor_391" id="FNanchor_391" href="#Footnote_391" class="fnanchor">[391]</a> we came into Lombardy about twenty days before +the date on which one of the commanders was to come over the +<span class="sidebar">Gregory's +advance into +Tuscany</span> +pass to meet us, awaiting his advent that we +might cross over to the other side. But when the +period fixed upon had already passed, and we +were told that at this time on account of many difficulties—as +we can readily believe—an escort could not be sent to meet +us, we were involved in no little perplexity as to what would +be best for us to do, having no other means of coming to you.</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">276</a></span></p> + +<p>Meanwhile, however, we learned that the king was approaching. +He also, before entering Italy, sent to us suppliant legates, +offering in all things to render satisfaction to God, to St. Peter, +and to us. And he renewed his promise that, besides amending +his way of living, he would observe all obedience if only he might +deserve to obtain from us the favor of absolution and the apostolic +benediction. When, after long postponing a decision and +holding frequent consultations, we, through all the envoys who +<span class="sidebar">Henry at +Canossa</span> +passed, had severely taken him to task for his +excesses, he came at length of his own accord, +with a few followers, showing nothing of hostility or boldness, +to the town of Canossa where we were tarrying. And there, +having laid aside all the belongings of royalty, wretchedly, with +bare feet and clad in wool, he continued for three days to stand +before the gate of the castle. Nor did he desist from imploring +with many tears, the aid and consolation of the apostolic mercy +until he had moved all of those who were present there, and +whom the report of it reached, to such pity and depth of compassion +that, interceding for him with many prayers and tears, +all wondered indeed at the unaccustomed hardness of our heart, +while some actually cried out that we were exercising, not the +dignity of apostolic severity, but the cruelty, as it were, of a +tyrannical madness.</p> + +<p>Finally, won by the persistency of his suit and by the constant +supplications of all who were present, we loosed the chain +of the anathema<a name="FNanchor_392" id="FNanchor_392" href="#Footnote_392" class="fnanchor">[392]</a> and at length received him into the favor of +communion and into the lap of the holy mother Church, those +being accepted as sponsors for him whose names are written +below.</p> + +<p>Having thus accomplished these matters, we desire at the first +opportunity to cross over to your country in order that, by +God's aid, we may more fully arrange all things for the peace +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">277</a></span> +of the Church and the concord of the kingdom, as has long +been our wish. For we desire, beloved, that you should know +<span class="sidebar">Gregory's purpose +to visit +Germany</span> +beyond a doubt that the whole question at issue +is as yet so little cleared up—as you can learn +from the sponsors mentioned—that both our +coming and the concurrence of your counsels are extremely +necessary. Wherefore strive ye all to continue in the faith in +which you have begun and in the love of justice; and know that +we are not otherwise committed to the king save that, by word +alone, as is our custom, we have said that he might have hopes +from us in those matters in which, without danger to his soul +or to our own, we might be able to help him to his salvation and +honor, either through justice or through mercy.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Oath of King Henry</span></p> + +<p>I, King Henry, on account of the murmuring and enmity +which the archbishops and bishops, dukes, counts and other +princes of the realm of the Germans, and others who follow them +in the same matter of dissension, bring to bear against me, will, +within the term which our master Pope Gregory has constituted, +either do justice according to his judgment or conclude peace +according to his counsels—unless an absolute impediment should +stand in his way or in mine. And on the removal of this impediment +I shall be ready to continue in the same course. Likewise, +if that same lord Pope Gregory shall wish to go beyond the +mountains [i.e., into Germany], or to any other part of the +world, he himself, as well as those who shall be in his escort or +following, or who are sent by him, or come to him from any parts +of the world whatever, shall be secure while going, remaining, +or returning, on my part, and on the part of those whom I can +constrain, from every injury to life or limb, or from capture. +Nor shall he, by my consent, meet any other hindrance that is +contrary to his dignity; and if any such be placed in his way I +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">278</a></span> +will aid him according to my ability. So help me God and this +holy gospel.</p> + +<h4>50. The Concordat of Worms (1122)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The veteran Emperor Henry IV. died at Liège in 1106 and was succeeded +by his son, Henry V. The younger Henry had some months before +been prompted by Pope Paschal II. to rebel against his father and, +succeeding in this, had practically established himself on the throne +before his legitimate time. Pope Paschal expected the son to be more +submissive than the father had been and in 1106 issued a decree renewing +the prohibition of lay investiture. Outside of Germany this +evil had been brought almost to an end and, now that the vigorous +Henry IV. was out of the way, the Pope felt that the time had come to +make the reform complete throughout Christendom. But in this he +was mistaken, for Henry V. proved almost as able and fully as determined +a power to contend with as had been his father. In fact, the new +monarch could command a much stronger army, and he was in no wise +loath to use it. In 1110 he led a host of thirty thousand men across +the Alps, compelled the submission of the north Italian towns, and +marched on Rome. The outcome was a secret compact (February 4, +1111) by which the king, on the one hand, was to abandon all claim to the +right of investiture and the Pope, on the other, was to see that the ecclesiastical +princes of the Empire (bishops and abbots holding large tracts +of land) should give up all the lands which they had received by royal +grant since the days of Charlemagne. The abandonment of investiture +looked like a surrender on the part of Henry, but in reality all that he +wanted was direct control over all the lands of the Empire, and if the +ecclesiastical princes were to be dispossessed of these he cared little or +nothing about having a part in the mere religious ceremony. This +settlement was rendered impossible, however, by the attitude of the +princes themselves, who naturally refused to be thus deprived of their +landed property and chief source of income. The Pope was then forced +to make a second compact surrendering the full right of investiture to +the imperial authority, and Henry also got the coveted imperial coronation. +But his triumph was short-lived. Rebellions among the German +nobles robbed him of his strength and after years of wearisome bickerings +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">279</a></span> +and petty conflicts he again came to the point where he was willing +to compromise. Calixtus II., who became pope in 1119, was similarly +inclined.</p> + +<p>Accordingly, in a diet at Worms, in 1122, the whole problem +was taken up for settlement, and happily this time with success. The +documents translated below contain the concessions made mutually by +the two parties. Calixtus, in brief, grants that the elections of bishops +and abbots may take place in the presence of the Emperor, or of his +agents, and that the Emperor should have the right to invest them with +the scepter, i.e., with their dignity as princes of the Empire. Henry, +on his side, agrees to give up investiture with the ring and staff, i.e., +with spiritual functions, to allow free elections, and to aid in the +restoration of church property which had been confiscated during the +long struggle now drawing to a close. The settlement was in the nature +of a compromise; but on the whole the papacy came off the better. +In its largest aspects the great fifty-year struggle over the question +of investiture was ended, though minor features of it remained to trouble +all parties concerned for a long time to come.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Sources—(a) Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges</i> (Pertz ed.), +Vol. II., pp. 75-76.</p> + +<p class="source_add">(b) Text in Michael Doeberl, <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica +Selecta</i>, Vol. III., p. 60.</p> + +<p class="center">(a)</p> + +<p>I, Bishop Calixtus, servant of the servants of God, do grant +to thee, by the grace of God august Emperor of the Romans, the +right to hold the elections of the bishops and abbots of the +German realm who belong to the kingdom, in thy presence, without +<span class="sidebar">The provision +for elections</span> +simony, and without any resort to violence; +it being agreed that, if any dispute arise among +those concerned, thou, by the counsel and judgment of the +metropolitan [i.e., the archbishop] and the suffragan bishops, +shalt extend favor and support to the party which shall seem +to you to have the better case. Moreover, the person elected +may receive from thee the <i>regalia</i> through the scepter, without +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">280</a></span> +any exaction being levied;<a name="FNanchor_393" id="FNanchor_393" href="#Footnote_393" class="fnanchor">[393]</a> and he shall discharge his rightful +obligations to thee for them.<a name="FNanchor_394" id="FNanchor_394" href="#Footnote_394" class="fnanchor">[394]</a></p> + +<p>He who is consecrated in other parts of the Empire<a name="FNanchor_395" id="FNanchor_395" href="#Footnote_395" class="fnanchor">[395]</a> shall +receive the <i>regalia</i> from thee through the scepter, within six +months, and without any exaction, and shall discharge his +<span class="sidebar">Investiture +with the +scepter</span> +rightful obligations to thee for them; those rights +being excepted, however, which are known to +belong to the Roman Church. In whatever cases +thou shalt make complaint to me and ask my aid I will support +thee according as my office requires. To thee, and to all +those who are on thy side, or have been, in this period of strife, +I grant a true peace.</p> + +<p class="center">(b)</p> + +<p>In the name of the holy and indivisible Trinity, I, Henry, by +the grace of God august Emperor of the Romans, for the love +of God and of the holy Roman Church and of our lord Pope +Calixtus, and for the saving of my soul, do give over to God, +<span class="sidebar">Investiture +with ring +and staff</span> +and to the holy apostles of God, Peter and Paul, +and the holy Catholic Church, all investiture +through ring and staff; and do concede that in +all the churches that are in my kingdom or empire there shall +be canonical election and free consecration.</p> + +<p>All the property and <i>regalia</i> of St. Peter which, from the beginning +of this conflict until the present time, whether in the +days of my father or in my own, have been confiscated, and +<span class="sidebar">Restoration +of confiscated +property</span> +which I now hold, I restore to the holy Roman +Church. And as for those things which I do not +now hold, I will faithfully aid in their restoration. +The property also of all other churches and princes and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">281</a></span> +of every one, whether lay or ecclesiastical, which has been lost +in the struggle, I will restore as far as I hold it, according to the +counsel of the princes, or according to considerations of justice. +I will also faithfully aid in the restoration of those things which +I do not hold.</p> + +<p>And I grant a true peace to our lord Pope Calixtus, and to the +holy Roman Church, and to all those who are, or have been, on +its side. In matters where the holy Roman Church shall seek +assistance, I will faithfully render it, and when it shall make +complaint to me I will see that justice is done.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">282</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XVII.<br /> +THE CRUSADES</h3> + +<h4>51. Speech of Pope Urban II. at the Council of Clermont (1095)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>Within a short time after the death of Mohammed (632) the whole +country of Syria, including Palestine, was overrun by the Arabs, and the +Holy City of Jerusalem passed out of Christian hands into the control of +the infidels. The Arabs, however, shared the veneration of the Christians +for the places associated with the life of Christ and did not greatly +interfere with the pilgrims who flocked thither from all parts of the Christian +world. In the tenth century the strong emperors of the Macedonian +dynasty at Constantinople succeeded in winning back all of +Syria except the extreme south, and the prospect seemed fair for the +permanent possession by a Christian power of all those portions of the +Holy Land which were regarded as having associations peculiarly sacred. +This prospect might have been realized but for the invasions and conquests +of the Seljuk Turks in the latter part of the eleventh century. +These Turks came from central Asia and are to be carefully distinguished +from the Ottoman Turks of more modern times. They had recently +been converted to Mohammedanism and were now the fiercest and most +formidable champions of that faith in its conflict with the Christian +East. In 1071 Emperor Romanus Diogenes was defeated at Manzikert, +in Armenia, and taken prisoner by the sultan Alp Arslan, and as a result +not only Asia Minor, but also Syria, was forever lost to the Empire. +The Holy City of Jerusalem was definitely occupied in 1076. The invaders +established a stronghold at Nicæa, less than a hundred miles +across the Sea of Marmora from Constantinople, and even threatened +the capital itself, although they did not finally succeed in taking it until +1453.</p> + +<p>No sooner were the Turks in possession of Jerusalem and the approaches +thither, than pilgrims returning to western Europe began to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">283</a></span> +tell tales, not infrequently as true as they were terrifying, regarding insults +and tortures suffered at the hand of the pitiless conquerors. The +Emperor Alexius Comnenus (1081-1118) put forth every effort to expel +the intruders from Asia Minor, hoping to be able to regain the territories, +including Syria, which they had stripped from the Empire; but his +strength proved unequal to the task. Accordingly, in 1095, he sent an +appeal to Pope Urban II. to enlist the Christian world in a united effort +to save both the Empire and the Eastern Church. It used to be thought +that Pope Sylvester II., about the year 1000, had suggested a crusade +against the Mohammedans of the East, but it now appears that the first +pope to advance such an idea was Gregory VII. (1073-1085), who in +response to an appeal of Alexius's predecessor in 1074, had actually assembled +an army of 50,000 men for the aid of the Emperor and had been +prevented from carrying out the project only by the severity of the +investiture controversy with Henry IV. of Germany. At any rate, it was +not a difficult task for the ambassadors of Alexius to convince Pope +Urban that he ought to execute the plan of Gregory. The plea for aid +was made at the Council of Piacenza in March, 1095, and during the next +few months Urban thought out the best method of procedure.</p> + +<p>At the Council of Clermont, held in November, 1095, the crusade was +formally proclaimed through the famous speech which the Pope himself +delivered after the regular business of the assembly had been transacted. +Urban was a Frenchman and he knew how to appeal to the emotions and +sympathies of his hearers. For the purpose of stirring up interest in the +enterprise he dropped the Latin in which the work of the Council had +been transacted and broke forth in his native tongue, much to the delight +of his countrymen. There are four early versions of the speech, +differing widely in contents, and none, of course, reproducing the exact +words used by the speaker. The version given by Robert the Monk, a +resident of Rheims, in the opening chapter of his history of the first +crusade seems in most respects superior to the others. It was written +nearly a quarter of a century after the Council of Clermont, but the +writer in all probability had at least heard the speech which he was trying +to reproduce; in any event we may take his version of it as a very +satisfactory representation of the aspirations and spirit which impelled +the first crusaders to their great enterprise. It has been well said that +"many orations have been delivered with as much eloquence, and in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">284</a></span> +as fiery words as the Pope used, but no other oration has ever been able +to boast of as wonderful results."</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Robertus Monachus, <i>Historia Iherosolimitana</i> [Robert the Monk, +"History of the Crusade to Jerusalem"], Bk. I., Chap. 1. Reprinted +in <i>Recueildes Historiens des Croisades: Historiens Occidentaux</i> +(Paris, 1866), Vol. III., pp. 727-728. Adapted from translation +by Dana C. Munro in <i>Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints</i>, +Vol. I., No. 2, pp. 5-8.</p> + +<p>In the year of our Lord's Incarnation one thousand and +ninety-five, a great council was convened within the bounds of +<span class="sidebar">The Council +of Clermont</span> +Gaul, in Auvergne, in the city which is called +Clermont. Over this Pope Urban II. presided, +with the Roman bishops and cardinals. This council was a +famous one on account of the concourse of both French and +German bishops, and of princes as well. Having arranged the +matters relating to the Church, the lord Pope went forth into a +certain spacious plain, for no building was large enough to hold +all the people. The Pope then, with sweet and persuasive eloquence, +addressed those present in words something like the +following, saying:</p> + +<p>"Oh, race of Franks, race beyond the mountains [the Alps], +race beloved and chosen by God (as is clear from many of your +works), set apart from all other nations by the situation of your +<span class="sidebar">Pope Urban +appeals to the +French</span> +country, as well as by your Catholic faith and +the honor you render to the holy Church: to you +our discourse is addressed, and for you our +exhortations are intended. We wish you to know what a serious +matter has led us to your country, for it is the imminent peril +threatening you and all the faithful that has brought us hither.</p> + +<p>"From the confines of Jerusalem and from the city of Constantinople +a grievous report has gone forth and has been brought +repeatedly to our ears; namely, that a race from the kingdom +of the Persians, an accursed race, a race wholly alienated from +God, 'a generation that set not their heart aright, and whose +spirit was not steadfast with God' [Ps., lxxviii. 8], has violently +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">285</a></span> +invaded the lands of those Christians and has depopulated +them by pillage and fire. They have led away a part of the +<span class="sidebar">The ravages +of the Turks</span> +captives into their own country, and a part they +have killed by cruel tortures. They have either +destroyed the churches of God or appropriated them for the rites +of their own religion. They destroy the altars, after having +defiled them with their uncleanness.... The kingdom of +the Greeks [the Eastern Empire] is now dismembered by them +and has been deprived of territory so vast in extent that it could +not be traversed in two months' time.</p> + +<p>"On whom, therefore, rests the labor of avenging these wrongs +and of recovering this territory, if not upon you—you, upon +whom, above all other nations, God has conferred remarkable +glory in arms, great courage, bodily activity, and strength to +humble the heads of those who resist you? Let the deeds of +your ancestors encourage you and incite your minds to manly +<span class="sidebar">Urban recalls +the zeal and +valor of the +earlier Franks</span> +achievements—the glory and greatness of King +Charlemagne, and of his son Louis [the Pious], +and of your other monarchs, who have destroyed +the kingdoms of the Turks<a name="FNanchor_396" id="FNanchor_396" href="#Footnote_396" class="fnanchor">[396]</a> and have extended the sway of the +holy Church over lands previously pagan. Let the holy sepulcher +of our Lord and Saviour, which is possessed by the unclean +nations, especially arouse you, and the holy places which are +now treated with ignominy and irreverently polluted with the +filth of the unclean. Oh most valiant soldiers and descendants +of invincible ancestors, do not degenerate, but recall the valor of +your ancestors.</p> + +<p>"But if you are hindered by love of children, parents, or wife, +remember what the Lord says in the Gospel, 'He that loveth +father or mother more than me is not worthy of me' [Matt., +x. 37]. 'Every one that hath forsaken houses, or brethren, or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">286</a></span> +sisters, or father, or mother, or wife, or children, or lands, for +my name's sake, shall receive an hundred-fold, and shall inherit +everlasting life' [Matt., xix. 29]. Let none of your possessions +restrain you, nor anxiety for your family affairs. For this land +which you inhabit, shut in on all sides by the seas and surrounded +<span class="sidebar">The crusade as +a desirable remedy +for over +population</span> +by the mountain peaks, is too narrow +for your large population; nor does it abound in +wealth; and it furnishes scarcely food enough +for its cultivators. Hence it is that you murder and devour +one another, that you wage war, and that very many among you +perish in civil strife.<a name="FNanchor_397" id="FNanchor_397" href="#Footnote_397" class="fnanchor">[397]</a></p> + +<p>"Let hatred, therefore, depart from among you; let your quarrels +end; let wars cease; and let all dissensions and controversies +slumber. Enter upon the road of the Holy Sepulcher; wrest that +land from the wicked race, and subject it to yourselves. That +land which, as the Scripture says, 'floweth with +<span class="sidebar">Syria, a rich +country</span> +milk and honey' [Num., xiii. 27] was given by +God into the power of the children of Israel. Jerusalem is the +center of the earth; the land is fruitful above all others, like +another paradise of delights. This spot the Redeemer of mankind +has made illustrious by His advent, has beautified by His +sojourn, has consecrated by His passion, has redeemed by His +death, has glorified by His burial.</p> + +<p>"This royal city, however, situated at the center of the earth, +is now held captive by the enemies of Christ and is subjected, +by those who do not know God, to the worship of the heathen. +She seeks, therefore, and desires to be liberated, and ceases not to +implore you to come to her aid. From you especially she asks +succor, because, as we have already said, God has conferred +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">287</a></span> +upon you, above all other nations, great glory in arms. Accordingly, +undertake this journey eagerly for the remission of your +sins, with the assurance of the reward of imperishable glory in +the kingdom of heaven."</p> + +<p>When Pope Urban had skilfully said these and very many +similar things, he so centered in one purpose the desires of all +<span class="sidebar">Response to +the appeal</span> +who were present that all cried out, "It is the +will of God! It is the will of God!" When the +venerable Roman pontiff heard that, with eyes uplifted to heaven, +he gave thanks to God and, commanding silence with his hand, said:</p> + +<p>"Most beloved brethren, to-day is manifest in you what the +Lord says in the Gospel, 'Where two or three are gathered together +in my name, there am I in the midst of them' [Matt., +xviii. 20]. For unless God had been present in your spirits, all +of you would not have uttered the same cry; since, although +<span class="sidebar">"Deus vult," +the war cry</span> +the cry issued from numerous mouths, yet the +origin of the cry was one. Therefore I say to you +that God, who implanted this in your breasts, has drawn it forth +from you. Let that, then, be your war cry in battle, because it +is given to you by God. When an armed attack is made upon +the enemy, let this one cry be raised by all the soldiers of God: +'It is the will of God! It is the will of God!'</p> + +<p>"And we neither command nor advise that the old or feeble, +or those incapable of bearing arms, undertake this journey. +Nor ought women to set out at all without their husbands, or +brothers, or legal guardians. For such are more of a hindrance +than aid, more of a burden than an advantage. Let the rich +aid the needy; and according to their wealth let them take with +them experienced soldiers. The priests and other clerks [clergy], +<span class="sidebar">Who should go +and who should +remain</span> +whether secular or regular, are not to go without +the consent of their bishop; for this journey +would profit them nothing if they went without +permission. Also, it is not fitting that laymen should enter upon +the pilgrimage without the blessing of their priests. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">288</a></span></p> + +<p>"Whoever, therefore, shall decide upon this holy pilgrimage, +and shall make his vow to God to that effect, and shall offer +himself to Him for sacrifice, as a living victim, holy and acceptable +to God, shall wear the sign of the cross of the Lord on his forehead +or on his breast. When he shall return from his journey, +having fulfilled his vow, let him place the cross on his back +between his shoulders. Thus shall ye, indeed, by this twofold +action, fulfill the precept of the Lord, as He commands in the +Gospel, 'He that taketh not his cross, and followeth after me, +is not worthy of me'" [Luke, xiv. 27].</p> + +<h4>52. The Starting of the Crusaders (1096)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The appeals of Pope Urban at Clermont and elsewhere met with ready +response, especially among the French, but also to a considerable extent +among Italians, Germans, and even English. A great variety of people +were attracted by the enterprise, and from an equal variety of motives. +Men whose lives had been evil saw in the crusade an opportunity of +doing penance; criminals who perhaps cared little for penance but much +for their own personal safety saw in it an avenue of escape from justice; +merchants discovered in it a chance to open up new and valuable trade; +knights hailed it as an invitation to deeds of valor and glory surpassing +any Europe had yet known; ordinary malcontents regarded it as a chance +to mend their fortunes; and a very large number of people looked upon +it as a great spiritual obligation laid upon them and necessary to be +performed in order to insure salvation in the world to come. By reason +of all these incentives, some of them weighing much more in the mediæval +mind than we can understand to-day, the crusade brought together men, +women, and children from every part of Christendom. Both of the +accounts given below of the assembling and starting of the crusaders +are doubtless more or less exaggerated at certain points, yet in substance +they represent what must have been pretty nearly the actual facts.</p> + +<p>William of Malmesbury was an English monk who lived in the first +half of the twelfth century and wrote a very valuable <i>Chronicle of the +Kings of England</i>, which reached the opening of the reign of Stephen +(1135). He thus had abundant opportunity to learn of the first crusade +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">289</a></span> +from people who had actually participated in it. His rather humorous +picture of the effects of Pope Urban's call is thus well worth reading. +Better than it, however, is the account by the priest Fulcher of Chartres +(1058-1124)—better because the writer himself took part in the crusade +and so was a personal observer of most of the things he undertook +to describe. Fulcher, in 1096, set out upon the crusade in the company +of his lord, Etienne, count of Blois and Chartres, who was a man of +importance in the army of Robert of Normandy. With the rest of Robert's +crusaders he spent the winter in Italy and arrived at Durazzo in +the spring of 1097. He had a part in the siege of Nicæa and in the battle +of Dorylæum, but not in the siege of Antioch. Before reaching Jerusalem, +in 1099, he became chaplain to a brother of Godfrey of Bouillon +and was already making progress on his "history of the army of God."</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Sources—(a) Guilielmus Monachi Malmesburiensis, <i>De gestis regum Anglorum</i> +[William of Malmesbury, "Chronicle of the Kings of England"], +Bk. IV., Chap. 2. Adapted from translation by John +Sharpe (London, 1815), p. 416.</p> + +<p class="source_add">(b) Fulcherius Carnotensis, <i>Historia Iherosolimitana: gesta Francorum +Iherusalem peregrinantium</i> [Fulcher of Chartres, "History +of the Crusade to Jerusalem: the Deeds of the French +Journeying Thither"], Chap. 6. Text in <i>Recueil des Historiens +des Croisades: Historiens Occidentaux</i> (Paris, 1866), Vol. III., +p. 328.</p> + +<p class="center">(a)</p> + +<p>Immediately the fame of this great event,<a name="FNanchor_398" id="FNanchor_398" href="#Footnote_398" class="fnanchor">[398]</a> being spread +through the universe, penetrated the minds of Christians with +its mild breath, and wherever it blew there was no nation, however +distant and obscure, that did not send some of its people. +This zeal animated not only the provinces bordering on the +Mediterranean, but all who had ever even heard of the name +Christian in the most remote isles, and among barbarous nations. +Then the Welshman abandoned his forests and neglected his +hunting; the Scotchman deserted the fleas with which he is so +<span class="sidebar">Universal interest +in the +crusade</span> +familiar; the Dane ceased to swallow his intoxicating +draughts; and the Norwegian turned his +back upon his raw fish. The fields were left by +the cultivators, and the houses by their inhabitants; all the cities +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">290</a></span> +were deserted. People were restrained neither by the ties of +blood nor the love of country; they saw nothing but God. All +that was in the granaries, or was destined for food, was left +under the guardianship of the greedy agriculturist. The journey +to Jerusalem was the only thing hoped for or thought of. Joy +animated the hearts of all who set out; grief dwelt in the hearts +of all who remained. Why do I say "of those who remained"? +You might have seen the husband setting forth with his wife, +with all his family; you would have laughed to see all the <i>penates</i><a name="FNanchor_399" id="FNanchor_399" href="#Footnote_399" class="fnanchor">[399]</a> +put in motion and loaded upon wagons. The road was too +narrow for the passengers, and more room was wanted for the +travelers, so great and numerous was the crowd.<a name="FNanchor_400" id="FNanchor_400" href="#Footnote_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a></p> + +<p class="center">(b)</p> + +<p>Such, then, was the immense assemblage which set out from +the West. Gradually along the march, and from day to day, the +army grew by the addition of other armies, coming from every +direction and composed of innumerable people. Thus one saw +an infinite multitude, speaking different languages and coming +from divers countries. All did not, however, come together into +<span class="sidebar">The multitude +of crusaders</span> +a single army until we had reached the city of +Nicæa.<a name="FNanchor_401" id="FNanchor_401" href="#Footnote_401" class="fnanchor">[401]</a> What shall I add? The isles of the sea +and the kingdoms of the whole earth were moved by God, so +that one might believe fulfilled the prophecy of David, who said +in his Psalm: "All nations whom Thou hast made shall come +and worship before Thee, O Lord, and shall glorify Thy name;" +and so that those who reached the holy places afterwards said +justly: "We will worship where His feet have stood." Concerning +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">291</a></span> +this journey we read very many other predictions in the +prophets, which it would be tedious to recall.</p> + +<p>Oh, how great was the grief, how deep the sighs, what weeping, +what lamentations among the friends, when the husband +left the wife so dear to him, his children also, and all his possessions +of any kind, father, mother, brethren, or kindred! And +<span class="sidebar">Mingled sorrow +and joy of +the crusaders</span> +yet in spite of the floods of tears which those +who remained shed for their friends about to +depart, and in their very presence, the latter did +not suffer their courage to fail, and, out of love for the Lord, in +no way hesitated to leave all that they held most precious, believing +without doubt that they would gain an hundred-fold +in receiving the recompense which God has promised to those +who love Him.</p> + +<p>Then the husband confided to his wife the time of his return +and assured her that, if he lived, by God's grace he would return +to her. He commended her to the Lord, gave her a kiss, and, +weeping, promised to return. But the latter, who feared that +she would never see him again, overcome with grief, was unable +to stand, fell as if lifeless to the ground, and wept over her dear +one whom she was losing in life, as if he were already dead. +He, then, as if he had no pity (nevertheless he was filled with +pity) and was not moved by the grief of his friends (and yet he +was secretly moved), departed with a firm purpose. The sadness +was for those who remained, and the joy for those who departed. +What more can we say? "This is the Lord's doings, and it is +marvelous in our eyes."</p> + +<h4>53. A Letter from a Crusader to his Wife</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>One of the most important groups of sources on the crusades is the +large body of letters which has come down to us, written by men who +had an actual part in the various expeditions. These letters, addressed +to parents, wives, children, vassals, or friends, are valuable alike for +the facts which they contain and for the revelation they give of the spirit +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">292</a></span> +and motives of the crusaders. A considerable collection of the letters, +in English translation, may be found in Roger de Hoveden's <i>Annals of +English History</i>, Roger of Wendover's <i>Flowers of History</i>, and Matthew +Paris's <i>English History</i> (all in the Bohn Library); also in Michaud's +<i>History of the Crusades</i>, Vol. III., Appendix. In many respects the letter +given below, written at Antioch by Count Stephen of Blois to his wife +Adele, under date of March 29, 1098, is unexcelled in all the records of +mediæval letter-writing. Count Stephen (a brother-in-law of Robert +of Normandy, who was a son of William the Conqueror) was one of the +wealthiest and most popular French noblemen who responded to Pope +Urban's summons at Clermont. At least three of his letters to his wife +survive, of which the one here given is the third in order of time. +It discloses the ordinary human sentiments of the crusader and makes +us feel that, unlike the modern man as he was, he yet had very much +in common with the people of to-day and of all ages. He was at the +same time a bold fighter and a tender husband, a religious enthusiast +and a practical man of affairs. When the letter was written, the siege +of Antioch had been in progress somewhat more than five months; it +continued until the following June, when it ended in the capture of the +city by the crusaders. Count Stephen was slain in the battle of Ramleh +in 1102.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—D'Achery, <i>Spicilegium</i> ["Gleanings"], 2d edition, Vol. III., pp. 430-433. +Adapted from translation by Dana C. Munro in <i>Univ. of +Pa. Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. I., No. 4, pp. 5-8.</p> + +<p>Count Stephen to Adele, his sweetest and most amiable wife, +to his dear children, and to all his vassals of all ranks,—his +greeting and blessing.</p> + +<p>You may be very sure, dearest, that the messenger whom I +sent to give you pleasure left me before Antioch safe and unharmed +and, through God's grace, in the greatest prosperity. +And already at that time, together with all the chosen army of +<span class="sidebar">Count Stephen +reports prosperity</span> +Christ, endowed with great valor by Him, we +have been continually advancing for twenty-three +weeks toward the home of our Lord Jesus. You +may know for certain, my beloved, that of gold, silver, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">293</a></span> +many other kind of riches I now have twice as much as your +love had assigned to me when I left you. For all our princes, +with the common consent of the whole army, though against my +own wishes, have made me up to the present time the leader, +chief, and director of their whole expedition.</p> + +<p>Doubtless you have heard that after the capture of the city +of Nicæa we fought a great battle with the treacherous Turks +and, by God's aid, conquered them.<a name="FNanchor_402" id="FNanchor_402" href="#Footnote_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a> Next we conquered for the +Lord all Romania, and afterwards Cappadocia.<a name="FNanchor_403" id="FNanchor_403" href="#Footnote_403" class="fnanchor">[403]</a> We had learned +that there was a certain Turkish prince, Assam, dwelling in +Cappadocia; so we directed our course thither. We conquered +<span class="sidebar">Early achievements +of the +crusaders</span> +all his castles by force and compelled him to flee +to a certain very strong castle situated on a high +rock. We also gave the land of that Assam to +one of our chiefs, and in order that he might conquer the prince +we left there with him many soldiers of Christ. Thence, continually +following the wicked Turks, we drove them through the +midst of Armenia,<a name="FNanchor_404" id="FNanchor_404" href="#Footnote_404" class="fnanchor">[404]</a> as far as the great river Euphrates. Having +left all their baggage and beasts of burden on the bank, they fled +across the river into Arabia.</p> + +<p>The bolder of the Turkish soldiers, indeed, entering Syria, +hastened by forced marches night and day, in order to be able +to enter the royal city of Antioch before our approach.<a name="FNanchor_405" id="FNanchor_405" href="#Footnote_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a> Hearing +of this, the whole army of God gave due praise and thanks +to the all-powerful Lord. Hastening with great joy to this +<span class="sidebar">The arrival at +Antioch (1097)</span> +chief city of Antioch, we besieged it and there +had a great number of conflicts with the Turks; +and seven times we fought with the citizens of the city and with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">294</a></span> +the innumerable troops all the time coming to their aid. The latter +we rushed out to meet and fought with the fiercest courage +under the leadership of Christ. And in all these seven battles, +by the aid of the Lord God, we conquered and most assuredly +killed an innumerable host of them. In those battles, indeed, +and in very many attacks made upon the city, many of our +brethren and followers were killed and their souls were borne to +the joys of paradise.</p> + +<p>We found the city of Antioch very extensive, fortified with the +greatest strength and almost impossible to be taken. In addition, +more than 5,000 bold Turkish soldiers had entered the city, +not counting the Saracens, Publicans, Arabs, Turcopolitans, +Syrians, Armenians, and other different races of whom an infinite +multitude had gathered together there. In fighting against +<span class="sidebar">The beginning +of the siege</span> +these enemies of God and of us we have, by God's +grace, endured many sufferings and innumerable +hardships up to the present time. Many also have already +exhausted all their means in this most holy enterprise. Very +many of our Franks, indeed, would have met a bodily death +from starvation, if the mercy of God and our money had not +come to their rescue. Lying before the city of Antioch, indeed, +throughout the whole winter we suffered for our Lord Christ +from excessive cold and enormous torrents of rain. What some +say about the impossibility of bearing the heat of the sun in +Syria is untrue, for the winter there is very similar to our winter +in the West.</p> + +<p>I delight to tell you, dearest, what happened to us during Lent. +Our princes had caused a fortress to be built before a certain +gate which was between our camp and the sea. For the Turks, +coming out of this gate daily, killed some of our men on their +way to the sea. The city of Antioch is about five leagues distant +from the sea. For this purpose they sent the excellent Bohemond +and Raymond, count of St. Gilles,<a name="FNanchor_406" id="FNanchor_406" href="#Footnote_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a> to the sea with only +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">295</a></span> +sixty horsemen, in order that they might bring mariners to aid +in this work. When, however, they were returning to us with +<span class="sidebar">The Christians +defeated near +the seashore</span> +these mariners, the Turks collected an army, fell +suddenly upon our two leaders, and forced them +to a perilous flight. In that unexpected fight we +lost more than 500 of our foot-soldiers—to the glory of God. +Of our horsemen, however, we lost only two, for certain.</p> + +<p>On that same day, in order to receive our brethren with joy, +and entirely ignorant of their misfortunes, we went out to meet +them. When, however, we approached the above-mentioned +gate of the city, a mob of foot-soldiers and horsemen from +Antioch, elated by the victory which they had won, rushed upon +us in the same manner. Seeing these, our leaders went to the +camp of the Christians to order all to be ready to follow us into +battle. In the meantime our men gathered together and the +scattered leaders, namely, Bohemond and Raymond, with the +remainder of their army came up and told of the great misfortune +which they had suffered.</p> + +<p>Our men, full of fury at these most evil tidings, prepared to +die for Christ and, deeply grieved for their brethren, rushed upon +the wicked Turks. They, enemies of God and of us, hastily fled +before us and attempted to enter the city. But by God's grace +the affair turned out very differently; for, when they tried to +cross a bridge built over the great river Moscholum,<a name="FNanchor_407" id="FNanchor_407" href="#Footnote_407" class="fnanchor">[407]</a> +<span class="sidebar">A notable victory +over the +Turks</span> +we followed them as closely as possible, +killed many before they reached the bridge, +forced many into the river, all of whom were killed, and we also +slew many upon the bridge and very many at the narrow entrance +to the gate. I am telling you the truth, my beloved, +and you may be assured that in this battle we killed thirty +emirs, that is, princes, and three hundred other Turkish nobles, +not counting the remaining Turks and pagans. Indeed the number +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">296</a></span> +of Turks and Saracens killed is reckoned at 1230, but of +ours we did not lose a single man.</p> + +<p>On the following day (Easter), while my chaplain Alexander +was writing this letter in great haste, a party of our men lying +in wait for the Turks fought a successful battle with them and +killed sixty horsemen, whose heads they brought to the army.</p> + +<p>These which I write to you are only a few things, dearest, of +the many which we have done; and because I am not able to tell +you, dearest, what is in my mind, I charge you to do right, to +watch carefully over your land, and to do your duty as you +ought to your children and your vassals. You will certainly see +me just as soon as I can possibly return to you. Farewell.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">297</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XVIII.<br /> +THE GREAT CHARTER</h3> + +<h4>54. The Winning of the Charter</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The reign of King John (1199-1216) was an era of humiliation, +though in the end one of triumph, for all classes of the English people. +The king himself was perhaps the most unworthy sovereign who has +ever occupied the English throne and one after another of his deeds +and policies brought deep shame to every patriotic Englishman. His +surrender to the papacy (1213) and his loss of the English possessions +on the continent (1214) were only two of the most conspicuous results +of his weakness and mismanagement. Indeed it was not these that +touched the English people most closely, for after all it was rather their +pride than their real interests that suffered by the king's homage to +Innocent III. and his bitter defeat at Bouvines. Worse than these +things were the heavy taxes and the illegal extortions of money, in +which John went far beyond even his unscrupulous brother and predecessor, +Richard. The king's expenses were very heavy, the more so by +reason of his French wars, and to meet them he devised all manner of +schemes for wringing money from his unwilling subjects. Land taxes +were increased, scutage (payments in lieu of military service) was nearly +doubled, levies of a thirteenth, a seventh, and other large fractions of +the movable property of the realm were made, excessive fines were +imposed, old feudal rights were revived and exercised in an arbitrary +fashion, and property was confiscated on the shallowest of pretenses. +Even the Church was by no means immune from the king's rapacity. +The result of these high-handed measures was that all classes of the +people—barons, clergy, and commons—were driven into an attitude +of open protest. The leadership against the king fell naturally to the +barons and it was directly in consequence of their action that John was +brought, in 1215, to grant the Great Charter and to pledge himself to +govern thereafter according to the ancient and just laws of the kingdom. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">298</a></span></p> + +<p>The account of the winning of the Charter given below comes from +the hand of Roger of Wendover, a monk of St. Albans, a monastery in +Hertfordshire which was famous in the thirteenth century for its group +of historians and annalists. It begins with the meeting of the barons at +St. Edmunds in Suffolk late in November, 1214, and tells the story to +the granting of the Charter at Runnymede, June 15, 1215. On this subject, +as well as on the entire period of English history from 1189 to +1235, Roger of Wendover is our principal contemporary authority.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Rogerus de Wendover, <i>Chronica Majora, sive Liber qui dicitur +Flores Historiarum</i> [Roger of Wendover, "Greater Chronicle, or the +Book which is called the Flowers of History"]. Translated by +J. A. Giles (London, 1849), Vol. II., pp. 303-324 <i>passim</i>.</p> + +<p>About this time the earls and barons of England assembled +at St. Edmunds, as if for religious duties, although it was +for another reason;<a name="FNanchor_408" id="FNanchor_408" href="#Footnote_408" class="fnanchor">[408]</a> for after they had discoursed together +secretly for a time, there was placed before them the charter of +King Henry the First, which they had received, as mentioned +before, in the city of London from Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury.<a name="FNanchor_409" id="FNanchor_409" href="#Footnote_409" class="fnanchor">[409]</a> +This charter contained certain liberties and laws granted +to the holy Church as well as to the nobles of the kingdom, besides +some liberties which the king added of his own accord. +All therefore assembled in the church of St. Edmund, the king +and martyr, and, commencing with those of the highest rank, +they all swore on the great altar that, if the king refused to +<span class="sidebar">A conference +held by the +barons against +King John</span> +grant these liberties and laws, they themselves +would withdraw from their allegiance to him, +and make war on him until he should, by a +charter under his own seal, confirm to them everything that they +required; and finally it was unanimously agreed that, after +Christmas, they should all go together to the king and demand +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">299</a></span> +the confirmation of the aforesaid liberties to them, and that +they should in the meantime provide themselves with horses +and arms, so that if the king should endeavor to depart from +his oath they might, by taking his castles, compel him to satisfy +their demands; and having arranged this, each man returned +home....</p> + +<p>In the year of our Lord 1215, which was the seventeenth year +of the reign of King John, he held his court at Winchester at +Christmas for one day, after which he hurried to London, and +<span class="sidebar">They demand +a confirmation +of the old liberties</span> +took up his abode at the New Temple;<a name="FNanchor_410" id="FNanchor_410" href="#Footnote_410" class="fnanchor">[410]</a> and at +that place the above-mentioned nobles came to +him in gay military array, and demanded the +confirmation of the liberties and laws of King Edward, with +other liberties granted to them and to the kingdom and church +of England, as were contained in the charter, and above-mentioned +laws of Henry the First. They also asserted that, at the +time of his absolution at Winchester,<a name="FNanchor_411" id="FNanchor_411" href="#Footnote_411" class="fnanchor">[411]</a> he had promised to restore +those laws and ancient liberties, and was bound by his +own oath to observe them. The king, hearing the bold tone of +the barons in making this demand, much feared an attack from +them, as he saw that they were prepared for battle. He, however, +made answer that their demands were a matter of importance +<span class="sidebar">A truce +arranged</span> +and difficulty, and he therefore asked +a truce until the end of Easter, that, after due +deliberation, he might be able to satisfy them as well as the +dignity of his crown. After much discussion on both sides, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">300</a></span> +king at length, although unwillingly, procured the archbishop of +Canterbury, the bishop of Ely, and William Marshal, as his sureties +that on the day agreed upon he would, in all reason, satisfy +them all; on which the nobles returned to their homes. The king, +however, wishing to take precautions against the future, caused +all the nobles throughout England to swear fealty to him alone +against all men, and to renew their homage to him; and, the +better to take care of himself, on the day of St. Mary's purification, +he assumed the cross of our Lord, being induced to this +more by fear than devotion....<a name="FNanchor_412" id="FNanchor_412" href="#Footnote_412" class="fnanchor">[412]</a></p> + +<p>In Easter week of this same year, the above-mentioned nobles +assembled at Stamford,<a name="FNanchor_413" id="FNanchor_413" href="#Footnote_413" class="fnanchor">[413]</a> with horses and arms. They had now +<span class="sidebar">The truce +at an end</span> +induced almost all the nobility of the whole kingdom +to join them, and constituted a very large +army; for in their army there were computed to be two thousand +knights, besides horse-soldiers, attendants, and foot-soldiers, who +were variously equipped.... The king at this time was +awaiting the arrival of his nobles at Oxford.<a name="FNanchor_414" id="FNanchor_414" href="#Footnote_414" class="fnanchor">[414]</a> On the Monday +next after the octave of Easter,<a name="FNanchor_415" id="FNanchor_415" href="#Footnote_415" class="fnanchor">[415]</a> the said barons assembled in the +town of Brackley.<a name="FNanchor_416" id="FNanchor_416" href="#Footnote_416" class="fnanchor">[416]</a> And when the king learned this, he sent the +archbishop of Canterbury and William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, +with some other prudent men, to them to inquire what the laws +<span class="sidebar">The preliminary +demands +of the barons</span> +and liberties were which they demanded. The +barons then delivered to the messengers a paper, +containing in great measure the laws and ancient +customs of the kingdom, and declared that, unless the king immediately +granted them and confirmed them under his own seal, they, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">301</a></span> +by taking possession of his fortresses, would force him to give them +sufficient satisfaction as to their before-named demands. The +archbishop, with his fellow messengers, then carried the paper +to the king, and read to him the heads of the paper one by one +throughout. The king, when he heard the purport of these +heads, said derisively, with the greatest indignation, "Why, +amongst these unjust demands, did not the barons ask for my +kingdom also? Their demands are vain and visionary, and are +unsupported by any plea of reason whatever." And at length +he angrily declared with an oath that he would never grant +them such liberties as would render him their slave. The principal +of these laws and liberties which the nobles required to be +confirmed to them are partly described above in the charter of +King Henry,<a name="FNanchor_417" id="FNanchor_417" href="#Footnote_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a> and partly are extracted from the old laws of +King Edward,<a name="FNanchor_418" id="FNanchor_418" href="#Footnote_418" class="fnanchor">[418]</a> as the following history will show in due time.</p> + +<p>As the archbishop and William Marshal could not by any +persuasion induce the king to agree to their demands, they +<span class="sidebar">The castle of +Northampton +besieged by +the barons</span> +returned by the king's order to the barons, and +duly reported to them all that they had heard from +the king. And when the nobles heard what John +said, they appointed Robert Fitz-Walter commander of their +soldiers, giving him the title of "Marshal of the Army of God +and the Holy Church," and then, one and all flying to arms, they +directed their forces toward Northampton.<a name="FNanchor_419" id="FNanchor_419" href="#Footnote_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a> On their arrival +there they at once laid siege to the castle, but after having stayed +there for fifteen days, and having gained little or no advantage, +they determined to move their camp. Having come without +<i>petrariæ</i><a name="FNanchor_420" id="FNanchor_420" href="#Footnote_420" class="fnanchor">[420]</a> and other engines of war, they, without accomplishing +their purpose, proceeded in confusion to the castle of Bedford....<a name="FNanchor_421" id="FNanchor_421" href="#Footnote_421" class="fnanchor">[421]</a></p> + +<p>When the army of the barons arrived at Bedford, they were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">302</a></span> +received with all respect by William de Beauchamp.<a name="FNanchor_422" id="FNanchor_422" href="#Footnote_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a> Messengers +from the city of London also came to them there, secretly +telling them, if they wished to get into that city, to come there +immediately. The barons, encouraged by the arrival of this +agreeable message, immediately moved their camp and arrived +<span class="sidebar">The city of +London given +over to the +barons</span> +at Ware. After this they marched the whole +night and arrived early in the morning at the city +of London, and, finding the gates open, on the +24th of May (which was the Sunday next before our Lord's +ascension) they entered the city without any tumult while the +inhabitants were performing divine service; for the rich citizens +were favorable to the barons, and the poor ones were afraid to +murmur against them. The barons, having thus got into the city, +placed their own guards in charge of each of the gates, and then +arranged all matters in the city at will.<a name="FNanchor_423" id="FNanchor_423" href="#Footnote_423" class="fnanchor">[423]</a> They then took security +from the citizens, and sent letters through England to those +earls, barons, and knights who appeared to be still faithful to +the king (though they only pretended to be so) and advised them +with threats, as they had regard for the safety of all their property +and possessions, to abandon a king who was perjured and +who made war against his barons, and together with them to +stand firm and fight against the king for their rights and for +peace; and that, if they refused to do this, they, the barons, +would make war against them all, as against open enemies, and +would destroy their castles, burn their houses and other buildings, +and pillage their warrens, parks, and orchards.... +The greatest part of these, on receiving the message of the +barons, set out to London and joined them, abandoning the +king entirely....</p> + +<p>King John, when he saw that he was deserted by almost all, +so that out of his regal superabundance of followers he retained +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">303</a></span> +scarcely seven knights, was much alarmed lest the barons should +attack his castles and reduce them without difficulty, as they +<span class="sidebar">The conference +between the +king and the +barons</span> +would find no obstacle to their so doing. He +deceitfully pretended to make peace for a time +with the aforesaid barons, and sent William +Marshal, earl of Pembroke, with other trustworthy messengers, +to them, and told them that, for the sake of peace and for the +exaltation and honor of the kingdom, he would willingly grant +them the laws and liberties they demanded. He sent also a request +to the barons by these same messengers that they appoint +a suitable day and place to meet and carry all these matters into +effect. The king's messengers then came in all haste to London, +and without deceit, reported to the barons all that had been deceitfully +imposed on them. They in their great joy appointed +the fifteenth of June for the king to meet them, at a field lying +<span class="sidebar">The charter +granted at +Runnymede</span> +between Staines and Windsor.<a name="FNanchor_424" id="FNanchor_424" href="#Footnote_424" class="fnanchor">[424]</a> Accordingly, at +the time and place agreed upon the king and nobles +came to the appointed conference, and when each +party had stationed itself some distance from the other, they +began a long discussion about terms of peace and the aforesaid +liberties.... At length, after various points on both sides +had been discussed, King John, seeing that he was inferior in +strength to the barons, without raising any difficulty, granted the +underwritten laws and liberties, and confirmed them by his charter +as follows:—</p> + +<p>[Here ensues the Charter.]</p> + +<h4>55. Extracts from the Charter</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>No document in the history of any nation is more important than the +Great Charter; in the words of Bishop Stubbs, the whole of the constitutional +history of England is only one long commentary upon it. Its +importance lay not merely in the fact that it was won from an unwilling +sovereign by the united action of nobles, clergy, and people, but also in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">304</a></span> +the admirable summary which it embodies of the fundamental principles +of English government, so far as they had ripened by the early years of +the thirteenth century. The charter contained almost nothing that +was not old. It was not even an instrument, like the Constitution of the +United States, providing for the creation of a new government. It +merely sought to gather up within a single reasonably brief document all +the important principles which the best of the English sovereigns had +recognized, but which such rulers as Richard and John had lately been +improving every opportunity to evade. The primary purpose of the +barons in forcing the king to grant the charter was not to get a new +form of government or code of laws, but simply to obtain a remedy +for certain concrete abuses, to resist the encroachments of the crown +upon the traditional liberties of Englishmen, and to get a full and definite +confirmation of these liberties in black and white. Not a new constitution +was wanted, but good government in conformity with the old +one. Naturally enough, therefore, the charter of 1215 was based in +most of its important provisions upon that granted by Henry I. in 1100, +even as this one was based on the righteous laws of the good Edward +the Confessor. And after the same manner the charter of King John, in +its turn, became the foundation for all future resistance of Englishmen +to the evils of misgovernment, so that very soon it came naturally +to be called <i>Magna Charta</i>—the Great Charter—by which designation +it is known to this day.</p> + +<p>King John was in no true sense the author of the charter. Many +weeks before the meeting at Runnymede the barons had drawn up their +demands in written form, and when that meeting occurred they were +ready to lay before the sovereign a formal document, in forty-nine +chapters, to which they simply requested his assent. This preliminary +document was discussed and worked over, the number of chapters +being increased to sixty-two, but the charter as finally agreed upon +differed from it only in minor details. It is a mistake to think of John +as "signing" the charter after the fashion of modern sovereigns. There +is no evidence that he could write, and at any rate he acquiesced in the +terms of the charter only by having his seal affixed to the paper. The +original "Articles of the Barons" is still preserved in the British Museum, +but there is no <i>one</i> original Magna Charta in existence. Duplicate copies +of the document were made for distribution among the barons, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">305</a></span> +papers which are generally supposed to represent four of these still +exist, two being in the British Museum.</p> + +<p>The charter makes a lengthy document and many parts of it are too +technical to be of service in this book; hence only a few of the most important +chapters are here given. Translations of the entire document +from the original Latin may be found in many places, among them the +University of Pennsylvania <i>Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. I., No. 6; +Lee, <i>Source Book of English History</i>, 169-180; Adams and Stephens, +<i>Select Documents Illustrative of English Constitutional History</i>, pp. 42-52; +and the <i>Old South Leaflets</i>, No. 5.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in William Stubbs, <i>Select Charters Illustrative of English Constitutional +History</i> (8th ed., Oxford, 1895), pp. 296-306. Adapted +from translation in Sheldon Amos, <i>Primer of the English Constitution +and Government</i> (London, 1895), pp. 189-201 <i>passim</i>.</p> + +<p>John, by the grace of God, king of England, lord of Ireland, +duke of Normandy, Aquitane, and count of Anjou, to his archbishops, +bishops, abbots, earls, barons, justiciaries, foresters, +sheriffs, governors, officers, and to all bailiffs, and his faithful +subjects, greeting. Know ye, that we, in the presence of God, +and for the salvation of our soul, and the souls of all our ancestors +and heirs, and unto the honor of God and the advancement +of Holy Church, and amendment of our Realm, ... +have, in the first place, granted to God, and by this our present +Charter confirmed, for us and our heirs forever:</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> That the Church of England shall be free, and have her +whole rights, and her liberties inviolable; and we will have them +<span class="sidebar">Liberties of the +English Church +guaranteed</span> +so observed that it may appear thence that the freedom +of elections, which is reckoned chief and indispensable +to the English Church, and which we +granted and confirmed by our Charter, and obtained the confirmation +of the same from our Lord Pope Innocent III., before +the discord between us and our barons, was granted of +mere free will; which Charter we shall observe, and we do desire +it to be faithfully observed by our heirs forever.<a name="FNanchor_425" id="FNanchor_425" href="#Footnote_425" class="fnanchor">[425]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">306</a></span></p> + +<p><b>2.</b> We also have granted to all the freemen of our kingdom, +for us and for our heirs forever, all the underwritten liberties, +to be had and holden by them and their heirs, of us and our +heirs forever. If any of our earls, or barons, or others who hold +of us in chief by military service,<a name="FNanchor_426" id="FNanchor_426" href="#Footnote_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a> shall die, and at the time of his +<span class="sidebar">The rate +of reliefs</span> +death his heir shall be of full age, and owe a relief, +he shall have his inheritance by the ancient +relief—that is to say, the heir or heirs of an earl, for a whole +earldom, by a hundred pounds; the heir or heirs of a knight, for +a whole knight's fee, by a hundred shillings at most; and whoever +oweth less shall give less, according to the ancient custom +of fees.<a name="FNanchor_427" id="FNanchor_427" href="#Footnote_427" class="fnanchor">[427]</a></p> + +<p><b>3.</b> But if the heir of any such shall be under age, and shall +be in ward, when he comes of age he shall have his inheritance +without relief and without fine.<a name="FNanchor_428" id="FNanchor_428" href="#Footnote_428" class="fnanchor">[428]</a></p> + +<p><b>12.</b> No scutage<a name="FNanchor_429" id="FNanchor_429" href="#Footnote_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a> or aid shall be imposed in our kingdom, unless +<span class="sidebar">The three +aids</span> +by the general council of our kingdom;<a name="FNanchor_430" id="FNanchor_430" href="#Footnote_430" class="fnanchor">[430]</a> except +for ransoming our person, making our eldest +son a knight, and once for marrying our eldest daughter; and for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">307</a></span> +these there shall be paid no more than a reasonable aid. In like +manner it shall be concerning the aids of the City of London.<a name="FNanchor_431" id="FNanchor_431" href="#Footnote_431" class="fnanchor">[431]</a></p> + +<p><b>14.</b> And for holding the general council of the kingdom concerning +the assessment of aids, except in the three cases aforesaid, +and for the assessing of scutage, we shall cause to be summoned +the archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, and greater barons +of the realm, singly by our letters. And furthermore, we shall +<span class="sidebar">The Great +Council</span> +cause to be summoned generally, by our sheriffs +and bailiffs, all others who hold of us in chief, for +a certain day, that is to say, forty days before their meeting at +least, and to a certain place. And in all letters of such summons +we will declare the cause of such summons. And summons being +thus made, the business shall proceed on the day appointed, +according to the advice of such as shall be present, although all +that were summoned come not.<a name="FNanchor_432" id="FNanchor_432" href="#Footnote_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a></p> + +<p><b>15.</b> We will not in the future grant to any one that he may +take aid of his own free tenants, except to ransom his body, and +to make his eldest son a knight, and once to marry his eldest +daughter; and for this there shall be paid only a reasonable +aid.<a name="FNanchor_433" id="FNanchor_433" href="#Footnote_433" class="fnanchor">[433]</a></p> + +<p><b>36.</b> Nothing from henceforth shall be given or taken for a +writ of inquisition of life or limb, but it shall be granted freely, +and not denied.<a name="FNanchor_434" id="FNanchor_434" href="#Footnote_434" class="fnanchor">[434]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">308</a></span></p> + +<p><b>39.</b> No freeman shall be taken or imprisoned, or disseised,<a name="FNanchor_435" id="FNanchor_435" href="#Footnote_435" class="fnanchor">[435]</a> or +outlawed,<a name="FNanchor_436" id="FNanchor_436" href="#Footnote_436" class="fnanchor">[436]</a> or banished, or in any way destroyed, nor will we pass +upon him, nor will we send upon him,<a name="FNanchor_437" id="FNanchor_437" href="#Footnote_437" class="fnanchor">[437]</a> unless by the lawful judgment +of his peers,<a name="FNanchor_438" id="FNanchor_438" href="#Footnote_438" class="fnanchor">[438]</a> or by the law of the land.<a name="FNanchor_439" id="FNanchor_439" href="#Footnote_439" class="fnanchor">[439]</a></p> + +<p><b>40.</b> We will sell to no man, we will not deny to any man, +either justice or right.<a name="FNanchor_440" id="FNanchor_440" href="#Footnote_440" class="fnanchor">[440]</a></p> + +<p><b>41.</b> All merchants shall have safe and secure conduct to go +out of, and to come into, England, and to stay there and to pass +as well by land as by water, for buying and selling by the ancient +and allowed customs, without any unjust tolls, except in time +<span class="sidebar">Freedom of +commercial +intercourse</span> +of war, or when they are of any nation at war +with us. And if there be found any such in our +land, in the beginning of the war, they shall be +detained, without damage to their bodies or goods, until it be +known to us, or to our chief justiciary, how our merchants be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">309</a></span> +treated in the nation at war with us; and if ours be safe there, +the others shall be safe in our dominions.<a name="FNanchor_441" id="FNanchor_441" href="#Footnote_441" class="fnanchor">[441]</a></p> + +<p><b>42.</b> It shall be lawful, for the time to come, for any one to go +out of our kingdom and return safely and securely by land or +by water, saving his allegiance to us (unless in time of war, by +some short space, for the common benefit of the realm), except +prisoners and outlaws, according to the law of the land, and +people in war with us, and merchants who shall be treated as is +above mentioned.<a name="FNanchor_442" id="FNanchor_442" href="#Footnote_442" class="fnanchor">[442]</a></p> + +<p><b>51.</b> As soon as peace is restored, we will send out of the kingdom +all foreign knights, cross-bowmen, and stipendiaries, who +are come with horses and arms to the molestation of our people.<a name="FNanchor_443" id="FNanchor_443" href="#Footnote_443" class="fnanchor">[443]</a></p> + +<p><b>60.</b> All the aforesaid customs and liberties, which we have +granted to be holden in our kingdom, as much as it belongs to +us, all people of our kingdom, as well clergy as laity, shall observe, +as far as they are concerned, towards their dependents.<a name="FNanchor_444" id="FNanchor_444" href="#Footnote_444" class="fnanchor">[444]</a></p> + +<p><b>61.</b> And whereas, for the honor of God and the amendment +of our kingdom, and for the better quieting the discord that +<span class="sidebar">How the charter +was to be +enforced</span> +has arisen between us and our barons, we have +granted all these things aforesaid. Willing to +render them firm and lasting, we do give and grant +our subjects the underwritten security, namely, that the barons +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">310</a></span> +may choose five and twenty barons of the kingdom, whom they +think convenient, who shall take care, with all their might, to +hold and observe, and cause to be observed, the peace and liberties +we have granted them, and by this our present Charter confirmed....<a name="FNanchor_445" id="FNanchor_445" href="#Footnote_445" class="fnanchor">[445]</a></p> + +<p><b>63.</b> ... It is also sworn, as well on our part as on the +part of the barons, that all the things aforesaid shall be observed +in good faith, and without evil duplicity. Given under our hand, +in the presence of the witnesses above named, and many others, +in the meadow called Runnymede, between Windsor and Staines, +the 15th day of June, in the 17th year of our reign.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">311</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XIX.<br /> +THE REIGN OF SAINT LOUIS</h3> + +<div class="intro"> +<h4>56. The Character and Deeds of the King as Described by Joinville</h4> + +<p>Louis IX., or St. Louis, as he is commonly called, was the eldest son +of Louis VIII. and a grandson of Philip Augustus. He was born in 1214 +and upon the death of his father in 1226 he succeeded to the throne of +France while yet but a boy of twelve. The recent reign of Philip Augustus +(1180-1223) had been a period marked by a great increase in +the royal power and by a corresponding lessening of the independent +authority of the feudal magnates. The accession of a boy-king was +therefore hailed by the discontented nobles as an opportunity to recover +something at least of their lost privileges. It would doubtless have been +such but for the vigilance, ability, and masculine aggressiveness of the +young king's mother, Blanche of Castile. Aided by the clergy and the +loyal party among the nobles, she, in the capacity of regent, successfully +defended her son's interests against a succession of plots and uprisings, +with the result that when Louis gradually assumed control of affairs in +his own name, about 1236, the realm was in good order and the dangers +which once had been so threatening had all but disappeared. The king's +education and moral training had been well attended to, and he arrived +at manhood with an equipment quite unusual among princes of his day. +His reign extended to 1270 and became in some respects the most notable +in all French history. In fact, whether viewed from the standpoint of +his personal character or his practical achievements, St. Louis is +generally admitted to have been one of the most remarkable sovereigns +of mediæval Europe. He was famous throughout Christendom for his +piety, justice, wisdom, and ability, being recognized as at once a devoted +monk, a brave knight, and a capable king. In him were blended two +qualities—vigorous activity and proneness to austere meditation—rarely +combined in such measure in one person. His character may +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">312</a></span> +be summed up by saying that he had all the virtues of his age and few +of its vices. No less cynical a critic than Voltaire has declared that he +went as far in goodness as it is possible for a man to go.</p> + +<p>Saint Louis being thus so interesting a character in himself, it is very +fortunate that we have an excellent contemporary biography of him, +from the hand of a friend and companion who knew him well. Sire de +Joinville's <i>Histoire de Saint Louis</i> is a classic of French literature and +in most respects the best piece of biographical writing that has come +down to us from the Middle Ages. Joinville, or more properly John, +lord of Joinville, was born in Champagne, in northern France, probably +in 1225. His family was one of the most distinguished in Champagne +and he himself had all the advantages that could come from being +brought up at the refined court of the count of this favored district. In +1248, when St. Louis set out on his first crusading expedition, Joinville, +only recently become of age, took the cross and became a follower +of the king, joining him in Cyprus and there first definitely entering +his service. During the next six years the two were inseparable companions, +and even after Joinville, in 1254, retired from the king's service +in order to manage his estates in Champagne he long continued to make +frequent visits of a social character to the court.</p> + +<p>Joinville's memoirs of St. Louis were completed about 1309—probably +nine years before the death of the author—and they were first +published soon after the death of Philip the Fair in 1314. They constitute +by far the most important source of information on the history of +France in the middle portion of the thirteenth century. Joinville had +the great advantage of intimate acquaintance and long association with +King Louis and, what is equally important, he seems to have tried to +write in a spirit of perfect fairness and justice. He was an ardent +admirer of Louis, but his biography did not fall into the tempting channel +of mere fulsome and indiscriminate praise. Moreover, the work is a +biography of the only really satisfactory type; it is not taken up with a +bare recital of events in the life of the individual under consideration, +but it has a broad background drawn from the general historical movements +and conditions of the time. Its most obvious defects arise from +the fact that it comprises largely the reminiscences of an old man, which +are never likely to be entirely accurate or well-balanced. In his dedication +of the treatise to Louis, eldest son of Philip IV., the author relates +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">313</a></span> +that it had been written at the urgent solicitation of the deceased king's +widow.</p> + +<p>The biography in print makes a good-sized volume and it is possible, +of course, to reproduce here but a few significant passages from it. +But these are perhaps sufficient to show what sort of man the saint-king +really was, and it is just this insight into the character of the +men of the Middle Ages that is most worth getting—and the hardest +thing, as a rule, to get. Incidentally, the extract throws some light +on the methods of warfare employed by the crusaders and the Turks.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Jean, Sire de Joinville, <i>Histoire de Saint Louis</i>. Text edited by +M. Joseph Noël (Natalis de Wailly) and published by the Société +de l'Histoire de France (Paris, 1868). Translated by James +Hutton under title of <i>Saint Louis, King of France</i> (London, 1868), +<i>passim</i>.</p> + +<p>As I have heard him say, he [Saint Louis] was born on the day +of St. Mark the Evangelist,<a name="FNanchor_446" id="FNanchor_446" href="#Footnote_446" class="fnanchor">[446]</a> shortly after Easter. On that day +<span class="sidebar">The king's +birth</span> +the cross is carried in procession in many places, +and in France they are called black crosses. It +was therefore a sort of prophecy of the great numbers of people +who perished in those two crusades, i.e., in that to Egypt, and in +that other, in the course of which he died at Carthage;<a name="FNanchor_447" id="FNanchor_447" href="#Footnote_447" class="fnanchor">[447]</a> for many +great sorrows were there on that account in this world, and many +great joys are there now in Paradise on the part of those who in +those two pilgrimages died true crusaders.</p> + +<p>God, in whom he put his trust, preserved him ever from his +infancy to the very last; and especially in his infancy did He +preserve him when he stood in need of help, as you will presently +<span class="sidebar">His early +training</span> +hear. As for his soul, God preserved it through +the pious instructions of his mother, who taught +him to believe in God and to love Him, and placed about him +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">314</a></span> +none but ministers of religion. And she made him, while he was +yet a child, attend to all his prayers and listen to the sermons +on saints' days. He remembered that his mother used sometimes +to tell him that she would rather he were dead than that +he should commit a deadly sin.</p> + +<p>Sore need of God's help had he in his youth, for his mother, +who came out of Spain, had neither relatives nor friends in all +the realm of France. And because the barons of France saw that +the king was an infant, and the queen, his mother, a foreigner, +they made the count of Boulogne, the king's uncle, their chief, +and looked up to him as their lord.<a name="FNanchor_448" id="FNanchor_448" href="#Footnote_448" class="fnanchor">[448]</a> After the king was crowned, +<span class="sidebar">Difficulties at +the beginning +of his reign</span> +some of the barons asked of the queen to bestow +upon them large domains; and because she would +do nothing of the kind all the barons assembled +at Corbei.<a name="FNanchor_449" id="FNanchor_449" href="#Footnote_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a> And the sainted king related to me how neither +he nor his mother, who were at Montlhéri,<a name="FNanchor_450" id="FNanchor_450" href="#Footnote_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a> dared to return to +Paris, until the citizens of Paris came, with arms in their hands, +to escort them. He told me, too, that from Montlhéri to Paris +the road was filled with people, some with and some without +weapons, and that all cried unto our Lord to give him a long +and happy life, and to defend and preserve him from his +enemies....</p> + +<p>After these things it chanced, as it pleased God, that great +illness fell upon the king at Paris, by which he was brought to +such extremity that one of the women who watched by his side +wanted to draw the sheet over his face, saying that he was dead; +but another woman, who was on the other side of the bed, +would not suffer it, for the soul, she said, had not yet left the +<span class="sidebar">Louis takes +the cross</span> +body. While he was listening to the dispute between +these two, our Lord wrought upon him and +quickly sent him health; for before that he was dumb, and could +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">315</a></span> +not speak. He demanded that the cross should be given to +him, and it was done. When the queen, his mother, heard that +he had recovered his speech, she exhibited as much joy as could +be; but when she was told by himself that he had taken the cross, +she displayed as much grief as if she had seen him dead.</p> + +<p>After the king put on the cross, Robert, count of Artois, +Alphonse, count of Poitiers, Charles, count of Anjou, who was +afterwards king of Sicily—all three brothers of the king—also +took the cross; as likewise did Hugh, duke of Burgundy, William, +count of Flanders (brother to Count Guy of Flanders, the last +who died), the good Hugh, count of Saint Pol, and Monseigneur +<span class="sidebar">Prominent +Frenchmen +who followed +his example</span> + +Walter, his nephew, who bore himself right manfully +beyond seas, and would have been of great +worth had he lived. There was also the count of +La Marche, and Monseigneur Hugh le Brun, his son; the count +of Sarrebourg, and Monseigneur d'Apremont, his brother, in +whose company I myself, John, Seigneur de Joinville, crossed +the sea in a ship we chartered, because we were cousins; and we +crossed over in all twenty knights, nine of whom followed the +count of Sarrebourg, and nine were with me....</p> + +<p>The king summoned his barons to Paris, and made them +swear to keep faith and loyalty towards his children if anything +happened to himself on the voyage. He asked the same of me, +but I refused to take any oath, because I was not his vassal....</p> + +<p>In the month of August we went on board our ships at the +Rock of Marseilles. The day we embarked the door of the vessel +<span class="sidebar">Embarking on +the Mediterranean</span> +was opened, and the horses that we were to take +with us were led inside. Then they fastened the +door and closed it up tightly, as when one sinks a +cask, because when the ship is at sea the whole of the door is +under water. When the horses were in, our sailing-master +called out to his mariners who were at the prow: "Are you all +ready?" And they replied: "Sir, let the clerks and priests come +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">316</a></span> +forward." As soon as they had come nigh, he shouted to them; +"Chant, in God's name!" And they with one voice chanted, +"<i>Veni, Creator Spiritus.</i>" Then the master called out to his men: +"Set sail, in God's name!" And they did so. And in a little +time the wind struck the sails and carried us out of sight of +land, so that we saw nothing but sea and sky; and every day +the wind bore us farther away from the land where we were born. +And thereby I show you how foolhardy he must be who would +venture to put himself in such peril with other people's property +in his possession, or while in deadly sin; for when you fall asleep +at night you know not but that ere the morning you may be +at the bottom of the sea.</p> + +<p>When we reached Cyprus, the king was already there, and we +found an immense supply of stores for him, i.e., wine-stores and +granaries. The king's wine-stores consisted of great piles of casks +of wine, which his people had purchased two years before the +king's arrival and placed in an open field near the seashore. +<span class="sidebar">Preparations +made in Cyprus</span> +They had piled them one upon the other, so that +when seen from the front they looked like a +farmhouse. The wheat and barley had been +heaped up in the middle of the field, and at first sight looked like +hills; for the rain, which had long beaten upon the corn, had +caused it to sprout, so that nothing was seen but green herbage. +But when it was desired to transport it to Egypt, they broke off +the outer coating with the green herbage, and the wheat and barley +within were found as fresh as if they had only just been +threshed out.</p> + +<p>The king, as I have heard him say, would gladly have pushed +on to Egypt without stopping, had not his barons advised him +to wait for his army, which had not all arrived. While the king +was sojourning in Cyprus, the great Khan of Tartary<a name="FNanchor_451" id="FNanchor_451" href="#Footnote_451" class="fnanchor">[451]</a> sent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">317</a></span> +envoys to him, the bearers of very courteous messages. Among +other things, he told him that he was ready to aid him in conquering +the Holy Land and in delivering Jerusalem out of the +hands of the Saracens. The king received the messengers very +graciously, and sent some to the Khan, who were two years +absent before they could return. And with his messengers the +<span class="sidebar">An embassy +from the Khan</span> +king sent to the Khan a tent fashioned like a +chapel, which cost a large sum of money, for it +was made of fine rich scarlet cloth. And the king, in the hope of +drawing the Khan's people to our faith, caused to be embroidered +inside the chapel, pictures representing the Annunciation of +Our Lady, and other articles of faith. And he sent these things +to them by the hands of two friars, who spoke the Saracen +language, to teach and point out to them what they ought to +believe....</p> + +<p>As soon as March came round, the king, and, by his command, +the barons and other pilgrims, gave orders that the ships should +be laden with wine and provisions, to be ready to sail when the +king should give the signal. It happened that when everything +was ready, the king and queen withdrew on board their ship on +<span class="sidebar">The departure +from Cyprus</span> +the Friday before Whitsunday, and the king desired +his barons to follow in his wake straight +towards Egypt. On Saturday<a name="FNanchor_452" id="FNanchor_452" href="#Footnote_452" class="fnanchor">[452]</a> the king set sail, and all +the other vessels at the same time, which was a fine sight to +behold, for it seemed as if the whole sea, as far as the eye could +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">318</a></span> +reach, was covered with sails, and the number of ships, great and +small, was reckoned at 1,800....<a name="FNanchor_453" id="FNanchor_453" href="#Footnote_453" class="fnanchor">[453]</a></p> + +<p>Upon the arrival of the count of Poitiers, the king summoned +all the barons of the army to decide in what direction he should +march, whether towards Alexandria, or towards Babylon.<a name="FNanchor_454" id="FNanchor_454" href="#Footnote_454" class="fnanchor">[454]</a> +It resulted that the good Count Peter of Brittany, and most of +the barons of the army, were of the opinion that the king should +lay siege to Alexandria, because that city is possessed of a good +<span class="sidebar">Decision +to proceed +against Cairo</span> +port where the vessels could lie that should bring +provisions for the army. To this the count of Artois +was opposed. He said that he could not advise +going anywhere except to Babylon, because that was the +chief town in all the realm of Egypt; he added, that whosoever +wished to kill a serpent outright should crush its head. The +king set aside the advice of his barons, and held to that of his +brother.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of Advent, the king set out with his army to +march against Babylon, as the count of Artois had counseled +him. Not far from Damietta we came upon a stream of water +which issued from the great river [Nile], and it was resolved +that the army should halt for a day to dam up this branch, so +that it might be crossed. The thing was done easily enough, +for the arm was dammed up close to the great river. At the +passage of this stream the sultan sent 500 of his knights, the +best mounted in his whole army, to harass the king's troops, +and retard our march.</p> + +<p>On St. Nicholas's day<a name="FNanchor_455" id="FNanchor_455" href="#Footnote_455" class="fnanchor">[455]</a> the king gave the order to march +and forbade that any one should be so bold as to sally out upon +the Saracens who were before us. So it chanced that when the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">319</a></span> +army was in motion to resume the march and the Turks saw +that no one would sally out against them, and learned from their +spies that the king had forbidden it, they became emboldened +<span class="sidebar">A skirmish between +the Saracens +and the +Templars</span> +and attacked the Templars,<a name="FNanchor_456" id="FNanchor_456" href="#Footnote_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a> who formed the +advance-guard. And one of the Turks hurled to +the ground one of the knights of the Temple, +right before the feet of the horse of Reginald de Bichiers, who +was at that time Marshal of the Temple. When the latter saw +this, he shouted to the other brethren: "Have at them, in God's +name! I cannot suffer any more of this." He dashed in his +spurs, and all the army did likewise. Our people's horses were +fresh, while those of the Turks were already worn out. Whence +it happened, as I have heard, that not a Turk escaped, but +all perished, several of them having plunged into the river, +where they were drowned....<a name="FNanchor_457" id="FNanchor_457" href="#Footnote_457" class="fnanchor">[457]</a></p> + +<p>One evening when we were on duty near the cat castles, they +brought against us an engine called <i>pierrière</i>,<a name="FNanchor_458" id="FNanchor_458" href="#Footnote_458" class="fnanchor">[458]</a> which they had +never done before, and they placed Greek fire<a name="FNanchor_459" id="FNanchor_459" href="#Footnote_459" class="fnanchor">[459]</a> in the sling of +the engine. When Monseigneur Walter de Cureil, the good +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">320</a></span> +knight, who was with me, saw that, he said to us: "Sirs, we are +in the greatest peril we have yet been in; for if they set fire to +our towers, and we remain here, we are dead men, and if we +leave our posts which have been intrusted to us, we are put to +shame; and no one can rescue us from this peril save God. It is +therefore my opinion and my advice to you that each time they +discharge the fire at us we should throw ourselves upon our +elbows and knees, and pray our Lord to bring us out of this +danger."</p> + +<p>As soon as they fired we threw ourselves upon our elbows and +knees, as he had counseled us. The first shot they fired came +between our two cat castles, and fell in front of us on the open +place which the army had made for the purpose of damming the +river. Our men whose duty it was to extinguish fires were all +ready for it; and because the Saracens could not aim at them +on account of the two wings of the sheds which the king had +erected there, they fired straight up towards the clouds, so that +<span class="sidebar">The Saracens +make use of +Greek fire</span> +their darts came down from above upon the men. +The nature of the Greek fire was in this wise, that +it rushed forward as large around as a cask of +verjuice,<a name="FNanchor_460" id="FNanchor_460" href="#Footnote_460" class="fnanchor">[460]</a> and the tail of the fire which issued from it was as big +as a large-sized spear. It made such a noise in coming that it +seemed as if it were a thunderbolt from heaven and looked like a +dragon flying through the air. It cast such a brilliant light that +in the camp they could see as clearly as if it were daytime, because +of the light diffused by such a bulk of fire. Three times +that night they discharged the Greek fire at us, and four times +they sent it from the fixed cross-bows. Each time that Our +sainted king heard that they had discharged the Greek fire at +us, he dressed himself on his bed and stretched out his hands +towards our Lord, and prayed with tears: "Fair Sire God, +preserve me my people!" And I verily believe that his prayers +stood us in good stead in our hour of need. That evening, every +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">321</a></span> +time the fire fell, he sent one of his chamberlains to inquire in +what state we were and if the fire had done us any damage. +One time when they threw it, it fell close to the cat castle which +Monseigneur de Courtenay's people were guarding, and struck +on the river-bank. Then a knight named Aubigoiz called to +me and said: "Sir, if you do not help us we are all burnt, for +the Saracens have discharged so many of their darts dipped in +Greek fire that there is of them, as it were, a great blazing +hedge coming towards our tower."</p> + +<p>We ran forward and hastened thither and found that he spoke +the truth. We extinguished the fire, but before we had done +so the Saracens covered us with the darts they discharged from +the other side of the river.</p> + +<p>The king's brothers mounted guard on the roof of the cat +castles to fire bolts from cross-bows against the Saracens, and +which fell into their camp. The king had commanded that when +the king of Sicily<a name="FNanchor_461" id="FNanchor_461" href="#Footnote_461" class="fnanchor">[461]</a> mounted guard in the daytime at the cat +castles, we were to do so at night. One day when the king of +Sicily was keeping watch, which we should have to do at night, we +were in much trouble of mind because the Saracens had shattered +<span class="sidebar">Progress of +the conflict</span> +our cat castles. The Saracens brought out the +<i>pierrière</i> in the daytime, which they had hitherto +done only at night, and discharged the Greek fire at our towers. +They had advanced their engines so near to the causeway +which the army had constructed to dam the river that no one +dared to go to the towers, because of the huge stones which +the engines flung upon the road. The consequence was that +our two towers were burned, and the king of Sicily was so enraged +about it that he came near flinging himself into the fire to +extinguish it. But if he were wrathful, I and my knights, for +our part, gave thanks to God; for if we had mounted guard at +night, we should all have been burned....<a name="FNanchor_462" id="FNanchor_462" href="#Footnote_462" class="fnanchor">[462]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">322</a></span></p> + +<p>It came to pass that the sainted king labored so much that +the king of England, his wife, and children, came to France +to treat with him about peace between him and them. The +members of his council were strongly opposed to this peace, and +said to him:</p> + +<p>"Sire, we greatly marvel that it should be your pleasure to yield +to the king of England such a large portion of your land, which +<span class="sidebar">The treaty +of Paris, 1259</span> +you and your predecessors have won from him, and +obtained through forfeiture. It seems to us that if +you believe you have no right to it, you do not make fitting restitution +to the king of England unless you restore to him all the conquests +which you and your predecessors have made; but if you +believe that you have a right to it, it seems to us that you are +throwing away all that you yield to him."</p> + +<p>To this the sainted king replied after this fashion: "Sirs, I am +certain that the king of England's predecessors lost most justly +the conquests I hold; and the land which I give up to him I do +not give because I am bound either towards himself or his heirs, +but to create love between his children and mine, who are first +cousins. And it seems to me that I am making a good use of +what I give to him, because before he was not my vassal, but +now he has to render homage to me."...<a name="FNanchor_463" id="FNanchor_463" href="#Footnote_463" class="fnanchor">[463]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">323</a></span></p> + +<p>After the king's return from beyond sea, he lived so devoutly +that he never afterwards wore furs of different colors, nor minnever,<a name="FNanchor_464" id="FNanchor_464" href="#Footnote_464" class="fnanchor">[464]</a> +nor scarlet cloth, nor gilt stirrups or spurs. His dress +was of camlet<a name="FNanchor_465" id="FNanchor_465" href="#Footnote_465" class="fnanchor">[465]</a> and of a dark blue cloth; the linings of his coverlets +and garments were of doeskin or hare-legs.</p> + +<p>When rich men's minstrels entered the hall after the repast, +bringing with them their viols, he waited to hear grace until the +<span class="sidebar">The king's +personal +traits</span> +minstrel had finished his chant; then he rose and +the priests who said grace stood before him. When +we were at his court in a private way,<a name="FNanchor_466" id="FNanchor_466" href="#Footnote_466" class="fnanchor">[466]</a> he used to +sit at the foot of his bed, and when the Franciscans and Dominicans<a name="FNanchor_467" id="FNanchor_467" href="#Footnote_467" class="fnanchor">[467]</a> +who were there spoke of a book that would give him pleasure, +he would say to them: "You shall not read to me, for, after +eating, there is no book so pleasant as <i>quolibets</i>,"—that is, that +every one should say what he likes. When men of quality dined +with him, he made himself agreeable to them....</p> + +<p>Many a time it happened that in the summer he would go +and sit down in the wood at Vincennes,<a name="FNanchor_468" id="FNanchor_468" href="#Footnote_468" class="fnanchor">[468]</a> with his back to an oak, +and make us take our seats around him. And all those who had +complaints to make came to him, without hindrance from ushers +or other folk. Then he asked them with his own lips: "Is there +any one here who has a cause?"<a name="FNanchor_469" id="FNanchor_469" href="#Footnote_469" class="fnanchor">[469]</a> Those who had a cause stood +<span class="sidebar">His primitive +method of dispensing +justice</span> +up, when he would say to them: "Silence all, +and you shall be dispatched one after the other." +Then he would call Monseigneur de Fontaines, or +Monseigneur Geoffrey de Villette, and would say to one of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">324</a></span> +them: "Dispose of this case for me." When he saw anything to +amend in the words of those who spoke for others, he would correct +it with his own lips. Sometimes in summer I have seen him, +in order to administer justice to the people, come into the garden +of Paris dressed in a camlet coat, a surcoat of woollen stuff, +without sleeves, a mantle of black taffety around his neck, his +hair well combed and without coif, a hat with white peacock's +feathers on his head. Carpets were spread for us to sit down +upon around him, and all the people who had business to dispatch +stood about in front of him. Then he would have it +dispatched in the same manner as I have already described in +the wood of Vincennes.</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">325</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XX.<br /> +MUNICIPAL ORGANIZATION AND ACTIVITY</h3> + +<h4>57. Some Twelfth Century Town Charters</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>In the times of the Carolingians the small and scattered towns and +villages of western Europe, particularly of France, were inhabited +mainly by serfs and villeins, i.e., by a dependent rather than an independent +population. With scarcely an exception, these urban centers +belonged to the lords of the neighboring lands, who administered their +affairs through mayors, provosts, bailiffs, or other agents, collected from +them seigniorial dues as from the rural peasantry, and, in short, took +entire charge of matters of justice, finance, military obligations, and +industrial arrangements. There was no local self-government, nothing +in the way of municipal organization separate from the feudal régime, +and no important burgher class as distinguished from the agricultural +laborers. By the twelfth century a great transformation is apparent. +France has come to be dotted with strong and often largely independent +municipalities, and a powerful class of bourgeoisie, essentially anti-feudal +in character, has risen to play an increasing part in the nation's +political and economic life. In these new municipalities there is a larger +measure of freedom of person, security of property, and rights of self-government +than Europe had known since the days of Charlemagne, +perhaps even since the best period of the Roman Empire.</p> + +<p>The reason for this transformation—in other words, the origin of these +new municipal centers—has been variously explained. One theory is +that the municipal system of the Middle Ages was essentially a survival +of that which prevailed in western Europe under the fostering influence +of Rome. The best authorities now reject this view, for there is every +reason to believe that, speaking generally, the barbarian invasions and +feudalism practically crushed out the municipal institutions of the Empire. +Another theory ascribes the origin of mediæval municipal government +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">326</a></span> +to the merchant and craft guilds, particularly the former; but +there is little evidence to support the view. Undeniably the guild was +an important factor in drawing groups of burghers together and forming +centers of combination against local lords, but it was at best only one +of several forces tending to the growth of municipal life. Other factors +of larger importance were the military and the commercial. On the one +hand, the need of protection led people to flock to fortified places—castles +or monasteries—and settle in the neighborhood; on the other, +the growth of commerce and industry, especially after the eleventh +century, caused strategic places like the intersection of great highways +and rivers to become seats of permanent and growing population. The +towns which thus sprang up in response to new conditions and necessities +in time took on a political as well as a commercial and industrial character, +principally through the obtaining of charters from the neighboring +lords, defining the measure of independence to be enjoyed and the respective +rights of lord and town. Charters of the sort were usually +granted by the lord, not merely because requested by the burghers, +but because they were paid for and constituted a valuable source of +revenue. Not infrequently, however, a charter was wrested from an +unwilling lord through open warfare. It was in the first half of the +twelfth century that town charters became common. As a rule they +were obtained by the larger towns (it should be borne in mind that a +population of 10,000 was large in the twelfth century), but not necessarily +so, for many villages of two or three hundred people secured them +also.</p> + +<p>The two great classes of towns were the <i>villes libres</i> (free towns) +and the <i>villes franches</i>, or <i>villes de bourgeoisie</i> (franchise, or chartered, +towns). The free towns enjoyed a large measure of independence. +In relation to their lords they occupied essentially the position of vassals, +with the legislative, financial, and judicial privileges which by the +twelfth century all great vassals had come to have. The burghers +elected their own officers, constituted their own courts, made their own +laws, levied taxes, and even waged war. The leading types of free cities +were the communes of northern France (governed by a provost and one +or more councils, often essentially oligarchical) and the consulates of +southern France and northern Italy (distinguished from the communes +by the fact that the executive was made up of "consuls," and by the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">327</a></span> +greater participation of the local nobility in town affairs). A typical +free town of the commune type, was Laon, in the region of northern +Champagne. In 1109 the bishop of Laon, who was lord of the city, +consented to the establishment of a communal government. Three +years later he sought to abolish it, with the result that an insurrection +was stirred up in which he lost his life. King Louis VI. intervened and +the citizens were obliged to submit to the authority of the new bishop, +though in 1328 fear of another uprising led this official to renew the old +grant. The act was ratified by Louis VI. in the text (a) given below.</p> + +<p>The other great class of towns—the franchise towns—differed from +the free towns in having a much more limited measure of political and +economic independence. They received grants of privileges, or "franchises," +from their lord, especially in the way of restrictions of rights of +the latter over the persons and property of the inhabitants, but they +remained politically subject to the lord and their government was partly +or wholly under his control. Their charters set a limit to the lord's +arbitrary authority, emancipated such inhabitants as were not already +free, gave the citizens the right to move about and to alienate property, +substituted money payments for the corvée, and in general made old +regulations less burdensome; but as a rule no political rights were conferred. +Paris, Tours, Orleans, and other more important cities on the +royal domain belonged to this class. The town of Lorris, on the royal +domain a short distance east of Orleans, became the common model for +the type. Its charter, received from Louis VII. in 1155, is given in +the second selection (b) below.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Sources—(a) Text in Vilevault and Bréquigny, <i>Ordonnances des Rois de +France de la Troisième Race</i> ["Ordinances of the Kings of +France of the Third Dynasty"], Paris, 1769, Vol. XI., pp. 185-187.</p> + +<p class="source_add">(b) Text in Maurice Prou, <i>Les Coutumes de Lorris et leur Propagation +aux XII<sup>e</sup> et XIII<sup>e</sup> Siècles</i> ["The Customs of Lorris and +their Spread in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries"], +Paris, 1884, pp. 129-141.</p> + +<p class="center">(a)</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> Let no one arrest any freeman or serf for any offense without +due process of law.<a name="FNanchor_470" id="FNanchor_470" href="#Footnote_470" class="fnanchor">[470]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">328</a></span></p> + +<p><b>2.</b> But if any one do injury to a clerk, soldier, or merchant, +native or foreign, provided he who does the injury belongs to the +<span class="sidebar">Provisions of +the charter of +Laon</span> +same city as the injured person, let him, summoned +after the fourth day, come for justice +before the mayor and jurats.<a name="FNanchor_471" id="FNanchor_471" href="#Footnote_471" class="fnanchor">[471]</a></p> + +<p><b>7.</b> If a thief is arrested, let him be brought to him on whose +land he has been arrested; but if justice is not done by the lord, +let it be done by the jurats.<a name="FNanchor_472" id="FNanchor_472" href="#Footnote_472" class="fnanchor">[472]</a></p> + +<p><b>12.</b> We entirely abolish mortmain.<a name="FNanchor_473" id="FNanchor_473" href="#Footnote_473" class="fnanchor">[473]</a></p> + +<p><b>18.</b> The customary tallages we have so reformed that every +man owing such tallages, at the time when they are due, must +pay four pence, and beyond that no more.<a name="FNanchor_474" id="FNanchor_474" href="#Footnote_474" class="fnanchor">[474]</a></p> + +<p><b>19.</b> Let men of the peace not be compelled to resort to courts +outside the city.<a name="FNanchor_475" id="FNanchor_475" href="#Footnote_475" class="fnanchor">[475]</a></p> + +<p class="center">(b)</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> Every one who has a house in the parish of Lorris shall +pay as <i>cens</i> sixpence only for his house, and for each acre of land +that he possesses in the parish.<a name="FNanchor_476" id="FNanchor_476" href="#Footnote_476" class="fnanchor">[476]</a></p> + +<p><b>2.</b> No inhabitant of the parish of Lorris shall be required to +pay a toll or any other tax on his provisions; and let him not +be made to pay any measurage fee on the grain which he has +raised by his own labor.<a name="FNanchor_477" id="FNanchor_477" href="#Footnote_477" class="fnanchor">[477]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">329</a></span></p> + +<p><b>3.</b> No burgher shall go on an expedition, on foot or on horseback, +from which he cannot return the same day to his home if +he desires.<a name="FNanchor_478" id="FNanchor_478" href="#Footnote_478" class="fnanchor">[478]</a></p> + +<p><b>4.</b> No burgher shall pay toll on the road to Étampes, to +Orleans, to Milly (which is in the Gâtinais), or to Melun.<a name="FNanchor_479" id="FNanchor_479" href="#Footnote_479" class="fnanchor">[479]</a></p> + +<p><b>5.</b> No one who has property in the parish of Lorris shall forfeit it +<span class="sidebar">The charter +of Lorris</span> +for any offense whatsoever, unless the offense shall +have been committed against us or any of our <i>hôtes</i>.<a name="FNanchor_480" id="FNanchor_480" href="#Footnote_480" class="fnanchor">[480]</a></p> + +<p><b>6.</b> No person while on his way to the fairs and markets of +Lorris, or returning, shall be arrested or disturbed, unless he +shall have committed an offense on the same day.<a name="FNanchor_481" id="FNanchor_481" href="#Footnote_481" class="fnanchor">[481]</a></p> + +<p><b>9.</b> No one, neither we nor any other, shall exact from the +burghers of Lorris any tallage, tax, or subsidy.<a name="FNanchor_482" id="FNanchor_482" href="#Footnote_482" class="fnanchor">[482]</a></p> + +<p><b>12.</b> If a man shall have had a quarrel with another, but without +breaking into a fortified house, and if the parties shall have +reached an agreement without bringing a suit before the provost, +no fine shall be due to us or our provost on account of the affair.<a name="FNanchor_483" id="FNanchor_483" href="#Footnote_483" class="fnanchor">[483]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">330</a></span></p> + +<p><b>15.</b> No inhabitant of Lorris is to render us the obligation of +<i>corvée</i>, except twice a year, when our wine is to be carried to +Orleans, and not elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_484" id="FNanchor_484" href="#Footnote_484" class="fnanchor">[484]</a></p> + +<p><b>16.</b> No one shall be detained in prison if he can furnish surety +that he will present himself for judgment.</p> + +<p><b>17.</b> Any burgher who wishes to sell his property shall have +the privilege of doing so; and, having received the price of the +sale, he shall have the right to go from the town freely and without +molestation, if he so desires, unless he has committed some +offense in it.</p> + +<p><b>18.</b> Any one who shall dwell a year and a day in the parish of +Lorris, without any claim having pursued him there, and without +having refused to lay his case before us or our provost, shall +abide there freely and without molestation.<a name="FNanchor_485" id="FNanchor_485" href="#Footnote_485" class="fnanchor">[485]</a></p> + +<p><b>35.</b> We ordain that every time there shall be a change of +provosts in the town the new provost shall take an oath faithfully +to observe these regulations; and the same thing shall be +done by new sergeants<a name="FNanchor_486" id="FNanchor_486" href="#Footnote_486" class="fnanchor">[486]</a> every time that they are installed.</p> + +<h4>58. The Colonization of Eastern Germany</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>In the time of Charlemagne the Elbe River marked a pretty clear +boundary between the Slavic population to the east and the Germanic +to the west. There were many Slavs west of the Elbe, but no Germans +east of it. There had been a time when Germans occupied large portions +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">331</a></span> +of eastern Europe, but for one reason or another they gradually became +concentrated toward the west, while Slavic peoples pushed in to fill the +vacated territory. Under Charlemagne and his successors we can discern +the earlier stages of a movement of reaction which has gone on in +later times until the political map of all north central Europe has been +remodeled. During the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries large portions +of the "sphere of influence" (to use a modern phrase) which +Charlemagne had created eastward from the Elbe were converted into +German principalities and dependencies. German colonists pushed +down the Danube, well toward the Black Sea, along the Baltic, past the +Oder and toward the Vistula, and up the Oder into the heart of modern +Poland. The Slavic population was slowly brought under subjection, +Christianized, and to a certain extent Germanized. In the tenth century +Henry I. (919-936) began a fresh forward movement against the Slavs, +or Wends, as the Germans called them. Magdeburg, on the Elbe, was +established as the chief base of operations. The work was kept up by +Henry's son, Otto I. (936-973), but under his grandson, Otto II. (973-983), +a large part of what had been gained was lost for a time through a +Slavic revolt called out by the Emperor's preoccupation with affairs in +Italy. Thereafter for a century the Slavs were allowed perforce to enjoy +their earlier independence, and upon more than one occasion they +were able to assume the aggressive against their would-be conquerors. +In 1066 the city of Hamburg, on the lower Elbe, was attacked and +almost totally destroyed. The imperial power was fast declining and the +Franconian sovereigns had little time left from their domestic conflicts +and quarrels with the papacy to carry on a contest on the east.</p> + +<p>The renewed advance which the Germans made against the Slavs in +the later eleventh and earlier twelfth centuries was due primarily to the +energy of the able princes of Saxony and to the pressure for colonization, +which increased in spite of small encouragement from any +except the local authorities. The document given below is a typical +charter of the period, authorizing the establishment of a colony of Germans +eastward from Hamburg, on the border of Brandenburg. It was +granted in 1106 by the bishop of Hamburg, who as lord of the region +in which the proposed settlement was to be made exercised the right +not merely of giving consent to the undertaking, but also of prescribing +the terms and conditions by which the colonists were to be bound. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">332</a></span> +As appears from the charter, the colony was expected to be a source +of profit to the bishop; and indeed it was financial considerations on the +part of lords, lay and spiritual, who had stretches of unoccupied land at +their disposal, almost as much as regard for safety in numbers and the +absolute dominance of Germanic peoples, that prompted these local +magnates of eastern Germany so ardently to promote the work of +colonization.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in Wilhelm Altmann and Ernst Bernheim, <i>Ausgewählte +Urkunden zur Erlauterung der Verfassungsgeschichte Deutschlands +im Mittelalter</i> ["Select Documents Illustrative of the Constitutional +History of Germany in the Middle Ages"], 3rd ed., Berlin, +1904, pp. 159-160. Translated in Thatcher and McNeal, <i>A Source +Book for Mediæval History</i> (New York, 1905), pp. 572-573.</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> In the name of the holy and undivided Trinity. Frederick, +by the grace of God bishop of Hamburg, to all the faithful in +Christ, gives a perpetual benediction. We wish to make known +to all the agreement which certain people living this side of the +Rhine, who are called Hollanders,<a name="FNanchor_487" id="FNanchor_487" href="#Footnote_487" class="fnanchor">[487]</a> have made with us.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> These men came to us and earnestly begged us to grant +them certain lands in our bishopric, which are uncultivated, +<span class="sidebar">The Hollanders +ask land +for a colony</span> +swampy, and useless to our people. We have +consulted our subjects about this and, feeling +that this would be profitable to us and to our +successors, have granted their request.</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> The agreement was made that they should pay us every +year one <i>denarius</i> for every hide of land. We have thought it +necessary to determine the dimensions of the hide, in order that +no quarrel may thereafter arise about it. The hide shall be +720 royal rods long and thirty royal rods wide. We also grant +them the streams which flow through this land.</p> + +<p><b>4.</b> They agreed to give the tithe according to our decree, that +is, every eleventh sheaf of grain, every tenth lamb, every tenth +pig, every tenth goat, every tenth goose, and a tenth of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">333</a></span> +honey and of the flax. For every colt they shall pay a <i>denarius</i> +on St. Martin's day [Nov. 11], and for every calf an obol [penny].</p> + +<p><b>5.</b> They promised to obey me in all ecclesiastical matters, +<span class="sidebar">Obedience +promised to +the bishop of +Hamburg</span> +according to the decrees of the holy fathers, +the canonical law, and the practice in the diocese +of Utrecht.<a name="FNanchor_488" id="FNanchor_488" href="#Footnote_488" class="fnanchor">[488]</a></p> + +<p><b>6.</b> They agreed to pay every year two marks for every 100 +hides for the privilege of holding their own courts for the settlement +of all their differences about secular matters. They did +this because they feared they would suffer from the injustice of +<span class="sidebar">Judicial +immunity</span> +foreign judges.<a name="FNanchor_489" id="FNanchor_489" href="#Footnote_489" class="fnanchor">[489]</a> If they cannot settle the more +important cases, they shall refer them to the +bishop. And if they take the bishop with them for the purpose +of deciding one of their trials,<a name="FNanchor_490" id="FNanchor_490" href="#Footnote_490" class="fnanchor">[490]</a> they shall provide for his support +as long as he remains there by granting him one third of all the +fees arising from the trial; and they shall keep the other two +thirds.</p> + +<p><b>7.</b> We have given them permission to found churches wherever +they may wish on these lands. For the support of the +priests who shall serve God in these churches we grant a tithe +of our tithes from these parish churches. They promised that +the congregation of each of these churches should endow their +church with a hide for the support of their priest.<a name="FNanchor_491" id="FNanchor_491" href="#Footnote_491" class="fnanchor">[491]</a> The names +of the men who made this agreement with us are: Henry, the +priest, to whom we have granted the aforesaid churches for life; +and the others are laymen, Helikin, Arnold, Hiko, Fordalt, and +Referic. To them and to their heirs after them we have granted +the aforesaid land according to the secular laws and to the terms +of this agreement.</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">334</a></span></p> + +<h4>59. The League of Rhenish Cities (1254)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>About the middle of the thirteenth century the central authority of +the Holy Roman Empire was for a time practically dissolved. Frederick +II., the last strong ruler of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, died in 1250, and +even he was so largely Italian in character and interests that he could +bring himself to give little attention to German affairs. During the +stormy period of the Interregnum (1254-1273) there was no universally +recognized emperor at all. Germany had reached an advanced stage of +political disintegration and it is scarcely conceivable that even a Henry +IV. or a Frederick Barbarossa could have made the imperial power much +more than a shadow and a name. But while the Empire was broken up +into scores of principalities, independent cities, and other political fragments, +its people were enjoying a vigorous and progressive life. The +period was one of great growth of industry in the towns, and especially +of commerce. The one serious disadvantage was the lack of a central +police authority to preserve order and insure the safety of person and +property. Warfare was all but ceaseless, robber-bands infested the +rivers and highways, and all manner of vexatious conditions were imposed +upon trade by the various local authorities. The natural result +was the formation of numerous leagues and confederacies for the suppression +of anarchy and the protection of trade and industry. The +greatest of these was the Hanseatic League, which came to comprise +one hundred and seventy-two cities, and the history of whose operations +runs through more than three centuries. An earlier organization, which +may be considered in a way a forerunner of the Hansa, was the Rhine +League, established in 1254. At this earlier date Conrad IV., son of +Frederick II., was fighting his half-brother Manfred for their common +Sicilian heritage; William of Holland, who claimed the imperial title, +was recognized in only a small territory and was quite powerless to affect +conditions of disorder outside; the other princes, great and small, were +generally engaged in private warfare; and the difficulties and dangers of +trade and industry were at their maximum. To establish a power +strong enough, and with the requisite disposition, to suppress the robbers +and pirates who were ruining commerce, the leading cities of the +Rhine valley—Mainz, Cologne, Worms, Speyer, Strassburg, Basel, +Trier, Metz, and others—entered into a "league of holy peace," to endure +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">335</a></span> +for a period of ten years, dating from July 13, 1254. The more significant +terms of the compact are set forth in the selection below.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in Wilhelm Altmann and Ernst Bernheim, <i>Ausgewählte +Urkunden zur Erlauterung der Verfassungsgeschichte Deutschlands +im Mittelalter</i> ["Select Documents Illustrative of the Constitutional +History of Germany in the Middle Ages"], 3rd ed., Berlin, +1904, pp. 251-254. Translated in Thatcher and McNeal, <i>A Source +Book for Mediæval History</i> (New York, 1905), pp. 606-609.</p> + +<p>In the name of the Lord, amen. In the year of our Lord 1254, +on the octave of St. Michael's day [a week after Sept. 29] we, +the cities of the upper and lower Rhine, leagued together for the +preservation of peace, met in the city of Worms. We held a +conference there and carefully discussed everything pertaining to +<span class="sidebar">The league +formed at +Worms</span> +a general peace. To the honor of God, and of the +holy mother Church, and of the holy Empire, +which is now governed by our lord, William, +king of the Romans,<a name="FNanchor_492" id="FNanchor_492" href="#Footnote_492" class="fnanchor">[492]</a> and to the common advantage of all, both +rich and poor alike, we made the following laws. They are for +the benefit of all, both poor and great, the secular clergy, monks, +laymen, and Jews. To secure these things, which are for the +public good, we will spare neither ourselves nor our possessions. +The princes and lords who take the oath are joined with us.</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> We decree that we will make no warlike expeditions, except +those that are absolutely necessary and determined on by the +wise counsel of the cities and communes. We will mutually +aid each other with all our strength in securing redress for our +grievances.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> We decree that no member of the league, whether city +<span class="sidebar">No dealings +to be had with +enemies of the +league</span> +or lord, Christian or Jew, shall furnish food, +arms, or aid of any kind, to any one who opposes +us or the peace.</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> And no one in our cities shall give credit, or make a loan, +to them. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">336</a></span></p> + +<p><b>4.</b> No citizen of any of the cities in the league shall associate +with such, or give them counsel, aid, or support. If any one is +convicted of doing so, he shall be expelled from the city and +punished so severely in his property that he will be a warning +to others not to do such things.</p> + +<p><b>5.</b> If any knight, in trying to aid his lord who is at war with +us, attacks or molests us anywhere outside of the walled towns +of his lord, he is breaking the peace, and we will in some way +<span class="sidebar">A warning +to enemies</span> +inflict due punishment on him and his possessions, +no matter who he is. If he is caught in any of +the cities, he shall be held as a prisoner until he makes proper +satisfaction. We wish to be protectors of the peasants, and we +will protect them against all violence if they will observe the +peace with us. But if they make war on us, we will punish them, +and if we catch them in any of the cities, we will punish them +as malefactors.</p> + +<p><b>6.</b> We wish the cities to destroy all the ferries except those +in their immediate neighborhood, so that there shall be no +ferries except those near the cities which are in the league. +This is to be done in order that the enemies of the peace may be +deprived of all means of crossing the Rhine.</p> + +<p><b>7.</b> We decree that if any lord or knight aids us in promoting +the peace, we will do all we can to protect him. Whoever does +not swear to keep the peace with us, shall be excluded from the +general peace.</p> + +<p><b>10.</b> Above all, we wish to affirm that we desire to live in +mutual peace with the lords and all the people of the province, +and we desire that each should preserve all his rights.</p> + +<p><b>11.</b> Under threat of punishment we forbid any citizen to revile +the lords, although they may be our enemies. For although we +wish to punish them for the violence they have done us, yet before +making war on them we will first warn them to cease from +injuring us.</p> + +<p><b>12.</b> We decree that all correspondence about this matter with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">337</a></span> +the cities of the lower Rhine shall be conducted from Mainz, and +from Worms with the cities of the upper Rhine. From these +<span class="sidebar">Mainz and +Worms to be +the capitals +of the league</span> +two cities all our correspondence shall be carried +on and all who have done us injury shall be +warned. Those who have suffered injury shall +send their messengers at their own expense.</p> + +<p><b>13.</b> We also promise, both lords and cities, to send four +official representatives to whatever place a conference is to be +<span class="sidebar">The governing +body of the +league</span> +held, and they shall have full authority from +their cities to decide on all matters. They shall +report to their cities all the decisions of the meeting. +All who come with the representatives of the cities, or who +come to them while in session, shall have peace, and no judgment +shall be enforced against them.</p> + +<p><b>14.</b> No city shall receive non-residents, who are commonly +called "pfahlburgers," as citizens.<a name="FNanchor_493" id="FNanchor_493" href="#Footnote_493" class="fnanchor">[493]</a></p> + +<p><b>15.</b> We firmly declare that if any member of the league +breaks the peace, we will proceed against him at once as if he +were not a member, and compel him to make proper satisfaction.</p> + +<p><b>16.</b> We promise that we will faithfully keep each other informed +by letter about our enemies and all others who may be +able to do us damage, in order that we may take timely counsel +to protect ourselves against them.</p> + +<p><b>17.</b> We decree that no one shall violently enter the house of +monks or nuns, of whatever order they may be, or quarter themselves +upon them, or demand or extort food or any kind of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">338</a></span> +service from them, contrary to their will. If any one does this, +he shall be held as a violator of the peace.</p> + +<p><b>18.</b> We decree that each city shall try to persuade each of +its neighboring cities to swear to keep the peace. If they do not +<span class="sidebar">The league to +be enlarged</span> +do so, they shall be entirely cut off from the +peace, so that if any one does them an injury, +either in their persons or their property, he shall not thereby +break the peace.</p> + +<p><b>19.</b> We wish all members of the league, cities, lords, and all +others, to arm themselves properly and prepare for war, so that +whenever we call upon them we shall find them ready.</p> + +<p><b>20.</b> We decree that the cities between the Moselle and Basel +shall prepare 100 war boats, and the cities below the Moselle +<span class="sidebar">Military +preparations +of the league</span> +shall prepare 500, well equipped with bowmen, +and each city shall prepare herself as well as +she can and supply herself with arms for knights +and foot-soldiers.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">339</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXI.<br /> +UNIVERSITIES AND STUDENT LIFE</h3> + +<p>The modern university is essentially a product of the Middle Ages. +The Greeks and Romans had provisions for higher education, but nothing +that can properly be termed universities, with faculties, courses of +study, examinations, and degrees. The word "universitas" in the +earlier mediæval period was applied indiscriminately to any group or +body of people, as a guild of artisans or an organization of the clergy, +and only very gradually did it come to be restricted to an association +of teachers and students—the so-called <i>universitas societas magistrorum +discipulorumque</i>. The origins of mediæval universities are, in most +cases, rather obscure. In the earlier Middle Ages the interests of +learning were generally in the keeping of the monks and the work of +education was carried on chiefly in monastic schools, where the subjects +of study were commonly the seven liberal arts inherited from Roman +days.<a name="FNanchor_494" id="FNanchor_494" href="#Footnote_494" class="fnanchor">[494]</a> By the twelfth century there was a relative decline of these +monastic schools, accompanied by a marked development of cathedral +schools in which not only the seven liberal arts but also new subjects +like law and theology were taught. The twelfth century renaissance +brought a notable revival of Roman law, medicine, astronomy, and +philosophy; by 1200 the whole of Aristotle's writings had become known; +and the general awakening produced immediate results in the larger +numbers of students who flocked to places like Paris and Bologna where +exceptional teachers were to be found.</p> + +<p>Out of these conditions grew the earliest of the universities. No +definite dates for the beginnings of Paris, Bologna, Oxford, etc., can +be assigned, but the twelfth and thirteenth centuries are to be considered +their great formative period. Bologna was specifically the creation of +the revived study of the Roman law and of the fame of the great law +teacher Irnerius. The university sprang from a series of organizations +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">340</a></span> +effected first by the students and later by the masters, or teachers, and +modeled after the guilds of workmen. It became the pattern for most of +the later Italian and Spanish universities. Paris arose in a different +way. It grew directly out of the great cathedral school of Notre Dame +and, unlike Bologna, was an organization at the outset of masters rather +than of students. It was presided over by the chancellor, who had had +charge of education in the cathedral and who retained the exclusive +privilege of granting licenses to teach (the <i>licentia docendi</i>), or, in other +words, degrees.<a name="FNanchor_495" id="FNanchor_495" href="#Footnote_495" class="fnanchor">[495]</a> Rising to prominence in the twelfth century, especially +by virtue of the teaching of Abelard (1079-1142), Paris became in time +the greatest university of the Middle Ages, exerting profound influence +not only on learning, but also on the Church and even at times on political +affairs. The universities of the rest of France, as well as the German +universities and Oxford and Cambridge in England, were copied pretty +closely after Paris.</p> + +<h4>60. Privileges Granted to Students and Masters</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>Throughout the Middle Ages numerous special favors were showered +upon the universities and their students by the Church. Patronage and +protection from the secular authorities were less to be depended on, +though the courts of kings were not infrequently the rendezvous of +scholars, and the greater seats of learning after the eleventh century +generally owed their prosperity, if not their origin, to the liberality of +monarchs such as Frederick Barbarossa or Philip Augustus. The +recognition of the universities by the temporal powers came as a rule +earlier than that by the Church. The edict of the Emperor Frederick I., +which comprises selection (a) below, was issued in 1158 and is not to +be considered as limited in its application to the students of any particular +university, though many writers have associated it solely with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">341</a></span> +the University of Bologna. That the statute was decreed at the solicitation +of the Bologna doctors of law admits of little doubt, but, as +Rashdall observes, it was "a general privilege conferred on the student +class throughout the Lombard kingdom."<a name="FNanchor_496" id="FNanchor_496" href="#Footnote_496" class="fnanchor">[496]</a> By some writers it is said +to have been the earliest formal grant of privileges for university students, +but this cannot be true as Salerno (notable chiefly for medical +studies) received such grants from Robert Guiscard and his son Roger +before the close of the eleventh century.</p> + +<p>Until the year 1200 the students of Paris enjoyed no privileges such +as those conferred upon the Italian institutions by Frederick. In that +year a tavern brawl occurred between some German students and +Parisian townspeople, in which five of the students lost their lives. +The provost of the city, instead of attempting to repress the disorder, +took sides against the students and encouraged the populace. Such +laxity stirred the king, Philip Augustus, to action. Fearing that the +students would decamp <i>en masse</i>, he hastened to comply with their +appeal for redress. The provost and his lieutenants were arrested +and a decree was issued [given, in part, in selection (b)] exempting +the scholars from the operation of the municipal law in criminal cases. +Pope Innocent III. at once confirmed the privileges and on his part +relaxed somewhat the vigilance of the Church. Such liberal measures, +however, did not insure permanent peace. In less than three decades +another conflict with the provost occurred which was so serious as to +result in a total suspension of the university's activities for more than +two years.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Sources—(a) Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges</i> (Pertz ed.), +Vol. II., p. 114. Adapted from translation by Dana C. Munro +in <i>Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. II., No. 3, +pp. 2-4.</p> + +<p class="source_add">(b) Text in <i>Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis</i> ["Cartulary of +the University of Paris"], No. 1., p. 59. Adapted from translation +in <i>Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints</i>, <i>ibid.</i>, pp. 4-7.</p> + +<p class="center">(a)</p> + +<p>After a careful consideration of this subject by the bishops, +abbots, dukes, counts, judges, and other nobles of our sacred +palace, we, from our piety, have granted this privilege to all +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">342</a></span> +scholars who travel for the sake of study, and especially to the +professors of divine and sacred laws,<a name="FNanchor_497" id="FNanchor_497" href="#Footnote_497" class="fnanchor">[497]</a> namely, that they may +<span class="sidebar">Security +of travel and +residence for +scholars</span> +go in safety to the places in which the studies +are carried on, both they themselves and their +messengers, and may dwell there in security. +For we think it fitting that, during good behavior, those should +enjoy our praise and protection, by whose learning the world +is enlightened to the obedience of God and of us, his ministers, +and the life of the subject is molded; and by a special consideration +we defend them from all injuries.</p> + +<p>For who does not pity those who exile themselves through +love for learning, who wear themselves out in poverty in place +of riches, who expose their lives to all perils and often suffer +bodily injury from the vilest men? This must be endured with +vexation. Therefore, we declare by this general and perpetual +law, that in the future no one shall be so rash as to venture to +<span class="sidebar">Regulation +concerning +the collection +of debts</span> +inflict any injury on scholars, or to occasion any +loss to them on account of a debt owed by an +inhabitant of their province—a thing which we +have learned is sometimes done by an evil custom.<a name="FNanchor_498" id="FNanchor_498" href="#Footnote_498" class="fnanchor">[498]</a> And let it +be known to the violators of this constitution, and also to those +who shall at the time be the rulers of the places, that a fourfold +restitution of property shall be exacted from all and that, the +mark of infamy being affixed to them by the law itself, they +shall lose their office forever.</p> + +<p>Moreover, if any one shall presume to bring a suit against them +on account of any business, the choice in this matter shall be +<span class="sidebar">Judicial +privileges of +scholars</span> +given to the scholars, who may summon the +accusers to appear before their professors or the +bishop of the city, to whom we have given jurisdiction +in this matter.<a name="FNanchor_499" id="FNanchor_499" href="#Footnote_499" class="fnanchor">[499]</a> But if, indeed, the accuser shall attempt +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">343</a></span> +to drag the scholar before another judge, even if his cause is a +very just one, he shall lose his suit for such an attempt.</p> + +<p class="center">(b)</p> + +<p>Concerning the safety of the students at Paris in the future, +by the advice of our subjects we have ordained as follows:</p> + +<p>We will cause all the citizens of Paris to swear that if any one +sees an injury done to any student by any layman,<a name="FNanchor_500" id="FNanchor_500" href="#Footnote_500" class="fnanchor">[500]</a> he will +testify truthfully to this, nor will any one withdraw in order not +to see [the act]. And if it shall happen that any one strikes a +student, except in self-defense, especially if he strikes the student +with a weapon, a club, or a stone, all laymen who see [the act] +<span class="sidebar">Protection +for scholars +against crimes +of violence</span> +shall in good faith seize the malefactor, or malefactors, +and deliver them to our judge; nor shall +they run away in order not to see the act, or +seize the malefactor, or testify to the truth. Also, whether the +malefactor is seized in open crime or not, we will make a legal +and full examination through clerks, or laymen, or certain lawful +persons; and our count and our judges shall do the same. And +if by a full examination we, or our judges, are able to learn that +he who is accused, is guilty of the crime, then we, or our judges, +shall immediately inflict a penalty, according to the quality and +nature of the crime; notwithstanding the fact that the criminal +may deny the deed and say that he is ready to defend himself +in single combat, or to purge himself by the ordeal by water.<a name="FNanchor_501" id="FNanchor_501" href="#Footnote_501" class="fnanchor">[501]</a></p> + +<p>Also, neither our provost nor our judges shall lay hands on a +student for any offense whatever; nor shall they place him in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">344</a></span> +our prison, unless such a crime has been committed by the +student, that he ought to be arrested. And in that case, our +judge shall arrest him on the spot, without striking him at all, +unless he resists, and shall hand him over to the ecclesiastical +judge,<a name="FNanchor_502" id="FNanchor_502" href="#Footnote_502" class="fnanchor">[502]</a> who ought to guard him in order to satisfy us and the +one suffering the injury. And if a serious crime has been committed, +our judge shall go or shall send to see what is done with +the student. If, indeed, the student does not resist arrest and +yet suffers any injury, we will exact satisfaction for it, according +<span class="sidebar">Scholars to be +tried and punished +under +ecclesiastical +authority</span> +to the aforesaid examination and the aforesaid +oath. Also our judges shall not lay hands +on the chattels of the students of Paris for any +crime whatever. But if it shall seem that these +ought to be sequestrated, they shall be sequestrated and guarded +after sequestration by the ecclesiastical judge, in order that +whatever is judged legal by the Church may be done with the +chattels.<a name="FNanchor_503" id="FNanchor_503" href="#Footnote_503" class="fnanchor">[503]</a> But if students are arrested by our count at such +an hour that the ecclesiastical judge cannot be found and be +present at once, our provost shall cause the culprits to be guarded +in some student's house without any ill-treatment, as is said +above, until they are delivered to the ecclesiastical judge.</p> + +<p>In order, moreover, that these [decrees] may be kept more +carefully and may be established forever by a fixed law, we have +decided that our present provost and the people of Paris shall +<span class="sidebar">The oath required +of the +provost and +people of Paris</span> +affirm by an oath, in the presence of the scholars, +that they will carry out in good faith all the +above-mentioned [regulations]. And always in +the future, whosoever receives from us the office of provost in +Paris, among the inaugural acts of his office, namely, on the first +or second Sunday, in one of the churches of Paris—after he has +been summoned for the purpose—shall affirm by an oath, publicly +in the presence of the scholars, that he will keep in good +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">345</a></span> +faith all the above-mentioned [regulations].<a name="FNanchor_504" id="FNanchor_504" href="#Footnote_504" class="fnanchor">[504]</a> And that these +decrees may be valid forever, we have ordered this document +to be confirmed by the authority of our seal and by the characters +of the royal name signed below.</p> + +<h4>61. The Foundation of the University of Heidelberg (1386)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>Until the middle of the fourteenth century Germany possessed no +university. In the earlier mediæval period, when palace and monastic +schools were multiplying in France, Italy, and England, German culture +was too backward to permit of a similar movement beyond the +Rhine; and later, when in other countries universities were springing +into prosperity, political dissensions long continued to thwart such +enterprises among the Germans. Germany was not untouched by the +intellectual movements of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, but her +young men were obliged to seek their learning at Oxford or Paris or +Bologna. The first German university was that of Prague, in Bohemia, +founded by Emperor Charles IV., a contemporary of Petrarch, and +chartered in 1348. Once begun, the work of establishing such institutions +went on rapidly, until ere long every principality of note had its +own university. Vienna was founded in 1365, Erfurt was given papal +sanction in 1379, Heidelberg was established in 1386, and Cologne +followed in 1388. The document given below is the charter of privileges +issued for Heidelberg in October, 1386, by the founder, Rupert I., Count +Palatine of the Rhine. Marsilius Inghen became the first rector of the +university. He and two other masters began lecturing October 19, +1386—one on logic, another on the epistle to Titus, the third on the +philosophy of Aristotle. Within four years over a thousand students +had been in attendance at the university.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in Edward Winkelmann, <i>Urkundenbuch der Universität +Heidelberg</i> ["Cartulary of the University of Heidelberg"], Heidelberg, +1886, Vol. I., pp. 5-6. Translated in Ernest F. Henderson, +<i>Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages</i> (London, 1896), +pp. 262-266.</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> We, Rupert the elder, by the grace of God count palatine +of the Rhine, elector of the Holy Empire,<a name="FNanchor_505" id="FNanchor_505" href="#Footnote_505" class="fnanchor">[505]</a> and duke of Bavaria,—lest +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">346</a></span> +we seem to abuse the privilege conceded to us by the +apostolic see of founding a place of study at Heidelberg similar +to that at Paris, and lest, for this reason, being subjected to the +divine judgment, we should deserve to be deprived of the privilege +granted—do decree, with provident counsel (which decree +is to be observed unto all time), that the University of Heidelberg +shall be ruled, disposed, and regulated according to the +modes and manners accustomed to be observed in the University +<span class="sidebar">The university +to be organized +on the +model of Paris</span> +of Paris.<a name="FNanchor_506" id="FNanchor_506" href="#Footnote_506" class="fnanchor">[506]</a> Also that, as a handmaid of Paris—a +worthy one let us hope—the latter's steps shall +be imitated in every way possible; so that, +namely, there shall be four faculties in it: the first, of sacred +theology and divinity; the second, of canon and civil law, which, +by reason of their similarity, we think best to comprise under +one faculty; the third, of medicine; the fourth, of liberal arts—of +the three-fold philosophy, namely, primal, natural, and moral, +three mutually subservient daughters.<a name="FNanchor_507" id="FNanchor_507" href="#Footnote_507" class="fnanchor">[507]</a> We wish this institution +to be divided and marked out into four nations, as it is at +Paris;<a name="FNanchor_508" id="FNanchor_508" href="#Footnote_508" class="fnanchor">[508]</a> and that all these faculties shall make one university, +and that to it the individual students, in whatever of the said +faculties they are, shall unitedly belong like lawful sons to one +mother.</p> + +<p>Likewise [we desire] that this university shall be governed by +one rector,<a name="FNanchor_509" id="FNanchor_509" href="#Footnote_509" class="fnanchor">[509]</a> and that the various masters and teachers, before +they are admitted to the common pursuits of our institution, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">347</a></span> +shall swear to observe the statutes, laws, privileges, liberties, and +franchises of the same, and not reveal its secrets, to whatever +grade they may rise. Also that they will uphold the honor of +the rector and the rectorship of our university, and will obey +<span class="sidebar">The obligations +of the masters</span> +the rector in all things lawful and honest, whatever +be the grade to which they may afterwards +happen to be promoted. Moreover, that the various masters +and bachelors shall read their lectures and exercise their scholastic +functions and go about in caps and gowns of a uniform and +similar nature, according as has been observed at Paris up to +this time in the different faculties.</p> + +<p>And we will that if any faculty, nation, or person shall oppose +the aforesaid regulations, or stubbornly refuse to obey them, +or any one of them—which God forbid—from that time forward +that same faculty, nation, or person, if it do not desist upon +being warned, shall be deprived of all connection with our aforesaid +institution, and shall not have the benefit of our defense or +<span class="sidebar">Internal government +of the +university further +provided +for</span> +protection. Moreover, we will and ordain that +as the university as a whole may do for those +assembled here and subject to it, so each faculty, +nation, or province of it may enact lawful statutes, +such as are suitable to its needs, provided that through them, +or any one of them, no prejudice is done to the above regulations +and to our institution, and that no kind of impediment arise +from them. And we will that when the separate bodies shall +have passed the statutes for their own observance, they may +make them perpetually binding on those subject to them and +on their successors. And as in the University of Paris the +various servants of the institution have the benefit of the various +privileges which its masters and scholars enjoy, so in starting +our institution in Heidelberg, we grant, with even greater +liberality, through these presents, that all the servants, i.e., its +pedells,<a name="FNanchor_510" id="FNanchor_510" href="#Footnote_510" class="fnanchor">[510]</a> librarians, lower officials, preparers of parchment, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">348</a></span> +scribes, illuminators and others who serve it, may each and all, +without fraud, enjoy in it the same privileges, franchises, immunities +and liberties with which its masters or scholars are +now or shall hereafter be endowed.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> Lest in the new community of the city of Heidelberg, their +misdeeds being unpunished, there be an incentive to the scholars +of doing wrong, we ordain, with provident counsel, by these presents, +that the bishop of Worms, as judge ordinary of the clerks +of our institution, shall have and possess, now and hereafter +while our institution shall last, prisons, and an office in our +town of Heidelberg for the detention of criminal clerks. These +<span class="sidebar">The jurisdiction +of the +bishop of +Worms</span> +things we have seen fit to grant to him and his +successors, adding these conditions: that he shall +permit no clerk to be arrested unless for a misdemeanor; +that he shall restore any one detained for such fault, or +for any light offense, to his master, or to the rector if the latter asks +for him, a promise having been given that the culprit will appear +in court and that the rector or master will answer for him if the +injured parties should go to law about the matter. Furthermore, +that, on being requested, he will restore a clerk arrested for a +crime on slight evidence, upon receiving a sufficient pledge—sponsors +if the prisoner can obtain them, otherwise an oath if +he cannot obtain sponsors—to the effect that he will answer in +court the charges against him; and in all these things there shall +be no pecuniary exactions, except that the clerk shall give satisfaction, +<span class="sidebar">Conditions of +imprisonment</span> +reasonably and according to the rule of +the aforementioned town, for the expenses which +he incurred while in prison. And we desire that he will detain +honestly and without serious injury a criminal clerk thus arrested +for a crime where the suspicion is grave and strong, until +the truth can be found out concerning the deed of which he is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">349</a></span> +suspected. And he shall not for any cause, moreover, take away +any clerk from our aforesaid town, or permit him to be taken +away, unless the proper observances have been followed, and +he has been condemned by judicial sentence to perpetual imprisonment +for a crime.</p> + +<p>We command our advocate and bailiff and their servants in +our aforesaid town, under pain of losing their offices and our +favor, not to lay a detaining hand on any master or scholar of +our said institution, nor to arrest him or allow him to be +<span class="sidebar">Limitations +upon power to +arrest students</span> +arrested, unless the deed be such that that +master or scholar ought rightly to be detained. +He shall be restored to his rector or master, if he +is held for a slight cause, provided he will swear and promise to +appear in court concerning the matter; and we decree that a +slight fault is one for which a layman, if he had committed it, +ought to have been condemned to a light pecuniary fine. Likewise, +if the master or scholar detained be found gravely or +strongly suspected of the crime, we command that he be handed +over by our officials to the bishop or to his representative in our +said town, to be kept in custody.</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> By the tenor of these presents we grant to each and all +the masters and scholars that, when they come to the said institution, +while they remain there, and also when they return +from it to their homes, they may freely carry with them, both +coming and going, throughout all the lands subject to us, all +things which they need while pursuing their studies, and all the +<span class="sidebar">Students exempted +from +various imposts</span> +goods necessary for their support, without any +duty, levy, imposts, tolls, excises, or other exactions +whatever. And we wish them and each +one of them, to be free from the aforesaid imposts when purchasing +corn, wines, meat, fish, clothes and all things necessary for +their living and for their rank. And we decree that the scholars +from their stock in hand of provisions, if there remain over one +or two wagonloads of wine without their having practised deception, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">350</a></span> +may, after the feast of Easter of that year, sell it at +wholesale without paying impost. We grant to them, moreover, +that each day the scholars, of themselves or through their servants, +may be allowed to buy in the town of Heidelberg, at the +accustomed hour, freely and without impediment or hurtful +delay, any eatables or other necessaries of life.</p> + +<p>4. Lest the masters and scholars of our institution of Heidelberg +may be oppressed by the citizens, moved by avarice, +through extortionate prices of lodgings, we have seen fit to +decree that henceforth each year, after Christmas, one expert +from the university on the part of the scholars, and one prudent, +<span class="sidebar">How rates for +lodging should +be fixed</span> +pious, and circumspect citizen on the part of the +citizens, shall be authorized to determine the +price of the students' lodgings. Moreover, we will +and decree that the various masters and scholars shall, through +our bailiff, our judge and the officials subject to us, be defended +and maintained in the quiet possession of the lodgings given to +them free or of those for which they pay rent. Moreover, by the +tenor of these presents, we grant to the rector and the university, +or to those designated by them, entire jurisdiction concerning +the payment of rents for the lodgings occupied by the students, +concerning the making and buying of books, and the borrowing +of money for other purposes by the scholars of our institution; +also concerning the payment of assessments, together with +everything that arises from, depends upon, and is connected with +these.</p> + +<p>In addition, we command our officials that, when the rector +requires our and their aid and assistance for carrying out his +sentences against scholars who try to rebel, they shall assist our +clients and servants in this matter; first, however, obtaining +lawful permission to proceed against clerks from the lord bishop +of Worms, or from one deputed by him for this purpose. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">351</a></span></p> + +<h4>62. Mediæval Students' Songs</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>"When we try to picture to ourselves," says Mr. Symonds in one of +his felicitous passages, "the intellectual and moral state of Europe in +the Middle Ages, some fixed and almost stereotyped ideas immediately +suggest themselves. We think of the nations immersed in a gross mental +lethargy; passively witnessing the gradual extinction of arts and sciences +which Greece and Rome had splendidly inaugurated; allowing libraries +and monuments of antique civilization to crumble into dust; while they +trembled under a dull and brooding terror of coming judgment, shrank +from natural enjoyment as from deadly sin, or yielded themselves with +brutal eagerness to the satisfaction of vulgar appetites. Preoccupation +with the other world in this long period weakens man's hold upon the +things that make his life desirable.... Prolonged habits of extra-mundane +contemplation, combined with the decay of real knowledge, +volatilize the thoughts and aspirations of the best and wisest into dreamy +unrealities, giving a false air of mysticism to love, shrouding art in allegory, +reducing the interpretation of texts to an exercise of idle ingenuity, +and the study of nature to an insane system of grotesque and pious +quibbling. The conception of man's fall and of the incurable badness of +this world bears poisonous fruit of cynicism and asceticism, that two-fold +bitter almond hidden in the harsh monastic shell. Nature is regarded +with suspicion and aversion; the flesh, with shame and loathing, +broken by spasmodic outbursts of lawless self-indulgence."<a name="FNanchor_511" id="FNanchor_511" href="#Footnote_511" class="fnanchor">[511]</a></p> + +<p>All of these ideas are properly to be associated with the Middle Ages, +but it must be borne in mind that they represent only one side of the +picture. They are drawn very largely from the study of monastic +literature and produce a somewhat distorted impression. Though many +conditions prevailing in mediæval times operated strongly to paralyze +the intellects and consciences of men, the fundamental manifestations +and expressions of human instinct and vitality were far from crushed +out. The life of many people was full and varied and positive—not +so different, after all, from that of men and women to-day. That this +was true is demonstrated by a wealth of literature reflecting the jovial +and exuberant aspects of mediæval life, which has come down to us +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">352</a></span> +chiefly in two great groups—the poetry of the troubadours and the songs +of the wandering students. "That so bold, so fresh, so natural, so pagan +a view of life," continues Mr. Symonds in the passage quoted, "as the +Latin songs of the Wandering Students exhibit, should have found clear +and artistic utterance in the epoch of the Crusades, is indeed enough to +bid us pause and reconsider the justice of our stereotyped ideas about +that period. This literature makes it manifest that the ineradicable +appetites and natural instincts of men and women were no less vigorous +in fact, though less articulate and self-assertive, than they had been in +the age of Greece and Rome, and than they afterwards displayed themselves +in what is known as the Renaissance. The songs of the Wandering +Students were composed for the most part in the twelfth century. +Uttering the unrestrained emotions of men attached by a slender tie +to the dominant clerical class and diffused over all countries, they +bring us face to face with a body of opinion which finds in studied +chronicle or labored dissertation of the period no echo. On the one side, +they express that delight in life and physical enjoyment which was a +main characteristic of the Renaissance; on the other, they proclaim that +revolt against the corruption of Papal Rome which was the motive force +of the Reformation. Who were these Wandering Students? As their +name implies, they were men, and for the most part young men, traveling +from university to university in search of knowledge. Far from +their homes, without responsibilities, light of purse and light of heart, +careless and pleasure-seeking, they ran a free, disreputable course, +frequenting taverns at least as much as lecture-rooms, more capable of +pronouncing judgment upon wine or woman than upon a problem of +divinity or logic. These pilgrims to the shrines of knowledge formed a +class apart. According to tendencies prevalent in the Middle Ages, +they became a sort of guild, and with pride proclaimed themselves an +Order."<a name="FNanchor_512" id="FNanchor_512" href="#Footnote_512" class="fnanchor">[512]</a></p> + +<p>Our knowledge of the mediæval students' songs is derived from two +principal sources: (1) a richly illuminated thirteenth-century manuscript +now preserved at Munich and edited in 1847 under the title <i>Carmina +Burana</i>; and (2) another thirteenth-century manuscript published (with +other materials) in 1841 under the title <i>Latin Poems commonly attributed +to Walter Mapes</i>. Many songs occur in both collections. The half-dozen +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">353</a></span> +given in translation below very well illustrate the subjects, tone, +and style of these interesting bits of literature.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Texts in Edélestand du Méril, <i>Poésies Populaires Latines du Moyen +Age</i> ["Popular Latin Poetry of the Middle Ages"], Paris, 1847, +<i>passim</i>. Translated in John Addington Symonds, <i>Wine, Women, +and Song: Mediæval Latin Students' Songs</i> (London, 1884), pp. 12-136, +<i>passim</i>.</p> + +<p>The first is a tenth century piece, marked by an element of tenderness +in sentiment which is essentially modern. It is the invitation of a young +man to his mistress, bidding her to a little supper at his home.</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<p class="o1">"Come therefore now, my gentle fere,</p> +<p>Whom as my heart I hold full dear;</p> +<p>Enter my little room, which is</p> +<p>Adorned with quaintest rarities:</p> +<p>There are the seats with cushions spread,</p> +<p>The roof with curtains overhead:</p> +<p>The house with flowers of sweetest scent</p> +<p>And scattered herbs is redolent:</p> +<p>A table there is deftly dight</p> +<p>With meats and drinks of rare delight;</p> +<p>There too the wine flows, sparkling, free;</p> +<p>And all, my love, to pleasure thee.</p> +<p>There sound enchanting symphonies;</p> +<p>The clear high notes of flutes arise;</p> +<p>A singing girl and artful boy</p> +<p>Are chanting for thee strains of joy;</p> +<p>He touches with his quill the wire,</p> +<p>She tunes her note unto the lyre:</p> +<p>The servants carry to and fro</p> +<p>Dishes and cups of ruddy glow;</p> +<p>But these delights, I will confess,</p> +<p>Than pleasant converse charm me less;</p> +<p>Nor is the feast so sweet to me</p> +<p>As dear familiarity.</p> +<p>Then come now, sister of my heart,</p> +<p>That dearer than all others art,</p> +<p>Unto mine eyes thou shining sun,</p> +<p>Soul of my soul, thou only one!</p> +<p>I dwelt alone in the wild woods,</p> +<p>And loved all secret solitudes;</p> +<p>Oft would I fly from tumults far,</p> +<p>And shunned where crowds of people are.</p> +<p>O dearest, do not longer stay!</p> +<p>Seek we to live and love to-day!</p> +<p>I cannot live without thee, sweet!</p> +<p>Time bids us now our love complete."</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">354</a></span> +The next is a begging petition, addressed by a student on the road +to some resident of the place where he was temporarily staying. The +supplication for alms, in the name of learning, is cast in the form of +a sing-song doggerel.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p>I, a wandering scholar lad,</p> +<p class="i1">Born for toil and sadness,</p> +<p>Oftentimes am driven by</p> +<p class="i1">Poverty to madness.</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> +<p>Literature and knowledge I</p> +<p class="i1">Fain would still be earning,</p> +<p>Were it not that want of pelf</p> +<p class="i1">Makes me cease from learning.</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> +<p>These torn clothes that cover me</p> +<p class="i1">Are too thin and rotten;</p> +<p>Oft I have to suffer cold,</p> +<p class="i1">By the warmth forgotten.</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> +<p>Scarce I can attend at church,</p> +<p class="i1">Sing God's praises duly;</p> +<p>Mass and vespers both I miss,</p> +<p class="i1">Though I love them truly.</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> +<p>Oh, thou pride of N——,<a name="FNanchor_513" id="FNanchor_513" href="#Footnote_513" class="fnanchor">[513]</a></p> +<p class="i1">By thy worth I pray thee</p> +<p>Give the suppliant help in need,</p> +<p class="i1">Heaven will sure repay thee.</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> +<p>Take a mind unto thee now</p> +<p class="i1">Like unto St. Martin;<a name="FNanchor_514" id="FNanchor_514" href="#Footnote_514" class="fnanchor">[514]</a></p> +<p>Clothe the pilgrim's nakedness</p> +<p class="i1">Wish him well at parting.</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> +<p>So may God translate your soul</p> +<p class="i1">Into peace eternal,</p> +<p>And the bliss of saints be yours</p> +<p class="i1">In His realm supernal.</p> +</div> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">355</a></span> +The following jovial <i>Song of the Open Road</i> throbs with exhilaration +and even impudence. Two vagabond students are drinking together +before they part. One of them undertakes to expound the laws of the +brotherhood which bind them together. The refrain is intended apparently +to imitate a bugle call.</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p>We in our wandering,</p> +<p>Blithesome and squandering,</p> +<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> +<p>Eat to satiety,</p> +<p>Drink to propriety;</p> +<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> + +<p>Laugh till our sides we split,</p> +<p>Rags on our hides we fit;</p> +<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino! +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">356</a></span></p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> + +<p>Jesting eternally,</p> +<p>Quaffing infernally.</p> +<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> + +<p>Craft's in the bone of us,</p> +<p>Fear 'tis unknown of us;</p> +<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> + +<p>When we're in neediness,</p> +<p>Thieve we with greediness:</p> +<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> + +<p>Brother catholical,</p> +<p>Man apostolical,</p> +<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> + +<p>Say what you will have done,</p> +<p>What you ask 'twill be done!</p> +<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> + +<p>Folk, fear the toss of the</p> +<p>Horns of philosophy!</p> +<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> + +<p>Here comes a quadruple</p> +<p>Spoiler and prodigal!<a name="FNanchor_515" id="FNanchor_515" href="#Footnote_515" class="fnanchor">[515]</a></p> +<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> + +<p>License and vanity</p> +<p>Pamper insanity:</p> +<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino! +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">357</a></span></p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> + +<p>As the Pope bade us do,</p> +<p>Brother to brother's true:</p> +<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> + +<p>Brother, best friend, adieu!</p> +<p>Now, I must part from you!</p> +<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> + +<p>When will our meeting be?</p> +<p>Glad shall our greeting be!</p> +<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> + +<p>Vows valedictory</p> +<p>Now have the victory:</p> +<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> +<p>Clasped on each other's breast,</p> +<p>Brother to brother pressed,</p> +<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Here is a song entitled <i>The Vow to Cupid</i>.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p>Winter, now thy spite is spent,</p> +<p>Frost and ice and branches bent!</p> +<p>Fogs and furious storms are o'er,</p> +<p>Sloth and torpor, sorrow frore,</p> +<p>Pallid wrath, lean discontent.</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> +<p>Comes the graceful band of May!</p> +<p>Cloudless shines the limpid day,</p> +<p>Shine by night the Pleiades;</p> +<p>While a grateful summer breeze</p> +<p>Makes the season soft and gay. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">358</a></span></p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> +<p>Golden Love! shine forth to view!</p> +<p>Souls of stubborn men subdue!</p> +<p>See me bend! what is thy mind?</p> +<p>Make the girl thou givest kind,</p> +<p>And a leaping ram's thy due!<a name="FNanchor_516" id="FNanchor_516" href="#Footnote_516" class="fnanchor">[516]</a></p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> +<p>O the jocund face of earth,</p> +<p>Breathing with young grassy birth!</p> +<p>Every tree with foliage clad,</p> +<p>Singing birds in greenwood glad,</p> +<p>Flowering fields for lovers' mirth!</p> +</div> +</div> +<p>Here is another song of exceedingly delicate sentiment. It is entitled +<i>The Love-Letter in Spring</i>.</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p>Now the sun is streaming,</p> +<p class="i1">Clear and pure his ray;</p> +<p>April's glad face beaming</p> +<p class="i1">On our earth to-day.</p> +<p>Unto love returneth</p> +<p class="i1">Every gentle mind;</p> +<p>And the boy-god burneth</p> +<p class="i1">Jocund hearts to bind.</p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> +<p>All this budding beauty,</p> +<p class="i1">Festival array,</p> +<p>Lays on us the duty</p> +<p class="i1">To be blithe and gay.</p> +<p>Trodden ways are known, love!</p> +<p class="i1">And in this thy youth,</p> +<p>To retain thy own love</p> +<p class="i1">Were but faith and truth. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">359</a></span></p> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> +<p>In faith love me solely,</p> +<p class="i1">Mark the faith of me,</p> +<p>From thy whole heart wholly,</p> +<p class="i1">From the soul of thee.</p> +<p>At this time of bliss, dear,</p> +<p class="i1">I am far away;</p> +<p>Those who love like this, dear,</p> +<p class="i1">Suffer every day!</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Next to love and the springtime, the average student set his affections +principally on the tavern and the wine-bowl. From his proneness to +frequent the tavern's jovial company of topers and gamesters naturally +sprang a liberal supply of drinking songs. Here is a fragment from one +of them.</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<p>Some are gaming, some are drinking,</p> +<p>Some are living without thinking;</p> +<p>And of those who make the racket,</p> +<p>Some are stripped of coat and jacket;</p> +<p>Some get clothes of finer feather,</p> +<p>Some are cleaned out altogether;</p> +<p>No one there dreads death's invasion,</p> +<p>But all drink in emulation.</p> +</div> + +<p>Finally may be given, in the original Latin, a stanza of a drinking +song which fell to such depths of irreverence as to comprise a parody of +Thomas Aquinas's hymn on the Lord's Supper.</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<p><i>Bibit hera, bibit herus,</i></p> +<p><i>Bibit miles, bibit clerus,</i></p> +<p><i>Bibit ille, bibit illa,</i></p> +<p><i>Bibit servus cum ancilla,</i></p> +<p><i>Bibit velox, bibit piger,</i></p> +<p><i>Bibit albus, bibit niger,</i></p> +<p><i>Bibit constans, bibit vagus,</i></p> +<p><i>Bibit rudis, bibit magus.</i></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">360</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXII.<br /> +THE FRIARS</h3> + +<p>From the twelfth century onwards one of the most conspicuous +features of the internal development of the mediæval Church was the +struggle to combat worldliness among ecclesiastics and to preserve the +purity of doctrine and uprightness of living which had characterized +the primitive Christian clergy. As the Middle Ages advanced to their +close, unimpeachable evidence accumulates that the Church was increasingly +menaced by grave abuses. This evidence appears not only +in contemporary records and chronicles but even more strikingly in the +great protesting movements which spring up in rapid succession—particularly +the rise of heretical sects, such as the Waldenses and the Albigenses, +and the inauguration of systematic efforts to regenerate the church +body without disrupting its unity. These latter efforts at first took the +form of repeated revivals of monastic enthusiasm and self-denial, +marked by the founding of a series of new orders on the basis of the +Benedictine Rule—the Cluniacs, the Carthusians, the Cistercians, and +others of their kind [see <a href="#Page_245">p. 245</a>]. This resource proving ineffective, the +movement eventually came to comprise the establishment of wholly +new and independent organizations—the mendicant orders—on principles +better adapted than were those of monasticism to the successful +propagation of simplicity and purity of Christian living. The chief of +these new orders were the Franciscans, known also as Gray Friars and +as Minorites, and the Dominicans, sometimes called Black Friars or +Preaching Friars. Both were founded in the first quarter of the thirteenth +century, the one by St. Francis of Assisi; the other by the Spanish +nobleman, St. Dominic.</p> + +<p>The friars, of whatsoever type, are clearly to be distinguished from the +monks. In the first place, their aims were different. The monks, in so +far as they were true to their principles, lived in more or less seclusion +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">361</a></span> +from the rest of the world and gave themselves up largely to prayer and +meditation; the fundamental purpose of the friars, on the other hand, +was to mingle with their fellow-men and to spend their lives in active +religious work among them. Whereas the old monasticism had been +essentially selfish, the new movement was above all of a missionary and +philanthropic character. In the second place, the friars were even more +strongly committed to a life of poverty than were the monks, for they +renounced not only individual property, as did the monks, but also collective +property, as the monks did not. They were expected to get their +living either by their own labor or by begging. They did not dwell in +fixed abodes, but wandered hither and thither as inclination and duty +led. Their particular sphere of activity was the populous towns; unlike +the monks, they had no liking for rural solitudes. As one writer has +put it, "their houses were built in or near the great towns; and to the +majority of the brethren the houses of the orders were mere temporary +resting-places from which they issued to make their journeys through +town and country, preaching in the parish churches, or from the steps of +the market-crosses, and carrying their ministrations to every castle +and every cottage."</p> + +<p>Both the Franciscans and the Dominicans were exempt from control +by the bishops in the various dioceses and were ardent supporters of +the papacy, which showered privileges upon them and secured in +them two of its strongest allies. The organization of each order +was elaborate and centralized. At the head was a master, or +general, who resided at Rome and was assisted by a "chapter." All +Christendom was divided into provinces, each of which was directed +by a prior and provincial chapter. And over each individual "house" +was placed a prior, or warden, appointed by the provincial chapter. +In their earlier history the zeal and achievements of the friars were +remarkable. Nearly all of the greatest men of the thirteenth and early +fourteenth centuries—as Roger Bacon, Thomas Aquinas, Dun Scotus, +and Albertus Magnus—were members of one of the mendicant orders. +Unfortunately, with the friars as with the monks, prosperity brought +decadence; and by the middle of the fourteenth century their ardor had +cooled and their boasted self-denial had pretty largely given place to self-indulgence. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">362</a></span></p> + +<h4>63. The Life of St. Francis</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>Saint Francis, the founder of the Franciscan order, was born, +probably in 1182, at Assisi, a small town in central Italy. His boyhood +was unpromising, but when he was about twenty years of age a great +change came over him, the final result of which was the making of one +of the most splendid and altogether lovable characters of the entire +Middle Ages. From a wild, reckless, although cultured, youth he developed +into a sympathetic, self-denying, sweet-spirited saint. Finding +himself, after his conversion, possessed of a natural loathing for the +destitute and diseased, especially lepers, he disciplined himself until he +could actually take a certain sort of pleasure in associating with these +outcasts of society. When his father, a wealthy and aristocratic cloth-merchant, +protested against this sort of conduct, the young man +promptly cast aside his gentlemanly raiment, clad himself in the worn-out +garments of a gardener, and adopted the life of the wandering +hermit. In 1209, in obedience to what he conceived to be a direct commission +from heaven, he began definitely to imitate the early apostles +in his manner of living and to preach the gospel of the older and purer +Christianity. By 1210 he had a small body of followers, and in that year +he sought and obtained Pope Innocent III.'s sanction of his work, +though the papal approval was expressed only orally and more than a +decade was to elapse before the movement received formal recognition. +About 1217 Francis and his companions took up missionary work on a +large scale. Members of the brotherhood were dispatched to England, +Germany, France, Spain, Hungary, and several other countries, with +instructions to spread the principles which by this time were coming +to be recognized as peculiarly Franciscan. The success of these efforts +was considerable, though in some places the brethren were ill treated and +an appeal had to be made to the Pope for protection.</p> + +<p>The several selections given below have been chosen to illustrate the +principal features of the life and character of St. Francis. We are +fortunate in possessing a considerable amount of literature, contemporary +or nearly so, relating to the personal career of this noteworthy +man. In the first place, we have some writings of St. Francis himself—the +Rule (<a href="#Page_373">p. 373</a>), the Will (<a href="#Page_376">p. 376</a>), some poems, some reported sermons, +and fragments of a few letters. Then we have several biographies, of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">363</a></span> +which the most valuable, because not only the earliest but also the least +conventional, are the <i>Mirror of Perfection</i> and the <i>Legend of the Three +Companions</i>. These were written by men who knew St. Francis intimately +and who could avow "we who were with him have heard him +say" or "we who were with him have seen," such and such things. The +"three companions" were Brothers Leo, Rufinus, and Angelo—all men of +noble birth, the last-named being the first soldier to be identified with +the order. The <i>Mirror of Perfection</i> was written in 1227 by Brother Leo, +who of all men probably knew St. Francis best. It is a vivid and fascinating +portrait drawn from life. The <i>Legend of the Three Companions</i> +was written in 1246. The later biographies, such as the +official <i>Life</i> by St. Bonaventura (1261) and the <i>Little Flowers of St. +Francis</i> (written probably in the fourteenth century), though until recently +the best known of the group, are relatively inferior in value. +In them the real St. Francis is conventionalized and much obscured.</p> + +<p>The first passage here reproduced (a) comes from the <i>Legend of the +Three Companions</i>; the others (b) are taken from the <i>Mirror of +Perfection</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Sources—(a) <i>Legenda S. Francisci Assisiensis quæ dicitur Legenda trium +sociorum.</i> Adapted from translation by E. G. Salter, under +title of "The Legend of the Three Companions," in the Temple +Classics (London, 1902), pp. 8-24, <i>passim</i>.</p> + +<p class="source_add">(b) <i>Speculum Perfectionis.</i> Translated by Constance, Countess +de la Warr, under title of "The Mirror of Perfection," (London, +1902), <i>passim</i>.</p> + +<p class="center">(a)</p> + +<p>Francis, born in the city of Assisi, which lies in the confines +of the Vale of Spoleto, was at first named John by his mother. +Then, when his father, in whose absence he had been born, returned +from France, he was afterward named Francis<a name="FNanchor_517" id="FNanchor_517" href="#Footnote_517" class="fnanchor">[517]</a>. After +he was grown up, and had become of a subtle wit, he practiced +the art of his father, that is, trade. But [he did so] in a very +different manner, for he was a merrier man than was his father, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">364</a></span> +and more generous, given to jests and songs, going about the +city of Assisi day and night in company with his kind, most +free-handed in spending; insomuch that he consumed all his +income and his profits in banquets and other matters. On this +<span class="sidebar">His youthful +vanities and +waywardness</span> +account he was often rebuked by his parents, +who told him he ran into so great expense on +himself and on others that he seemed to be no +son of theirs, but rather of some mighty prince. Nevertheless, +because his parents were rich and loved him most tenderly, they +bore with him in such matters, not being disposed to chastise +him. Indeed, his mother, when gossip arose among the neighbors +concerning his prodigal ways, made answer: "What think +ye of my son? He shall yet be the son of God by grace." But +he himself was free-handed, or rather prodigal, not only in these +things, but even in his clothes he was beyond measure sumptuous, +using stuffs more costly than it befitted him to wear. So wayward +was his fancy that at times on the same coat he would +cause a costly cloth to be matched with one of the meanest sort.</p> + +<p>Yet he was naturally courteous, in manner and word, after +the purpose of his heart, never speaking a harmful or shameful +word to any one. Nay, indeed, although he was so gay and +wanton a youth, yet of set purpose would he make no reply to +those who said shameful things to him. And hence was his +fame so spread abroad throughout the whole neighborhood that +<span class="sidebar">His redeeming +qualities</span> +it was said by many who knew him that he +would do something great. By these steps of +godliness he progressed to such grace that he would say in communing +with himself: "Seeing that thou art bountiful and +courteous toward men, from whom thou receivest naught save +a passing and empty favor, it is just that thou shouldst be +courteous and bountiful toward God, who is Himself most +bountiful in rewarding His poor." Wherefore thenceforward +did he look with goodwill upon the poor, bestowing alms upon +them abundantly. And although he was a merchant, yet was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">365</a></span> +he a most lavish dispenser of this world's riches. One day, when +he was standing in the warehouse in which he sold goods, and +was intent on business, a certain poor man came to him asking +alms for the love of God. Nevertheless, he was held back by +the covetousness of wealth and the cares of merchandise, and +<span class="sidebar">A lesson in +charity</span> +denied him the alms. But forthwith, being looked +upon by the divine grace, he rebuked himself of +great churlishness, saying, "Had this poor man asked thee +aught in the name of a great count or baron, assuredly thou +wouldst have given him what he had asked. How much more +then oughtest thou to have done it for the King of Kings and +Lord of all?" By reason whereof he thenceforth determined +in his heart never again to deny anything asked in the name of +so great a Lord....</p> + +<p>Now, not many days after he returned to Assisi,<a name="FNanchor_518" id="FNanchor_518" href="#Footnote_518" class="fnanchor">[518]</a> he was +chosen one evening by his comrades as their master of the revels, +to spend the money collected from the company after his own +fancy. So he caused a sumptuous banquet to be made ready, +as he had often done before. And when they came forth from +the house, and his comrades together went before him, going +through the city singing while he carried a wand in his hand +as their master, he was walking behind them, not singing, but +meditating very earnestly. And lo! suddenly he was visited +by the Lord, and his heart was filled with such sweetness that +he could neither speak nor move; nor was he able to feel and +<span class="sidebar">A vision in +the midst of +revelry</span> +hear anything except that sweetness only, which +so separated him from his physical senses that—as +he himself afterward said—had he then been +pricked with knives all over at once, he could not have moved +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">366</a></span> +from the spot. But when his comrades looked back and saw +him thus far off from them, they returned to him in fear, staring +at him as one changed into another man. And they asked him, +"What were you thinking about, that you did not come along +with us? Perchance you were thinking of taking a wife." To +them he replied with a loud voice: "Truly have you spoken, for +I thought of taking to myself a bride nobler and richer and fairer +than ever you have seen." And they mocked at him. But this +he said not of his own accord, but inspired of God; for the bride +herself was true Religion, whom he took unto him, nobler, +richer, and fairer than others in her poverty.</p> + +<p>And so from that hour he began to grow worthless in his own +eyes, and to despise those things he had formerly loved, although +not wholly so at once, for he was not yet entirely freed from the +vanity of the world. Nevertheless, withdrawing himself little by +little from the tumult of the world, he made it his study to +treasure up Jesus Christ in his inner man, and, hiding from the +eyes of mockers the pearl that he would fain buy at the price of +selling his all, he went oftentimes, and as it were in secret, daily +to prayer, being urged thereto by the foretaste of that sweetness +that had visited him more and more often, and compelled him +to come from the streets and other public places to prayer. +Although he had long done good unto the poor, yet from this +time forth he determined still more firmly in his heart never +<span class="sidebar">His increasing +zeal in charity</span> +again to deny alms to any poor man who should +ask it for the love of God, but to give alms +more willingly and bountifully than had been his practice. +Whenever, therefore, any poor man asked of him an alms +out of doors, he would supply him with money if he could; +if he had no ready money, he would give him his cap or girdle +rather than send the poor man away empty. And if it happened +that he had nothing of this kind, he would go to some hidden +place, and strip off his shirt, and send the poor man thither that +he might take it, for the sake of God. He also would buy vessels +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">367</a></span> +for the adornment of churches, and would send them in all +secrecy to poor priests....</p> + +<p>So changed, then, was he by divine grace (although still in +the secular garb) that he desired to be in some city where he +might, as one unknown, strip off his own clothes and exchange +them for those of some beggar, so that he might wear his instead +and make trial of himself by asking alms for the love of God. +Now it happened that at that time he had gone to Rome on a +pilgrimage. And entering the church of St. Peter, he reflected +on the offerings of certain people, seeing that they were small, +and spoke within himself: "Since the Prince of the Apostles +should of right be magnificently honored, why do these folk +make such sorry offerings in the church wherein his body rests?" +And so in great fervency he put his hand into his purse and drew +it forth full of money, and flung it through the grating of the +altar with such a crash that all who were standing by marveled +greatly at so splendid an offering. Then, going forth in front +of the doors of the church, where many beggars were gathered +to ask alms, he secretly borrowed the rags of one among the +<span class="sidebar">He begs alms +at Rome</span> +neediest and donned them, laying aside his own +clothing. Then, standing on the church steps +with the other beggars, he asked an alms in French, for he loved +to speak the French tongue, although he did not speak it correctly. +Thereafter, putting off the rags, and taking again his +own clothes, he returned to Assisi, and began to pray the Lord +to direct his way. For he revealed unto none his secret, nor +took counsel of any in this matter, save only of God (who had +begun to direct his way) and at times of the bishop of Assisi. +For at that time no true Poverty was to be found anywhere, and +she it was that he desired above all things of this world, being +minded in her to live—yea, and to die....</p> + +<p>Now when on a certain day he was praying fervently unto the +Lord, answer was made unto him: "Francis, all those things that +thou hast loved after the flesh, and hast desired to have, thou +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">368</a></span> +must needs despise and hate, if thou wouldst do My will, and +after thou shalt have begun to do this the things that aforetime +seemed sweet unto thee and delightful shall be unbearable unto +thee and bitter, and from those that aforetime thou didst loathe +thou shalt drink great sweetness and delight unmeasured." +Rejoicing at these words, and consoled in the Lord, when he +<span class="sidebar">Francis and +the leper</span> +had ridden nigh unto Assisi, he met one that was +a leper. And because he had been accustomed +greatly to loathe lepers, he did violence to himself, and dismounted +from his horse, gave him money, and kissed his hand. +And receiving from him the kiss of peace, he remounted his +horse and continued his journey. Thenceforth he began more +and more to despise himself, until by the grace of God he had +attained perfect mastery over himself.</p> + +<p>A few days later, he took much money and went to the quarter +of the lepers, and, gathering all together, gave to each an alms, +kissing his hand. As he departed, in very truth that which had +aforetime been bitter to him, that is, the sight and touch of +lepers, was changed into sweetness. For, as he confessed, the +sight of lepers had been so grievous to him that he had been +accustomed to avoid not only seeing them, but even going near +their dwellings. And if at any time he happened to pass their +abodes, or to see them, although he was moved by compassion +to give them an alms through another person, yet always would +he turn aside his face, stopping his nostrils with his hand. But, +through the grace of God, he became so intimate a friend of the +lepers that, even as he recorded in his Will,<a name="FNanchor_519" id="FNanchor_519" href="#Footnote_519" class="fnanchor">[519]</a> he lived with them +and did humbly serve them.</p> + +<p class="center">(b)</p> + +<p>A very spiritual friar, who was familiar with Blessed Francis, +erected at the hermitage where he lived a little cell in a solitary +spot, where Blessed Francis could retire and pray when he came +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">369</a></span> +thither. When he arrived at this place the friar took him to the +cell, and Blessed Francis said, "This cell is too splendid"—it +<span class="sidebar">How St. Francis +would not +dwell in an +adorned cell</span> +was, indeed, built only of wood, and smoothed +with a hatchet—"if you wish me to remain here, +make it within and without of branches of trees +and clay." For the poorer the house or cell, the more was he +pleased to live therein. When the friar had done this, Blessed +Francis remained there several days. One day he was out of the +cell when a friar came to see him, who, coming thereafter to the +place where Blessed Francis was, was asked, "Whence came +you, Brother?" He answered, "I come from your cell." Then +said Blessed Francis: "Since you have called it mine, let another +dwell there and not I." And, in truth, we who were with him +often heard him say: "The foxes have holes, and the birds of the +<span class="sidebar">Or in a cell +called his +own</span> +air have their nests, but the Son of Man hath +not where to lay His head." And again he would +say: "When the Lord remained in the desert, and +fasted forty days and forty nights, He did not make for Himself +a cell or a house, but found shelter amongst the rocks of the +mountain." For this reason, and to follow His example, he +would not have it said that a cell or house was his, nor would he +allow such to be constructed.... When he was nigh unto +death he caused it to be written in his Testament<a name="FNanchor_520" id="FNanchor_520" href="#Footnote_520" class="fnanchor">[520]</a> that all the +cells and houses of the friars should be of wood and clay, the +better to safeguard poverty and humility.</p> + +<p class="p2">At the beginning of the Order, when the friars were at Rivo-Torto,<a name="FNanchor_521" id="FNanchor_521" href="#Footnote_521" class="fnanchor">[521]</a> +near Assisi, there was among them one friar who would +<span class="sidebar">A lazy +friar</span> +not pray, work, nor ask for alms, but only eat. +Considering this, Blessed Francis knew by the Holy +Spirit that he was a carnal man, and said to him, "Brother Fly, go +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">370</a></span> +your way, since you consume the labor of the brethren, and are +slothful in the work of the Lord, like the idle and barren drone who +earns nothing and does not work, but consumes the labor and earnings +of the working bee." He, therefore, went his way, and as +he was a carnally-minded man he neither sought for mercy nor +obtained it.</p> + +<p class="p2">Having at a time suffered greatly from one of his serious +attacks of illness, when he felt a little better he began to think +that during his sickness he had exceeded his usual allowance of +food, whereas he had really eaten very little. Though not quite +recovered from the ague, he caused the people of Assisi to be +called together in the public square to listen to a sermon. When +he had finished preaching, he told the people to remain where +they were until he came back to them, and entered the cathedral +of St. Rufinus with many friars and Brother Peter of Catana, +who had been a canon of that church, and was now the first +Minister-General<a name="FNanchor_522" id="FNanchor_522" href="#Footnote_522" class="fnanchor">[522]</a> appointed by Blessed Francis. To Brother +<span class="sidebar">Public humiliation +inflicted +upon himself</span> +Peter Francis spoke, enjoining him under obedience +not to contradict what he was about to say. +Brother Peter replied: "Brother, neither is it +possible, as between you and me, nor do I wish to do anything +save what is pleasing to you." Then, taking off his tunic, +Blessed Francis bade him place a rope around his neck and drag +him thus before the people to the place where he had preached. +At the same time he ordered another friar to carry a bowlful +of ashes to the place, and when he got there to throw the ashes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">371</a></span> +into his face. But this order was not obeyed by the friar out +of the pity and compassion he felt for him.</p> + +<p>Brother Peter, taking the rope, did as he had been told; but +he and all the other friars shed tears of compassion and bitterness. +When he [Francis] stood thus bared before the people in +the place where he had preached, he cried: "You, and all those +who by my example have been induced to abandon the world +and enter Religion to lead the lives of friars, I confess before +God and you that in my illness I have eaten meat and broths +made of meat." And all the people could not refrain from weeping, +especially as at that time it was very cold and he had scarcely +recovered from the fever. Beating their breasts where they +stood, they exclaimed, "If this saint, for just and manifest necessity, +with shame of body thus accuses himself, whose life we know +to be holy, and who has imposed on himself such great abstinence +and austerity since his first conversion to Christ (whom +we here, as it were, see in the flesh), what will become of us sinners +who all our lifetime seek to follow our carnal appetites?"</p> + +<p class="p2">Blessed Francis, wholly wrapped up in the love of God, discerned +perfectly the goodness of God not only in his own soul, +now adorned with the perfection of virtue, but in every creature. +On account of which he had a singular and intimate love of +<span class="sidebar">St. Francis +and the larks</span> +creatures, especially of those in which was figured +anything pertaining to God or the Order. Wherefore +above all other birds he loved a certain little bird which is +called the lark, or by the people, the cowled lark. And he used to +say of it: "Sister Lark hath a cowl like a Religious; and she is a +humble bird, because she goes willingly by the road to find there +any food. And if she comes upon it in foulness, she draws it out +and eats it. But, flying, she praises God very sweetly, like a good +Religious, despising earthly things, whose conversation is always +in the heavens, and whose intent is always to the praise of God. +Her clothes (that is, her feathers), are like to the earth and she +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">372</a></span> +gives an example to Religious that they should not have delicate +and colored garments, but common in price and color, as earth +is commoner than the other elements." And because he perceived +this in them, he looked on them most willingly. Therefore +it pleased the Lord, that these most holy little birds should +show some sign of affection towards him in the hour of his +death. For late in the Sabbath day after vespers, before the +night in which he passed away to the Lord, a great multitude +of that kind of birds called larks came on the roof of the house +where he was lying, and, flying about, made a wheel like a circle +around the roof, and, sweetly singing, seemed likewise to praise +the Lord.</p> + +<p class="p2">We who were with Blessed Francis and write these things, +testify that many times we heard him say: "If I could speak +with the Emperor,<a name="FNanchor_523" id="FNanchor_523" href="#Footnote_523" class="fnanchor">[523]</a> I would supplicate and persuade him that, +for the love of God and me, he would make a special law that no +man should snare or kill our sisters, the larks, nor do them any +harm. Also, that all chief magistrates of cities and lords of +castles and villages should, every year, on the day of the Lord's +<span class="sidebar">His desire that +birds and animals +be fed on +Christmas day</span> +Nativity, compel men to scatter wheat and other +grain on the roads outside cities and castles, that +our Sister Larks and all other birds might have to +eat on that most solemn day; and that, out of reverence for the +Son of God, who on that night was laid by the most Blessed +Virgin Mary in a manger between an ox and an ass, all who have +oxen and asses should be obliged on that night to provide them +with abundant and good fodder; and also that on that day the +poor should be most bountifully fed by the rich."</p> + +<p>For Blessed Francis held in higher reverence than any other +the Feast of the Lord's Nativity, saying, "After the Lord was +born, our salvation became a necessity." Therefore he desired +that on this day all Christians should rejoice in the Lord, and, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">373</a></span> +for the love of Him who gave Himself for us, should generously +provide not only for the poor, but also for the beasts and birds.</p> + +<p class="p2">Next to fire he most loved water, which is the symbol of holy +penance and tribulation, whereby the stains are washed from +the soul, and by which the first cleansing of the soul takes place +in holy baptism. Hence, when he washed his hands, he would +select a place where he would not tread the water underfoot. +<span class="sidebar">His regard for +trees, stones, +and all created +things</span> +When he walked over stones he would tread on +them with fear and reverence, for the love of +Him who is called the Rock, and when reciting +the words of the Psalm, <i>Thou hast exalted me on a rock</i>, would +add with great reverence and devotion, "beneath the foot of +the rock hast thou exalted me."</p> + +<p>In the same way he would tell the friars who cut and prepared +the wood not to cut down the whole tree, but only such +branches as would leave the tree standing, for love of Him who +died for us on the wood of the Cross. So, also, he would tell the +friar who was the gardener not to cultivate all the ground for +vegetables and herbs for food, but to set aside some part to +produce green plants which should in their time bear flowers +for the friars, for love of Him who was called "The Flower of +the Field," and "The Lily of the Valley." Indeed he would say +the Brother Gardener should always make a beautiful little +garden in some part of the land, and plant it with sweet-scented +herbs bearing lovely flowers, which in the time of their blossoming +invited men to praise Him who made all herbs and flowers. +For every creature cries aloud: "God has made me for thee, O +man!"</p> + +<h4>64. The Rule of St. Francis</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>There is every reason for believing that St. Francis set out upon his +mission with no idea whatever of founding a new religious order. His +fundamental purpose was to revive what he conceived to be the purer +Christianity of the apostolic age, and so far as this involved the announcement +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">374</a></span> +of any definite principles or rules he was quite content to draw +them solely from the Scriptures. We have record, for example, of how +when (in 1209) St. Francis had yet but two followers, he led them to the +steps of the church of St. Nicholas at Assisi and there read to them +three times the words of Jesus sending forth his disciples,<a name="FNanchor_524" id="FNanchor_524" href="#Footnote_524" class="fnanchor">[524]</a> adding, +"This, brethren, is our life and our rule, and that of all who may join us. +Go, then, and do as you have heard." As his field of labor expanded, +however, and the number of the friars increased, St. Francis decided to +write out a definite Rule for the brotherhood and go to Rome to procure +its approval by the Pope. The Rule as thus formulated, in 1210, has not +come down to us. We know only that it was extremely simple and that +it was composed almost wholly of passages from the Bible (doubtless +those read to the companions at Assisi), with a few precepts about the +occupations and manner of living of the brethren. This first Rule indeed +proved too simple and brief to satisfy the demands of the growing order. +A general injunction, such as "be poor," was harder to apply and to +live up to than a more specific set of instructions explaining just what +was to be considered poverty and what was not. The brethren, moreover, +were soon preaching and laboring in all the countries of western +Europe and questions were continually coming up regarding their relations +with the temporal powers in those countries, with the local clergy, +with the papal government, and also among themselves.</p> + +<p>Reluctantly, and with a heart-felt warning against the insidious +influences of ambition and organization, the founder finally brought himself +to the task of drawing up a constitution for the order which had surprised +him, and in a certain sense grieved him, by the very elaborateness +of its development. During the winter of 1220-21, when physical infirmities +were foreshadowing the end, Francis worked out the document generally +known as the Rule of 1221, which became the basis for the Rule of +1223, quoted in part below. Before the Rule took its final form, the influence +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">375</a></span> +of the Church was brought to bear through the papacy, with the +result that most of the freshness and vigor that St. Francis put into the +earlier effort was crushed out in the interest of ecclesiastical regularity. +Only a small portion of the document can be reproduced here, but +enough, perhaps, to show something as to what the manner of life of the +Franciscan friar was expected to be. The extract may profitably be +compared with the Benedictine Rule governing the monks [see <a href="#Page_83">p. 83</a>].</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—<i>Bullarium Romanum</i> ["Collection of Papal Bulls"], editio Taurinensis, +Vol. III., p. 394. Adapted from translation in Ernest F. +Henderson, <i>Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages</i> (London, +1896), pp. 344-349 <i>passim</i>.</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> This is the rule and way of living of the Minorite brothers, +namely, to observe the holy Gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ, +living in obedience, without personal possessions, and in chastity. +Brother Francis promises obedience and reverence to our lord +Pope Honorius,<a name="FNanchor_525" id="FNanchor_525" href="#Footnote_525" class="fnanchor">[525]</a> and to his successors who canonically enter +upon their office, and to the Roman Church. And the other +brothers shall be bound to obey Brother Francis and his successors.</p> + +<p><b>4.</b> I firmly command all the brothers by no means to receive +coin or money, of themselves or through an intervening person. +<span class="sidebar">Money in no +case to be received +by the +brothers</span> +But for the needs of the sick and for clothing the +other brothers, the ministers alone and the +guardians shall provide through spiritual friends, +as it may seem to them that necessity demands, according to +time, place and the coldness of the temperature. This one thing +being always borne in mind, that, as has been said, they receive +neither coin nor money.</p> + +<p><b>5.</b> Those brothers to whom God has given the ability to labor +shall labor faithfully and devoutly, in such manner that idleness, +the enemy of the soul, being averted, they may not extinguish +<span class="sidebar">The obligation +to labor</span> +the spirit of holy prayer and devotion, to which +other temporal things should be subservient. As +a reward, moreover, for their labor, they may receive for themselves +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">376</a></span> +and their brothers the necessities of life, but not coin or +money; and this humbly, as becomes the servants of God and +the followers of most holy poverty.</p> + +<p><b>6.</b> The brothers shall appropriate nothing to themselves, +neither a house, nor a place, nor anything; but as pilgrims and +strangers in this world, in poverty and humility serving God, +they shall confidently go seeking for alms. Nor need they be +ashamed, for the Lord made Himself poor for us in this world.</p> + +<h4>65. The Will of St. Francis</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The will which St. Francis prepared just before his death (1226) +contains an admirable statement of the principles for which he labored, +as well as a notable warning to his successors not to allow the order to +fall away from its original high ideals. Among the later Franciscans +the Will acquired a moral authority superior even to that of the Rule.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in Amoni, <i>Legenda Trium Sociorum</i> ["Legend of the Three +Companions"], Appendix, p. 110. Translation adapted from Paul +Sabatier, <i>Life of St. Francis of Assisi</i> (New York, 1894), pp. 337-339.</p> + +<p>God gave it to me, Brother Francis, to begin to do penance in +the following manner: when I was yet in my sins it seemed to me +too painful to look upon the lepers, but the Lord Himself led +me among them, and I had compassion upon them. When I +left them, that which had seemed to me bitter had become sweet +and easy. A little while after, I left the world,<a name="FNanchor_526" id="FNanchor_526" href="#Footnote_526" class="fnanchor">[526]</a> and God gave +me such faith that I would kneel down with simplicity in any +of his churches, and I would say, "We adore thee, Lord Jesus +Christ, here and in all thy churches which are in the world, and +we bless thee that by Thy holy cross Thou hast ransomed the +world."</p> + +<p>Afterward the Lord gave me, and still gives me, so great a +faith in priests who live according to the form of the holy Roman +Church, because of their sacerdotal character, that even if they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">377</a></span> +persecuted me I would have recourse to them, and even though +I had all the wisdom of Solomon, if I should find poor secular +<span class="sidebar">St. Francis not +hostile to the +existing Church</span> +priests, I would not preach in their parishes +against their will.<a name="FNanchor_527" id="FNanchor_527" href="#Footnote_527" class="fnanchor">[527]</a> I desire to respect them like +all the others, to love them and honor them as +my lords. I will not consider their sins, for in them I see the +Son of God, and they are my lords. I do this because here below +I see nothing, I perceive nothing physically of the most high +Son of God, except His most holy body and blood, which the +priests receive and alone distribute to others.<a name="FNanchor_528" id="FNanchor_528" href="#Footnote_528" class="fnanchor">[528]</a></p> + +<p>I desire above all things to honor and venerate all these most +holy mysteries and to keep them precious. Wherever I find the +sacred name of Jesus, or his words, in unsuitable places, I desire +to take them away and put them in some decent place; and I +pray that others may do the same. We ought to honor and +revere all the theologians and those who preach the most holy +word of God, as dispensing to us spirit and life.</p> + +<p>When the Lord gave me the care of some brothers, no one +showed me what I ought to do, but the Most High himself revealed +to me that I ought to live according to the model of the +holy gospel. I caused a short and simple formula to be written +and the lord Pope confirmed it for me.<a name="FNanchor_529" id="FNanchor_529" href="#Footnote_529" class="fnanchor">[529]</a></p> + +<p>Those who volunteered to follow this kind of life distributed +all they had to the poor. They contented themselves with +<span class="sidebar">Poverty and +labor enjoined</span> +one tunic, patched within and without, with +the cord and breeches, and we desired to have +nothing more.... We loved to live in poor and abandoned +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">378</a></span> +churches, and we were ignorant and were submissive to all. +I worked with my hands and would still do so, and I firmly +desire also that all the other brothers work, for this makes for +goodness. Let those who know no trade learn one, not for the +purpose of receiving wages for their toil, but for their good +example and to escape idleness. And when we are not given the +price of our work, let us resort to the table of the Lord, begging +our bread from door to door. The Lord revealed to me the +salutation which we ought to give: "God give you peace!"</p> + +<p>Let the brothers take great care not to accept churches, +dwellings, or any buildings erected for them, except as all is +in accordance with the holy poverty which we have vowed in +the Rule; and let them not live in them except as strangers and +pilgrims. I absolutely forbid all the brothers, in whatsoever +place they may be found, to ask any bull from the court of +<span class="sidebar">No further +privileges +to be sought +from the Pope</span> +Rome, whether directly or indirectly, in the interest +of church or convent, or under pretext of +preaching, or even for the protection of their +bodies. If they are not received anywhere, let them go of themselves +elsewhere, thus doing penance with the benediction of +God....</p> + +<p>And let the brothers not say, "This is a new Rule"; for this is +only a reminder, a warning, an exhortation. It is my last will +and testament, that I, little Brother Francis, make for you, my +blessed brothers, in order that we may observe in a more Catholic +way the Rule which we promised the Lord to keep.</p> + +<p>Let the ministers-general, all the other ministers, and the +custodians be held by obedience to add nothing to and take +<span class="sidebar">No additions +to be made to +the Rule or +the Will</span> +nothing away from these words. Let them always +keep this writing near them beside the Rule; and +in all the assemblies which shall be held, when +the Rule is read, let these words be read also.</p> + +<p>I absolutely forbid all the brothers, clerics and laymen, to +introduce comments in the Rule, or in this Will, under pretext +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">379</a></span> +of explaining it. But since the Lord has given me to speak and +to write the Rule and these words in a clear and simple manner, +so do you understand them in the same way without commentary, +and put them in practice until the end.</p> + +<p>And whoever shall have observed these things, may he be +crowned in heaven with the blessings of the heavenly Father, +and on earth with those of his well-beloved Son and of the Holy +Spirit, the Consoler, with the assistance of all the heavenly +virtues and all the saints.</p> + +<p>And I, little Brother Francis, your servant, confirm to you, +so far as I am able, this most holy benediction. Amen.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">380</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXIII.<br /> +THE PAPACY AND THE TEMPORAL POWERS IN THE LATER +MIDDLE AGES</h3> + +<h4>66. The Interdict Laid on France by Innocent III. (1200)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>Two of the most effective weapons at the service of the mediæval +Church were excommunication and the interdict. By the ban of excommunication +the proper ecclesiastical authorities could exclude a +heretic or otherwise objectionable person from all religious privileges, +thereby cutting him off from association with the faithful and consigning +him irrevocably (unless he repented) to Satan. The interdict differed +from excommunication in being less sweeping in its condemnatory character, +and also in being applied to towns, provinces, or countries rather +than to individuals. As a rule the interdict undertook to deprive the +inhabitants of a specified region of the use of certain of the sacraments, +of participation in the usual religious services, and of the right of Christian +burial. It did not expel men from church membership, as did +excommunication, but it suspended most of the privileges and rights +flowing from such membership. The interdict was first employed by the +clergy of north France in the tenth and eleventh centuries. In the +twelfth it was adopted by the papacy on account of its obvious value +as a means of disciplining the monarchs of western Europe. Because +of its effectiveness in stirring up popular indignation against sovereigns +who incurred the papal displeasure, by the time of Innocent III. (1198-1216) +it had come to be employed for political as well as for purely +religious purposes, though generally the two considerations were closely +intertwined. A famous and typical instance of its use was that of the +year 1200, described below.</p> + +<p>In August, 1193, Philip Augustus, king of France, married Ingeborg, +second sister of King Knut VI. of Denmark. At the time Philip was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">381</a></span> +contemplating an invasion of England and hoped through the marriage +to assure himself of Danish aid. Circumstances soon changed his plans, +however, and almost immediately he began to treat his new wife coldly, +with the obvious purpose of forcing her to return to her brother's court. +Failing in this, he convened his nobles and bishops at Compiègne and +got from them a decree of divorce, on the flimsy pretext that the marriage +with Ingeborg had been illegal on account of the latter's distant +relationship to Elizabeth of Hainault, Philip's first wife. Ingeborg +and her brother appealed to Rome, and Pope Celestine III. dispatched +letter after letter and legate after legate to the French court, but without +result. Indeed, after three years, Philip, to clinch the matter, as he +thought, married Agnes of Meran, daughter of a Bavarian nobleman, +and shut up Ingeborg in a convent at Soissons. In 1198, while the +affair stood thus, Celestine died and was succeeded by Innocent III., +under whom the papal power was destined to attain a height hitherto +unknown. Innocent flatly refused to sanction the divorce or to recognize +the second marriage, although he was not pope, of course, until +some years after both had occurred. On the ground that the whole +subject of marriage lay properly within the jurisdiction of the Church, +Innocent demanded that Philip cast off the beautiful Agnes and +restore Ingeborg to her rightful place. This Philip promptly refused +to do.</p> + +<p>The threat of an interdict failing to move him, the Pope proceeded to +put his threat into execution. In January, 1200, the interdict was pronounced +and, though the king's power over the French clergy was so +strong that many refused to heed the voice from Rome, gradually +the discontent and indignation of the people grew until after nine +months it became apparent that the king must yield. He did so as +gracefully as he could, promising to take back Ingeborg and submit +the question of a divorce to a council presided over by the papal legate. +This council, convened in 1201 at Soissons, decided against the king and +in favor of Ingeborg; but Philip had no intention to submit in good +faith and, until the death of Agnes in 1204, he maintained his policy of +procrastination and double-dealing. Even in the later years of the reign +the unfortunate Ingeborg had frequent cause to complain of harshness +and neglect at the hand of her royal husband.</p> + +<p>The following are the principal portions of Innocent's interdict. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">382</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Martène, Edmond, and Durand, Ursin, <i>Thesaurus novus Anecdotorum</i> +["New Collection of Unpublished Documents"], Paris, 1717, +Vol. IV., p. 147. Adapted from translation by Arthur C. Howland +in <i>Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. IV., No. 4, pp. 29-30.</p> + +<p>Let all the churches be closed; let no one be admitted to them, +except to baptize infants; let them not be otherwise opened, +except for the purpose of lighting the lamps, or when the priest +shall come for the Eucharist and holy water for the use of the +sick. We permit Mass to be celebrated once a week, on Friday, +early in the morning, to consecrate the Host<a name="FNanchor_530" id="FNanchor_530" href="#Footnote_530" class="fnanchor">[530]</a> for the use of the +sick, but only one clerk is to be admitted to assist the priest. +<span class="sidebar">Partial suspension +of +the services +and offices of +the Church</span> +Let the clergy preach on Sunday in the vestibules +of the churches, and in place of the Mass let them +deliver the word of God. Let them recite the +canonical hours<a name="FNanchor_531" id="FNanchor_531" href="#Footnote_531" class="fnanchor">[531]</a> outside the churches, where the +people do not hear them; if they recite an epistle or a gospel, let +them beware lest the laity hear them; and let them not permit +the dead to be interred, nor their bodies to be placed unburied +in the cemeteries. Let them, moreover, say to the laity that +they sin and transgress grievously by burying bodies in the +earth, even in unconsecrated ground, for in so doing they assume +to themselves an office pertaining to others.</p> + +<p>Let them forbid their parishioners to enter churches that may +be open in the king's territory, and let them not bless the wallets +of pilgrims, except outside the churches. Let them not celebrate +<span class="sidebar">How Easter +should be observed</span> +the offices in Passion week, but refrain +even until Easter day, and then let them celebrate +in private, no one being admitted except +the assisting priest, as above directed; let no one communicate, +even at Easter, unless he be sick and in danger of death. During +the same week, or on Palm Sunday, let them announce to their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">383</a></span> +parishioners that they may assemble on Easter morning before +the church and there have permission to eat flesh and consecrated +bread.... Let the priest confess all who desire +it in the portico of the church; if the church have no portico, +<span class="sidebar">Arrangements +for confession</span> +we direct that in bad or rainy weather, and not +otherwise, the nearest door of the church may +be opened and confessions heard on its threshold (all being excluded +except the one who is to confess), so that the priest and +the penitent can be heard by those who are outside the church. +If, however, the weather be fair, let the confession be heard in +front of the closed doors. Let no vessels of holy water be placed +outside the church, nor shall the priests carry them anywhere; +for all the sacraments of the Church beyond these two +which are reserved<a name="FNanchor_532" id="FNanchor_532" href="#Footnote_532" class="fnanchor">[532]</a> are absolutely prohibited. Extreme unction, +which is a holy sacrament, may not be given.<a name="FNanchor_533" id="FNanchor_533" href="#Footnote_533" class="fnanchor">[533]</a></p> + +<h4>67. The Bull "Unam Sanctam" of Boniface VIII. (1302)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>In the history of the mediæval Church at least three great periods of +conflict between the papacy and the temporal powers can be distinguished. +The first was the era of Gregory VII. and Henry IV. of Germany +[see <a href="#Page_261">p. 261</a>]; the second was that of Innocent III. and John of +England and Philip Augustus of France [see <a href="#Page_380">p. 380</a>]; the third was that +of Boniface VIII. and Philip the Fair of France. In many respects the +most significant document pertaining to the last of these struggles is +the papal bull, given below, commonly designated by its opening words, +<i>Unam Sanctam</i>.</p> + +<p>The question at issue in the conflict of Boniface VIII. and Philip the +Fair was the old one as to whether the papacy should be allowed to +dominate European states in temporal as well as in spiritual matters. +The Franconian emperors, in the eleventh century, made stubborn +resistance to such domination, but the immediate result was only partial +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">384</a></span> +success, while later efforts to keep up the contest practically ruined the +power of the house of Hohenstaufen. Even Philip Augustus, at the +opening of the thirteenth century, had been compelled to yield, at least +outwardly, to the demands of the papacy respecting his marriages +and his national policies. With the revival of the issue under Boniface +and Philip, however, the tide turned, for at last there had arisen +a nation whose sovereign had so firm a grip upon the loyalty of his subjects +that he could defy even the power of Rome with impunity.</p> + +<p>The quarrel between Boniface and Philip first assumed importance +in 1296—two years after the accession of the former and eleven after +that of the latter. The immediate subject of dispute was the heavy +taxes which Philip was levying upon the clergy of France and the +revenues from which he was using in the prosecution of his wars with +Edward I. of England; but royal and papal interests were fundamentally +at variance and as both king and pope were of a combative temper, a +conflict was inevitable, irrespective of taxes or any other particular +cause of controversy. In 1096 Boniface issued the famous bull <i>Clericis +Laicos</i>, forbidding laymen (including monarchs) to levy subsidies on the +clergy without papal consent and prohibiting the clergy to pay subsidies +so levied. Philip the Fair was not mentioned in the bull, but the +measure was clearly directed primarily at him. He retaliated by prohibiting +the export of money, plate, etc., from the realm, thereby cutting +off the accustomed papal revenues from France. In 1297 an apparent +reconciliation was effected, the Pope practically suspending the +bull so far as France was concerned, though only to secure relief from +the conflict with Philip while engaged in a struggle with the rival Colonna +family at Rome.</p> + +<p>In 1301 the contest was renewed, mainly because of the indiscretion +of a papal legate, Bernard Saisset, bishop of Pamiers, who vilified the +king and was promptly imprisoned for his violent language. Boniface +took up the cause of Saisset and called an ecclesiastical council to regulate +the affairs of church and state in France and to rectify the injuries +wrought by King Philip. The claim to papal supremacy in temporal as +well as spiritual affairs, which Boniface proposed thus to make good, +was boldly stated in a new bull—that of <i>Ausculta Fili</i>—in 1301. At the +same time the bull <i>Clericis Laicos</i> was renewed for France. Philip knew +that the Franconians and his own Capetian predecessors had failed in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">385</a></span> +their struggles with Rome chiefly for the reason that they had been +lacking in consistent popular support. National feeling was unquestionably +stronger in the France of 1301 than in the Germany of 1077, or even +in the France of 1200; but to make doubly sure, Philip, in 1302, caused +the first meeting of a complete States General to be held, and from this +body, representing the various elements of the French people, he got +reliable pledges of support in his efforts to resist the temporal aggressions +of the papacy. It was at this juncture that Boniface issued the bull +<i>Unam Sanctam</i>, which has well been termed the classic mediæval expression +of the papal claims to universal temporal sovereignty.</p> + +<p>In 1303 an assembly of French prelates and magnates, under the +inspiration of Philip, brought charges of heresy and misconduct against +Boniface and called for a meeting of a general ecclesiastical council to +depose him. Boniface decided to issue a bull excommunicating and +deposing Philip. But before the date set for this step (September, 1303) +a catastrophe befell the papacy which resulted in an unexpected termination +of the episode. On the day before the bull of deposition was to +be issued William of Nogaret, whom Philip had sent to Rome to force +Boniface to call a general council to try the charges against himself, +led a band of troops to Anagni and took the Pope prisoner with the intention +of carrying him to France for trial. After three days the inhabitants +of Anagni attacked the Frenchmen and drove them out and +Boniface, who had barely escaped death, returned to Rome. The unfortunate +Pope never recovered, however, from the effects of the outrage +and his death in October (1303) left Philip, by however unworthy +means, a victor. From this point the papacy passes under the domination +of the French court and in 1309 began the dark period of the so-called +Babylonian Captivity, during most of which the popes dwelt at +Avignon under conditions precisely the reverse of the ideal which Boniface +so clearly asserted in <i>Unam Sanctam</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text based upon the papal register published by P. Mury in <i>Revue +des Questions Historiques</i>, Vol. XLVI. (July, 1889), pp. 255-256. +Translated in Oliver J. Thatcher and Edgar H. McNeal, <i>Source +Book for Mediæval History</i> (New York), 1905, pp. 314-317.</p> + +<p>The true faith compels us to believe that there is one holy +Catholic Apostolic Church, and this we firmly believe and plainly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">386</a></span> +confess. And outside of her there is no salvation or remission +of sins, as the Bridegroom says in the Song of Solomon: "My +dove, my undefiled, is but one; she is the only one of her mother, +she is the choice one of her that bare her" [Song of Sol., vi. 9]; +which represents the one mystical body, whose head is Christ, +but the head of Christ is God [1 Cor., xi. 3]. In this Church there +<span class="sidebar">An assertion +of the unity +of the Church</span> +is "one Lord, one faith, one baptism" [Eph., +iv. 5]. For in the time of the flood there was only +one ark, that of Noah, prefiguring the one Church, +and it was "finished above in one cubit" [Gen., vi. 16], and had +but one helmsman and master, namely, Noah. And we read +that all things on the earth outside of this ark were destroyed. +This Church we venerate as the only one, since the Lord said by +the prophet: "Deliver my soul from the sword; my darling from +the power of the dog" [Ps., xxii. 20]. He prayed for his soul, that +is, for himself, the head; and at the same time for the body, and +he named his body, that is, the one Church, because there is but +one Bridegroom [John, iii. 29], and because of the unity of the +faith, of the sacraments, and of his love for the Church. This +is the seamless robe of the Lord which was not rent but parted +by lot [John, xix. 23].</p> + +<p>Therefore there is one body of the one and only Church, and +one head, not two heads, as if the Church were a monster. And +this head is Christ, and his vicar, Peter and his successor; for the +Lord himself said to Peter: "Feed my sheep" [John, xxi. 16]. +And he said "my sheep," in general, not these or those sheep in +particular; from which it is clear that all were committed to him. +<span class="sidebar">An allusion to +the Petrine +Supremacy</span> +If, therefore, Greeks [i.e., the Greek Church] or +any one else say that they are not subject to Peter +and his successors, they thereby necessarily confess +that they are not of the sheep of Christ. For the Lord says, +in the Gospel of John, that there is one fold and only one shepherd +[John, x. 16]. By the words of the gospel we are taught that +the two swords, namely, the spiritual authority and the temporal, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">387</a></span> +are in the power of the Church. For when the apostles said +"Here are two swords" [Luke, xxii. 38]—that is, in the Church, +since it was the apostles who were speaking—the Lord did not +answer, "It is too much," but "It is enough." Whoever denies +that the temporal sword is in the power of Peter does not properly +understand the word of the Lord when He said: "Put up thy +sword into the sheath" [John, xviii. 11]. Both swords, therefore, +<span class="sidebar">The proper relation +of spiritual +and temporal +powers</span> +the spiritual and the temporal, are in the power +of the Church. The former is to be used by the +Church, the latter for the Church; the one by the +hand of the priest, the other by the hand of kings and knights, +but at the command and permission of the priest. Moreover, it +is necessary for one sword to be under the other, and the temporal +authority to be subjected to the spiritual; for the apostle +says, "For there is no power but of God: and the powers that be +are ordained of God" [Rom., xiii. 1]; but they would not be ordained +unless one were subjected to the other, and, as it were, +the lower made the higher by the other.</p> + +<p>For, according to St. Dionysius,<a name="FNanchor_534" id="FNanchor_534" href="#Footnote_534" class="fnanchor">[534]</a> it is a law of divinity that +the lowest is made the highest through the intermediate. According +to the law of the universe all things are not equally and +directly reduced to order, but the lowest are fitted into their +order through the intermediate, and the lower through the +higher. And we must necessarily admit that the spiritual power +<span class="sidebar">The superiority +of the +spiritual</span> +surpasses any earthly power in dignity and honor, +because spiritual things surpass temporal things. +We clearly see that this is true from the paying +of tithes, from the benediction, from the sanctification, from the +receiving of the power, and from the governing of these things. +For the truth itself declares that the spiritual power must +establish the temporal power and pass judgment on it if it is +not good. Thus the prophecy of Jeremiah concerning the Church +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">388</a></span> +and the ecclesiastical power is fulfilled: "See, I have this day +set thee over the nations and over the kingdoms, to root out, +and to pull down, and to destroy, and to throw down, to build, +and to plant" [Jer., i. 10].</p> + +<p>Therefore if the temporal power errs, it will be judged by the +spiritual power, and if the lower spiritual power errs, it will be +<span class="sidebar">The highest +spiritual power +(the papacy) +responsible to +God alone</span> +judged by its superior. But if the highest +spiritual power errs, it cannot be judged by +men, but by God alone. For the apostle says: +"But he that is spiritual judgeth all things, yet +he himself is judged of no man" [1 Cor., ii. 15]. Now this authority, +although it is given to man and exercised through man, +is not human, but divine. For it was given by the word of the +Lord to Peter, and the rock was made firm to him and his successors, +in Christ himself, whom he had confessed. For the Lord +said to Peter: "Whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be +bound in heaven; and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall +be loosed in heaven" [Matt., xvi. 19].</p> + +<p>Therefore, whosoever resisteth this power thus ordained of +God resisteth the ordinance of God [Rom., xiii. 2], unless there +are two principles [beginnings], as Manichæus<a name="FNanchor_535" id="FNanchor_535" href="#Footnote_535" class="fnanchor">[535]</a> pretends there +are. But this we judge to be false and heretical. For Moses says +that, not in the beginnings, but in the beginning, God created +<span class="sidebar">Submission to +the papacy essential +to salvation</span> +the heaven and the earth [Gen., i. 1]. We therefore +declare, say, and affirm that submission on +the part of every man to the bishop of Rome is +altogether necessary for his salvation.</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">389</a></span></p> + +<h4>68. The Great Schism and the Councils of Pisa and Constance</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The "Babylonian Captivity"—begun in 1305, or perhaps more properly +in 1309, when the French Pope, Clement V., took up his residence +regularly at Avignon—lasted until 1377. During these sixty or seventy +years the College of Cardinals consisted chiefly of Frenchmen, all of the +seven popes were of French nationality, and for the most part the +papal authority was little more than a tool in the hands of the aggressive +French sovereigns. In 1377, at the solicitation of the Italian clergy +and people, Pope Gregory XI. removed to Rome, where he died in 1378. +In the election that followed the Roman populace, determined to bring +the residence of the popes at Avignon to an end once for all, demanded a +Roman, or at least an Italian, pope. The majority of the cardinals were +French, but they could not agree upon a French candidate and, intimidated +by the threats of the mob, they at last chose a Neapolitan who +took the name Urban VI. A few months of Urban's obstinate administration +convinced the cardinals that they had made a serious mistake, +and, on the ground that their choice had been unduly influenced by +popular clamor, they sought to nullify the election and to replace Urban +by a Genevan who took the title Clement VII. Urban utterly refused +thus to be put aside, so that there were now two popes, each duly elected +by the College of Cardinals and each claiming the undivided allegiance +of Christendom. This was the beginning of the Great Schism, destined +to work havoc in the Church for a full generation, or until finally ended +in 1417. Clement VII. fixed his abode at Avignon and French influence +secured for him the support of Spain, Scotland, and Sicily. The rest of +Europe, displeased with the subordination of the papacy to France and +French interests, declared for Urban, who was pledged to maintain the +papal capital at Rome.</p> + +<p>France must be held responsible in the main for the evils of the Great +Schism—a breach in the Church which she deliberately created and for +many years maintained; but she herself suffered by it more than any +other nation of Europe because of the annates,<a name="FNanchor_536" id="FNanchor_536" href="#Footnote_536" class="fnanchor">[536]</a> the <i>décime</i>,<a name="FNanchor_537" id="FNanchor_537" href="#Footnote_537" class="fnanchor">[537]</a> and other +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">390</a></span> +taxes which were imposed upon the French clergy and people to support +the luxurious and at times extravagant papal court at Avignon, or which +were exacted by ambitious monarchs under the cover of papal license. +In the course of time the impossible situation created by the Schism +demanded a remedy and in fairness it should be observed that in the +work of adjustment the leading part was taken by the French. After +the death of Clement VII., in 1394, the French court sincerely desired +to bring the Schism to an end on terms that would be fair to all. Already +in 1393 King Charles VI. had laid the case before the University +of Paris and asked for an opinion as to the best course to be pursued. +The authorities of the university requested each member of the various +faculties to submit his idea of a solution of the problem and from the +mass of suggestions thus brought together a committee of fifty-four +professors, masters, and doctors worked out the three lines of action +set forth in selection (a) below. The first plan, i.e., that both popes +should resign as a means of restoring harmony, was accepted as the +proper one by an assembly of the French clergy convened in 1395. It +was doomed to defeat, however, by the vacillation of both Benedict +XIII. at Avignon and Boniface IX. at Rome, and in the end it was +agreed to fall back upon the third plan which the University of Paris had +proposed, i.e., the convening of a general council. There was no doubt +that such a council could legally be summoned only by the pope, but +finally the cardinals attached to both popes deserted them and united +in issuing the call in their own name.</p> + +<p>The council met at Pisa in 1409 and proceeded to clear up the question +of its own legality and authority by issuing the unequivocal declaration +comprised in (b) below. It furthermore declared both popes deposed and +elected a new one, who took the name Alexander V. Neither of the +previous popes, however, recognized the council's action, so now there +were three rivals instead of two and the situation was only so much +worse than before. In 1410 Alexander V. died and the cardinals chose +as his successor John XXIII., a man whose life was notoriously wicked, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">391</a></span> +but who was far from lacking in political sagacity. Three years later +the capture of Rome by the king of Naples forced John to appeal for +assistance to the Emperor Sigismund; and Sigismund demanded, before +extending the desired aid, that a general church council be summoned +to meet on German soil for the adjustment of the tangled papal situation. +The result was the Council of Constance, whose sessions extended +from November, 1414, to April, 1418, and which, because of its general +European character, was able to succeed where the Council of Pisa had +failed. In the decree <i>Sacrosancta</i> given below (c), issued in April, +1415, we have the council's notable assertion of its supreme authority +in ecclesiastical matters, even as against the pope himself. The +Schism was healed with comparative facility. Gregory XII., who +had been the pope at Rome, but who was now in exile, sent envoys +to offer his abdication. Benedict XIII., likewise a fugitive, +was deposed and found himself without supporters. John XXIII. +was deposed for his unworthy character and had no means of offering +resistance. The cardinals, together with representatives of the +five "nations" into which the council was divided, harmoniously selected +for pope a Roman cardinal, who assumed the name of Martin V. This +was in 1417. The Schism was at an end, though the work of combating +heresy and of propagating reform within the Church went on in successive +councils, notably that of Basel (1431-1449).</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Sources—(a) Lucæ d'Achery, <i>Spicilegium, sive Collectio veterum aliquot +Scriptorum qui in Galliæ Bibliothecis Delituerant</i> ["Gleanings, +or a Collection of some Early Writings, which survive in Gallic +Libraries"], Paris, 1723, Vol. I., p. 777. Translated in +Thatcher and McNeal, <i>Source Book for Mediæval History</i> +(New York, 1905), pp. 326-327.</p> + +<p class="source_add">(b) Raynaldus, <i>Annales, anno 1409</i> ["Annals, year 1409"], §71.</p> + +<p class="source_add">(c) Von der Hardt, <i>Magnum Constantiense Concilium</i> ["Great +Council of Constance"], Vol. II., p. 98.</p> + +<p class="center">(a)</p> + +<p><i>The first way.</i> Now the first way to end the Schism is that +both parties should entirely renounce and resign all rights which +they may have, or claim to have, to the papal office.</p> + +<p><i>The second way.</i> But if both cling tenaciously to their rights +and refuse to resign, as they have thus far done, we would propose +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">392</a></span> +a resort to arbitration. That is, that they should together choose +worthy and suitable men, or permit such to be chosen in a +<span class="sidebar">Three possible +solutions of the +Schism offered +by the University +of Paris</span> +regular and canonical way, and these should have +full power and authority to discuss the case and +decide it, and if necessary and expedient and +approved by those who, according to the canon +law, have the authority [i.e., the cardinals], they might also +have the right to proceed to the election of a pope.</p> + +<p><i>The third way.</i> If the rival popes, after being urged in a +brotherly and friendly manner, will not accept either of the +above ways, there is a third way which we propose as an excellent +remedy for this sacrilegious schism. We mean that the +matter should be left to a general council. This general council +might be composed, according to canon law, only of prelates; or, +since many of them are very illiterate, and many of them are +bitter partisans of one or the other pope, there might be joined +with the prelates an equal number of masters and doctors of +theology and law from the faculties of approved universities. +Or, if this does not seem sufficient to any one, there might be added, +besides, one or more representatives from cathedral chapters and +the chief monastic orders, to the end that all decisions might be +rendered only after most careful examination and mature deliberation.</p> + +<p class="center">(b)</p> + +<p>This holy and general council, representing the universal +Church, decrees and declares that the united college of cardinals +was empowered to call the council, and that the power to call +<span class="sidebar">Declarations +of the Council +of Pisa (1409)</span> +such a council belongs of right to the aforesaid +holy college of cardinals, especially now when +there is a detestable schism. The council further +declares that this holy council, representing the universal Church, +caused both claimants of the papal throne to be cited in the +gates and doors of the churches of Pisa to come and hear the +final decision [in the matter of the Schism] pronounced, or to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">393</a></span> +give a good and sufficient reason why such sentence should not +be rendered.</p> + +<p class="center">(c)</p> + +<p>This holy synod of Constance, being a general council, and +legally assembled in the Holy Spirit for the praise of God and +for ending the present schism, and for the union and reformation +of the Church of God in its head and in its members, in order +more easily, more securely, more completely, and more fully to +bring about the union and reformation of the Church of God, +<span class="sidebar">The Council of +Constance asserts +its superiority +to even +the papacy</span> +ordains, declares, and decrees as follows: First it +declares that this synod, legally assembled, is a +general council, and represents the Catholic +church militant and has its authority directly +from Christ; and everybody, of whatever rank or dignity, including +also the pope, is bound to obey this council in those +things which pertain to the faith, to the ending of this schism, +and to a general reformation of the Church in its head and members. +Likewise it declares that if any one, of whatever rank, +condition, or dignity, including also the pope, shall refuse to +obey the commands, statutes, ordinances, or orders of this holy +council, or of any other holy council properly assembled, in +regard to the ending of the Schism and to the reformation of the +Church, he shall be subject to the proper punishment, and, unless +he repents, he shall be duly punished, and, if necessary, recourse +shall be had to other aids of justice.</p> + +<h4>69. The Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges (1438)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The Council of Basel, convened in 1431, had for its object a thoroughgoing +reformation of the Church, "in its head and its members," from +papacy to parish priest. Like all of the councils of the period, its spirit +was distinctly anti-papal and for this reason Pope Eugene IV. sought +to bring it under his control by transferring it to Bologna and, failing +in this, to turn its deliberations into channels other than criticism of +the papacy. While the negotiations of Eugene and the council were in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">394</a></span> +progress a step fraught with great significance was taken in France in +the promulgation of the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges.<a name="FNanchor_538" id="FNanchor_538" href="#Footnote_538" class="fnanchor">[538]</a> France was +the only country in which the principles laid down by the councils—Pisa, +Constance, Basel, and the rest—had taken firm hold. In 1438 +Charles VII. convened at Bourges an assembly composed of leading prelates, +councillors, and princes of the royal blood, to which the Pope and +the Council of Basel both sent delegates. This assembly proceeded to +adapt the decrees of the council to the conditions and needs of France, +on the evident assumption that the will of the French magnates in such +matters was superior to that of both pope and council, so far as France +was concerned. The action at Bourges well illustrates the growing +spirit of French nationality which had sprung up since the recent +achievements of Joan of Arc.</p> + +<p>The Pragmatic Sanction dealt in the main with four subjects—the +authority of church councils, the diminishing of papal patronage, +the restriction of papal taxation, and the limitation of appeals +to Rome. Together these matters are commonly spoken of as the +"Gallican liberties," i.e., the liberties of the Gallic or French church, +and they implied the right of the national church to administer its own +affairs with only the slightest interference from the pope or other outside +powers; in other words, they were essentially anti-papal. Louis XI., the +successor of Charles VII., for diplomatic reasons, sought to revoke the +Pragmatic Sanction, but the Parlement of Paris refused to register +the ordinance and for all practical purposes the Pragmatic was maintained +until 1516. In that year Francis I. established the relations of +the papacy and the French clergy on the basis of a new "concordat," +which, however, was not very unlike the Pragmatic. The Pragmatic +is of interest to the student of French history mainly because of the degree +in which it enhanced the power of the crown, particularly in respect +to the ecclesiastical affairs of the realm, and because of the testimony +it bears to the declining influence of the papacy in the stronger +nations like France and England. The text printed below represents +only an abstract of the document, which in all included thirty-three +chapters.</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">395</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source.—Text in Vilevault et Bréquigny, <i>Ordonnances des Rois de France +de la Troisième Race</i> (Paris, 1772), Vol. XIII., pp. 267-291.</p> + +<p>The king declares that, according to the oath taken at their +coronation, kings are bound to defend and protect the holy +<span class="sidebar">Charles VII. +recognizes the +obligations of +the king to the +Church</span> +Church, its ministers and its sacred offices, and +zealously to guard in their kingdoms the decrees +of the holy fathers. The general council assembled +at Basel to continue the work begun by +the councils of Constance and Siena,<a name="FNanchor_539" id="FNanchor_539" href="#Footnote_539" class="fnanchor">[539]</a> and to labor for the reform +of the Church, in both its head and members, having had presented +to it numerous decrees and regulations, with the request +that it accept them and cause them to be observed in the kingdom, +the king has convened an assembly composed of prelates +and other ecclesiastics representing the clergy of France and of +the Dauphiné.<a name="FNanchor_540" id="FNanchor_540" href="#Footnote_540" class="fnanchor">[540]</a> He has presided in person over its deliberations, +surrounded by his son, the princes of the blood, and the principal +lords of the realm. He has listened to the ambassadors of the +Pope and the council. From the examination of prelates and +<span class="sidebar">Abuses prevalent +in the +French church</span> +the most renowned doctors, and from the thoroughgoing +discussions of the assembly, it appears +that, from the falling into decay of the early +discipline, the churches of the kingdom have been made to suffer +from all sorts of insatiable greed; that the <i>réserve</i> and the <i>grâce</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">396</a></span> +<i>expectative</i><a name="FNanchor_541" id="FNanchor_541" href="#Footnote_541" class="fnanchor">[541]</a> have given rise to grievous abuses and unbearable +burdens; that the most notable and best endowed benefices have +fallen into the hands of unknown men, who do not conform at +all to the requirement of residence and who do not understand the +speech of the people committed to their care, and consequently +are neglectful of the needs of their souls, like mercenaries who +dream of nothing whatever but temporal gain; that thus the +worship of Christ is declining, piety is enfeebled, the laws of the +Church are violated, and buildings for religious uses are falling +in ruin. The clergy abandon their theological studies, because +there is no hope of advancement. Conflicts without number rage +over the possession of benefices, plurality of which is coveted by +an execrable ambition. Simony is everywhere glaring; the +prelates and other collators<a name="FNanchor_542" id="FNanchor_542" href="#Footnote_542" class="fnanchor">[542]</a> are pillaged of their rights and their +ministry; the rights of patrons are impaired; and the wealth of +the kingdom goes into the hands of foreigners, to the detriment +of the clergy.</p> + +<p>Since, in the judgment of the prelates and other ecclesiastics, +the decrees of the holy council of Basel seemed to afford a suitable +<span class="sidebar">The decrees of +Basel accepted +with some +modifications</span> +remedy for all these evils, after mature deliberation, +we have decided to accept them—some +without change, others with certain modifications—without +wishing to cast doubt upon the power and authority +of the council, but at the same time taking account of +the necessities of the occasion and of the customs of the nation.</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> General councils shall be held every ten years, in places to +be designated by the pope. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">397</a></span></p> + +<p><b>2.</b> The authority of the general council is superior to that of +the pope in all that pertains to the faith, the extirpation of +schism, and the reform of the Church in both head and members.<a name="FNanchor_543" id="FNanchor_543" href="#Footnote_543" class="fnanchor">[543]</a></p> + +<p><b>3.</b> Election is reëstablished for ecclesiastical offices; but the +king, or the princes of his kingdom, without violating the canonical +rules, may make recommendations when elections are to occur +in the chapters or the monasteries.<a name="FNanchor_544" id="FNanchor_544" href="#Footnote_544" class="fnanchor">[544]</a></p> + +<p><b>4.</b> The popes shall not have the right to reserve the collation +of benefices, or to bestow any benefice before it becomes vacant.</p> + +<p><b>5.</b> All grants of benefices made by the pope in virtue of the +<i>droit d'expectative</i> are hereby declared null. Those who shall +have received such benefices shall be punished by the secular +power. The popes shall not have the right to interfere by the creation +of canonships.<a name="FNanchor_545" id="FNanchor_545" href="#Footnote_545" class="fnanchor">[545]</a></p> + +<p><b>6.</b> Appeals to Rome are prohibited until every other grade of +jurisdiction shall have been exhausted.</p> + +<p><b>7.</b> Annates are prohibited.<a name="FNanchor_546" id="FNanchor_546" href="#Footnote_546" class="fnanchor">[546]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">398</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXIV.<br /> +THE EMPIRE IN THE TWELFTH, THIRTEENTH, AND FOURTEENTH +CENTURIES</h3> + +<h4>70. The Peace of Constance (1183)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>With the election of Frederick Barbarossa as emperor, in 1152, a new +stage of the great papal-imperial combat was entered upon, though +under conditions quite different from those surrounding the contest in +the preceding century [see <a href="#Page_261">Chap. XVI]</a>. The Empire was destined to +succumb in the end to the papacy, but with a sovereign of Frederick's +energy and ability at its head it was able at least to make a stubborn +fight and to meet defeat with honor. The new reign was inaugurated by +a definite announcement of the Emperor's intention to consolidate and +strengthen the imperial government throughout all Germany and Italy. +The task in Germany was far from simple; in Italy it was the most formidable +that could have been conceived, and this for the reason that the +Italian population was largely gathered in cities with strong political +and military organization, with all the traditions of practical independence, +and with no thought of submitting to the government of an emperor +or any other claimant to more than merely nominal sovereignty.</p> + +<p>Trouble began almost at once between Frederick and the free commune +of Milan, though war was averted for a time by the oaths taken to the +Emperor on the occasion of his first expedition across the Alps in 1154. +Between that date and 1158 the consuls of the city were detected in +treacherous conduct and, the people refusing to disavow them, in the +latter year the Emperor again crossed the Alps, bent on nothing less +than the annihilation of the commune and the dispersion of its inhabitants. +He carried with him a larger army than a head of the Holy +Roman Empire had ever led into Italy. The Milanese submitted, under +conditions extremely humiliating, and Frederick, after being assured +by the doctors of law at the new university of Bologna that he was acting +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">399</a></span> +quite within the letter of the Roman law, proceeded to lay claim to the +<i>regalia</i> (royal rights, such as tolls from roads and rivers, products of +mines, and the estates of criminals), to the right to levy an extraordinary +war tax, and to that of appointing the chief civic magistrates. Disaffection +broke out at once in many of the communes, but chiefly at +Milan; whereupon Frederick came promptly to the conclusion that the +time had arrived to rid himself of this irreconcilable opponent of his +measures. The city was besieged and, after its inhabitants had been +starved into surrender, almost completely destroyed (1162).</p> + +<p>Only temporarily did the barbarous act have its intended effect; the +net result was a widespread revival of the communal spirit, which expressed +itself in the formation of a sturdy confederacy known as the +Lombard League. One of the League's first acts was to rebuild Milan, +under whose leadership the struggle with the Emperor was actively +renewed. In 1168 a new city was founded at the foot of the Alps near +Pavia to serve as a base of operations in the campaign which the League +proposed to wage against the common enemy. It was given the name +Alessandria (or Alexandria) in honor of Pope Alexander III., who was +friendly to the cause of the cities. In 1174 Frederick began an open +attack on the League, but in 1176, at Legnano, he suffered an overwhelming +defeat, due largely to his failure to receive reinforcements +from Germany. The adjustment of peace was intrusted to an assembly +at Venice in which all parties were represented. The result was the +treaty of Venice (1177), the advantages of which were wholly against the +Empire. A truce of six years was granted the cities, with the understanding +that all details were to be arranged within, or at the expiration +of, that time.</p> + +<p>When the close of the period arrived, in 1183, Frederick no longer +dreamed of subduing and punishing the rebellious Italians, but instead +was quite ready to agree to a permanent peace. The result was +the Peace of Constance, which has been described as the earliest international +agreement of the kind in modern history. By this instrument +the theoretical overlordship of the Emperor in Italy was reasserted, +though in fact it had never been denied. Beyond this, however, the +communes were recognized as essentially independent. Those who had +enjoyed the right to choose their own magistrates retained it; their +financial obligations to the Emperor were clearly defined; and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">400</a></span> +League was conceded to be a legitimate and permanent organization. +By yielding on numerous vital points the Empire had vindicated its +right to exist, but its administrative machinery, so far as Italy was +concerned, was still further impaired. This machinery, it must be +said, had never been conspicuously effective south of the Alps. As +for Frederick, he set out in 1189 upon the Third Crusade, during the +course of which he met his death in Asia Minor without being permitted +to see the Holy Land.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica</i>, Legum Sectio IV. (Weiland +ed.), Vol. I., pp. 411-418. Adapted from translation in Oliver J. +Thatcher and Edgar H. McNeal, <i>Source Book for Mediæval History</i> +(New York, 1905,) pp. 199-202.</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> We, Frederick, emperor of the Romans, and our son Henry, +king of the Romans,<a name="FNanchor_547" id="FNanchor_547" href="#Footnote_547" class="fnanchor">[547]</a> hereby grant to you, the cities, territories, +<span class="sidebar">Concessions to +the cities of +the League</span> +and persons of the League, the <i>regalia</i> and other +rights within and without the cities, as you have +been accustomed to hold them; that is, each member +of the League shall have the same rights as the city of Verona +has had in the past, or has now.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> The members of the League shall exercise freely and without +interference from us all the rights which they have exercised of old.</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> These are the rights which are guaranteed to you: the +<i>fodrum</i>,<a name="FNanchor_548" id="FNanchor_548" href="#Footnote_548" class="fnanchor">[548]</a> forests, pastures, bridges, streams, mills, fortifications +of the cities, criminal and civil jurisdiction, and all other rights +which concern the welfare of the city.</p> + +<p><b>4.</b> The <i>regalia</i> which are not to be granted to the members +of the League shall be determined in the following manner: in +<span class="sidebar">How the regalia +remaining +to the Emperor +were to +be determined</span> +the case of each city, certain men shall be chosen +for this purpose from both the bishopric and the +city; these men shall be of good repute, capable +of deciding these questions, and such as are not +prejudiced against either party. Acting with the bishop of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">401</a></span> +diocese, they shall swear to inquire into the questions of the +<i>regalia</i> and to set aside those that by right belong to us. If, +however, the cities do not wish to submit to this inquisition, +they shall pay to us an annual tribute of 2,000 marks in silver as +compensation for our <i>regalia</i>. If this sum seems excessive, it +may be reduced.</p> + +<p><b>5.</b> If anyone appeals to us in regard to matters which are +by this treaty admitted to be under your jurisdiction, we agree +not to hear such an appeal.</p> + +<p><b>8.</b> All privileges, gifts, and concessions made in the time of the +war by us or our representatives to the prejudice or injury of the +cities, territories, or members of the League are to be null and void.</p> + +<p><b>9.</b> Consuls<a name="FNanchor_549" id="FNanchor_549" href="#Footnote_549" class="fnanchor">[549]</a> of cities where the bishop holds the position of +count from the king or emperor shall receive their office from +the bishop, if this has been the custom before. In all other cities +<span class="sidebar">The +consuls</span> +the consuls shall receive their office from us, in +the following manner: after they have been +elected by the city they shall be invested with office by our +representative in the city or bishopric, unless we are ourselves +in Lombardy, in which case they shall be invested by us. At the +end of every five years each city shall send its representative to +us to receive the investiture.</p> + +<p><b>10.</b> This arrangement shall be observed by our successor, and +all such investitures shall be free.</p> + +<p><b>11.</b> After our death, the cities shall receive investiture in the +same way from our son and from his successors.</p> + +<p><b>12.</b> The Emperor shall have the right of hearing appeals in +cases involving more than 25 pounds, saving the right of the +<span class="sidebar">Appeals to +the Emperor</span> +church of Brescia to hear appeals. The appellant +shall not, however, be compelled to come to +Germany, but he shall appeal to the representative of the Emperor +in the city or bishopric. This representative shall examine +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">402</a></span> +the case fairly and shall give judgment according to the laws and +customs of that city. The decision shall be given within two +months from the time of appeal, unless the case shall have been +deferred by reason of some legal hindrance or by the consent of +both parties.</p> + +<p><b>13.</b> The consuls of cities shall take the oath of allegiance to +the Emperor before they are invested with office.</p> + +<p><b>14.</b> Our vassals shall receive investiture from us and shall +take the vassal's oath of fidelity. All other persons between the +<span class="sidebar">The oath +of fidelity</span> +ages of 15 and 70 shall take the ordinary oath of +fidelity to the Emperor unless there be some good +reason why this oath should be omitted.</p> + +<p><b>17.</b> All injuries, losses, and damages which we or our followers +have sustained from the League, or any of its members or allies, +are hereby pardoned, and all such transgressors are hereby received +back into our favor.</p> + +<p><b>18.</b> We will not remain longer than is necessary in any city +or bishopric.</p> + +<p><b>19.</b> It shall be permitted to the cities to erect fortifications +within or without their boundaries.</p> + +<p><b>20.</b> It shall be permitted to the League to +<span class="sidebar">Recognition of +the League's +right to exist</span> +maintain its organization as it now is, or to renew +it as often as it desires.</p> + +<h4>71. Current Rumors Concerning the Life and Character of Frederick II.</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>Frederick II. (1194-1250), king of Naples and Sicily and emperor of +the Holy Roman Empire, was a son of Emperor Henry VI. and a grandson +of Frederick Barbarossa. When his father died (1197) it was intended +that the young child's uncle, Philip of Hohenstaufen, should +occupy the imperial throne temporarily as regent. Philip, however, +proceeded to assume the position as if in his own right and became engaged +in a deadly conflict with a rival claimant, Otto IV., during which +the Pope, Innocent III., fanned the flames of civil war and made the situation +contribute chiefly to the aggrandizement of papal authority in temporal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">403</a></span> +affairs. In 1208 Philip was assassinated and in the following year +Otto received the imperial crown at Rome. Almost immediately, however, +disagreement broke out between the Pope and the new Emperor, +chiefly because of the latter's ambition to become king of Sicily. Repenting +that he had befriended Otto, Innocent promptly excommunicated +him and set on foot a movement—in which he enlisted the services +of Philip Augustus of France—to supplant the obnoxious Emperor by +Frederick of Sicily (the later Frederick II.). Otto was a nephew of +Richard I. and John of England and the latter was easily persuaded to +enter into an alliance with him against the papal-French-Sicilian combination. +The result was the battle of Bouvines [see <a href="#Page_297">p. 297</a>], in 1214, +in which John and Otto were hopelessly defeated. Meanwhile, in 1212, +Frederick had received a secret embassy from Otto's discontented subjects +in Germany, offering him the imperial crown if he would come and +claim it. In response he had gathered an army and, with the approval +of Innocent and of Philip Augustus, had crossed the Alps for the purpose +of winning over the German people from Otto to himself. The +battle of Bouvines (in which Frederick was not engaged, but from which +he profited immensely) was the death-blow to Otto's cause and Frederick +was soon recognized universally as head of the Empire.</p> + +<p>The reign of Frederick II. (1212-1250) was a period of large importance +in European history. The Emperor's efforts and achievements—his +crusade, his great quarrel with Gregory IX. and Innocent IV., his legislation, +his struggles with the Lombard League—were full of interest and +significance, but, after all, not more so than the purely personal aspects +of his career. Mr. Bryce has a passage which states admirably the position +of Frederick with reference to his age and its problems. A portion +of it is as follows: "Out of the long array of the Germanic successors of +Charles [Charlemagne], he is, with Otto III.,<a name="FNanchor_550" id="FNanchor_550" href="#Footnote_550" class="fnanchor">[550]</a> the only one who comes +before us with a genius and a frame of character that are not those of a +Northern or a Teuton. There dwelt in him, it is true, all the energy +and knightly valor of his father Henry and his grandfather Frederick I. +But along with these, and changing their direction, were other gifts, +inherited perhaps from his half Norman, half Italian mother and fostered +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">404</a></span> +by his education in Sicily, where Mussulman and Byzantine influences +were still potent, a love of luxury and beauty, an intellect refined, +subtle, philosophical. Through the mist of calumny and legend +it is but dimly that the truth of the man can be discerned, and the outlines +that appear serve to quicken rather than appease the curiosity +with which we regard one of the most extraordinary personages in history. +A sensualist, yet also a warrior and a politician; a profound law-giver +and an impassioned poet; in his youth fired by crusading fervor, +in later life persecuting heretics while himself accused of blasphemy and +unbelief; of winning manners and ardently beloved by his followers, but +with the stain of more than one cruel deed upon his name, he was the +marvel of his own generation, and succeeding ages looked back with +awe, not unmingled with pity, upon the inscrutable figure of the last +emperor who had braved all the terrors of the Church and died beneath +her ban, the last who had ruled from the sands of the ocean to the shores +of the Ionian Sea. But while they pitied they condemned. The undying +hatred of the papacy threw round his memory a lurid light; him +and him alone of all the imperial line, Dante, the worshipper of the +empire, must perforce deliver to the flames of hell."<a name="FNanchor_551" id="FNanchor_551" href="#Footnote_551" class="fnanchor">[551]</a></p> + +<p>The following selections from the <i>Greater Chronicle</i> of Matthew +Paris comprise some of the stories which were current in Frederick's +day regarding his manners, ideas, and deeds. Frederick was far ahead +of his age and it was inevitable that the qualities in him which men could +not understand or appreciate should become the grounds for dark +rumors and unsavory suspicions. Matthew Paris was an English monk +of St. Albans. It is thought that he was called <i>Parisiensis</i>, "the +Parisian," because of having been born or educated in the capital of +France. He seems to have confined his attention wholly to the study of +history, and mainly to the history of his own country. His <i>Chronicle</i> +takes up the story of English and continental affairs in detail with the +year 1235 (where Roger of Wendover had stopped in his <i>Flowers of +History</i>) and continues to the year 1259. His book has been described as +"probably the most generally useful historical production of the thirteenth +century."<a name="FNanchor_552" id="FNanchor_552" href="#Footnote_552" class="fnanchor">[552]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">405</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Matthæus Parisiensis, <i>Chronica Majora</i> [Matthew Paris, "Greater +Chronicle"]. Adapted from translation by J. A. Giles (London, +1852), Vol. I., pp. 157-158, 166-167, 169-170; Vol. II., pp. 84-85, +103.</p> + +<p>In the course of the same year [1238] the fame of the Emperor +Frederick was clouded and marred by his jealous enemies and +rivals; for it was imputed to him that he was wavering in the +Catholic faith, or wandering from the right way, and had given +<span class="sidebar">Frederick +suspected +of heresy</span> +utterance to some speeches, from which it could +be inferred and suspected that he was not only +weak in the Catholic faith, but—what was a +much greater and more serious crime—that there was in him an +enormity of heresy, and the most dreadful blasphemy, to be detested +and execrated by all Christians. For it was reported that +the Emperor Frederick had said (although it may not be proper +to mention it) that three imposters had so craftily deceived their +contemporaries as to gain for themselves the mastery of the +world: these were Moses, Jesus, and Mahomet [Mohammed]; and +that he had impiously given expression to some wicked and incredible +ravings and blasphemies respecting the most holy +Eucharist. Far be it from any discreet man, much less a Christian, +to employ his tongue in such raving blasphemy. It was +also said by his rivals that the Emperor agreed with and believed in +the law of Mahomet more than that of Jesus Christ. A rumor +<span class="sidebar">Accusation +of friendly relations +with +the Saracens</span> +also crept amongst the people (which God forbid +to be true of such a great prince) that he had +been for a long time past in alliance with the +Saracens, and was more friendly to them than to the Christians; +and his rivals, who were endeavoring to blacken his fame, attempted +to establish this by many proofs. Whether they sinned +or not, He alone knows who is ignorant of nothing....</p> + +<p>In Lent, of the same year [1239], seeing the rash proceedings +of the Emperor, and that his words pleaded excuse for his +sins,—namely, that by the assistance of some of the nobles +and judges of Sardinia he had taken into his own possession, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">406</a></span> +and still held, the land and castles of the bishop of Sardinia, and +constantly declared that they were a portion of the Empire, and +<span class="sidebar">Frederick's +seizure of the +lands belonging +to a bishop</span> +that he by his first and chief oath would preserve +the rights of the Empire to the utmost of his +power, and would also collect the scattered portions +of it,—the Pope<a name="FNanchor_553" id="FNanchor_553" href="#Footnote_553" class="fnanchor">[553]</a> was excited to the most +violent anger against him. He set forth some very serious complaints +and claims against the Emperor and wrote often boldly and +carefully to him, advising him repeatedly by many special messengers, +whose authority ought to have obtained from him the +greatest attention, to restore the possessions he had seized, and to +desist from depriving the Church of her possessions, of which she +was endowed by long prescription. And, like a skilful physician, +who at one time makes use of medicines, at another of the knife, +and at another of the cauterizing instrument, he mixed threats +with entreaties, friendly messages with fearful denunciations. +As the Emperor, however, scornfully rejected his requests, and +<span class="sidebar">Refusing to restore +them, he +is excommunicated</span> +excused his actions by arguments founded on +reason, his holiness the Pope, on Palm Sunday, +in the presence of a great many of the cardinals, +in the spirit of glowing anger, solemnly excommunicated the +said Emperor Frederick, as though he would at once have hurled +him from his imperial dignity, consigning him with terrible +denunciations to the possession of Satan at his death; and, as it +were, thundering forth the fury of his anger, he excited terror in +all his hearers....<a name="FNanchor_554" id="FNanchor_554" href="#Footnote_554" class="fnanchor">[554]</a></p> + +<p>The Emperor, on hearing of this, was inflamed with violent +anger, and with oft-repeated reproaches accused the Church and +its rulers of ingratitude to him, and of returning evil for good. +He recalled to their recollection how he had exposed himself and +his property to the billows and to a thousand kinds of danger +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">407</a></span> +for the advancement of the Church's welfare and the increase of +the Catholic faith, and affirmed that whatever honors the Church +possessed in the Holy Land had been acquired by his toil and +<span class="sidebar">Frederick accuses +the Pope +of ingratitude +and jealousy</span> +industry. "But," said he, "the Pope, jealous at +such a happy increase being acquired for the +Church by a layman, and who desires gold and +silver rather than an increase of the faith (as witness his proceedings), +and who extorts money from all Christendom in the name +of tithes, has, by all the means in his power, done his best to +supplant me, and has endeavored to disinherit me while fighting +for God, exposing my body to the weapons of war, to sickness, +and to the snares of his enemies, after encountering the dangers +of the unsparing billows. See what sort of protection is this of +our father's! What kind of assistance in difficulties is this +afforded by the vicar of Jesus Christ"!...<a name="FNanchor_555" id="FNanchor_555" href="#Footnote_555" class="fnanchor">[555]</a></p> + +<p>"Besides, he is united by a detestable alliance with the Saracens,—has +ofttimes sent messages and presents to them, and +in turn received the same from them with respect and alacrity...; +and what is a more execrable offense, he, when formerly +in the country beyond sea, made a kind of arrangement, or rather +collusion, with the sultan, and allowed the name of Mahomet +to be publicly proclaimed in the temple of the Lord day and +<span class="sidebar">Further accusation +of an +alliance with +the Saracens</span> +night; and lately, in the case of the sultan of Babylon +[Cairo], who, by his own hands, and through his +agents, had done irreparable mischief and injury +to the Holy Land and its Christian inhabitants, he caused that +sultan's ambassadors, in compliment to their master, as is reported, +to be honorably received and nobly entertained in his +kingdom of Sicily. He also, in opposition to the Christians, +abuses the pernicious and horrid rites of other infidels, and, entering +into an alliance of friendship with those who wickedly +pay little respect to and despise the Apostolic See, and have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">408</a></span> +seceded from the unity of the Church, he, laying aside all respect +for the Christian religion, caused, as is positively asserted, the +duke of Bavaria, of illustrious memory, a special and devoted +ally of the Roman Church, to be murdered by the assassins. He +has also given his daughter in marriage to Battacius, an enemy +of God and the Church, who, together with his aiders, counsellors, +and abettors, was solemnly expelled from the communion +of the Christians by sentence of excommunication. Rejecting +the proceedings and customs of Catholic princes, neglecting +his own salvation and the purity of his fame, he does not employ +<span class="sidebar">His neglect of +pious and charitable +works</span> +himself in works of piety; and what is more (to +be silent on his wicked and dissolute practices), +although he has learned to practice oppression to +such a degree, he does not trouble himself to relieve those oppressed +by injuries, by extending his hand, as a Christian prince +ought, to bestow alms, although he has been eagerly aiming at +the destruction of the churches, and has crushed religious men +and other ecclesiastical persons with the burden and persecution +of his yoke. And it is not known that he ever built or founded +either churches, monasteries, hospitals, or other pious places. +Now these are not light, but convincing, grounds for suspicions +of heresy being entertained against him."...</p> + +<p>When the Emperor Frederick was made fully aware of all +these proceedings [i.e., his excommunication at Lyons] he could +not contain himself, but burst into a violent rage and, darting a +scowling look on those who sat around him, he thundered forth: +"The Pope in his synod has disgraced me by depriving me of +my crown. Whence arises such great audacity? Whence proceeds +such rash presumption? Where are my chests which +<span class="sidebar">Frederick's +wrath at his +excommunication</span> +contain my treasures?" And on their being +brought and unlocked before him, by his order, +he said, "See if my crowns are lost now;" then +finding one, he placed it on his head and, being thus crowned, +he stood up, and, with threatening eyes and a dreadful voice, unrestrainable +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">409</a></span> +from passion, he said aloud, "I have not yet lost my +crown, nor will I be deprived of it by any attacks of the Pope +or the council, without a bloody struggle. Does his vulgar pride +raise him to such heights as to enable him to hurl from the +imperial dignity me, the chief prince of the world, than whom +none is greater—yea, who am without an equal? In this matter +my condition is made better: in some things I <i>was</i> bound to +obey, at least to respect, him; but now I am released from all +ties of affection and veneration, and also from the obligation of +any kind of peace with him." From that time forth, therefore, +he, in order to injure the Pope more effectually and perseveringly, +did all kinds of harm to his Holiness, in his money, as well as in +his friends and relatives.</p> + +<h4>72. The Golden Bull of Charles IV. (1356)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The century following the death of Frederick II. (1250) was a period +of unrest and turbulence in German history, the net result of which +politically was the almost complete triumph of the princes, lay and clerical, +over the imperial power. By 1350 the local magnates had come to +be virtually sovereign throughout their own territories. They enjoyed +the right of legislation and the privileges of coining money and levying +taxes, and in many cases they had scarcely so much as a feudal bond to +remind them of their theoretical allegiance to the Empire. The one principle +of action upon which they could agree was that the central monarchy +should be kept permanently in the state of helplessness to which +it had been reduced. The power of choosing a successor when a vacancy +arose in the imperial office had fallen gradually into the hands of seven +men, who were known as the "electors" and who were recognized in the +fourteenth century as possessing collective importance far greater than +that of the emperor. Three of these seven—the archbishops of Mainz, +Trier, and Cologne—were great ecclesiastics; the other four—the king +of Bohemia, the margrave of Brandenburg, the duke of Saxony, and the +count palatine of the Rhine—were equally influential laymen. This +electoral college first came into prominence at the election of Rudolph I. +(of the House of Hapsburg) at the end of the Interregnum in 1273. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">410</a></span> +From that time until the termination of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 +these seven men (eight after 1648 and nine after 1692) played a part in +German history not inferior to that of the emperors. They imposed +upon their candidates such conditions as they chose, and when the bearer +of the imperial title grew restive and difficult to control they did not +hesitate to make war upon him, or even in extreme cases to depose him. +It has been well said that never in all history have worse scandals been +connected with any sort of elections than were associated repeatedly +with the actions of these German electors.</p> + +<p>The central document in German constitutional history in the Middle +Ages is the Golden Bull of Emperor Charles IV. (1347-1378), promulgated +in 1356. For a century prior to the reign of Charles the question of the +imperial succession had been one of extreme perplexity. The electoral +college had grown up to assume the responsibility, but this body rested +on no solid legal basis and its acts were usually regarded as null by all +whom they displeased, with the result that a civil war succeeded pretty +nearly every election. Charles was shrewd enough to see that the existing +system could not be set aside; the electors were entirely too powerful +to permit of that. But he also saw that it might at least be improved +by giving it the quality of legality which it had hitherto lacked. +The result of his efforts in this direction was the Golden Bull, issued and +confirmed at the diets of Nürnberg (Nuremberg) and Metz in 1356. +The document, thenceforth regarded as the fundamental law of the +Empire, dealt with a wide variety of subjects. It confirmed the electorship +in the person of the king of Bohemia which had long been disputed +by a rival branch of the family;<a name="FNanchor_556" id="FNanchor_556" href="#Footnote_556" class="fnanchor">[556]</a> it made elaborate provision for the election +of the emperor by the seven magnates; it defined the social and +political prerogatives of these men and prescribed the relations which +they should bear to their subjects, to other princes, and to the emperor; +and it made numerous regulations regarding conspiracies, coinage, immunities, +the forfeiture of fiefs, the succession of electoral princes, etc. +In a word, as Mr. Bryce has put it, the document "confessed and legalized +the independence of the Electors and the powerlessness of the +crown."<a name="FNanchor_557" id="FNanchor_557" href="#Footnote_557" class="fnanchor">[557]</a> Only a few selections from it can be given here, particularly +those bearing on the methods of electing the emperor.</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">411</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in Wilhelm Altmann und Ernst Bernheim, <i>Ausgewählte +Urkunden zur Erläuterung der Verfassungsgeschichte Deutschlands +im Mittelalter</i> ["Select Documents Illustrative of the Constitutional +History of Germany in the Middle Ages"], 3rd ed., Berlin, +1904, pp. 54-83. Adapted from translation in Oliver J. Thatcher +and Edgar H. McNeal, <i>Source Book for Mediæval History</i> (New +York, 1905), pp. 284-295 <i>passim</i>.</p> + +<p>I. <b>1.</b> We decree and determine by this imperial edict that, +whenever the electoral princes are summoned according to the +ancient and praiseworthy custom to meet and elect a king of +the Romans and future emperor, each one of them shall be bound +<span class="sidebar">Guarantee +of safety of +travel for the +electors</span> +to furnish on demand an escort and safe-conduct +to his fellow electors or their representatives, +within his own lands and as much farther as he +can, for the journey to and from the city where the election is +to be held. Any electoral prince who refuses to furnish escort +and safe-conduct shall be liable to the penalties for perjury and +to the loss of his electoral vote for that occasion.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> We decree and command also that all other princes who +hold fiefs from the Empire, by whatever title, and all counts, +barons, knights, clients, nobles, commoners, citizens, and all +corporations of towns, cities, and territories of the Empire, shall +furnish escort and safe-conduct for this occasion to every electoral +prince or his representatives, on demand, within their own +lands and as much farther as they can. Violators of this decree +shall be punished as follows: princes, counts, barons, knights, +<span class="sidebar">Penalties for +violation of the +safe-conduct of +the electors</span> +clients, and all others of noble rank, shall suffer +the penalties of perjury, and shall lose the fiefs +which they hold of the emperor or any other lord, +and all their possessions; citizens and corporations shall also +suffer the penalty for perjury, shall be deprived of all the rights, +liberties, privileges, and graces which they have received from +the Empire, and shall incur the ban of the Empire against their +persons and property. Those whom we deprive of their rights +for this offense may be attacked by any man without appealing +to a magistrate, and without danger of reprisal; for they are rebels +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">412</a></span> +against the state and the Empire, and have attacked the honor +and security of the prince, and are convicted of faithlessness and +perfidy.</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> We also command that the citizens and corporations of +cities shall furnish supplies to the electoral princes and their +<span class="sidebar">Supplies for +the use of the +electors</span> +representatives on demand at the regular price and +without fraud, whenever they arrive at, or depart +from, the city on their way to or from the election. +Those who violate this decree shall suffer the penalties +described in the preceding paragraph for citizens and corporations. +If any prince, count, baron, knight, client, noble, commoner, +citizen, or city shall attack or molest in person or goods +any of the electoral princes or their representatives, on their way +to or from an election, whether they have safe-conduct or not, +he and his accomplices shall incur the penalties above described, +according to his position and rank.</p> + +<p><b>16.</b> When the news of the death of the king of the Romans +has been received at Mainz, within one month from the date of +<span class="sidebar">The electors +to be summoned +by the +archbishop +of Mainz</span> +receiving it the archbishop of Mainz shall send +notices of the death and the approaching election +to all the electoral princes. But if the archbishop +neglects or refuses to send such notices, +the electoral princes are commanded on their fidelity to assemble +on their own motion and without summons at the city +of Frankfort,<a name="FNanchor_558" id="FNanchor_558" href="#Footnote_558" class="fnanchor">[558]</a> within three months from the death of the emperor, +for the purpose of electing a king of the Romans and +future emperor.</p> + +<p><b>17.</b> Each electoral prince or his representatives may bring +with him to Frankfort at the time of the election a retinue of +200 horsemen, of whom not more than 50 shall be armed. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">413</a></span></p> + +<p><b>18.</b> If any electoral prince, duly summoned to the election, +fails to come, or to send representatives with credentials containing +<span class="sidebar">How a vote +might be forfeited</span> +full authority, or if he (or his representatives) +withdraws from the place of the election +before the election has been completed, without +leaving behind substitutes fully accredited and empowered, he +shall lose his vote in that election.</p> + +<p>II. <b>2.</b><a name="FNanchor_559" id="FNanchor_559" href="#Footnote_559" class="fnanchor">[559]</a> "I, archbishop of Mainz, archchancellor of the Empire +for Germany,<a name="FNanchor_560" id="FNanchor_560" href="#Footnote_560" class="fnanchor">[560]</a> electoral prince, swear on the holy gospels here +before me, and by the faith which I owe to God and to the Holy +<span class="sidebar">The oath taken +by the electors</span> +Roman Empire, that with the aid of God, and +according to my best judgment and knowledge, +I will cast my vote, in this election of the king of the Romans +and future emperor, for a person fitted to rule the Christian +people. I will give my voice and vote freely, uninfluenced by +any agreement, price, bribe, promise, or anything of the sort, +by whatever name it may be called. So help me God and all +the saints."</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> After the electors have taken this oath, they shall proceed +to the election, and shall not depart from Frankfort until the +<span class="sidebar">Provision +to ensure +an election</span> +majority have elected a king of the Romans and +future emperor, to be ruler of the world and of +the Christian people. If they have not come to a +decision within thirty days from the day on which they took +the above oath, after that they shall live upon bread and water +and shall not leave the city until the election has been decided.</p> + +<p>III. <b>1.</b> To prevent any dispute arising between the archbishops +of Trier, Mainz, and Cologne, electoral princes of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">414</a></span> +Empire, as to their priority and rank in the diet,<a name="FNanchor_561" id="FNanchor_561" href="#Footnote_561" class="fnanchor">[561]</a> it has been decided +and is hereby decreed, with the advice and consent of all +the electoral princes, ecclesiastical and secular, that the archbishop +of Trier shall have the seat directly opposite and facing the +<span class="sidebar">Order of precedence +of the +three archbishops</span> +emperor; that the archbishop of Mainz shall have +the seat at the right of the emperor when the diet +is held in the diocese or province of Mainz, or +anywhere in Germany except in the diocese of Cologne; that the +archbishop of Cologne shall have the seat at the right of the +emperor when the diet is held in the diocese or province of +Cologne, or anywhere in Gaul or Italy. This applies to all public +ceremonies—court sessions, conferring of fiefs, banquets, councils, +and all occasions on which the princes meet with the emperor +for the transaction of imperial business. This order of +seating shall be observed by the successors of the present archbishops +of Cologne, Trier, and Mainz, and shall never be questioned.</p> + +<p>IV. <b>1.</b> In the imperial diet, at the council-board, table, and +all other places where the emperor or king of the Romans meets +with the electoral princes, the seats shall be arranged as follows: +<span class="sidebar">Seating +arrangement +at table</span> +On the right of the emperor, first, the archbishop +of Mainz, or of Cologne, according to the province +in which the meeting is held, as arranged above; +second, the king of Bohemia, because he is a crowned and +anointed prince; third, the count palatine of the Rhine; on the +left of the emperor, first, the archbishop of Cologne, or of Mainz; +second, the duke of Saxony; third, the margrave of Brandenburg.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> When the imperial throne becomes vacant, the archbishop +of Mainz shall have the authority, which he has had from of old, +to call the other electors together for the election. It shall be +his peculiar right also, when the electors have convened for the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">415</a></span> +election, to collect the votes, asking each of the electors separately +in the following order: first, the archbishop of Trier, who +shall have the right to the first vote, as he has had from of old; +<span class="sidebar">The order +of voting</span> +then the archbishop of Cologne, who has the office +of first placing the crown upon the head of the +king of the Romans; then the king of Bohemia, who has the priority +among the secular princes because of his royal title; fourth, +the count palatine of the Rhine; fifth, the duke of Saxony; +sixth, the margrave of Brandenburg. Then the princes shall ask +the archbishop of Mainz in turn to declare his choice and vote. +At the diet, the margrave of Brandenburg shall offer water to +the emperor or king, to wash his hands; the king of Bohemia +shall have the right to offer him the cup first, although, by reason +of his royal dignity, he shall not be bound to do this unless +he desires; the count palatine of the Rhine shall offer him food; +and the duke of Saxony shall act as his marshal in the accustomed +manner.</p> + +<p>XI. <b>1.</b> We decree also that no count, baron, noble, vassal, +burggrave,<a name="FNanchor_562" id="FNanchor_562" href="#Footnote_562" class="fnanchor">[562]</a> knight, client, citizen, burgher, or other subject of +the churches of Cologne, Mainz, or Trier, of whatever status, +condition, or rank, shall be cited, haled, or summoned to any +authority before any tribunal outside of the territories, boundaries, +and limits of these churches and their dependencies, or +before any judge, except the archbishop and their judges.... +We refuse to hear appeals based upon the authority of others +<span class="sidebar">Judicial +privileges of +the electors +confirmed and +enlarged</span> +over the subjects of these princes; if these princes +are accused by their subjects of injustice, appeal +shall lie to the imperial diet, and shall be +heard there and nowhere else.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> We extend this right by the present law to the secular +electoral princes, the count palatine of the Rhine; the duke of +Saxony, and the margrave of Brandenburg, and to their heirs, +successors, and subjects forever. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">416</a></span></p> + +<p>XII. <b>1.</b> It has been decided in the general diet held at Nürnberg<a name="FNanchor_563" id="FNanchor_563" href="#Footnote_563" class="fnanchor">[563]</a> +with the electoral princes, ecclesiastical and secular, and +other princes and magnates, by their advice and with their consent, +that in the future, the electoral princes shall meet every +<span class="sidebar">The electors to +meet annually</span> +year in some city of the Empire four weeks after +Easter. This year they are to meet at that date +in the imperial city of Metz.<a name="FNanchor_564" id="FNanchor_564" href="#Footnote_564" class="fnanchor">[564]</a> On that occasion, and on every +meeting thereafter, the place of assembling for the following +year shall be fixed by us, with the advice and consent of the +princes. This ordinance shall remain in force as long as it shall +be pleasing to us and to the princes; and as long as it is in effect, +we shall furnish the princes with safe-conduct for that assembly, +going, staying, and returning.</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">417</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXV.<br /> +THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR</h3> + +<p>Our chief contemporary source of information on the history of the +Hundred Years' War is Jean Froissart's <i>Chronicles of England, France, +and the Adjoining Countries, from the Latter Part of the Reign of Edward II. +to the Coronation of Henry IV.</i>,<a name="FNanchor_565" id="FNanchor_565" href="#Footnote_565" class="fnanchor">[565]</a> and it is from this important work that +all of the extracts (except texts of treaties) which are included in this +chapter have been selected. Froissart was a French poet and historian, +born at Beaumont, near Valenciennes in Hainault, in 1337, when the +Hundred Years' War was just beginning. He lived until the early part +of the fifteenth century, 1410 being one of the conjectural dates of his +death. He was a man of keen mental faculties and had enjoyed the advantages +of an unusually thorough education during boyhood. This +native ability and training, together with his active public life and admirable +opportunities for observation, constituted his special qualification +for the writing of a history of his times. Froissart represents a type of +mediæval chronicler which was quite rare, in that he was not a monk +living in seclusion but a practical man of affairs, accustomed to travel +and intercourse with leading men in all the important countries of western +Europe. He lived for five years at the English court as clerk of the +Queen's Chamber; many times he was sent by the French king on diplomatic +missions to Scotland, Italy, and other countries; and he made +several private trips to various parts of Europe for the sole purpose of +acquiring information. Always and everywhere he was observant and +quick to take advantage of opportunities to ascertain facts which he +could use, and we are told that after it came to be generally known that he +was preparing to write an extended history of his times not a few kings +and princes took pains to send him details regarding events which they +desired to have recorded. The writing of the <i>Chronicles</i> was a life work. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">418</a></span> +When only twenty years of age Froissart submitted to Isabella, wife of +King Edward III. of England, an account of the battle of Poitiers, in +which the queen's son, the famous Black Prince, had won distinction in +the previous year. Thereafter the larger history was published book by +book, until by 1373 it was complete to date. Subsequently it was extended +to the year 1400 (it had begun with the events of 1326), while +the earlier portions were rewritten and considerably revised. And, in +deed, when death came to the author he was still working at his arduous +but congenial task. "As long as I live," he wrote upon one occasion, +"by the grace of God I shall continue it; for the more I follow it and +labor thereon, the more it pleases me. Even as a gentle knight or esquire +who loves arms, while persevering and continuing develops himself +therein, thus do I, laboring and striving with this matter, improve +and delight myself."</p> + +<p>The <i>Chronicles</i> as they have come down to us are written in a lively +and pleasing style. It need hardly be said that they are not wholly +accurate; indeed, on the whole, they are quite inaccurate, measured even +by mediæval standards. Froissart was obliged to rely for a large portion +of his information upon older chronicles and especially upon conversations +and interviews with people in various parts of Europe. Such +sources are never wholly trustworthy and it must be admitted that our +author was not as careful to sift error from truth as he should have +been. His credulity betrayed him often into accepting what a little +investigation would have shown to be false, and only very rarely did he +make any attempt, as a modern historian would do, to increase and +verify his knowledge by a study of documents. Still, the <i>Chronicles</i> +constitute an invaluable history of the period they cover. The facts +they record, the events they explain, the vivid descriptions they contain, +and the side-lights they throw upon the life and manners of an +interesting age unite to give them a place of peculiar importance among +works of their kind. And, wholly aside from their historical value, they +constitute one of the monuments of mediæval French literature.</p> + +<h4>73. An Occasion of War between the Kings of England and France</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The causes, general and specific, of the Hundred Years' War were +numerous. The most important were: (1) The long-standing bad feeling +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">419</a></span> +between the French and English regarding the possession of Normandy +and Guienne. England had lost the former to France and she had never +ceased to hope for its recovery; on the other hand, the French were +resolved upon the eventual conquest of the remaining English continental +possession of Guienne and were constantly asserting themselves +there in a fashion highly irritating to the English; (2) the assistance and +general encouragement given the rebellious Scots by the French; (3) +the pressure brought to bear upon the English crown by the popular +party in Flanders to claim the French throne and to resort to war to +obtain it. The Flemish wool trade was a very important item in England's +economic prosperity and it was felt to be essential at all hazards +to prevent the extension of French influence in Flanders, which would +inevitably mean the checking, if not the ruin, of the commercial relations +of the Flemish and the English; and (4) the claim to the throne of France +which Edward III., king of England, set up and prepared to defend. It +is this last occasion of war that Froissart describes in the passage below.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in Siméon Luce (ed.), <i>Chroniques de Jean Froissart</i> [published +for the Société de l'Histoire de France], Paris, 1869, Chap. I. +Translated in Thomas Johnes, <i>Froissart's Chronicles</i> (London, +1803), Vol. I., pp. 6-7.</p> + +<p>History tells us that Philip, king of France, surnamed the +Fair,<a name="FNanchor_566" id="FNanchor_566" href="#Footnote_566" class="fnanchor">[566]</a> had three sons, besides his beautiful daughter Isabella, +married to the king of England.<a name="FNanchor_567" id="FNanchor_567" href="#Footnote_567" class="fnanchor">[567]</a> These three sons were very +handsome. The eldest, Louis, king of Navarre, during the lifetime +of his father, was called Louis Hutin; the second was named +Philip the Great, or the Long; and the third, Charles. All these +were kings of France, after their father Philip, by legitimate +succession, one after the other, without having by marriage any +male heirs.<a name="FNanchor_568" id="FNanchor_568" href="#Footnote_568" class="fnanchor">[568]</a> Yet on the death of the last king, Charles, the +twelve peers and barons of France<a name="FNanchor_569" id="FNanchor_569" href="#Footnote_569" class="fnanchor">[569]</a> did not give the kingdom +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">420</a></span> +to Isabella, the sister, who was queen of England, because they +said and maintained, and still insist, that the kingdom of +<span class="sidebar">The succession +to the French +throne in 1328</span> +France is so noble that it ought not to go to a +woman; consequently neither to Isabella nor to +her son, the king of England; for they held that +the son of a woman cannot claim any right of succession where +that woman has none herself.<a name="FNanchor_570" id="FNanchor_570" href="#Footnote_570" class="fnanchor">[570]</a> For these reasons the twelve +peers and barons of France unanimously gave the kingdom of +France to the lord Philip of Valois, nephew of King Philip,<a name="FNanchor_571" id="FNanchor_571" href="#Footnote_571" class="fnanchor">[571]</a> and +thus put aside the queen of England (who was sister to Charles, +the late king of France) and her son. Thus, as it seemed to +many people, the succession went out of the right line, which has +been the occasion of the most destructive wars and devastations +of countries, as well in France as elsewhere, as you will learn +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">421</a></span> +hereafter; the real object of this history being to relate the great +enterprises and deeds of arms achieved in these wars, for from +the time of good Charlemagne, king of France, never were such +feats performed.</p> + +<h4>74. Edward III. Assumes the Arms and Title of the King of France</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>Due to causes which have been mentioned, the relations of England +and France at the accession of Philip VI. in 1328 were so strained that +only a slight fanning of the flames was necessary to bring on an open +conflict. Edward III.'s persistent demand to be recognized as king of +France sufficed to accomplish this result. The war did not come at once, +for neither king felt himself ready for it; but it was inevitable and preparations +for it were steadily pushed on both sides from 1328 until its formal +declaration by Edward nine years later. These preparations were +not merely military and naval but also diplomatic. The primary object +of both sovereigns was to secure as many and as strong foreign alliances +as possible. In pursuit of this policy Philip soon assured himself of the +support of Louis de Nevers, count of Flanders, King John of Bohemia, +Alphonso XI. of Castile, and a number of lesser princes of the north. +Edward was even more successful. In Spain and the Scandinavian +countries many local powers allied themselves with him; in the Low +Countries, especially Flanders and Brabant, the people and the princes +chose generally to identify themselves with his cause; and the climax +came in July, 1337, when a treaty of alliance was concluded with the Emperor, +Louis of Bavaria. War was begun in this same year, and in 1338 +Edward went himself to the continent to undertake a direct attack on +France from Flanders as a base. The years 1338 and 1339 were consumed +with ineffective operations against the walled cities of the French +frontier, Philip steadily refusing to be drawn into an open battle such +as Edward desired. The following year the English king resolved to +declare himself sovereign of France. The circumstances attending this +important step are detailed in the passage from Froissart given below.</p> + +<p>Heretofore Edward had merely protested that by reason of his being a +grandson of Philip the Fair he should have been awarded the throne by +the French barons in 1328; now, at the instigation of his German and +Flemish allies, he flatly announces that he <i>is</i> of right the king and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">422</a></span> +that Philip VI. is to be deposed as an usurper. Of course this was a declaration +which Edward could make good only by victory in the war upon +which he had entered. But the claim thus set up rendered it inevitable +that the war should be waged to the bitter end on both sides.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—<i>Chroniques de Jean Froissart</i> (Société de l'Histoire de France +edition), Chap. XXXI. Translated in Thomas Johnes, <i>Froissart's +Chronicles</i>, Vol. I., pp. 110-112.</p> + +<p>When King Edward had departed from Flanders and arrived +at Brabant he set out straight for Brussels, whither he was attended +by the duke of Gueldres, the duke of Juliers, the marquis +of Blanckenburg, the earl of Mons, the lord John of Hainault, the +<span class="sidebar">The conference +at Brussels</span> +lord of Fauquemont, and all the barons of the +Empire who were allied to him, as they wished +to consider what was next to be done in this war which they had +begun. For greater expedition, they ordered a conference to be +held in the city of Brussels, and invited James van Arteveld<a name="FNanchor_572" id="FNanchor_572" href="#Footnote_572" class="fnanchor">[572]</a> to +attend it, who came thither in great array, and brought with +him all the councils from the principal towns of Flanders.</p> + +<p>At this parliament the king of England was advised by his +allies of the Empire to solicit the Flemings to give him their aid +and assistance in this war, to challenge the king of France, and +to follow King Edward wherever he should lead them, and in +return he would assist them in the recovery of Lisle, Douay, and +Bethune.<a name="FNanchor_573" id="FNanchor_573" href="#Footnote_573" class="fnanchor">[573]</a> The Flemings heard this proposal with pleasure; +but they requested of the king that they might consider it among +themselves and in a short time they would give their answer.</p> + +<p>The king consented and soon after they made this reply: +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">423</a></span> +"Beloved sire, you formerly made us a similar request; and we +are willing to do everything in reason for you without prejudice +to our honor and faith. But we are pledged by promise on oath, +under a penalty of two millions of florins, to the apostolical +<span class="sidebar">Proposition +made by the +Flemings to +King Edward</span> +chamber,<a name="FNanchor_574" id="FNanchor_574" href="#Footnote_574" class="fnanchor">[574]</a> not to act offensively against the king +of France in any way, whoever he may be, without +forfeiting this sum, and incurring the sentence +of excommunication. But if you will do what we will tell you, +you will find a remedy, which is, that you take the arms of +France, quarter them with those of England, and call yourself +king of France. We will acknowledge your title as good, and +we will demand of you quittance for the above sum, which you +will grant us as king of France. Thus we shall be absolved and +at liberty to go with you wherever it pleases you."</p> + +<p>The king summoned his council, for he was loath to take the +title and arms of France, seeing that at present he had not conquered +any part of that kingdom and that it was uncertain whether +he ever should. On the other hand, he was unwilling to lose the +aid and assistance of the Flemings, who could be of greater +service to him than any others at that period. He consulted, +therefore, with the lords of the Empire, the lord Robert d'Artois,<a name="FNanchor_575" id="FNanchor_575" href="#Footnote_575" class="fnanchor">[575]</a> +and his most privy councilors, who, after having duly weighed +the good and bad, advised him to make for answer to the Flemings, +<span class="sidebar">The agreement +concluded</span> +that if they would bind themselves under +their seals, to an agreement to aid him in carrying +on the war, he would willingly comply with their conditions, +and would swear to assist them in the recovery of Lisle, Douay, +and Bethune. To this they willingly consented. A day was +fixed for them to meet at Ghent,<a name="FNanchor_576" id="FNanchor_576" href="#Footnote_576" class="fnanchor">[576]</a> where the king and the greater +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">424</a></span> +part of the lords of the Empire, and in general the councils from +the different towns in Flanders, assembled. The above-mentioned +proposals and answers were then repeated, sworn to, and +sealed; and the king of England bore the arms of France, quartering +them with those of England. He also took the title of +king of France from that day forward.</p> + +<h4>75. The Naval Battle of Sluys (1340)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>In the spring of 1340 Edward returned to England to secure money +and supplies with which to prosecute the war. The French king thought +he saw in this temporary withdrawal of his enemy an opportunity to +strike him a deadly blow. A fleet of nearly two hundred vessels was +gathered in the harbor of Sluys, on the Flemish coast, with a view to +attacking the English king on his return to the continent and preventing +him from again securing a foothold in Flanders. Edward, however, +accepted the situation and made ready to fight his way back to the country +of his allies. June 24, 1340, he boldly attacked the French at Sluys. +The sharp conflict which ensued resulted in a brilliant victory for the +English. Philip's fleet found itself shut up in the harbor and utterly +unable to withstand the showers of arrows shot by the thousands of +archers who crowded the English ships. The French navy was annihilated, +England was relieved from the fear of invasion, and the whole +French coast was laid open to attack.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—<i>Chroniques de Jean Froissart</i> (Société de l'Histoire de France +edition), Chap. XXXVII. Translated in Thomas Johnes, <i>Froissart's +Chronicles</i>, Vol. I., pp. 141-143.</p> + +<p>He [King Edward] and his whole navy sailed from the Thames +the day before the eve of St. John the Baptist, 1340,<a name="FNanchor_577" id="FNanchor_577" href="#Footnote_577" class="fnanchor">[577]</a> and made +straight for Sluys.</p> + +<p>Sir Hugh Quiriel, Sir Peter Bahucet, and Barbenoir, were at +that time lying between Blankenburg and Sluys with upwards +of one hundred and twenty large vessels, without counting +others. These were manned with about forty thousand men, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">425</a></span> +Genoese and Picards, including mariners. By the orders of the +king of France, they were there at anchor, awaiting the return +of the king of England, to dispute his passage.</p> + +<p>When the king's fleet had almost reached Sluys, they saw so +many masts standing before it that they looked like a wood. +The king asked the commander of his ship what they could be. +The latter replied that he imagined they must be that armament +of Normans which the king of France kept at sea, and which +had so frequently done him much damage, had burned his good +<span class="sidebar">Edward determines +to fight +at Sluys</span> +town of Southampton and taken his large ship +the <i>Christopher</i>. The king replied, "I have for +a long time desired to meet them, and now, +please God and St. George, we will fight with them; for, in +truth, they have done me so much mischief that I will be revenged +on them if it be possible."</p> + +<p>The king then drew up all his vessels, placing the strongest +in front, and his archers on the wings. Between every two +vessels with archers there was one of men-at-arms. He stationed +some detached vessels as a reserve, full of archers, to assist and +help such as might be damaged. There were in this fleet a great +many ladies from England, countesses, baronesses, and knights' +and gentlemen's wives, who were going to attend on the queen +at Ghent.<a name="FNanchor_578" id="FNanchor_578" href="#Footnote_578" class="fnanchor">[578]</a> These the king had guarded most carefully by three +hundred men-at-arms and five hundred archers.</p> + +<p>When the king of England and his marshals had properly +divided the fleet, they hoisted their sails to have the wind on +their quarter, as the sun shone full in their faces (which they +considered might be of disadvantage to them) and stretched out +a little, so that at last they got the wind as they wished. The +Normans, who saw them tack, could not help wondering why they +<span class="sidebar">The French +make ready</span> +did so, and remarked that they took good care to +turn about because they were afraid of meddling +with them. They perceived, however, by his banner, that the king +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">426</a></span> +was on board, which gave them great joy, as they were eager to +fight with him. So they put their vessels in proper order, for +they were expert and gallant men on the seas. They filled the +<i>Christopher</i>, the large ship which they had taken the year before +from the English, with trumpets and other warlike instruments, +and ordered her to fall upon the English.</p> + +<p>The battle then began very fiercely. Archers and cross-bowmen +shot with all their might at each other, and the men-at-arms +engaged hand to hand. In order to be more successful, +they had large grapnels and iron hooks with chains, which they +flung from ship to ship to moor them to each other. There were +many valiant deeds performed, many prisoners made, and many +rescues. The <i>Christopher</i>, which led the van, was recaptured +<span class="sidebar">The battle +rages</span> +by the English, and all in her taken or killed. +There were then great shouts and cries, and the +English manned her again with archers, and sent her to fight +against the Genoese.</p> + +<p>This battle was very murderous and horrible. Combats at +sea are more destructive and obstinate than upon land, for it is +not possible to retreat or flee—every one must abide his fortune, +and exert his prowess and valor. Sir Hugh Quiriel and his companions +were bold and determined men; they had done much +mischief to the English at sea and destroyed many of their ships. +The combat, therefore, lasted from early in the morning until +noon,<a name="FNanchor_579" id="FNanchor_579" href="#Footnote_579" class="fnanchor">[579]</a> and the English were hard pressed, for their enemies were +four to one, and the greater part men who had been used to the +sea.</p> + +<p>The king, who was in the flower of his youth, showed himself +on that day a gallant knight, as did the earls of Derby, Pembroke, +Hereford, Huntingdon, Northampton, and Gloucester; +the lord Reginald Cobham, lord Felton, lord Bradestan, sir +Richard Stafford, the lord Percy, sir Walter Manny, sir Henry +de Flanders, sir John Beauchamp, sir John Chandos, the lord +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">427</a></span> +Delaware, Lucie lord Malton, and the lord Robert d'Artois, +now called earl of Richmond. I cannot remember the names of +<span class="sidebar">The English +triumph</span> +all those who behaved so valiantly in the combat. +But they did so well that, with some assistance +from Bruges and those parts of the country, the French were +completely defeated, and all the Normans and the others were +killed or drowned, so that not one of them escaped.<a name="FNanchor_580" id="FNanchor_580" href="#Footnote_580" class="fnanchor">[580]</a></p> + +<p>After the king had gained this victory, which was on the eve +of St. John's day,<a name="FNanchor_581" id="FNanchor_581" href="#Footnote_581" class="fnanchor">[581]</a> he remained all that night on board his +ship before Sluys, and there were great noises with trumpets and +all kinds of other instruments.</p> + +<h4>76. The Battle of Crécy (1346)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>In July, 1346, Edward III. landed on the northwest coast of Normandy +with a splendid army of English, Irish, and Welsh, including ten +thousand men skilled in the use of the long bow. He advanced eastward, +plundering and devastating as he went, probably with the ultimate intention +of besieging Calais. Finding the passage of the Seine impossible +at Rouen, he ascended the river until he came into the vicinity of Paris, +only to learn that Philip with an army twice the size of that of the English +had taken up a position on the Seine to turn back the invasion. +The French king allowed himself to be outwitted, however, and Edward +got out of the trap into which he had fallen by marching northward to +the village of Crécy in Ponthieu. With an army that had grown to outnumber +the English three to one Philip advanced in the path of the +enemy, first to Abbeville on the Somme, and later to Crécy, slightly to +the east of which Edward had taken his stand for battle. The English +arrived at Crécy about noon on Friday, August 25. The French were +nearly a day behind, having spent the night at Abbeville and set out +thence over the roads to Crécy before sunrise Saturday morning. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">428</a></span> +army of the English numbered probably about 14,000, besides an uncertain +reserve of Welsh and Irish troops; that of the French numbered +about 70,000, including 15,000 Genoese cross-bowmen. The course of +the battle is well described by Froissart in the passage below. Doubtless +the account is not accurate in every particular, yet it must be correct +in the main and it shows very vividly the character of French and English +warfare in this period. Despite the superior numbers of the French, +the English had small difficulty in winning a decisive victory. This was +due to several things. In the first place, the French army was a typical +feudal levy and as such was sadly lacking in discipline and order, while +the English troops were under perfect control. In the next place, the +use of the long-bow gave the English infantry a great advantage over +the French knights, and even over the Genoese mercenaries, who could +shoot just once while an English long-bowman was shooting twelve times. +In the third place, Philip's troops were exhausted before entering the +battle and it was a grievous error on the part of the king to allow the +conflict to begin before his men had an opportunity for rest.<a name="FNanchor_582" id="FNanchor_582" href="#Footnote_582" class="fnanchor">[582]</a> The greatest +significance of the English victory lay in the blow it struck at feudalism, +and especially the feudal type of warfare. It showed very clearly +that the armored knight was no match for the common foot-soldier, armed +simply with his long-bow, and that feudal methods and ideals had come +to be inconsistent with success in war.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—<i>Chroniques de Jean Froissart</i> (Société de l'Histoire de France +edition), Chap. LX. Translated in Thomas Johnes, <i>Froissart's +Chronicles</i>, Vol. I., pp. 320-329 <i>passim</i>.</p> + +<p>The king of England, as I have mentioned before, encamped +this Friday in the plain,<a name="FNanchor_583" id="FNanchor_583" href="#Footnote_583" class="fnanchor">[583]</a> for he found the country abounding +in provisions; but if they should have failed, he had an abundance +in the carriages which attended him. The army set about furbishing +and repairing their armor; and the king gave a supper that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">429</a></span> +evening to the earls and barons of his army, where they made +good cheer. On their taking leave, the king remained alone with +the lord of his bed-chamber. He retired into his oratory and, +falling on his knees before the altar, prayed to God, that if he +should fight his enemies on the morrow he might come off with +honor. About midnight he went to his bed and, rising early +the next day, he and the Prince of Wales<a name="FNanchor_584" id="FNanchor_584" href="#Footnote_584" class="fnanchor">[584]</a> heard Mass and communicated. +The greater part of his army did the same, confessed, +and made proper preparations.</p> + +<p>After Mass the king ordered his men to arm themselves and +assemble on the ground he had before fixed on. He had enclosed +<span class="sidebar">The English +prepare for +battle</span> +a large park near a wood, on the rear of +his army, in which he placed all his baggage-wagons +and horses; and this park had but one +entrance. His men-at-arms and archers remained on foot. +The king afterwards ordered, through his constable and his +two marshals, that the army should be divided into three +battalions....</p> + +<p>The king then mounted a small palfrey, having a white wand +in his hand and, attended by his two marshals on each side of +him, he rode through all the ranks, encouraging and entreating +the army, that they should guard his honor. He spoke this so +gently, and with such a cheerful countenance, that all who had +been dejected were immediately comforted by seeing and hearing +him.</p> + +<p>When he had thus visited all the battalions, it was near ten +o'clock. He retired to his own division and ordered them all to +eat heartily afterwards and drink a glass. They ate and drank at +their ease; and, having packed up pots, barrels, etc., in the carts, +they returned to their battalions, according to the marshals' +orders, and seated themselves on the ground, placing their +helmets and bows before them, that they might be the fresher +when their enemies should arrive. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">430</a></span></p> + +<p>That same Saturday, the king of France arose betimes and +heard Mass in the monastery of St. Peter's in Abbeville,<a name="FNanchor_585" id="FNanchor_585" href="#Footnote_585" class="fnanchor">[585]</a> where +he was lodged. Having ordered his army to do the same, he +left that town after sunrise. When he had marched about two +leagues from Abbeville and was approaching the enemy, he was +advised to form his army in order of battle, and to let those on +foot march forward, that they might not be trampled on by the +horses. The king, upon this, sent off four knights—the lord +<span class="sidebar">The French +advance from +Abbeville to +Crécy</span> +Moyne of Bastleberg, the lord of Noyers, the +lord of Beaujeu, and the lord of Aubigny—who +rode so near to the English that they could clearly +distinguish their position. The English plainly perceived that +they were come to reconnoitre. However, they took no notice +of it, but suffered them to return unmolested. When the king +of France saw them coming back, he halted his army, and the +knights, pushing through the crowds, came near the king, who +said to them, "My lords, what news?" They looked at each +other, without opening their mouths; for no one chose to speak +first. At last the king addressed himself to the lord Moyne, +who was attached to the king of Bohemia, and had performed +very many gallant deeds, so that he was esteemed one of the +most valiant knights in Christendom. The lord Moyne said, +"Sir, I will speak, since it pleases you to order me, but with the +assistance of my companions. We have advanced far enough +to reconnoitre your enemies. Know, then, that they are drawn +up in three battalions and are awaiting you. I would advise, +for my part (submitting, however, to better counsel), that you +halt your army here and quarter them for the night; for before +the rear shall come up and the army be properly drawn out, it +<span class="sidebar">Philip's +knights advise +delay</span> +will be very late. Your men will be tired and in +disorder, while they will find your enemies fresh +and properly arrayed. On the morrow, you may +draw up your army more at your ease and may reconnoitre at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">431</a></span> +leisure on what part it will be most advantageous to begin the +attack; for, be assured, they will wait for you."</p> + +<p>The king commanded that it should be so done; and the two +marshals rode, one towards the front, and the other to the rear, +crying out, "Halt banners, in the name of God and St. Denis." +Those that were in the front halted; but those behind said they +would not halt until they were as far forward as the front. +When the front perceived the rear pushing on, they pushed forward; +and neither the king nor the marshals could stop them, +<span class="sidebar">Confusion in +the French +ranks</span> +but they marched on without any order until +they came in sight of their enemies.<a name="FNanchor_586" id="FNanchor_586" href="#Footnote_586" class="fnanchor">[586]</a> As soon as +the foremost rank saw them, they fell back at +once in great disorder, which alarmed those in the rear, who +thought they had been fighting. There was then space and +room enough for them to have passed forward, had they been +willing to do so. Some did so, but others remained behind.</p> + +<p>All the roads between Abbeville and Crécy were covered with +common people, who, when they had come within three leagues +of their enemies, drew their swords, crying out, "Kill, kill;" and +with them were many great lords who were eager to make show +of their courage. There is no man, unless he had been present, +who can imagine, or describe truly, the confusion of that day; +especially the bad management and disorder of the French, +whose troops were beyond number.</p> + +<p>The English, who were drawn up in three divisions and seated +on the ground, on seeing their enemies advance, arose boldly +<span class="sidebar">The English +prepare for +battle</span> +and fell into their ranks. That of the prince<a name="FNanchor_587" id="FNanchor_587" href="#Footnote_587" class="fnanchor">[587]</a> +was the first to do so, whose archers were formed +in the manner of a portcullis, or harrow, and the +men-at-arms in the rear. The earls of Northampton and +Arundel, who commanded the second division, had posted themselves +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">432</a></span> +in good order on his wing to assist and succor the prince, +if necessary.</p> + +<p>You must know that these kings, dukes, earls, barons, and +lords of France did not advance in any regular order, but one +after the other, or in any way most pleasing to themselves. As +soon as the king of France came in sight of the English his blood +began to boil, and he cried out to his marshals, "Order the +Genoese forward, and begin the battle, in the name of God and +St. Denis."</p> + +<p>There were about fifteen thousand Genoese cross-bowmen; but +they were quite fatigued, having marched on foot that day six +leagues, completely armed, and with their cross-bows. They +told the constable that they were not in a fit condition to do any +great things that day in battle. The earl of Alençon, hearing this, +said, "This is what one gets by employing such scoundrels, who +fail when there is any need for them."</p> + +<p>During this time a heavy rain fell, accompanied by thunder +and a very terrible eclipse of the sun; and before this rain a +great flight of crows hovered in the air over all those battalions, +making a loud noise. Shortly afterwards it cleared up and the +sun shone very brightly; but the Frenchmen had it in their faces, +and the English at their backs.</p> + +<p>When the Genoese were somewhat in order they approached +the English and set up a loud shout in order to frighten them; +but the latter remained quite still and did not seem to hear it. +They then set up a second shout and advanced a little forward; +but the English did not move. They hooted a third time, advancing +with their cross-bows presented, and began to shoot. +The English archers then advanced one step forward and shot +their arrows with such force and quickness that it seemed as +if it snowed.</p> + +<p>When the Genoese felt these arrows, which pierced their arms, +heads, and through their armor, some of them cut the strings +of their cross-bows, others flung them on the ground, and all +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">433</a></span> +turned about and retreated, quite discomfited. The French had +a large body of men-at-arms on horseback, richly dressed, to +<span class="sidebar">The Genoese +mercenaries +repulsed</span> +support the Genoese. The king of France, seeing +them thus fall back, cried out, "Kill me those +scoundrels; for they stop up our road, without +any reason." You would then have seen the above-mentioned +men-at-arms lay about them, killing all that they could of +these runaways.</p> + +<p>The English continued shooting as vigorously and quickly as +before. Some of their arrows fell among the horsemen, who +were sumptuously equipped and, killing and wounding many, +made them caper and fall among the Genoese, so that they were +in such confusion they could never rally again. In the English +army there were some Cornish and Welshmen on foot who had +<span class="sidebar">Slaughter by +the Cornish +and Welsh</span> +armed themselves with large knives. These, advancing +through the ranks of the men-at-arms +and archers, who made way for them, came upon +the French when they were in this danger and, falling upon earls, +barons, knights and squires, slew many, at which the king of +England was afterwards much exasperated.</p> + +<p>The valiant king of Bohemia was slain there. He was called +Charles of Luxemburg, for he was the son of the gallant king +and emperor, Henry of Luxemburg.<a name="FNanchor_588" id="FNanchor_588" href="#Footnote_588" class="fnanchor">[588]</a> Having heard the order +of the battle, he inquired where his son, the lord Charles, was. +His attendants answered that they did not know, but believed +that he was fighting. The king said to them: "Sirs, you are +all my people, my friends and brethren at arms this day; therefore, +as I am blind, I request of you to lead me so far into the +engagement that I may strike one stroke with my sword." The +<span class="sidebar">Death of the +king of Bohemia</span> +knights replied that they would lead him forward +immediately; and, in order that they might +not lose him in the crowd, they fastened the reins +of all their horses together, and put the king at their head, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">434</a></span> +that he might gratify his wish, and advanced towards the enemy. +The king rode in among the enemy, and made good use of his +sword; for he and his companions fought most gallantly. They +advanced so far that they were all slain; and on the morrow they +were found on the ground, with their horses all tied together.</p> + +<p>Early in the day, some French, Germans, and Savoyards had +broken through the archers of the prince's battalion, and had +engaged with the men-at-arms, upon which the second battalion +came to his aid; and it was time, for otherwise he would +have been hard pressed. The first division, seeing the danger +they were in, sent a knight<a name="FNanchor_589" id="FNanchor_589" href="#Footnote_589" class="fnanchor">[589]</a> in great haste to the king of England, +who was posted upon an eminence, near a windmill. On +the knight's arrival, he said, "Sir, the earl of Warwick, the +lord Stafford, the lord Reginald Cobham, and the others who are +about your son are vigorously attacked by the French; and they +entreat that you come to their assistance with your battalion +for, if the number of the French should increase, they fear he +will have too much to do."</p> + +<p>The king replied: "Is my son dead, unhorsed, or so badly +wounded that he cannot support himself?" "Nothing of the +sort, thank God," rejoined the knight; "but he is in so hot an +engagement that he has great need of your help." The king +<span class="sidebar">Edward gives +the Black +Prince a chance +to win his spurs</span> +answered, "Now, Sir Thomas, return to those +who sent you and tell them from me not to send +again for me this day, or expect that I shall come, +let what will happen, as long as my son has life; and say that I +command them to let the boy win his spurs; for I am determined, +if it please God, that all the glory and honor of this day +shall be given to him, and to those into whose care I have entrusted +him." The knight returned to his lords and related the +king's answer, which greatly encouraged them and made them +regret that they had ever sent such a message.</p> + +<p>Late after vespers, the king of France had not more about him +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">435</a></span> +than sixty men, every one included. Sir John of Hainault, who +was of the number, had once remounted the king; for the latter's +horse had been killed under him by an arrow. He said to the king, +"Sir, retreat while you have an opportunity, and do not expose +<span class="sidebar">King Philip +abandons the +field of battle</span> +yourself so needlessly. If you have lost this +battle, another time you will be the conqueror." +After he had said this, he took the bridle of the +king's horse and led him off by force; for he had before entreated +him to retire.</p> + +<p>The king rode on until he came to the castle of La Broyes, +where he found the gates shut, for it was very dark. The king +ordered the governor of it to be summoned. He came upon the +battlements and asked who it was that called at such an hour. +The king answered, "Open, open, governor; it is the fortune of +France." The governor, hearing the king's voice, immediately +descended, opened the gate, and let down the bridge. The king +and his company entered the castle; but he had with him only +five barons—Sir John of Hainault, the lord Charles of Montmorency, +the lord of Beaujeu, the lord of Aubigny, and the lord +of Montfort. The king would not bury himself in such a place as +that, but, having taken some refreshments, set out again with +his attendants about midnight, and rode on, under the direction +of guides who were well acquainted with the country, until, +about daybreak, he came to Amiens, where he halted.</p> + +<p>This Saturday the English never quitted their ranks in pursuit +of any one, but remained on the field, guarding their position +<span class="sidebar">The English +after the +battle</span> +and defending themselves against all who +attacked them. The battle was ended at the hour +of vespers. When, on this Saturday night, the +English heard no more hooting or shouting, nor any more crying +out to particular lords, or their banners, they looked upon the +field as their own and their enemies as beaten.</p> + +<p>They made great fires and lighted torches because of the +darkness of the night. King Edward then came down from his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">436</a></span> +post, who all that day had not put on his helmet, and, with his +whole battalion, advanced to the Prince of Wales, whom he +embraced in his arms and kissed, and said, "Sweet son, God +give you good preference. You are my son, for most loyally have +you acquitted yourself this day. You are worthy to be a +sovereign." The prince bowed down very low and humbled +himself, giving all honor to the king his father.</p> + +<p>The English, during the night, made frequent thanksgivings +to the Lord for the happy outcome of the day, and without +rioting; for the king had forbidden all riot or noise.</p> + +<h4>77. The Sack of Limoges (1370)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>As a single illustration of the devastation wrought by the Hundred +Years' War, and of the barbarity of the commanders and troops engaged +in it, Froissart's well-known description of the sack of Limoges in 1370 +by the army of the Black Prince is of no small interest. In some respects, +of course, circumstances in connection with this episode were exceptional, +and we are not to imagine that such heartless and indiscriminate massacres +were common. Yet the evidence which has survived all goes to +show that the long course of the war was filled with cruelty and destruction +in a measure almost inconceivable among civilized peoples in more +modern times.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—<i>Chroniques de Jean Froissart</i> (Société de l'Histoire de France +edition), Chap. XCVII. Translated in Thomas Johnes, <i>Froissart's +Chronicles</i>, Vol. II., pp. 61-68 <i>passim</i>.</p> + +<p>When word was brought to the prince that the city of Limoges<a name="FNanchor_590" id="FNanchor_590" href="#Footnote_590" class="fnanchor">[590]</a> +had become French, that the bishop, who had been his companion +and one in whom he had formerly placed great confidence, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">437</a></span> +was a party to all the treaties and had greatly aided and +assisted in the surrender, he was in a violent passion and held +<span class="sidebar">The Black +Prince resolves +to retake +Limoges</span> +the bishop and all other churchmen in very low +estimation, in whom formerly he had put great +trust. He swore by the soul of his father, which +he had never perjured, that he would have it back again, that +he would not attend to anything before he had done this, and +that he would make the inhabitants pay dearly for their treachery....<a name="FNanchor_591" id="FNanchor_591" href="#Footnote_591" class="fnanchor">[591]</a></p> + +<p>All these men-at-arms were drawn out in battle-array and took +the field, when the whole country began to tremble for the +consequences. At that time the Prince of Wales was not able +to mount his horse, but was, for his greater ease, carried in a +litter. They followed the road to the Limousin,<a name="FNanchor_592" id="FNanchor_592" href="#Footnote_592" class="fnanchor">[592]</a> in order to get +to Limoges, where in due time they arrived and encamped all +around it. The prince swore he would never leave the place +until he had regained it.</p> + +<p>The bishop of the place and the inhabitants found that they +had acted wickedly and had greatly incensed the prince, for which +they were very repentant, but that was now of no avail, as they +were not the masters of the town.<a name="FNanchor_593" id="FNanchor_593" href="#Footnote_593" class="fnanchor">[593]</a> When the prince and his +marshals had well considered the strength and force of Limoges, +and knew the number of people that were in it, they agreed that +<span class="sidebar">The town to +be undermined</span> +they could never take it by assault, but said they +would attempt it by another manner. The prince +was always accustomed to carry with him on his expeditions a +large body of miners. These were immediately set to work and +made great progress. The knights who were in the town soon +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">438</a></span> +perceived that they were undermining them, and on that account +began to countermine to prevent the effect....</p> + +<p>The Prince of Wales remained about a month, and not more, +before the city of Limoges. He would not allow any assaults or +skirmishing, but kept his miners steadily at work. The knights +in the town perceived what they were about and made countermines +to destroy them, but they failed in their attempt. When +the miners of the prince (who, as they found themselves countermined, +kept changing the line of direction of their own mine) +had finished their business, they came to the prince and said, +"My lord, we are ready, and will throw down, whenever it pleases +you, a very large part of the wall into the ditch, through the +breach of which you may enter the town at your ease and without +danger."</p> + +<p>This news was very agreeable to the prince, who replied: "I +desire, then, that you prove your words to-morrow morning at +six o'clock." The miners set fire to the combustibles in the +mine, and on the morrow morning, as they had foretold the +<span class="sidebar">The English +assault</span> +prince, they flung down a great piece of wall which +filled the ditches. The English saw this with +pleasure, for they were armed and prepared to enter the town. +Those on foot did so and ran to the gate, which they destroyed, +as well as the barriers, for there were no other defenses; and all +this was done so suddenly that the inhabitants had not time to +prevent it.</p> + +<p>The prince, the duke of Lancaster, the earls of Cambridge and +of Pembroke, sir Guiscard d'Angle and the others, with their +men, rushed into the town. You would then have seen pillagers, +active to do mischief, running through the town, slaying men, +women, and children, according to their orders. It was a most +melancholy business; for all ranks, ages, and sexes cast themselves +on their knees before the prince, begging for mercy; but +he was so inflamed with passion and revenge that he listened +to none. But all were put to the sword, wherever they could +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">439</a></span> +be found, even those who were not guilty. For I know not +<span class="sidebar">Barbarity of +the sack</span> +why the poor were not spared, who could not have had any +part in the treason; but they suffered for it, and +indeed more than those who had been the leaders +of the treachery.</p> + +<p>There was not that day in the city of Limoges any heart so +hardened, or that had any sense of religion, that did not deeply +bewail the unfortunate events passing before men's eyes; for +upwards of three thousand men, women, and children were put to +death that day. God have mercy on their souls, for they were +truly martyrs.... The entire town was pillaged, burned, +and totally destroyed. The English then departed, carrying +with them their booty and prisoners.</p> + +<h4>78. The Treaties of Bretigny (1360) and Troyes (1420)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The most important documents in the diplomatic history of the Hundred +Years' War are the texts of the treaty of London (1359), the treaty +of Bretigny (1360), the truce of Paris (1396), the treaty of Troyes (1420), +the treaty of Arras (1435), and the truce of Tours (1444). Brief extracts +from two of these are given below. The treaty of Bretigny was negotiated +soon after the refusal of the French to ratify the treaty of London. +In November, 1359, King Edward III., with his son, Edward, the Black +Prince, and the duke of Lancaster, crossed the Channel, marched on +Rheims, and threatened Paris. Negotiations for a new peace were actively +opened in April, 1360, after the English had established themselves +at Montlhéri, south from Paris. The French king, John II., who had +been taken prisoner at Poitiers (1356), gave full powers of negotiation +to his son Charles, duke of Normandy and regent of the kingdom. For +some time no definite conclusions were reached, owing chiefly to Edward's +unwillingness to renounce his claim to the French throne. Late +in April the negotiations were transferred to Chartres, subsequently to +Bretigny. Finally, on the eighth of May, representatives of the two parties +signed the so-called treaty of Bretigny. Although the instrument +was promptly ratified by the French regent and by the Black Prince +(and, if we may believe Froissart, by the two kings themselves), it was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">440</a></span> +afterwards revised and accepted in a somewhat different form by the +monarchs and their following assembled at Calais (October 24, 1360). +The most important respect in which the second document differed from +the first was the omission of Article 12 of the first treaty, in which Edward +renounced his claim to the throne of France and the sovereignty of +Normandy, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, Brittany, and Flanders; nevertheless +Edward, at Calais, made this renunciation in a separate convention, +which for all practical purposes was regarded as a part of the treaty. +The passages printed below are taken from the Calais text. Most of the +thirty-nine articles composing the document are devoted to mere details. +The war was renewed after a few years, and within two decades +the English had lost all the territory guaranteed to them in 1360, except +a few coast towns.</p> + +<p>The treaty of Troyes (1420) belongs to one of the most stormy periods +in all French history. The first two decades of the fifteenth century +were marked by a cessation of the war with England (until its renewal +in 1415), but also unfortunately by the outbreak of a desperate civil +struggle between two great factions of the French people, the Burgundians +and the Armagnacs. The Burgundians, led by Philip the Bold +and John the Fearless (successive dukes of Burgundy), stood for a policy +of friendship with England, while the Armagnacs, comprising the adherents +of Charles, duke of Orleans, whose wife was a daughter of the +count of Armagnac, advocated the continuation of the war with the +English; though, in reality, the forces which kept the two factions apart +were jealousy and ambition rather than any mere question of foreign +relations. The way was prepared for a temporary Burgundian triumph +by the notable victory of the English at Agincourt in 1415 and by the +assassination of John the Fearless at Paris in 1419, which made peace +impossible and drove the Burgundians openly into the arms of the English. +Philip the Good, the new duke of Burgundy, became the avowed +ally of the English king Henry V., who since 1417 had been slowly but +surely conquering Normandy and now had the larger portion of it in +his possession. Philip recognized Henry as the true heir to the French +throne and in 1419 concluded with him two distinct treaties on that +basis. Charles VI., the reigning king of France, was mentally unbalanced +and the queen, who bitterly hated the Armagnacs (with whom her son, +the Dauphin Charles, was actively identified), was easily persuaded by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">441</a></span> +Duke Philip to acquiesce in a treaty by which the succession should be +vested in the English king upon the death of Charles VI. The result +was the treaty of Troyes, signed May 21, 1420. According to agreements +already entered into by Philip and Henry, the latter was to marry +Catherine, daughter of Charles VI. (the marriage was not mentioned in +the treaty of Troyes, but it was clearly assumed), and he was to act as +regent of France until Charles VI.'s death and then become king in his +own name. Most of the thirty-one articles of the treaty were taken up +with a definition of Henry's position and obligations as regent and prospective +sovereign of France.</p> + +<p>In due time the marriage of Henry and Catherine took place and +Henry assumed the regency, though the Armagnacs, led by the Dauphin, +refused absolutely to accept the settlement. War broke out, in the +course of which (in 1422) Henry V. died and was succeeded by his infant +son, Henry VI. In the same year Charles VI. also died, which +meant that the young Henry would become king of France. With such +a prospect the future of the country looked dark. Nevertheless, the +death of Charles VI. and of Henry V. came in reality as a double blessing. +Henry V. might long have kept the French in subjection and his +position as Charles VI.'s son-in-law gave him some real claim to rule in +France. But with the field cleared, as it was in 1422, opportunity was +given for the Dauphin Charles (Charles VII.) to retrieve the fallen fortunes +of his country—a task which, with more or less energy and skill, +he managed in the long run to accomplish.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Sources—(a) Text in Eugène Cosneau, <i>Les Grands Traités de la Guerre de +Cent Ans</i> ["The Great Treaties of the Hundred Years' War"], +Paris, 1889, pp. 39-68 <i>passim</i>.</p> + +<p class="source_add">(b) Text in Cosneau, <i>ibid.</i> pp. 102-115 <i>passim</i>.</p> + +<p class="center">(a)</p> + +<p><b>1.</b> The king of England shall hold for himself and his heirs, +for all time to come, in addition to that which he holds in Guienne +<span class="sidebar">Territories +conceded to +the English +by the treaty +of Bretigny</span> +and Gascony, all the possessions which are +enumerated below, to be held in the same manner +that the king of France and his sons, or any +of their ancestors, have held them....<a name="FNanchor_594" id="FNanchor_594" href="#Footnote_594" class="fnanchor">[594]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">442</a></span></p> + +<p><b>7.</b> And likewise the said king and his eldest son<a name="FNanchor_595" id="FNanchor_595" href="#Footnote_595" class="fnanchor">[595]</a> shall give +order, by their letters patent to all archbishops and other prelates +of the holy Church, and also to counts, viscounts, barons, nobles, +citizens, and others of the cities, lands, countries, islands, and +places before mentioned, that they shall be obedient to the king +of England and to his heirs and at their ready command, in the +same manner in which they have been obedient to the kings and +to the crown of France. And by the same letters they shall +liberate and absolve them from all homage, pledges, oaths, obligations, +subjections, and promises made by any of them to the +kings and to the crown of France in any manner.</p> + +<p><b>13.</b> It is agreed that the king of France shall pay to the king +of England three million gold crowns, of which two are worth +an obol of English money.<a name="FNanchor_596" id="FNanchor_596" href="#Footnote_596" class="fnanchor">[596]</a></p> + +<p><b>30.</b> It is agreed that honest alliances, friendships, and confederations +shall be formed by the two kings of France and +<span class="sidebar">Provision +regarding +alliances</span> +England and their kingdoms, not repugnant to +the honor or the conscience of one king or the +other. No alliances which they have, on this side +or that, with any person of Scotland or Flanders, or any other +country, shall be allowed to stand in the way.<a name="FNanchor_597" id="FNanchor_597" href="#Footnote_597" class="fnanchor">[597]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">443</a></span></p> + +<p class="center">(b)</p> + +<p><b>6.</b> After our death,<a name="FNanchor_598" id="FNanchor_598" href="#Footnote_598" class="fnanchor">[598]</a> and from that time forward, the crown +<span class="sidebar">The Treaty of +Troyes fixes +the succession +upon Henry V</span> +and kingdom of France, with all their rights and +appurtenances, shall be vested permanently in our +son [son-in-law], King Henry, and his heirs.</p> + +<p><b>7.</b> ... The power and authority to govern and to control +the public affairs of the said kingdom shall, during our life-time, +be vested in our son, King Henry, with the advice of the nobles +and the wise men who are obedient to us, and who have consideration +for the advancement and honor of the said kingdom....</p> + +<p><b>22.</b> It is agreed that during our life-time we shall designate +our son, King Henry, in the French language in this fashion, <i>Notre</i> +<span class="sidebar">Henry's +title</span> +<i>très cher fils Henri, roi d'Angleterre, héritier de +France</i>; and in the Latin language in this manner, +<i>Noster præcarissimus filius Henricus, rex Angliæ, heres Franciæ</i>.</p> + +<p><b>24.</b> ... [It is agreed] that the two kingdoms shall be +governed from the time that our said son, or any of his heirs, +shall assume the crown, not divided between different kings at +<span class="sidebar">Union of +France and +England to be +through the +crown only</span> +the same time, but under one person, who shall +be king and sovereign lord of both kingdoms, +observing all pledges and all other things, to each +kingdom its rights, liberties or customs, usages and +laws, not submitting in any manner one kingdom to the other.<a name="FNanchor_599" id="FNanchor_599" href="#Footnote_599" class="fnanchor">[599]</a></p> + +<p><b>29.</b> In consideration of the frightful and astounding crimes +and misdeeds committed against the kingdom of France by +Charles, the said Dauphin, it is agreed that we, our son Henry, +and also our very dear son Philip, duke of Burgundy, will never +treat for peace or amity with the said Charles.<a name="FNanchor_600" id="FNanchor_600" href="#Footnote_600" class="fnanchor">[600]</a></p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">444</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXVI.<br /> +THE BEGINNINGS OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE</h3> + +<p>The question as to when the Middle Ages came to an end cannot be +answered with a specific date, or even with a particular century. The +transition from the mediæval world to the modern was gradual and was +accomplished at a much earlier period in some lines than in others. +Roughly speaking, the change fell within the two centuries and a half +from 1300 to 1550. This transitional epoch is commonly designated +the Age of the Renaissance, though if the term is taken in its most proper +sense as denoting the flowering of an old into a new culture it scarcely +does justice to the period, for political and religious developments in +these centuries were not less fundamental than the revival and fresh +stimulus of culture. But in the earlier portion of the period, particularly +the fourteenth century, the intellectual awakening was the most obvious +feature of the movement and, for the time being, the most important.</p> + +<p>The renaissance of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was not the +first that Europe had known. There had been a notable revival of learning +in the time of Charlemagne—the so-called Carolingian renaissance; +another at the end of the tenth century, in the time of the Emperor +Otto III. and Pope Sylvester II.; and a third in the twelfth century, +with its center in northern France. The first two, however, had proved +quite transitory, and even the third and most promising had dried up +in the fruitless philosophy of the scholastics.</p> + +<p>Before there could be a vital and permanent intellectual revival it was +indispensable that the mediæval attitude of mind undergo a fundamental +change. This attitude may be summed up in the one phrase, +the absolute dominance of "authority"—the authority, primarily, of +the Church, supplemented by the writings of a few ancients like Aristotle. +The scholars of the earlier Middle Ages busied themselves, not with +research and investigation whereby to increase knowledge, but rather +with commenting on the Scriptures, the writings of the Church fathers, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">445</a></span> +and Aristotle, and drawing conclusions and inferences by reasoning from +these accepted authorities. There was no disposition to question what +was found in the books, or to supplement it with fresh information. Only +after about 1300 did human interests become sufficiently broadened to +make men no longer altogether content with the mere process of threshing +over the old straw. Gradually there began to appear scholars who +suggested the idea, novel for the day, that the books did not contain all +that was worth knowing, and also that perchance some things that had +long gone unquestioned just because they were in the books were not +true after all. In other words, they proposed to investigate things for +themselves and to apply the tests of observation and impartial reason.</p> + +<p>The most influential factor in producing this change of attitude was +the revival of classical literature and learning. The Latin classics, and +even some of the Greek, had not been unknown in the earlier Middle +Ages, but they had not been read widely, and when read at all they had +been valued principally as models of rhetoric rather than as a living literature +to be enjoyed for the ideas that were contained in it and the +forms in which they were expressed. These ideas were, of course, generally +pagan, and that in itself was enough to cause the Church to look +askance at the use of classical writings, except for grammatical or antiquarian +purposes. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, however, +due to a variety of causes, the reading of the classics became commoner +than since Roman days, and men, bringing to them more open minds, +were profoundly attracted by the fresh, original, human ideas of life and +the world with which Vergil and Horace and Cicero, for example, overflowed. +It was all a new discovery of the world and of man, and from the +<i>humanitas</i> which the scholars found set forth as the classical conception +of culture they themselves took the name of "humanists," while the subjects +of their studies came to be known as the <i>litteræ humaniores</i>. This +first great phase of the Renaissance—the birth of humanism—found +its finest expression in Dante and Petrarch, and it cannot be studied +with better effect than in certain of the writings of these two men.</p> + +<h4>79. Dante's Defense of Italian as a Literary Language</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>Dante Alighieri was born at Florence in 1265. Of his early life little +is known. His family seems to have been too obscure to have much part +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">446</a></span> +in the civil struggles with which Florence, and all Italy, in that day +were vexed. The love affair with Beatrice, whose story Boccaccio relates +with so much zest, is the one sharply-defined feature of Dante's +youth and early manhood. It is known that at the age of eighteen the +young Florentine was a poet and was winning wide recognition for his +sonnets. Much time was devoted by him to study of literature and the +arts, but the details of his employments, intellectual and otherwise, are +impossible to make out. In 1290 occurred the death of Beatrice, which +event marked an epoch in the poetical lover's life. In his sorrow he +took refuge in the study of such books as Boëthius's <i>Consolations of +Philosophy</i> and Cicero's <i>Friendship</i>, and became deeply interested in +literary, and especially philosophical, problems. In 1295 he entered +political life, taking from the outset a prominent part in the deliberations +of the Florentine General Council and the Council of Consuls of the Arts. +He assumed a firm attitude against all forms of lawlessness and in resistance +to any external interference in Florentine affairs. Owing to +conditions which he could not influence, however, his career in this +direction was soon cut short and most of the remainder of his life was +spent as a political exile, at Lucca, Verona, Ravenna, and other Italian +cities, with a possible visit to Paris. He died at Ravenna, September 14, +1321, in his fifty-seventh year.</p> + +<p>Dante has well been called "the Janus-faced," because he stood at +the threshold of the new era and looked both forward and backward. +His <i>Divine Comedy</i> admirably sums up the mediæval spirit, and yet it +contains many suggestions of the coming age. His method was essentially +that of the scholastics, but he knew many of the classics and had +a genuine respect for them as literature. He was a mediævalist in his +attachment to the Holy Roman Empire, yet he cherished the purely +modern ambition of a united Italy. It is deeply significant that he +chose to write his great poem—one of the most splendid in the world's +literature—in the Italian tongue rather than the Latin. Aside from +the fact that this, more than anything else, caused the Tuscan dialect, +rather than the rival Venetian and Neapolitan dialects, to become the +modern Italian, it evidenced the new desire for the popularization of +literature which was a marked characteristic of the dawning era. Not +content with putting his greatest effort in the vernacular, Dante undertook +formally to defend the use of the popular tongue for literary purposes. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">447</a></span> +This he did in <i>Il Convito</i> ("The Banquet"), a work whose date +is quite uncertain, but which was undoubtedly produced at some time +while its author was in exile. It is essentially a prose commentary upon +three <i>canzoni</i> written for the honor and glory of the "noble, beautiful, +and most compassionate lady, Philosophy." In it Dante sought to set +philosophy free from the schools and from the heavy disputations of the +scholars and to render her beauty visible even to the unlearned. It was +the first important work on philosophy written in the Italian tongue, an +innovation which the author rightly regarded as calling for some explanation +and defense. The passage quoted from it below comprises this +defense. Similar views on the nobility of the vulgar language, as compared +with the Latin, were later set forth in fuller form in the treatise +<i>De Vulgari Eloquentia</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Dante Alighieri, <i>Il Convito</i> ["The Banquet"], Bk. I., Chaps. 5-13 +<i>passim</i>. Translated by Katharine Hillard (London, 1889), pp. +17-47 <i>passim</i>.</p> + +<p>V. <b>1.</b> This bread being cleansed of its accidental impurities,<a name="FNanchor_601" id="FNanchor_601" href="#Footnote_601" class="fnanchor">[601]</a> +we have now but to free it from one [inherent] in its substance, +that is, its being in the vulgar tongue, and not in Latin; so that +we might metaphorically call it made of oats instead of wheat. +<span class="sidebar">Reasons +for using +the Italian</span> +And this [fault] may be briefly excused by three +reasons, which moved me to prefer the former +rather than the latter [language]. The first arises +from care to avoid an unfit order of things; the second, from a +consummate liberality; the third, from a natural love of one's +own tongue. And I intend here in this manner to discuss, in due +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">448</a></span> +order, these things and their causes, that I may free myself from +the reproach above named.</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> For, in the first place, had it [the commentary] been in +Latin, it would have been sovereign rather than subject, by its +nobility, its virtue, and its beauty. By its nobility, because +Latin is enduring and incorruptible, and the vulgar tongue is +unstable and corruptible. For we see that the ancient books of +Latin tragedy and comedy cannot be changed from the form we +<span class="sidebar">The Latin fixed, +the Italian +changeable</span> +have to-day, which is not the case with the vulgar +tongue, as that can be changed at will. For we +see in the cities of Italy, if we take notice of the +past fifty years, how many words have been lost, or invented, or +altered; therefore, if a short time can work such changes, how +much more can a longer period effect! So that I think, should +they who departed this life a thousand years ago return to their +cities, they would believe them to be occupied by a foreign +people, so different would the language be from theirs. Of this +I shall speak elsewhere more fully, in a book which I intend to +write, God willing, on <i>Vulgar Eloquence</i>.<a name="FNanchor_602" id="FNanchor_602" href="#Footnote_602" class="fnanchor">[602]</a></p> + +<p>VII. <b>4.</b> ... The Latin could only have explained them +[the <i>canzoni</i>] to scholars; for the rest would not have understood +it. Therefore, as among those who desire to understand them +there are many more illiterate than learned, it follows that the +Latin would not have fulfilled this behest as well as the vulgar +tongue, which is understood both by the learned and the unlearned. +Also the Latin would have explained them to people +of other nations, such as Germans, English, and others; in doing +which it would have exceeded their order.<a name="FNanchor_603" id="FNanchor_603" href="#Footnote_603" class="fnanchor">[603]</a> For it would have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">449</a></span> +been against their will I say, speaking generally, to have explained +<span class="sidebar">Translations +cannot preserve +the literary +splendor +of the originals</span> +their meaning where their beauty could not go with it. +And, moreover, let all observe that nothing +harmonized by the laws of the Muses<a name="FNanchor_604" id="FNanchor_604" href="#Footnote_604" class="fnanchor">[604]</a> can be +changed from its own tongue to another one +without destroying all its sweetness and harmony. +And this is the reason why Homer is not turned from +Greek into Latin like the other writings we have of theirs [the +Greeks];<a name="FNanchor_605" id="FNanchor_605" href="#Footnote_605" class="fnanchor">[605]</a> and this is why the verses of the Psalter<a name="FNanchor_606" id="FNanchor_606" href="#Footnote_606" class="fnanchor">[606]</a> lack musical +sweetness and harmony; for they have been translated from +Hebrew to Greek, and from Greek to Latin, and in the first +translation all this sweetness perished.</p> + +<p>IX. <b>1.</b> ... The Latin would not have served many; because, +if we recall to mind what has already been said, scholars +in other languages than the Italian could not have availed themselves +of its service.<a name="FNanchor_607" id="FNanchor_607" href="#Footnote_607" class="fnanchor">[607]</a> And of those of this speech (if we should +care to observe who they are) we shall find that only to one in a +thousand could it really have been of use; because they would +not have received it, so prone are they to base desires, and thus +deprived of that nobility of soul which above all desires this +food. And to their shame I say that they are not worthy to be +called scholars, because they do not pursue learning for its own +sake, but for the money or the honors that they gain thereby; +just as we should not call him a lute-player who kept a lute in the +house to hire out, and not to play upon.</p> + +<p>X. <b>5.</b> Again, I am impelled to defend it [the vulgar tongue] +from many of its accusers, who disparage it and commend others, +above all the language of <i>Oco</i>,<a name="FNanchor_608" id="FNanchor_608" href="#Footnote_608" class="fnanchor">[608]</a> saying that the latter is better and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">450</a></span> +more beautiful than the former, wherein they depart from the +truth. Wherefore by this commentary shall be seen the great +excellence of the vulgar tongue of <i>Si</i>,<a name="FNanchor_609" id="FNanchor_609" href="#Footnote_609" class="fnanchor">[609]</a> because +<span class="sidebar">The Italian of +more solid excellence +than +other tongues</span> +(although the highest and most novel conceptions +can be almost as fittingly, adequately, and +beautifully expressed in it as in the Latin) its excellence in +rhymed pieces, on account of the accidental adornments connected +with them, such as rhyme and rhythm, or ordered numbers, +cannot be perfectly shown; as it is with the beauty of a +woman, when the splendor of her jewels and her garments draw +more admiration than her person.<a name="FNanchor_610" id="FNanchor_610" href="#Footnote_610" class="fnanchor">[610]</a> Wherefore he who would +judge a woman truly looks at her when, unaccompanied by any +accidental adornment, her natural beauty alone remains to her; +so shall it be with this commentary, wherein shall be seen the +facility of its language, the propriety of its diction, and the sweet +discourse it shall hold; which he who considers well shall see to +be full of the sweetest and most exquisite beauty. But because +it is most virtuous in its design to show the futility and malice +of its accuser, I shall tell, for the confounding of those who attack +the Italian language, the purpose which moves them to do this; +and upon this I shall now write a special chapter, that their +infamy may be the more notorious.</p> + +<p>XI. <b>1.</b> To the perpetual shame and abasement of those wicked +men of Italy who praise the language of others and disparage +<span class="sidebar">Why people of +Italy affect to +despise their +native tongue</span> +their own, I would say that their motive springs +from five abominable causes. The first is intellectual +blindness; the second, vicious excuses; +the third, greed of vain-glory; the fourth, an argument based on +envy; the fifth and last, littleness of soul, that is, pusillanimity. +And each of these vices has so large a following, that few are +they who are free from them.... +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">451</a></span></p> + +<p><b>3.</b> The second kind work against our language by vicious +excuses. These are they who would rather be considered masters +than be such; and, to avoid the reverse (that is, not to be +considered masters), they always lay the blame upon the materials +prepared for their art, or upon their tools; as the bad +<span class="sidebar">The unskilful +attribute their +faults to the +language</span> +smith blames the iron given him, and the bad +lute-player blames the lute, thinking thus to lay +the fault of the bad knife or the bad playing +upon the iron or the lute, and to excuse themselves. Such are +they (and they are not few) who wish to be considered orators; +and in order to excuse themselves for not speaking, or for speaking +badly, blame and accuse their material, that is, their own +language, and praise that of others in which they are not required +to work. And whoever wishes to see wherein this tool +[the vulgar tongue] deserves blame, let him look at the work +that good workmen have done with it, and he will recognize the +viciousness of those who, laying the blame upon it, think they +excuse themselves. Against such does Tullius exclaim, in the +beginning of one of his books called <i>De Finibus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_611" id="FNanchor_611" href="#Footnote_611" class="fnanchor">[611]</a> because in his +time they blamed the Latin language and commended the Greek, +for the same reasons that these people consider the Italian vile +and the Provençal precious.</p> + +<p>XII. <b>3.</b> That thing is nearest to a person which is, of all +things of its kind, the most closely related to himself; thus of +all men the son is nearest to the father, and of all arts medicine +is nearest to the doctor, and music to the musician, because these +are more closely related to them than any others; of all countries, +<span class="sidebar">People should +use their own +language, as +being most natural +to them</span> +the one a man lives in is nearest to him, because it +is most closely related to him. And thus a man's +own language is nearest to him, because most +closely related, being that one which comes alone +and before all others in his mind, and not only of itself is it thus +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">452</a></span> +related, but by accident, inasmuch as it is connected with those +nearest to him, such as his kinsmen, and his fellow-citizens, and +his own people. And this is his own language, which is not only +near, but the very nearest, to every one. Because if proximity +be the seed of friendship, as has been stated above, it is plain +that it has been one of the causes of the love I bear my own +language, which is nearer to me than the others. The above-named +reason (that is, that we are most nearly related to that +which is first in our mind) gave rise to that custom of the people +which makes the firstborn inherit everything, as the nearest of +kin; and, because the nearest, therefore the most beloved.</p> + +<p><b>4.</b> And again, its goodness makes me its friend. And here +we must know that every good quality properly belonging to a +thing is lovable in that thing; as men should have a fine beard, +and women should have the whole face quite free from hair; as +the foxhound should have a keen scent, and the greyhound +great speed. And the more peculiar this good quality, the more +lovable it is, whence, although all virtue is lovable in man, that +is most so which is most peculiarly human.... And we +<span class="sidebar">The Italian +fulfils the highest +requirement +of a language</span> +see that, of all things pertaining to language, the +power of adequately expressing thought is the +most loved and commended; therefore this is its +peculiar virtue. And as this belongs to our own +language, as has been proved above in another chapter, it is +plain that this was one of the causes of my love for it; since, +as we have said, goodness is one of the causes that engender +love.</p> + +<h4>80. Dante's Conception of the Imperial Power</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The best known prose work of Dante, the <i>De Monarchia</i>, is perhaps +the most purely idealistic political treatise ever written. Its quality +of idealism is so pronounced, in fact, that there is not even sufficient +mention of contemporary men or events to assist in solving the wholly +unsettled problem of the date of its composition. The <i>De Monarchia</i> is +composed of three books, each of which is devoted to a fundamental +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">453</a></span> +question in relation to the balance of temporal and spiritual authority. +The first question is whether the temporal monarchy is necessary for +the well-being of the world. The answer is, that it is necessary for the +preservation of justice, freedom, and unity and effectiveness of human +effort. The second question is whether the Roman people took to itself +this dignity of monarchy, or empire, by right. By a survey of Roman +history from the days of Æneas to those of Cæsar it is made to appear +that it was God's will that the Romans should rule the world. The +third question is the most vital of all and its answer constitutes the pith +of the treatise. In brief it is, does the authority of the Roman monarch, +or emperor, who is thus by right the monarch of the world, depend immediately +upon God, or upon some vicar of God, the successor of Peter? +This question Dante answers first negatively by clearing away the familiar +defenses of spiritual supremacy, and afterwards positively, by +bringing forward specific arguments for the temporal superiority. The +selection given below comprises the most suggestive portions of Dante's +treatment of this aspect of his subject. The method, it will be observed, +is quite thoroughly scholastic. Whenever the <i>De Monarchia</i> was composed, +it remained all but unknown until after the author's death (1321); +but with the renewal of conflict between papacy and imperial power the +imperialists were not slow to make use of the treatise, and by the middle +of the fourteenth century it had become known throughout Europe, being +admired by one party as much as it was abhorred by the other. At +various times copies of it were burned as heretical and in the sixteenth +century it was placed by the Roman authorities upon the Index of Prohibited +Books. Few literary productions of the later Middle Ages exercised +greater influence upon contemporary thought and politics.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Dante Alighieri, <i>De Monarchia</i> ["Concerning Monarchy"], Bk. III., +Chaps. 1-16 <i>passim</i>. Translated by Aurelia Henry (Boston, 1904), +pp. 137-206 <i>passim</i>.</p> + +<p>I. <b>2.</b> The question pending investigation, then, concerns two +great luminaries, the Roman Pontiff [Pope] and the Roman +Prince [Emperor]; and the point at issue is whether the authority +<span class="sidebar">The problem to +be considered</span> +of the Roman monarch, who, as proved in the +second book, is rightful monarch of the world, +is derived from God directly, or from some vicar or minister of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">454</a></span> +God, by whom I mean the successor of Peter, indisputable +keeper of the keys of the kingdom of heaven.</p> + +<p>IV. <b>1.</b> Those men to whom the entire subsequent discussion +is directed assert that the authority of the Empire depends on +the authority of the Church, just as the inferior artisan depends +on the architect. They are drawn to this by divers opposing +arguments, some of which they take from Holy Scripture, and +some from certain acts performed by the chief pontiff, and by +the Emperor himself; and they endeavor to make their conviction +reasonable.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> For, first, they maintain that, according to Genesis, God +made two mighty luminaries, a greater and a lesser, the former +to hold supremacy by day and the latter by night [Gen., i. 15, 16]. +These they interpret allegorically to be the two rulers—spiritual +<span class="sidebar">The analogy +of the sun +and moon</span> +and temporal.<a name="FNanchor_612" id="FNanchor_612" href="#Footnote_612" class="fnanchor">[612]</a> Whence they argue that as the +lesser luminary, the moon, has no light but that +gained from the sun, so the temporal ruler has +no authority but that gained from the spiritual ruler.</p> + +<p><b>8.</b> I proceed to refute the above assumption that the two +luminaries of the world typify its two ruling powers. The whole +force of their argument lies in the interpretation; but this we +can prove indefensible in two ways. First, since these ruling +powers are, as it were, accidents necessitated by man himself, +God would seem to have used a distorted order in creating first +accidents, and then the subject necessitating them. It is absurd +to speak thus of God, but it is evident from the Word that the +two lights were created on the fourth day, and man on the sixth.</p> + +<p><b>9.</b> Secondly, the two ruling powers exist as the directors of +men toward certain ends, as will be shown further on. But had +man remained in the state of innocence in which God made him, +he would have required no such direction. These ruling powers +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">455</a></span> +are therefore remedies against the infirmity of sin. Since on +the fourth day man was not only not a sinner, but was not even +<span class="sidebar">An abstruse +bit of mediæval +reasoning</span> +existent, the creation of a remedy would have been +purposeless, which is contrary to divine goodness. +Foolish indeed would be the physician who +should make ready a plaster for the abscess of a man not yet born. +Therefore it cannot be asserted that God made the two ruling +powers on the fourth day; and consequently the meaning of +Moses cannot have been what it is supposed to be.</p> + +<p><b>10.</b> Also, in order to be tolerant, we may refute this fallacy +by distinction. Refutation by distinction deals more gently with +an adversary, for it shows him to be not absolutely wrong, as +does refutation by destruction. I say, then, that although the +moon may have abundant light only as she receives it from the +sun, it does not follow on that account that the moon herself +owes her existence to the sun. It must be recognized that the +essence of the moon, her strength, and her function, are not one +and the same thing. Neither in her essence, her strength, nor +her function taken absolutely, does the moon owe her existence +to the sun, for her movement is impelled by her own force and +her influence by her own rays. Besides, she has a certain light +of her own, as is shown in eclipse. It is in order to fulfill her +function better and more potently that she borrows from the +sun abundance of light, and works thereby more effectively.</p> + +<p><b>11.</b> In like manner, I say, the temporal power receives from +the spiritual neither its existence, nor its strength, which is its +authority, nor even its function, taken absolutely. But well +<span class="sidebar">Why the argument +from the +sun and moon +fails</span> +for her does she receive therefrom, through the +light of grace which the benediction of the chief +pontiff sheds upon it in heaven and on earth, +strength to fulfill her function more perfectly. So the argument +was at fault in form, because the predicate of the conclusion +is not a term of the major premise, as is evident. The +syllogism runs thus: The moon receives light from the sun, which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">456</a></span> +is the spiritual power; the temporal ruling power is the moon; +therefore the temporal receives authority from the spiritual. +They introduce "light" as the term of the major, but "authority" +as predicate of the conclusion, which two things we +have seen to be diverse in subject and significance.</p> + +<p>VIII. <b>1.</b> From the same gospel they quote the saying of +Christ to Peter, "Whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be +loosed in heaven" [Matt., xvi. 19], and understand this saying +to refer alike to all the Apostles, according to the text of Matthew +and John [Matt., xviii. 18 and John, xx. 23]. They reason from +<span class="sidebar">Argument +from the prerogative +of the +keys committed +to Peter</span> +this that the successor of Peter has been granted +of God power to bind and loose all things, and +then infer that he has power to loose the laws +and decrees of the Empire, and to bind the laws +and decrees of the temporal kingdom. Were this true, their +inference would be correct.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> But we must reply to it by making a distinction against +the major premise of the syllogism which they employ. Their +syllogism is this: Peter had power to bind and loose all things; +the successor of Peter has like power with him; therefore the +successor of Peter has power to loose and bind all things. From +this they infer that he has power to loose and bind the laws and +decrees of the Empire.</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> I concede the minor premise, but the major only with distinction. +Wherefore I say that "all," the symbol of the universal +which is implied in "whatsoever," is never distributed +beyond the scope of the distributed term. When I say, "All animals +run," the distribution of "all" comprehends whatever +comes under the genus "animal." But when I say, "All men +run," the symbol of the universal refers only to whatever comes +under the term "man." And when I say, "All grammarians +run," the distribution is narrowed still further.</p> + +<p><b>4.</b> Therefore we must always determine what it is over which +the symbol of the universal is distributed; then, from the recognized +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">457</a></span> +nature and scope of the distributed term, will be easily +apparent the extent of the distribution. Now, were "whatsoever" +to be understood absolutely when it is said, "Whatsoever +thou shalt bind," he would certainly have the power they +claim; nay, he would have even greater power—he would be able +to loose a wife from her husband, and, while the man still lived, +bind her to another—a thing he can in nowise do. He would +be able to absolve me, while impenitent—a thing which God +Himself cannot do.</p> + +<p><b>5.</b> So it is evident that the distribution of the term under +discussion is to be taken, not absolutely, but relatively to something +else. A consideration of the concession to which the distribution +is subjoined will make manifest this related something. +<span class="sidebar">Dante's interpretation +of +the Scripture +in question</span> +Christ said to Peter, "I will give unto +thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven;" that +is, I will make thee doorkeeper of the kingdom +of heaven. Then He adds, "and whatsoever," that is, "everything +which," and He means thereby, "Everything which pertains +to that office thou shalt have power to bind and loose." +And thus the symbol of the universal which is implied in "whatsoever" +is limited in its distribution to the prerogative of the +keys of the kingdom of heaven. Understood thus, the proposition +is true, but understood absolutely, it is obviously not. +Therefore I conclude that, although the successor of Peter has +authority to bind and loose in accordance with the requirements +of the prerogative granted to Peter, it does not follow, as they +claim, that he has authority to bind and loose the decrees or +statutes of empire, unless they prove that this also belongs to +the office of the keys. But further on we shall demonstrate that +the contrary is true.</p> + +<p>XIII. <b>1.</b> Now that we have stated and rejected the errors on +which those chiefly rely who declare that the authority of the +Roman Prince is dependent on the Roman Pontiff,<a name="FNanchor_613" id="FNanchor_613" href="#Footnote_613" class="fnanchor">[613]</a> we must +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">458</a></span> +return and demonstrate the truth of that question which we +propounded for discussion at the beginning. The truth will be +evident enough if it can be shown, under the principle of inquiry +agreed upon, that imperial authority derives immediately from +the summit of all being, which is God. And this will be shown, +whether we prove that imperial authority does not derive from +that of the Church (for the dispute concerns no other authority), +or whether we prove simply that it derives immediately from +God.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> That ecclesiastical authority is not the source of imperial +authority is thus verified. A thing non-existent, or devoid of +active force, cannot be the cause of active force in a thing possessing +that quality in full measure. But before the Church existed, +or while it lacked power to act, the Empire had active force in +<span class="sidebar">The Church +(or papacy) is +not the source +of imperial authority</span> +full measure. Hence the Church is the source, +neither of acting power nor of authority in the +Empire, where power to act and authority are +identical. Let A be the Church, B the Empire, +and C the power or authority of the Empire. If, A being non-existent, +C is in B, the cause of C's relation to B cannot be A, +since it is impossible that an effect should exist prior to its +cause. Moreover, if, A being inoperative, C is in B, the cause of +C's relation to B cannot be A, since it is indispensable for the +production of effect that the cause should be in operation previously, +especially the efficient cause which we are considering +here.</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> The major premise of this demonstration is intelligible +from its terms; the minor is confirmed by Christ and the Church. +Christ attests it, as we said before, in His birth and death. The +Church attests it in Paul's declaration to Festus in the Acts of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">459</a></span> +the Apostles: "I stand at Cæsar's judgment seat, where I ought +to be judged" [Acts, xxv. 10]; and in the admonition of God's +<span class="sidebar">Early Christian +recognition +of the authority +of the +Emperor</span> +angel to Paul a little later: "Fear not, Paul; +thou must be brought before Cæsar" [Acts, xxvii. +24]; and again, still later, in Paul's words to the +Jews dwelling in Italy: "And when the Jews spake +against it, I was constrained to appeal unto Cæsar; not that I +had aught to accuse my nation of," but "that I might deliver +my soul from death" [Acts, xxviii. 19]. If Cæsar had not +already possessed the right to judge temporal matters, Christ +would not have implied that he did, the angel would not have +uttered such words, nor would he who said, "I desire to depart +and be with Christ" [Phil., i. 23], have appealed to an unqualified +judge.</p> + +<p>XIV. <b>1.</b> Besides, if the Church has power to confer authority +on the Roman Prince, she would have it either from God, or +from herself, or from some Emperor, or from the unanimous +consent of mankind, or, at least, from the consent of the most +influential. There is no other least crevice through which the +power could have diffused itself into the Church. But from +none of these has it come to her, and therefore the aforesaid +power is not hers at all.</p> + +<p>XVI. <b>1.</b> Although by the method of reduction to absurdity +it has been shown in the foregoing chapter that the authority of +empire has not its source in the Chief Pontiff, yet it has not been +fully proved, save by an inference, that its immediate source +is God, seeing that if the authority does not depend on the vicar +of God, we conclude that it depends on God Himself. For a +perfect demonstration of the proposition we must prove directly +that the Emperor, or Monarch, of the world has immediate +relationship to the Prince of the universe, who is God.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> In order to realize this, it must be understood that man +alone of all beings holds the middle place between corruptibility +and incorruptibility, and is therefore rightly compared by philosophers +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">460</a></span> +to the horizon which lies between the two hemispheres. +Man may be considered with regard to either of his essential +<span class="sidebar">Positive argument +that the +authority of +the emperor is +derived directly +from God</span> +parts, body or soul. If considered in regard to +the body alone, he is perishable; if in regard to +the soul alone, he is imperishable. So the Philosopher<a name="FNanchor_614" id="FNanchor_614" href="#Footnote_614" class="fnanchor">[614]</a> +spoke well of its incorruptibility when +he said in the second book, <i>On the Soul</i>, "And this only can be +separated as a thing eternal from that which perishes."</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> If man holds a middle place between the perishable and the +imperishable, then, inasmuch as every man shares the nature of +the extremes, man must share both natures. And inasmuch as +every nature is ordained for a certain ultimate end, it follows +that there exists for man a two-fold end, in order that as he alone +of all beings partakes of the perishable and the imperishable, so +he alone of all beings should be ordained for two ultimate ends. +One end is for that in him which is perishable, the other for that +which is imperishable.</p> + +<p><b>4.</b> Omniscient Providence has thus designed two ends to be +contemplated by man: first, the happiness of this life, which consists +<span class="sidebar">Double aspect +of human life</span> +in the activity of his natural powers, and is +prefigured by the terrestrial Paradise; and then +the blessedness of life everlasting, which consists in the enjoyment +of the countenance of God, to which man's natural powers +may not obtain unless aided by divine light, and which may be +symbolized by the celestial Paradise.<a name="FNanchor_615" id="FNanchor_615" href="#Footnote_615" class="fnanchor">[615]</a></p> + +<p><b>5.</b> To these states of blessedness, just as to diverse conclusions, +man must come by diverse means. To the former we come by +the teachings of philosophy, obeying them by acting in conformity +with the moral and intellectual virtues; to the latter, through +spiritual teachings which transcend human reason, and which +we obey by acting in conformity with the theological virtues, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">461</a></span> +faith, hope, and charity. Now the former end and means are +made known to us by human reason, which the philosophers +have wholly explained to us; and the latter by the Holy Spirit, +which has revealed to us supernatural but essential truth through +the prophets and sacred writers, through Jesus Christ, the coëternal +Son of God, and through His disciples. Nevertheless, human +passion would cast these behind, were not man, like horses +astray in their brutishness, held to the road by bit and rein.</p> + +<p><b>6.</b> Wherefore a twofold directive agent was necessary to man, +in accordance with the twofold end; the Supreme Pontiff to lead +the human race to life eternal by means of revelation, and the +Emperor to guide it to temporal well-being by means of philosophic +instruction. And since none or few—and these with exceeding +<span class="sidebar">The proper +functions of +Pope and Emperor</span> +difficulty—could attain this port, were +not the waves of seductive desire calmed, and +mankind made free to rest in the tranquillity of +peace, therefore this is the goal which he whom we call the +guardian of the earth and Roman Prince should most urgently +seek; then would it be possible for life on this mortal threshing-floor +to pass in freedom and peace. The order of the world follows +the order inherent in the revolution of the heavens. To +attain this order it is necessary that instruction productive of +liberality and peace should be applied by the guardian of the +realm, in due place and time, as dispensed by Him who is the +ever-present Watcher of the whole order of the heavens. And +He alone foreordained this order, that by it, in His providence, +He might link together all things, each in its own place.</p> + +<p><b>7.</b> If this is so, and there is none higher than He, only God +elects and only God confirms. Whence we may further conclude +that neither those who are now, nor those who in any way +whatsoever have been, called electors<a name="FNanchor_616" id="FNanchor_616" href="#Footnote_616" class="fnanchor">[616]</a> have the right to be so +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">462</a></span> +called; rather should they be entitled heralds of Divine Providence. +Whence it is that those in whom is vested the dignity +of proclamation suffer dissension among themselves at times, +when, all or part of them being shadowed by the clouds of +passion, they discern not the face of God's dispensation.</p> + +<p><b>8.</b> It is established, then, that the authority of temporal +monarchy descends without mediation from the fountain of +universal authority. And this fountain, one in its purity of +source, flows into multifarious channels out of the abundance +of its excellence.</p> + +<p><b>9.</b> I believe I have now approached sufficiently close to the goal +I had set myself, for I have taken the kernels of truth from the +husks of falsehood, in that question which asked whether the +office of monarchy was essential to the welfare of the world, and +in the next which made inquiry whether the Roman people +rightfully appropriated the empire, and in the last which sought +whether the authority of the monarch derived from God directly, +or from some other. But the truth of this final question must +not be restricted to mean that the Roman Prince shall not be +<span class="sidebar">The ideal relation +of the +two powers</span> +subject in some degree to the Roman Pontiff, for +well-being that is mortal is ordered in a measure +after well-being that is immortal. Wherefore let +Cæsar honor Peter as a first-born son should honor his father, +so that, brilliant with the light of paternal grace, he may illumine +with greater radiance the earthly sphere over which he has been +set by Him who alone is Ruler of all things spiritual and temporal.<a name="FNanchor_617" id="FNanchor_617" href="#Footnote_617" class="fnanchor">[617]</a></p> + +<h4>81. Petrarch's Love of the Classics</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>Francesco Petrarca was born at Arezzo in northern Italy in July, +1304. His father was a Florentine notary who had been banished by +the same decree with Dante in 1302, and who finally settled at Avignon +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">463</a></span> +in 1313 to practice his profession in the neighborhood of the papal court. +Petrarch was destined by his father for the law and was sent to study +that subject at Montpellier and subsequently at Bologna. But from the +moment when he first got hold of the Latin classics, notably Cicero and +Vergil, he found his interest in legal subjects absolutely at an end. He +was charmed by the literary power of the ancients, as he certainly was +not by the logic and learning of the jurists, and though his father endeavored +to discourage what he regarded as a sheer waste of time by +burning the young enthusiast's precious Latin books, the love of the +classics, once aroused, was never crushed out and the literary instinct +remained dominant. The beginnings of the Renaissance spirit, which +are so discernible in Dante, become in Petrarch the full expression of +the new age. In the words of Professor Adams, "In him we clearly +find, as controlling personal traits, all those specific features of the Renaissance +which give it its distinguishing character as an intellectual +revolution, and from their strong beginning in him they have never +ceased among men. In the first place, he felt as no other man had done +since the ancient days the beauty of nature and the pleasure of mere +life, its sufficiency for itself; and he had also a sense of ability and power, +and a self-confidence which led him to plan great things, and to hope +for an immortality of fame in this world. In the second place, he had +a most keen sense of the unity of past history, of the living bond of connection +between himself and men of like sort in the ancient world. That +world was for him no dead antiquity, but he lived and felt in it and with +its poets and thinkers, as if they were his neighbors. His love for it +amounted almost, if we may call it so, to an ecstatic enthusiasm, hardly +understood by his own time, but it kindled in many others a similar +feeling which has come down to us. The result is easily recognized in +him as a genuine culture, the first of modern men in whom this can be +found.... Finally, Petrarch first put the modern spirit into conscious +opposition to the mediæval. The Renaissance meant rebellion +and revolution. It meant a long and bitter struggle against the whole +scholastic system, and all the follies and superstitions which flourished +under its protection. Petrarch opened the attack along the whole line. +Physicians, lawyers, astrologers, scholastic philosophers, the universities—all +were enemies of the new learning, and so his enemies. And these +attacks were not in set and formal polemics alone, his letters and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">464</a></span> +almost all his writings were filled with them. It was the business of +his life."<a name="FNanchor_618" id="FNanchor_618" href="#Footnote_618" class="fnanchor">[618]</a></p> + +<p>In the latter part of his life Petrarch enjoyed the highest renown +throughout Europe. The cities of Italy, especially, vied with one another +in showering honors upon him. A decree of the Venetian senate affirmed +that no Christian poet or philosopher could be compared with him. +Arezzo, the town of his birth, awarded him a triumphal procession. +Florence bought the estates once confiscated from his father and begged +him to accept them as a meager gift to one "who for centuries had no +equal and could scarcely find one in the ages to come." The climax +came in 1341 when both the University of Paris and the Roman Senate +invited him to present himself and receive the poet's crown, in revival +of an old and all but forgotten ceremony of special honor. The invitation +from Rome was accepted and the celebration attending the coronation +was one of the most splendid of the age. In 1350 Petrarch became +acquainted with Boccaccio and thenceforth there existed the warmest +friendship between these two great exponents of Renaissance ideals and +achievement. In 1369 he retired to Arquà, near Padua, where he died +in 1374.</p> + +<p>Besides his poems Petrarch wrote a great number of letters, some in +Latin and some in Italian. Letter-writing was indeed a veritable passion +with him; and he not only wrote freely but was careful to preserve copies +of what he wrote. His prose correspondence has been classified in four +divisions. The largest one comprises three hundred forty-seven letters, +written between the years 1332 and 1362, and given the general title of +<i>De Rebus Familiaribus</i>, because in them only topics presumably of everyday +interest were discussed and without particular attention to style. +The second group, the so-called <i>Epistolæ Variæ</i>, numbers about seventy. +The third, the <i>Epistolæ de Rebus Senilibus</i> ("Letters of Old Age"), includes +one hundred twenty-four letters written during the last twelve +years of the poet's life. The fourth, comprising about twenty letters, +was made up of epistles containing such sharp criticism of the papal +régime at Avignon that the author thought it best to suppress the names +of those to whom they were addressed. Their general designation, +therefore, is <i>Epistolæ sine Titulo</i>. The following passages are taken from +a letter found in the <i>Epistolæ Variæ</i>. It was written to a literary friend, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">465</a></span> +August 18, 1360, while Petrarch was at Milan, uncertain whither the political +storms of the period would finally drive him. In the portion which +precedes that given below the writer has been commenting on various +invitations which had reached him from friends in Padua, Florence, +and even beyond the Alps. This gives him occasion to lament the +unsettled conditions of his times and to voice the longing of the scholar +for peace and quiet. Thence he proceeds to speak of matters which +reveal in an interesting way his passionate love for the beauties of classical +literature and his sympathy with its dominant ideas. Cicero was his +favorite Latin author; after him, Vergil and Ovid. Greek literature, +unfortunately, it was impossible for him to know at first hand. In spite +of a lifelong desire, and at least one determined effort (which is referred +to in the letter below), he never acquired even a rudimentary reading +knowledge of the Greek language. At best he could only read fragments +of Homer, Plato, and Aristotle in extremely faulty Latin translations.<a name="FNanchor_619" id="FNanchor_619" href="#Footnote_619" class="fnanchor">[619]</a></p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Franciscus Petrarca, <i>Epistolæ de Rebus Familiaribus et Variæ</i> +["Letters of Friendly Intercourse, and Miscellaneous Letters"], +edited by J. Fracassetti (Florence, 1869), Vol. III., pp. 364-371. +Adapted from translation in Merrick Whitcomb, <i>Source Book of +the Italian Renaissance</i> (Philadelphia, 1903), pp. 14-21 <i>passim</i>.</p> + +<p>If you should ask me, in the midst of these opinions of my +friends, what I myself think of the matter, I can only reply that +I long for a place where solitude, leisure, repose, and silence +reign, however far from wealth and honors, power and favors. +But I confess I know not where to find it. My own secluded +nook, where I have hoped not only to live, but even to die, has +lost all the advantages it once possessed, even that of safety. +<span class="sidebar">Petrarch's +longing for +peace and +seclusion</span> +I call to witness thirty or more volumes, which +I left there recently, thinking that no place +could be more secure, and which, a little later, +having escaped from the hands of robbers and returned, against +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">466</a></span> +all hope, to their master, seem yet to blanch and tremble and +show upon their foreheads the troubled condition of the place +whence they have escaped. Therefore I have lost all hope of +revisiting this charming retreat, this longed-for country spot. +Still, if the opportunity were offered me, I should seize it with +both hands and hold it fast. I do not know whether I still +possess a glimmer of hope, or am feigning it for self-deception, +and to feed my soul's desire with empty expectation.</p> + +<p>But I proceed, remembering that we had much conversation on +this point last year, when we lived together in the same house, in +this very city [Milan]; and that after having examined the matter +most carefully, in so far as our light permitted, we came to the +conclusion that while the affairs of Italy, and of Europe, remain +in this condition, there is no place safer and better for my +needs than Milan, nor any place that suits me so well. We +made exception only of the city of Padua, whither I went +<span class="sidebar">Drawbacks of +even Milan +and Padua</span> +shortly after and whither I shall soon return; +not that I may obliterate or diminish—that I +should not wish—but that I may soften the +regret which my absence causes the citizens of both places. I +know not whether you have changed your opinion since that +time; but for me I am convinced that to exchange the tumult +of this great city and its annoyances for the annoyances of +another city would bring me no advantage, perhaps some inconvenience, +and beyond a doubt, much fatigue. Ah, if this +tranquil solitude, which, in spite of all my seeking, I never +find, as I have told you, should ever show itself on any side, +you will hear, not that I have gone, but that I have flown, to +it....</p> + +<p>In the succeeding paragraph of your letter you jest with much +elegance, saying that I have been wounded by Cicero without +having deserved it, on account of our too great intimacy.<a name="FNanchor_620" id="FNanchor_620" href="#Footnote_620" class="fnanchor">[620]</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">467</a></span> +"Because," you say, "those who are nearest to us most often +injure us, and it is extremely rare that an Indian does an injury +<span class="sidebar">Common +indifference +to people and +events near at +hand</span> +to a Spaniard." True it is. It is on this account +that in reading of the wars of the Athenians +and Lacedaemonians, and in contemplating the +troubles of our own people with our neighbors, +we are never struck with astonishment; still less so at the sight +of the civil wars and domestic troubles which habit has made +of so little account that concord itself would more easily cause +surprise. But when we read that the king of Scythia has come +to blows with the king of Egypt, and that Alexander of Macedonia +has penetrated to the ends of India, we experience a sensation +of astonishment which the reading of our histories, filled +as they are with the deeds of Roman bravery in their distant +expeditions, does not afford. You bring me consolation, in +representing me as having been wounded by Cicero, to whom I +am fondly attached, a thing that would probably never happen +to me, at the hands of either Hippocrates<a name="FNanchor_621" id="FNanchor_621" href="#Footnote_621" class="fnanchor">[621]</a> or Albumazar....<a name="FNanchor_622" id="FNanchor_622" href="#Footnote_622" class="fnanchor">[622]</a></p> + +<p>You ask me to lend you the copy of Homer that was on sale at +Padua, if, as you suppose, I have purchased it (since, you say, I +have for a long time possessed another copy) so that our friend +<span class="sidebar">A request +for a copy +of Homer</span> +Leo<a name="FNanchor_623" id="FNanchor_623" href="#Footnote_623" class="fnanchor">[623]</a> may translate it from Greek into Latin +for your benefit and for the benefit of our other +studious compatriots. I saw this book, but +neglected the opportunity of acquiring it, because it seemed +inferior to my own. It can easily be had with the aid of the +person to whom I owe my friendship with Leo; a letter from +that source would be all-powerful in the matter, and I will myself +write him.</p> + +<p>If by chance the book escape us, which seems to be very +unlikely, I will let you have mine. I have been always fond of +this particular translation and of Greek literature in general, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">468</a></span> +and if fortune had not frowned upon my beginnings, in the sad +death of my excellent master, I should be perhaps to-day something +<span class="sidebar">Fondness +for Greek +literature</span> +more than a Greek still at his alphabet. I +approve with all my heart and strength your +enterprise, for I regret and am indignant that an +ancient translation, presumably the work of Cicero, the commencement +of which Horace inserted in his <i>Ars Poetica</i>,<a name="FNanchor_624" id="FNanchor_624" href="#Footnote_624" class="fnanchor">[624]</a> should +have been lost to the Latin world, together with many other +works. It angers me to see so much solicitude for the bad and +so much neglect of the good. But what is to be done? We +must be resigned....</p> + +<p>I wish to take this opportunity of warning you of one thing, +lest later on I should regret having passed it over in silence. +If, as you say, the translation is to be made literally in prose, +listen for a moment to the opinion of St. Jerome as expressed in +his preface to the book, <i>De Temporibus</i>, by Eusebius of Cæsarea, +which he translated into Latin.<a name="FNanchor_625" id="FNanchor_625" href="#Footnote_625" class="fnanchor">[625]</a> Here are the very words of this +great man, well acquainted with these two languages, and indeed +with many others, and of special fame for his art of translating: +<span class="sidebar">Difficulty +of translating +works of literature</span> +<i>If any one</i>, he says, <i>refuses to believe that translation +lessens the peculiar charm of the original, let +him render Homer into Latin, word for word; I +will say further, let him translate it into prose in his own tongue, +and he will see a ridiculous array and the most eloquent of poets +transformed into a stammerer.</i> I tell you this for your own good, +while it is yet time, in order that so important a work may not +prove useless. As for me, I wish the work to be done, whether +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">469</a></span> +well or ill. I am so famished for literature that just as he who is +ravenously hungry is not inclined to quarrel with the cook's +art, so I await with a lively impatience whatever dishes are to be +set before my soul. And in truth, the morsel in which the same +Leo, translating into Latin prose the beginning of Homer, has +<span class="sidebar">Longing for +the translation +of Homer</span> +given me a foretaste of the whole work, although +it confirms the sentiment of St. Jerome, does not +displease me. It possesses, in fact, a secret charm, +as certain viands, which have failed to take a moulded shape, +although they are lacking in form, preserve nevertheless their +taste and odor. May he continue with the aid of Heaven, and +may he give us Homer, who has been lost to us!</p> + +<p>In asking of me the volume of Plato which I have with me, +and which escaped the fire at my transalpine country house, +you give me proof of your ardor, and I shall hold this book at +<span class="sidebar">A loan of a +volume of +Plato</span> +your disposal, whenever the time shall come. +I wish to aid with all my power such noble enterprises. +But beware lest it should be unbecoming +to unite in one bundle these two great princes of Greece, lest +the weight of these two spirits should overwhelm mortal shoulders. +Let your messenger undertake, with God's aid, one of the two, +and first him who has written many centuries before the other. +Farewell.</p> + +<h4>82. Petrarch's Letter to Posterity</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The following is a letter of Petrarch addressed, by a curious whim, to +Posterity. It gives an excellent idea of the poet's opinion of himself and +reveals the sort of things that interested the typical man of culture in +the early Renaissance period. It is supposed to have been written in +the year 1370, when Petrarch had completed the sixty-sixth year of +his life. The letter betrays a longing for individual fame which was +common in classical times and during the Renaissance, but not in the +Middle Ages. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">470</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Franciscus Petrarca, <i>Epistolæ de Rebus Familiaribus et Variæ</i> ["Letters +of Friendly Intercourse, and Miscellaneous Letters"], edited by +J. Fracassetti (Florence, 1869), Vol. I., pp. 1-11. Translated in +James H. Robinson and Henry W. Rolfe, <i>Petrarch, the First Modern +Scholar and Man of Letters</i> (New York, 1898), pp. 59-76 <i>passim</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Francis Petrarch, to Posterity, greeting</i>:</p> + +<p>It is possible that some word of me may have come to you, +though even this is doubtful, since an insignificant and obscure +name will scarcely penetrate far in either time or space. If, +however, you should have heard of me, you may desire to know +what manner of man I was, or what was the outcome of my +labors, especially those of which some description or, at any +rate, the bare titles may have reached you.</p> + +<p>To begin, then, with myself. The utterances of men concerning +me will differ widely, since in passing judgment almost every +one is influenced not so much by truth as by preference, and good +and evil report alike know no bounds. I was, in truth, a poor +<span class="sidebar">Petrarch's +early life</span> +mortal like yourself, neither very exalted in my +origin, nor, on the other hand, of the most humble +birth, but belonging, as Augustus Cæsar says of himself, +to an ancient family. As to my disposition, I was not naturally +perverse or wanting in modesty, however the contagion of evil +associations may have corrupted me.</p> + +<p>My youth was gone before I realized it; I was carried away by +the strength of manhood. But a riper age brought me to my +senses and taught me by experience the truth I had long before +read in books, that youth and pleasure are vanity—nay, that +the Author of all ages and times permits us miserable mortals, +puffed up with emptiness, thus to wander about, until finally, +coming to a tardy consciousness of our sins, we shall learn to +know ourselves.</p> + +<p>In my prime I was blessed with a quick and active body, although +not exceptionally strong; and while I do +<span class="sidebar">Physical +appearance</span> +not lay claim to remarkable personal beauty, I +was comely enough in my best days. I was possessed of a clear +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">471</a></span> +complexion, between light and dark, lively eyes, and for long +years a keen vision, which, however, deserted me, contrary to +my hopes, after I reached my sixtieth birthday, and forced +me, to my great annoyance, to resort to glasses.<a name="FNanchor_626" id="FNanchor_626" href="#Footnote_626" class="fnanchor">[626]</a> Although I had +previously enjoyed perfect health, old age brought with it the +usual array of discomforts.</p> + +<p>My parents were honorable folk, Florentine in their origin, of +medium fortune, or, I may as well admit it, in a condition verging +upon poverty. They had been expelled from their native city,<a name="FNanchor_627" id="FNanchor_627" href="#Footnote_627" class="fnanchor">[627]</a> +and consequently I was born in exile, at Arezzo, in the year 1304 +of this latter age, which begins with Christ's birth, July the 20th, +on a Monday, at dawn. I have always possessed an extreme +contempt for wealth; not that riches are not desirable in themselves, +but because I hate the anxiety and care which are invariably +associated with them. I certainly do not long to be +able to give gorgeous banquets. I have, on the contrary, led a +<span class="sidebar">Preference for +plain and sensible +living</span> +happier existence with plain living and ordinary +fare than all the followers of Apicius,<a name="FNanchor_628" id="FNanchor_628" href="#Footnote_628" class="fnanchor">[628]</a> with their +elaborate dainties. So-called convivia, which +are but vulgar bouts, sinning against sobriety and good manners, +have always been repugnant to me. I have ever felt that it was +irksome and profitless to invite others to such affairs, and not +less so to be bidden to them myself. On the other hand, the +pleasure of dining with one's friends is so great that nothing +has ever given me more delight than their unexpected arrival, +nor have I ever willingly sat down to table without a companion. +Nothing displeases me more than display, for not only is it bad +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">472</a></span> +in itself and opposed to humility, but it is troublesome and distracting.</p> + +<p>In my familiar associations with kings and princes, and in +my friendship with noble personages, my good fortune has been +such as to excite envy. But it is the cruel fate of those who +<span class="sidebar">Intimacy with +renowned men</span> +are growing old that they can commonly only +weep for friends who have passed away. The +greatest kings of this age have loved and courted me. They +may know why; I certainly do not. With some of them I was +on such terms that they seemed in a certain sense my guests +rather than I theirs; their lofty position in no way embarrassing +me, but, on the contrary, bringing with it many advantages. +I fled, however, from many of those to whom I was greatly attached; +and such was my innate longing for liberty that I +studiously avoided those whose very name seemed incompatible +with the freedom that I loved.</p> + +<p>I possessed a well-balanced rather than a keen intellect—one +prone to all kinds of good and wholesome study, but especially +inclined to moral philosophy and the art of poetry. +The latter, indeed, I neglected as time went on, and took delight +in sacred literature. Finding in that a hidden sweetness +which I had once esteemed but lightly, I came to regard the +works of the poets as only amenities.</p> + +<p>Among the many subjects that interested me, I dwelt especially +upon antiquity, for our own age has always repelled me, +<span class="sidebar">Admiration +for antiquity</span> +so that, had it not been for the love of those +dear to me, I should have preferred to have been +born in any other period than our own. In order to forget my +own time, I have constantly striven to place myself in spirit +in other ages, and consequently I delighted in history. The +conflicting statements troubled me, but when in doubt I accepted +what appeared most probable, or yielded to the authority +of the writer.</p> + +<p>My style, as many claimed, was clear and forcible; but to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">473</a></span> +me it seemed weak and obscure. In ordinary conversation with +friends, or with those about me, I never gave thought to my language, +and I have always wondered that Augustus Cæsar should +<span class="sidebar">Attitude toward +literary +style</span> +have taken such pains in this respect. When, +however, the subject itself, or the place or the +listener, seemed to demand it, I gave some attention +to style, with what success I cannot pretend to say; +let them judge in whose presence I spoke. If only I have lived +well, it matters little to me how I talked. Mere elegance of +language can produce at best but an empty renown....</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">474</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXVII.<br /> +FORESHADOWINGS OF THE REFORMATION</h3> + +<h4>83. The Reply of Wyclif to the Summons of Pope Urban VI. (1384)</h4> + +<div class="intro"> +<p>The fourteenth century was an era of religious decline in England, +as indeed more or less generally throughout western Europe. The papacy +was at its lowest ebb, unable to command either respect or obedience, +except among the clergy and certain of the common people; bishops +and abbots had grown wealthy and worldly and were often utterly neglectful +of their religious obligations; and among the masses the services +of worship had frequently become mere hollow formalities. There +were still many good men in the Church, men who in an unpretentious +way sought to do their duty faithfully; but of large numbers—possibly +the majority—of both the higher and lower clergy this could not be said. +The dissatisfaction of the people with industrial conditions which +prompted the uprising of 1381 was accompanied by an almost equal +discontent with the shortcomings of the selfish and avaricious clergy. +It was harder, of course, to arouse men to an active hostility to the +existing ecclesiastical system than to the industrial régime, because the +Church still maintained a very close hold upon the sentiments and attachments +of the average individual. Still, there were people here and +there who were outspoken for reform, and chief among these was John +Wyclif.</p> + +<p>Wyclif was born in Yorkshire about 1320 and was educated at Oxford, +where in time he became a leading teacher. He was one of those who +saw clearly the evils of the times and did not lack the courage to speak +out plainly against them. As early as 1366 he had denounced the claims +of the papacy, in a pamphlet, <i>De Dominio Divino</i>, declaring that the +pope ought to have no authority whatsoever over states and governments. +This position he never yielded and it became one of the cardinal +features of his teaching. He attacked the clergy for their wealth, their +self-seeking, and their subservience to the pope, and hurled denunciation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">475</a></span> +at the whole body of friars and vendors of indulgences with whom England +was thronged. He even assailed the doctrines of the Church, +particularly as to transubstantiation, the efficacy of confession to priests, +and the nature of the sacraments. His teachings were very acceptable to +large numbers of people who were disgusted with existing conditions, +and hence he soon came to have a considerable body of followers, known +as the Lollards, who, though not regularly organized into a sect, carried +on in later times the work which Wyclif and his "poor priests" had begun.</p> + +<p>In 1377 Pope Gregory XI. issued a bull in which he roundly condemned +Wyclif and reproved the University of Oxford for not taking active steps +to suppress the growing heresy; but it had little or no effect. In 1378 +Gregory died and two popes were elected to succeed him—Clement VII. +at Avignon and Urban VI. at Rome [see <a href="#Page_389">p. 389</a>]. The Schism that +resulted prevented further action for a time against Wyclif. In England, +however, the uprising of 1381 aroused the government to the expediency +of suppressing popular agitators, and in a church council at London, +May 19, 1382, Wyclif's doctrines were formally condemned. In 1383 +Oxford was compelled to banish all the Lollards from her walls and by +the time of Wyclif's death in 1384 the new belief seemed to be pretty +thoroughly suppressed. In reality it lived on by the more or less secret +attachment of thousands of people to it, and became one of the great +preparatory forces for the English Reformation a century and a half +later. The document given below is a modernized version of a letter +written by Wyclif to Pope Urban VI. in 1384 in response to a summons +to appear at Rome to be tried for heresy. The letter was written in +Latin and the English translation (given below) prepared by the writer's +followers for distribution among Englishmen represents somewhat of an +enlargement of the original document. When Wyclif wrote the letter +he was in the last year of his life and was so disabled by paralysis that +a journey to Rome was quite impossible.</p> +</div> + +<p class="source">Source—Text in Thomas Arnold, <i>Select English Works of John Wyclif</i> +(Oxford, 1869), Vol. III., pp. 504-506. Adapted, with modernized +spelling, in Guy Carleton Lee, <i>Source Book of English History</i> (New +York, 1900), pp. 212-214.</p> + +<p>I have joyfully to tell what I hold, to all true men that believe, +and especially to the pope; for I suppose that if my faith be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">476</a></span> +rightful and given of God, the pope will gladly confirm it; and +if my faith be error, the pope will wisely amend it.</p> + +<p>I suppose over this that the gospel of Christ be heart of the +corps [body] of God's law; for I believe that Jesus Christ, that +gave in His own person this gospel, is very God and very man, +and by this heart passes all other laws.</p> + +<p>I suppose over this that the pope be most obliged to the +keeping of the gospel among all men that live here; for the pope is +<span class="sidebar">The pope's +high obligation</span> +highest vicar that Christ has here in earth. For +moreness of Christ's vicar is not measured by +worldly moreness, but by this, that this vicar +follows more Christ by virtuous living; for thus teacheth the +gospel, that this is the sentence of Christ.</p> + +<p>And of this gospel I take as believe, that Christ for time that +He walked here, was most poor man of all, both in spirit and in +having [possessions]; for Christ says that He had nought for to +rest His head on. And Paul says that He was made needy for +<span class="sidebar">Christ's earthly +poverty</span> +our love. And more poor might no man be, +neither bodily nor in spirit. And thus Christ put +from Him all manner of worldly lordship. For the gospel of John +telleth that when they would have made Christ king, He fled +and hid Him from them, for He would none such worldly highness.</p> + +<p>And over this I take it as believe, that no man should follow +the pope, nor no saint that now is in heaven, but in as much as he +[the pope] follows Christ. For John and James erred when they +<span class="sidebar">How far men +ought to follow +the pope</span> +coveted worldly highness; and Peter and Paul +sinned also when they denied and blasphemed +in Christ; but men should not follow them in +this, for then they went from Jesus Christ. And this I take as +wholesome counsel, that the pope leave his worldly lordship to +<span class="sidebar">The pope exhorted +to give +up temporal +authority</span> +worldly lords, as Christ gave them,—and more +speedily all his clerks [clergy] to do so. For +thus did Christ, and taught thus His disciples, +till the fiend [Satan] had blinded this world. And it seems +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">477</a></span> +to some men that clerks that dwell lastingly in this error against +God's law, and flee to follow Christ in this, been open heretics, +and their fautors [supporters] been partners.</p> + +<p>And if I err in this sentence, I will meekly be amended [corrected], +yea, by the death, if it be skilful [necessary], for that I +hope were good to me. And if I might travel in mine own person, +I would with good will go to the pope. But God has needed me +to the contrary, and taught me more obedience to God than to +men. And I suppose of our pope that he will not be Antichrist, +and reverse Christ in this working, to the contrary of Christ's +will; for if he summon against reason, by him or by any of his, +<span class="sidebar">The pope +should not demand +what is +contrary to the +divine will</span> +and pursue this unskilful summoning, he is an +open Antichrist. And merciful intent excused +not Peter, that Christ should not clepe [call] him +Satan; so blind intent and wicked counsel excuses +not the pope here; but if he ask of true priests that they +travel more than they may, he is not excused by reason of God, +that he should not be Antichrist. For our belief teaches us that +our blessed God suffers us not to be tempted more than we may; +how should a man ask such service? And therefore pray we to +God for our Pope Urban the Sixth, that his old [early] holy intent +be not quenched by his enemies. And Christ, that may not lie, +says that the enemies of a man been especially his home family; +and this is sooth of men and fiends. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">479</a></span></p> + +<h2>INDEX</h2> + +<p class="center">[Note—The numbers refer to pages.]</p> +<div class="index"> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="idx"><a name="Aachen" id="Aachen"></a>Aachen, Charlemagne's capital, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>basilica at, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li> +<li>assembly at, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li> +<li>capitulary for the <i>missi</i> promulgated from, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> +<li>in territory assigned to Lothair, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Abbeville, English and French armies at, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> + +<li>Abbo, account of siege of Paris, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>-<a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> + +<li>Abbot, character and duties of, defined in Benedictine Rule, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-<a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + +<li>Abelard, at Paris, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> + +<li>Abu-Bekr, Mohammed's successor, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Acta Sanctorum</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>-<a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li>Adalbero, archbishop of Rheims, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>speech at Senlis, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>-<a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li> +<li>urges election as true basis of Frankish kingship, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li> +<li>opposes candidacy of Charles of Lower Lorraine, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li> +<li>speaks in behalf of Hugh Capet, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Adrianople, battle of, importance, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>-<a href="#Page_38">38</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>described by Ammianus Marcellinus, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Ægidius, "king of the Romans," <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-<a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li>Ælfthryth, daughter of Alfred the Great, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> + +<li>Agincourt, English victory at, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li> + +<li>Agius, bishop of Orleans, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + +<li>Agriculture, among the early Germans, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li>Aids, nature of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>defined by Norman custom, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>-<a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li> +<li>specified in Great Charter, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>-<a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Ain Tulut, battle of, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> + +<li>Aix-la-Chapelle (see <a href="#Aachen">Aachen</a>).</li> + +<li>Alaf [Alavivus], a Visigothic chieftain, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li>Alaric, king of the Visigoths, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Syagrius takes refuge with, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> +<li>delivers Syagrius to Clovis, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> +<li>interview with Clovis, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> +<li>defeated and slain by Clovis near Poitiers, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Albar, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> + +<li>Alcuin, brought to Charlemagne's court, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>in the Palace School, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Alemanni, defeated by Clovis at Strassburg, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> + +<li>Alessandria, founded, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li> + +<li>Alexander II., approves William the Conqueror's project to invade England, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> + +<li>Alexander III., <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li> + +<li>Alexander V., elected pope, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> + +<li>Alexius Comnenus, appeals to Urban II., <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> + +<li>Alfonso XI., of Castile, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> + +<li>Alfred the Great, biography by Asser, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>becomes king of the English, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li> +<li>fights the Danes at Wilton, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li> +<li>constructs a navy, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> +<li>defeats Danes at Swanwich, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> +<li>in refuge at Athelney, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li> +<li>meets English people at Egbert's stone, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li> +<li>defeats Danes at Ethandune, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li> +<li>peace of Guthrum and, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> +<li>negotiates treaty of Wedmore, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> +<li>interest in education, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> +<li>literary activity, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> +<li>care for his children, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li> +<li>varied pursuits, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li> +<li>piety, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li> +<li>regret at lack of education, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li> +<li>search for learned men, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>-<a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> +<li>letter to Bishop Werfrith, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>-<a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li> +<li>laws, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>-<a href="#Page_195">195</a>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">480</a></span></li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Alith, mother of St. Bernard, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>-<a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> + +<li>Alp Arslan, defeats Eastern emperor at Manzikert, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> + +<li>Amalric, king of the Visigoths, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li>Amboise, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + +<li>Ammianus Marcellinus, author of a Roman History, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>facts concerning life, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>-<a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-<a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Amusements, of the early Germans, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>-<a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + +<li>Anagni, Boniface VIII. taken captive at, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> + +<li>Angelo, companion of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + +<li>Angers, Northmen at, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + +<li>Angilbert, a Carolingian poet, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> + +<li>Angoulême, captured by Clovis, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-<a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Annales Bertiniani</i>, scope, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>-<a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Annales Laureshamensis</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-<a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Annales Laurissenses Minores</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>-<a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Annales Xantenses</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>-<a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li>Annals, origin and character of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-<a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>Annates, defined, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li>Antioch, crusaders arrive at, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>siege and capture of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>-<a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Apicius, Marcus Gavius, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li> + +<li>Arabs, overrun Syria, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> + +<li>Arezzo, Petrarch born at, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li> + +<li>Arianism, adopted by Germans, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>refuted by ordeal of hot water, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>-<a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Aristotle, Dante cites, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li> + +<li>Arles, Council of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + +<li>Armagnacs, in later Hundred Years' War, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li> + +<li>Armenia, crusaders in, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> + +<li>Arnold Atton, forfeiture of fief, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>-<a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> + +<li>Arnold of Bonneval, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> + +<li>Arpent, a land measure, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li>Arras, treaty of, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li> + +<li>Arteveld, James van, connection with Hundred Years' War, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> + +<li>Articles of the Barons, relation to the Great Charter, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> + +<li>Asnapium, inventory of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li>Assam, conquered by the crusaders, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> + +<li>Assembly, the German, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-<a href="#Page_27">27</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>the Saxon, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Asser, biography of Alfred the Great, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> + +<li>Assisi, birth-place of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>-<a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + +<li>Athanaric, a Visigothic chieftain, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-<a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li>Athelney, Alfred in refuge at, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + +<li>Augustine, sent to Britain by Pope Gregory, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>constituted abbot, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li> +<li>lands at Thanet, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> +<li>preaches to King Ethelbert, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li> +<li>life at Canterbury, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Augustus, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li>Aurelian, cedes Dacia to the Visigoths, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Ausculta Fili</i>, issued by Boniface VIII., <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li> + +<li>Auvillars, forfeited by Arnold Atton, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> + +<li>Avignon, popes resident at, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li>Aylesford, Horsa slain in battle at, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li class="idx">Babylon (Cairo), St. Louis advances on, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li> + +<li>Babylonian Captivity, begins, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li>Ban, of the emperor, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li>Basel, Council of, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li> + +<li>Battle Abbey, founded by William the Conqueror, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> + +<li>Baugulf, Charlemagne's letter to, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> + +<li>Bavaria, annexed to Charlemagne's kingdom, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> + +<li>Bayeux, Odo, bishop of, imprisoned, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li> + +<li>Beatrice, Dante's love affair with, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">481</a></span></li> + +<li>Beauchamp, William de, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> + +<li>Beaumont, birth of Froissart at, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> + +<li>Bede, facts regarding life of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>"Ecclesiastical History of the English People," <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> +<li>account of the Saxon invasion, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li>account of Augustine's mission to Britain, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-<a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Bedford, castle of, English barons at, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>-<a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> + +<li>Bellona, Roman goddess of war, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + +<li>Benedict XIII., deposed from papacy, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li> + +<li>Benedictine Rule, nature and purpose, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>translation of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-<a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> +<li>character and duties of the abbot, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-<a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li> +<li>the monks to be called in council, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> +<li>the Rule always to be obeyed, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> +<li>monks to own no property individually, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-<a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> +<li>daily manual labor, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> +<li>reading during Lent, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li> +<li>hospitality, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Benefice, origin and development, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>relation to vassalage, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li> +<li>example of grant, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>-<a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Beowulf, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> + +<li>Bernardone, Pietro, father of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Bernardus Clarævallensis</i> (by William of St. Thierry), quoted, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>-<a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>-<a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li>Berno, abbot of Cluny, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> + +<li>Bertha, queen of Kent, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + +<li>Bertha, daughter of Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> + +<li>Biography, character of, in Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + +<li>Blanche of Castile, mother of St. Louis, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>-<a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li> + +<li>Boccaccio, Petrarch's acquaintance with, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li> + +<li>Boëthius, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> + +<li>Bohemia, king of, an elector of the Empire, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> + +<li>Bohemians, Louis the German makes expedition against, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>-<a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li>Bohemond of Tarentum, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>-<a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> + +<li>Bologna, University of, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> + +<li>Boniface, anoints Pepin the Short, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + +<li>Boniface VIII., conflict with Philip the Fair, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>-<a href="#Page_384">384</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>issues bull <i>Clericis Laicos</i>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</li> +<li>issues bull <i>Unam Sanctam</i>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</li> +<li>death, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Boulogne, count of, uncle of St. Louis, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li> + +<li>Bourges, Pragmatic Sanction of, promulgated, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>-<a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Bouvines, King John's defeat at, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> + +<li>Brackley, English barons meet at, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> + +<li>Bretigny, treaty of, negotiated, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>provisions of, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>-<a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Britain, Saxon invasion of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>shores infested by Angle and Saxon seafarers, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> +<li>Roman garrisons withdrawn from, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> +<li>Saxons invited into, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li> +<li>Saxon settlement in, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li> +<li>Saxons conquer, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li>Christianity in, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li>Augustine sent to, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-<a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li> +<li>conversion of Saxon population begins, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>-<a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Britons, menaced by Picts and Scots, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>decide to call in the Saxons, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>-<a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li> +<li>conquered by the Saxons, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li>early Christianization of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Brittany, Northmen in, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> + +<li>Brussels, conference at, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>-<a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + +<li>Buchonian Forest, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li>Burchard, bishop of Chartres, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + +<li>Burgundians, faction in Hundred Years' War, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li> + +<li class="idx">Cæsar, Julius, describes the Germans in his "Commentaries," <a href="#Page_19">19</a>-<a href="#Page_22">22</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>conquest of Gaul, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Calais, treaty of Bretigny revised at, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>-<a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li> + +<li>Calixtus II., concessions made by, in Concordat of Worms, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>-<a href="#Page_280">280</a>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">482</a></span></li> + +<li>Camargue, Northmen establish themselves at, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + +<li>Campus Martius, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Merovingian kings at, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>-<a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Cannæ, battle of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li>Canossa, Henry IV. arrives at, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Henry IV.'s penance at, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> +<li>oath taken by Henry IV. at, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>-<a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Canterbury, capital of Kent, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>life of Augustine's band at, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> +<li>Plegmund archbishop of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li> +<li>Christchurch monastery built at, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Capellani</i>, functions of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Capitulare Missorum Generale</i>, promulgated by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>scope, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> +<li>translation of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>-<a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> +<li>character and functions of the <i>missi</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>-<a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> +<li>new oath to Charlemagne as emperor, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> +<li>administration of justice, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>-<a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li> +<li>obligations of the clergy, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li> +<li>murder, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Capitulary, Charlemagne's concerning the Saxon territory, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_123">123</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>nature of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>-<a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> +<li>Charlemagne's concerning the royal domains, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>-<a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li> +<li>Charlemagne's for the <i>missi</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>-<a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> +<li>nature of, in ninth century, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> +<li>Carloman's concerning the preservation of order, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Capitulum Saxonicum</i>, issued by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + +<li>Cappadocia, crusaders in, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> + +<li>Cardinals, college of, instituted, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>and Great Schism, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>-<a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Carloman, capitulary concerning the preservation of order, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>functions of the <i>missi</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li> +<li>obligations of officials, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Carmina Burana</i>, source for mediæval students' songs, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> + +<li>Carolingians, origin of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>-<a href="#Page_106">106</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>age of Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> +<li>disorders in reigns of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>-<a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li> +<li>menaced by Norse invasions, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>-<a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li> +<li>efforts to preserve order, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li> +<li>growing inability to cope with conditions, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> +<li>replaced by Capetian dynasty, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Carthusians, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Castellanerie</i>, defined, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> + +<li>Celestine III., <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Cens</i>, payment of, in Lorris, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Census</i>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Centenarius</i>, functions of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li>Chalcedon, Council of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> + +<li>Châlons-sur-Saône, immunity of monastery at, confirmed by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>-<a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> + +<li>Champagne, county of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Joinville's residence in, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Charibert, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + +<li>Charlemagne, employs Einhard at court, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>biography of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> +<li>personal appearance, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>-<a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li> +<li>manner of dress, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li> +<li>fondness for St. Augustine's <i>De Civitate Dei</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li> +<li>everyday life, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li> +<li>education, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>-<a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li> +<li>interest in religion, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li> +<li>charities, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li> +<li>policy of Germanic consolidation, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li> +<li>conquers Lombardy, Bavaria, and the Spanish March, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li> +<li>war with the Saxons, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>-<a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> +<li>transplants Saxons into Gaul, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>-<a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> +<li>peace with Saxons, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> +<li>issues capitularies concerning the Saxon territory, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li> +<li>capitulary concerning the royal domains, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>-<a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li> +<li>revenues, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li> +<li>interest in agriculture, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li> +<li>inventory of a royal estate, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li> +<li>appealed to by Pope Leo III., <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> +<li>goes to Rome, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> +<li>crowned emperor by Leo, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-<a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> +<li>significance of the coronation, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>-<a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> +<li>issues capitulary for the <i>missi</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> +<li>new oath to, as emperor, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> +<li>provisions for administration of justice, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>-<a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li> +<li>legislation for clergy, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>-<a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> +<li>letter to Abbot Fulrad, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-<a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li> +<li>builds up Palace School, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">483</a></span></li> +<li>provides for elementary and intermediate education, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> +<li>confirms immunity of monastery of Châlons-sur-Saône, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>-<a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Charles Martel, victor at Tours, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Frankish mayor of the palace, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> +<li>makes office hereditary, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Charles the Fat, Emperor, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Odo's mission to, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>-<a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> +<li>buys off the Northmen, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> +<li>deposition and death, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Charles, son of Charlemagne, anointed by Leo, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + +<li>Charles the Bald, of France, birth, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>combines with Louis against Lothair, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>-<a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> +<li>takes oath of Strassburg, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> +<li>lands received by treaty of Verdun, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li> +<li>buys off the Northmen, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li> +<li>capitularies, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Charles the Simple, of France, yields Normandy to Rollo, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + +<li>Charles of Lower Lorraine, claimant to French throne, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>candidacy opposed by Adalbero, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Charles IV., Emperor, founds University of Prague, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>promulgates Golden Bull, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Charles IV. (the Fair), of France, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li> + +<li>Charles VI. of France, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>and the Great Schism, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Charles VII. of France, convenes council at Bourges, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>dauphin of France, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>-<a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Charles, count of Anjou, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li> + +<li>Charles, of Luxemburg, slain at Crécy, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li> + +<li>Charter, conditions of grant to towns, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>of Laon, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>-<a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li> +<li>of Lorris, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>-<a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> +<li>(See <i><a href="#Magna_Charta">Magna Charta</a></i>.)</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Châtillon, St. Bernard educated at, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>begins monastic career at, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Childebert, conquers Septimania, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li>Childeric I., father of Clovis, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li>Childeric III., last Merovingian king, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>deposed, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Chippenham, Danes winter at, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>siege of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li> +<li>treaty of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Chronica Majora</i> (by Roger of Wendover), scope of, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>-<a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Chronica Majora</i> (by Matthew Paris), value of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>-<a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Chroniques</i> (by Froissart), character of, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>-<a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><a name="Church" id="Church"></a>Church, development of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>origin of papacy, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-<a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li> +<li>Pope Leo's sermon on the Petrine supremacy, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-<a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> +<li>rise of monasticism, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>-<a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li> +<li>the Benedictine Rule, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-<a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> +<li>papacy of Gregory the Great, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>-<a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li> +<li>Gregory's description of the functions of the secular clergy, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> +<li>Charlemagne's zeal for promotion of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li> +<li>Charlemagne's extension into Saxony, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li> +<li>influence on development of annalistic writings, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li> +<li>education intrusted to, by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li> +<li>to aid in suppressing disorder, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li> +<li>illiteracy of English clergy in Alfred's day, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>-<a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> +<li>influence on use of ordeals, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li> +<li>use of <i>precarium</i>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>-<a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li> +<li>favored by grants of immunity, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li> +<li>efforts to discourage private warfare, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>-<a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li> +<li>decrees the Peace of God, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li> +<li>decrees the Truce of God, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li> +<li>reform through Cluniac movement, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li> +<li>conditions in St. Bernard's day, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li> +<li>Gregory VII.'s conception of the papal authority, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>-<a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> +<li>Gregory VII. avows purpose to correct abuses in, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li> +<li>college of cardinals instituted, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> +<li>issue of lay investiture, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>-<a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li> +<li>Concordat of Worms, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-<a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li> +<li>liberties in England granted in Great Charter, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li> +<li>patronage of universities, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">484</a></span></li> +<li>menaced by abuses, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li> +<li>rise of the mendicant orders, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li> +<li>St. Francis's attitude toward, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>-<a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</li> +<li>use of excommunication and interdict, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</li> +<li><i>Unam Sanctam</i>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>-<a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</li> +<li>Great Schism, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>-<a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</li> +<li>Council of Pisa, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>-<a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</li> +<li>Council of Constance, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li> +<li>Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>-<a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li> +<li>decline in England in fourteenth century, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>;</li> +<li>Wyclif's efforts to regenerate, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>-<a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Cicero, Dante cites, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Petrarch's reading of, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Cimbri</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li>Cistercians, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + +<li>Cîteaux, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>St. Bernard decides to join, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li> +<li>St. Bernard goes forth from, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Cities (see <a href="#Towns">Towns</a>), Frederick Barbarossa and Lombard, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>-<a href="#Page_399">399</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>rights of guaranteed by Peace of Constance, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>-<a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Clairvaux, St. Bernard founds monastery at, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>-<a href="#Page_257">257</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>description of by William of St. Thierry, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>-<a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> +<li>marvelous works accomplished at, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> +<li>piety of monks at, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Claudius Claudianus, at the court of Honorius, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>description of the Huns, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Clement VII., elected pope, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>dies, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Clergy (see <a href="#Church">Church</a>), Charlemagne's general legislation for, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>-<a href="#Page_140">140</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Pope Gregory I.'s exhortation to, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> +<li>Charlemagne's provisions for, in Saxony, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>-<a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li> +<li>temporal importance in Charlemagne's empire, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>-<a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li> +<li>work of education committed to by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li> +<li>illiteracy in Alfred's day, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>-<a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> +<li>grants of immunity to, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>-<a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li> +<li>protected by Peace of God, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>-<a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li> +<li>worldliness of, in England before the Conquest, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Clericis Laicos</i>, issued by Boniface VIII., <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li> + +<li>Clermont, Council of, confirms Peace and Truce of God, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Pope Urban's speech at, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>-<a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li> +<li>first crusade proclaimed at, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>-<a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Cloderic, receives deputation from Clovis, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>has his father slain, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> +<li>himself slain, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Clotilde, wife of Clovis, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>labors for his conversion, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> +<li>calls Remigius to the court, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Clovis, conversion of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>becomes king of the Salian Franks, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li> +<li>advances against Syagrius, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> +<li>defeats him at Soissons, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> +<li>requests King Alaric to surrender the refugee, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> +<li>has Syagrius put to death, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> +<li>episode of the broken vase, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>-<a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li> +<li>decides to become a Christian, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> +<li>wins battle of Strassburg, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> +<li>baptized with his warriors, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> +<li>interview with Alaric, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> +<li>resolves to conquer southern Gaul, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> +<li>campaign against Alaric, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>-<a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> +<li>victory at Vouillé, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li> +<li>takes possession of southern Gaul, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li> +<li>captures Angoulême, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> +<li>sends deputation to Cloderic, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> +<li>takes Cloderic's kingdom, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li> +<li>slays Ragnachar and Richar, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-<a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> +<li>death at Paris, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Cluny, establishment of monastery at, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>growth and influence, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li> +<li>charter issued for, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>-<a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> +<li>land and other property yielded to, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>-<a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li> +<li>Berno to be abbot, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li> +<li>relations with the papacy, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> +<li>charitable activity, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Cologne, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>university founded at, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Comitatus</i>, among the early Germans, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>-<a href="#Page_28">28</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>a prototype of vassalage, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Commendation, defined, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Frankish formula for, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>-<a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Commerce, freedom guaranteed by +<ul class="none"> +<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">485</a></span> +Great Charter, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>-<a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li> +<li>encouraged in charter of Lorris, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Commune (see <a href="#Towns">Towns</a>), <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> + +<li>Compiègne, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> + +<li>Compurgation, defined, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + +<li>Conrad IV., <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> + +<li>Constance, Council of, assembles, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>declarations of, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Constance, Peace of, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>-<a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li> + +<li>Constantine, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + +<li>Constantine VI., deposed at Constantinople, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>-<a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> + +<li>Constantinople, threatened by Seljuk Turks, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> + +<li>Corbei, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>French barons assemble at, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Corvée</i>, provision for in charter of Lorris, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> + +<li>Councils, Church, powers of declared at Pisa and Constance, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>-<a href="#Page_393">393</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>provisions for in Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>-<a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Count, duties, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>restrictions on by grants of immunity, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Count of the Palace, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + +<li>Crécy, English take position at, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>-<a href="#Page_428">428</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>French advance to, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>-<a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</li> +<li>English prepare for battle, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>-<a href="#Page_432">432</a>;</li> +<li>the French defeated at, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>-<a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Crime, in the Salic law, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>-<a href="#Page_65">65</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>in Charlemagne's <i>De Partibus Saxoniæ</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li> +<li>in Charlemagne's <i>Capitulare Missorum Generale</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>-<a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> +<li>Carloman's regulations for suppression of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li> +<li>in Alfred's legislation, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>-<a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> +<li>penalties for in Peace and Truce of God, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>-<a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> +<li>protection of scholars against, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Crusade, Gregory VII.'s plan for, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Urban II.'s speech in behalf of, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>-<a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li> +<li>first crusade proclaimed, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>-<a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li> +<li>motives for, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li> +<li>starting of the crusaders, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>-<a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li> +<li>letters of crusaders, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>-<a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li> +<li>Stephen of Blois to his wife, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>-<a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li> +<li>early achievements of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li> +<li>of St. Louis to Egypt, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>-<a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Cyprus, St. Louis in, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>departs from, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li class="idx">Dacia, ceded to the Visigoths, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + +<li>Danelaw, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Danes" id="Danes"></a>Danes (see <a href="#Northmen">Northmen</a>), earliest visits to England, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>defeat Alfred the Great at Wilton, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li> +<li>winter at Exeter, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> +<li>defeated by Alfred at Swanwich, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> +<li>winter at Chippenham, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li> +<li>defeated by Alfred at Ethandune, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li> +<li>treaties of peace with Alfred, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Dante, career of, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>attachment to Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</li> +<li>relation to Renaissance, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>-<a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</li> +<li>defends Italian as a literary language, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>-<a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</li> +<li>conception of imperial power, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>-<a href="#Page_453">453</a>;</li> +<li><i>De Monarchia</i> quoted, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>-<a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Danube, Visigoths cross, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>-<a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li>Dauphiné, origin of, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> + +<li><i>De Bello Gallico</i> (by Julius Cæsar), character of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-<a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> +<li>used by Tacitus, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Debt, in the Salic law, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>collection of among students, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Décime</i>, defined, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li><i>De Civitate Dei</i> (by St. Augustine), Charlemagne's regard for, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + +<li><i>De Divortio Lotharii regis et Tetbergæ reginæ</i> (by Hincmar), quoted, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>-<a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> + +<li><i>De Domino Divino</i> (by Wyclif), nature of, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li> + +<li><i>De Gestis Regum Anglorum</i> (by William of Malmesbury), scope, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>-<a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>-<a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Degrees, university, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> + +<li><i>De Litteris Colendis</i>, addressed by Charlemagne to Abbot Baugulf, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> +<li>work of education committed to the clergy, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>-<a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li> +<li>education essential to interpretation of Scriptures, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">486</a></span></li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Demesne, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> + +<li><i>De Monarchia</i> (by Dante), nature of, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>-<a href="#Page_453">453</a> +<ul class="none"> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>-<a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>De odio et âtia</i>, writ of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>-<a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> + +<li><i>De Partibus Saxoniæ</i>, capitulary issued by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>-<a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li> +<li>churches as places of refuge, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> +<li>offenses against the Church, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li> +<li>penalties for persistence in paganism, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> +<li>fugitive criminals, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li> +<li>public assemblies, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>De Rebus Familiaribus</i> (by Petrarch), quoted, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>-<a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li> + +<li><i>De Rebus Gestis Ælfredi Magni</i> (by Asser), quoted, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>-<a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>-<a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> + +<li><i>De Temporibus</i> (by Eusebius), preface to, cited by Petrarch, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li> + +<li><i>De Villis</i>, capitulary issued by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>translation of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>-<a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li> +<li>reports to be made by the stewards, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li> +<li>equipment, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>-<a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li> +<li>produce due the king, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>De Vulgari Eloquentia</i> (by Dante), <a href="#Page_447">447</a>-<a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li> + +<li>Deusdedit, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Dictatus Papæ</i>, authorship of, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>-<a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Diedenhofen, Louis, Lothair, and Charles meet at, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Divina Commedia</i> (by Dante), <a href="#Page_446">446</a>.</li> + +<li>Domains, Charlemagne's capitulary concerning, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>-<a href="#Page_127">127</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>specimen inventory of property, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Domesday Survey, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li> + +<li>Dominicans, founded, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> + +<li>Dordrecht, burned by the Northmen, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>again taken, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Dorset, Danes land in, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + +<li>Dorylæum, Turks defeated at, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> + +<li>Druids, among the Gauls, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-<a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + +<li>Dudo, dean of St. Quentin, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> + +<li class="idx">Easter tables, origin of mediæval annals, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Eastern_Empire" id="Eastern_Empire"></a>Eastern Empire, menaced by Seljuk Turks, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>-<a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> + +<li>Ebolus, abbot of St. Germain des Près, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>-<a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + +<li>Edington (see <a href="#Ethandune">Ethandune</a>).</li> + +<li><a name="Education" id="Education"></a>Education, decline among the Franks, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-<a href="#Page_147">147</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Charlemagne's provisions for, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> +<li>the Palace School, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li> +<li>decline after Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> +<li>entrusted by Charlemagne to the clergy, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li> +<li>Alfred's interest in, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> +<li>of Alfred's children, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li> +<li>Alfred's labors in behalf of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>-<a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> +<li>Alfred laments decline of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> +<li>universities in the Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>-<a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Edward the Elder, son of Alfred the Great, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> + +<li>Edward the Confessor, death of, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> + +<li>Edward III., claim to French throne, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>takes title of king of France, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>-<a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li> +<li>wins battle of Sluys, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>-<a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</li> +<li>takes position at Crécy, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</li> +<li>prepares for battle, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</li> +<li>defeats French army, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>-<a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li> +<li>new invasion of France, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</li> +<li>concludes treaty of Bretigny, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>-<a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Edward, the Black Prince, wins his spurs at Crécy, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>-<a href="#Page_435">435</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>besieges and sacks Limoges, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>-<a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Egbert's stone, Alfred meets English people at, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + +<li>Einhard, describes weakness of later Merovingians, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>-<a href="#Page_107">107</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>career of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li> +<li>author of <i>Vita Caroli Magni</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> +<li>sketch of Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>-<a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li> +<li>account of the Saxon war, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>-<a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> +<li>statement regarding Charlemagne's coronation, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Elbe, German boundary in Charlemagne's day, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> + +<li>Electors, of Holy Roman Empire, provisions of Golden Bull regarding, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>-<a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li> + +<li>Ely, bishop of, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> + +<li>Empire (see <a href="#Eastern_Empire">Eastern Empire</a>; <a href="#Holy_Roman_Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, and the names of emperors). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">487</a></span></li> + +<li>England, ravaged by the Danes, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Alfred the Great becomes king, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li> +<li>Alfred's wars with the Danes, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>-<a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> +<li>navy founded by Alfred, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> +<li>treaty of Wedmore, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> +<li>decadence of learning, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> +<li>Alfred brings learned men to, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>-<a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> +<li>Alfred writes to Bishop Werfrith on state of learning in, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>-<a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li> +<li>William the Conqueror's claim to throne of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> +<li>Harold becomes king of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> +<li>William the Conqueror prepares to invade, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> +<li>battle of Hastings, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>-<a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> +<li>Saxons and Normans, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>-<a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li> +<li>William the Conqueror's government of, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>-<a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> +<li>reign of King John, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>-<a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</li> +<li>the winning of the Great Charter, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>-<a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li> +<li>provisions of the Charter, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>-<a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</li> +<li>Edward III. claims French throne, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>-<a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</li> +<li>naval battle of Sluys, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>-<a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</li> +<li>battle of Crécy, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>-<a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li> +<li>the Black Prince sacks Limoges, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>-<a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</li> +<li>treaty of Bretigny, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>-<a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</li> +<li>treaty of Troyes, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</li> +<li>religious decline in fourteenth century, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>;</li> +<li>Wyclif's career, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>-<a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Epistolæ de Rebus Senilibus</i> (by Petrarch), <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Epistolæ sine Titulo</i> (by Petrarch), <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Epistolæ Variæ</i> (by Petrarch), <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li> + +<li>Erfurt, University of, founded, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Établissements de St. Louis</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>-<a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Ethandune" id="Ethandune"></a>Ethandune, Alfred defeats Danes at, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + +<li>Ethelbert, king of Kent, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>accepts Christianity, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> +<li>power of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li> +<li>receives Augustine, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li> +<li>encourages missionary effort, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Ethelred I., king of the English, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> + +<li>Ethelstan, of Mercia, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> + +<li>Ethelwerd, son of Alfred the Great, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> + +<li>Eugene IV., and Council of Basel, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li> + +<li>Eurie, king of the Northmen, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>defeated by Louis the German, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Eusebius, author of <i>De Temporibus</i>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li> + +<li>Excommunication, nature of, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>of Henry IV. by Gregory VII., <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> +<li>of Frederick II. by Gregory IX., <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Exeter, Danes winter at, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li class="idx">Fealty, ceremony of, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>-<a href="#Page_217">217</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>described in an English law book, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> +<li>rendered to count of Flanders, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> +<li>ordinance of St. Louis on, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Feudalism, importance of, in mediæval history, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>most perfectly developed in France, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>-<a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> +<li>essential elements, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> +<li>origins of vassalage, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>-<a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li> +<li>formula for commendation, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>-<a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> +<li>development of the benefice, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>-<a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li> +<li>example of grant of a benefice, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>-<a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li> +<li>origins and nature of the immunity, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>-<a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li> +<li>formula for grant of immunity, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>-<a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li> +<li>an immunity confirmed by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>-<a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li> +<li>nature of the fief, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li> +<li>specimen grants of fiefs, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>-<a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li> +<li>complexity of the system, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li> +<li>ceremonies of homage and fealty, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>-<a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li> +<li>homage defined, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li> +<li>fealty described, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> +<li>homage and fealty illustrated, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> +<li>ordinance of St. Louis on homage and fealty, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> +<li>obligations of lords and vassals, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>-<a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li> +<li>rights of the lord, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>-<a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> +<li>aids, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>-<a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li> +<li>military service involved, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>-<a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li> +<li>wardship and marriage, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>-<a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> +<li>reliefs, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>-<a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> +<li>forfeiture, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>-<a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> +<li>militant character of feudal period, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>-<a href="#Page_229">229</a>; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">488</a></span></li> +<li>efforts to reduce private war, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li> +<li>the Peace and Truce of God, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>-<a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> +<li>provisions of Great Charter concerning, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>-<a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Fief, relation to benefice, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>nature, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li> +<li>specimen grants, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>-<a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Fitz-Walter, Robert, besieges castle of Northampton, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> + +<li>Flanders, influence on Hundred Years' War, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>allied with Edward III., <a href="#Page_421">421</a>-<a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Flanders, William, count of, homage and fealty to, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> + +<li>Florence, Dante born at, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li> + +<li>Fontaines, St. Bernard born at, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> + +<li>Fontenay, Charles and Louis defeat Lothair at, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> + +<li>Forfeiture, nature, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>-<a href="#Page_227">227</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>case of Arnold Atton, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>-<a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Formula, for commendation, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>-<a href="#Page_206">206</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>for grant of a benefice, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>-<a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li> +<li>for grant of immunity to a bishop, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>-<a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>France, Hugh Capet becomes king, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>geographical extent in 987, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li> +<li>feudalism most perfectly developed in, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>-<a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> +<li>over-population of described by Pope Urban, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li> +<li>in times of Louis IX., <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li> +<li>treaty of Paris (1229), <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li> +<li>rise of municipalities in, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>-<a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</li> +<li>interdict laid on by Innocent III., <a href="#Page_380">380</a>-<a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</li> +<li>Philip the Fair's contest with Boniface VIII., <a href="#Page_383">383</a>-<a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</li> +<li>States General meets, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</li> +<li>responsibility for Great Schism, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>-<a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</li> +<li>Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>-<a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li> +<li>disputed succession in 1328, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>-<a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li> +<li>Edward III. takes title of king, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>-<a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</li> +<li>naval battle of Sluys, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>-<a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</li> +<li>battle of Crécy, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>-<a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li> +<li>siege and sack of Limoges, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>-<a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</li> +<li>treaty of Bretigny, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>-<a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</li> +<li>treaty of Troyes, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Francia Occidentalis</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Francia Orientalis</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Francia</i>, territorial extent, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> + +<li>Francis I., Concordat of, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> + +<li>Franciscans, founded, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>life of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>-<a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li> +<li>Rule of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>-<a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</li> +<li>Will of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>-<a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Frankfort, electors of Empire to assemble at, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> + +<li>Franks, conquer northern Gaul, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>become Christians, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> +<li>character of conversion, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li> +<li>close relations with papacy, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li> +<li>Clovis becomes king of the Salians, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li> +<li>defeat Syagrius at Soissons, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> +<li>defeat Alaric near Poitiers, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li> +<li>Salic law, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-<a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> +<li>decadence of Merovingians, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> +<li>rise of Mayor of the Palace, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> +<li>early mayors, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> +<li>Pepin the Short becomes king, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>-<a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li> +<li>the age of Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> +<li>the war with the Saxons, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>-<a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> +<li>Charlemagne's capitularies, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>-<a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> +<li>Charlemagne crowned emperor, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-<a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> +<li>decay of learning among, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li> +<li>Carolingian Renaissance, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> +<li>disorder among in ninth century, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-<a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li> +<li>menaced by invasions of Northmen, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>-<a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li> +<li>decline of monarchy in ninth century, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li> +<li>rise of feudalism among, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>-<a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Freckenhorst, sacred relics brought to, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li>Frederick, bishop of Hamburg, issues charter for a colony, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>-<a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> + +<li>Frederick Barbarossa, grants privileges to students and masters, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>-<a href="#Page_343">343</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>and the Italian communes, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>-<a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li> +<li>destroys Milan, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li> +<li>defeated at Legnano, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li> +<li>agrees to Peace of Constance, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>-<a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Frederick II., accession of, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>-<a href="#Page_403">403</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">489</a></span> +character, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>-<a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</li> +<li>suspected of heresy, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</li> +<li>excommunicated, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>-<a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Friars, conditions determining rise of, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>unlike monks, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>-<a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</li> +<li>relations with papacy and local clergy, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</li> +<li>system of organization, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</li> +<li>career of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>-<a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</li> +<li>Rule of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>-<a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</li> +<li>Will of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>-<a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Fridigern, leader of branch of Visigoths, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + +<li>Friesland (see <a href="#Frisia">Frisia</a>).</li> + +<li><a name="Frisia" id="Frisia"></a>Frisia, Northmen in, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> + +<li>Froissart, Sire de, "Chronicles" of, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>-<a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> + +<li>Fulbert of Chartres, letter to William of Aquitaine, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>-<a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> + +<li>Fulcher of Chartres, version of Pope Urban's speech, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>account of starting of crusaders, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>-<a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Fulda, Einhard educated at, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li>Fulrad, Charlemagne's letter to, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-<a href="#Page_144">144</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>summoned to assembly at Strassfurt, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li> +<li>troops and equipment to be brought, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li> +<li>gifts for the Emperor, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-<a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li class="idx">Gaiseric, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + +<li>Galicia, Northmen visit, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> + +<li>Gâtinais, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Gau</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li>Gaul, conquered by Julius Cæsar, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>invaded by Cimbri and Teutons, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> +<li>Syagrius's kingdom in, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> +<li>the Franks take possession in the north, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> +<li>Clovis overthrows Visigothic power in south, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>-<a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> +<li>monasteries established in, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> +<li>Charlemagne transplants Saxons into, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>-<a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> +<li>Northmen devastate, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li> +<li>survival of Roman immunity in, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Geoffrey of Clairvaux, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Germania</i> (by Tacitus), nature and purpose, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>contents, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> +<li>translation and editions, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>-<a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Germans, described by Cæsar, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>-<a href="#Page_22">22</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>religion, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> +<li>system of land tenure, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> +<li>magistrates and war leaders, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> +<li>hospitality, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> +<li>described by Tacitus, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-<a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> +<li>location in Cæsar's day, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li> +<li>physical characteristics, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> +<li>use of iron, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> +<li>weapons, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>-<a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> +<li>mode of fighting, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-<a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li> +<li>ideas of military honor, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li> +<li>kingship, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> +<li>tribal assemblies, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-<a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li> +<li>investment with arms, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li> +<li>the <i>princeps</i> and <i>comitatus</i>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li> +<li>love of war, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>-<a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li> +<li>agriculture, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li> +<li>life in times of peace, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li> +<li>absence of tax systems, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li> +<li>lack of cities and city life, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li> +<li>villages, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li> +<li>food and drink, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li> +<li>amusements, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li> +<li>slavery, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> +<li>early contact with the Romans, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>-<a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> +<li>defeat Varus, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> +<li>put Romans on the defensive, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> +<li>filter into the Empire, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> +<li>invasions begin, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> +<li>generally Christianized before invasion of Empire, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li> +<li>character of their conversion, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>-<a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li> +<li>ideas of law, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-<a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> +<li>influenced by contact with Romans, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> +<li>codification of law, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> +<li>legal ideas and methods, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li> +<li>compurgation, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li> +<li>use of the ordeal, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>-<a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Germany, Henry IV.'s position in, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>-<a href="#Page_265">265</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Henry V.'s government of, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li> +<li>question of lay investiture in, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>-<a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li> +<li>colonization toward the east, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>-<a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li> +<li>colony chartered by bishop of Hamburg, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>-<a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li> +<li>decline of imperial power, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li> +<li>chaotic conditions, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li> +<li>rise of municipal leagues, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li> +<li>the Rhine League, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>-<a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</li> +<li>rise of universities in, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li> +<li>in Frederick Barbarossa's period, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>-<a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li> +<li>under Frederick II., <a href="#Page_402">402</a>-<a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</li> +<li>conditions after Frederick II., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>-<a href="#Page_410">410</a>; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">490</a></span></li> +<li>Golden Bull of Charles IV., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Genghis Khan, empire of, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> + +<li>Ghent, Council at, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>-<a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + +<li>Gildas, story of Saxon invasion of Britain, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li>Gillencourt, granted to Jocelyn d'Avalon, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> + +<li>Gisela, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> + +<li>Gloucester, William the Conqueror wears crown at, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> + +<li>Godfrey of Bouillon, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + +<li>Golden Bull, promulgated by Charles IV., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>character of, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Gozlin, bishop of Paris, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Grâce expectative</i>, nature of, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> + +<li>Gratian, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li>Great Council, in William the Conqueror's time, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>provisions of Great Charter concerning, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li> +<li>composition, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Greek fire, nature of, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>used by the Saracens, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>-<a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Gregory of Nazianzus, cited by Pope Gregory, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> + +<li>Gregory of Tours, facts regarding career, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>author of <i>Ecclesiastical History of the Franks</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>-<a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li> +<li>opportunities for knowledge, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li> +<li>account of Frankish affairs quoted, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-<a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> +<li>account of ordeal by hot water quoted, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>-<a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Gregory I. (the Great), plans conversion of Saxons, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>sends Augustine to Britain, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li> +<li>becomes pope, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> +<li>letter of encouragement to Augustine's band, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li> +<li>early career, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> +<li>qualifications, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>-<a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li> +<li>author of the <i>Pastoral Rule</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li> +<li>describes the functions of the secular clergy, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> +<li>attitude toward worldly learning, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> +<li><i>Pastoral Rule</i> translated by Alfred, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Gregory IV., <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>Gregory VI., <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Gregory_VII" id="Gregory_VII"></a>Gregory VII., early career, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>becomes pope, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> +<li>conceptions of papal authority, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>-<a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> +<li>breach with Henry IV., <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> +<li>letter to Henry IV., <a href="#Page_265">265</a>-<a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> +<li>claim to authority over temporal princes, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> +<li>avows purpose to correct abuses in the Church, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li> +<li>disposed to treat Henry IV. fairly, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> +<li>letter to, from Henry IV., <a href="#Page_269">269</a>-<a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> +<li>charges against, by Henry IV., <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> +<li>deposes him, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>-<a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> +<li>meets Henry IV. at Canossa, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> +<li>absolves him, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> +<li>project for a crusade, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Gregory IX., <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> + +<li>Gregory XI., removes to Rome, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>bull concerning Lollards, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Gregory XII., abdicates papacy, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li> + +<li>Grimbald, brought from Gaul by Alfred, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> + +<li>Guienne, English and French dispute possession of, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li> + +<li>Guiscard, Roger, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> + +<li>Guthrum, peace of Alfred and, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>becomes a Christian, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li class="idx">Hadrian, I., <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + +<li>Hamburg, pillaged by the Slavs, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>bishop of, grants charter for a colony, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>-<a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Hanseatic League, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> + +<li>Harold Hardrada, defeated at Stamford Bridge, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> + +<li>Harold, son of Godwin, chosen king of England, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>position disputed by William the Conqueror, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> +<li>defeats Harold Hardrada, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> +<li>takes station at Hastings, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> +<li>valor and death, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Hastings, English take position at, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>they prepare for battle, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li> +<li>the Normans prepare, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li> +<li>William's strategem, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>-<a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Heidelberg, University of, founded, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>charter of, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>-<a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li> +<li>modelled on University of Paris, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">491</a></span></li> +<li>internal government, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>-<a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</li> +<li>jurisdiction of bishop of Worms, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</li> +<li>exemptions enjoyed by students, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li> +<li>rates for lodgings, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Hell, portrayed in the Koran, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li>Hengist, legendary leader of Saxons, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>ancestry, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Henry of Champagne, grants fief to bishop of Beauvais, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> + +<li>Henry I. of England, charter of, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> + +<li>Henry III. of England, concludes treaty of Paris with St. Louis, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> + +<li>Henry V. of England, in Hundred Years' War, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>marries daughter of Charles VI., <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</li> +<li>awarded French crown by treaty of Troyes, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Henry I. of Germany, movement against the Slavs, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> + +<li>Henry III. of Germany, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + +<li>Henry IV. of Germany, controversy opens with Gregory VII., <a href="#Page_264">264</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>wins battle on the Unstrutt, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> +<li>letter of Gregory VII. to, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>-<a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> +<li>exhorted to confess and repent sins, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> +<li>reply to letter of Gregory VII., <a href="#Page_269">269</a>-<a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> +<li>rejects papal claim to temporal supremacy, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li> +<li>excommunicated by Gregory VII., <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> +<li>deposed by him, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>-<a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> +<li>penance at Canossa, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>-<a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</li> +<li>oath of, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>-<a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Henry V. of Germany, succeeds Henry IV., <a href="#Page_278">278</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>his spirit of independence, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li> +<li>invasion of Italy, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li> +<li>compact with Paschal II., <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li> +<li>party to Concordat of Worms, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>-<a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Henry VI. of Germany, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li> + +<li>Henry VII. of Germany, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li> + +<li>Hermaneric, king of the Ostrogoths, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + +<li>Hide, a land measure, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> + +<li>Hildebrand (see <a href="#Gregory_VII">Gregory VII</a>.).</li> + +<li>Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>description of ordeal by cold water, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>-<a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Hippo, St. Augustine bishop of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum</i> (by the Venerable Bede), scope and character, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-<a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> +<li>translation of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Historia Ecclesiastica Francorum</i> (by Gregory of Tours), scope and character, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>-<a href="#Page_49">49</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-<a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Jerusalem</i> (by Raimond of Agiles), quoted, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-<a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Historia Iherosolimitana</i> (by Robert the Monk), quoted, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>-<a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Historia Iherosolimitana</i> (by Fulcher of Chartres), quoted, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>-<a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Historiarum Libri IV.</i> (by Nithardus), scope, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>-<a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Historiarum Libri IV.</i> (by Richer), scope, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Histoire de Saint Louis</i> (by Joinville), character, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>-<a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Hollanders, receive charter from bishop of Hamburg, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>-<a href="#Page_333">333</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>fiscal obligations, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li> +<li>judicial immunity, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><a name="Holy_Roman_Empire" id="Holy_Roman_Empire"></a>Holy Roman Empire, coronation of Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-<a href="#Page_134">134</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>character and significance, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>-<a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li> +<li>difficulty of holding together, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li> +<li>disordered condition in ninth century, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-<a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li> +<li>Henry IV.'s position in, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>-<a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> +<li>question of lay investiture in, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>-<a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li> +<li>Henry V., emperor, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li> +<li>Concordat of Worms, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-<a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li> +<li>weakening of central authority, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li> +<li>chaotic condition, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li> +<li>rise of municipal leagues, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li> +<li>the Rhine League, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>-<a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</li> +<li>in 12th, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>th, and 14th centuries, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>-<a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li> +<li>Frederick Barbarossa at head of, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</li> +<li>Peace of Constance, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>-<a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</li> +<li>accession of Frederick II., <a href="#Page_403">403</a>; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">492</a></span></li> +<li>II., <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li> +<li>Dante's attachment to, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</li> +<li>Dante's defense of in <i>De Monarchia</i>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>-<a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Homage, ceremony of, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>-<a href="#Page_217">217</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>a Norman definition of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li> +<li>rendered to count of Flanders, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> +<li>ordinance of St. Louis on, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Homer, Dante's knowledge of, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Petrarch interested in, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Homicide, in the Salic law, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + +<li>Honorius III., St. Francis promises allegiance to, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> + +<li>Horace, alluded to by Petrarch, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li> + +<li>Horsa, legendary leader of Saxons, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>death, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> +<li>ancestry, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Hôte</i>, defined, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li> + +<li>House of Commons, origin of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> + +<li>House of Lords, origin of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> + +<li>Hugh Capet, establishes Capetian dynasty, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Adalbero urges election as king, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li> +<li>crowned at Noyon, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li> +<li>extent of dominions, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Humanism, rise of, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Petrarch's love of the classics, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>-<a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Humber River, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> + +<li>Hundred Years' War, causes, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>-<a href="#Page_419">419</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Edward III. and the Flemings, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>-<a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li> +<li>naval battle of Sluys, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>-<a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</li> +<li>battle of Crécy, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>-<a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li> +<li>siege and sack of Limoges, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>-<a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</li> +<li>treaty of Bretigny, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>-<a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</li> +<li>treaty of Troyes, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Huns, threaten the Goths, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>characterized by Claudius Claudianus, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li> +<li>described by Ammianus Marcellinus, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-<a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li> +<li>physical appearance, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li> +<li>dress, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li> +<li>mode of fighting, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> +<li>nomadic character, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> +<li>greed and quarrelsomeness, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li class="idx">Iacinthus, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Il Convito</i> (by Dante), character of, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>-<a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Immunity, in Roman law, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>feudal, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>-<a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li> +<li>formula for grant to bishop, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>-<a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li> +<li>grant to a monastery confirmed by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>-<a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li> +<li>in an East German colony, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Incendiarism, in the Salic law, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>in the Burgundian law, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Ingeborg, wife of Philip Augustus, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>-<a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> + +<li>Ingelheim, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + +<li>Inghen, Marsilius, rector of University of Heidelberg, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> + +<li>Inheritance, in the Salic law, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + +<li>Innocent III., King John's surrender to, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>confirms privileges of University of Paris, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li> +<li>approves work of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</li> +<li>lays interdict on France, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>-<a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Innocent IV., <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li> + +<li><i>In Rufinum</i> (by Claudius Claudianus), quoted, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + +<li>Interdict, nature of, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>laid on France, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>-<a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Interregnum, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>end of, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>-<a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Investiture, lay, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Henry IV.'s disregard of Gregory VII.'s decrees concerning, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> +<li>Paschal II.'s decree prohibiting, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li> +<li>agreement of 1111 concerning, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li> +<li>settlement of by Concordat of Worms, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>-<a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Ireland, Christianity in, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + +<li>Irene, deposes Constantine VI., <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> + +<li>Irmensaule, destroyed by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> + +<li>Irnerius, teacher of law at Bologna, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> + +<li>Isabella, mother of Edward III., <a href="#Page_418">418</a>-<a href="#Page_419">419</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>excluded from French throne, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Islam (see <a href="#Koran">Koran</a>, <a href="#Mohammed">Mohammed</a>).</li> + +<li>Italian (language), Dante's defense of, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>-<a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li> + +<li>Italy, Frederick Barbarossa and communes of, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>-<a href="#Page_399">399</a>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493">493</a></span></li> + +<li class="idx">Jerusalem, captured by Arabs, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>by the Seljuk Turks, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Jeufosse, Northmen winter at, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + +<li>Jocelyn d'Avalon, receives fief from Thiebault of Troyes, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> + +<li>John, bishop of Ravenna, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> + +<li>John the Old Saxon, brought from Gaul by Alfred, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> + +<li>John, of England, character of reign, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>conference of magnates in opposition to, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</li> +<li>arranges truce with them, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li> +<li>takes the cross, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li> +<li>scorns the demands of the barons, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li> +<li>loses London, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li> +<li>consents to terms of Great Charter, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>John XXIII., elected pope, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>deposed, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>John, king of Bohemia, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> + +<li>John II. of France, taken captive at Poitiers, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>later career, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li> + +<li>Joinville, Sire de, sketch of, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>biographer of St. Louis, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Judith of Bavaria, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> + +<li>Julian the Apostate, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> + +<li>Jurats, in Laon, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> + +<li>Jury, not provided for in Great Charter, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> + +<li>Justice, among the early Germans, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>among the Franks, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-<a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> +<li>among the Saxons, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>-<a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li> +<li>Charlemagne's provision for in capitulary for the <i>missi</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>-<a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li> +<li>compurgation, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li> +<li>ordeal, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>-<a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li> +<li>administration of in the universities, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Jutes, settle in Kent, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + +<li class="idx">Karlmann, son of Charles Martel, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + +<li>Kent, Saxons and Jutes settle in, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Ethelbert, king of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Kingship, among the early Germans, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + +<li>Knut VI., king of Denmark, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Koran" id="Koran"></a>Koran, origin of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>scope and character, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li> +<li>essential teachings, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li> +<li>translation, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li> +<li>opening prayer, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li> +<li>unity of God, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li> +<li>the resurrection, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li> +<li>the coming judgment, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li> +<li>reward of the righteous, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li> +<li>fate of the wicked, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li> +<li>pleasures of paradise, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>-<a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li> +<li>torments of hell, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Kutuz, defeats Tartars, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> + +<li class="idx">La Broyes, Philip VI. at castle of, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> + +<li>La Ferté-sur-Aube, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>St. Bernard at, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>L'Ancienne Coutume de Normandie</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>-<a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>-<a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> + +<li>Laon, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>charter of, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>-<a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Law, character of among the early Germans, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-<a href="#Page_60">60</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>codification under Roman influence, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> +<li>the Salic code, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>-<a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> +<li>of Alfred the Great, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>-<a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> +<li>revival of Roman, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>-<a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li> +<li>study of at University of Bologna, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Learning, revival under Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>decline after Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> +<li>Alfred on state of in England, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>-<a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li> +<li>decadence in England before the Conquest, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li> +<li>revival in thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>;</li> +<li>Petrarch's love of the classics, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>-<a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Legend of the Three Companions</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>-<a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>-<a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> + +<li>Legnano, Frederick Barbarossa defeated at, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li> + +<li>Leo I. (the Great), elected pope, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>sermon on the Petrine supremacy, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-<a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Leo III., <a href="#Page_111">111</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>driven from Rome, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> +<li>appeals to Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> +<li>crowns Charlemagne emperor, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-<a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Leo IV., <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> + +<li>Leo IX., <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> + +<li>Leo, author of the <i>Mirror of Perfection</i>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">494</a></span></li> + +<li>Liberal Arts, place in Charlemagne's system of education, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Alfred laments his ignorance of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Liber Regulæ Pastoralis</i> (by Pope Gregory I.), nature and value, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>translation of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> +<li>qualities of the ideal pastor, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>-<a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> +<li>admonitions for various sorts of people, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>-<a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> +<li>translated by Alfred, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Libri Miraculorum</i> (by Gregory of Tours), quoted, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>-<a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> + +<li>Liège, Henry IV. dies at, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> + +<li>Limoges, siege of by the Black Prince, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>-<a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li> + +<li>Limousin, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li> + +<li>Lindisfarne, plundered by Danes, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Little Flowers of St. Francis</i>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + +<li>Loire, Clovis and Alaric meet on, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Clovis's campaign beyond, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>-<a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li> +<li>Northmen on, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Lollards, tenets of, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li> + +<li>Lombard League, formation of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Frederick Barbarossa's war upon, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li> +<li>provisions of Peace of Constance regarding, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>-<a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Lombards, conquered by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> + +<li>London, sacked by Danes, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>King John at, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li> +<li>army of the barons arrives at, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li> +<li>surrendered to the barons, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li> +<li>treaty of, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</li> +<li>Wyclif's doctrines condemned in council at, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Lorris, model of franchise towns, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>charter of, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>-<a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Lorsch, monastery at, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li><i>Lesser Annals</i> of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Lothair, Charles and Louis combine against, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>defeated at Fontenay, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> +<li>oaths of Strassburg directed against, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>-<a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> +<li>makes overtures for peace, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> +<li>lands received by treaty of Verdun, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Lotharingia, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> + +<li>Louis the Pious, capitulary on education, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>divides the Empire, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Louis the German, combines with Charles the Bald against Lothair, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>-<a href="#Page_151">151</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>takes oath at Strassburg, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li> +<li>lands received by treaty of Verdun, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li> +<li>advances against the Wends, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li> +<li>expeditions against the Bohemians, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>-<a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li> +<li>defeats the Northmen, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Louis the Stammerer, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + +<li>Louis V., last direct Carolingian, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + +<li>Louis VI. of France, ratifies charter of Laon, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> + +<li>Louis VII. of France, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>grants charter to Lorris, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><a name="Louis_IX" id="Louis_IX"></a>Louis IX. of France, early career, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>-<a href="#Page_314">314</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>character, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</li> +<li>difficulties at beginning of reign, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li> +<li>takes the cross, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>-<a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li> +<li>emulated by prominent nobles, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li> +<li>in Cyprus, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li> +<li>receives deputation from Khan of Tartary, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>-<a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li> +<li>arrival in Egypt, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li> +<li>advances on Babylon (Cairo), <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li> +<li>operations on the lower Nile, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>-<a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li> +<li>negotiates treaty of Paris, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li> +<li>personal traits, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</li> +<li>methods of dispensing justice, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>-<a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Louis X. of France, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li> + +<li>Louis XI. of France, seeks to revoke Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> + +<li>Louis IV., Emperor, allied with Edward III., <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> + +<li>Luidhard, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + +<li>Luitbert, brings sacred relics to the Freckenhorst, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li>Lyons, Council of, Frederick II. excommunicated at, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> + +<li class="idx">Mâcon, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> + +<li>Magdeburg, established, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Magna_Charta" id="Magna_Charta"></a><i>Magna Charta</i>, the winning of, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>-<a href="#Page_303">303</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>agreed to at Runnymede, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li> +<li>importance and character, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>-<a href="#Page_304">304</a>; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">495</a></span></li> +<li>translations, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>-<a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</li> +<li>liberties of the English church, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li> +<li>rate of reliefs, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li> +<li>aids, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li> +<li>the Great Council, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li> +<li>writ <i>de odio et âtia</i>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>-<a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> +<li>personal liberties and prerogatives, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> +<li>freedom of commercial intercourse, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>-<a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li> +<li>means of enforcement, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Magna Moralia</i>, written by Pope Gregory, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> + +<li>Mainz, a capital of Rhine League, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>archbishop of, to summon electors of the Empire, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Mallus</i>, character, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>summonses to, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li> +<li>complaint to be made before, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Manichæus, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li> + +<li>Manzikert, Eastern emperor defeated at, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> + +<li>Mapes, Walter, <i>Latin Poems</i> attributed to, a source for mediæval students' songs, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> + +<li>Marcomanni, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li>Marriage, of heiresses, right of lord to control, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>-<a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> + +<li>Marseilles, St. Louis's companions embark at, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> + +<li>Marshall, William, surety for King John, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>-<a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> + +<li>Martian, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + +<li>Martin V., elected pope, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>and Council of Siena, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Matilda, wife of William the Conqueror, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> + +<li>Matilda, Countess, ally of Gregory VII., <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> + +<li>Matthew Paris, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li><i>Greater Chronicle</i> of, quoted, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>-<a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Maurice, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + +<li>May-field, character of in Charlemagne's time, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> + +<li>Mayor of the Palace, rise of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>office made hereditary, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> +<li>accession of Pepin the Short, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> +<li>latter becomes king, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Merovingians, decadence of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>-<a href="#Page_106">106</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>end with Childeric III., <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Merovius, ancestor of Clovis, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li>Metz, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>diet of, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</li> +<li>electors of Empire to meet at, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Milan, Frederick Barbarossa destroys, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>-<a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Ministeriales</i>, functions of, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Missaticæ</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Missi dominici</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Charlemagne's capitulary for, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> +<li>character and functions, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>-<a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> +<li>employed by Charles Martel and Pepin the Short, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> +<li>to promulgate royal decrees, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> +<li>abuses of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li> +<li>in ninth century, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Mœsia, Visigoths settle in, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Mohammed" id="Mohammed"></a>Mohammed, sayings comprised in Koran, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>principal teachings, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Monastery, formula for grant of <i>precarium</i> by, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>-<a href="#Page_210">210</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>grant of immunity confirmed to, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>-<a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Monasticism, rise of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>-<a href="#Page_84">84</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>character of in the East and West, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> +<li>abbey of St. Martin established, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> +<li>Monte Cassino established by St. Benedict, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li> +<li>the Benedictine rule, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-<a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> +<li>character and functions of the abbot, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-<a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li> +<li>prohibition of individual property-holding, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> +<li>manual labor, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> +<li>reading and study, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li> +<li>hospitality, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li> +<li>decadence in eighth and ninth centuries, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> +<li>the Cluniac reform, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>-<a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li> +<li>St. Bernard's reformation of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li> +<li>founding of Clairvaux, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>-<a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Monotheism, set forth in the Koran, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + +<li>Monte Cassino, monastery founded at, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Karlmann withdraws to, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Montlhéri, St. Louis at, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>English army at, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Mortmain, prohibited by charter of Laon, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> + +<li>Murder, Charlemagne's legislation on, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> + +<li class="idx">Nantes, pillaged by Northmen, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> + +<li>Nazianzus, Gregory, bishop of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">496</a></span></li> + +<li>Nerva, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li>New Forest, of William the Conqueror, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + +<li>Nicæa, Council of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Seljuk Turks established at, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li> +<li>crusaders converge at, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Nice, Visigoths advance toward, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li>Nicholas II., <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> + +<li>Nile, St. Louis's operations on, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li> + +<li>Nithardus, author of <i>Historiarum Libri IV.</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>career, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Nogaret, William of, captures Boniface VIII., <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> + +<li>Noménoé, conflicts with Charles the Bald, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + +<li>Normans, rapid civilization of, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>retain adventuresome disposition, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li> +<li>in battle of Hastings, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>-<a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> +<li>described by William of Malmesbury, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>-<a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Normandy, ceded by Charles the Simple to Rollo, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>improvement under Norman régime, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li> +<li>William the Bastard becomes duke of, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>-<a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> +<li>English and French dispute possession of, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Northampton, castle of, besieged by the English barons, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Northmen" id="Northmen"></a>Northmen, in Frisia and Gaul, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>-<a href="#Page_160">160</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>in Frisia and Saxony, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> +<li>burn church of St. Martin at Tours, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li> +<li>motives of the Norse invasions, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li> +<li>pillage, Nantes, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li> +<li>winter at Rhé, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li> +<li>ascend Garonne, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> +<li>in Spain, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> +<li>at Paris, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> +<li>in Frisia and Brittany, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> +<li>threaten Orleans, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li> +<li>at Angers, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li> +<li>pillage Orleans, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li> +<li>plunder Pisa, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li> +<li>besiege Paris, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>-<a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> +<li>bought off by Charles the Fat, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> +<li>receive Normandy from Charles the Simple, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li> +<li>become Christians, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>. (See <a href="#Danes">Danes</a>.)</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Notre Dame, cathedral school of, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> + +<li>Noyon, Hugh Capet crowned at, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + +<li>Nuremberg, diet of, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> + +<li class="idx">Odo, becomes king of France, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>defense of Paris, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>-<a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li> +<li>mission to Charles the Fat, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>-<a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Odo, bishop of Bayeux, imprisoned by William the Conqueror, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li> + +<li>Oppenheim, convention of, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> + +<li>Ordeal, nature of, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>use among Germanic peoples, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li> +<li>various forms, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li> +<li>an Arian presbyter tested by, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>-<a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li> +<li>by cold water described, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>-<a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li> +<li>Peter Bartholomew subjected to by fire, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-<a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Origen, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> + +<li>Orleans, threatened by the Northmen, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>pillaged by them, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Orosius, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> + +<li>Ostrogoths, fall before the Huns, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + +<li>Otger, archbishop of Mainz, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> + +<li>Otto I. of Germany, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> + +<li>Otto II. of Germany, loses ground to the Slavs, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> + +<li>Otto III. of Germany, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> + +<li>Otto IV. of Germany, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>crowned at Rome, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li> +<li>defeated at Bouvines, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Oxford, Wyclif educated at, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>banishes Lollards, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li class="idx">Paderborn, Frankish assembly at, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Pope Leo III. meets Charlemagne at, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Pagus</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li>Paradise, portrayed in the Koran, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>-<a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + +<li>Palace School, origin of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>enlargement by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>-<a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Papacy, views on origin of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-<a href="#Page_79">79</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>reasons for growth, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-<a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li> +<li>theory of Petrine supremacy, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li> +<li>Pope Leo's sermon, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-<a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> +<li>Gregory becomes pope, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> +<li>his literary efforts, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li> +<li>describes functions of secular clergy, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> +<li>Pope Zacharias sanctions deposition of Merovingian line, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">497</a></span></li> +<li>Pope Leo III. crowns Charlemagne emperor, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-<a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> +<li>Cluny's relations with, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> +<li>Gregory VII.'s conception of, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>-<a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> +<li>Gregory VII.'s claim to authority over temporal princes, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> +<li>Henry IV.'s rejection of claim of, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li> +<li>Calixtus II. agrees to Concordat of Worms, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-<a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li> +<li>relations of friars with, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</li> +<li>St. Francis's attitude towards, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>-<a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</li> +<li>and temporal powers in later Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>-<a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li> +<li>contest of Innocent III. and Philip Augustus, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>-<a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</li> +<li>Boniface VIII.'s bull <i>Unam Sanctam</i>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>-<a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</li> +<li>Babylonian Captivity, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</li> +<li>Great Schism, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>-<a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</li> +<li>declarations of Councils of Pisa and Constance, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>-<a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li> +<li>provisions of Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges regarding powers of, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>-<a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li> +<li>conflicts with Frederick II., <a href="#Page_405">405</a>-<a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</li> +<li>Dante enumerates theories in defense of, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>-<a href="#Page_455">455</a>;</li> +<li>defines true position of, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>-<a href="#Page_462">462</a>;</li> +<li>Wyclif's ideas concerning, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>-<a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Paris, Clovis's capital, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>his death at, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> +<li>Northmen at, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> +<li>Northmen prepare to besiege, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li> +<li>attack upon, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>-<a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> +<li>importance of siege, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> +<li>treaty of (1259), <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li> +<li>treaty of (1396), <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Paris, University of, origin, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>privileges granted to students by Philip Augustus, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>-<a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li> +<li>Heidelberg modelled on, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li> +<li>case of Great Schism laid before, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</li> +<li>proposals regarding Schism, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>-<a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Paschal II., accession to papacy, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>decree prohibiting lay investiture, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li> +<li>relations with Henry V., <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Patrocinium</i>, a prototype of vassalage, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + +<li>Paul the Deacon, in Charlemagne's Palace School, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> + +<li>Paulinus of Aquileia, in Charlemagne's Palace School, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> + +<li>Pavia, taken by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + +<li>Peace of God, decreed by Church councils, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>decree of Council of Toulouges, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>-<a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Pelagius II., sends Gregory to Constantinople, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> + +<li>Penalties, in the Salic law, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>-<a href="#Page_65">65</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>in Charlemagne's <i>De Partibus Saxoniæ</i>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>-<a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li> +<li>in Alfred's legislation, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>-<a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> +<li>for violation of an immunity, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li> +<li>for violation of Peace and Truce of God, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>-<a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>mayor of the palace, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> +<li>sends deputation to Pope Zacharias, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> +<li>crowned by Pope Stephen III., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> +<li>advised to take title of king, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li> +<li>anointed by Boniface at Soissons, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Pepin, grandson of Louis the Pious, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>Peter Bartholomew, subjected to ordeal by fire, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-<a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> + +<li>Peter of Catana, minister-general of Franciscans, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> + +<li>Peter of Pisa, brought to Charlemagne's court, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>in the Palace School, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Petrarch, career of, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>-<a href="#Page_463">463</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>part in the Renaissance, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>;</li> +<li>writings, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>-<a href="#Page_465">465</a>;</li> +<li>love of the classics, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>-<a href="#Page_469">469</a>;</li> +<li>letter to Posterity, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>-<a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Petrine Supremacy, theory of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Pope Leo's sermon on, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-<a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> +<li>mediæval acceptance of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li> +<li>theory of stated by Gregory VII., <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li> +<li>allusion to in <i>Unam Sanctam</i>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</li> +<li>Dante's conception of, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>-<a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Pfahlburgers, provision of Rhine League concerning, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> + +<li>Philip II. (Augustus) of France, privileges granted to students by, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>-<a href="#Page_345">345</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>contest with Innocent III., <a href="#Page_380">380</a>-<a href="#Page_383">383</a>; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498">498</a></span></li> +<li>imposes Saladin tithe, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Philip IV. (the Fair) of France, contest with Boniface VIII., <a href="#Page_383">383</a>-<a href="#Page_385">385</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>convenes States General, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</li> +<li>sons of, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Philip V. of France, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li> + +<li>Philip VI. of France, acquires the Dauphiné, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>accession of, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li> +<li>advances with army to Crécy, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>-<a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</li> +<li>defeated at Crécy, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>-<a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Philip of Hohenstaufen, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>-<a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> + +<li>Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li> + +<li>Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li> + +<li>Philippa, wife of Edward III., <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> + +<li>Piacenza, Council of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> + +<li>Picts, menace the Britons, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Saxons called in against, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> +<li>Saxons ally with, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Pilgrimages, to Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>-<a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> + +<li>Pisa, Council of, convened, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>declarations of, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>-<a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Plato, Petrarch loans a volume of, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li> + +<li>Plegmund, archbishop of Canterbury, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> + +<li>Pliny the Elder, probably used by Tacitus, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + +<li>Poitiers, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>battle of, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Pontus, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li>Posidonius of Rhodes, probably used by Tacitus, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + +<li>Prague, University of founded, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Precarium</i>, nature of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>prototype of the benefice, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>-<a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li> +<li>example of grant, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>-<a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Principes</i>, among the early Germans, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>-<a href="#Page_28">28</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>conduct in battle, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Prudence, bishop of Troyes, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> + +<li class="idx">Quadi, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Quadrivium</i>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> + +<li class="idx">Ragnachar, kinsman of Clovis, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>slain, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-<a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Raymond of Agiles, account of ordeal by fire, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-<a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> + +<li>Raymond, count of Toulouse, letter to Arnold Atton, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>-<a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> + +<li>Raymond of St. Gilles, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>-<a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> + +<li>Ravenna, Dante's death at, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>.</li> + +<li>Reformation, foreshadowings of, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>-<a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Regalia</i>, in Concordat of Worms, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>-<a href="#Page_280">280</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>claimed by Frederick Barbarossa, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</li> +<li>grant of to Lombard cities, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>-<a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Relief, defined, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>origin, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>-<a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> +<li>examples, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> +<li>rate fixed by Great Charter, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Religion, of the early Germans, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>rise of Mohammedanism, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li> +<li>the Koran quoted, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li> +<li>Charlemagne's zeal for, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Remigius, bishop of Rheims, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li>Renaissance (Carolingian), conditions preceding, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Charlemagne's part in, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>-<a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Renaissance (Italian), nature of, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>-<a href="#Page_445">445</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>career of Dante, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>-<a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</li> +<li>Dante's defense of Italian as literary language, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>-<a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</li> +<li>Dante's conception of the imperial power, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>-<a href="#Page_462">462</a>;</li> +<li>career and writings of Petrarch, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>-<a href="#Page_465">465</a>;</li> +<li>Petrarch's love of the classics, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>-<a href="#Page_469">469</a>;</li> +<li>his letter to Posterity, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>-<a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Rerum Gestarum Libri qui Supersunt</i> (by Ammianus Marcellinus), quoted, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>-<a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-<a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Reserve</i>, nature of, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> + +<li>Resurrection, portrayed in the Koran, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + +<li>Rhé, Northmen winter at, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> + +<li>Rhine, the Roman frontier, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>-<a href="#Page_20">20</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>trade in vicinity of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Rhine League, conditions influencing formation, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>instituted at Worms, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li> +<li>restrictions imposed on members, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li> +<li>treatment of enemies of, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>-<a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</li> +<li>capitals, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li> +<li>governing body, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li> +<li>military preparations, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499">499</a></span></li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Richar, slain by Clovis, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + +<li>Richer, author of <i>Four Books of Histories</i>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> + +<li>Rivo Torto, St. Francis at, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li> + +<li>Robert I., <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + +<li>Robert the Strong, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + +<li>Robert the Monk, version of Pope Urban's speech, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>-<a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li>Robert of Artois, connection with Hundred Years' War, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + +<li>Robertians, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>rivalry with Carolingians, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Roger de Hoveden, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> + +<li>Roger of Wendover, account of the winning of the Great Charter, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>-<a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> + +<li>Roland, Song of, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> + +<li>Rollo, receives Normandy from Charles the Simple, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>baptized, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li> +<li>improvement of Normandy, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Romans, conquest of Gaul by, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>travelers and traders in Germany, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> +<li>defeat of Varus, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> +<li>put on the defensive, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> +<li>early contact with the Germans, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>-<a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> +<li>alarmed by reports of Gothic restlessness, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> +<li>mistreat the Visigoths, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> +<li>defeated at Adrianople, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> +<li>withdraw garrisons from Britain, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Roman Empire, filtration of Germans into, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>efforts to enlarge to the northward, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> +<li>Visigoths desire to enter, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> +<li>Visigoths settle in, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-<a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> +<li>relation of Charlemagne's empire to, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>-<a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Romanus Diogenes, defeated at Manzikert, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> + +<li>Rome, development of papacy at, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-<a href="#Page_79">79</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Pepin the Short sends deputation to, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> +<li>Charlemagne's visits to, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li> +<li>Charlemagne crowned at, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-<a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> +<li>plundered by the Saracens, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Romulus Augustulus, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + +<li>Roncesvalles, Count Roland slain at, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> + +<li>Rorik, leader of Northmen, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li>Rouen, Odo, bishop of Bayeux, imprisoned at, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li> + +<li>Rudolph I., of Hapsburg, elected emperor, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Rudolfi Fuldensis Annales</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + +<li>Rufinus, companion of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + +<li>Rule, of St. Francis, drawn up, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>-<a href="#Page_374">374</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>-<a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Runnymede, Great Charter promulgated at, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> + +<li>Rupert I., founds University of Heidelberg, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> + +<li class="idx"><i>Sacrosancta</i>, decree of, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li> + +<li>St. Albans, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>St. Andrew, monastery of, established, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> + +<li>St. Augustine, author of <i>De Civitate Dei</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + +<li>St. Benedict, career of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>service to European monasticism, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li> +<li>Rule of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-<a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>St. Bernard, times of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>founds Clairvaux, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li> +<li>biography of, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li> +<li>birth and parentage, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li> +<li>early traits, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> +<li>decides to become a monk, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>-<a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li> +<li>at Châtillon, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li> +<li>enters Cîteaux,254</li> +<li>obtains ability to reap, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li> +<li>piety and knowledge of Scriptures, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>-<a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li> +<li>goes forth from Cîteaux, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li> +<li>founds monastery at Clairvaux, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>-<a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>St. Bonaventura, author of official life of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + +<li>Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, treaty of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + +<li>St. David, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + +<li>St. Dionysius, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> + +<li>St. Dominic, founder of Dominican order, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> + +<li>St. Edmund's, magnates of England assemble at, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>St. Francis, early career, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>sources of information on, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500">500</a></span></li> +<li>youthful follies, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;</li> +<li>redeeming qualities, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;</li> +<li>change in manner of life, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>-<a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</li> +<li>zeal in charity, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>-<a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</li> +<li>begs alms at Rome, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</li> +<li>overcomes aversion to lepers, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>;</li> +<li>refuses to dwell in an adorned cell, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</li> +<li>humiliates himself publicly, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>-<a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li> +<li>love for the larks, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>-<a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li> +<li>regard for all created things, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>-<a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li> +<li>draws up his Rule, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>-<a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</li> +<li>the Rule quoted, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</li> +<li>the will of, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>-<a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</li> +<li>attitude toward the existing Church, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>-<a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</li> +<li>enjoins poverty and labor, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>-<a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>St. Germain des Prés, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li>St. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li>St. Jerome, translation of Scriptures, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>cited by Petrarch, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>St. Louis (see <a href="#Louis_IX">Louis IX</a>.).</li> + +<li>St. Marcellus, Church of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> + +<li>St. Martin (of Tours), career of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>shrine of visited by pilgrims, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li> +<li>Clovis's respect for, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> +<li>church at Canterbury dedicated to, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> +<li>monastery at Tours dedicated to, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> +<li>church of burned by Northmen, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>St. Peter, Christ's commission to, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + +<li>St. Peter, Church of, Charlemagne's gifts to, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Charlemagne crowned in, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> +<li>fortified, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>St. Quentin, Fulrad abbot of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Dudo, dean of, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Savigny, granted as fief to bishop of Beauvais, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> + +<li>Saisset, Bernard, offends Philip the Fair, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li> + +<li>Salerno, University of, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> + +<li>Salic law, cited, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>date, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> +<li>character, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> +<li>editions and translation, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li> +<li>monetary system in, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li> +<li>summonses to meetings of the local courts, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li> +<li>theft, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li> +<li>robbery with assault, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> +<li>incendiarism, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> +<li>deeds of violence, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> +<li>use of poison or witchcraft, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li> +<li>slander, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li> +<li>trespass, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li> +<li>homicide, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li> +<li>right of migration, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li> +<li>debt, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li> +<li>inheritance, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>-<a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> +<li>wergeld, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Saracens, plunder Rome, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Italian league against, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li> +<li>renew devastation, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li> +<li>in possession of the Holy Land, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li> +<li>combats with crusaders, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>-<a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li> +<li>project to turn the Tartars against, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li> +<li>operations against St. Louis, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>-<a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li> +<li>Frederick II. accused of friendly relations with, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>-<a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Saxon Chronicle, quoted, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>-<a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + +<li>Saxons, conquer Britain while yet pagans, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>infest British coasts, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> +<li>appear at Thanet, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li> +<li>called in by Britons, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li> +<li>settlement in Britain, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li> +<li>ally with Picts, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> +<li>conquest of Britain, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li>pagan character, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li>Christianization begun, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-<a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> +<li>in Charlemagne's day, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>-<a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> +<li>problem of conquest, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>-<a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li> +<li>lack of natural frontier, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> +<li>faithlessness, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> +<li>transplanted in part to Gaul, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> +<li>Charlemagne's peace with, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> +<li>massacre at Verden, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> +<li>formula for acceptance of Christianity, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> +<li>Charlemagne's capitularies concerning, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li> +<li>provisions for establishment of Christianity among, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>-<a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> +<li>penalties for persistence in paganism, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> +<li>fugitive criminals, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li> +<li>public assemblies, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Scheldt River, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li>Schism, Great, origin, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>-<a href="#Page_390">390</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>plans of University of Paris to end, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>-<a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</li> +<li>Councils of Pisa and Constance, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>-<a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li> +<li>stops proceedings against Wyclif, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Schools (see <a href="#Education">Education</a>).</li> + +<li>Scots, menace the Britons, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Saxons called in against, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Scutage, increased by King John, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>method of raising specified in Great Charter, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_501" id="Page_501">501</a></span></li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Scythia, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + +<li>Seine, Northmen on, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + +<li>Seligenstadt, Einhard at, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> + +<li>Selwood, Alfred at, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + +<li>Senlis, meeting of Frankish magnates at, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> + +<li>Sens, given over to Northmen to plunder, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> + +<li>Septimania, conquered by Childebert, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li>Septuagint, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> + +<li>Serfs, fugitive, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li>Sergius II., <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>Senlac (see Hastings).</li> + +<li>Siegfred, leads siege of Paris, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + +<li>Siena, Council of, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> + +<li>Sigibert the Lame, slain by son's agents, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li>Sigismund, appealed to by John XXIII., <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li> + +<li>Simony, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Henry IV.'s councilors condemned for, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Slander, in the Salic law, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + +<li>Slavery, among the early Germans, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + +<li>Slavs, location in Charlemagne's day, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>German encroachment upon, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Sluys, naval battle of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>-<a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> + +<li>Soana, Hildebrand born at, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> + +<li>Soissons, capital of Syagrius's kingdom, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Clovis defeats Syagrius at, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> +<li>episode of the broken vase, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>-<a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li> +<li>Pepin the Short anointed at, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li> +<li>council at, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Solidus</i>, value, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li>Spain, invaded by Northmen, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> + +<li>Spanish March, annexed to Charlemagne's kingdom, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Speculum Perfectionis</i> (by Brother Leo), quoted, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>-<a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li> + +<li>Speyer, Henry IV. flees from, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> + +<li>Stamford, English barons meet at, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> + +<li>Stamford Bridge, Harold Hardrada defeated at, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> + +<li>Stephen, abbot of Cîteaux, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> + +<li>Stephen III., crowns Pepin the Short, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> + +<li>Stephen IX., <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> + +<li>Stephen of Blois, sketch of, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>letter to his wife, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>-<a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li> +<li>recounts experiences of crusaders, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li> +<li>describes siege of Antioch, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>-<a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li>Strassburg, battle of won by Clovis, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>results, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>-<a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> +<li>oaths of Charles and Louis at, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> +<li>linguistic and historical significance, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>-<a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Strassfurt, Frankish assembly at, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> + +<li>Students, privileges granted to by Frederick I., <a href="#Page_341">341</a>-<a href="#Page_343">343</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>by Philip Augustus, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>-<a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li> +<li>itinerant character of, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>-<a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</li> +<li>songs of, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>-<a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Subasio, Mount, St. Francis seeks seclusion at, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> + +<li>Suetonius, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>as model for Einhard, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Suevi, described by Cæsar, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + +<li>Swanwich, Danes defeated at, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li>Syagrius, "king of the Romans," <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-<a href="#Page_51">51</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>defeated by Clovis at Soissons, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> +<li>takes refuge with Alaric, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> +<li>surrendered and put to death, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Sylvester II. (Gerbert), <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> + +<li>Syria, overrun by Arabs, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>partially recovered, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li> +<li>conquered by Seljuk Turks, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li> +<li>described by Pope Urban, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li> +<li>crusaders in, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>-<a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li class="idx">Tacitus, describes the Germans in his <i>Germania</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-<a href="#Page_31">31</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>sources of information, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li> +<li>object in writing, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-<a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Tartary, Khan of, sends deputation to St. Louis, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>-<a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> + +<li>Taxation, not developed among the early Germans, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li>Templars, in England, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li> Turks attack, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Tertullian, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">502</a></span></li> + +<li>Tescelin, father of St. Bernard, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> + +<li>Teutoberg Forest, Varus defeated at, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Teutones</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li>Thames, Danes appear on, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + +<li>Thanet, Saxons appear at, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>conceded to them by Vortigern, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li> +<li>population, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> +<li>Augustine lands at, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Theft, in the Salic law, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Charlemagne's legislation on, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Thiebault, count palatine of Troyes, grants fief to Jocelyn d'Avalon, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> + +<li>Thrace, selected as a haven by the Visigoths, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>conceded to them by Valens, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Toulouges, Council of, decrees Peace and Truce of God, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>-<a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + +<li>Toulouse, Visigothic capital, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Syagrius takes refuge at, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Tours, Gregory, bishop of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>-<a href="#Page_48">48</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>monastery and shrine of St. Martin at, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li> +<li>Alaric and Clovis meet near, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> +<li>monastery at dedicated to St. Martin, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> +<li>truce of, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><a name="Towns" id="Towns"></a>Towns, lack of among the early Germans, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>prevalence in Græco-Roman world, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li> +<li>use of in France, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li> +<li>origins of, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>-<a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</li> +<li>classes of, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>-<a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li> +<li>charter of Laon, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>-<a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li> +<li>charter of Lorris, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>-<a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Trajan, wars in the Rhine country, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + +<li>Trespass, in the Salic law, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + +<li>Tribur, conference of German nobles at, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>-<a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Trivium</i>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> + +<li>Troyes, county of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> + +<li>Troyes, treaty of, negotiated, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>-<a href="#Page_441">441</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>provisions of, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Truce of God, decreed by church councils, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>decree of Council of Toulouges, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>-<a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> +<li>reissued by Council of Clermont, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Turks, Seljuk, invasions of, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>ravages depicted by Pope Urban, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li> +<li>defeated by crusaders, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li> +<li>attack the Templars, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li> +<li>operations against St. Louis, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>-<a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li class="idx"><i>Unam Sanctam</i>, issued by Boniface VIII., <a href="#Page_383">383</a>-<a href="#Page_385">385</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>-<a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Universities, origins of in Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>patronage of by Church and temporal powers, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li> +<li>privileges granted to students by Frederick I., <a href="#Page_341">341</a>-<a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</li> +<li>by Philip Augustus, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>-<a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li> +<li>rise in Germany, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li> +<li>charter of Heidelberg, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>-<a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li> +<li>student songs, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>-<a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Unstrutt, Henry IV.'s victory at, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> + +<li>Urban II., appealed to by Alexius Comnenus, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>speech at Clermont, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>-<a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li> +<li>appeal to the French, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>-<a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li> +<li>enumerates reasons for a crusade, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>-<a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li> +<li>results of speech, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>-<a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Urban VI., approves foundation of University of Heidelberg, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>elected pope, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</li> +<li>Wyclif's letter to, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>-<a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li class="idx">Valens, Visigoths send embassy to, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>flattered into acceding to their request, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li> +<li>seeks to quell Visigothic uprising, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>-<a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li> +<li>rash resolve to attack, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li> +<li>defeat, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Valentinian I., <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li>Valentinian III., <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + +<li>Varus, defeated at the Teutoberg Forest, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li>Vassalage, origins, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>-<a href="#Page_205">205</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>relations with <i>patrocinium</i> and <i>comitatus</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li> +<li>commendation defined, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li> +<li>formula for commendation, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>-<a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> +<li>relation to benefice, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li> +<li>obligations of, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>-<a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Vecta, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li>Venice, treaty of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li> + +<li>Verden, massacre of Saxons at, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503">503</a></span></li> + +<li>Verdun, treaty of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>territorial division by, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Vicarius</i>, functions, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li>Victgilsus, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li>Vienna, University of, founded, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> + +<li>Villages, among the early Germans, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Villes franches</i>, nature of, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>-<a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Villes libres</i>, nature of, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Laon as an example, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>-<a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Vincennes, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li> + +<li>Viscount, functions, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li>Visigoths, invasion of the Roman Empire described by Ammianus Marcellinus, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>receive Dacia from Aurelian, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> +<li>threatened by the Huns, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> +<li>select Thrace as a haven, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> +<li>send embassy to Valens, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> +<li>receive the desired permission, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li> +<li>cross the Danube, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-<a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> +<li>terms of the settlement, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> +<li>mistreated by the Romans, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> +<li>rise in revolt, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> +<li>Valens resolves to attack, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li> +<li>advance toward Nice, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li> +<li>defeat the Romans at Adrianople, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> +<li>Alaric, king of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> +<li>defeated by Clovis, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li> +<li>Amalaric, king of, retreats to Spain, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li> +<li>new capital at Toledo, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Vita Caroli Magni</i> (by Einhard), purpose, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>value, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> +<li>translation of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li> +<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>-<a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>-<a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><i>Vitæ Pontificorum Romanorum</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>-<a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + +<li>Vortigern, king of the Britons, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>invites Saxons into Britain, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Vortimer, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li>Vulcan, worshipped by the Germans, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + +<li>Vouillé, Clovis defeats Alaric at, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li>Vulgate, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>origin of, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li class="idx">Wager of battle, discouraged by the Church, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + +<li>Wales, Christianity in, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + +<li>Wardship, nature of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>conditions of prescribed by Norman custom, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>-<a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> +<li>conditions of defined in Great Charter, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Warfare, of the early Germans, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-<a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>-<a href="#Page_29">29</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>of the Huns, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> +<li>prevalence in feudal times, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>-<a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li> +<li>efforts to restrict, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li> +<li>decline of feudal, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Weapons, of the early Germans, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>of the Huns, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Wedmore, treaty of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Wends, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> + +<li>Werfrith, bishop of Worcester, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>Alfred's letter to, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>-<a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Wergeld, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>in the Salic law, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Werwulf, of Mercia, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> + +<li>Westminster, William the Conqueror wears crown at, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> + +<li>Widukind, account of Saxon conquest, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + +<li>William of Aquitaine, letter of Fulbert of Chartres to, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>-<a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> + +<li>William the Conqueror, power as duke of Normandy, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>claims to throne of England, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> +<li>prepares to invade England, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> +<li>makes ready for battle, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li> +<li>his strategem at Hastings, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>-<a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li> +<li>his valor in battle, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li> +<li>his government described in the Saxon Chronicle, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>-<a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> +<li>religious zeal, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li> +<li>extent of his authority, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li> +<li>forest laws, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>William, count of Flanders, homage and fealty to, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> + +<li>William of Holland, claimant to imperial title, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> + +<li>William of Jumièges, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> + +<li>William of Malmesbury, sketch of, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>author of <i>Chronicle of the Kings of England</i>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>William the Pious, issues charter for monastery at Cluny, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>motives for benefaction, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> +<li>land and other property ceded, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>-<a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>William of St. Thierry, biographer of St. Bernard, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504">504</a></span></li> + +<li>Wilton, Alfred fights the Danes at, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> + +<li>Winchester, William the Conqueror wears crown at, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>King John holds court at, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Witan, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> + +<li>Witchcraft, in the Salic law, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + +<li>Woden, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + +<li>Worcester, Werfrith, bishop of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> + +<li>Worms, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>council at decrees that Gregory VII. should abdicate, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li> +<li>diet at, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</li> +<li>Concordat of, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>-<a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li> +<li>Rhine League formed at, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li> +<li>with Mainz, to be League's capital, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li> +<li>jurisdiction of bishop of over University of Heidelberg, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Wyclif, career of, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>-<a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li> + +<li class="idx">Zacharias, consulted by Pepin the Short, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>; +<ul class="none"> +<li>advises him to take title of king, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>Zaid, collects sayings of Mohammed, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> +</ul> + +</div> + +<div class="widead p6"> + +<p class="center b13">ESSENTIALS IN MEDIAEVAL<br /> +AND MODERN HISTORY</p> + +<p class="center">From Charlemagne to the Present Day</p> + +<p class="ad_hang"> +By SAMUEL BANNISTER HARDING, Ph.D., Professor +of European History, Indiana University, in consultation +with ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL.D., +Professor of History, Harvard University.</p> + +<p class="center">$1.50</p> + +<hr class="l_ad" /> + +<p>Essentials in Mediaeval History<span class="flright">$1.00</span></p> + +<hr class="l_ad" /> + +<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>he difficulties usually encountered in treating mediaeval +and modern history are here overcome by an easy and +satisfactory method. By this plan Italy, France, Germany, +and England are taken up in turn as each becomes the +central figure on the world's stage. The first part of the book +is devoted to the period previous to the Reformation; the +second to modern history from the Reformation to the French +Revolution; and the remainder to the century and a quarter +since the occurrence of that great event. This arrangement +gives an opportunity to discuss the greatness of England, the +unification of Italy and of Germany, and the present organization +of Europe under control of the concert of powers, on +the same plane as the Crusades, or the Thirty Years' War, or +the age of Louis XIV.</p> + +<p>¶ The three most difficult problems in mediaeval history—the +feudal state, the church, and the rivalry between the empire +and the church—are here discussed with great clearness +and brevity. The central idea of the book is the development +of the principle of national independence in both politics and +religion from the earlier condition of a world empire.</p> + +<p>¶ For the convenience of those wishing a text-book on +Mediaeval History alone, the period from Charlemagne to the +close of the fifteenth century is issued in separate form.</p> + +<hr class="l_ad" /> + +<p class="center b13">AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY</p> + +</div> + +<div class="widead p6"> +<p class="center b13">FISHER'S BRIEF HISTORY OF<br /> +THE NATIONS</p> + +<p class="center">By GEORGE PARK FISHER, LL.D., Emeritus Professor +in Yale University</p> + +<p class="center">$1.50</p> + +<hr class="l_ad" /> + +<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>his is an entirely independent work, written, expressly +to meet the demand for a compact and acceptable text-book +on General History for secondary schools and lower +classes in colleges. Some of the distinctive qualities which will +commend this book to teachers and students are as follows:</p> + +<p>¶ It narrates in fresh, vigorous, and attractive style the most +important facts of history in their due order and connection. +It explains the nature of historical evidence, and records only +well established judgments respecting persons and events. It +delineates the progress of peoples and nations in civilization +as well as the rise and succession of dynasties.</p> + +<p>¶ It connects, in a single chain of narration, events related +to each other in the contemporary history of different nations +and countries. It is written from the standpoint of the +present, and incorporates the latest discoveries of historical +explorers and writers.</p> + +<p>¶ It is illustrated by numerous colored maps, genealogical +tables, and artistic reproductions of architecture, sculpture, +painting, and portraits of celebrated men, representing every +period of the world's history.</p> + +<hr class="l_ad" /> + +<p class="center">FISHER'S OUTLINES OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY</p> + +<p class="center">Revised, $2.40</p> + +<p class="center">Also published in three parts, price, each, $1.00. Part I, Ancient History. +Part II, Mediaeval History. Part III, Modern History.</p> + +<p><span class="dropcap">A</span> new and revised edition of this standard work. 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In +consultation with ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, +LL.D., Professor of History, Harvard University</p> + +<p class="center">$1.50</p> + +<hr class="l_ad" /> +<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>his volume belongs to the Essentials in History Series, +which follows the plan recommended by the Committee +of Seven, and adopted by the College Entrance Examination +Board, and by the New York State Education Department. +The pedagogic apparatus is amply sufficient for any +secondary school.</p> + +<p>¶ The essentials in ancient history are presented as a unit, +beginning with the earliest civilization in the East, and ending +with the establishment of the Western Empire by Charlemagne. +More attention is paid to civilization than to mere +constitutional development, the latter being brought out in the +narrative, rather than as a series of separate episodes.</p> + +<p>¶ A departure has been made from the time-honored method +of carrying the subject down to the end of Greek political life +before beginning the story of Rome. 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In consultation with ALBERT +BUSHNELL HART, LL.D., Professor of History, +Harvard University</p> + +<p class="center">$1.50</p> + +<hr class="l_ad" /> +<p><span class="dropcap">L</span>ike the other volumes of the Essentials in History Series, +this text-book is intended to form a year's work in +secondary schools, following out the recommendation +of the Committee of Seven, and meeting the requirements of +the College Entrance Examination Board, and of the New +York State Education Department. It contains the same +general features, the same pedagogic apparatus, and the same +topical method of treatment. The text is continuous, the +sectional headings being placed in the margin. The maps +and illustrations are worthy of special mention.</p> + +<p>¶ The book is a model of good historical exposition, unusually +clear in expression, logical and coherent in arrangement, +and accurate in statement. 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They ascertained and revealed the will of the gods +and were supreme in the government of the tribes. Druids existed also +among the Britons.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> By Vulcan Cæsar means the German god of fire.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Of the Suevi, a German tribe living along the upper course of the Danube, +Cæsar says: "They consider it their greatest glory as a nation that the lands +about their territories lie unoccupied to a very great extent, for they think +that by this it is shown that a great number of nations cannot withstand +their power; and thus on one side of the Suevi the lands are said to lie +desolate for about six hundred miles."—<i>Gallic War</i>, Bk. IV., Chap. 3.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> This statement is an instance of Cæsar's vagueness, due possibly to haste +in writing, but more likely to lack of definite information. How large these +districts and cantons were, whether they had fixed boundaries, and how +the chiefs rendered justice in them are things we should like to know but +are not told.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> All dates from this point, unless otherwise indicated, are <span class="s07">A.D.</span></p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> In reality iron ore was abundant in the Germans' territory, but it was +not until long after the time of Tacitus that much use began to be made of +it. By the fifth century iron swords were common.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Coats of mail.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Defensive armor for the head and neck.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> See Cæsar's description of this mode of fighting.—<i>Gallic War</i>, Bk. I., +Chap. 48.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> The canton was known to the Romans as a <i>pagus</i> and to the Germans +themselves as a <i>gau</i>. It was made up of a number of districts, or +townships (Latin <i>vicus</i>, German <i>dorf</i>), and was itself a division of a tribe or +nation.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> A later law of the Salian Franks imposed a fine of 120 <i>denarii</i> upon any +man who should accuse another of throwing down his shield and running +away, without being able to prove it [see <a href="#Page_64">p. 64</a>].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Many of the western tribes at the time Tacitus wrote did not have kings, +though in eastern Germany the institution of kingship seems to have been +quite general. The office, where it existed, was elective, but the people +rarely chose a king outside of a privileged family, assumed to be of divine +origin.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Evidently these were not images of their gods, for in another place (Chap. +9) Tacitus tells us that the Germans deemed it a dishonor to their deities to +represent them in human form. The images were probably those of wild +beasts, as the wolf of Woden (or Odin), or the ram of Tyr, and were national +standards preserved with religious care in the sacred groves, whence they +were brought forth when the tribe was on the point of going to war.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> The German popular assembly was simply the periodical gathering of +free men in arms for the discussion and decision of important points of tribal +policy. It was not a legislative body in the modern sense. Law among the +Germans was immemorial custom, which, like religion, could be changed +only by a gradual shifting of popular belief and practice. It was not "made" +by any process of deliberate and immediate choice. Nevertheless, the assembly +constituted an important democratic element in the government, which +operated in a measure to offset the aristocratic element represented by the +<i>principes</i> and <i>comitatus</i> [see <a href="#Page_28">p. 28</a>]. Its principal functions were the declaring +of war and peace, the election of the kings, and, apparently, the hearing +and deciding of graver cases at law.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> This relation of <i>principes</i> (chiefs) and <i>comites</i> (companions) is mentioned +by Cæsar [see <a href="#Page_22">p. 22</a>]. The name by which the Romans designated the band +of companions, or followers, of a German chieftain was <i>comitatus</i>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Apparently the Germans did not now care much more for agriculture +than in the time of Cæsar. The women, slaves, and old men sowed some +seeds and gathered small harvests, but the warrior class held itself above +such humble and unexciting employment. The raising of cattle afforded +a principal means of subsistence, though hunting and fishing contributed +considerably.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Compare the Germans and the North American Indians in this respect. +The great contrast between these two peoples lay in the capacity of the one +and the comparative incapacity of the other for development.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> The Germans had no system of taxation on land or other property, such +as the Romans had and such as we have to-day. It was not until well toward +the close of the Middle Ages that the governments of kingdoms built +up by Germanic peoples in western Europe came to be maintained by anything +like what we would call taxes in the modern sense.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> The lack of cities and city life among the Germans struck Tacitus with +the greater force because of the complete dominance of city organization to +which he, as a Roman, was accustomed. The Greek and Roman world was +made up, in the last analysis, of an aggregation of <i>civitates</i>, or city states. +Among the ancient Greeks these had usually been independent; among the +Romans they were correlated under the greater or lesser control of a centralized +government; but among the Germans of Tacitus's time, and long +after, the mixed agricultural and nomadic character of the people effectually +prevented the development of anything even approaching urban organization. +Their life was that of the forest and the pasture, not that of forum, +theatre, and circus.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> That is, on the Rhine, where traders from the south brought in wines and +other Roman products. The drink which the Germans themselves manufactured +was, of course, a kind of beer.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Valens was the Eastern emperor from 364 until his death in the battle +of Adrianople in 378. His brother Valentinian was emperor in the West +from 364 to 375. Gratian, son of Valentinian, was the real sovereign in the +West when the Visigoths crossed the Danube.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> That is, upon the writer's people, the Romans.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> The Marcomanni and Quadi occupied a broad stretch of territory along +the upper Danube in what is now the northernmost part of Austria-Hungary. +Pontus was a province in northern Asia Minor.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Mœller (<i>Histoire du Moyen Age</i>, p. 58), estimates that the Goths who now +entered Thrace numbered not fewer than 200,000 grown men, accompanied +by their wives and children. The Italian Villari, in his <i>Barbarian Invasions +of Italy</i>, Vol. I., p. 49, gives the same estimate. The tendency of contemporary +chroniclers to exaggerate numbers has misled many older writers. Even +Mœller's and Villari's estimate would mean a total of upwards of a million +people. That there were so many may well be doubted. The Vandals +played practically as important a part in the history of their times as did the +Visigoths; yet it is known that when the Vandals passed through Spain, in +the first half of the fifth century, they numbered not more than 20,000 +fighting men, with their wives and children.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Nice was about thirty miles east of Adrianople.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> The Visigoths under Fridigern finally took their position near Adrianople +and Valens led his army into that vicinity and pitched his camp, fortifying +it with a rampart of palisades. From the Western emperor, Gratian, a +messenger came asking that open conflict be postponed until the army from +Rome could join that from Constantinople. But Valens, easily flattered by +some of his over-confident generals, foolishly decided to bring on a battle +at once. Apparently he did not dream that defeat was possible.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> After the battle here described, which occurred in the open plain, the +victorious Goths proceeded to the siege of the city itself, in which, however, +they were unsuccessful. The taking of fortified towns was an art in which +the Germans were not skilled.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> When both armies were in position Fridigern, "being skilful in divining +the future," says Ammianus, "and fearing a doubtful struggle," sent a +herald to Valens with the promise that if the Romans would give hostages +to the Goths the latter would cease their depredations and even aid the Romans +in their wars. Richomeres, the Roman cavalry leader, was chosen +by Valens to serve as a hostage; but as he was proceeding to the Gothic +camp the soldiers who accompanied him made a rash attack upon a division +of the enemy and precipitated a battle which soon spread to the whole +army.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> The goddess of war, regarded in Roman mythology as the sister of Mars.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Signs of the zodiac, sometimes employed by the Romans to give figurative +expression to the time of day.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> The number of Romans killed at Cannæ (216 <span class="s07">B.C.</span>) is variously estimated, +but it can hardly have been under 50,000.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> A somewhat indefinite region north and east of the Caspian Sea.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> The modern Don, flowing into the Sea of Azof.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> One of two constellations in the northern hemisphere, called respectively +the Great Bear and the Lesser Bear, or <i>Ursa Major</i> and <i>Ursa Minor</i>. The +Great Bear is commonly known as the Dipper.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> That is, agriculture. The Huns were even less settled in their mode of +life than were the early Germans described by Tacitus.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> A strange creature of classical mythology, represented as half man and +half horse.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> The White Sea. It is hardly to be believed that the Huns dwelt so far +north. This was, of course, a matter of sheer speculation with the Romans.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> St. Martin was born in Pannonia somewhat before the middle of the +fourth century. For a time he followed his father's profession as a soldier in +the service of the Roman emperor, but later he went to Gaul with the purpose +of aiding in the establishment of the Christian Church in that quarter. +In 372 he was elected bishop of Tours and shortly afterwards he founded the +monastery with which his name was destined to be associated throughout +the Middle Ages. This monastery, which was one of the earliest in western +Europe, became a very important factor in the prolonged combat with Gallic +paganism, and subsequently a leading center of ecclesiastical learning.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Childeric I., son of the more or less mythical Merovius, was king from 457 +to 481. Clovis became ruler of the Salian branch of the Franks in this latter +year. The tomb of Childeric was discovered at Tournai in 1653.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Ægidius and his son Syagrius were the last official representatives of the +Roman imperial power in Gaul; and since the fall of the Empire in the +West even they had taken the title of "king of the Romans" and had been +practically independent sovereigns in the territory between the Somme and +the Loire, with their capital at Soissons, northeast of Paris.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_42" id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, 485-507.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_43" id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> The battle of Soissons in 486, with the defeat and death of Syagrius, +insured for the Franks undisputed possession southward to the Loire, which +was the northern frontier of the Visigothic kingdom.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_44" id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> The Campus Martius was the "March-field," i.e., the assembling place +of the Frankish army. It was not regularly in any one locality but wherever +the king might call the soldiers together, as he did every spring for purposes +of review. In the eighth century the month of May was substituted for +March as the time for the meeting.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_45" id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> In the words of Hodgkin (<i>Charles the Great</i>, p. 12), "the well-known +story of the vase of Soissons illustrates at once the German memories of +freedom and the Merovingian mode of establishing a despotism. As a battle +comrade the Frankish warrior protests against Clovis receiving an ounce +beyond his due share of the spoils. As a battle leader Clovis rebukes his +henchman for the dirtiness of his accoutrements, and cleaves his skull to +punish him for his independence."</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_46" id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> The Alemanni were a German people occupying a vast region about the +upper waters of the Rhine and Danube. They had been making repeated +efforts to acquire territory west of the Rhine—an encroachment which +Clovis resolved not to tolerate.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_47" id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> The battle was fought near Strassburg, in the upper Rhine valley.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_48" id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> The ultimate result of the defeat of the Alemanni was that the Frankish +kingdom was enlarged by the annexation of the great region known +in the later Middle Ages as Suabia, comprising modern Alsace, Baden, +Würtemberg, the western part of Bavaria, and the northern part of Switzerland. +The Alemanni as a people disappeared speedily from history, being +absorbed by their more powerful neighbors. Their only monument to-day +is the name by which the French have always known the people of Germany—<i>Allemands</i>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_49" id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> The Loire was the boundary between the dominions of the two kings. +There have been many famous instances in history of two sovereigns coming +together to confer at some point on the common border of the territories +controlled by them, notably the interview of Napoleon and Tsar Alexander I. +on the Niemen River in 1807. The Franks and the Visigoths had been +enemies ever since by Clovis's defeat of Syagrius their dominions had been +brought into contact (486), and the present jovial interview of the two kings +did not long keep them at peace with each other.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_50" id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> St. Hilary was bishop of Poitiers in the later fourth century. He was a +contemporary of St. Martin of Tours and a co-worker with him in the organization +of Gallic Christianity.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_51" id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> The plain of Vouillé was ten miles west of Poitiers.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_52" id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> This amusing comment of Gregory was due largely to his prejudice in +favor of the Franks and against the heretical Visigoths.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_53" id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> The Visigothic kingdom in Spain, with its capital at Toledo, endured +until the Saracen conquest of that country in 711 and the years immediately +following, but it did not give evidence of much strength. It stood so long +only because the Pyrenees made a natural boundary against the Franks and +because, after Clovis, for two hundred years the Franks produced no great +conqueror who cared to crowd the Visigoths into still closer quarters.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_54" id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Clovis, particularly after his conversion to Christianity in 496, was the +hero of Gregory's history and apparently the enthusiastic old bishop did not +lose an opportunity to glorify his career. At any rate it would certainly be +difficult to relate anything more remarkable about him than this legend of +the walls of Angoulême falling down before him at his mere approach.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_55" id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> This notable campaign had advanced Frankish territory to the Pyrenees, +except for the strip between these mountains and the Rhone, known as +Septimania, which the Visigoths were able to retain by the aid of the Ostrogoths +from Italy. No great number of Franks settled in this broad territory +south of the Loire, and to this day the inhabitants of south France show a +much larger measure of Roman descent than do those of the north. It may +be added that Septimania was conquered by Clovis's son Childebert in 531, +and thus the last bit of old Gaul—practically modern France—was brought +under Frankish control.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_56" id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> This was Cloderic, son of Sigibert the Lame, king of a tribe of Franks +living along the middle Rhine. Sigibert was one of the numerous independent +and rival princes whom Clovis used every expedient to put out of the +way.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_57" id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> Along the Upper Weser, near the monastery of Fulda.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_58" id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Ragnachar's kingdom was in the region about Cambrai.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_59" id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> The <i>mallus</i> was the local court held about every six weeks in each community +or hundred. In early German law the state has small place and the +principle of self-help by the individual is very prominent. To bring a suit +one summons his opponent himself and gets him to appear at court if he can. +Ordinarily the court merely determines the method by which the guilt or +innocence of the accused may be tested. Execution of the sentence rests +again with the plaintiff, or with his family or clan group.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_60" id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> "The monetary system of the Salic law was taken from the Romans. +The basis was the gold <i>solidus</i> of Constantine, 1/72 of a pound of gold. The small +coin was the silver <i>denarius</i>, forty of which made a <i>solidus</i>. This system +was adopted as a monetary reform by Clovis, and the statement of the sum +in terms of both coins is probably due to the newness of the system at the time +of the appearance of the law."—Thatcher and McNeal, <i>Source Book for +Mediæval History</i>, p. 17. The gold <i>solidus</i> was worth somewhere from two +and a half to three dollars, but its purchasing power was perhaps equal to +that of twenty dollars to-day, because gold and silver were then so much +scarcer and more valuable. Such estimates of purchasing power, however, +involve so great uncertainty as to be practically worthless.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_61" id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> The Burgundian law (Chap. 41) contained a provision that if a man +made a fire on his own premises and it spread to fences or crops belonging +to another person, and did damage, the man who made the fire should recompense +his neighbor for his loss, provided it could be shown that there was no +wind to drive the fire beyond control. If there was such a wind, no penalty +was to be exacted.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_62" id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> The law of the Lombards had a more elaborate system of fines for wounds +than did the Salic code. For example, knocking out a man's front teeth was +to be paid for at the rate of sixteen <i>solidi</i> per tooth; knocking out back +teeth at the rate of eight <i>solidi</i> per tooth; fracturing an arm, sixteen <i>solidi</i>; +cutting off a second finger, seventeen <i>solidi</i>; cutting off a great toe, six <i>solidi</i>; +cutting off a little toe, two <i>solidi</i>; giving a blow with the fist, three <i>solidi</i>; +with the palm of the hand, six <i>solidi</i>; and striking a person on the head so as +to break bones, twelve <i>solidi</i> per bone. In the latter case the broken bones +were to be counted "on this principle, that one bone shall be found large +enough to make an audible sound when thrown against a shield at twelve +feet distance on the road; the said feet to be measured from the foot of a man +of moderate stature."</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_63" id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> The man who had "thrown away his shield" was the coward who had +fled from the field of battle. How the Germans universally regarded such a +person appears in the <i>Germania</i> of Tacitus, Chap. 6 (see <a href="#Page_25">p. 25</a>). To impute +this ignominy to a man was a serious matter.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_64" id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> This was the so-called "triple wergeld." That is, the lives of men in the +service of the king were rated three times as high as those of ordinary free +persons.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_65" id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Here is an illustration of the personal character of Germanic law. There +is one law for the Frank and another for the Roman, though both peoples +were now living side by side in Gaul. The price put upon the life of the +Frankish noble who was in the king's service was 600 <i>solidi</i> (<a href="#Sect3">§3</a>), but +that on the life of the Roman noble in the same service was but half that +amount. The same proportion held for the ordinary freemen, as will be +seen by comparing <a href="#Sect1">§§1</a> and <a href="#Sect6">6</a>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_66" id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> A leet was such a person as we in modern times commonly designate as a +serf—a man only partially free.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_67" id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> This has been alleged to be the basis of the misnamed "Salic Law" +by virtue of which no woman, in the days of the French monarchy, was +permitted to inherit the throne. As a matter of fact, however, the exclusion +of women from the French throne was due, not to this or to any other +early Frankish principle, but to later circumstances which called for stronger +monarchs in France than women have ordinarily been expected to be. The +history of the modern "Salic Law" does not go back of the resolution of +the French nobles in 1317 against the general political expediency of female +sovereigns [see <a href="#Page_420">p. 420</a>].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_68" id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> The wergeld was the value put by the law upon every man's life. Its +amount varied according to the rank of the person in question. The present +section specifies how the wergeld paid by a murderer should be divided +among the relatives of the slain man.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_69" id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> That is, to the king's treasury.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_70" id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> James H. Ramsay, <i>The Foundations of England</i> (London, 1898), I., p. 121.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_71" id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Bede has just been describing a plague which rendered the Britons at +this time even more unable than usual to withstand the fierce invaders from +the north; also lamenting the luxury and crime which a few years of relief +from war had produced among his people.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_72" id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> This date is evidently incorrect. Martian and Valentinian III. became +joint rulers of the Empire in 450; hence this is the year that Bede probably +meant.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_73" id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> That is, Thanet, which practically no longer exists as an island. In +Bede's day it was separated from the rest of Kent by nearly half a mile of +water, but since then the coast line has changed so that the land is cut +through by only a tiny rill. The intervening ground, however, is marshy +and only partially reclaimed.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_74" id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> This battle was fought between Hengist and Vortimer, the eldest son +of Vortigern, at Aylesford, in Kent.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_75" id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> It is by no means probable that the invasion of Britain by the Saxons was +followed by such wholesale extermination of the natives as is here represented, +though it is certain that everywhere, except in the far west (Wales) and +north (Scotland), the native population was reduced to complete subjection.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_76" id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> That is, the throne of the Eastern Empire at Constantinople.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_77" id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Gregory was a monk before he was elected pope. He held the papal +office from 590 to 604 [see <a href="#Page_90">p. 90</a>].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_78" id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Augustine at the time (596) was prior of a monastery dedicated to St. +Andrew in Rome.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_79" id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> The missionaries had apparently gone as far as Arles in southern Provence +when they reached this decision.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_80" id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> An abbot was the head of a monastery. Should such an establishment +be set up in Britain, Augustine was to be its presiding officer.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_81" id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> The Germanic peoples north of the Humber were more properly Angles, +but of course they were in all essential respects like the Saxons. Ethelbert +was not actually king in that region, but was recognized as "bretwalda," +or over-lord, by the other rulers.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_82" id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> For later changes in this part of the coast line, see <a href="#Footnote_73">p. 70, note 1</a>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_83" id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> This was possible because the Franks and Saxons, being both German, +as yet spoke languages so much alike that either people could understand +the other without much difficulty.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_84" id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> Bertha was a daughter of the Frankish king Charibert. The Franks +had been nominally a Christian people since the conversion of Clovis in 496 +[see <a href="#Page_53">p. 53</a>]—just a hundred years before Augustine started on his mission +to the Angles and Saxons.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_85" id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Luidhard had been bishop of Senlis; a town not many miles northeast of +Paris. Probably Augustine and his companions profited not a little by the +influence which Luidhard had already exerted at the Kentish court.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_86" id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> "The present church of St. Martin near Canterbury is not the old one +spoken of by Bede, as it is generally thought to be, but is a structure of the +thirteenth century, though it is probable that the materials of the original +church were worked up in the masonry in its reconstruction, the walls being +still composed in part of Roman bricks."—J. A. Giles, <i>Bede's Ecclesiastical +History</i>, p. 39.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_87" id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Thus was established the "primacy," or ecclesiastical leadership, of +Canterbury, which has continued to this day.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_88" id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> John Alzog. <i>Manual of Universal Church History</i> (trans, by F. J. Pabisch +and T. S. Byrne), Cincinnati, 1899, Vol. I., p. 668.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_89" id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> That is, the passage of Scripture read just before the sermon.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_90" id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> "See" is a term employed to designate a bishop's jurisdiction. According +to common belief Peter had been bishop of Rome; his see was +therefore that which Leo now held.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_91" id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> The anniversary of Leo's elevation to the papal office.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_92" id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> That is, the body of monks residing in the monastery.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_93" id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> The vow of poverty which must be taken by every Benedictine monk +meant only that he must not acquire property individually. By gifts of land +and by their own labor the monks became in many cases immensely rich, +but their wealth was required to be held in common. No one man could +rightfully call any part of it his own.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_94" id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> The converse of this principle was often affirmed by Benedictines in the +saying, "To work is to pray."</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_95" id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> The Bible and the writings of such Church fathers as Lactantius, Tertullian, +Origen, St. Augustine, St. Chrysostom, Eusebius, and St. Jerome.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_96" id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> The first day of the month.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_97" id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Thus the ordinary daily programme during the spring and summer +months would be: from six o'clock until ten, manual labor; from ten until +twelve, reading; at twelve, the midday meal; after this meal until the +second one about half past two, rest and reading; and from the second meal +until evening, labor. Manual labor was principally agricultural.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_98" id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Gregory's remarks and instructions in the <i>Pastoral Rule</i> were intended +to apply primarily to the local priests—the humble pastors of whom we hear +little, but upon whose piety and diligence ultimately depended the whole +influence of the Church upon the masses of the people. The general principles +laid down, however, were applicable to all the clergy, of whatever rank.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_99" id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> Gregory, bishop of Nazianzus (in Cappadocia), was a noted churchman +of the fourth century.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_100" id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> After enumerating quite a number of other contrasted groups in the +foregoing fashion Gregory proceeds in a series of "admonitions" to take up +each pair and tell how persons belonging to it should be dealt with by the +pastor. One of these admonitions is here given as a specimen.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_101" id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Gregory's attitude toward the "learning of the world," especially the +classical languages and literatures, was that of the typical Christian ascetic. +He had no use for it personally and regarded its influence as positively harmful. +It must be said that there was little such learning in his day, for the old +Latin and Greek culture had now reached a very low stage. Gregory took +the ground that the churches should have learned bishops, but their learning +was to consist exclusively in a knowledge of the Scriptures, the writings of +the Church fathers, and the stories of the martyrs. As a matter of fact not +only were the people generally quite unable to understand the Latin services +of the Church, but great numbers of the clergy themselves stumbled blindly +through the ritual without knowing what they were saying; and this condition +of things prevailed for centuries after Gregory's day. [See Charlemagne's +letter <i>De Litteris Colendis</i>, <a href="#Page_146">p. 146</a>.]</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_102" id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> That is, more simple and less self-satisfied in their own knowledge.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_103" id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> This prayer of the Mohammedans corresponds in a way to the Lord's +Prayer of Christian peoples. It is recited several times in each of the five +daily prayers, and on numerous other occasions.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_104" id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> The petition is for guidance in the "right way" of the Mohammedan, +marked out in the Koran. By those with whom God is "wroth," and by the +"erring," is meant primarily the Jews. Mohammed regarded the Jews and +Christians as having corrupted the true religion.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_105" id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> "This chapter is held in particular veneration by the Mohammedans and +is declared, by a tradition of their prophet, to be equal in value to a third +part of the whole Koran."—Sale, quoted in Lane, <i>Selections from the Kur-án</i>, +p. 5.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_106" id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> This passage, known as the "throne verse," is regarded by Mohammedans +as one of the most precious in the Koran and is often recited at the end +of the five daily prayers. It is sometimes engraved on a precious stone or an +ornament of gold and worn as an amulet.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_107" id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> These are all to be signs of the day of judgment.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_108" id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> The record of his deeds during life on earth.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_109" id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> The three classes are: (1) the "preceeders," (2) the people of the right +hand, i.e., the good, and (3) the people of the left hand, i.e., the evil. The +future state of each of the three is described in the lines that follow.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_110" id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> "Either the first converts to Mohammedanism, or the prophets, who were +the respective leaders of their people, or any persons who have been eminent +examples of piety and virtue, may be here intended. The original words +literally rendered are, <i>The Leaders, The Leaders</i>: which repetition, as some +suppose, was designed to express the dignity of these persons and the certainty +of their future glory and happiness."—Sale, quoted in Wherry, <i>Comprehensive +Commentary on the Qur-án</i>, Vol. IV., pp. 109-110.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_111" id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> The luxuries of paradise—the flowing rivers, the fragrant flowers, the +delicious fruits—are sharply contrasted with the conditions of desert life +most familiar to Mohammed's early converts. Such a description of the +land of the blessed must have appealed strongly to the imaginative Arabs. +It should be said that in the modern Mohammedan idea of heaven the +spiritual element has a rather more prominent place.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_112" id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> Lofty beds.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_113" id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> The "damsels of paradise."</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_114" id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> A scrubby bush bearing fruit like almonds, and extremely bitter. It was +familiar to Arabs and hence was made to stand as a type of the tree whose +fruit the wicked must eat in the lower world.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_115" id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> The date is almost certainly wrong. Pepin was first acknowledged king +by the Frankish nobles assembled at Soissons in November, 751. It was +probably in 751 (possibly 752) that Pope Zacharias was consulted. In 754 +Pepin was crowned king by Pope Stephen III., successor of Zacharias, who +journeyed to France especially for the purpose.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_116" id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Zacharias was pope from 741 to 752.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_117" id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> Einhard, the secretary of Charlemagne [see <a href="#Page_108">p. 108</a>], in writing a biography +of his master, described the condition of Merovingian kingship as +follows: "All the resources and power of the kingdom had passed into the +control of the prefects of the palace, who were called the 'mayors of the +palace,' and who exercised the supreme authority. Nothing was left to +the king. He had to content himself with his royal title, his flowing locks, +and long beard. Seated in a chair of state, he was wont to display an appearance +of power by receiving foreign ambassadors on their arrival, and, +on their departure, giving them, as if on his own authority, those answers +which he had been taught or commanded to give. Thus, except for his +empty title, and an uncertain allowance for his sustenance, which the prefect +of the palace used to furnish at his pleasure, there was nothing that the +king could call his own, unless it were the income from a single farm, and that +a very small one, where he made his home, and where such servants as were +needful to wait on him constituted his scanty household. When he went +anywhere he traveled in a wagon drawn by a yoke of oxen, with a rustic +oxherd for charioteer. In this manner he proceeded to the palace, and to the +public assemblies of the people held every year for the dispatch of the business +of the kingdom, and he returned home again in the same sort of state. +The administration of the kingdom, and every matter which had to be undertaken +and carried through, both at home and abroad, was managed by +the mayor of the palace."—Einhard, <i>Vita Caroli Magni</i>, Chap. 1.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_118" id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> See <a href="#Footnote_44">p. 52, note 1</a>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_119" id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> Thomas Hodgkin, <i>Charles the Great</i> (London, 1903), p. 222.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_120" id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> The German name for Aix-la-Chapelle was Aachen. From Roman times +the place was noted throughout Europe for its warm sulphur springs and +for centuries before Charlemagne's day it had been a favorite resort for +health-seekers. It was about the middle of his reign that Charlemagne determined +to have the small palace already existing rebuilt, together with its +accompanying chapel. Marbles and mosaics were obtained at Rome and +Ravenna, and architects and artisans were brought together for the work +from all Christendom. The chapel was completed in 805 and was dedicated +by Pope Leo III. Both palace and chapel were destroyed a short time +before the Emperor's death, probably as the result of an earthquake. The +present town-house of Aix-la-Chapelle has been constructed on the ruins +of this palace. The chapel, rebuilt on the ancient octagonal plan in 983, +contains the tomb of Charlemagne, marked by a stone bearing the inscription +"Carolo Magno." Besides Aachen, Charlemagne had many other residences, +as Compiègne, Worms, Attigny, Mainz, Paderborn, Ratisbon, Heristal, and +Thionville.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_121" id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> A loose, flowing outer garment, or cloak. It was a feature of ancient +Greek dress.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_122" id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> Hadrian I., 772-775. Charlemagne's first visit to Rome was in 774.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_123" id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> Leo III., 795-816. The Roman dress was donned by Charlemagne +during his visit in 800 [see <a href="#Page_130">p. 130</a>].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_124" id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> St. Augustine, the greatest of the Church fathers, was born in Numidia +in 354. He spent a considerable part of his early life studying in Rome +and other Italian cities. The <i>De Civitate Dei</i> ("City of God"), generally regarded +as his most important work, was completed in 426, its purpose being +to convince the Romans that even though the supposedly eternal city of +Rome had recently been sacked by the barbarian Visigoths, the true "city +of God" was in the hearts of men beyond the reach of desecrating invaders. +When he wrote the book Augustine was bishop of Hippo, an important city +of northern Africa. His death occurred in 430, during the siege of Hippo by +Gaiseric and his horde of Vandals.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_125" id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> The Count of the Palace was one of the coterie of officials by whose aid +Charlemagne managed the affairs of the state. He was primarily an officer +of justice, corresponding in a way to the old Mayor of the Palace, but with +very much less power.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_126" id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> When Charlemagne captured Pavia, the Lombard capital, in 774, he +found Peter the Pisan teaching in that city. With characteristic zeal for +the advancement of education among his own people he proceeded to transfer +the learned deacon to the Frankish Palace School [see <a href="#Page_144">p. 144</a>].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_127" id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> Alcuin was born at York in 735. He took up his residence at Charlemagne's +court about 782, and died in the office of abbot of St. Martin of Tours +in 804.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_128" id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> During the Napoleonic period many of these columns were taken possession +of by the French and transported to Paris. Only recently have they +been replaced in the Aix-la-Chapelle cathedral. Most of them came originally +from the palace of the Exarch of Ravenna.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_129" id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> These statements of Einhard respecting the lavishness of Charlemagne's +gifts must be taken with some allowance. They were doubtless considerable +for the day, but Charlemagne's revenues were not such as to enable him to +display wealth which in modern times would be regarded as befitting a monarch +of so exalted rank.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_130" id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> In 774, 781, 787, and 800.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_131" id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> Charlemagne became joint ruler of the Franks with his brother Karlmann +in 768; hence when he died, in 814, he had reigned only forty-six years +instead of forty-seven.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_132" id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> Ephraim Emerton, <i>Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages</i> (Boston, +1903), p. 189.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_133" id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> The war really lasted only thirty, or at the most thirty-one, years.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_134" id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> The only notable act of vengeance during the war was the beheading +of 4,500 Saxons in a single day at Verden, on the Weser. It was occasioned +by a great Saxon revolt in 782, led by the chieftain Widukind.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_135" id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> The formula of renunciation and confession generally employed in the +Christianizing of the Germans, and therefore in all probability in the conversion +of the Saxons, was as follows:</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +Question. Forsakest thou the devil?</p> + +<p class="footnote">Answer. I forsake the devil.</p> + +<p class="footnote">Ques. And all the devil's service?</p> + +<p class="footnote">Ans. And I forsake all the devil's service.</p> + +<p class="footnote">Ques. And all the devil's works?</p> + +<p class="footnote">Ans. And I forsake all the devil's works and words. Thor and Woden and +Saxnot and all the evil spirits that are their companions.</p> + +<p class="footnote">Ques. Believest thou in God the Almighty Father?</p> + +<p class="footnote">Ans. I believe in God the Almighty Father.</p> + +<p class="footnote">Ques. Believest thou in Christ the Son of God?</p> + +<p class="footnote">Ans. I believe in Christ the Son of God.</p> + +<p class="footnote">Ques. Believest thou in the Holy Ghost?</p> + +<p class="footnote">Ans. I believe in the Holy Ghost.</p> + +<p class="footnote">"Accepting Christianity was to the German very much like changing of +allegiance from one political sovereign to another. He gave up Thor and +Woden (Odin) and Saxnot, and in their place took the Father, the Son, and +the Holy Ghost."—Emerton, <i>Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages</i>, +pp. 155-156. Text of these "Interrogationes et Responsiones Baptismales" +is in the <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges</i> (Boretius ed.), Vol. II., +No. 107.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_136" id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> That is, the more important offenses, involving capital punishment, +as contrasted with the later "lesser chapters" dealing with minor misdemeanors.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_137" id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> The Saxons were to be won to the Church through the protection it afforded, +but they were likewise to be made to stand in awe of the sanctity of +its property.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_138" id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> The apparent harshness of this whole body of regulations was considerably +diminished in practice by the large discretion left to the priests, as in +this case. They were exhorted to exercise care and to take circumstances +into account in judging a man's guilt or innocence.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_139" id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> From this point the capitulary deals with the "lesser chapters," i.e., non-capital +offenses.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_140" id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> For the value of the <i>solidus</i>, see <a href="#Page_61">p. 61</a>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_141" id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> Three classes of society are distinguished—nobles, freemen, and serfs. +The ordinary freeman pays half as much as the noble, and the serf half as +much as the freeman.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_142" id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> A prominent characteristic of the early Teutonic religion was that its +ceremonies were invariably conducted out of doors. Tacitus, in the <i>Germania</i> +(Chap. 9), tells us that the Germans had no temples or other buildings +for religious purposes, but worshipped in sacred groves. The "Irmensaule," +probably a giant tree-trunk, was the central shrine of the Saxon people, +and Charlemagne's destruction of it in 772 was the most serious offense +that could have been committed against them.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_143" id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> The Germans reckoned by nights rather than by days, as explained by +Tacitus, <i>Germania</i>, Chap. 11 [see <a href="#Page_27">p. 27</a>].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_144" id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> A sum assessed by the king, in this case against the illegal harboring +of criminals.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_145" id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> The counts, together with the bishops, were the local representatives or +agents of the king. They presided over judicial assemblies, collected revenues, +and preserved order. There were about three hundred of them in +Charlemagne's empire when at its greatest extent.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_146" id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> An officer sent out by the king to investigate the administration of the +counts and render judgment in certain cases. As a rule two were sent together, +a layman and an ecclesiastic [see <a href="#Page_134">p. 134</a>].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_147" id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> Under ordinary circumstances the priests were thus charged with the +responsibility of seeing that local government in their various communities +was just and legal.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_148" id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> Bémont and Monod, <i>Mediæval Europe</i> (New York, 1902), p. 202.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_149" id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> Chapter 62 is here given out of order because it contains a comprehensive +survey of the products and activities upon which the royal stewards +were expected to report. The other chapters are more specific. It is likely +that they have not come down to us in their original order.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_150" id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> The ordinary estate in this period, whether royal or not, consisted of two +parts. One was the demesne, which the owner kept under his immediate +control; the other was the remaining lands, which were divided among tenants +who paid certain rentals for their use and also performed stated services +on the lord's demesne. Charlemagne instructs his stewards to report +upon both sorts of land.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_151" id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> Probably payments for the right to keep pigs in the woods. The most +common meat in the Middle Ages was pork and the use of the oak forests +as hog pasture was a privilege of considerable value.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_152" id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> Fines imposed upon offenders to free them from crime or to repair +damages done.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_153" id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> Panic was a kind of grass, the seeds of which were not infrequently used +for food.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_154" id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> The serfs were a semi-free class of country people. They did not own +the land on which they lived and were not allowed to move off it without +the owner's consent. They cultivated the soil and paid rents of one kind or +another to their masters—in the present case, to the agents of the king.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_155" id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> A variety of fermented liquor made of salt fish.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_156" id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> A blue coloring matter derived from the leaves of a plant of the same +name.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_157" id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> A red coloring matter derived from a plant of the same name.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_158" id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> Burrs of the teasel plant, stiff and prickly, with hooked bracts; used in +primitive manufacturing for raising a nap on woolen cloth.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_159" id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> A kind of grain still widely cultivated for food in Germany and Switzerland; +sometimes known as German wheat.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_160" id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> The unit of weight was the pound. Charlemagne replaced the old Gallic +pound by the Roman, which was a tenth less.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_161" id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> The unit of measure was the <i>muid</i>. Charlemagne had a standard measure +(<i>modius publicus</i>) constructed and in a number of his capitularies enjoined +that it be taken as a model by all his subjects. It contained probably a +little less than six pecks. A smaller measure was the <i>setier</i>, containing about +five and two-thirds pints.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_162" id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> Clergymen attached to the church on or near the estate.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_163" id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> "Attached to the royal villa, in the center of which stood the palace or +manse, were numerous dependent and humbler dwellings, occupied by mechanics, +artisans, and tradesmen, or rather manufacturers and craftsmen, +in great numbers. The dairy, the bakery, the butchery, the brewery, the +flour-mill were there.... The villa was a city in embryo, and in due +course it grew into one, for as it supplied in many respects the wants of the +surrounding country, so it attracted population and became a center of +commerce."—Jacob I. Mombert, <i>Charles the Great</i> (New York, 1888), pp. +401-402.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_164" id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> An ancient Gallic land measure, equivalent to about half a Roman <i>jugerum</i> +(the <i>jugerum</i> was about two-thirds of an acre). The arpent in modern +France has varied greatly in different localities. In Paris it is 4,088 square +yards.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_165" id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> The same as "pachak." The fragrant roots of this plant are still exported +from India to be used for burning as incense.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_166" id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> A kind of cabbage. The edible part is a large turnip-like swelling of the +stem above the surface of the ground.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_167" id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> A plant used both as a medicine and as a dye.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_168" id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> "All the cereals grown in the country were cultivated. The flower gardens +were furnished with the choicest specimens for beauty and fragrance, +the orchards and kitchen gardens produced the richest and best varieties +of fruit and vegetables. Charles specified by name not less than seventy-four +varieties of herbs which he commanded to be cultivated; all the vegetables +still raised in Central Europe, together with many herbs now found +in botanical gardens only, bloomed on his villas; his orchards yielded a rich +harvest in cherries, apples, pears, prunes, peaches, figs, chestnuts, and +mulberries. The hill-sides were vineyards laden with the finest varieties of +grapes."—Mombert, <i>Charles the Great</i>, p. 400.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_169" id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> James Bryce, <i>The Holy Roman Empire</i> (new ed., New York, 1904), +p. 50.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_170" id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> Irene, the wife of Emperor Leo IV. After the death of her husband in +780 she became regent during the minority of her son, Constantine VI., then +only nine years of age. In 790 Constantine succeeded in taking the government +out of her hands; but seven years afterwards she caused him to be +blinded and shut up in a dungeon, where he soon died. The revolting crimes +by which Irene established her supremacy at Constantinople were considered, +even in her day, a disgrace to Christendom.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_171" id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> This expression has given rise to a view which will be found in some +books that Pope Leo convened a general council of Frankish and Italian +clergy to consider the advisability of giving the imperial title to Charlemagne. +The whole matter is in doubt, but it does not seem likely that there +was any such formal deliberation. Leo certainly ascertained that the leading +lay and ecclesiastical magnates would approve the contemplated step, but +that a definite election in council took place may be pretty confidently denied. +The writer of the Annals of Lauresheim was interested in making the +case of Charlemagne, and therefore of the later emperors, as strong as possible.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_172" id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> Einhard, Charlemagne's biographer, says that the king at first had such +aversion to the titles of Emperor and Augustus "that he declared he would +not have set foot in the church the day that they were conferred, although +it was a great feast-day, if he could have foreseen the design of the Pope" +(<i>Vita Caroli Magni</i>, Chap. 28). Despite this statement, however, we are not +to regard the coronation as a genuine surprise to anybody concerned. In +all probability there had previously been a more or less definite understanding +between the king and the Pope that in due time the imperial title should +be conferred. It is easy to believe, though, that Charlemagne had had no +idea that the ceremony was to be performed on this particular occasion and +it is likely enough that he had plans of his own as to the proper time and +place for it, plans which Leo rather rudely interfered with, but which the +manifest good-will of everybody constrained the king to allow to be sacrificed. +It may well be that Charlemagne had decided simply to assume the +imperial crown without a papal coronation at all, in order that the whole +question of papal supremacy, which threatened to be a troublesome one, +might be kept in the background.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_173" id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> The celebration of the Nativity was by far the greatest festival of the +Church. At this season the basilica of St. Peter at Rome was the scene of +gorgeous ceremonials, and to its sumptuous shrine thronged the devout of +all Christendom. Its magnificence on the famous Christmas of 800 was +greater than ever, for only recently Charlemagne had bestowed the most +costly of all his gifts upon it—the spoils of the Avar wars.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_174" id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> Charles, the eldest son, since 789 king of Maine. In reality, of course, +he was but an under-king, since Maine was an integral part of Charlemagne's +dominion. He was anointed by Pope Leo in 800 as heir-apparent to the new +imperial dignity of his father.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_175" id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> The term "canonical" was applied more particularly to the clergy +attached to a cathedral church, the clergy being known individually as +"canons," collectively as a "chapter." In the present connection, however, +it probably refers to the monks, who, living as they did by "canons" or +rules, were in that sense "canonical clergy."</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_176" id="Footnote_176" href="#FNanchor_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> The secular clergy were the bishops, priests, deacons, and other church +officers, who lived with the people in the <i>sæculum</i>, or world, as distinguished +from the monks, ascetics, cenobites, anchorites, and others, who dwelt in +monasteries or other places of seclusion.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_177" id="Footnote_177" href="#FNanchor_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> This is really as splendid a guarantee of equality before the law as is to +be found in Magna Charta or the Constitution of the United States. Unfortunately +there was not adequate machinery in the Frankish government +to enforce it, though we may suppose that while the <i>missi</i> continued efficient +(which was not more than a hundred years) considerable progress was made +in this direction.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_178" id="Footnote_178" href="#FNanchor_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> Serfs who worked on the fiscal lands, or, in other words, on the royal +estates.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_179" id="Footnote_179" href="#FNanchor_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> Compare <a href="#c14">chapters 14</a> and <a href="#c27">27</a>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_180" id="Footnote_180" href="#FNanchor_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> A benefice, as the term is here used, was land granted by the Emperor +to a friend or dependent. The holder was to use such land on stated terms +for his own and the Emperor's gain, but was in no case to claim ownership +of it.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_181" id="Footnote_181" href="#FNanchor_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> The word has at least three distinct meanings—a royal edict, a judicial +fine, and a territorial jurisdiction. It is here used in the first of these senses.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_182" id="Footnote_182" href="#FNanchor_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> There was little room under Charlemagne's system for professional +lawyers or advocates.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_183" id="Footnote_183" href="#FNanchor_183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a> In other words, when the oath of allegiance is taken, as it must be by +every man and boy above the age of twelve, all the obligations mentioned +from <a href="#c3">Chap. 3</a> to <a href="#c9">Chap. 9</a> are to be considered as assumed along with that +of fidelity to the person and government of the Emperor.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_184" id="Footnote_184" href="#FNanchor_184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a> That is, the laws of the Church.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_185" id="Footnote_185" href="#FNanchor_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> One of the greatest temptations of the mediæval clergy was to spend +time in hunting, to the neglect of religious duties. Apparently this evil was +pretty common in Charlemagne's day.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_186" id="Footnote_186" href="#FNanchor_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a> The <i>centenarii</i> were minor local officials, subordinate to the counts, +and confined in authority to their particular district or "hundred."</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_187" id="Footnote_187" href="#FNanchor_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> In the Frankish kingdom, as commonly among Germanic peoples of +the period, murder not only might be, but was expected to be, atoned for +by a money payment to the slain man's relatives. The payment, known as +the <i>wergeld</i>, would vary according to the rank of the man killed. If it were +properly made, such "composition" was bound to be accepted as complete +reparation for the injury. In this regulation we can discern a distinct advance +over the old system of blood-feud under which a murder almost invariably +led to family and clan wars. Plainly the Franks were becoming +more civilized.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_188" id="Footnote_188" href="#FNanchor_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a> If a murderer refused to pay the required composition his property was +to be taken possession of by the Emperor's officers and the case must be laid +before the Emperor himself. If the latter chose, he might order the restoration +of the property, but this he was not likely to do.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_189" id="Footnote_189" href="#FNanchor_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> Beginning with the reign of Charlemagne there were really two assemblies +each year—one in the spring, the other in the autumn; but the one in +the spring, the so-called "May-field," was much the more important. All +the nobles and higher clergy attended, and if a campaign was in prospect all +who owed military service would be called upon to bring with them their +portion of the war-host, with specified supplies. Charlemagne proposed all +measures, the higher magnates discussed them with him, and the lower ones +gave a perfunctory sanction to acts already determined upon. The meeting +place was changed from year to year, being rotated irregularly among the +royal residences, as Aix-la-Chapelle, Paderborn, Ingelheim, and Thionville; +occasionally they were held, as in this instance, in places otherwise almost +unknown.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_190" id="Footnote_190" href="#FNanchor_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> Strassfurt was some distance south of Magdeburg.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_191" id="Footnote_191" href="#FNanchor_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> The date of the festival of St. John the Baptist was June 22.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_192" id="Footnote_192" href="#FNanchor_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a> From earliest Germanic times we catch glimpses of this practice of +requiring gifts from a king's subjects. By Charlemagne's day it had +crystallized into an established custom and was a very important source of +revenue, though other sources had been opened up which were quite unknown +to the German sovereigns of three or four hundred years before. Ordinarily +these gifts, in money, jewels, or provisions, were presented to the sovereign +each year at the May assembly.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_193" id="Footnote_193" href="#FNanchor_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a> The title "Patricius of Rome" was conferred on Charlemagne by Pope +Hadrian I., in 774. Its bestowal was a token of papal appreciation of the +king's renewal of Pepin's grant of lands to the papacy. In practice the +title had little or no meaning. It was dropped in 800 when Charlemagne +was crowned emperor [see <a href="#Page_130">p. 130</a>].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_194" id="Footnote_194" href="#FNanchor_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a> That is, the law of the Church; in case of the monasteries, more especially +the regulations laid down for their order, e.g., the Benedictine Rule.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_195" id="Footnote_195" href="#FNanchor_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> In the Middle Ages it was assumed that churchmen were educated; +few other men had any claim to learning. Charlemagne here says that it +is bad indeed when men who have been put in ecclesiastical positions because +of their supposed education fall into errors which ought to be expected +only from ordinary people.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_196" id="Footnote_196" href="#FNanchor_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a> In rhetoric a trope is ordinarily defined as the use of a word or expression +in a different sense from that which properly belongs to it. The most common +varieties are metaphor, metonomy, synechdoche, and irony.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_197" id="Footnote_197" href="#FNanchor_197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a> After the battle of Fontenay, June 25, 841, Charles and Louis had +separated and Lothair had formed the design of attacking and conquering +first one and then the other. He made an expedition against Charles, but +was unable to accomplish anything before his two enemies again drew together +at Strassburg.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_198" id="Footnote_198" href="#FNanchor_198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a> The name "Francia" was as yet confined to the country lying between +the Loire and the Scheldt.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_199" id="Footnote_199" href="#FNanchor_199"><span class="label">[199]</span></a> This Pepin was a son of Pepin, the brother of Charles, Louis, and Lothair. +Upon the death of the elder Pepin in 838 his part of the empire—the great +region between the Loire and the Pyrenees, known as Aquitaine—had been +taken possession of by Charles, without regard for the two surviving sons. +It was natural, therefore, that in the struggle which ensued between Charles +and Louis on the one side and Lothair on the other, young Pepin should have +given such aid as he could to the latter.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_200" id="Footnote_200" href="#FNanchor_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a> On the upper Moselle.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_201" id="Footnote_201" href="#FNanchor_201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a> This refers to the battle of Fontenay.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_202" id="Footnote_202" href="#FNanchor_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a> The translation of this oath is as follows: "For the love of God, and for +the sake as well of our peoples as of ourselves, I promise that from this day +forth, as God shall grant me wisdom and strength, I will treat this my +brother as one's brother ought to be treated, provided that he shall do the +same by me. And with Lothair I will not willingly enter into any dealings +which may injure this my brother."</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_203" id="Footnote_203" href="#FNanchor_203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a> This oath, taken by the followers of the two kings, may be thus translated: +"If Louis [or Charles] shall observe the oath which he has sworn to +his brother Charles [or Louis], and Charles [or Louis], our lord, on his side, +should be untrue to his oath, and we should be unable to hold him to it, +neither we nor any whom we can deter, shall give him any support." The +oath taken by the two armies was the same, with only the names of the +kings interchanged.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_204" id="Footnote_204" href="#FNanchor_204"><span class="label">[204]</span></a> This name in the course of time became simply "Francia," then +"France." In the eastern kingdom, "Francia" gradually became restricted +to the region about the Main, or "Franconia."</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_205" id="Footnote_205" href="#FNanchor_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> It was commonly known as "Lotharii regnum," later as "Lotharingia," +and eventually (a fragment of the kingdom only) as "Lorraine."</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_206" id="Footnote_206" href="#FNanchor_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a> Emerton, <i>Mediæval Europe</i> (Boston, 1903), p. 30.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_207" id="Footnote_207" href="#FNanchor_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a> This statement is only approximately true. In reality Friesland (Frisia) +and a strip up the east bank of the Rhine almost to the mouth of the Moselle +went to Lothair.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_208" id="Footnote_208" href="#FNanchor_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> See <a href="#Footnote_199">p. 152, note 2</a>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_209" id="Footnote_209" href="#FNanchor_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a> Gregory IV. (827-844) was succeeded in the papal office by Sergius II. +(844-847).</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_210" id="Footnote_210" href="#FNanchor_210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a> By the treaty of Verdun in 843 Charles the Bald had been given Aquitaine, +along with the other distinctively Frankish regions of western Europe. +His nephew Pepin, however, who had never been reconciled to Charles's +taking possession of Aquitaine in 838, called himself king of that country +and made stubborn resistance to his uncle's claims of sovereignty [see p. +<a href="#Page_156">156</a>].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_211" id="Footnote_211" href="#FNanchor_211"><span class="label">[211]</span></a> The Wends were a Slavonic people living in the lower valley of the Oder.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_212" id="Footnote_212" href="#FNanchor_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a> By "the heathen" are meant the Norse pirates from Denmark and the +Scandinavian peninsula. On their invasions see <a href="#Page_163">p. 163</a>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_213" id="Footnote_213" href="#FNanchor_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a> This Saracen attack upon Rome was made by some Arab pirates who +in the Mediterranean were playing much the same rôle of destruction as +were the Northmen on the Atlantic coasts. A league of Naples, Gaeta, and +Amalfi defeated the pirates in 849, and delivered Rome from her oppressors +long enough for new fortifications to be constructed. Walls were +built at this time to include the quarter of St. Peter's—a district known to +this day as the "Leonine City" in memory of Leo IV., who in 847 succeeded +Sergius as pope [see above text under date 850].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_214" id="Footnote_214" href="#FNanchor_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a> Fulda was an important monastery on one of the upper branches of +the Weser, northeast of Mainz.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_215" id="Footnote_215" href="#FNanchor_215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a> An octave, in the sense here meant, is the week (strictly eight days) +following a church festival; in this case, the eight days following the anniversary +of Christ's birth, or Christmas.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_216" id="Footnote_216" href="#FNanchor_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a> The isle of Rhé, near Rochelle, north of the mouth of the Garonne.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_217" id="Footnote_217" href="#FNanchor_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> Galicia was a province in the extreme northwest of the Spanish peninsula.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_218" id="Footnote_218" href="#FNanchor_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> Charles the Bald, who by the treaty of Verdun in 843, had obtained the +western part of the empire built up by Charlemagne [see <a href="#Page_154">p. 154</a>].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_219" id="Footnote_219" href="#FNanchor_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a> Louis, a half-brother of Charles the Bald, who had received the eastern +portion of Charlemagne's empire by the settlement of 843.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_220" id="Footnote_220" href="#FNanchor_220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a> Frisia, or Friesland, was the northernmost part of the kingdom of Lothair.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_221" id="Footnote_221" href="#FNanchor_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a> That is, in Brittany.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_222" id="Footnote_222" href="#FNanchor_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a> Noménoé was a native chief of the Britons. Charles the Bald made +many efforts to reduce him to obedience, but with little success. In 848 +or 849 he took the title of king. During his brief reign (which ended in 851) +he invaded Charles's dominions and wrought almost as much destruction +as did the Northmen themselves.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_223" id="Footnote_223" href="#FNanchor_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> Tours, Blois, and Orleans were all situated within a range of a hundred +miles along the lower Loire.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_224" id="Footnote_224" href="#FNanchor_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> Chartres was some eighty miles northwest of Orleans.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_225" id="Footnote_225" href="#FNanchor_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a> About midway between Nantes and Tours.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_226" id="Footnote_226" href="#FNanchor_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a> Poitiers was about seventy miles southwest of Tours.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_227" id="Footnote_227" href="#FNanchor_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a> Valence was on the Rhone, nearly a hundred and fifty miles back from +the Mediterranean coast.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_228" id="Footnote_228" href="#FNanchor_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a> The Northmen who ravaged France really had no kings, but only +military chieftains.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_229" id="Footnote_229" href="#FNanchor_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a> Odo, or Eudes, was chosen king by the Frankish nobles and clergy in +888, to succeed the deposed Charles the Fat. He was not of the Carolingian +family but a Robertian (son of Robert the Strong), and hence a forerunner +of the Capetian line of kings regularly established on the French throne in +987 [see <a href="#Page_177">p. 177</a>]. His election to the kingship was due in a large measure +to his heroic conduct during the siege of Paris by the Northmen.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_230" id="Footnote_230" href="#FNanchor_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a> The tower blocked access to the city by the so-called "Great Bridge," +which connected the right bank of the Seine with the island on which the +city was built. The tower stood on the present site of the Châtelet.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_231" id="Footnote_231" href="#FNanchor_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a> In time Robert also became king. He reigned only from 922 to 923.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_232" id="Footnote_232" href="#FNanchor_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a> Abbot Ebolus was head of the monastery of St. Germain des Prés.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_233" id="Footnote_233" href="#FNanchor_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> The Northmen were finally compelled to abandon their efforts against +the tower. They then retired to the bank of the Seine near the abbey of +Saint-Denys and from that place as a center ravaged all the country lying +about Paris. In a short time they renewed the attack upon the city itself.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_234" id="Footnote_234" href="#FNanchor_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> Charles the Fat, under whom during the years 885-887 the old empire +of Charlemagne was for the last time united under a single sovereign. When +Odo went to find him in 886 he was at Metz in Germany. German and +Italian affairs interested him more than did those of the Franks.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_235" id="Footnote_235" href="#FNanchor_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a> Sens was about a hundred miles southeast of Paris. Charles abandoned +the region about Sens to the Northmen to plunder during the winter of +886-887. His very lame excuse for doing this was that the people of the +district did not properly recognize his authority and were deserving of such +punishment.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_236" id="Footnote_236" href="#FNanchor_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> The twelve month siege of Paris thus brought to an end had many noteworthy +results. Chief among these was the increased prestige of Odo as a +national leader and of Paris as a national stronghold. Prior to this time +Paris had not been a place of importance, even though Clovis had made it +his capital. In the period of Charlemagne it was distinctly a minor city +and it gained little in prominence under Louis the Pious and Charles the +Bald. The great Carolingian capitals were Laon and Compiègne. The +siege of 885-886, however, made it apparent that Paris occupied a strategic +position, commanding the valley of the Seine, and that the inland city was +one of the true bulwarks of the kingdom. Thereafter the place grew rapidly +in population and prestige, and when Odo became king (in 888) it was made +his capital. As time went on it grew to be the heart of the French kingdom +and came to guide the destinies of France as no other city of modern +times has guided a nation.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_237" id="Footnote_237" href="#FNanchor_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a> He was deposed in 887, largely because of his utter failure to take any +active measures to defend the Franks against their Danish enemies. From +Paris he went to Germany where he died, January 13, 888, at a small town +on the Danube.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_238" id="Footnote_238" href="#FNanchor_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a> After the famous siege of Paris in 885-886 the Northmen, or Normans +as they may now be called, continued to ravage France just as they had +done before that event. In 910 one of their greatest chieftains, Rollo, appeared +before Paris and prepared to take the city. In this project he was +unsuccessful, but his warriors caused so much devastation in the surrounding +country that Charles the Simple, who was now king, decided to try negotiations. +A meeting was held at Saint-Clair-sur-Epte where, in the presence +of the Norman warriors and the Frankish magnates, Charles and Rollo +entered into the first treaty looking toward a permanent settlement of Northmen +on Frankish territory. Rollo promised to desist from his attacks upon +Frankland and to become a Christian. Charles agreed to give over to the +Normans a region which they in fact already held, with Rouen as its center, +and extending from the Epte River on the east to the sea on the west. The +arrangement was dictated by good sense and proved a fortunate one for +all parties concerned.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_239" id="Footnote_239" href="#FNanchor_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a> Robert was Odo's brother. "Duke of the Franks" was a title, at first +purely military, but fast developing to the point where it was to culminate +in its bearer becoming the first Capetian king [see <a href="#Page_177">p. 177</a>].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_240" id="Footnote_240" href="#FNanchor_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a> See <a href="#Footnote_181">p. 138, note 4</a>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_241" id="Footnote_241" href="#FNanchor_241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a> If the offender had a lord, this lord would be expected to produce his +accused vassal at court.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_242" id="Footnote_242" href="#FNanchor_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a> That is, the old blood-feud of the Germans.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_243" id="Footnote_243" href="#FNanchor_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a> The office of <i>missus</i> had by this time fallen pretty much into decay. +Many of the <i>missi</i> were at the same time counts—a combination of authority +directly opposed to the earlier theory of the administrative system. The +<i>missus</i> had been supposed to supervise the counts and restrain them from +disloyalty to the king and from indulgence in arbitrary or oppressive measures +of local government.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_244" id="Footnote_244" href="#FNanchor_244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a> The viscount (<i>vicecomes</i>) was the count's deputy. By Carloman's time +there were sometimes several of these in a county. They were at first +appointed by the count, but toward the end of the ninth century they became +hereditary.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_245" id="Footnote_245" href="#FNanchor_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a> The <i>vicarii</i> and <i>centenarii</i> were local assistants of the count in administrative +and judicial affairs. In Merovingian times their precise duties are +not clear, but under the Carolingians the two terms tended to become +synonyms. The <i>centenarius</i>, or hundredman, was charged mainly with +the administration of justice in the smallest local division, i.e., the hundred. +In theory he was elected by the people of the hundred, but in practice he +was usually appointed by the count.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_246" id="Footnote_246" href="#FNanchor_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> Hugh Capet, whose title prior to 987 was "Duke of the Franks."</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_247" id="Footnote_247" href="#FNanchor_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a> Adalbero, archbishop of Rheims.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_248" id="Footnote_248" href="#FNanchor_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a> We are not to suppose that Richer here gives a literal reproduction of +Adalbero's speech, but so far as we can tell the main points are carefully +stated.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_249" id="Footnote_249" href="#FNanchor_249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a> At the funeral of Louis.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_250" id="Footnote_250" href="#FNanchor_250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a> Charles of Lower Lorraine, uncle of Louis V.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_251" id="Footnote_251" href="#FNanchor_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a> The elective principle here asserted had prevailed in the choice of French +and German kings for nearly a century. The kings chosen, however, usually +came from one family, as the Carolingians in France.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_252" id="Footnote_252" href="#FNanchor_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a> Almost exactly a century earlier there had been such a case among the +Franks, when Charles the Fat was deposed and Odo, the defender of Paris, +elevated to the throne (888).</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_253" id="Footnote_253" href="#FNanchor_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a> Charles had been made duke of Lower Lorraine by the German emperor. +This passage in Adalbero's speech looks like something of an appeal to +Frankish pride, or as we would say in these days, to national sentiment. +Still it must be remembered that while a sense of common interest was undoubtedly +beginning to develop among the peoples represented in the assembly +at Senlis, these peoples were still far too diverse to be spoken of +accurately as making up a unified nationality. Adalbero was indulging in +a political harangue and piling up arguments for effect, without much regard +for their real weight.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_254" id="Footnote_254" href="#FNanchor_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a> Noyon was a church center about fifty miles north of Paris. That the +coronation really occurred at this place has been questioned by some, but +there seems to be small reason for doubting Richer's statement in the matter.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_255" id="Footnote_255" href="#FNanchor_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a> M. Pfister in Lavisse, <i>Histoire de France</i>, Vol. II., p. 412, asserts that the +coronation occurred July 3, 987.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_256" id="Footnote_256" href="#FNanchor_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a> This method of describing the extent of the new king's dominion shows +how far from consolidated the so-called Frankish kingdom really was. The +royal domain proper, that is, the land over which the king had immediate +control, was limited to a long fertile strip extending from the Somme to a +point south of Orléans, including the important towns of Paris, Orléans, +Étampes, Senlis, and Compiègne. Even this was not continuous, but was +cut into here and there by the estates of practically independent feudal +lords. By far the greater portion of modern France (the name in 987 was +only beginning to be applied to the whole country) consisted of great counties +and duchies, owing comparatively little allegiance to the king and usually +rendering even less than they owed. Of these the most important was the +county (later duchy) of Normandy, the county of Bretagne (Brittany), +the county of Flanders, the county of Anjou, the county of Blois, the duchy +of Burgundy, the duchy of Aquitaine, the county of Toulouse, the county of +Gascony, and the county of Barcelona (south of the Pyrenees). The "Goths" +referred to by Richer were the inhabitants of the "march," or border +county, of Gothia along the Mediterranean coast between the lower Rhone +and the Pyrenees (old Septimania).</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_257" id="Footnote_257" href="#FNanchor_257"><span class="label">[257]</span></a> That is, Ethelred I., whom Alfred succeeded.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_258" id="Footnote_258" href="#FNanchor_258"><span class="label">[258]</span></a> Wiltshire, on the southern coast, west of the Isle of Wight.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_259" id="Footnote_259" href="#FNanchor_259"><span class="label">[259]</span></a> The same as the modern city of the name.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_260" id="Footnote_260" href="#FNanchor_260"><span class="label">[260]</span></a> Mercia was one of the seven old Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. It lay east of +Wales.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_261" id="Footnote_261" href="#FNanchor_261"><span class="label">[261]</span></a> This marked a radical departure in methods of fighting the invaders. +On the continent, and hitherto in England, there had been no effort to prevent +the enemy from getting into the country they proposed to plunder. +Alfred's creation of a navy was one of his wisest acts. Although the English +had by this time grown comparatively unaccustomed to seafaring life +they contrived to win their first naval encounter with the enemy.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_262" id="Footnote_262" href="#FNanchor_262"><span class="label">[262]</span></a> In Dorsetshire.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_263" id="Footnote_263" href="#FNanchor_263"><span class="label">[263]</span></a> Athelney was in Somersetshire, northeast of Exeter, in the marshes at +the junction of the Tone and the Parret.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_264" id="Footnote_264" href="#FNanchor_264"><span class="label">[264]</span></a> The modern Brixton Deverill, in Wiltshire, near Warminster.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_265" id="Footnote_265" href="#FNanchor_265"><span class="label">[265]</span></a> In Wiltshire, a little east of Westbury. In January the Danes had +removed from Exeter to Chippenham. Edington (or Ethandune) was eight +miles from the camp at the latter place. The Danes were first defeated in +an open battle at Edington, and then forced to surrender after a fourteen +days' siege at Chippenham.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_266" id="Footnote_266" href="#FNanchor_266"><span class="label">[266]</span></a> This so-called "Peace of Alfred and Guthrum" in 878 provided only for +the acceptance of Christianity by the Danish leader. It is sometimes +known as the treaty of Chippenham and is not to be confused with the treaty +of Wedmore, of a few weeks later, by which Alfred and Guthrum divided +the English country between them. The text of this second treaty will be +found in Lee's <i>Source-Book of English History</i> (pp. 98-99), though the introductory +statement there given is somewhat misleading. This assignment +of the Danelaw to Guthrum's people may well be compared with the yielding +of Normandy to Rollo by Charles the Simple in 911 [see <a href="#Page_172">p. 172</a>].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_267" id="Footnote_267" href="#FNanchor_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a> Ethelwerd was Alfred's fifth living child.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_268" id="Footnote_268" href="#FNanchor_268"><span class="label">[268]</span></a> This was, of course, not a school in the modern sense of the word. All +that is meant is simply that young Ethelwerd, along with sons of nobles +and non-nobles, received instruction from the learned men at the court. +It had been customary before Alfred's day for the young princes and sons +of nobles to receive training at the court, but not in letters.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_269" id="Footnote_269" href="#FNanchor_269"><span class="label">[269]</span></a> This was Edward the Elder who succeeded Alfred as king and reigned +from 901 to 925. He was Alfred's eldest son.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_270" id="Footnote_270" href="#FNanchor_270"><span class="label">[270]</span></a> Ælfthryth was Alfred's fourth child. She became the wife of Baldwin II. +of Flanders.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_271" id="Footnote_271" href="#FNanchor_271"><span class="label">[271]</span></a> Among other labors in behalf of learning, Alfred made a collection of +the ancient epics and lyrics of the Saxon people. Unfortunately, except +in the case of the epic Beowulf, only fragments of these have survived. +Beowulf was, so far as we know, the earliest of the Saxon poems, having +originated before the migration to Britain, though it was probably put in +its present form by a Christian monk of the eighth century.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_272" id="Footnote_272" href="#FNanchor_272"><span class="label">[272]</span></a> Armorica was the name applied in Alfred's time to the region southward +from the mouth of the Seine to Brittany.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_273" id="Footnote_273" href="#FNanchor_273"><span class="label">[273]</span></a> There is a good deal of independent evidence that Alfred was peculiarly +hospitable to foreigners. He delighted in learning from them about their +peoples and experiences.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_274" id="Footnote_274" href="#FNanchor_274"><span class="label">[274]</span></a> The word in the original is <i>ministeriales</i>. It is not Saxon but Franco-Latin +and is an instance of the Frankish element in Asser's vocabulary. +Here, as among the Franks, the <i>ministeriales</i> were the officials of second-rate +importance surrounding the king, the highest being known as the +<i>ministri</i>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_275" id="Footnote_275" href="#FNanchor_275"><span class="label">[275]</span></a> This comparison of the gathering of learning to the operations of a +bee in collecting honey is very common among classical writers and also +among those of the Carolingian renaissance. It occurs in Lucretius, Seneca, +Macrobius, Alcuin, and the poet Candidus.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_276" id="Footnote_276" href="#FNanchor_276"><span class="label">[276]</span></a> Plegmund became archbishop of Canterbury in 890, but it is probable +that he was with Alfred some time before his election to the primacy.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_277" id="Footnote_277" href="#FNanchor_277"><span class="label">[277]</span></a> This Ethelstan was probably the person of that name who was consecrated +bishop of Ramsbury in 909.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_278" id="Footnote_278" href="#FNanchor_278"><span class="label">[278]</span></a> From another document it appears that Werwulf was a friend of Bishop +Werfrith in Mercia before either took up residence at Alfred's court.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_279" id="Footnote_279" href="#FNanchor_279"><span class="label">[279]</span></a> In Chap. 104 of Asser's biography the <i>capellani</i> are described as supplying +the king with candles, by whose burning he measured time. The word +<i>capellanus</i> is of pure Frankish origin and was originally applied to the clerks +(<i>clerici capellani</i>) who were charged with the custody of the cope (<i>cappa</i>) +of St. Martin, which was kept in the <i>capella</i>. From this the term <i>capella</i> +came to mean a room especially devoted to religious uses, that is, a chapel. +It was used in this sense as early as 829 in Frankland. Whether by <i>capellanus</i> +Asser meant mere clerks, or veritable "chaplains" in the later sense, cannot +be known, though his usage was probably the latter.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_280" id="Footnote_280" href="#FNanchor_280"><span class="label">[280]</span></a> Chapter 87 of Asser informs us that Alfred mastered the art of reading +in the year 887.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_281" id="Footnote_281" href="#FNanchor_281"><span class="label">[281]</span></a> Grimbald came from the Flemish monastery of St. Bertin at St. Omer. +He was recommended to Alfred by Fulco, archbishop of Rheims, who had +once been abbot of St. Bertin. We do not know in what year Grimbald +went to England, though there is some evidence that it was not far from +887.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_282" id="Footnote_282" href="#FNanchor_282"><span class="label">[282]</span></a> John the Old Saxon is mentioned by Alfred as his mass-priest. It is +probable that he came from the abbey of Corbei on the upper Weser. Not +much is known about the man, but if he was as learned as Asser says he was, +he must have been a welcome addition to Alfred's group of scholars particularly +as the language which he used was very similar to that of the West +Saxons in England.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_283" id="Footnote_283" href="#FNanchor_283"><span class="label">[283]</span></a> That is, south of the Humber.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_284" id="Footnote_284" href="#FNanchor_284"><span class="label">[284]</span></a> The service of the Church.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_285" id="Footnote_285" href="#FNanchor_285"><span class="label">[285]</span></a> They were written, of course, in Latin.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_286" id="Footnote_286" href="#FNanchor_286"><span class="label">[286]</span></a> By the middle of the third century <span class="s07">A.D.</span> as many as three different +translations of the Old Testament into Greek had been made—those of +Aquila, Theodotion, and Symmochus. These eventually took fixed shape +in the so-called Septuagint version of the Old Testament.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_287" id="Footnote_287" href="#FNanchor_287"><span class="label">[287]</span></a> About the year 385 St. Jerome revised the older Latin translation of +the New Testament and translated the Old Testament directly from the +Hebrew. This complete version gradually superseded all others for the +whole Latin-reading Church, being known as the "Vulgate," that is, the +version commonly accepted. It was in the form of the Vulgate that the +Scriptures were known to the Saxons and all other peoples of western Europe.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_288" id="Footnote_288" href="#FNanchor_288"><span class="label">[288]</span></a> In other words, sufficient relief from the Danish incursions.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_289" id="Footnote_289" href="#FNanchor_289"><span class="label">[289]</span></a> The <i>mancus</i> was a Saxon money value equivalent to a mark.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_290" id="Footnote_290" href="#FNanchor_290"><span class="label">[290]</span></a> A minster was a church attached to a monastery.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_291" id="Footnote_291" href="#FNanchor_291"><span class="label">[291]</span></a> The witan was the gathering of "wisemen"—members of the royal +family, high officials in the Church, and leading nobles—about the Anglo-Saxon +king to assist in making ordinances and supervising the affairs of state.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_292" id="Footnote_292" href="#FNanchor_292"><span class="label">[292]</span></a> Compensation rendered to an injured person.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_293" id="Footnote_293" href="#FNanchor_293"><span class="label">[293]</span></a> The principal difference between Arian and orthodox Christians arose out +of the much discussed problem as to whether Jesus was of the same substance +as God and co-eternal with Him. The Arians maintained that while +Jesus was truly the Son of God, He must necessarily have been inferior to +the Father, else there would be two gods. Arianism was formally condemned +by the Council of Nicaea in 325, but it continued to be the prevalent +belief in many parts of the Roman Empire; and when the Germans became +Christians, it was Christianity of the Arian type (except in the case of the +Franks) that they adopted—because it happened to be this creed that the +missionaries carried to them. The Franks became orthodox Christians, +which in part explains their close relations with the papacy in the earlier +Middle Ages [see <a href="#Page_50">p. 50</a>]. Of course Gregory of Tours, who relates the story +of the Arian presbyter, as a Frank, was a hater of Arianism, and therefore we +need not be surprised at the expressions of contempt which he employs in +referring to "the heretic."</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_294" id="Footnote_294" href="#FNanchor_294"><span class="label">[294]</span></a> The story as told by Raimond of Agiles was that Peter Bartholomew had +been visited by Andrew the Apostle, who had revealed to him the spot where +the lance lay buried beneath the Church of St. Peter in Antioch.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_295" id="Footnote_295" href="#FNanchor_295"><span class="label">[295]</span></a> Albar, or Albara, was a town southeast of Antioch, beyond the Orontes.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_296" id="Footnote_296" href="#FNanchor_296"><span class="label">[296]</span></a> Owing to Peter's early death after undergoing the ordeal, a serious controversy +arose as to whether he had really passed through it without injury +from the fire. His friends ascribed his death to the wounds he had received +from the enthusiastic crowd, but his enemies declared that he died from +burns.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_297" id="Footnote_297" href="#FNanchor_297"><span class="label">[297]</span></a> Charles Seignobos, <i>The Feudal Régime</i> (translated in "Historical Miscellany" +series), New York, 1904, p. 1.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_298" id="Footnote_298" href="#FNanchor_298"><span class="label">[298]</span></a> A man was not supposed in any way to sacrifice his freedom by becoming +a vassal and the lord's right to his service would be forfeited if this principle +were violated.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_299" id="Footnote_299" href="#FNanchor_299"><span class="label">[299]</span></a> The relation of lord and vassal was, at this early time, limited to the +lifetime of the two parties. When one died, the other was liberated from +his contract. But in the ninth and tenth centuries vassalage became generally +hereditary.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_300" id="Footnote_300" href="#FNanchor_300"><span class="label">[300]</span></a> Casting lots for the property of a deceased father was not uncommon +among the Franks. All sons shared in the inheritance, but particular parts +of the property were often assigned by lot.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_301" id="Footnote_301" href="#FNanchor_301"><span class="label">[301]</span></a> The grant of immunity was thus brought to the attention of the count +in whose jurisdiction the exempted lands lay.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_302" id="Footnote_302" href="#FNanchor_302"><span class="label">[302]</span></a> Châlons-sur-Saône was about eighty miles north of the junction of the +Saône with the Rhone. It should not be confused with Châlons-sur-Marne +where the battle was fought with Attila's Huns in 451.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_303" id="Footnote_303" href="#FNanchor_303"><span class="label">[303]</span></a> There is some doubt at this point as to the correct translation. That +given seems best warranted.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_304" id="Footnote_304" href="#FNanchor_304"><span class="label">[304]</span></a> <i>Dominus</i> was a common name for a lord.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_305" id="Footnote_305" href="#FNanchor_305"><span class="label">[305]</span></a> A member of the king's official household.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_306" id="Footnote_306" href="#FNanchor_306"><span class="label">[306]</span></a> A subordinate officer under the count [see <a href="#Footnote_245">p. 176, note 3</a>].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_307" id="Footnote_307" href="#FNanchor_307"><span class="label">[307]</span></a> See <a href="#Footnote_60">p. 61. note 2</a>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_308" id="Footnote_308" href="#FNanchor_308"><span class="label">[308]</span></a> Louis VII., king of France, 1137-1180.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_309" id="Footnote_309" href="#FNanchor_309"><span class="label">[309]</span></a> The county of Champagne lay to the east of Paris. It was established +by Charlemagne and, while at first insignificant, grew until by the twelfth +and thirteenth centuries it was one of the most important in France.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_310" id="Footnote_310" href="#FNanchor_310"><span class="label">[310]</span></a> Beauvais was about sixty miles northwest of Paris.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_311" id="Footnote_311" href="#FNanchor_311"><span class="label">[311]</span></a> That is, the bishop of Beauvais was bound to furnish his lord, the +count of Champagne, the service of one knight for his army, besides ordinary +feudal obligations.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_312" id="Footnote_312" href="#FNanchor_312"><span class="label">[312]</span></a> The county of Troyes centered about the city of that name on the +upper Seine. It was eventually absorbed by Champagne.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_313" id="Footnote_313" href="#FNanchor_313"><span class="label">[313]</span></a> As a fief.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_314" id="Footnote_314" href="#FNanchor_314"><span class="label">[314]</span></a> A manor, in the general sense, was a feudal estate.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_315" id="Footnote_315" href="#FNanchor_315"><span class="label">[315]</span></a> A castellanerie was a feudal holding centering about a castle.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_316" id="Footnote_316" href="#FNanchor_316"><span class="label">[316]</span></a> That is, Count Thiebault promises Jocelyn not to deprive him of the +services of men who rightfully belong on the manor which is being granted.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_317" id="Footnote_317" href="#FNanchor_317"><span class="label">[317]</span></a> Here is an illustration of the complexity of the feudal system. Count +Thiebault is Jocelyn's <i>fourth</i> lord, and loyalty and service are owed to all +of the four at the same time. Accordingly, Thiebault must be content with +only such allegiance of his new vassal as will not involve a breach of the +contracts which Jocelyn has already entered into with his other lords. +For example, Thiebault could not expect Jocelyn to aid him in war against +the duke of Burgundy, for Jocelyn is pledged to fidelity to that duke. In +general, when a man had only one lord he owed him full and unconditional +allegiance (<i>liege homage</i>), but when he became vassal to other lords he could +promise them allegiance only so far as would not conflict with contracts +already entered into. It was by no means unusual for a man to have +several lords, and it often happened that A was B's vassal for a certain +piece of land while at the same time B was A's vassal for another piece. +Not infrequently the king himself was thus a vassal of one or more of his +own vassals.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_318" id="Footnote_318" href="#FNanchor_318"><span class="label">[318]</span></a> The Bible. Sometimes only the Gospels were used.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_319" id="Footnote_319" href="#FNanchor_319"><span class="label">[319]</span></a> Charles, count of Flanders, had just died and had been succeeded by his +son William. All persons who had received fiefs from the deceased count +were now brought together to renew their homage and fealty to the new +count.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_320" id="Footnote_320" href="#FNanchor_320"><span class="label">[320]</span></a> Such a case as this would be most apt to arise when a lord died and a +vassal failed to renew his homage to the successor; or when a vassal died +and his heir failed to do homage as was required.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_321" id="Footnote_321" href="#FNanchor_321"><span class="label">[321]</span></a> This law would apply also to a case where a man who is already a vassal +of a lord should acquire from another vassal of the same lord some additional +land and so become indebted to the lord for a new measure of fealty.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_322" id="Footnote_322" href="#FNanchor_322"><span class="label">[322]</span></a> Reversion to the original proprietor because of failure of heirs.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_323" id="Footnote_323" href="#FNanchor_323"><span class="label">[323]</span></a> Such land might be acquired for temporary use only i.e., for guardianship, +during the absence or disability of its proprietor.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_324" id="Footnote_324" href="#FNanchor_324"><span class="label">[324]</span></a> Chartres was somewhat less than twenty miles southwest of Paris.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_325" id="Footnote_325" href="#FNanchor_325"><span class="label">[325]</span></a> The terms used in the original are <i>incolume</i>, <i>tutum</i>, <i>honestum</i>, <i>utile</i>, <i>facile</i>, +<i>et possibile</i>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_326" id="Footnote_326" href="#FNanchor_326"><span class="label">[326]</span></a> In the English customary law of the twelfth century we read that, "it +is allowable to any one, without punishment, to support his lord if any one +assails him, and to obey him in all legitimate ways, except in theft, murder, +and in all such things as are not conceded to any one to do and are reckoned +infamous by the laws;" also that, "the lord ought to do likewise equally +with counsel and aid, and he may come to his man's assistance in his vicissitudes +in all ways."—Thorpe, <i>Ancient Laws and Institutes</i>, Vol. I., p. 590.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_327" id="Footnote_327" href="#FNanchor_327"><span class="label">[327]</span></a> The duke of Normandy. Outside of Normandy, of course, other feudal +princes would be substituted.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_328" id="Footnote_328" href="#FNanchor_328"><span class="label">[328]</span></a> It was the feudal system that first gave the eldest son in France a real +superiority over his brothers. This may be seen most clearly in the change +wrought by feudalism whereby the old Frankish custom of allowing all the +sons to inherit their father's property equally was replaced by the mediæval +rule of primogeniture (established by the eleventh century) under which the +younger sons were entirely, or almost entirely, excluded from the inheritance.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_329" id="Footnote_329" href="#FNanchor_329"><span class="label">[329]</span></a> Relief is the term used to designate the payment made to the lord by +the son of the deceased vassal before taking up the inheritance [see <a href="#Page_225">p. 225</a>]. +The "custom" says that sometimes the amount paid as an aid to the lord +was equal to half that paid as relief and sometimes it was only a third.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_330" id="Footnote_330" href="#FNanchor_330"><span class="label">[330]</span></a> The number of men brought by a vassal to the royal army depended +on the value of his fief and the character of his feudal contract. Greater +vassals often appeared with hundreds of followers.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_331" id="Footnote_331" href="#FNanchor_331"><span class="label">[331]</span></a> This provision rendered the ordinary feudal army much more inefficient +than an army made up of paid soldiers. Under ordinary circumstances, +when their forty days of service had expired, the feudal troops were free to +go home, even though their doing so might force the king to abandon a +siege or give up a costly campaign only partially completed. By the thirteenth +century it had become customary for the king to accept extra money +payments instead of military service from his vassals. With the revenues +thus obtained, soldiers could be hired who made war their profession and +who were willing to serve indefinitely.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_332" id="Footnote_332" href="#FNanchor_332"><span class="label">[332]</span></a> Every fief-holder was supposed to render some measure of military +service. As neither a minor nor a woman could do this personally, it was +natural that the lord should make up for the deficiency by appropriating +the produce of the estate during the period of wardship.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_333" id="Footnote_333" href="#FNanchor_333"><span class="label">[333]</span></a> Tenants <i>in capite</i> in England were those who held their land by direct +royal grant.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_334" id="Footnote_334" href="#FNanchor_334"><span class="label">[334]</span></a> Apparently the king's court had been assembled several times to consider +the charges against Viscount Atton, but had been prevented from +taking action because of the latter's failure to appear. At last the court +decided that it was useless to delay longer and proceeded to condemn the +guilty noble and send him a statement of what had been done. He was not +only to lose his château of Auvillars but also to reimburse the king for the +expenses which the court had incurred on his account.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_335" id="Footnote_335" href="#FNanchor_335"><span class="label">[335]</span></a> The chapter was the body of clergy attached to a cathedral church. +Its members were known as canons.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_336" id="Footnote_336" href="#FNanchor_336"><span class="label">[336]</span></a> That is, the penalty for using violence against peaceful churchmen, or +despoiling their property was to be twice that demanded by the law in case +of similar offenses committed against laymen.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_337" id="Footnote_337" href="#FNanchor_337"><span class="label">[337]</span></a> The ordeal of cold water was designed to test a man's guilt or innocence. +The accused person was thrown into a pond and if he sank he was +considered innocent; if he floated, guilty, on the supposition that the pure +water would refuse to receive a person tainted with crime [see <a href="#Page_200">p. 200</a>].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_338" id="Footnote_338" href="#FNanchor_338"><span class="label">[338]</span></a> Friday night, October 13.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_339" id="Footnote_339" href="#FNanchor_339"><span class="label">[339]</span></a> A long coat of mail made of interwoven metal rings.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_340" id="Footnote_340" href="#FNanchor_340"><span class="label">[340]</span></a> Roland, count of Brittany, was slain at the pass of Roncesvalles in the +famous attack of the Gascons upon Charlemagne's retreating army in 778. +One of the chronicles says simply, "In this battle Roland, count of Brittany, +was slain," and we have absolutely no other historical knowledge of the +man. His career was taken up by the singers of the Middle Ages, however, +and employed to typify all that was brave and daring and romantic. It +was some one of the many "songs of Roland" that William used at Hastings +to stimulate his men.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_341" id="Footnote_341" href="#FNanchor_341"><span class="label">[341]</span></a> In a battle so closely contested this was a dangerous stratagem and its +employment seems to indicate that William despaired of defeating the +English by direct attack. His main object, in which he was altogether successful, +was to entice the English into abandoning their advantageous position +on the hilltop.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_342" id="Footnote_342" href="#FNanchor_342"><span class="label">[342]</span></a> After the Norman victory was practically assured, William sought to +bring the battle to an end by having his archers shoot into the air, that their +arrows might fall upon the group of soldiers, including the king, who were +holding out in defense of the English standard. It was in this way that +Harold was mortally wounded; he died immediately from the blows inflicted +by Norman knights at close hand.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_343" id="Footnote_343" href="#FNanchor_343"><span class="label">[343]</span></a> The victory at Hastings did not at once make William king, but it +revealed to both himself and the English people that the crown was easily +within his grasp. After the battle he advanced past London into the interior +of the country. Opposition melted before him and on Christmas +day, 1066, the Norman duke, having already been regularly elected by the +witan, was crowned at London by the archbishop of York. In the early +years of his reign he succeeded in making his power recognized in the more +turbulent north.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_344" id="Footnote_344" href="#FNanchor_344"><span class="label">[344]</span></a> The work of Alfred had not been consistently followed up during the +century and a half since his death [see <a href="#Page_185">p. 185</a>].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_345" id="Footnote_345" href="#FNanchor_345"><span class="label">[345]</span></a> The conquest of England by the Normans was really far from an enslavement. +Norman rule was strict, but hardly more so than conditions +warranted.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_346" id="Footnote_346" href="#FNanchor_346"><span class="label">[346]</span></a> It seems to be true, as William of Malmesbury says, that the century +preceding the Norman Conquest had been an era of religious as well as +literary decline among the English. After 1066 the native clergy, ignorant +and often grossly immoral, were gradually replaced by Normans, who on +the whole were better men. By 1088 there remained only one bishop of +English birth in the entire kingdom. One should be careful, however, not +to exaggerate the moral differences between the two peoples.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_347" id="Footnote_347" href="#FNanchor_347"><span class="label">[347]</span></a> The story goes that just before entering the battle of Hastings in 1066 +William made a vow that if successful he would establish a monastery on +the site where Harold's standard stood. The vow was fulfilled by the +founding of the Abbey of St. Martin, or Battle Abbey, in the years 1070-1076. +The monastery was not ready for consecration until 1094.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_348" id="Footnote_348" href="#FNanchor_348"><span class="label">[348]</span></a> Christchurch. This cathedral monastery had been organized before the +Conqueror's day, but it was much increased in size and in importance by +Lanfranc, William's archbishop of Canterbury; and the great building +which it occupied in the later Middle Ages was constructed at this time.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_349" id="Footnote_349" href="#FNanchor_349"><span class="label">[349]</span></a> In Hampshire, in the southern part of the kingdom.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_350" id="Footnote_350" href="#FNanchor_350"><span class="label">[350]</span></a> In Middlesex, near London.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_351" id="Footnote_351" href="#FNanchor_351"><span class="label">[351]</span></a> On the Severn, in the modern county of Gloucester.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_352" id="Footnote_352" href="#FNanchor_352"><span class="label">[352]</span></a> A thane (or thegn) was originally a young warrior; then one who became +a noble by serving the king in arms; then the possessor of five hides of land. +A hide was a measure of arable ground varying in extent at the time of +William the Conqueror, but by Henry II.'s reign (1154-1189) fixed at about +100 acres. The thane before the Conquest occupied nearly the same position +socially as the knight after it.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_353" id="Footnote_353" href="#FNanchor_353"><span class="label">[353]</span></a> This assembly of dignitaries, summoned by the king three times a year, +was the so-called Great Council, which in Norman times superseded the +old Saxon witan. Its duties were mainly judicial. It acted also as an advisory +body, but the king was not obliged to consult it or to carry out its +recommendations [see p. <a href="#Footnote_432">307, note 2]</a>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_354" id="Footnote_354" href="#FNanchor_354"><span class="label">[354]</span></a> The <i>see</i> of a bishop is his ecclesiastical office; the area over which his +authority extends is more properly known as his diocese.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_355" id="Footnote_355" href="#FNanchor_355"><span class="label">[355]</span></a> On the Orne River, near the English Channel.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_356" id="Footnote_356" href="#FNanchor_356"><span class="label">[356]</span></a> Odo, though a churchman, was a man of brutal instincts and evil character. +Through his high-handed course, both as a leading ecclesiastical +dignitary in Normandy and as earl of Kent and vicegerent in England, he +gave William no small amount of trouble. The king finally grew tired of +his brother's conduct and had him imprisoned in the town of Rouen where +he was left for four years, or until the end of the reign (1087).</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_357" id="Footnote_357" href="#FNanchor_357"><span class="label">[357]</span></a> This was the famous Domesday Survey, begun in 1085.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_358" id="Footnote_358" href="#FNanchor_358"><span class="label">[358]</span></a> In the Irish Sea.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_359" id="Footnote_359" href="#FNanchor_359"><span class="label">[359]</span></a> Maine lay directly to the south of Normandy.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_360" id="Footnote_360" href="#FNanchor_360"><span class="label">[360]</span></a> This statement is doubtful, though it is true that Lanfranc made a beginning +by consecrating a number of bishops in Ireland.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_361" id="Footnote_361" href="#FNanchor_361"><span class="label">[361]</span></a> All of the early Norman kings were greedy for money and apt to bear +heavily upon the people in their efforts to get it. Englishmen were not +accustomed to general taxation and felt the new régime to be a serious +burden. There was consequently much complaint, but, as our historian +says, William was strong enough to be able to ignore it.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_362" id="Footnote_362" href="#FNanchor_362"><span class="label">[362]</span></a> Most of William's harsh measures can be justified on the ground that +they were designed to promote the ultimate welfare of his people. This +is not true, however, of his elaborate forest laws, which undertook to deprive +Englishmen of their accustomed freedom of hunting when and where +they pleased. William's love of the chase amounted to a passion and he +was not satisfied with merely enacting such stringent measures as that the +slayer of a hart or a hind in his forests should be blinded, but also set apart +a great stretch of additional country, the so-called New Forest, as his own +exclusive hunting grounds.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_363" id="Footnote_363" href="#FNanchor_363"><span class="label">[363]</span></a> In other words, it is Duke William's hope that, though not himself +willing to be restricted to the life of a monk, he may secure substantially +an equivalent reward by patronizing men who <i>are</i> thus willing.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_364" id="Footnote_364" href="#FNanchor_364"><span class="label">[364]</span></a> Mâcon, the seat of the diocese in which Cluny was situated, was on the +Saône, a short distance to the southeast.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_365" id="Footnote_365" href="#FNanchor_365"><span class="label">[365]</span></a> Berno served as abbot of Cluny from 910 until 927.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_366" id="Footnote_366" href="#FNanchor_366"><span class="label">[366]</span></a> That the charitable side of the monastery's work was well attended +to is indicated by the fact that in a single year, late in the eleventh century, +seventeen thousand poor were given assistance by the monks.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_367" id="Footnote_367" href="#FNanchor_367"><span class="label">[367]</span></a> The remainder of the charter consists of a series of imprecations of +disaster and punishment upon all who at any time and in any way should +undertake to interfere with the vested rights just granted. These imprecations +were strictly typical of the mediæval spirit-so much so that +many of them came to be mere formulæ, employed to give documents due +solemnity, but without any especially direful designs on the part of the writer +who used them.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_368" id="Footnote_368" href="#FNanchor_368"><span class="label">[368]</span></a> Emerton, <i>Mediæval Europe</i>, p. 458.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_369" id="Footnote_369" href="#FNanchor_369"><span class="label">[369]</span></a> Bernard was the third son.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_370" id="Footnote_370" href="#FNanchor_370"><span class="label">[370]</span></a> About sixty miles southeast of Troyes.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_371" id="Footnote_371" href="#FNanchor_371"><span class="label">[371]</span></a> Cîteaux (established by Odo, duke of Burgundy, in 1098) was near +Dijon in Burgundy.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_372" id="Footnote_372" href="#FNanchor_372"><span class="label">[372]</span></a> Stephen Harding, an Englishman, succeeded Alberic as abbot of Cîteaux +in 1113.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_373" id="Footnote_373" href="#FNanchor_373"><span class="label">[373]</span></a> Châtillon was about twelve miles south of La Ferté. The latter was +fifty miles southeast of Troyes and only half as far from Chaumont, despite +the author's statement that, it lay midway between the two places. The +Aube is an important tributary of the upper Seine.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_374" id="Footnote_374" href="#FNanchor_374"><span class="label">[374]</span></a> The famous founder of the monastery of Monte Cassino and the compiler +of the Benedictine Rule [see <a href="#Page_83">p. 83</a>].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_375" id="Footnote_375" href="#FNanchor_375"><span class="label">[375]</span></a> The incumbent of the papal office was at the same time bishop of Rome, +temporal sovereign of the papal lands, and head of the church universal. +In earlier times there was always danger that the third of these functions +be lost and that the papacy revert to a purely local institution, but by +Gregory VII.'s day the universal headship was clearly recognized throughout +the West as inherent in the office. It was only when there arose the +question as to how far this headship justified the Pope in attempting to +control the affairs of the world that serious disagreement manifested itself.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_376" id="Footnote_376" href="#FNanchor_376"><span class="label">[376]</span></a> That is, without giving them a hearing at a later date.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_377" id="Footnote_377" href="#FNanchor_377"><span class="label">[377]</span></a> On the basis of the forged Donation of Constantine the Pope claimed +the right here mentioned. There was no proper warrant for it.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_378" id="Footnote_378" href="#FNanchor_378"><span class="label">[378]</span></a> "This is the first distinct assertion of the exclusive right of the bishop +of Rome to the title of pope, once applied to all bishops." Robinson, +<i>Readings in European History</i>, Vol. I., p. 274. The word pope is derived from +<i>papa</i> (father). It is still used as the common title of all priests in the +Greek Church.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_379" id="Footnote_379" href="#FNanchor_379"><span class="label">[379]</span></a> This, with the letter given on <a href="#Page_265">page 265,</a> sets forth succinctly the papacy's +absolute claim of authority as against the highest temporal power in Europe.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_380" id="Footnote_380" href="#FNanchor_380"><span class="label">[380]</span></a> That is, pronounced by the canons of the Church to be divinely inspired.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_381" id="Footnote_381" href="#FNanchor_381"><span class="label">[381]</span></a> This is, of course, not a claim of <i>papal</i> infallibility. The assertion is +merely that in the domain of faith and morals the Roman church, judged +by Scriptural principles, has never pursued a course either improper or unwarranted.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_382" id="Footnote_382" href="#FNanchor_382"><span class="label">[382]</span></a> It did not occur until 1084. Henry had inherited the office at the death +of his father, Henry III., in 1056.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_383" id="Footnote_383" href="#FNanchor_383"><span class="label">[383]</span></a> The sin of simony comprised the employment of any corrupt means to +obtain appointment or election to an ecclesiastical office. For the origin +of the term see the incident recorded in Acts, viii. 18-24. The five councilors +had been condemned by a synod at Rome in February, 1075.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_384" id="Footnote_384" href="#FNanchor_384"><span class="label">[384]</span></a> The five condemned councillors.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_385" id="Footnote_385" href="#FNanchor_385"><span class="label">[385]</span></a> This portion of the letter comprises a clear assertion of the "Petrine +Supremacy," i.e., the theory that Peter, as the first bishop of Rome, transmitted +his superiority over all other bishops to his successors in the Roman +see, who in due time came to constitute the line of popes [see <a href="#Page_78">p. 78</a>].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_386" id="Footnote_386" href="#FNanchor_386"><span class="label">[386]</span></a> This refers to a decree of a Roman synod in 1074 against simony and +the marriage of the clergy.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_387" id="Footnote_387" href="#FNanchor_387"><span class="label">[387]</span></a> In the battle on the Unstrutt, June 8, 1075.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_388" id="Footnote_388" href="#FNanchor_388"><span class="label">[388]</span></a> Julian succeeded Constantine's son Constantius as head of the Roman +Empire in 361. He was known as "the Apostate" because of his efforts to +displace the Christian religion and to restore the old pagan worship. He +died in battle with the Persians in 363.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_389" id="Footnote_389" href="#FNanchor_389"><span class="label">[389]</span></a> Henry III., emperor from 1039 to 1056.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_390" id="Footnote_390" href="#FNanchor_390"><span class="label">[390]</span></a> The castle of Canossa stood on one of the northern spurs of the Apennines, +about ten miles southwest of Reggio. Some remains of it may yet +be seen.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_391" id="Footnote_391" href="#FNanchor_391"><span class="label">[391]</span></a> The German princes who were hostile to Henry had kept in close touch +with the Pope. In the Council of Tribur a legate of Gregory took the most +prominent part, and the members of that body had invited the Pope to +come to Augsburg and aid in the settling of Henry's crown upon a successor.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_392" id="Footnote_392" href="#FNanchor_392"><span class="label">[392]</span></a> Revoked the ban of excommunication. The anathema was a solemn +curse by an ecclesiastical authority.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_393" id="Footnote_393" href="#FNanchor_393"><span class="label">[393]</span></a> That is, the Emperor was to be allowed to invest the new bishop or abbot +with the fiefs and secular powers by a touch of the scepter, but his old claim +to the right of investment with the spiritual emblems of ring and crozier +was denied.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_394" id="Footnote_394" href="#FNanchor_394"><span class="label">[394]</span></a> This means that the ecclesiastical prince—the bishop or abbot—in the +capacity of a landholder was to render the ordinary feudal obligations to +the Emperor.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_395" id="Footnote_395" href="#FNanchor_395"><span class="label">[395]</span></a> Burgundy and Italy.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_396" id="Footnote_396" href="#FNanchor_396"><span class="label">[396]</span></a> The term Turks is here used loosely and inaccurately for Asiatic pagan +invaders in general. The French had never destroyed any "kingdoms of the +Turks" in the proper sense of the word, though from time to time they had +made successful resistance to Saracens, Avars and Hungarians.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_397" id="Footnote_397" href="#FNanchor_397"><span class="label">[397]</span></a> Among the acts of the Council of Clermont had been a solemn confirmation +of the Truce of God, with the purpose of restraining feudal warfare [see +<a href="#Page_228">p. 228</a>]. In the version of Urban's speech given by Fulcher of Chartres, the +Pope is reported as saying that in some parts of France "hardly any one can +venture to travel upon the highways, by night or day, without danger of +attack by thieves or robbers; and no one is sure that his property at home +or abroad will not be taken from him by the violence or craft of the wicked."</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_398" id="Footnote_398" href="#FNanchor_398"><span class="label">[398]</span></a> Pope Urban's appeal at the Council of Clermont.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_399" id="Footnote_399" href="#FNanchor_399"><span class="label">[399]</span></a> The <i>penates</i> of the Romans were household gods. William of Malmesbury +here uses the term half-humorously to designate the various sorts of +household articles which the crusaders thought they could not do without +on the expedition, and hence undertook to carry with them.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_400" id="Footnote_400" href="#FNanchor_400"><span class="label">[400]</span></a> This was in the summer of 1097. The whole body of crusaders, including +monks, women, children, and hangers-on, may then have numbered three or +four hundred thousand, but the effective fighting force was not likely over +one hundred thousand men.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_401" id="Footnote_401" href="#FNanchor_401"><span class="label">[401]</span></a> The crusaders reached Nicæa May 6, 1097. After a long siege the city +surrendered, although to the Emperor Alexius rather than to the French.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_402" id="Footnote_402" href="#FNanchor_402"><span class="label">[402]</span></a> This battle—the first pitched contest between the crusader and the +Turk—was fought at Dorylæum, southeast of Nicæa.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_403" id="Footnote_403" href="#FNanchor_403"><span class="label">[403]</span></a> Romania (or the sultanate of Roum) and Cappadocia were regions in +northern Asia Minor.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_404" id="Footnote_404" href="#FNanchor_404"><span class="label">[404]</span></a> The country immediately southeast of the Black Sea.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_405" id="Footnote_405" href="#FNanchor_405"><span class="label">[405]</span></a> Antioch was one of the largest and most important cities of the East. +It had been girdled with enormous walls by Justinian and was a strategic +position of the greatest value to any power which would possess Syria and +Palestine. The siege of the city by the crusaders began October 21, 1097.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_406" id="Footnote_406" href="#FNanchor_406"><span class="label">[406]</span></a> Bohemond of Tarentum was the son of Robert Guiscard and the leader +of the Norman contingent from Italy. Raymond of St. Gilles, count of +Toulouse, was leader of the men from Languedoc in south France.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_407" id="Footnote_407" href="#FNanchor_407"><span class="label">[407]</span></a> The modern Orontes.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_408" id="Footnote_408" href="#FNanchor_408"><span class="label">[408]</span></a> The barons attended the meeting under the pretense of making a religious +pilgrimage.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_409" id="Footnote_409" href="#FNanchor_409"><span class="label">[409]</span></a> This charter, granted at the coronation of Henry I. in 1100, contained +a renunciation of the evil practices which had marked the government of +William the Conqueror and William Rufus. It was from this document +mainly that the barons in 1215 drew their constitutional programme.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_410" id="Footnote_410" href="#FNanchor_410"><span class="label">[410]</span></a> The Knights Templars, having purchased all that part of the banks of +the Thames lying between Whitefriars and Essex Street, erected on it a +magnificent structure which was known as the New Temple, in distinction +from the Old Temple on the south side of Holborn. Meetings of Parliament +and of the king's council were frequently held in the New Temple; here also +were kept the crown jewels. Ultimately, after the suppression of the Templars +by Edward II., the Temple became one of England's most celebrated +schools of law.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_411" id="Footnote_411" href="#FNanchor_411"><span class="label">[411]</span></a> This refers to the king's absolution at the hands of Stephen Langton, +archbishop of Canterbury, July 20, 1213, after his submission to the papacy. +At that time John took an oath on the Bible to the effect that he would restore +the good laws of his forefathers and render to all men their rights.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_412" id="Footnote_412" href="#FNanchor_412"><span class="label">[412]</span></a> The exact day upon which John took the crusader's vow is uncertain. +It was probably Ash Wednesday (March 4), 1215. The king's object was in +part to get the personal protection which the sanctity of the vow carried with +it and in part to enlist the sympathies of the Pope and make it appear that +the barons were guilty of interfering with a crusade.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_413" id="Footnote_413" href="#FNanchor_413"><span class="label">[413]</span></a> On the southern border of Lincolnshire.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_414" id="Footnote_414" href="#FNanchor_414"><span class="label">[414]</span></a> On the Thames in Oxfordshire. This statement of the chronicler is incorrect. +John was yet in London.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_415" id="Footnote_415" href="#FNanchor_415"><span class="label">[415]</span></a> Octave means the period of eight days following a religious festival. +This Monday was April 27.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_416" id="Footnote_416" href="#FNanchor_416"><span class="label">[416]</span></a> Brackley is about twenty-two miles north of Oxford.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_417" id="Footnote_417" href="#FNanchor_417"><span class="label">[417]</span></a> Henry I.'s charter, 1100.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_418" id="Footnote_418" href="#FNanchor_418"><span class="label">[418]</span></a> Edward the Confessor, king from 1042 to 1066.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_419" id="Footnote_419" href="#FNanchor_419"><span class="label">[419]</span></a> In the county of Northampton, in central England.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_420" id="Footnote_420" href="#FNanchor_420"><span class="label">[420]</span></a> Engines for hurling stones.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_421" id="Footnote_421" href="#FNanchor_421"><span class="label">[421]</span></a> About twenty miles southeast of Northampton.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_422" id="Footnote_422" href="#FNanchor_422"><span class="label">[422]</span></a> The commander of Bedford Castle.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_423" id="Footnote_423" href="#FNanchor_423"><span class="label">[423]</span></a> The loss of London by the king was a turning point in the contest. +Thereafter the barons' party gained rapidly and its complete success was +only a question of time.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_424" id="Footnote_424" href="#FNanchor_424"><span class="label">[424]</span></a> Runnymede, on the Thames.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_425" id="Footnote_425" href="#FNanchor_425"><span class="label">[425]</span></a> The charter referred to, in which the liberties of the Church were confirmed, +was granted in November, 1214, and renewed in January, 1215. +It was in the nature of a bribe offered the clergy by the king in the hope of +winning their support in his struggle with the barons. The liberty granted +was particularly that of "canonical election," i.e., the privilege of the cathedral +chapters to elect bishops without being dominated in their choice by +the king. Henry I.'s charter (1100) contained a similar provision, but it +had not been observed in practice.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_426" id="Footnote_426" href="#FNanchor_426"><span class="label">[426]</span></a> Tenants <i>in capite</i>, i.e., men holding land directly from the king on condition +of military service.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_427" id="Footnote_427" href="#FNanchor_427"><span class="label">[427]</span></a> The object of this chapter is, in general, to prevent the exaction of excessive +reliefs. The provision of Henry I.'s charter that reliefs should be just +and reasonable had become a dead letter.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_428" id="Footnote_428" href="#FNanchor_428"><span class="label">[428]</span></a> During the heir's minority the king received the profits of the estate; +in consequence of this the payment of relief by such an heir was to be +remitted.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_429" id="Footnote_429" href="#FNanchor_429"><span class="label">[429]</span></a> Scutage (from <i>scutum</i>, shield) was payment made to the king by persons +who owed military service but preferred to give money instead. Scutage +levied by John had been excessively heavy.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_430" id="Footnote_430" href="#FNanchor_430"><span class="label">[430]</span></a> The General, or Great, Council was a feudal body made up of the king's +tenants-in-chief, both greater and lesser lords. This chapter puts a definite, +even though not very far-reaching, limitation upon the royal power of taxation, +and so looks forward in a way to the later regime of taxation by +Parliament.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_431" id="Footnote_431" href="#FNanchor_431"><span class="label">[431]</span></a> London had helped the barons secure the charter and was rewarded by +being specifically included in its provisions.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_432" id="Footnote_432" href="#FNanchor_432"><span class="label">[432]</span></a> Here we have a definite statement as to the composition of the Great +Council. The distinction between greater and lesser barons is mentioned +as early as the times of Henry I. (1100-1135). In a general way it may be +said that the greater barons (together with the greater clergy) developed into +the House of Lords and the lesser ones, along with the ordinary free-holders, +became the "knights of the shire," who so long made up the backbone +of the Commons. In the thirteenth century comparatively few of the lesser +barons attended the meetings of the Council. Attendance was expensive +and they were not greatly interested in the body's proceedings. It should +be noted that the Great Council was in no sense a legislative assembly.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_433" id="Footnote_433" href="#FNanchor_433"><span class="label">[433]</span></a> It is significant that the provisions of the charter which prohibit feudal +exactions were made by the barons to apply to themselves as well as to the +king.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_434" id="Footnote_434" href="#FNanchor_434"><span class="label">[434]</span></a> This is an important legal enactment whose purpose is to prevent prolonged +imprisonment, without trial, of persons accused of serious crime. +A person accused of murder, for example, could not be set at liberty under +bail, but he could apply for a writ <i>de odio et âtia</i> ("concerning hatred and +malice") which directed the sheriff to make inquest by jury as to whether +the accusation had been brought by reason of hatred and malice. If the jury +decided that the accusation had been so brought, the accused person could +be admitted to bail until the time for his regular trial. This will occur to one +as being very similar to the principle of <i>habeas corpus</i>. John had been +charging heavy fees for these writs <i>de odio et âtia</i>, or "writs of inquisition of +life and limb," as they are called in the charter; henceforth they were to be +issued freely.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_435" id="Footnote_435" href="#FNanchor_435"><span class="label">[435]</span></a> To disseise a person is to dispossess him of his freehold rights.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_436" id="Footnote_436" href="#FNanchor_436"><span class="label">[436]</span></a> Henceforth a person could be outlawed, i.e., declared out of the protection +of the law, only by the regular courts.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_437" id="Footnote_437" href="#FNanchor_437"><span class="label">[437]</span></a> That is, use force upon him, as John had frequently done.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_438" id="Footnote_438" href="#FNanchor_438"><span class="label">[438]</span></a> The term "peers," as here used, means simply equals in rank. The +present clause does not yet imply trial by jury in the modern sense. It +comprises simply a narrow, feudal demand of the nobles to be judged by +other nobles, rather than by lawyers or clerks. Jury trial was increasingly +common in the thirteenth century, but it was not guaranteed in the +Great Charter.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_439" id="Footnote_439" href="#FNanchor_439"><span class="label">[439]</span></a> This chapter is commonly regarded as the most important in the charter. +It undertakes to prevent arbitrary imprisonment and to protect private +property by laying down a fundamental principle of government which John +had been constantly violating and which very clearly marked the line of +distinction between a limited and an absolute monarchy.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_440" id="Footnote_440" href="#FNanchor_440"><span class="label">[440]</span></a> The principle is here asserted that justice in the courts should be open to +all, and without the payment of money to get judgment hastened or delayed. +Extortions of this character did not cease in 1215, but they became less exorbitant +and arbitrary.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_441" id="Footnote_441" href="#FNanchor_441"><span class="label">[441]</span></a> The object of this chapter is to encourage commerce by guaranteeing +foreign merchants the same treatment that English merchants received in +foreign countries. The tolls imposed on traders by the cities, however, +were not affected and they continued a serious obstacle for some centuries.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_442" id="Footnote_442" href="#FNanchor_442"><span class="label">[442]</span></a> This chapter provides that, except under the special circumstances of war, +any law-abiding Englishman might go abroad freely, provided only he should +remain loyal to the English crown. The rule thus established continued in +effect until 1382, when it was enacted that such privileges should belong +only to lords, merchants, and soldiers.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_443" id="Footnote_443" href="#FNanchor_443"><span class="label">[443]</span></a> During the struggle with the barons, John had brought in a number of +foreign mercenary soldiers or "stipendiaries." All classes of Englishmen +resented this policy and the barons improved the opportunity offered by +the charter to get a promise from the king to dispense with his continental +mercenaries as quickly as possible.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_444" id="Footnote_444" href="#FNanchor_444"><span class="label">[444]</span></a> This chapter provides that the charter's regulation of feudal customs +should apply to the barons just as to the king. The barons' tenants were to +be protected from oppression precisely as were the barons themselves. +These tenants had helped in the winning of the charter and were thus rewarded +for their services.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_445" id="Footnote_445" href="#FNanchor_445"><span class="label">[445]</span></a> The chapter goes on at considerable length to specify the manner in +which, if the king should violate the terms of the charter, the commission of +twenty-five barons should proceed to bring him to account. Even the right +of making war was given them, in case it should become necessary to resort +to such an extreme measure.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_446" id="Footnote_446" href="#FNanchor_446"><span class="label">[446]</span></a> April 25, 1215.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_447" id="Footnote_447" href="#FNanchor_447"><span class="label">[447]</span></a> Louis started on his first crusade in August, 1248. After a series of disasters +in Egypt he managed to reach the Holy Land, where he spent nearly +four years fortifying the great seaports. He returned to France in July, 1254. +Sixteen years later, in July, 1270, he started on his second crusade. He had +but reached Carthage when he was suddenly taken ill and compelled to halt +the expedition. He died there August 25, 1270. Louis was as typical a +crusader as ever lived, but in his day men of his kind were few; the great era +of crusading enterprise was past.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_448" id="Footnote_448" href="#FNanchor_448"><span class="label">[448]</span></a> This was Philip, son of Philip Augustus. The lands of the count of Boulogne +lay on the coast of the English Channel north of the Somme.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_449" id="Footnote_449" href="#FNanchor_449"><span class="label">[449]</span></a> An important church center about seventy miles north of Paris.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_450" id="Footnote_450" href="#FNanchor_450"><span class="label">[450]</span></a> A town a few miles south of Paris.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_451" id="Footnote_451" href="#FNanchor_451"><span class="label">[451]</span></a> In the early years of the thirteenth century, an Asiatic chieftain by the +name of Genghis Khan built up a vast empire of Mongol or Tartar peoples, +which for a time stretched all the way from China to eastern Germany. +The rise and westward expansion of this barbarian power spread alarm +throughout Christendom, and with good reason, for it was with great difficulty +that the Tartar sovereigns were prevented from extending their dominion +over Germany and perhaps over all western Europe. After the first +feeling of terror had passed, however, it began to be considered that possibly +the Asiatic conquerors might yet be made to serve the interests of Christendom. +They were not Mohammedans, and Christian leaders saw an opportunity +to turn them against the Saracen master of the coveted Holy Land. +Louis IX.'s reception of an embassy from Ilchikadai, one of the Tartar khans, +or sovereigns, was only one of several incidents which illustrate the efforts +made in this direction. After this episode the Tartars advanced rapidly into +Syria, taking the important cities of Damascus and Aleppo; but a great defeat, +September 3, 1260, by the sultan Kutuz at Ain Talut stemmed the tide +of invasion and compelled the Tartars to retire to their northern dominions.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_452" id="Footnote_452" href="#FNanchor_452"><span class="label">[452]</span></a> May 21, 1249.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_453" id="Footnote_453" href="#FNanchor_453"><span class="label">[453]</span></a> Joinville here gives an account of the first important undertaking of the +crusaders—the capture of Damietta. After this achievement the king +resolved to await the arrival of his brother, the count of Poitiers, with additional +troops. The delay thus occasioned was nearly half a year in length, +i.e., until October.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_454" id="Footnote_454" href="#FNanchor_454"><span class="label">[454]</span></a> This was a common designation of Cairo, the Saracen capital of Egypt.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_455" id="Footnote_455" href="#FNanchor_455"><span class="label">[455]</span></a> December 6.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_456" id="Footnote_456" href="#FNanchor_456"><span class="label">[456]</span></a> The order of the Templars was founded in 1119 to afford protection to +pilgrims in Palestine. The name was taken from the temple of Solomon, in +Jerusalem, near which the organization's headquarters were at first established. +The Templars, in their early history, were a military order and +they had a prominent part in most of the crusading movements after their +foundation.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_457" id="Footnote_457" href="#FNanchor_457"><span class="label">[457]</span></a> At this point Joinville gives an extended description of the Nile and its +numerous mouths. King Louis found himself on the bank of one of the +streams composing the delta, with the sultan's army drawn up on the other +side to prevent the Christians from crossing. Louis determined to construct +an embankment across the stream, so that his troops might cross and engage +in battle with the enemy. To protect the men engaged in building the embankment, +two towers, called cat castles (because they were in front of +two cats, or covered galleries) were erected. Under cover of these, the work +of constructing a passageway went on, though the Saracens did not cease to +shower missiles upon the laborers.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_458" id="Footnote_458" href="#FNanchor_458"><span class="label">[458]</span></a> An instrument intended primarily for the hurling of stones.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_459" id="Footnote_459" href="#FNanchor_459"><span class="label">[459]</span></a> Greek fire was made in various ways, but its main ingredients were sulphur, +Persian gum, pitch, petroleum, and oil. It was a highly inflammable +substance and when once ignited could be extinguished only by the use of +vinegar or sand. It was used quite extensively by the Saracens in their +battles with the crusaders, being usually projected in the form of fire-balls +from hollow tubes.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_460" id="Footnote_460" href="#FNanchor_460"><span class="label">[460]</span></a> An acid liquor made from sour apples or grapes.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_461" id="Footnote_461" href="#FNanchor_461"><span class="label">[461]</span></a> Charles, count of Anjou—a brother of Saint Louis.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_462" id="Footnote_462" href="#FNanchor_462"><span class="label">[462]</span></a> Joinville's story of the remainder of the campaign in Egypt is a long one. +Enough has been given to show something of the character of the conflicts +between Saracen and crusader. In the end Louis was compelled to withdraw +his shattered army. He then made his way to the Holy Land in the +hope of better success, but the four years he spent there were likewise a +period of disappointment.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_463" id="Footnote_463" href="#FNanchor_463"><span class="label">[463]</span></a> The treaty here referred to is that of Paris, negotiated by Louis IX. and +Henry III. in 1259. By it the English king renounced his claim to Normandy, +Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Poitou, while Louis IX. ceded to Henry the +Limousin, Périgord, and part of Saintonge, besides the reversion of Agenais +and Quercy. The territories thus abandoned by the French were to be annexed +to the duchy of Guienne, for which Henry III. was to render homage +to the French king, just as had been rendered by the English sovereigns +before the conquests of Philip Augustus. Manifestly Louis IX.'s chief motive +in yielding possession of lands he regarded as properly his was to secure peace +with England and to get the homage of the English king for Guienne. For +upwards of half a century the relations of England and France had been +strained by reason of the refusal of Henry III. to recognize the conquests of +Philip Augustus and to render the accustomed homage. The treaty of Paris +was important because it regulated the relations of France and England to +the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War. It undertook to perpetuate the +old division of French soil between the English and French monarchs—an +arrangement always fruitful of discord and destined, more than anything else, +to bring on the great struggle of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries between +the two nations [see <a href="#Page_417">p. 417</a> ff.].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_464" id="Footnote_464" href="#FNanchor_464"><span class="label">[464]</span></a> A fur much esteemed in the Middle Ages. It is not known whether it +was the fur of a single animal or of several kinds combined.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_465" id="Footnote_465" href="#FNanchor_465"><span class="label">[465]</span></a> A woven fabric made of camel's hair.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_466" id="Footnote_466" href="#FNanchor_466"><span class="label">[466]</span></a> After his retirement from the royal service in 1254 Joinville frequently +made social visits at Louis's court.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_467" id="Footnote_467" href="#FNanchor_467"><span class="label">[467]</span></a> On the Franciscans and Dominicans [see <a href="#Page_360">p. 360</a>].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_468" id="Footnote_468" href="#FNanchor_468"><span class="label">[468]</span></a> To the east from Paris—now a suburb of that city. The chateau of +Vincennes was one of the favorite royal residences.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_469" id="Footnote_469" href="#FNanchor_469"><span class="label">[469]</span></a> That is, a case in law.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_470" id="Footnote_470" href="#FNanchor_470"><span class="label">[470]</span></a> Such guarantees of personal liberty were not peculiar to the charters of +communes; they are often found in those of franchise towns.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_471" id="Footnote_471" href="#FNanchor_471"><span class="label">[471]</span></a> The chief magistrate of Laon was a mayor, elected by the citizens. In +judicial matters he was assisted by twelve "jurats."</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_472" id="Footnote_472" href="#FNanchor_472"><span class="label">[472]</span></a> This is intended to preserve the judicial privileges of lords of manors.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_473" id="Footnote_473" href="#FNanchor_473"><span class="label">[473]</span></a> The citizens of the town were to have freedom to dispose of their property +as they chose.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_474" id="Footnote_474" href="#FNanchor_474"><span class="label">[474]</span></a> This provision was intended to put an end to arbitrary taxation by the +bishop. In the earlier twelfth century serfs were subject to the arbitrary +levy of the taille (tallage) and this indeed constituted one of their most +grievous burdens. Arbitrary tallage was almost invariably abolished by +the town charters.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_475" id="Footnote_475" href="#FNanchor_475"><span class="label">[475]</span></a> By "men of the peace" is meant the citizens of the commune. The term +"commune" is scrupulously avoided in the charter because of its odious +character in the eyes of the bishop. Suits were to be tried at home in the +burgesses' own courts, to save time and expense and insure better justice.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_476" id="Footnote_476" href="#FNanchor_476"><span class="label">[476]</span></a> This trifling payment of sixpence a year was made in recognition of the +lordship of the king, the grantor of the charter. Aside from it, the burgher +had full rights over his land.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_477" id="Footnote_477" href="#FNanchor_477"><span class="label">[477]</span></a> The burghers, who were often engaged in agriculture as well as commerce, +are to be exempt from tolls on commodities bought for their own sustenance +and from the ordinary fees due the lord for each measure of grain harvested.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_478" id="Footnote_478" href="#FNanchor_478"><span class="label">[478]</span></a> The object of this provision is to restrict the amount of military service +due the king. The burghers of small places like Lorris were farmers and +traders who made poor soldiers and who were ordinarily exempted from +service by their lords. The provision for Lorris practically amounted to an +exemption, for such service as was permissible under chapter 3 of the +charter was not worth much.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_479" id="Footnote_479" href="#FNanchor_479"><span class="label">[479]</span></a> The Gâtinais was the region in which Lorris was situated. Étampes, +Milly, and Melun all lay to the north of Lorris, in the direction of Paris. Orleans +lay to the west. The king's object in granting the burghers the right to +carry goods to the towns specified without payment of tolls was to encourage +commercial intercourse.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_480" id="Footnote_480" href="#FNanchor_480"><span class="label">[480]</span></a> This protects the landed property of the burghers against the crown and +crown officials. With two exceptions, fine or imprisonment, not confiscation +of land, is to be the penalty for crime. <i>Hôtes</i> denotes persons receiving land +from the king and under his direct protection.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_481" id="Footnote_481" href="#FNanchor_481"><span class="label">[481]</span></a> This provision is intended to attract merchants to Lorris by placing them +under the king's protection and assuring them that they would not be molested +on account of old offenses.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_482" id="Footnote_482" href="#FNanchor_482"><span class="label">[482]</span></a> This chapter safeguards the personal property of the burghers, as chapter +5 safeguards their land. Arbitrary imposts are forbidden and any of the +inhabitants who as serfs had been paying arbitrary tallage are relieved of +the burden. The nominal <i>cens</i> (Chap. 1) was to be the only regular payment +due the king.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_483" id="Footnote_483" href="#FNanchor_483"><span class="label">[483]</span></a> An agreement outside of court was allowable in all cases except when +there was a serious breach of the public peace. The provost was the chief +officer of the town. He was appointed the crown and was charged +chiefly with the administration of justice and the collection of revenues. +All suits of the burghers were tried in his court. They had no active part in +their own government, as was generally true of the franchise towns.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_484" id="Footnote_484" href="#FNanchor_484"><span class="label">[484]</span></a> Another part of the charter specifies that only those burghers who owned +horses and carts were expected to render the king even this service.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_485" id="Footnote_485" href="#FNanchor_485"><span class="label">[485]</span></a> This clause, which is very common in the town charters of the twelfth +century (especially in the case of towns on the royal domain) is intended to +attract serfs from other regions and so to build up population. As a +rule the towns were places of refuge from seigniorial oppression and the present +charter undertakes to limit the time within which the lord might recover +his serf who had fled to Lorris to a year and a day—except in cases +where the serf should refuse to recognize the jurisdiction of the provost's +court in the matter of the lord's claim.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_486" id="Footnote_486" href="#FNanchor_486"><span class="label">[486]</span></a> The sergeants were deputies of the provost, somewhat on the order of +town constables.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_487" id="Footnote_487" href="#FNanchor_487"><span class="label">[487]</span></a> These "Hollanders" inhabited substantially the portion of Europe now +designated by their name.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_488" id="Footnote_488" href="#FNanchor_488"><span class="label">[488]</span></a> This was the diocese from which the colonists proposed to remove.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_489" id="Footnote_489" href="#FNanchor_489"><span class="label">[489]</span></a> That is, judges representing any outside authority.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_490" id="Footnote_490" href="#FNanchor_490"><span class="label">[490]</span></a> In other words, if the bishop should go from his seat at Hamburg to the +colony.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_491" id="Footnote_491" href="#FNanchor_491"><span class="label">[491]</span></a> In each parish of the colony, therefore, the priest would be supported +by the income of the hide of land set apart for his use and by the tenth of +the regular church tithes which the bishop conceded for the purpose.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_492" id="Footnote_492" href="#FNanchor_492"><span class="label">[492]</span></a> All that this means is that the members of the Rhine League recognized +William of Holland as emperor. Most of the Empire did not so recognize +him. He died in 1256, two years after the league was formed.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_493" id="Footnote_493" href="#FNanchor_493"><span class="label">[493]</span></a> These "pfahlburgers" were subjects of ecclesiastical or secular princes +who, in order to escape the burdens of this relation, contrived to get themselves +enrolled as citizens of neighboring cities. While continuing to dwell +in regions subject to the jurisdiction of their lords, they claimed to enjoy +immunity from that jurisdiction, because of their citizenship in those outside +cities. The pfahlburgers were a constant source of friction between the +towns and the territorial princes. The Golden Bull of Emperor Charles IV. +(1356) decreed that pfahlburgers should not enjoy the rights and privileges +of the cities unless they became actual residents of them and discharged their +full obligations as citizens.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_494" id="Footnote_494" href="#FNanchor_494"><span class="label">[494]</span></a> That is, the <i>trivium</i> (Latin grammar, rhetoric, and logic) and the <i>quadrivium</i> +(arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music).</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_495" id="Footnote_495" href="#FNanchor_495"><span class="label">[495]</span></a> The earliest degrees granted at Bologna, Paris, etc., were those of master +of arts and doctor of philosophy. "Master" and "Doctor" were practically +equivalent terms and both signified simply that the bearer, after suitable +examinations, had been recognized as sufficiently proficient to be admitted +to the guild of teachers. The bachelor's degree grew up more obscurely. +It might be taken somewhere on the road to the master's degree, but was +merely an incidental stamp of proficiency up to a certain stage of advancement. +Throughout mediæval times the master's, or doctor's, degree, which +carried the right to become a teacher, was the normal goal and few stopped +short of its attainment.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_496" id="Footnote_496" href="#FNanchor_496"><span class="label">[496]</span></a> Hastings Rashdall, <i>The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages</i> (Oxford, +1895), Vol. I., p. 146.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_497" id="Footnote_497" href="#FNanchor_497"><span class="label">[497]</span></a> Evidently, from other passages, including students of law as well as teachers.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_498" id="Footnote_498" href="#FNanchor_498"><span class="label">[498]</span></a> Greedy creditors sometimes compelled students to pay debts owed by +the fellow-countrymen of the latter—a very thinly disguised form of robbery. +This abuse was now to be abolished.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_499" id="Footnote_499" href="#FNanchor_499"><span class="label">[499]</span></a> That is, in any legal proceedings against a scholar the defendant was to +choose whether he would be tried before his own master or before the bishop. +In later times this right of choice passed generally to the plaintiff.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_500" id="Footnote_500" href="#FNanchor_500"><span class="label">[500]</span></a> The students of the French universities were regarded as, for all practical +purposes, members of the clergy (<i>clerici</i>) and thus to be distinguished from +laymen. They were not clergy in the full sense, but were subject to a special +sort of jurisdiction closely akin to that applying to the clergy.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_501" id="Footnote_501" href="#FNanchor_501"><span class="label">[501]</span></a> The law on this point was exceptionally severe. The privilege of establishing +innocence by combat or the ordeal by water was denied, though even +the provost and his subordinates who had played false in the riot of 1200 +had been given the opportunity of clearing themselves by such means if +they chose and could do so.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_502" id="Footnote_502" href="#FNanchor_502"><span class="label">[502]</span></a> A further recognition of the clerical character of the students.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_503" id="Footnote_503" href="#FNanchor_503"><span class="label">[503]</span></a> The property, as the persons, of the scholars was protected from seizure +except by the church authorities.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_504" id="Footnote_504" href="#FNanchor_504"><span class="label">[504]</span></a> In this capacity the provost of Paris came to be known as the "Conservator +of the Royal Privileges of the University."</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_505" id="Footnote_505" href="#FNanchor_505"><span class="label">[505]</span></a> For an explanation of the phrase "elector of the Holy Empire" see <a href="#Page_409">p. 409</a>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_506" id="Footnote_506" href="#FNanchor_506"><span class="label">[506]</span></a> Rupert had sent sums of money to Rome to induce Pope Urban VI. to +approve the foundation of the university. The papal bull of 1385, which was +the reward of his effort, specifically enjoined that the university be modeled +closely after that of Paris.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_507" id="Footnote_507" href="#FNanchor_507"><span class="label">[507]</span></a> The mediæval "three philosophies" were introduced by the rediscovery +of some of Aristotle's writings in the twelfth century. Primal philosophy +was what we now know as metaphysics; natural philosophy meant the +sciences of physics, botany, etc.; and moral philosophy denoted ethics and +politics.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_508" id="Footnote_508" href="#FNanchor_508"><span class="label">[508]</span></a> At Paris the students were divided into four groups, named from the +nationality which predominated in each of them at the time of its formation—the +French, the Normans, the Picards, and the English.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_509" id="Footnote_509" href="#FNanchor_509"><span class="label">[509]</span></a> The rector at Paris was head of the faculty of arts.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_510" id="Footnote_510" href="#FNanchor_510"><span class="label">[510]</span></a> Equivalent to bedel. All mediæval universities had their bedels, who +bore the mace of authority before the rectors on public occasions, made +announcements of lectures, book sales, etc., and exercised many of the +functions of the modern bedel of European universities.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_511" id="Footnote_511" href="#FNanchor_511"><span class="label">[511]</span></a> John Addington Symonds, <i>Wine, Women and Song: Mediæval Latin +Students' Songs</i> (London, 1884), pp. 1-3.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_512" id="Footnote_512" href="#FNanchor_512"><span class="label">[512]</span></a> Symonds, <i>Wine, Women, and Song</i>, pp. 5-20 <i>passim</i>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_513" id="Footnote_513" href="#FNanchor_513"><span class="label">[513]</span></a> This is the only indication of the name of the place where the suppliant +student was supposed to be making his petition.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_514" id="Footnote_514" href="#FNanchor_514"><span class="label">[514]</span></a> St. Martin was the founder of the monastery at Tours [see <a href="#Page_48">p. 48</a>].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_515" id="Footnote_515" href="#FNanchor_515"><span class="label">[515]</span></a> "Honest folk are jeeringly bidden to beware of the <i>quadrivium</i> [see p. +<a href="#Page_339">339</a>], which is apt to form a fourfold rogue instead of a scholar in four +branches of knowledge."—Symonds, <i>Wine, Women, and Song</i>, p. 57.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_516" id="Footnote_516" href="#FNanchor_516"><span class="label">[516]</span></a> That is, as a sacrifice.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_517" id="Footnote_517" href="#FNanchor_517"><span class="label">[517]</span></a> The father's name was Pietro Bernardone. As a cloth-merchant he was +probably accustomed to make frequent journeys to northern France, particularly +Champagne, which was the principal seat of commercial exchange +between northern and southern Europe.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_518" id="Footnote_518" href="#FNanchor_518"><span class="label">[518]</span></a> Aspiring to become a knight and to win distinction on the field of battle, +Francis had gone to Spoleto with the intention of joining an expedition about +to set out for Apulia. While there he was stricken with fever and compelled +to abandon his purpose. Returning to Assisi, he redoubled his works of +charity and sought to keep aloof from the people of the town. His old +companions, however, flocked around him, expecting still to profit by his +prodigality, and for a time, being himself uncertain as to the course he would +take, he acceded to their desires.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_519" id="Footnote_519" href="#FNanchor_519"><span class="label">[519]</span></a> See <a href="#Page_376">p. 376</a>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_520" id="Footnote_520" href="#FNanchor_520"><span class="label">[520]</span></a> Brief portions of this testament, or will, are given on <a href="#Page_376">p. 376</a>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_521" id="Footnote_521" href="#FNanchor_521"><span class="label">[521]</span></a> This was in the latter part of 1210 and the early part of 1211. Rivo-Torto +was an abandoned cottage in the plain of Assisi, an hour's walk from +the town and near the highway between Perugia and Rome. The building +had once served as a leper hospital. Francis and his companions selected +it as a temporary place of abode, probably because of its proximity to the +<i>carceri</i>, or natural grottoes, of Mount Subasio to which the friars resorted +for solitude, and because it was at the same time sufficiently near the Umbrian +towns to permit of frequent trips thither for preaching and charity.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_522" id="Footnote_522" href="#FNanchor_522"><span class="label">[522]</span></a> Practically, St. Francis's successor in the headship of the order. With +the idea of realizing entire humility in his own life, St. Francis had resigned +his position of authority into the hands of Brother Peter and had pledged +the implicit obedience of himself and the others to the new prelate.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_523" id="Footnote_523" href="#FNanchor_523"><span class="label">[523]</span></a> That is, the sovereign of the Holy Roman Empire.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_524" id="Footnote_524" href="#FNanchor_524"><span class="label">[524]</span></a> The passage (Luke ix. 1-6) is as follows: "Jesus, having called to Him +the Twelve, gave them power and authority over all devils and to cure +diseases. And He sent them to preach the Kingdom of God and to heal the +sick. And He said unto them, Take nothing for your journey, neither staves, +nor scrip, neither bread, neither money; neither have two coats apiece. And +whatsoever house ye enter into, there abide, and thence depart. And whosoever +will not receive you, when ye go out of that city shake off the very +dust from your feet for a testimony against them. And they departed and +went through the towns, preaching the gospel and healing everywhere."</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_525" id="Footnote_525" href="#FNanchor_525"><span class="label">[525]</span></a> Honorius III., 1216-1227.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_526" id="Footnote_526" href="#FNanchor_526"><span class="label">[526]</span></a> That is, abandoned the worldly manner of living.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_527" id="Footnote_527" href="#FNanchor_527"><span class="label">[527]</span></a> Despite the willingness of St. Francis here expressed to get on peaceably +with the secular clergy, i.e., the bishops and priests, the history of the +mendicant orders is filled with the records of strife between the seculars and +friars. This was inevitable, since such friars as had taken priestly orders +were accustomed to hear confessions, preside at masses, preach in parish +churchyards, bury the dead, and collect alms—all the proper functions of +the parish priests but permitted to the friars by special papal dispensations. +The priests very naturally regarded the friars as usurpers.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_528" id="Footnote_528" href="#FNanchor_528"><span class="label">[528]</span></a> That is, in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_529" id="Footnote_529" href="#FNanchor_529"><span class="label">[529]</span></a> The Rule of 1210, approved by Innocent III., is here meant [see <a href="#Page_374">p. 374</a>].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_530" id="Footnote_530" href="#FNanchor_530"><span class="label">[530]</span></a> The consecrated wafer, believed to be the body of Christ, which in the +Mass is offered as a sacrifice; also the bread before consecration.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_531" id="Footnote_531" href="#FNanchor_531"><span class="label">[531]</span></a> Certain periods of the day, set apart by the laws of the Church, for the +duties of prayer and devotion; also certain portions of the Breviary to be used +at stated hours. The seven canonical hours are matins and lauds, the first, +third, sixth, and ninth hours, vespers, and compline.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_532" id="Footnote_532" href="#FNanchor_532"><span class="label">[532]</span></a> That is, infant baptism and the <i>viaticum</i> (the Lord's Supper when administered +to persons in immediate danger of death).</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_533" id="Footnote_533" href="#FNanchor_533"><span class="label">[533]</span></a> Extreme unction is the sacrament of anointing in the last hours,—the +application of consecrated oil by a priest to all the senses, i.e., to eyes, ears, +nostrils, etc., of a person when in immediate danger of death. The sacrament +is performed for the remission of sins.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_534" id="Footnote_534" href="#FNanchor_534"><span class="label">[534]</span></a> St. Dionysius was bishop of Alexandria about the middle of the third +century. He was a pupil of the great theologian Origen and himself a writer +of no small ability on the doctrinal questions which vexed the early Church.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_535" id="Footnote_535" href="#FNanchor_535"><span class="label">[535]</span></a> Manichæus was a learned Persian who, in the third century, worked out +a system of doctrine which sought to combine the principles of Christianity +with others taken over from the Persian and kindred Oriental religions. +The most prominent feature of the resulting creed was the conception of an +absolute dualism running throughout the universe—light and darkness, +good and evil, soul and body—which existed from the beginning and should +exist forever. The Manichæan sect spread from Persia into Asia Minor +North Africa, Sicily, and Italy. Though persecuted by Diocletian, and afterwards +by some of the Christian emperors, it had many adherents as late as the +sixth century, and certain of its ideas appeared under new names at still later +times, notably among the Albigenses in southern France in the twelfth century.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_536" id="Footnote_536" href="#FNanchor_536"><span class="label">[536]</span></a> Annates were payments made to the pope by newly elected or appointed +ecclesiastical officials of the higher sort. They were supposed to comprise +the first year's income from the bishop's or abbot's benefice.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_537" id="Footnote_537" href="#FNanchor_537"><span class="label">[537]</span></a> The <i>décime</i> was an extraordinary royal revenue derived from the payment +by the clergy of a tenth of the annual income from their benefices. Its +prototype was the Saladin tithe, imposed by Philip Augustus (1180-1223) +for the financing of his crusade. In the latter half of the thirteenth century, +and throughout the fourteenth, the <i>décime</i> was called for by the kings with +considerable frequency, often ostensibly for crusading purposes, and it was +generally obtained by a more or less compulsory vote of the clergy, or without +their consent at all.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_538" id="Footnote_538" href="#FNanchor_538"><span class="label">[538]</span></a> Pragmatic, in the general sense, means any sort of decree of public +importance; in its more special usage it denotes an ordinance of the crown +regulating the relations of the national clergy with the papacy. The modern +equivalent is "concordat."</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_539" id="Footnote_539" href="#FNanchor_539"><span class="label">[539]</span></a> When the Council of Constance came to an end, in April, 1418, it was +agreed between this body and Pope Martin V. that a similar council should +be convened at Pavia in 1423. When the time arrived, conditions were far +from favorable, but the University of Paris pressed the Pope to observe his +pledge in the matter and the council was duly convened. Very few members +appeared at Pavia, and, the plague soon breaking out there, the meeting +was transferred to Siena. Even there only five German prelates were present, +six French, and not one Spanish. Small though it was, the council entered +upon a course so independent and self-assertive that in the following year +the Pope was glad to take advantage of its paucity of numbers to declare +it dissolved.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_540" id="Footnote_540" href="#FNanchor_540"><span class="label">[540]</span></a> The Dauphiné was a region on the east side of the Rhone which, in 1349, +was purchased of Humbert, Dauphin of Vienne, by Philip VI., and ceded by +the latter to his grandson Charles, the later Charles V. (1364-1380). Charles +assumed the title of "the Dauphin," which became the established designation +of the heir-apparent to the French throne.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_541" id="Footnote_541" href="#FNanchor_541"><span class="label">[541]</span></a> Under the <i>grâce expectative</i> the pope conferred upon a prelate a benefice +which at the time was filled, to be assumed as soon as it should fall vacant. +Benefices of larger importance, such as the offices of bishop and abbot, +were often subject to the <i>réserve</i>; that is, the pope regularly reserved to himself +the right of filling them, sometimes before, sometimes after, the vacancy +occurred. These acts constituted clear assumptions by the popes of power +which under the law of the Church was not theirs, and, though the framers +of the Pragmatic Sanction had motives which were more or less selfish for +combatting the <i>réserve</i> and the <i>grâce expectative</i>, there can be no question +that the abuses aimed at were as real as they were represented to be.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_542" id="Footnote_542" href="#FNanchor_542"><span class="label">[542]</span></a> Those who presented and installed men in benefices.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_543" id="Footnote_543" href="#FNanchor_543"><span class="label">[543]</span></a> These first two chapters reproduce without change the decrees of the +Council of Basel. The second reiterates, in substance, the declaration of the +Council of Constance [see <a href="#Page_393">p. 393</a>].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_544" id="Footnote_544" href="#FNanchor_544"><span class="label">[544]</span></a> That is, the "canonical" system of election of bishops by the chapters +and of abbots by the monks. The Pragmatic differs in this clause from the +decree of the Council of Basel in allowing temporal princes to recommend +persons for election.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_545" id="Footnote_545" href="#FNanchor_545"><span class="label">[545]</span></a> This means that the pope is not to add to the number of canons in any +cathedral chapter as a means of influencing the composition and deliberations +of that body.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_546" id="Footnote_546" href="#FNanchor_546"><span class="label">[546]</span></a> Annates were ordinarily the first year's revenues of a benefice which, +under the prevailing system, were supposed to be paid by the incumbent to +the pope. The Pragmatic goes on to provide that during the lifetime of +Pope Eugene one-fifth of the accustomed annates should continue to be +paid.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_547" id="Footnote_547" href="#FNanchor_547"><span class="label">[547]</span></a> Henry VI. succeeded his father as emperor, reigning from 1190 to 1197.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_548" id="Footnote_548" href="#FNanchor_548"><span class="label">[548]</span></a> The term (meaning literally "fodder") designates the obligation to +furnish provisions for the royal army. The right of demanding such provisions +was now given up by the Emperor.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_549" id="Footnote_549" href="#FNanchor_549"><span class="label">[549]</span></a> The consuls—often twelve in number—were the chief magistrates of +the typical Italian commune.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_550" id="Footnote_550" href="#FNanchor_550"><span class="label">[550]</span></a> Otto III., emperor 983-1002. Otto is noted chiefly for his visionary +project of renewing the imperial splendor of Rome and making her again +the capital of a world-wide empire.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_551" id="Footnote_551" href="#FNanchor_551"><span class="label">[551]</span></a> James Bryce, <i>The Holy Roman Empire</i> (new ed., New York, 1904), +pp. 207-208. For the reference to Dante see the <i>Inferno</i>, Canto X.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_552" id="Footnote_552" href="#FNanchor_552"><span class="label">[552]</span></a> James H. Robinson, <i>Readings in European History</i> (Boston, 1904), Vol. +I., p. 244.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_553" id="Footnote_553" href="#FNanchor_553"><span class="label">[553]</span></a> Gregory IX., (1227-1241).</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_554" id="Footnote_554" href="#FNanchor_554"><span class="label">[554]</span></a> Frederick was excommunicated and anathematized on sixteen different +charges, which the Pope carefully enumerated. All who were bound to him +by oath of fealty were declared to be absolved from their allegiance.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_555" id="Footnote_555" href="#FNanchor_555"><span class="label">[555]</span></a> At the Council of Lyons, in 1245, the Emperor was again excommunicated. +The ensuing paragraph comprises a portion of Pope Innocent IV.'s denunciation +of him upon that occasion.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_556" id="Footnote_556" href="#FNanchor_556"><span class="label">[556]</span></a> Charles IV. was himself king of Bohemia, so that for the present the +Emperor was also one of the seven imperial electors.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_557" id="Footnote_557" href="#FNanchor_557"><span class="label">[557]</span></a> James Bryce, <i>The Holy Roman Empire</i> (new ed., New York, 1904), p. 234.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_558" id="Footnote_558" href="#FNanchor_558"><span class="label">[558]</span></a> Frankfort lay on the river Main, a short distance east of Mainz. "It +was fixed as the place of election, as a tradition dating from East Frankish +days preserved the feeling that both election and coronation ought to take +place on Frankish soil."—James Bryce, <i>The Holy Roman Empire</i> (new ed., +New York, 1904), p. 243.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_559" id="Footnote_559" href="#FNanchor_559"><span class="label">[559]</span></a> The preceding section specifies that Mass should be celebrated the day +following the arrival of the electors at Frankfort, and that the archbishop +of Mainz should administer to his six colleagues the oath which he himself +has taken, as specified in section 2.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_560" id="Footnote_560" href="#FNanchor_560"><span class="label">[560]</span></a> The three archbishops were "archchancellors" of the Empire for Germany, +Gaul and Burgundy, and Italy respectively. The king of Bohemia +was designated as cupbearer, the margrave of Brandenburg as chamberlain, +the count palatine as seneschal, and the duke of Saxony as marshal.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_561" id="Footnote_561" href="#FNanchor_561"><span class="label">[561]</span></a> The diet was the Empire's nearest approach to a national assembly. It +was made up of three orders—the electors, the princes, and the representatives +of the cities.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_562" id="Footnote_562" href="#FNanchor_562"><span class="label">[562]</span></a> An official representative of a king or overlord in a city.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_563" id="Footnote_563" href="#FNanchor_563"><span class="label">[563]</span></a> Nürnberg (or Nuremberg) is situated in Bavaria, in south central Germany.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_564" id="Footnote_564" href="#FNanchor_564"><span class="label">[564]</span></a> Metz lay on the Moselle, above Trier. Apparently this clause providing +for a regular annual meeting of the electors was inserted by Charles in the +hope that he might be able to make use of the body as an advisory council in +the affairs of the Empire. The provision remained a dead letter, for the reason +that the electors were indifferent to the Emperor's purposes in the matter.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_565" id="Footnote_565" href="#FNanchor_565"><span class="label">[565]</span></a> This is the title employed by Thomas Johnes in his translation of the +work a hundred years ago. Froissart himself called his book, in the French +of his day, <i>Chroniques de France, d'Engleterre, d'Escoce, de Bretaigne, d'Espaigne, +d'Italie, de Flandres et d'Alemaigne</i>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_566" id="Footnote_566" href="#FNanchor_566"><span class="label">[566]</span></a> Philip IV., king of France, 1285-1314.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_567" id="Footnote_567" href="#FNanchor_567"><span class="label">[567]</span></a> Isabella was the wife of Edward II., who reigned in England from 1307 +until his deposition in 1327.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_568" id="Footnote_568" href="#FNanchor_568"><span class="label">[568]</span></a> Louis X. (the Quarrelsome) reigned 1314-1316; Philip V. (the Long), +1316-1322; and Charles IV. (the Fair), 1322-1328. Louis and Charles were +very weak kings, though Philip was vigorous and able.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_569" id="Footnote_569" href="#FNanchor_569"><span class="label">[569]</span></a> The French Court of Twelve Peers did not constitute a distinct organization, +but was merely a high rank of baronage. In the earlier Middle Ages, +the number of peers was generally twelve, including the most powerful lay +vassals of the king and certain influential prelates. In later times the number +was frequently increased by the creation of peers by the crown.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_570" id="Footnote_570" href="#FNanchor_570"><span class="label">[570]</span></a> In 1317, after the accession of Philip IV., an assembly of French magnates +(such as that which disposed of the crown in 1328) laid down the +general rule that no woman should succeed to the throne of France. This +rule has come to be known as the Salic Law of France, though it has no +historical connection with the law of the Salian Franks against female inheritance +of property, with which older writers have generally confused it +[see p. <a href="#Footnote_66">67, note 1]</a>. The rule of 1317 was based purely on grounds of political +expediency. It was announced at this particular time because the death of +Louis X. had left France without a male heir to the throne for the first time +since Hugh Capet's day and the barons thought it not best for the realm that +a woman reign over it. Between 1316 and 1328 daughters of kings were +excluded from the succession three times, and though in 1328, when Charles +IV. died, there had been no farther legislation on the subject, the principle of +the misnamed Salic Law had become firmly established in practice. In +1328, however, when the barons selected Philip of Valois to be regent first +and then king, they went a step farther and declared not only that no +woman should be allowed to inherit the throne of France but that the inheritance +could not pass through a woman to her son; in other words, she +could not transmit to her descendants a right which she did not herself +possess. This was intended to cover any future case such as that of Edward +III.'s claim to inherit through his mother Isabella, daughter of Philip IV. +The action of the barons was supported by public opinion in practically all +France—especially since it appeared that only through this expedient could +the realm be saved from the domination of an alien sovereign.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_571" id="Footnote_571" href="#FNanchor_571"><span class="label">[571]</span></a> Philip of Valois was a son of Charles of Valois, who was a brother of +Philip IV. The line of direct Capetian descent was now replaced by the +branch line of the Valois. The latter occupied the French throne until the +death of Henry III. in 1589.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_572" id="Footnote_572" href="#FNanchor_572"><span class="label">[572]</span></a> James van Arteveld, a brewer of Ghent, was the leader of the popular +party in Flanders—the party which hated French influence, which had +expelled the count of Flanders on account of his services to Philip VI., and +which was the most valuable English ally on the continent. Arteveld was +murdered in 1345 during the civil discord which prevailed in Flanders +throughout the earlier part of the Hundred Years' War.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_573" id="Footnote_573" href="#FNanchor_573"><span class="label">[573]</span></a> These were towns situated near the Franco-Flemish frontier. They had +been lost by Flanders to France and assistance in their recovery was rightly +considered by the German advisers of Edward as likely to be more tempting +to the Flemish than any other offer he could make them.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_574" id="Footnote_574" href="#FNanchor_574"><span class="label">[574]</span></a> That is, the papal court.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_575" id="Footnote_575" href="#FNanchor_575"><span class="label">[575]</span></a> Robert of Artois was a prince who had not a little to do with the outbreak +of the Hundred Years' War. After having lost a suit for the inheritance of +the county of Artois (the region about the Somme River) and having been +proved guilty of fabricating documents to support his claims, he had fled +to England and there as an exile had employed every resource to influence +Edward to claim the French throne and to go to war to secure it.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_576" id="Footnote_576" href="#FNanchor_576"><span class="label">[576]</span></a> In northeastern Flanders.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_577" id="Footnote_577" href="#FNanchor_577"><span class="label">[577]</span></a> That is, June 23. The English fleet was composed of two hundred and +fifty vessels, carrying 11,000 archers and 4,000 men-at-arms.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_578" id="Footnote_578" href="#FNanchor_578"><span class="label">[578]</span></a> Edward III.'s queen was Philippa, daughter of the count of Hainault.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_579" id="Footnote_579" href="#FNanchor_579"><span class="label">[579]</span></a> In reality, until five o'clock in the evening, or about nine hours in all.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_580" id="Footnote_580" href="#FNanchor_580"><span class="label">[580]</span></a> The tide of battle was finally turned in favor of the English by the arrival +of reinforcements in the shape of a squadron of Flemish vessels. The contest +was not so one-sided or the French defeat so complete as Froissart +represents, yet it was decisive enough, as is indicated by the fact that only +thirty of the French ships survived and 20,000 French and Genoese were +slain or taken prisoners, as against an English loss of about 10,000.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_581" id="Footnote_581" href="#FNanchor_581"><span class="label">[581]</span></a> June 24, 1340.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_582" id="Footnote_582" href="#FNanchor_582"><span class="label">[582]</span></a> As appears from Froissart's account (see <a href="#Page_431">p. 431</a>), the king, on the advice +of some of his knights, decided at one time to postpone the attack until +the following day; but, the army falling into hopeless confusion and coming +up unintentionally within sight of the English, he recklessly gave the order +to advance to immediate combat. Perhaps, however, it is only fair to place +the blame upon the system which made the army so unmanageable, rather +than upon the king personally.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_583" id="Footnote_583" href="#FNanchor_583"><span class="label">[583]</span></a> That is, the plain east of the village of Crécy.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_584" id="Footnote_584" href="#FNanchor_584"><span class="label">[584]</span></a> The king's eldest son, Edward, generally known as the Black Prince.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_585" id="Footnote_585" href="#FNanchor_585"><span class="label">[585]</span></a> Abbeville was on the Somme about fifteen miles south of Crécy.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_586" id="Footnote_586" href="#FNanchor_586"><span class="label">[586]</span></a> This incident very well illustrates the confusion and lack of discipline +prevailing in a typical feudal army.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_587" id="Footnote_587" href="#FNanchor_587"><span class="label">[587]</span></a> Edward, the Black Prince, eldest son of the English king.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_588" id="Footnote_588" href="#FNanchor_588"><span class="label">[588]</span></a> The Emperor Henry VII., 1308-1314.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_589" id="Footnote_589" href="#FNanchor_589"><span class="label">[589]</span></a> Sir Thomas Norwich.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_590" id="Footnote_590" href="#FNanchor_590"><span class="label">[590]</span></a> Limoges, besieged by the duke of Berry and the great French general, +Bertrand du Guesclin, had just been forced to surrender. It was a very +important town and its capture was the occasion of much elation among +the French. Treaties were entered into between the duke of Berry on the +one hand and the bishop and citizens of Limoges on the other, whereby the +inhabitants recognized the sovereignty of the French king. It was the news +of this surrender that so angered the Black Prince.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_591" id="Footnote_591" href="#FNanchor_591"><span class="label">[591]</span></a> A force of 3,200 men was led by the Black Prince from the town of Cognac +to undertake the siege of Limoges. Froissart here enumerates a large +number of notable knights who went with the expedition.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_592" id="Footnote_592" href="#FNanchor_592"><span class="label">[592]</span></a> The Limousin was a district in south central France, southeast of +Poitou.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_593" id="Footnote_593" href="#FNanchor_593"><span class="label">[593]</span></a> Limoges was now in the hands of three commanders representing the +French king. Their names were John de Villemur, Hugh de la Roche, and +Roger de Beaufort.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_594" id="Footnote_594" href="#FNanchor_594"><span class="label">[594]</span></a> Here follows a minute enumeration of the districts, towns, and castles +conceded to the English. The most important were Poitou, Limousin, +Rouergne, and Saintonge in the south, and Calais, Guines, and Ponthieu in +the north.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_595" id="Footnote_595" href="#FNanchor_595"><span class="label">[595]</span></a> That is, King John II. and the regent Charles.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_596" id="Footnote_596" href="#FNanchor_596"><span class="label">[596]</span></a> The enormous ransom thus specified for King John was never paid. +The three million gold crowns would have a purchasing power of perhaps +forty or forty-five million dollars to-day. On the strength of the treaty +provision John was immediately released from captivity. With curious +disregard of the bad conditions prevailing in France as the result of foreign +and civil war he began preparations for a crusade, which, however, he was +soon forced to abandon. In 1364, attracted by the gayety of English life as +contrasted with the wretchedness and gloom of his impoverished subjects, +he went voluntarily to England, where he died before the festivities in honor +of his coming were completed.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_597" id="Footnote_597" href="#FNanchor_597"><span class="label">[597]</span></a> Throughout the Hundred Years' War the English had maintained close +relations with the Flemish enemies of France, just as France, in defiance of +English opposition, had kept up her traditional friendship with Scotland. +The treaty of Bretigny provided for a mutual reshaping of foreign policy, +to the end that these obstacles to peace might be removed.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_598" id="Footnote_598" href="#FNanchor_598"><span class="label">[598]</span></a> That is, the death of King Charles VI.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_599" id="Footnote_599" href="#FNanchor_599"><span class="label">[599]</span></a> France was not to be dealt with as conquered territory. This article +comprises the only important provision in the treaty for safeguarding the +interests of the French people.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_600" id="Footnote_600" href="#FNanchor_600"><span class="label">[600]</span></a> Charles VI., Henry V., and Philip the Good bind themselves not to come +to any sort of terms with the Dauphin, which compact reveals the irreconcilable +attitude characteristic of the factional and dynastic struggles of the +period. Chapter 6 of the treaty disinherits the Dauphin; chapter 29 proclaims +him an enemy of France.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_601" id="Footnote_601" href="#FNanchor_601"><span class="label">[601]</span></a> Dante represents the commentaries composing the <i>Convito</i> as in the +nature of a banquet, the "meats" of which were to be set forth in fourteen +courses, corresponding to the fourteen <i>canzoni</i>, or lyric poems, which were +to be commented upon. As a matter of fact, for some unknown reason, the +"banquet" was broken off at the end of the third course. "At the beginning +of every well-ordered banquet" observes the author in an earlier passage +(Bk. II., Chap. 1) "the servants are wont to take the bread given out for +it, and cleanse it from every speck." Dante has just cleansed his viands from +the faults of egotism and obscurity,—the "accidental impurities"; he now +proceeds to clear them of a less superficial difficulty, i.e., the fact that in +serving them use is made of the Italian rather than the Latin language.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_602" id="Footnote_602" href="#FNanchor_602"><span class="label">[602]</span></a> The date of the composition of the <i>De Vulgari Eloquentia</i> is unknown, +but there are reasons for assigning the work to the same period in the author's +life as the <i>Convito</i>. Like the <i>Convito</i>, it was left incomplete; four books +were planned, but only the first and a portion of the second were written. +In it an effort was made to establish the dominance of a perfect and imperial +Italian language over all the dialects. The work itself was written in Latin, +probably to command the attention of scholars whom Dante hoped to convert +to the use of the vernacular.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_603" id="Footnote_603" href="#FNanchor_603"><span class="label">[603]</span></a> The author conceives of the <i>canzoni</i> as masters and the commentaries +as servants.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_604" id="Footnote_604" href="#FNanchor_604"><span class="label">[604]</span></a> That is, any poetical composition.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_605" id="Footnote_605" href="#FNanchor_605"><span class="label">[605]</span></a> Some students of Dante hold that this phrase about Homer should be +rendered "does not admit of being turned"; but others take it in the absolute +sense and base on it an argument against Dante's knowledge of Greek literature.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_606" id="Footnote_606" href="#FNanchor_606"><span class="label">[606]</span></a> The Book of Psalms.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_607" id="Footnote_607" href="#FNanchor_607"><span class="label">[607]</span></a> The <i>canzoni</i> were in Italian and a Latin commentary would have been +useless to scholars of other nations, because they could not have understood +the <i>canzoni</i> to which it referred.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_608" id="Footnote_608" href="#FNanchor_608"><span class="label">[608]</span></a> The Provençal language—the peculiar speech of southeastern France, +whence comes the name Languedoc. <i>Oc</i> is the affirmative particle "yes."</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_609" id="Footnote_609" href="#FNanchor_609"><span class="label">[609]</span></a> <i>Si</i> is the Italian affirmative particle. In the <i>Inferno</i> Dante refers to +Italy as "that lovely country where the <i>si</i> is sounded" (XXX., 80).</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_610" id="Footnote_610" href="#FNanchor_610"><span class="label">[610]</span></a> That is, prose shows the true beauty of a language more effectively than +poetry, in which the attention is distracted by the ornaments of verse.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_611" id="Footnote_611" href="#FNanchor_611"><span class="label">[611]</span></a> The author refers to Cicero's philosophical treatise <i>De Finibus Bonorum +et Malorum</i>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_612" id="Footnote_612" href="#FNanchor_612"><span class="label">[612]</span></a> For example, Pope Innocent IV. (1243-1254) declared: "Two lights, +the sun and the moon, illumine the globe; two powers, the papal and the +royal, govern it; but as the moon receives her light from the more brilliant +star, so kings reign by the chief of the Church, who comes from God."</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_613" id="Footnote_613" href="#FNanchor_613"><span class="label">[613]</span></a> The arguments disposed of by the author, in addition to those treated +in the passages here presented, are: the precedence of Levi over Judah +(Gen., xxix. 34, 35), the election and deposition of Saul by Samuel (1 Sam., +x. 1; xv. 23; xv. 28), the oblation of the Magi (Matt., ii. 11), the two +swords referred to by Peter (Luke, xxii. 38), the donation of Constantine, +the summoning of Charlemagne by Pope Hadrian, and finally the argument +from pure reason.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_614" id="Footnote_614" href="#FNanchor_614"><span class="label">[614]</span></a> This was the common mediæval designation of Aristotle.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_615" id="Footnote_615" href="#FNanchor_615"><span class="label">[615]</span></a> For Dante's conception of the terrestrial and the celestial paradise see +the <i>Paradiso</i> in the <i>Divina Commedia</i>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_616" id="Footnote_616" href="#FNanchor_616"><span class="label">[616]</span></a> These were the lay and ecclesiastical princes in whom was vested the +right of choosing the Emperor. The electoral college was first clearly defined +in the Golden Bull issued by Charles IV. in 1356 [see <a href="#Page_409">p. 409</a>]. Its composition +in Dante's time is uncertain.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_617" id="Footnote_617" href="#FNanchor_617"><span class="label">[617]</span></a> Dante's ideal solution was the harmonious rule of the two powers by +the acknowledgment of filial relationship between pope and emperor, on +the basis of a recognition of the different and essentially irreconcilable +character of their functions.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_618" id="Footnote_618" href="#FNanchor_618"><span class="label">[618]</span></a> George B. Adams, <i>Mediæval Civilization</i> (New York, 1904), pp. 375-377.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_619" id="Footnote_619" href="#FNanchor_619"><span class="label">[619]</span></a> "There was no apparatus for the study of Greek at that time. Oral +instruction from Greek or Byzantine scholars was the only possible means +of access to the great writers of the past. Such instruction was difficult to +secure, as Petrarch's efforts and failure prove."—Robinson and Rolfe, +<i>Petrarch</i>, p. 237.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_620" id="Footnote_620" href="#FNanchor_620"><span class="label">[620]</span></a> This is a humorous allusion to the fact that Petrarch had recently received +an injury from the fall of a heavy volume of Cicero's <i>Letters</i>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_621" id="Footnote_621" href="#FNanchor_621"><span class="label">[621]</span></a> A renowned Greek physician of the fifth century <span class="s07">B.C.</span></p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_622" id="Footnote_622" href="#FNanchor_622"><span class="label">[622]</span></a> A famous Arabian astronomer of the ninth century <span class="s07">A.D.</span></p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_623" id="Footnote_623" href="#FNanchor_623"><span class="label">[623]</span></a> Leo Pilatus, a translator.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_624" id="Footnote_624" href="#FNanchor_624"><span class="label">[624]</span></a> Quintus Horatius Flaccus (65-8 <span class="s07">B.C.</span>), one of the literary lights of the +Augustan Age, was a younger contemporary of Cicero. His <i>Ars Poetica</i> was +a didactic poem setting forth the correct principles of poetry as an art.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_625" id="Footnote_625" href="#FNanchor_625"><span class="label">[625]</span></a> Eusebius, bishop of Cæsarea in Palestine, is noted chiefly as the author +of an Ecclesiastical History which is in many ways our most important source +of information on the early Christian Church. He lived about 250-339. St. +Jerome was a great Church father of the later fourth century. His name is +most commonly associated with the translation of the Bible from the original +Hebrew and Greek into the Latin language. The resulting form of the +Scriptures was the <i>Editio Vulgata</i> (the Edition Commonly Received), +whence our English term "Vulgate."</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_626" id="Footnote_626" href="#FNanchor_626"><span class="label">[626]</span></a> Eyeglasses were but beginning to come into use in Petrarch's day.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_627" id="Footnote_627" href="#FNanchor_627"><span class="label">[627]</span></a> Petrarch's father and Dante were banished from Florence upon the same +day, January 27, 1302 [see <a href="#Page_446">p. 446</a>].</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_628" id="Footnote_628" href="#FNanchor_628"><span class="label">[628]</span></a> Marcus Gavius Apicius was a celebrated epicure of the time of Augustus +and Tiberius. He was the author of a famous cook-book intended for the +gratification of high-livers. Though worth a fortune, he was haunted by a +fear of starving to death and eventually poisoned himself to escape such a +fate. There was another Apicius in the third century who compiled a +well-known collection of recipes for cooking, in ten books, entitled <i>De Re +Coquinaria</i>. 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