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You may copy it, give it away or re-use + it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License <a href= + "#pglicense" class="tei tei-ref">included with this eBook</a> or + online at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license" class= + "tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/license</a></p> + </div> + <pre class="pre tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +Title: Hegel's Philosophy of Mind + +Author: Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel + +Release Date: March 5, 2012 [Ebook #39064] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HEGEL'S PHILOSOPHY OF MIND*** +</pre> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"></div> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style= + "font-size: 173%">Hegel's Philosophy of Mind</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">By</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style= + "font-size: 144%">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">Translated From</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style= + "font-size: 144%">The Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical + Sciences</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">With</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">Five Introductory Essays</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">By</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style= + "font-size: 144%">William Wallace, M.A., LL.D.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Fellow of Merton College, + and Whyte's Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of + Oxford</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Oxford</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Clarendon Press</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">1894</p> + </div> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1> + + <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc"> + <li><a href="#toc1">Preface.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc3">Five Introductory Essays In Psychology And + Ethics.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc5">Essay I. On The Scope + Of A Philosophy Of Mind.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc7">Essay II. Aims And + Methods Of Psychology.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc9">Essay III. On Some + Psychological Aspects Of Ethics.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc11">Essay IV. + Psycho-Genesis.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc13">Essay V. Ethics And + Politics.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc15">Introduction.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc17">Section I. Mind Subjective.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc19">Sub-Section A. + Anthropology. The Soul.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc21">Sub-Section B. + Phenomenology Of Mind. Consciousness.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc23">Sub-Section C. + Psychology. Mind.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc25">Section II. Mind Objective.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href= + "#toc27">Distribution.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc29">Sub-Section A. + Law.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc31">Sub-Section B. The + Morality Of Conscience.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc33">Sub-Section C. The + Moral Life, Or Social Ethics.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc35">Section III. Absolute Mind.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc37">Sub-Section A. + Art.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc39">Sub-Section B. + Revealed Religion.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc41">Sub-Section C. + Philosophy.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc43">Index.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc45">Footnotes</a></li> + </ul> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-body" style= + "margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagev">[pg v]</span><a name="Pgv" id="Pgv" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc1" id="toc1"></a> <a name="pdf2" id="pdf2"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Preface.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I here offer a + translation of the third or last part of Hegel's encyclopaedic sketch + of philosophy,—the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Philosophy of Mind</span></span>. The volume, + like its subject, stands complete in itself. But it may also be + regarded as a supplement or continuation of the work begun in my + version of his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Logic</span></span>. I have not ventured upon + the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Philosophy of Nature</span></span> which lies + between these two. That is a province, to penetrate into which would + require an equipment of learning I make no claim to,—a province, + also, of which the present-day interest would be largely historical, + or at least bound up with historical circumstances.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The translation is + made from the German text given in the Second Part of the Seventh + Volume of Hegel's Collected Works, occasionally corrected by + comparison with that found in the second and third editions (of 1827 + and 1830) published by the author. I have reproduced only Hegel's own + paragraphs, and entirely omitted the <span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zusätze</span></span> of the editors. These + addenda—which are in origin lecture-notes—to the paragraphs are, in + the text of the Collected Works, given for the first section only. + The psychological part which they accompany has been barely treated + elsewhere by Hegel: but a good popular <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagevi">[pg vi]</span><a name="Pgvi" id="Pgvi" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> exposition of it will be found in Erdmann's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Psychologische Briefe</span></span>. The second + section was dealt with at greater length by Hegel himself in his + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophy + of Law</span></span> (1820). The topics of the third section are + largely covered by his lectures on Art, Religion, and History of + Philosophy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I do not conceal + from myself that the text offers a hard nut to crack. Yet here and + there, even through the medium of the translation, I think some light + cannot fail to come to an earnest student. Occasionally, too, as, for + instance, in §§ 406, 459, 549, and still more in §§ 552, 573, at the + close of which might stand the words <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Liberavi animam meam</span></span>, the writer + really <span class="tei tei-q">“lets himself go,”</span> and gives + his mind freely on questions where speculation comes closely in touch + with life.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Five + Introductory Essays</span></span> I have tried sometimes to put + together, and sometimes to provide with collateral elucidation, some + points in the Mental Philosophy. I shall not attempt to justify the + selection of subjects for special treatment further than to hope that + they form a more or less connected group, and to refer for a study of + some general questions of system and method to my <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Prolegomena to the + Study of Hegel's Philosophy</span></span> which appear almost + simultaneously with this volume.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">Oxford</span></span>,<br /> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">December, + 1893</span></span>.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexi">[pg xi]</span><a name="Pgxi" + id="Pgxi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc3" id="toc3"></a> <a name="pdf4" id="pdf4"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Five Introductory Essays In Psychology + And Ethics.</span></h1><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexiii">[pg + xiii]</span><a name="Pgxiii" id="Pgxiii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc5" id="toc5"></a> <a name="pdf6" id="pdf6"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Essay I. On The Scope Of A Philosophy + Of Mind.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The art of + finding titles, and of striking out headings which catch the eye or + ear, and lead the mind by easy paths of association to the subject + under exposition, was not one of Hegel's gifts. A stirring phrase, + a vivid or picturesque turn of words, he often has. But his lists + of contents, when they cease to be commonplace, are apt to run into + the bizarre and the grotesque. Generally, indeed, his rubrics are + the old and (as we may be tempted to call them) insignificant terms + of the text-books. But, in Hegel's use of them, these conventional + designations are charged with a highly individualised meaning. They + may mean more—they may mean less—than they habitually pass for: but + they unquestionably specify their meaning with a unique and almost + personal flavour. And this can hardly fail to create and to + disappoint undue expectations.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(i.) Philosophy and its + Parts.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even the main + divisions of his system show this conservatism in terminology. + The names of the three parts of the Encyclopaedia are, we may + say, non-significant <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexiv">[pg + xiv]</span><a name="Pgxiv" id="Pgxiv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + of their peculiar contents. And that for a good reason. What + Hegel proposes to give is no novel or special doctrine, but the + universal philosophy which has passed on from age to age, here + narrowed and there widened, but still essentially the same. It is + conscious of its continuity and proud of its identity with the + teachings of Plato and Aristotle.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The earliest + attempts of the Greek philosophers to present philosophy in a + complete and articulated order—attempts generally attributed to + the Stoics, the schoolmen of antiquity—made it a tripartite + whole. These three parts were Logic, Physics, and Ethics. In + their entirety they were meant to form a cycle of unified + knowledge, satisfying the needs of theory as well as practice. As + time went on, however, the situation changed: and if the old + names remained, their scope and value suffered many changes. New + interests and curiosities, due to altered circumstances, brought + other departments of reality under the focus of investigation + besides those which had been primarily discussed under the old + names. Inquiries became more specialised, and each tended to + segregate itself from the rest as an independent field of + science. The result was that in modern times the territory still + marked by the ancient titles had shrunk to a mere phantom of its + former bulk. Almost indeed things had come to such a pass that + the time-honoured figures had sunk into the misery of + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">rois fainéants</span></span>; while the real + business of knowledge was discharged by the younger and less + conventional lines of research which the needs and fashions of + the time had called up. Thus Logic, in the narrow formal sense, + was turned into an <span class="tei tei-q">“art”</span> of + argumentation and a system of technical rules for the analysis + and synthesis of academical discussion. Physics or Natural + Philosophy restricted itself to the elaboration of some + metaphysical <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexv">[pg + xv]</span><a name="Pgxv" id="Pgxv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + postulates or hypotheses regarding the general modes of physical + operation. And Ethics came to be a very unpractical discussion of + subtleties regarding moral faculty and moral standard. Meanwhile + a theory of scientific method and of the laws governing the + growth of intelligence and formation of ideas grew up, and left + the older logic to perish of formality and inanition. The + successive departments of physical science, each in turn + asserting its independence, finally left Natural Philosophy no + alternative between clinging to its outworn hypotheses and + abstract generalities, or identifying itself (as Newton in his + great book put it) with the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Principia Mathematica</span></span> of the + physical sciences. Ethics, in its turn, saw itself, on one hand, + replaced by psychological inquiries into the relations between + the feelings and the will and the intelligence; while, on the + other hand, a host of social, historical, economical, and other + researches cut it off from the real facts of human life, and left + it no more than the endless debates on the logical and + metaphysical issues involved in free-will and conscience, duty + and merit.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has + sometimes been said that Kant settled this controversy between + the old departments of philosophy and the new branches of + science. And the settlement, it is implied, consisted in + assigning to the philosopher a sort of police and patrol duty in + the commonwealth of science. He was to see that boundaries were + duly respected, and that each science kept strictly to its own + business. For this purpose each branch of philosophy was bound to + convert itself into a department of criticism—an examination of + first principles in the several provinces of reality or + experience—with a view to get a distinct conception of what they + were, and thus define exactly the lines on which the structures + of more detailed science could be put up solidly and safely. + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexvi">[pg xvi]</span><a name= + "Pgxvi" id="Pgxvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> This plan offered + tempting lines to research, and sounded well. But on further + reflection there emerge one or two difficulties, hard to get + over. Paradoxical though it may seem, one cannot rightly estimate + the capacity and range of foundations, before one has had some + familiarity with the buildings erected upon them. Thus you are + involved in a circle: a circle which is probably inevitable, but + which for that reason it is well to recognise at once. Then—what + is only another way of saying the same thing—it is impossible to + draw an inflexible line between premises of principle and + conclusions of detail. There is no spot at which criticism can + stop, and, having done its business well, hand on the remaining + task to dogmatic system. It was an instinctive feeling of this + implication of system in what professed only to be criticism + which led the aged Kant to ignore his own previous professions + that he offered as yet no system, and when Fichte maintained + himself to be erecting the fabric for which Kant had prepared the + ground, to reply by the counter-declaration that the criticism + was the system—that <span class="tei tei-q">“the curtain was the + picture.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Hegelian + philosophy is an attempt to combine criticism with system, and + thus realise what Kant had at least foretold. It is a system + which is self-critical, and systematic only through the + absoluteness of its criticism. In Hegel's own phrase, it is an + immanent and an incessant dialectic, which from first to last + allows finality to no dogmatic rest, but carries out Kant's + description of an Age of Criticism, in which nothing, however + majestic and sacred its authority, can plead for exception from + the all-testing <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Elenchus</span></span>. Then, on the other + hand, Hegel refuses to restrict philosophy and its branches to + anything short of the totality. He takes in its full sense that + often-used phrase—the Unity <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagexvii">[pg xvii]</span><a name="Pgxvii" id="Pgxvii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of Knowledge. Logic becomes the + all-embracing research of <span class="tei tei-q">“first + principles,”</span>—the principles which regulate physics and + ethics. The old divisions between logic and metaphysic, between + induction and deduction, between theory of reasoning and theory + of knowledge,—divisions which those who most employed them were + never able to show the reason and purpose of—because indeed they + had grown up at various times and by <span class= + "tei tei-q">“natural selection”</span> through a vast mass of + incidents: these are superseded and merged in one continuous + theory of real knowledge considered under its abstract or formal + aspect,—of organised and known reality in its underlying + thought-system. But these first principles were only an + abstraction from complete reality—the reality which nature has + when unified by mind—and they presuppose the total from which + they are derived. The realm of pure thought is only the ghost of + the Idea—of the unity and reality of knowledge, and it must be + reindued with its flesh and blood. The logical world is (in + Kantian phrase) only the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">possibility</span></em> of Nature and Mind. + It comes first—because it is a system of First Principles: but + these first principles could only be elicited by a philosophy + which has realised the meaning of a mental experience, gathered + by interpreting the facts of Nature.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Natural + Philosophy is no longer—according to Hegel's view of it—merely a + scheme of mathematical ground-work. That may be its first step. + But its scope is a complete unity (which is not a mere aggregate) + of the branches of natural knowledge, exploring both the + inorganic and the organic world. In dealing with this endless + problem, philosophy seems to be baulked by an impregnable + obstacle to its progress. Every day the advance of specialisation + renders any comprehensive or synoptic view of the totality of + science more and more <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexviii">[pg + xviii]</span><a name="Pgxviii" id="Pgxviii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> impossible. No doubt we talk readily enough + of Science. But here, if anywhere, we may say there is no + Science, but only sciences. The generality of science is a proud + fiction or a gorgeous dream, variously told and interpreted + according to the varying interest and proclivity of the + scientist. The sciences, or those who specially expound them, + know of no unity, no philosophy of science. They are content to + remark that in these days the thing is impossible, and to pick + out the faults in any attempts in that direction that are made + outside their pale. Unfortunately for this contention, the thing + is done by us all, and, indeed, has to be done. If not as men of + science, yet as men—as human beings—we have to put together + things and form some total estimate of the drift of development, + of the unity of nature. To get a notion, not merely of the + general methods and principles of the sciences, but of their + results and teachings, and to get this not as a mere lot of + fragments, but with a systematic unity, is indispensable in some + degree for all rational life. The life not founded on science is + not the life of man. But he will not find what he wants in the + text-books of the specialist, who is obliged to treat his + subject, as Plato says, <span class="tei tei-q">“under the + pressure of necessity,”</span> and who dare not look on it in its + quality <span class="tei tei-q">“to draw the soul towards truth, + and to form the philosophic intellect so as to uplift what we now + unduly keep down<a id="noteref_1" name="noteref_1" href= + "#note_1"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1</span></span></a>.”</span> + If the philosopher in this province does his work but badly, he + may plead the novelty of the task to which he comes as a pioneer + or even an architect. He finds little that he can directly + utilise. The materials have been gathered and prepared for very + special aims; and the great aim of science—that human life may be + made a higher, an ampler, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagexix">[pg xix]</span><a name="Pgxix" id="Pgxix" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> happier thing,—has hardly been kept in view + at all, except in its more materialistic aspects. To the + philosopher the supreme interest of the physical sciences is that + man also belongs to the physical universe, or that Mind and + Matter as we know them are (in Mr. Spencer's language) + <span class="tei tei-q">“at once antithetical and + inseparable.”</span> He wants to find the place of Man,—but of + Man as Mind—in Nature.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the scope + of Natural Philosophy be thus expanded to make it the unity and + more than the synthetic aggregate of the several physical + sciences—to make it the whole which surpasses the addition of all + their fragments, the purpose of Ethics has not less to be + deepened and widened. Ethics, under that title, Hegel knows not. + And for those who cannot recognise anything unless it be clearly + labelled, it comes natural to record their censure of Hegelianism + for ignoring or disparaging ethical studies. But if we take the + word in that wide sense which common usage rather justifies than + adopts, we may say that the whole philosophy of Mind is a moral + philosophy. Its subject is the moral as opposed to the physical + aspect of reality: the inner and ideal life as opposed to the + merely external and real materials of it: the world of + intelligence and of humanity. It displays Man in the several + stages of that process by which he expresses the full meaning of + nature, or discharges the burden of that task which is implicit + in him from the first. It traces the steps of that growth by + which what was no better than a fragment of nature—an + intelligence located (as it seemed) in one piece of matter—comes + to realise the truth of it and of himself. That truth is his + ideal and his obligation: but it is also—such is the mystery of + his birthright—his idea and possession. He—like the natural + universe—is (as the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Logic</span></span> has shown) a principle + of unification, organisation, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagexx">[pg xx]</span><a name="Pgxx" id="Pgxx" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> idealisation: and his history (in its ideal + completeness) is the history of the process by which he, the + typical man, works the fragments of reality (and such mere + reality must be always a collection of fragments) into the + perfect unity of a many-sided character. Thus the philosophy of + mind, beginning with man as a sentient organism, the focus in + which the universe gets its first dim confused expression through + mere feeling, shows how he <span class="tei tei-q">“erects + himself above himself”</span> and realises what ancient thinkers + called his kindred with the divine.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In that total + process of the mind's liberation and self-realisation the portion + specially called Morals is but one, though a necessary, stage. + There are, said Porphyry and the later Platonists, four degrees + in the path of perfection and self-accomplishment. And first, + there is the career of honesty and worldly prudence, which makes + the duty of the citizen. Secondly, there is the progress in + purity which casts earthly things behind, and reaches the angelic + height of passionless serenity. And the third step is the divine + life which by intellectual energy is turned to behold the truth + of things. Lastly, in the fourth grade, the mind, free and + sublime in self-sustaining wisdom, makes itself an <span class= + "tei tei-q">“exemplar”</span> of virtue, and is even a + <span class="tei tei-q">“father of Gods.”</span> Even so, it may + be said, the human mind is the subject of a complicated + Teleology,—the field ruled by a multifarious Ought, + psychological, aesthetical, social and religious. To adjust their + several claims cannot be the object of any science, if adjustment + means to supply a guide in practice. But it is the purpose of + such a teleology to show that social requirements and moral duty + as ordinarily conceived do not exhaust the range of + obligation,—of the supreme ethical Ought. How that can best be + done is however a question of some difficulty. For the ends under + examination do not <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxi">[pg + xxi]</span><a name="Pgxxi" id="Pgxxi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + fall completely into a serial order, nor does one involve others + in such a way as to destroy their independence. You cannot + absolve psychology as if it stood independent of ethics or + religion, nor can aesthetic considerations merely supervene on + moral. Still, it may be said, the order followed by Hegel seems + on the whole liable to fewer objections than others.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mr. Herbert + Spencer, the only English philosopher who has even attempted a + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">System</span></em> of Philosophy, may in + this point be compared with Hegel. He also begins with a + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">First + Principles</span></span>,—a work which, like Hegel's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Logic</span></span>, starts by presenting + Philosophy as the supreme arbiter between the subordinate + principles of Religion and Science, which are in it <span class= + "tei tei-q">“necessary correlatives.”</span> The positive task of + philosophy is (with some inconsistency or vagueness) presented, + in the next place, as a <span class="tei tei-q">“unification of + knowledge.”</span> Such a unification has to make explicit the + implicit unity of known reality: because <span class= + "tei tei-q">“every thought involves a whole system of + thoughts.”</span> And such a programme might again suggest the + Logic. But unfortunately Mr. Spencer does not (and he has Francis + Bacon to justify him here) think it worth his while to toil up + the weary, but necessary, mount of Purgatory which is known to us + as Logic. With a naïve realism, he builds on Cause and Power, and + above all on Force, that <span class="tei tei-q">“Ultimate of + Ultimates,”</span> which seems to be, however marvellously, a + denizen both of the Known and the Unknowable world. In the known + world this Ultimate appears under two forms, matter and motion, + and the problem of science and philosophy is to lay down in + detail and in general the law of their continuous redistribution, + of the segregation of motion from matter, and the inclusion of + motion into matter.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of this + process, which has no beginning and no end,—the rhythm of + generation and corruption, attraction <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="pagexxii">[pg xxii]</span><a name="Pgxxii" id="Pgxxii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and repulsion, it may be said that it is + properly not a first principle of all knowledge, but the general + or fundamental portion of Natural Philosophy to which Mr. Spencer + next proceeds. Such a philosophy, however, he gives only in part: + viz. as a Biology, dealing with organic (and at a further stage + and under other names, with supra-organic) life. And that the + Philosophy of Nature should take this form, and carry both the + First Principles and the later portions of the system with it, as + parts of a philosophy of evolution, is what we should have + expected from the contemporaneous interests of science<a id= + "noteref_2" name="noteref_2" href="#note_2"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">2</span></span></a>. Even + a one-sided attempt to give speculative unity to those + researches, which get—for reasons the scientific specialist + seldom asks—the title of biological, is however worth noting as a + recognition of the necessity of a <span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Natur-philosophie</span></span>,—a + speculative science of Nature.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The third part + of the Hegelian System corresponds to what in the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Synthetic + Philosophy</span></span> is known as Psychology, Ethics, and + Sociology. And here Mr. Spencer recognises that something new has + turned up. Psychology is <span class="tei tei-q">“unique”</span> + as a science: it is a <span class="tei tei-q">“double + science,”</span> and as a whole quite <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sui generis</span></span>. Whether perhaps + all these epithets would not, <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">mutatis mutandis</span></span>, have to be + applied also to Ethics and Sociology, if these are to do their + full work, he does not say. In what this doubleness consists he + even finds it somewhat difficult to show. For, as his fundamental + philosophy does not on this point go beyond noting some pairs of + verbal antitheses, and has no sense of unity except in the + imperfect shape of a <span class="tei tei-q">“relation<a id= + "noteref_3" name="noteref_3" href="#note_3"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">3</span></span></a>”</span> + between two things which are <span class= + "tei tei-q">“antithetical <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagexxiii">[pg xxiii]</span><a name="Pgxxiii" id="Pgxxiii" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and inseparable,”</span> he is + perplexed by phrases such as <span class="tei tei-q">“in”</span> + and <span class="tei tei-q">“out of”</span> consciousness, and + stumbles over the equivocal use of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“inner”</span> to denote both mental (or non-spatial) + in general, and locally sub-cuticular in special. Still, he gets + so far as to see that the law of consciousness is that in it + neither feelings nor relations have independent subsistence, and + that the unit of mind does not begin till what he calls two + feelings are made one. The phraseology may be faulty, but it + shows an inkling of the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">a + priori</span></span>. Unfortunately it is apparently forgotten; + and the language too often reverts into the habit of what he + calls the <span class="tei tei-q">“objective,”</span> i.e. purely + physical, sciences.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mr. Spencer's + conception of Psychology restricts it to the more general physics + of the mind. For its more concrete life he refers us to + Sociology. But his Sociology is yet unfinished: and from the plan + of its inception, and the imperfect conception of the ends and + means of its investigation, hardly admits of completion in any + systematic sense. To that incipiency is no doubt due its excess + in historical or anecdotal detail—detail, however, too much + segregated from its social context, and in general its tendency + to neglect normal and central theory for incidental and + peripheral facts. Here, too, there is a weakness in First + Principles and a love of catchwords, which goes along with the + fallacy that illustration is proof. Above all, it is evident that + the great fact of religion overhangs Mr. Spencer with the + attraction of an unsolved and unacceptable problem. He cannot get + the religious ideas of men into co-ordination with their + scientific, aesthetic, and moral doctrines; and only betrays his + sense of the high importance of the former by placing them in the + forefront of inquiry, as due to the inexperience and limitations + of the so-called primitive man. That is hardly adequate + recognition of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxiv">[pg + xxiv]</span><a name="Pgxxiv" id="Pgxxiv" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the religious principle: and the defect + will make itself seriously felt, should he ever come to carry out + the further stage of his prospectus dealing with <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the growth and correlation of language, knowledge, + morals, and aesthetics.”</span></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(ii.) Mind and Morals.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A Mental + Philosophy—if we so put what might also be rendered a Spiritual + Philosophy, or Philosophy of Spirit—may to an English reader + suggest something much narrower than it actually contains. A + Philosophy of the Human Mind—if we consult English + specimens—would not imply much more than a psychology, and + probably what is called an inductive psychology. But as Hegel + understands it, it covers an unexpectedly wide range of topics, + the whole range from Nature to Spirit. Besides Subjective Mind, + which would seem on first thoughts to exhaust the topics of + psychology, it goes on to Mind as Objective, and finally to + Absolute mind. And such combinations of words may sound either + self-contradictory or meaningless.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first + Section deals with the range of what is usually termed + Psychology. That term indeed is employed by Hegel, in a + restricted sense, to denote the last of the three sub-sections in + the discussion of Subjective Mind. The Mind, which is the topic + of psychology proper, cannot be assumed as a ready-made object, + or datum. A Self, a self-consciousness, an intelligent and + volitional agent, if it be the birthright of man, is a birthright + which he has to realise for himself, to earn and to make his own. + To trace the steps by which <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagexxv">[pg xxv]</span><a name="Pgxxv" id="Pgxxv" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> mind in its stricter acceptation, as will + and intelligence, emerges from the general animal sensibility + which is the crowning phase of organic life, and the final + problem of biology, is the work of two preliminary + sub-sections—the first entitled <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Anthropology</span></span>, the second the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Phenomenology of Mind</span></span>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The subject of + Anthropology, as Hegel understands it, is the Soul—the raw + material of consciousness, the basis of all higher mental life. + This is a borderland, where the ground is still debateable + between Nature and Mind: it is the region of feeling, where the + sensibility has not yet been differentiated to intelligence. Soul + and body are here, as the phrase goes, in communion: the inward + life is still imperfectly disengaged from its natural co-physical + setting. Still one with nature, it submits to natural influences + and natural vicissitudes: is not as yet master of itself, but the + half-passive receptacle of a foreign life, of a general vitality, + of a common soul not yet fully differentiated into individuality. + But it is awaking to self-activity: it is emerging to + Consciousness,—to distinguish itself, as aware and conscious, + from the facts of life and sentiency of which it is aware.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From this + region of psychical physiology or physiological psychology, Hegel + in the second sub-section of his first part takes us to the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Phenomenology of Mind,”</span>—to + Consciousness. The sentient soul is also conscious—but in a + looser sense of that word<a id="noteref_4" name="noteref_4" href= + "#note_4"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">4</span></span></a>: it + has feelings, but can scarcely be said <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">itself</span></em> to know that it has them. + As consciousness, the Soul has come to separate what it is from + what it feels. The distinction emerges of a subject which is + conscious, and an object <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">of</span></em> which it <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagexxvi">[pg xxvi]</span><a name="Pgxxvi" id= + "Pgxxvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> is conscious. And the main + thing is obviously the relationship between the two, or the + Consciousness itself, as tending to distinguish itself alike from + its subject and its object. Hence, perhaps, may be gathered why + it is called Phenomenology of Mind. Mind as yet is not yet more + than emergent or apparent: nor yet self-possessed and + self-certified. No longer, however, one with the circumambient + nature which it feels, it sees itself set against it, but only as + a passive recipient of it, a <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tabula rasa</span></span> on which external + nature is reflected, or to which phenomena are presented. No + longer, on the other hand, a mere passive instrument of + suggestion from without, its instinct of life, its <span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">nisus</span></span> of self-assertion is + developed, through antagonism to a like <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">nisus</span></span>, into the consciousness + of self-hood, of a Me and Mine as set against a Thee and Thine. + But just in proportion as it is so developed in opposition to and + recognition of other equally self-centred selves, it has passed + beyond the narrower characteristic of Consciousness proper. It is + no longer mere intelligent perception or reproduction of a world, + but it is life, with perception (or apperception) of that life. + It has returned in a way to its original unity with nature, but + it is now the sense of its self-hood—the consciousness of itself + as the focus in which subjective and objective are at one. Or, to + put it in the language of the great champion of Realism<a id= + "noteref_5" name="noteref_5" href="#note_5"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">5</span></span></a>, the + standpoint of Reason or full-grown Mind is this: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The world which appears to us is our percept, + therefore in us. The real world, out of which we explain the + phenomenon, is our thought: therefore in us.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The third + sub-section of the theory of Subjective Mind—the Psychology + proper—deals with Mind. This is the real, independent + Psyché—hence the special <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagexxvii">[pg xxvii]</span><a name="Pgxxvii" id="Pgxxvii" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> appropriation of the term Psychology. + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Soul,”</span> says Herbart, + <span class="tei tei-q">“no doubt dwells in a body: there are, + moreover, corresponding states of the one and the other: but + nothing corporeal occurs in the Soul, nothing purely mental, + which we could reckon to our Ego, occurs in the body: the + affections of the body are no representations of the Ego, and our + pleasant and unpleasant feelings do not immediately lie in the + organic life they favour or hinder.”</span> Such a Soul, so + conceived, is an intelligent and volitional self, a being of + intellectual and <span class="tei tei-q">“active”</span> powers + or phenomena: it is a Mind. And <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Mind,”</span> adds Hegel<a id="noteref_6" name= + "noteref_6" href="#note_6"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">6</span></span></a>, + <span class="tei tei-q">“is just this elevation above Nature and + physical modes and above the complication with an external + object.”</span> Nothing is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">external</span></em> to it: it is rather the + internalising of all externality. In this psychology proper, we + are out of any immediate connexion with physiology. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Psychology as such,”</span> remarks Herbart, + <span class="tei tei-q">“has its questions common to it with + Idealism”</span>—with the doctrine that all reality is mental + reality. It traces, in Hegel's exposition of it, the steps of the + way by which mind realises that independence which is its + characteristic stand-point. On the intellectual side that + independence is assured in language,—the system of signs by which + the intelligence stamps external objects as its own, made part of + its inner world. A science, some one has said, is after all only + <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "fr"><span style="font-style: italic">une langue bien + faite</span></span>. So, reversing the saying, we may note that a + language is an inwardised and mind-appropriated world. On the + active side, the independence of mind is seen in self-enjoyment, + in happiness, or self-content, where impulse and volition have + attained satisfaction in equilibrium, and the soul possesses + itself in fullness. Such a mind<a id="noteref_7" name="noteref_7" + href="#note_7"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">7</span></span></a>, + which has made the world its certified <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="pagexxviii">[pg xxviii]</span><a name="Pgxxviii" id= + "Pgxxviii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> possession in language, + and which enjoys itself in self-possession of soul, called + happiness, is a free Mind. And that is the highest which + Subjective Mind can reach.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At this point, + perhaps, having rounded off by a liberal sweep the scope of + psychology, the ordinary mental philosophy would stop. Hegel, + instead of finishing, now goes on to the field of what he calls + Objective Mind. For as yet it has been only the story of a + preparation, an inward adorning and equipment, and we have yet to + see what is to come of it in actuality. Or rather, we have yet to + consider the social forms on which this preparation rests. The + mind, self-possessed and sure of itself or free, is so only + through the objective shape which its main development runs + parallel with. An intelligent Will, or a practical reason, was + the last word of the psychological development. But a reason + which is practical, or a volition which is intelligent, is + realised by action which takes regular shapes, and by practice + which transforms the world. The theory of Objective Mind + delineates the new form which nature assumes under the sway of + intelligence and will. That intellectual world realises itself by + transforming the physical into a social and political world, the + given natural conditions of existence into a freely-instituted + system of life, the primitive struggle of kinds for subsistence + into the ordinances of the social state. Given man as a being + possessed of will and intelligence, this inward faculty, whatever + be its degree, will try to impress itself on nature and to + reproduce itself in a legal, a moral, and social world. The + kingdom of deed replaces, or rises on the foundation of, the + kingdom of word: and instead of the equilibrium of a + well-adjusted soul comes the harmonious life of a social + organism. We are, in short, in the sphere of Ethics and Politics, + of Jurisprudence and Morals, of Law and + Conscience.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxix">[pg + xxix]</span><a name="Pgxxix" id="Pgxxix" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here,—as + always in Hegel's system—there is a triad of steps. First the + province of Law or Right. But if we call it Law, we must keep out + of sight the idea of a special law-giver, of a conscious + imposition of laws, above all by a political superior. And if we + call it Right, we must remember that it is neutral, inhuman, + abstract right: the right whose principle is impartial and + impassive uniformity, equality, order;—not moral right, or the + equity which takes cognisance of circumstances, of personal + claims, and provides against its own hardness. The intelligent + will of Man, throwing itself upon the mere gifts of nature as + their appointed master, creates the world of Property—of things + instrumental, and regarded as adjectival, to the human + personality. But the autonomy of Reason (which is latent in the + will) carries with it certain consequences. As it acts, it also, + by its inherent quality of uniformity or universality, enacts for + itself a law and laws, and creates the realm of formal equality + or order-giving law. But this is a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mere</span></em> + equality: which is not inconsistent with what in other respects + may be excess of inequality. What one does, if it is really to be + treated as done, others may or even must do: each act creates an + expectation of continuance and uniformity of behaviour. The doer + is bound by it, and others are entitled to do the like. The + material which the person appropriates creates a system of + obligation. Thus is constituted—in the natural give and take of + rational Wills—in the inevitable course of human action and + reaction,—a system of rights and duties. This law of equality—the + basis of justice, and the seed of benevolence—is the scaffolding + or perhaps rather the rudimentary framework of society and moral + life. Or it is the bare skeleton which is to be clothed upon by + the softer and fuller outlines of the social tissues and the + ethical organs.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxx">[pg + xxx]</span><a name="Pgxxx" id="Pgxxx" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And thus the + first range of Objective Mind postulates the second, which Hegel + calls <span class="tei tei-q">“Morality.”</span> The word is to + be taken in its strict sense as a protest against the + quasi-physical order of law. It is the morality of conscience and + of the good will, of the inner rectitude of soul and purpose, as + all-sufficient and supreme. Here is brought out the complementary + factor in social life: the element of liberty, spontaneity, + self-consciousness. The motto of mere inward morality (as opposed + to the spirit of legality) is (in Kant's words): <span class= + "tei tei-q">“There is nothing without qualification good, in + heaven or earth, but only a good will.”</span> The essential + condition of goodness is that the action be done with purpose and + intelligence, and in full persuasion of its goodness by the + conscience of the agent. The characteristic of Morality thus + described is its essential inwardness, and the sovereignty of the + conscience over all heteronomy. Its justification is that it + protests against the authority of a mere external or objective + order, subsisting and ruling in separation from the subjectivity. + Its defect is the turn it gives to this assertion of the rights + of subjective conscience: briefly in the circumstance that it + tends to set up a mere individualism against a mere universalism, + instead of realising the unity and essential interdependence of + the two.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The third + sub-section of the theory of Objective Mind describes a state of + affairs in which this antithesis is explicitly overcome. This is + the moral life in a social community. Here law and usage prevail + and provide the fixed permanent scheme of life: but the law and + the usage are, in their true or ideal conception, only the + unforced expression of the mind and will of those who live under + them. And, on the other hand, the mind and will of the individual + members of such a community are pervaded and animated by its + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxxi">[pg xxxi]</span><a name= + "Pgxxxi" id="Pgxxxi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> universal + spirit. In such a community, and so constituting it, the + individual is at once free and equal, and that because of the + spirit of fraternity, which forms its spiritual link. In the + world supposed to be governed by mere legality the idea of right + is exclusively prominent; and when that is the case, it may often + happen that <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">summum jus summa + injuria</span></span>. In mere morality, the stress falls + exclusively on the idea of inward freedom, or the necessity of + the harmony of the judgment and the will, or the dependence of + conduct upon conscience. In the union of the two, in the moral + community as normally constituted, the mere idea of right is + replaced, or controlled and modified, by the idea of equity—a + balance as it were between the two preceding, inasmuch as motive + and purpose are employed to modify and interpret strict right. + But this effect—this harmonisation—is brought about by the + predominance of a new idea—the principle of benevolence,—a + principle however which is itself modified by the fundamental + idea of right or law<a id="noteref_8" name="noteref_8" href= + "#note_8"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">8</span></span></a> into + a wise or regulated kindliness.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But what Hegel + chiefly deals with under this head is the interdependence of form + and content, of social order and personal progress. In the + picture of an ethical organisation or harmoniously-alive moral + community he shows us partly the underlying idea which gave room + for the antithesis between law and conscience, and partly the + outlines of the ideal in which that conflict becomes only the + instrument of progress. This organisation <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagexxxii">[pg xxxii]</span><a name="Pgxxxii" + id="Pgxxxii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> has three grades or + three typical aspects. These are the Family, Civil Society, and + the State. The first of these, the Family, must be taken to + include those primary unities of human life where the natural + affinity of sex and the natural ties of parentage are the + preponderant influence in forming and maintaining the social + group. This, as it were, is the soul-nucleus of social + organisation: where the principle of unity is an instinct, a + feeling, an absorbing solidarity. Next comes what Hegel has + called Civil Society,—meaning however by civil the antithesis to + political, the society of those who may be styled <span lang="fr" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bourgeois</span></span>, not <span lang="fr" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">citoyens</span></span>:—and meaning by + society the antithesis to community. There are other natural + influences binding men together besides those which form the + close unities of the family, gens, tribe, or clan. Economical + needs associate human beings within a much larger radius—in ways + capable of almost indefinite expansion—but also in a way much + less intense and deep. Civil Society is the more or less loosely + organised aggregate of such associations, which, if, on one hand, + they keep human life from stagnating in the mere family, on + another, accentuate more sharply the tendency to competition and + the struggle for life. Lastly, in the Political State comes the + synthesis of family and society. Of the family; in so far as the + State tends to develope itself on the nature-given unit of the + Nation (an extended family, supplementing as need arises real + descent by fictitious incorporations), and has apparently never + permanently maintained itself except on the basis of a + predominant common nationality. Of society; in so far as the + extension and dispersion of family ties have left free room for + the differentiation of many other sides of human interest and + action, and given ground for the full development of + individuality. In consequence of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagexxxiii">[pg xxxiii]</span><a name="Pgxxxiii" id="Pgxxxiii" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> this, the State (and such a state as + Hegel describes is essentially the idea or ideal of the modern + State)<a id="noteref_9" name="noteref_9" href= + "#note_9"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">9</span></span></a> has a + certain artificial air about it. It can only be maintained by the + free action of intelligence: it must make its laws public: it + must bring to consciousness the principles of its constitution, + and create agencies for keeping up unity of organisation through + the several separate provinces or contending social interests, + each of which is inclined to insist on the right of home + mis-rule.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + State—which in its actuality must always be a quasi-national + state—is thus the supreme unity of Nature and Mind. Its natural + basis in land, language, blood, and the many ties which spring + therefrom, has to be constantly raised into an intelligent unity + through universal interests. But the elements of race and of + culture have no essential connexion, and they perpetually incline + to wrench themselves asunder. Blood and judgment are for ever at + war in the state as in the individual<a id="noteref_10" name= + "noteref_10" href="#note_10"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">10</span></span></a>: the + cosmopolitan interest, to which the maxim is <span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ubi bene, ibi patria</span></span>, resists + the national, which adopts the patriotic watchword of + Hector<a id="noteref_11" name="noteref_11" href= + "#note_11"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">11</span></span></a>. The + State however has another source of danger in the very principle + that gave it birth. It arose through antagonism: it was baptised + on the battlefield, and it only lives as it is able to assert + itself against a foreign foe. And this circumstance tends to + intensify and even pervert its natural basis of + nationality:—tends to give the very conception of the political a + negative and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxxiv">[pg + xxxiv]</span><a name="Pgxxxiv" id="Pgxxxiv" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> superficial look. But, notwithstanding all + these drawbacks, the State in its Idea is entitled to the name + Hobbes gave it,—the Mortal God. Here in a way culminates the + obviously objective,—we may almost say, visible and + tangible—development of Man and Mind. Here it attains a certain + completeness—a union of reality and of ideality: a + quasi-immortality, a quasi-universality. What the individual + person could not do unaided, he can do in the strength of his + commonwealth. Much that in the solitary was but implicit or + potential, is in the State actualised.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the God of + the State is a mortal God. It is but a national and a limited + mind. To be actual, one must at least begin by restricting + oneself. Or, rather actuality is rational, but always with a + conditioned and a relative rationality<a id="noteref_12" name= + "noteref_12" href="#note_12"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">12</span></span></a>: it + is in the realm of action and re-action,—in the realm of change + and nature. It has warring forces outside it,—warring forces + inside it. Its unity is never perfect: because it never produces + a true identity of interests within, or maintains an absolute + independence without. Thus the true and real State—the State in + its Idea—the realisation of concrete humanity,—of Mind as the + fullness and unity of nature—is not reached in any single or + historical State: but floats away, when we try to seize it, into + the endless progress of history. Always indeed the State, the + historical and objective, points beyond itself. It does so first + in the succession of times. <span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Weltgeschichte ist das + Weltgericht.</span></span><a id="noteref_13" name="noteref_13" + href="#note_13"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">13</span></span></a> And + in that doom of the world the eternal blast sweeps along the + successive generations of the temporal, one expelling another + from the stage of time—each because it is inadequate to the Idea + which it tried to express, and has succumbed to an <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagexxxv">[pg xxxv]</span><a name="Pgxxxv" id= + "Pgxxxv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> enemy from without because + it was not a real and true unity within.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if + temporal flees away before another temporal, it abides in so far + as it has, however inadequately, given expression and visible + reality—as it points inward and upward—to the eternal. The + earthly state is also the city of God; and if the republic of + Plato seems to find scant admission into the reality of flesh and + blood, it stands eternal as a witness in the heaven of idea. + Behind the fleeting succession of consulates and dictatures, of + aristocracy and empire, feuds of plebeian with patrician, in that + apparent anarchy of powers which the so-called Roman constitution + is to the superficial observer, there is the eternal Rome, one, + strong, victorious, <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">semper + eadem</span></span>: the Rome of Virgil and Justinian, the ghost + whereof still haunts with memories the seven-hilled city, but + which with full spiritual presence lives in the law, the + literature, the manners of the modern world. To find fitter + expression for this Absolute Mind than it has in the Ethical + community—to reach that reality of which the moral world is but + one-sidedly representative—is the work of Art, Religion, and + Philosophy. And to deal with these efforts to find the truth and + the unity of Mind and Nature is the subject of Hegel's third + Section.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(iii.) Religion and + Philosophy.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It may be well + at this point to guard against a misconception of this serial + order of exposition<a id="noteref_14" name="noteref_14" href= + "#note_14"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">14</span></span></a>. As + stage is seen to follow stage, the historical imagination, which + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxxvi">[pg xxxvi]</span><a name= + "Pgxxxvi" id="Pgxxxvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> governs our + ordinary current of ideas, turns the logical dependence into a + time-sequence. But it is of course not meant that the later stage + follows the earlier in history. The later is the more real, and + therefore the more fundamental. But we can only understand by + abstracting and then transcending our abstractions, or rather by + showing how the abstraction implies relations which force us to + go further and beyond our arbitrary arrest. Each stage therefore + either stands to that preceding it as an antithesis, which + inevitably dogs its steps as an accusing spirit, or it is the + conjunction of the original thesis with the antithesis, in a + union which should not be called synthesis because it is a closer + fusion and true marriage of minds. A truth and reality, though + fundamental, is only appreciated at its true value and seen in + all its force where it appears as the reconciliation and reunion + of partial and opposing points of view. Thus, e.g., the full + significance of the State does not emerge so long as we view it + in isolation as a supposed single state, but only as it is seen + in the conflict of history, in its actual <span class= + "tei tei-q">“energy”</span> as a world-power among powers, always + pointing beyond itself to a something universal which it fain + would be, and yet cannot be. Or, again, there never was a civil + or economic society which existed save under the wing of a state, + or in one-sided assumption of state powers to itself: and a + family is no isolated and independent unit belonging to a + supposed patriarchal age, but was always mixed up with, and in + manifold dependence upon, political and civil combinations. The + true family, indeed, far from preceding the state in time, + presupposes the political power to give it its precise sphere and + its social stability: as is well illustrated by that typical form + of it presented in the Roman state.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So, again, + religion does not supervene upon an <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagexxxvii">[pg xxxvii]</span><a name="Pgxxxvii" id="Pgxxxvii" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> already existing political and moral + system and invest it with an additional sanction. The true order + would be better described as the reverse. The real basis of + social life, and even of intelligence, is religion. As some + thinkers quaintly put it, the known rests and lives on the bosom + of the Unknowable. But when we say that, we must at once guard + against a misconception. There are religions of all sorts; and + some of them which are most heard of in the modern world only + exist or survive in the shape of a traditional name and venerated + creed which has lost its power. Nor is a religion necessarily + committed to a definite conception of a supernatural—of a + personal power outside the order of Nature. But in all cases, + religion is a faith and a theory which gives unity to the facts + of life, and gives it, not because the unity is in detail proved + or detected, but because life and experience in their deepest + reality inexorably demand and evince such a unity to the heart. + The religion of a time is not its nominal creed, but its dominant + conviction of the meaning of reality, the principle which + animates all its being and all its striving, the faith it has in + the laws of nature and the purpose of life. Dimly or clearly felt + and perceived, religion has for its principle (one cannot well + say, its object) not the unknowable, but the inner unity of life + and knowledge, of act and consciousness, a unity which is + certified in its every knowledge, but is never fully demonstrable + by the summation of all its ascertained items. As such a felt and + believed synthesis of the world and life, religion is the unity + which gives stability and harmony to the social sphere; just as + morality in its turn gives a partial and practical realisation to + the ideal of religion. But religion does not merely establish and + sanction morality; it also frees it from a certain narrowness it + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxxviii">[pg + xxxviii]</span><a name="Pgxxxviii" id="Pgxxxviii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> always has, as of the earth. Or, otherwise + put, morality has to the keener inspection something in it which + is more than the mere moral injunction at first indicates. Beyond + the moral, in its stricter sense, as the obligatory duty and the + obedience to law, rises and expands the beautiful and the good: a + beautiful which is disinterestedly loved, and a goodness which + has thrown off all utilitarian relativity, and become a free + self-enhancing joy. The true spirit of religion sees in the + divine judgment not a mere final sanction to human morality which + has failed of its earthly close, not the re-adjustment of social + and political judgments in accordance with our more conscientious + inner standards, but a certain, though, for our part-by-part + vision, incalculable proportion between what is done and + suffered. And in this liberation of the moral from its + restrictions, Art renders no slight aid. Thus in different ways, + religion presupposes morality to fill up its vacant form, and + morality presupposes religion to give its laws an ultimate + sanction, which at the same time points beyond their + limitations.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But art, + religion, and philosophy still rest on the national culture and + on the individual mind. However much they rise in the heights of + the ideal world, they never leave the reality of life and + circumstance behind, and float in the free empyrean. Yet there + are degrees of universality, degrees in which they reach what + they promised. As the various psychical <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">nuclei</span></em> of an individual + consciousness tend through the course of experience to gather + round a central idea and by fusion and assimilation form a + complete mental organisation; so, through the march of history, + there grows up a complication and a fusion of national ideas and + aspirations, which, though still retaining the individuality and + restriction of a concrete national life, ultimately present + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxxix">[pg xxxix]</span><a name= + "Pgxxxix" id="Pgxxxix" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> an + organisation social, aesthetic, and religious which is a type of + humanity in its universality and completeness. Always moving in + the measure and on the lines of the real development of its + social organisation, the art and religion of a nation tend to + give expression to what social and political actuality at its + best but imperfectly sets in existence. They come more and more + to be, not mere competing fragments as set side by side with + those of others, but comparatively equal and complete + representations of the many-sided and many-voiced reality of man + and the world. Yet always they live and flourish in reciprocity + with the fullness of practical institutions and individual + character. An abstractly universal art and religion is a + delusion—until all diversities of geography and climate, of + language and temperament, have been made to disappear. If these + energies are in power and reality and not merely in name, they + cannot be applied like a panacea or put on like a suit of + ready-made clothes. If alive, they grow with individualised type + out of the social situation: and they can only attain a vulgar + and visible universality, so far as they attach themselves to + some simple and uniform aspects,—a part tolerably identical + everywhere—in human nature in all times and races.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Art, according + to Hegel's account, is the first of the three expressions of + Absolute Mind. But the key-note to the whole is to be found in + Religion<a id="noteref_15" name="noteref_15" href= + "#note_15"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">15</span></span></a>: or + Religion is the generic description of that phase of mind which + has found rest in the fullness of attainment and is no longer a + struggle and a warfare, but a fruition. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“It is the conviction of all nations,”</span> he + says<a id="noteref_16" name="noteref_16" href= + "#note_16"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">16</span></span></a>, + <span class="tei tei-q">“that in the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagexl">[pg xl]</span><a name="Pgxl" id="Pgxl" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> religious consciousness they hold their + truth; and they have always regarded religion as their dignity + and as the Sunday of their life. Whatever excites our doubts and + alarms, all grief and all anxiety, all that the petty fields of + finitude can offer to attract us, we leave behind on the shoals + of time: and as the traveller on the highest peak of a mountain + range, removed from every distinct view of the earth's surface, + quietly lets his vision neglect all the restrictions of the + landscape and the world; so in this pure region of faith man, + lifted above the hard and inflexible reality, sees it with his + mind's eye reflected in the rays of the mental sun to an image + where its discords, its lights and shades, are softened to + eternal calm. In this region of mind flow the waters of + forgetfulness, from which Psyche drinks, and in which she drowns + all her pain: and the darknesses of this life are here softened + to a dream-image, and transfigured into a mere setting for the + splendours of the Eternal.'”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we take + Religion, in this extended sense, we find it is the sense, the + vision, the faith, the certainty of the eternal in the + changeable, of the infinite in the finite, of the reality in + appearance, of the truth in error. It is freedom from the + distractions and pre-occupations of the particular details of + life; it is the sense of permanence, repose, certainty, rounding + off, toning down and absorbing the vicissitude, the restlessness, + the doubts of actual life. Such a victory over palpable reality + has no doubt its origin—its embryology—in phases of mind which + have been already discussed in the first section. Religion will + vary enormously according to the grade of national mood of mind + and social development in which it emerges. But whatever be the + peculiarities of its original swaddling-clothes, its cardinal + note will be a sense of dependence on, and independence + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexli">[pg xli]</span><a name= + "Pgxli" id="Pgxli" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in, something more + permanent, more august, more of a surety and stay than visible + and variable nature and man,—something also which whether God or + devil, or both in one, holds the keys of life and death, of weal + and woe, and holds them from some safe vantage-ground above the + lower realms of change. By this central being the outward and the + inward, past and present and to come, are made one. And as + already indicated, Religion, emerging, as it does, from social + man, from mind ethical, will retain traces of the two + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">foci</span></span> in society: the + individual subjectivity and the objective community. Retain them + however only as traces, which still show in the actually + envisaged reconciliation. For that is what religion does to + morality. It carries a step higher the unity or rather + combination gained in the State: it is the fuller harmony of the + individual and the collectivity. The moral conscience rests in + certainty and fixity on the religious.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But Religion + (thus widely understood as the faith in sempiternal and + all-explaining reality) at first appears under a guise of Art. + The poem and the pyramid, the temple-image and the painting, the + drama and the fairy legend, these are religion: but they are, + perhaps, religion as Art. And that means that they present the + eternal under sensible representations, the work of an artist, + and in a perishable material of limited range. Yet even the + carvers of a long-past day whose works have been disinterred from + the plateaux of Auvergne knew that they gave to the perishable + life around them a quasi-immortality: and the myth-teller of a + savage tribe elevated the incident of a season into a perennial + power of love and fear. The cynic may remind us that from the + finest picture of the artist, readily</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 23.40em"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">We + turn</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">To yonder + girl that fords the burn.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexlii">[pg + xlii]</span><a name="Pgxlii" id="Pgxlii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And yet it may + be said in reply to the cynic that, had it not been for the + deep-imprinted lesson of the artist, it would have been but a + brutal instinct that would have drawn our eyes. The artist, the + poet, the musician, reveal the meaning, the truth, the reality of + the world: they teach us, they help us, backward younger + brothers, to see, to hear, to feel what our rude senses had + failed to detect. They enact the miracle of the loaves and + fishes, again and again: out of the common limited things of + every day they produce a bread of life in which the generations + continue to find nourishment.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if Art + embodies for us the unseen and the eternal, it embodies it in the + stone, the colour, the tone, and the word: and these are by + themselves only dead matter. To the untutored eye and taste the + finest picture-gallery is only a weariness: when the national + life has drifted away, the sacred book and the image are but + idols and enigmas. <span class="tei tei-q">“The statues are now + corpses from which the vivifying soul has fled, and the hymns are + words whence faith has departed: the tables of the Gods are + without spiritual meat and drink, and games and feasts no longer + afford the mind its joyful union with the being of being. The + works of the Muse lack that intellectual force which knew itself + strong and real by crushing gods and men in its winepress. They + are now (in this iron age) what they are for us,—fair fruits + broken from the tree, and handed to us by a kindly destiny. But + the gift is like the fruits which the girl in the picture + presents: she does not give the real life of their existence, not + the tree which bore them, not the earth and the elements which + entered into their substance, nor the climate which formed their + quality, nor the change of seasons which governed the process of + their growth. Like her, Destiny in giving us the works of ancient + art does not give us their world, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagexliii">[pg xliii]</span><a name="Pgxliii" id="Pgxliii" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> not the spring and summer of the + ethical life in which they blossomed and ripened, but solely a + memory and a suggestion of this actuality. Our act in enjoying + them, therefore, is not a Divine service: were it so, our mind + would achieve its perfect and satisfying truth. All that we do is + a mere externalism, which from these fruits wipes off some + rain-drop, some speck of dust, and which, in place of the inward + elements of moral actuality that created and inspired them, tries + from the dead elements of their external reality, such as + language and historical allusion, to set up a tedious mass of + scaffolding, not in order to live ourselves into them, but only + to form a picture of them in our minds. But as the girl who + proffers the plucked fruits is more and nobler than the natural + element with all its details of tree, air, light, &c. which + first yielded them, because she gathers all this together, in a + nobler way, into the glance of the conscious eye and the gesture + which proffers them; so the spirit of destiny which offers us + those works of art is more than the ethical life and actuality of + the ancient people: for it is the inwardising of that mind which + in them was still self-estranged and self-dispossessed:—it is the + spirit of tragic destiny, the destiny which collects all those + individualised gods and attributes of substance into the one + Pantheon. And that temple of all the gods is Mind conscious of + itself as mind<a id="noteref_17" name="noteref_17" href= + "#note_17"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">17</span></span></a>.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Religion + enters into its more adequate form when it ceases to appear in + the guise of Art and realises that the kingdom of God is within, + that the truth must be <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">felt</span></em>, the eternal <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">inwardly</span></em> revealed, the holy one + apprehended by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">faith</span></em><a id="noteref_18" name= + "noteref_18" href="#note_18"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">18</span></span></a>, not + by outward vision. Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, the things + of God. They cannot <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexliv">[pg + xliv]</span><a name="Pgxliv" id="Pgxliv" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> be presented, or delineated: they come only + in the witness of the spirit. The human soul itself is the only + worthy temple of the Most High, whom heaven, and the heaven of + heavens, cannot contain. Here in truth God has come down to dwell + with men; and the Son of Man, caught up in the effusion of the + Spirit, can in all assurance and all humility claim that he is + divinified. Here apparently Absolute Mind is reached: the soul + knows no limitation, no struggle: in time it is already eternal. + Yet, there is, according to Hegel, a flaw,—not in the essence and + the matter, but in the manner and mode in which the ordinary + religious consciousness represents to itself, or pictures that + unification which it feels and experiences.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“In religion then this unification of ultimate Being + with the Self is implicitly reached. But the religious + consciousness, if it has this symbolic idea of its + reconciliation, still has it as a mere symbol or representation. + It attains the satisfaction by tacking on to its pure negativity, + and that externally, the positive signification of its unity with + the ultimate Being: its satisfaction remains therefore tainted by + the antithesis of another world. Its own reconciliation, + therefore, is presented to its consciousness as something far + away, something far away in the future: just as the + reconciliation which the other Self accomplished appears as a + far-away thing in the past. The one Divine Man had but an + implicit father and only an actual mother; conversely the + universal divine man, the community, has its own deed and + knowledge for its father, but for its mother only the eternal + Love, which it only <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">feels</span></em>, but does not <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">behold</span></em> in its consciousness as + an actual immediate object. Its reconciliation therefore is in + its heart, but still at variance with its consciousness, and its + actuality still has a flaw. In its field of consciousness the + place of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexlv">[pg + xlv]</span><a name="Pgxlv" id="Pgxlv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + implicit reality or side of pure mediation is taken by the + reconciliation that lies far away behind: the place of the + actually present, or the side of immediacy and existence, is + filled by the world which has still to wait for its + transfiguration to glory. Implicitly no doubt the world is + reconciled with the eternal Being; and that Being, it is well + known, no longer looks upon the object as alien to it, but in its + love sees it as like itself. But for self-consciousness this + immediate presence is not yet set in the full light of mind. In + its immediate consciousness accordingly the spirit of the + community is parted from its religious: for while the religious + consciousness declares that they are implicitly not parted, this + implicitness is not raised to reality and not yet grown to + absolute self-certainty<a id="noteref_19" name="noteref_19" href= + "#note_19"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">19</span></span></a>.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Religion + therefore, which as it first appeared in art-worship had yet to + realise its essential inwardness or spirituality, so has now to + overcome the antithesis in which its (the religious) + consciousness stands to the secular. For the peculiarly religious + type of mind is distinguished by an indifference and even + hostility, more or less veiled, to art, to morality and the civil + state, to science and to nature. Strong in the certainty of + faith, or of its implicit rest in God, it resents too curious + inquiry into the central mystery of its union, and in its + distincter consciousness sets the foundation of faith on the + evidence of a fact, which, however, it in the same breath + declares to be unique and miraculous, the central event of the + ages, pointing back in its reference to the first days of + humanity, and forward in the future to the winding-up of the + business of terrestrial life. Philosophy, according to Hegel's + conception of it, does but <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagexlvi">[pg xlvi]</span><a name="Pgxlvi" id="Pgxlvi" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> draw the conclusion supplied by the + premisses of religion: it supplements and rounds off into + coherence the religious implications. The unique events in Judea + nearly nineteen centuries ago are for it also the first step in a + new revelation of man's relationship to God: but while it + acknowledges the transcendent interest of that age, it lays main + stress on the permanent truth then revealed, and it insists on + the duty of carrying out the principle there awakened to all the + depth and breadth of its explication. Its task—its supreme + task—is to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">explicate religion</span></em>. But to do so + is to show that religion is no exotic, and no <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mere</span></em> + revelation from an external source. It is to show that religion + is the truth, the complete reality, of the mind that lived in + Art, that founded the state and sought to be dutiful and upright: + the truth, the crowning fruit of all scientific knowledge, of all + human affections, of all secular consciousness. Its lesson + ultimately is that there is nothing essentially common or + unclean: that the holy is not parted off from the true and the + good and the beautiful.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Religion thus + expanded descends from its abstract or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“intelligible”</span> world, to which it had retired + from art and science, and the affairs of ordinary life. Its + God—as a true God—is not of the dead alone, but also of the + living: not a far-off supreme and ultimate Being, but also a man + among men. Philosophy thus has to break down the middle + partition-wall of life, the fence between secular and sacred. It + is but religion come to its maturity, made at home in the world, + and no longer a stranger and a wonder. Religion has pronounced in + its inmost heart and faith of faith, that the earth is the + Lord's, and that day unto day shows forth the divine handiwork. + But the heart of unbelief, of little faith, has hardly uttered + the word, than it forgets its assurance and leans to the + conviction that the prince of this world <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="pagexlvii">[pg xlvii]</span><a name="Pgxlvii" id="Pgxlvii" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> is the Spirit of Evil. The mood of + Théodicée is also—but with a difference—the mood of philosophy. + It asserts the ways of Providence: but its providence is not the + God of the Moralist, or the ideal of the Artist, or rather is not + these only, but also the Law of Nature, and more than that. Its + aim is the Unity of History. The words have sometimes been + lightly used to mean that events run on in one continuous flow, + and that there are no abrupt, no ultimate beginnings, parting age + from age. But the Unity of History in its full sense is beyond + history: it is history <span class="tei tei-q">“reduced”</span> + from the expanses of time to the eternal present: its thousand + years made one day,—made even the glance of a moment. The theme + of the Unity of History—in the full depth of unity and the full + expanse of history—is the theme of Hegelian philosophy. It traces + the process in which Mind has to be all-inclusive, + self-upholding, one with the Eternal reality.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“That process of the mind's self-realisation”</span> + says Hegel in the close of his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Phenomenology</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“exhibits a lingering movement and succession of + minds, a gallery of images, each of which, equipped with the + complete wealth of mind, only seems to linger because the Self + has to penetrate and to digest this wealth of its Substance. As + its perfection consists in coming completely to <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">know</span></em> + what it <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">is</span></em> (its substance), this + knowledge is its self-involution in which it deserts its outward + existence and surrenders its shape to recollection. Thus + self-involved, it is sunk in the night of its self-consciousness: + but in that night its vanished being is preserved, and that + being, thus in idea preserved,—old, but now new-born of the + spirit,—is the new sphere of being, a new world, a new phase of + mind. In this new phase it has again to begin afresh and from the + beginning, and again nurture itself to maturity from its + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexlviii">[pg + xlviii]</span><a name="Pgxlviii" id="Pgxlviii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> own resources, as if for it all that + preceded were lost, and it had learned nothing from the + experience of the earlier minds. Yet is that recollection a + preservation of experience: it is the quintessence, and in fact a + higher form, of the substance. If therefore this new mind appears + only to count on its own resources, and to start quite fresh and + blank, it is at the same time on a higher grade that it starts. + The intellectual and spiritual realm, which is thus constructed + in actuality, forms a succession in time, where one mind relieved + another of its watch, and each took over the kingdom of the world + from the preceding. The purpose of that succession is to reveal + the depth, and that depth is the absolute comprehension of mind: + this revelation is therefore to uplift its depth, to spread it + out in breadth, so negativing this self-involved Ego, wherein it + is self-dispossessed or reduced to substance. But it is also its + time: the course of time shows this dispossession itself + dispossessed, and thus in its extension it is no less in its + depth, the self. The way to that goal,—absolute self-certainty—or + the mind knowing itself as mind—is the inwardising of the minds, + as they severally are in themselves, and as they accomplish the + organisation of their realm. Their conservation,—regarded on the + side of its free and apparently contingent succession of fact—is + history: on the side of their comprehended organisation, again, + it is the science of mental phenomenology: the two together, + comprehended history, form at once the recollection and the + grave-yard of the absolute Mind, the actuality, truth, and + certitude of his throne, apart from which he were lifeless and + alone.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such in brief + outline—lingering most on the points where Hegel has here been + briefest—is the range of the Philosophy of Mind. Its aim is to + comprehend, not to explain: to put together in intelligent unity, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexlix">[pg xlix]</span><a name= + "Pgxlix" id="Pgxlix" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> not to analyse + into a series of elements. For it psychology is not an analysis + or description of mental phenomena, of laws of association, of + the growth of certain powers and ideas, but a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“comprehended history”</span> of the formation of + subjective mind, of the intelligent, feeling, willing self or + ego. For it Ethics is part and only part of the great scheme or + system of self-development; but continuing into greater + concreteness the normal endowment of the individual mind, and but + preparing the ground on which religion may be most effectively + cultivated. And finally Religion itself, released from its + isolation and other-world sacrosanctity, is shown to be only the + crown of life, the ripest growth of actuality, and shown to be so + by philosophy, whilst it is made clear that religion is the basis + of philosophy, or that a philosophy can only go as far as the + religious stand-point allows. The hierarchy, if so it be called, + of the spiritual forces is one where none can stand alone, or + claim an abstract and independent supremacy. The truth of egoism + is the truth of altruism: the truly moral is the truly religious: + and each is not what it professes to be unless it anticipate the + later, or include the earlier.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(iv.) Mind or Spirit.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It may be + said, however, that for such a range of subjects the term Mind is + wretchedly inadequate and common-place, and that the better + rendering of the title would be Philosophy of Spirit. It may be + admitted that Mind is not all that could be wished. But neither + is Spirit blameless. And, it may be added, Hegel's <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagel">[pg l]</span><a name="Pgl" id="Pgl" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> own term <span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Geist</span></span> has to be unduly + strained to cover so wide a region. It serves—and was no doubt + meant to serve—as a sign of the conformity of his system with the + religion which sees in God no other-world being, but our very + self and mind, and which worships him in spirit and in truth. And + if the use of a word like this could allay the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“ancient variance”</span> between the religious and + the philosophic mood, it would be but churlish perhaps to refuse + the sign of compliance and compromise. But whatever may be the + case in German,—and even there the new wine was dangerous to the + old wine-skin—it is certain that to average English ears the word + Spiritual would carry us over the medium line into the proper + land of religiosity. And to do that, as we have seen, is to sin + against the central idea: the idea that religion is of one blood + with the whole mental family, though the most graciously complete + of all the sisters. Yet, however the word may be chosen, the + philosophy of Hegel, like the august lady who appeared in vision + to the emprisoned Boëthius, has on her garment a sign which + <span class="tei tei-q">“signifies the life which is on + earth,”</span> as also a sign which signifies the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“right law of heaven”</span>; if her right-hand holds + the <span class="tei tei-q">“book of the justice of the King + omnipotent,”</span> the sceptre in her left is <span class= + "tei tei-q">“corporal judgment against sin<a id="noteref_20" + name="noteref_20" href="#note_20"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">20</span></span></a>.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is + indeed no sufficient reason for contemning the term Mind. If + Inductive Philosophy of the Human Mind has—perhaps to a dainty + taste—made the word unsavoury, that is no reason for refusing to + give it all the wealth of soul and heart, of intellect and will. + The <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">mens aeterna</span></span> + which, if we hear Tacitus, expressed the Hebrew conception of the + spirituality of God, and the Νοῦς which Aristotelianism set + supreme in the Soul, are not the mere or abstract intelligence, + which late-acquired <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageli">[pg + li]</span><a name="Pgli" id="Pgli" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + habits of abstraction have made out of them. If the reader will + adopt the term (in want of a better) in its widest scope, we may + shelter ourselves under the example of Wordsworth. His theme + is—as he describes it in the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Recluse</span></span>—<span class="tei tei-q">“the + Mind and Man”</span>: his</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 18.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">voice + proclaims</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">How exquisitely the individual + Mind</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(And the progressive powers + perhaps no less</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Of the whole species) to the + external World</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Is fitted;—and how exquisitely + too</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">The external World is fitted + to the Mind;</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">And the creation (by no lower + name</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Can it be called) which they + with blended might</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Accomplish.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The verse + which expounds that <span class="tei tei-q">“high + argument”</span> speaks</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Of + Truth, of Grandeur, Beauty, Love and Hope</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">And + melancholy Fear subdued by Faith.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And the poet + adds:</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 23.40em"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">As we + look</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Into our Minds, into the Mind + of Man—</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">My haunt, and the main region + of my song;</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Beauty—a living Presence of + the earth</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Surpassing the most fair ideal + forms</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">... waits + upon my steps.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The reality + duly seen in the spiritual vision</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 14.40em"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">That + inspires</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">The human Soul of universal + earth</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Dreaming of + things to come</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">will be a + greater glory than the ideals of imaginative fiction ever + fancied:</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">For + the discerning intellect of Man,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">When wedded to this goodly + universe</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">In love and holy passion, + shall find these</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">A simple + produce of the common day.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagelii">[pg + lii]</span><a name="Pglii" id="Pglii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If Wordsworth, + thus, as it were, echoing the great conception of Francis + Bacon,</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Would + chant, in lonely peace, the spousal verse</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Of this + great consummation,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">perhaps the + poet and the essayist may help us with Hegel to rate the Mind—the + Mind of Man—at its highest value.</p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageliii">[pg liii]</span><a name= + "Pgliii" id="Pgliii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc7" id="toc7"></a> <a name="pdf8" id="pdf8"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Essay II. Aims And Methods Of + Psychology.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not going + too far to say that in common estimation psychology has as yet + hardly reached what Kant has called the steady walk of + science—<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "de"><span style="font-style: italic">der sichere Gang der + Wissenschaft</span></span>. To assert this is not, of course, to + throw any doubts on the importance of the problems, or on the + intrinsic value of the results, in the studies which have been + prosecuted under that name. It is only to note the obvious fact + that a number of inquiries of somewhat discrepant tone, method, and + tendency have all at different times covered themselves under the + common title of psychological, and that the work of orientation is + as yet incomplete. Such a destiny seems inevitable, when a name is + coined rather as the title of an unexplored territory, than fixed + on to describe an accomplished fact.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(i.) Psychology as a Science and as + a Part of Philosophy.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Anima</span></span> of Aristotle, gathering up into one the work + of Plato and his predecessors, may be said to lay the foundation + of psychology. But even in it, we can already see that there are + two elements or aspects struggling for mastery: two elements not + unrelated or <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageliv">[pg + liv]</span><a name="Pgliv" id="Pgliv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + independent, but hard to keep fairly and fully in unity. On one + hand there is the conception of Soul as a part of Nature, as a + grade of existence in the physical or natural universe,—in the + universe of things which suffer growth and change, which are + never entirely <span class="tei tei-q">“without matter,”</span> + and are always attached to or present in body. From this point of + view Aristotle urged that a sound and realistic psychology must, + e.g. in its definition of a passion, give the prominent place to + its physical (or material) expression, and not to its mental form + or significance. It must remember, he said, that the phenomena or + <span class="tei tei-q">“accidents”</span> are what really throw + light on the nature or the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“substance”</span> of the Soul. On the other hand, + there are two points to be considered. There is, first of all, + the counterpoising remark that the conception of Soul as such, as + a unity and common characteristic, will be determinative of the + phenomena or <span class="tei tei-q">“accidents,”</span>—will + settle, as it were, what we are to observe and look for, and how + we are to describe our observations. And by the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">conception</span></em> of Soul, is meant not + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">a</span></em> soul, as a thing or agent + (subject) which has properties attaching to it; but soul, as the + generic feature, the universal, which is set as a stamp on + everything that claims to be psychical. In other words, Soul is + one, not as a single thing contrasted with its attributes, + activities, or exercises of force (such single thing will be + shown by logic to be a metaphysical fiction); but as the unity of + form and character, the comprehensive and identical feature, + which is present in all its manifestations and exercises. But + there is a second consideration. The question is asked by + Aristotle whether it is completely and strictly accurate to put + Soul under the category of natural objects. There is in it, or of + it, perhaps, something, and something essential to it, which + belongs to the order of the eternal and self-active: <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagelv">[pg lv]</span><a name="Pglv" id="Pglv" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> something which is <span class= + "tei tei-q">“form”</span> and <span class= + "tei tei-q">“energy”</span> quite unaffected by and separate from + <span class="tei tei-q">“matter.”</span> How this is related to + the realm of the perishable and changeable is a problem on which + Aristotle has been often (and with some reason) believed to be + obscure, if not even inconsistent<a id="noteref_21" name= + "noteref_21" href="#note_21"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">21</span></span></a>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In these + divergent elements which come to the fore in Aristotle's + treatment we have the appearance of a radical difference of + conception and purpose as to psychology. He himself does a good + deal to keep them both in view. But it is evident that here + already we have the contrast between a purely physical or (in the + narrower sense) <span class="tei tei-q">“scientific”</span> + psychology, empirical and realistic in treatment, and a more + philosophical—what in certain quarters would be called a + speculative or metaphysical—conception of the problem. There is + also in Aristotle the antithesis of a popular or superficial, and + an accurate or analytic, psychology. The former is of a certain + use in dealing, say, with questions of practical ethics and + education: the latter is of more strictly scientific interest. + Both of these distinctions—that between a speculative and an + empirical, and that between a scientific and a popular + treatment—affect the subsequent history of the study. Psychology + is sometimes understood to mean the results of casual observation + of our own minds by what is termed introspection, and by the + interpretation of what we may observe in others. Such + observations are in the first place carried on under the guidance + of distinctions or points of view supplied by the names in common + use. We interrogate our own consciousness as to what facts or + relations of facts correspond to the terms of our national + language. Or we attempt—what is really an inexhaustible quest—to + get definite divisions between them, and clear-cut <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagelvi">[pg lvi]</span><a name="Pglvi" id= + "Pglvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> definitions. Inquiries like + these which start from popular distinctions fall a long way short + of science: and the inquirer will find that accidental and + essential properties are given in the same handful of + conclusions. Yet there is always much value in these attempts to + get our minds cleared: and it is indispensable for all inquiries + that all alleged or reported facts of mind should be realised and + reproduced in our own mental experience. And this is especially + the case in psychology, just because here we cannot get the + object outside us, we cannot get or make a diagram, and unless we + give it reality by re-constructing it,—by re-interrogating our + own experience, our knowledge of it will be but wooden and + mechanical. And the term introspection need not be too seriously + taken: it means much more than watching passively an internal + drama; and is quite as well describable as mental projection, + setting out what was within, and so as it were hidden and + involved, before ourselves in the field of mental vision. Here, + as always, the essential point is to get ourselves well out of + the way of the object observed, and to stand, figuratively + speaking, quite on one side.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But even at + the best, such a popular or empirical psychology has no special + claim to be ranked as science. It may no doubt be said that at + least it collects, describes, or notes down facts. But even this + is not so certain as it seems. Its so-called facts are very + largely fictions, or so largely interpolated with error, that + they cannot be safely used for construction. If psychology is to + accomplish anything valuable, it must go more radically to work. + It must—at least in a measure—discard from its preliminary view + the data of common and current distinctions, and try to get at + something more primary or ultimate as its starting-point. And + this it may do in <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagelvii">[pg + lvii]</span><a name="Pglvii" id="Pglvii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> two ways. It may, in the one case, follow + the example of the physical sciences. In these it is the + universal practice to assume that the explanation of complex and + concrete facts is to be attained by (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>) + postulating certain simple elements (which we may call atoms, + molecules, and perhaps units or monads), which are supposed to be + clearly conceivable and to justify themselves by intrinsic + intelligibility, and by (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">b</span></span>) assuming that these + elements are compounded and combined according to laws which + again are in the last resort self-evident, or such that they seem + to have an obvious and palpable lucidity. Further, such laws + being always axioms or plain postulates of mechanics (for these + alone possess this feature of self-evident intelligibility), they + are subject to and invite all the aids and refinements of the + higher mathematical calculus. What the primary and + self-explicative bits of psychical reality may be, is a further + question on which there may be some dispute. They may be, so to + say, taken in a more physical or in a more metaphysical way: i.e. + more as units of nerve-function or more as elements of + ideative-function. And there may be differences as to how far and + in what provinces the mathematical calculus may be applicable. + But, in any case, there will be a strong tendency in psychology, + worked on this plan, to follow, <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">mutatis mutandis</span></span>, and at some + distance perhaps, the analogy of material physics. In both the + justification of the postulated units and laws will be their + ability to describe and systematise the observed phenomena in a + uniform and consistent way.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The other way + in which psychology gets a foundation and ulterior certainty is + different, and goes deeper. After all, the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“scientific”</span> method is only a way in which the + facts of a given sphere are presented in thoroughgoing + interconnexion, each reduced to an exact multiple <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagelviii">[pg lviii]</span><a name="Pglviii" + id="Pglviii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> or fraction of some + other, by an inimitably continued subtraction and addition of an + assumed homogeneous element, found or assumed to be perfectly + imaginable (conceivable). But we may also consider the province + in relation to the whole sphere of reality, may ask what is its + place and meaning in the whole, what reality is in the end + driving at or coming to be, and how far this special province + contributes to that end. If we do this, we attach psychology to + philosophy, or, if we prefer so to call it, to metaphysics, as in + the former way we established it on the principles generally + received as governing the method of the physical sciences.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This—the + relation of psychology to fundamental philosophy—is a question + which also turns up in dealing with Ethics. There is on the part + of those engaged in either of these inquiries a certain + impatience against the intermeddling (which is held to be only + muddling) of metaphysics with them. It is clear that in a very + decided way both psychology and ethics can, up to some extent at + least, be treated as what is called empirical (or, to use the + more English phrase, inductive) sciences. On many hands they are + actually so treated: and not without result. Considering the + tendency of metaphysical inquiries, it may be urged that it is + well to avoid preliminary criticism of the current conceptions + and beliefs about reality which these sciences imply. Yet such + beliefs are undoubtedly present and effective. Schopenhauer has + popularised the principle that the pure empiricist is a fiction, + that man is a radically metaphysical animal, and that he + inevitably turns what he receives into a part of a dogmatic + creed—a conviction how things ought to be. Almost without effort + there grows up in him, or flows in upon him, a belief and a + system of beliefs as to the order and values of things. Every + judgment, even in logic, rests on such an order <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagelix">[pg lix]</span><a name="Pglix" id= + "Pglix" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of truth. He need not be able + to formulate his creed: it will influence him none the less: nay, + his faith will probably seem more a part of the solid earth and + common reality, the less it has been reduced to a determinate + creed or to a code of principles. For such formulation + presupposes doubt and scepticism, which it beats back by mere + assertion. Each human being has such a background of convictions + which govern his actions and conceptions, and of which it so + startles him to suggest the possibility of a doubt, that he turns + away in dogmatic horror. Such ruling ideas vary, from man to man, + and from man to woman—if we consider them in all their + minuteness. But above all they constitute themselves in a + differently organised system or aggregate according to the social + and educational stratum to which an individual belongs. Each + group, engaged in a common task, it may be in the study of a part + of nature, is ideally bound and obliged by a common language, and + special standards of truth and reality for its own. Such a group + of ideas is what Bacon would have called a scientific fetich or + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">idolum + theatri</span></span>. A scientific <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">idolum</span></span> is a traditional belief + or dogma as to principles, values, and methods, which has so + thoroughly pervaded the minds of those engaged in a branch of + inquiry, that they no longer recognise its hypothetical + character,—its relation of means to the main end of their + function.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such a + collected and united theory of reality (it is what Hegel has + designated the Idea) is what is understood by a natural + metaphysic. It has nothing necessarily to do with a supersensible + or a supernatural, if these words mean a ghostly, materialised, + but super-finely-materialised nature, above and beyond the + present. But that there is a persistent tendency to conceive the + unity and coherence, the theoretic idea of reality, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagelx">[pg lx]</span><a name="Pglx" id="Pglx" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in this pseudo-sensuous (i.e. + super-sensuous) form, is of course a well-known fact. For the + present, however, this aberration—this idol of the tribe—may be + left out of sight. By a metaphysic or fundamental philosophy, is, + in the present instance, meant a system of first principles—a + secular and cosmic creed: a belief in ends and values, a belief + in truth—again premising that the system in question is, for + most, a rudely organised and almost inarticulate mass of belief + and hope, conviction and impression. It is, in short, a + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">natural</span></em> metaphysic: a + metaphysic, that is, which has but an imperfect coherence, which + imperfectly realises both its nature and its limits.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In certain + parts, however, it is more and better than this crude background + of belief. Each science—or at least every group of sciences—has a + more definite system or aggregate of first principles, axioms, + and conceptions belonging to it. It has, that is,—and here in a + much distincter way—its special standard of reality, its peculiar + forms of conceiving things, its distinctions between the actual + and the apparent, &c. Here again it will probably be found + that the scientific specialist is hardly conscious that these are + principles and concepts: on the contrary, they will be supposed + self-evident and ultimate facts, foundations of being. Instead of + being treated as modes of conception, more or less justified by + their use and their results, these categories will be regarded as + fundamental facts, essential conditions of all reality. Like + popular thought in its ingrained categories, the specialist + cannot understand the possibility of any limitation to his + radical ideas of reality. To him they are not hypotheses, but + principles. The scientific specialist may be as convinced of the + universal application of his peculiar categories, as the Chinese + or the Eskimo that his standards are natural and + final.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagelxi">[pg + lxi]</span><a name="Pglxi" id="Pglxi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Under such + metaphysical or extra-empirical presuppositions all + investigation, whether it be crudely empirical or (in the + physical sense) scientific, is carried on. And when so carried + on, it is said to be prosecuted apart from any interference from + metaphysic. Such a naïve or natural metaphysic, not raised to + explicit consciousness, not followed as an imposed rule, but + governing with the strength of an immanent faith, does not count + for those who live under it as a metaphysic at all. M. Jourdain + was amazed suddenly to learn he had been speaking prose for forty + years without knowing it. But in the present case there is + something worse than amazement sure to be excited by the news. + For the critic who thus reveals the secrets of the scientist's + heart is pretty sure to go on to say that a good deal of this + naïve unconscious metaphysic is incoherent, contradictory, even + bad: that it requires correction, revision, and readjustment, and + has by criticism to be made one and harmonious. That readjustment + or criticism which shall eliminate contradiction and produce + unity, is the aim of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">science</span></em> of metaphysic—the + science of the meta-physical element in physical knowledge: what + Hegel has chosen to call the Science of Logic (in the wide sense + of the term). This higher Logic, this <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">science</span></em> of metaphysic, is the + process to revise and harmonise in systematic completeness the + imperfect or misleading and partial estimates of reality which + are to be found in popular and scientific thought.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the case of + the run of physical sciences this revision is less necessary; and + for no very recondite reason. Every science by its very nature + deals with a special, a limited topic. It is confined to a part + or aspect of reality. Its propositions are not complete truths; + they apply to an artificial world, to a part expressly cut off + from the concrete reality. Its principles <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagelxii">[pg lxii]</span><a name="Pglxii" id= + "Pglxii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> are generally cut according + to their cloth,—according to the range in which they apply. The + only danger that can well arise is if these categories are + transplanted without due reservations, and made of universal + application, i.e. if the scientist elects on his speciality to + pronounce <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">de omnibus + rebus</span></span>. But in the case of psychology and ethics the + harmlessness of natural metaphysics will be less certain. Here a + general human or universal interest is almost an inevitable + coefficient: especially if they really rise to the full sweep of + the subject. For as such they both seem to deal not with a part + of reality, but with the very centre and purpose of all reality. + In them we are not dealing with topics of secondary interest, but + with the very heart of the human problem. Here the questions of + reality and ideals, of unity and diversity, and of the evaluation + of existence, come distinctly to the fore. If psychology is to + answer the question, What am I? and ethics the question, What + ought I to do? they can hardly work without some formulated creed + of metaphysical character, without some preliminary criticisms of + current first principles.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(ii.) Herbart.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The German + thinker, who has given perhaps the most fruitful stimulus to the + scientific study of psychology in modern times—Johann Friedrich + Herbart—is after all essentially a philosopher, and not a mere + scientist, even in his psychology. His psychological inquiry, + that is, stands in intimate connexion with the last questions of + all intelligence, with metaphysics and <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="pagelxiii">[pg lxiii]</span><a name="Pglxiii" id="Pglxiii" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> ethics. The business of philosophy, + says Herbart, is to touch up and finish off conceptions + (<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Bearbeitung der + Begriffe</span></span>)<a id="noteref_22" name="noteref_22" href= + "#note_22"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">22</span></span></a>. It + finds, as it supervenes upon the unphilosophical world, that mere + and pure facts (if there ever are or were such purisms) have been + enveloped in a cloud of theory, have been construed into some + form of unity, but have been imperfectly, inadequately construed: + and that the existing concepts in current use need to be + corrected, supplemented and readjusted. It has, accordingly, for + its work to <span class="tei tei-q">“reconcile experience with + itself<a id="noteref_23" name="noteref_23" href= + "#note_23"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">23</span></span></a>,”</span> + and to elicit <span class="tei tei-q">“the hidden + pre-suppositions without which the fact of experience is + unthinkable.”</span> Psychology, then, as a branch of this + philosophic enterprise, has to readjust the facts discovered in + inner experience. For mere uncritical experience or merely + empirical knowledge only offers <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">problems</span></em>; it suggests gaps, + which indeed further reflection serves at first only to deepen + into contradictions. Such a psychology is <span class= + "tei tei-q">“speculative”</span>: i.e. it is not content to + accept the mere given, but goes forward and backward to find + something that will make the fact intelligible. It employs + totally different methods from the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“classification, induction, analogy”</span> familiar + to the logic of the empirical sciences. Its <span class= + "tei tei-q">“principles,”</span> therefore, are not given facts: + but facts which have been manipulated and adjusted so as to lose + their self-contradictory quality: they are facts <span class= + "tei tei-q">“reduced,”</span> by introducing the omitted + relationships which they postulate if they are to be true and + self-consistent<a id="noteref_24" name="noteref_24" href= + "#note_24"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">24</span></span></a>. + While it is far from rejecting or ignoring experience, therefore, + psychology cannot strictly be said to build upon it alone. It + uses experimental fact as an unfinished datum,—or it sees in + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagelxiv">[pg lxiv]</span><a name= + "Pglxiv" id="Pglxiv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> experience a + torso which betrays its imperfection, and suggests + completing.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + starting-point, it may be said, of Herbart's psychology is a + question which to the ordinary psychologist (and to the so-called + scientific psychologist) has a secondary, if it have any + interest. It was, he says, the problem of Personality, the + problem of the Self or Ego, which first led to his characteristic + conception of psychological method. <span class="tei tei-q">“My + first discovery,”</span> he tells us<a id="noteref_25" name= + "noteref_25" href="#note_25"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">25</span></span></a>, + <span class="tei tei-q">“was that the Self was neither primitive + nor independent, but must be the most dependent and most + conditioned thing one can imagine. The second was that the + elementary ideas of an intelligent being, if they were ever to + reach the pitch of self-consciousness, must be either all, or at + least in part, opposed to each other, and that they must check or + block one another in consequence of this opposition. Though held + in check, however, these ideas were not to be supposed lost: they + subsist as endeavours or tendencies to return into the position + of actual idea, as soon as the check became, for any reason, + either in whole or in part inoperative. This check could and must + be calculated, and thus it was clear that psychology required a + mathematical as well as a metaphysical foundation.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The place of + the conception of the Ego in Kant's and Fichte's theory of + knowledge is well known. Equally well known is Kant's treatment + of the soul-reality or soul-substance in his examination of + Rational Psychology. Whereas the (logical) unity of + consciousness, or <span class="tei tei-q">“synthetic unity of + apperception,”</span> is assumed as a fundamental starting-point + in explanation of our objective judgments, or of our knowledge of + objective existence, its real (as opposed to its formal) + foundation in a <span class="tei tei-q">“substantial”</span> soul + is set aside as an illegitimate <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagelxv">[pg lxv]</span><a name="Pglxv" id="Pglxv" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> interpretation of, or inference from, the + facts of inner experience. The belief in the separate unity and + persistence of the soul, said Kant, is not a + scientifically-warranted conclusion. Its true place is as an + ineffaceable postulate of the faith which inspires human life and + action. Herbart did not rest content with either of these—as he + believed—dogmatic assumptions of his master. He did not fall in + cheerfully with the idealism which seemed ready to dispense with + a soul, or which justified its acceptance of empirical reality by + referring to the fundamental unity of the function of judgment. + With a strong bent towards fully-differentiated and + individualised experience Herbart conjoined a conviction of the + need of logical analysis to prevent us being carried away by the + first-come and inadequate generalities. The Ego which, in its + extremest abstraction, he found defined as the unity of subject + and object, did not seem to him to offer the proper guarantees of + reality: it was itself a problem, full of contradictions, waiting + for solution. On the other hand, the real Ego, or self of + concrete experience, is very much more than this logical + abstract, and differs widely from individual to individual, and + apparently from time to time even in the same individual. Our + self, of which we talk so fluently, as one and the self-same—how + far does it really possess the continuity and identity with which + we credit it? Does it not rather seem to be an ideal which we + gradually form and set before ourselves as the standard for + measuring our attainments of the moment,—the perfect fulfilment + of that oneness of being and purpose and knowledge which we never + reach? Sometimes even it seems no better than a name which we + move along the varying phenomena of our inner life, at one time + identifying it with the power which has gained the victory in a + moral struggle, at another with that which <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagelxvi">[pg lxvi]</span><a name="Pglxvi" id= + "Pglxvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> has been defeated<a id= + "noteref_26" name="noteref_26" href="#note_26"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">26</span></span></a>, + according as the attitude of the moment makes us throw now one, + now another, aspect of mental activity in the foreground.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The other—or + logical Ego—the mere identity of subject and object,—when taken + in its utter abstractness and simplicity, shrivels up to + something very small indeed—to a something which is little better + than nothing. The mere <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">I</span></em> which is not + contra-distinguished by a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Thou</span></em> and a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">He</span></em>—which is without all + definiteness of predication (the I=I of Fichte and Schelling)—is + only as it were a point of being cut off from all its connexions + in reality, and treated as if it were or could be entirely + independent. It is an identity in which subject and object have + not yet appeared: it is not a real I, though we may still retain + the name. It is—as Hegel's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Logic</span></span> will tell us—exactly + definable as Being, which is as yet Nothing: the impossible edge + of abstraction on which we try—and in vain—to steady ourselves at + the initial point of thought. And to reach or stand at that + intangible, ungraspable point, which slips away as we approach, + and transmutes itself as we hold it, is not the natural + beginning, but the result of introspection and reflection on the + concrete self. But with this aspect of the question we are not + now concerned.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That the unity + of the Self as an intelligent and moral being, that the Ego of + self-consciousness was an ideal and a product of development, was + what Herbart soon became convinced of. The unity of Self is even + as given in mature experience an imperfect fact. It is a fact, + that is, which does not come up to what it promised, and which + requires to be supplemented, or philosophically justified. Here + and everywhere the custom of life carries us over gaps which yawn + deep to the eye of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagelxvii">[pg + lxvii]</span><a name="Pglxvii" id="Pglxvii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> philosophic reflection: even though + accident and illness force them not unfrequently even upon the + blindest. To trace the process of unification towards this + unity—to trace, if you like, even the formation of the concept of + such unity, as a governing and guiding principle in life and + conduct, comes to be the problem of the psychologist, in the + largest sense of that problem. From Soul (<span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Seele</span></span>) to Mind or Spirit + (<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Geist</span></span>) is for + Herbart, as for Hegel, the course of psychology<a id="noteref_27" + name="noteref_27" href="#note_27"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">27</span></span></a>. The + growth and development of mind, the formation of a self, the + realisation of a personality, is for both the theme which + psychology has to expound. And Herbart, not less than Hegel, had + to bear the censure that such a conception of mental reality as a + growth would destroy personality<a id="noteref_28" name= + "noteref_28" href="#note_28"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">28</span></span></a>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But with so + much common in the general plan, the two thinkers differ + profoundly in their special mode of carrying out the task. Or, + rather, they turn their strength on different departments of the + whole. Herbart's great practical interest had been the theory of + education: <span class="tei tei-q">“paedagogic”</span> is the + subject of his first important writings. The inner history of + ideas—the processes which are based on the interaction of + elements in the individual soul—are what he specially traces. + Hegel's interests, on the contrary, are more towards the greater + process, the unities of historical life, and the correlations of + the powers of art, religion, and philosophy that work therein. He + turns to the macrocosm, almost as naturally as Herbart does to + the microcosm. Thus, even in Ethics, while Herbart gives a + delicate analysis of the distinct aspects or elements in the + Ethical idea,—the diverse headings under which the disinterested + spectator within the breast measures with purely aesthetic + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagelxviii">[pg + lxviii]</span><a name="Pglxviii" id="Pglxviii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> eye his approach to unity and strength of + purpose, Hegel seems to hurry away from the field of moral sense + or conscience to throw himself on the social and political + organisation of the moral life. The General Paedagogic of Herbart + has its pendant in Hegel's Philosophy of Law and of History.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At an early + period Herbart had become impressed with the necessity of + applying mathematics to psychology<a id="noteref_29" name= + "noteref_29" href="#note_29"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">29</span></span></a>. To + the usual objection, that psychical facts do not admit of + measurement, he had a ready reply. We can calculate even on + hypothetical assumptions: indeed, could we measure, we should + scarcely take the trouble to calculate<a id="noteref_30" name= + "noteref_30" href="#note_30"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">30</span></span></a>. To + calculate (i.e. to deduce mathematically) is to perform a general + experiment, and to perform it in the medium where there is least + likelihood of error or disturbance. There may be anomalies enough + apparent in the mental life: there may be the great anomalies of + Genius and of Freedom of Will; but the Newton and the Kepler of + psychology will show by calculation on assumed conditions of + psychic nature that these aberrations can be explained by + mechanical laws. <span class="tei tei-q">“The human Soul is no + puppet-theatre: our wishes and resolutions are no marionettes: no + juggler stands behind; but our true and proper life lies in our + volition, and this life has its rule not outside, but in itself: + it has its own purely mental rule, by no means borrowed from the + material world. But this rule is in it sure and fixed; and on + account of this its fixed quality it has more similarity to (what + is otherwise heterogeneous) the laws of impact and pressure than + to the marvels of an alleged inexplicable freedom<a id= + "noteref_31" name="noteref_31" href="#note_31"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">31</span></span></a>.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Psychology + then deals with a real, which exhibits <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="pagelxix">[pg lxix]</span><a name="Pglxix" id="Pglxix" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> phenomena analogous in several respects to + those discussed by statics and mechanics. Its foundation is a + statics and mechanics of the Soul,—as this real is called. We + begin by presupposing as the ultimate reality, underlying the + factitious and generally imperfect unity of self-consciousness + and mind, an essential and primary unity—the unity of an + absolutely simple or individual point of being—a real point which + amongst other points asserts itself, maintains itself. It has a + character of its own, but that character it only shows in and + through a development conditioned by external influences. The + specific nature of the soul-reality is to be representative, to + produce, or manifest itself in, ideas (<span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vorstellungen</span></span>). But the + character only emerges into actuality in the conflict of the + soul-atom with other ultimate realities in the congregation of + things. A soul <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">per se</span></span> or + isolated is not possessed of ideas. It is merely blank, + undeveloped, formal unity, of which nothing can be said. But like + other realities it defines and characterises itself by + antithesis, by resistance: it shows what it is by its behaviour + in the struggle for existence. It acts in self-defence: and its + peculiar style or weapon of self-defence is an idea or + representation. The way the Soul maintains itself is by turning + the assailant into an idea<a id="noteref_32" name="noteref_32" + href="#note_32"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">32</span></span></a>: and + each idea is therefore a <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Selbsterhaltung</span></span> of the Soul. + The Soul is thus enriched—to appearance or incidentally: and the + assailant is annexed. In this way the one Soul may develop or + evolve or express an innumerable variety of ideas: for in + response to whatever it meets, the living and active Soul + ideates, or gives rise to a representation. Thus, while the soul + is <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagelxx">[pg lxx]</span><a name= + "Pglxx" id="Pglxx" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> one, its ideas or + representations are many. Taken separately, they each express the + psychic self-conservation. But brought in relation with each + other, as so many acts or self-affirmations of the one soul, they + behave as forces, and tend to thwart or check each other. It is + as forces, as reciprocally arresting or fostering each other, + that ideas are objects of science. When a representation is thus + held in check, it is reduced to a mere endeavour or active + tendency to represent. Thus there arises a distinction between + representations proper, and those imperfect states or acts which + are partly or wholly held in abeyance. But the latent phase of an + idea is as essential to a thorough understanding of it as what + appears. It is the great blunder of empirical psychology to + ignore what is sunk below the surface of consciousness. And to + Herbart consciousness is not the condition but rather the product + of ideas, which are primarily forces.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But + representations are not merely in opposition,—impinging and + resisting. The same reason which makes them resist, viz. that + they are or would fain be acts of the one soul, but are more or + less incompatible, leads them in other circumstances to form + combinations with each other. These combinations are of two + sorts. They are, first, complications, or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“complexions”</span>: a number of ideas combine by + quasi-addition and juxtaposition to form a total. Second, there + is fusion: ideas presenting certain degrees of contrast enter + into a union where the parts are no longer separately + perceptible. It is easy to see how the problems of psychology now + assume the form of a statics and mechanics of the mind. + Quantitative data are to be sought in the strength of each + separate single idea, and the degree in which two or more ideas + block each other: in the degree of combination between ideas, and + the number of ideas in <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagelxxi">[pg + lxxi]</span><a name="Pglxxi" id="Pglxxi" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> a combination: and in the terms of relation + between the members of a series of ideas. A statical theory has + to show the conditions required for what we may call the ideal + state of equilibrium of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“idea-forces”</span>: to determine, that is, the + ultimate degree of obscuration suffered by any two ideas of + different strength, and the conditions of their permanent + combination or fusion. A mechanics of the mind will, on the + contrary, deal with the rate at which these processes are brought + about, the velocity with which in the movement of mind ideas are + obscured or reawakened, &c.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is + fortunately unnecessary, here, to go further into details. What + Herbart proposes is not a method for the mathematical measurement + of psychic facts: it is a theory of mechanics and statics + specially adapted to the peculiarities of psychical phenomena, + where the forces are given with no sine or cosine, where instead + of gravitation we have the constant effort (as it were + elasticity) of each idea to revert to its unchecked state. He + claims—in short—practically to be a Kepler and Newton of the + mind, and in so doing to justify the vague professions of more + than one writer on mind—above all, perhaps of David Hume, who + goes beyond mere professions—to make mental science follow the + example of physics. And a main argument in favour of his + enterprise is the declaration of Kant that no body of knowledge + can claim to be a science except in such proportion as it is + mathematical. And the peculiarity of this enterprise is that + self-consciousness, the Ego, is not allowed to interfere with the + free play of psychic forces. The Ego is—psychologically—the + result, the product, and the varying product of that play. The + play of forces is no doubt a unity: but its unity lies not in the + synthesis of consciousness, but in the essential unity of Soul. + And Soul is in its essence neither <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagelxxii">[pg lxxii]</span><a name="Pglxxii" id="Pglxxii" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> consciousness, nor + self-consciousness, nor mind: but something on the basis of whose + unity these are built up and developed<a id="noteref_33" name= + "noteref_33" href="#note_33"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">33</span></span></a>. The + mere <span class="tei tei-q">“representation”</span> does not + include the further supervenience of consciousness: it + represents, but it is not as yet necessary that we should also be + conscious that there is representation. It is, in the phrase of + Leibniz, perception: but not apperception. It is mere + straight-out, not as yet reflected, representation. Gradually + there emerges through the operation of mechanical psychics a + nucleus, a floating unity, a fixed or definite central + aggregate.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The suggestion + of mathematical method has been taken up by subsequent inquirers + (as it was pursued even before Herbart's time), but not in the + sense he meant. Experimentation has now taken a prominent place + in psychology. But in proportion as it has done so, psychology + has lost its native character, and thrown itself into the arms of + physiology. What Herbart calculated were actions and reactions of + idea-forces: what the modern experimental school proposes to + measure are to a large extent the velocities of certain + physiological processes, the numerical specification of certain + facts. Such ascertainments are unquestionably useful; as + numerical precision is in other departments. But, taken in + themselves, they do not carry us one bit further on the way to + science. As experiments, further,—to note a point discussed + elsewhere<a id="noteref_34" name="noteref_34" href= + "#note_34"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">34</span></span></a>—their + value depends on the point of view, on the theory which has led + to them, on the value of the general scheme for which they are + intended to provide a special new <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagelxxiii">[pg lxxiii]</span><a name="Pglxxiii" id="Pglxxiii" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> determination. In many cases they + serve to give a vivid reality to what was veiled under a general + phrase. The truth looks so much more real when it is put in + figures: as the size of a huge tree when set against a rock; or + as when Milton bodies out his fallen angel by setting forth the + ratio between his spear and the tallest Norway pine. But until + the general relationship between soul and body is more clearly + formulated, such statistics will have but a value of + curiosity.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(iii.) The Faculty-Psychology and + its Critics.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What Herbart + (as well as Hegel) finds perpetual ground for objecting to is the + talk about mental faculties. This objection is part of a general + characteristic of all the higher philosophy; and the recurrence + of it gives an illustration of how hard it is for any class of + men to see themselves as others see them. If there be anything + the vulgar believe to be true of philosophy, it is that it deals + in distant and abstruse generalities, that it neglects the shades + of individuality and reality, and launches out into unsubstantial + general ideas. But it would be easy to gather from the great + thinkers an anthology of passages in which they hold it forth as + the great work of philosophy to rescue our conceptions from the + indefiniteness and generality of popular conception, and to give + them real, as opposed to a merely nominal, individuality.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Wolffian + school, which Herbart (not less than Kant) found in possession of + the field, and which in Germany may be taken to represent only a + slight variant of the half-and-half attitude of vulgar thought, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagelxxiv">[pg lxxiv]</span><a name= + "Pglxxiv" id="Pglxxiv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was entrenched + in the psychology of faculties. Empirical psychology, said + Wolff<a id="noteref_35" name="noteref_35" href= + "#note_35"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">35</span></span></a>, + tells the number and character of the soul's faculties: rational + psychology will tell what they <span class= + "tei tei-q">“properly”</span> are, and how they subsist in soul. + It is assumed that there are general receptacles or tendencies of + mental operation which in course of time get filled or qualified + in a certain way: and that when this question is disposed of, it + still remains to fix on the metaphysical bases of these + facts.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That a + doctrine of faculties should fix itself in psychology is not so + wonderful. In the non-psychical world objects are easily + discriminated in space, and the individual thing lasts through a + time. But a phase of mind is as such fleeting and indeterminate: + its individual features which come from its <span class= + "tei tei-q">“object”</span> tend soon to vanish in memory: all + freshness of definite characters wears off, and there is left + behind only a vague <span class="tei tei-q">“recept”</span> of + the one and same in many, a sort of hypostatised representative, + faint but persistent, of what in experience was an ever-varying + succession. We generalise here as elsewhere: but elsewhere the + many singulars remain to confront us more effectually. But in + Mind the immense variety of real imagination, memory, judgment is + forgotten, and the name in each case reduced to a meagre + abstract. Thus the identity in character and operation, having + been cut off from the changing elements in its real action, is + transmuted into a substantial somewhat, a subsistent faculty. The + relationship of one to another of the powers thus by abstraction + and fancy created becomes a problem of considerable moment, their + causal relations in particular: till in the end they stand + outside and independent of each other, engaged, as Herbart says, + in a veritable <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">bellum omnium contra + omnes</span></span>.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagelxxv">[pg lxxv]</span><a name="Pglxxv" id="Pglxxv" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But this + hypostatising of faculties becomes a source of still further + difficulties when it is taken in connexion with the hypostasis of + the Soul or Self or Ego. To Aristotle the Soul in its general + aspect is Energy or Essence; and its individual phases are + energies. But in the hands of the untrained these conceptions + came to be considerably displaced. Essence or Substance came to + be understood (as may be seen in Locke, and still more in loose + talk) as a something,—a substratum,—or peculiar nature—(of which + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">in + itself</span></em> nothing further could be said<a id= + "noteref_36" name="noteref_36" href="#note_36"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">36</span></span></a> but + which notwithstanding was permanent and perhaps imperishable): + this something subsistent exhibited certain properties or + activities. There thus arose, on one hand, the Soul-thing,—a + substance misunderstood and sensualised with a supernatural + sensuousness,—a denizen of the transcendental or even of the + transcendent world: and, on the other hand, stood the actual + manifestations, the several exhibitions of this force, the + assignable and describable psychic facts. We are accordingly + brought before the problem of how this one substance or essence + stands to the several entities or hypostases known as faculties. + And we still have in the rear the further problem of how these + abstract entities stand to the real and concrete single acts and + states of soul and mind.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This + hypostatising of faculties, and this distinction of the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Substantial”</span> soul from its + <span class="tei tei-q">“accidentia”</span> or phenomena, had + grown—through the materialistic proclivities of popular + conception—from the indications found in Aristotle. It attained + its climax, perhaps in the Wolffian school in Germany, but it has + been the resort of superficial psychology in all ages. For while + it, on one hand, seemed to save the substantial Soul on whose + incorruptibility great issues were believed to <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagelxxvi">[pg lxxvi]</span><a name="Pglxxvi" + id="Pglxxvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> hinge, it held out, on + the other, an open hand to the experimental inquirer, whom it + bade freely to search amongst the phenomena. But if it was the + refuge of pusillanimity, it was also the perpetual object of + censure from all the greater and bolder spirits. Thus, the + psychology of Hobbes may be hasty and crude, but it is at least + animated by a belief that the mental life is continuous, and not + cut off by abrupt divisions severing the mental faculties. The + <span class="tei tei-q">“image”</span> (according to his + materialistically coloured psychology) which, when it is a strong + motion, is called sense, passes, as it becomes weaker or decays, + into imagination, and gives rise, by its various complications + and associations with others, to reminiscence, experience, + expectation. Similarly, the voluntary motion which is an effect + or a phase of imagination, beginning at first in small + motions—called by themselves <span class= + "tei tei-q">“endeavours,”</span> and in relation to their cause + <span class="tei tei-q">“appetites”</span> or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“desires<a id="noteref_37" name="noteref_37" href= + "#note_37"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">37</span></span></a>”</span>—leads + on cumulatively to Will, which is the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“last appetite in deliberating.”</span> Spinoza, his + contemporary, speaks in the same strain<a id="noteref_38" name= + "noteref_38" href="#note_38"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">38</span></span></a>. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Faculties of intellect, desire, love, + &c., are either utterly fictitious, or nothing but + metaphysical entities, or universals which we are in the habit of + forming from particulars. Will and intellect are thus supposed to + stand to this or that idea, this or that volition, in the same + way as stoniness to this or that stone, or as man to Peter or + Paul.”</span> They are supposed to be a general something which + gets defined and detached. But, in the mind, or in the cogitant + soul, there are no such things. There are only ideas: and + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagelxxvii">[pg + lxxvii]</span><a name="Pglxxvii" id="Pglxxvii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> by an <span class="tei tei-q">“idea”</span> + we are to understand not an image on the retina or in the brain, + not a <span class="tei tei-q">“dumb something, like a painting on + a panel<a id="noteref_39" name="noteref_39" href= + "#note_39"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">39</span></span></a>,”</span> + but a mode of thinking, or even the act of intellection itself. + The ideas <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">are</span></em> the mind: mind does not + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">have</span></em> ideas. Further, every + <span class="tei tei-q">“idea,”</span> as such, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“involves affirmation or negation,”</span>—is not an + image, but an act of judgment—contains, as we should say, an + implicit reference to actuality,—a reference which in volition is + made explicit. Thus (concludes the corollary of Eth. ii. 49) + <span class="tei tei-q">“Will and Intellect are one and the + same.”</span> But in any case the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“faculties”</span> as such are no better than + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">entia + rationis</span></span> (i.e. auxiliary modes of representing + facts).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Leibniz speaks + no less distinctly and sanely in this direction. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“True powers are never mere possibilities: they are + always tendency and action.”</span> The <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Monad”</span>—that is the quasi-intelligent unit of + existence,—is essentially activity, and its actions are + perceptions and appetitions, i.e. tendencies to pass from one + perceptive state or act to another. It is out of the variety, the + complication, and relations of these miniature or little + perceptions and appetitions, that the conspicuous phenomena of + consciousness are to be explained, and not by supposing them due + to one or other faculty. The soul is a unity, a self-developing + unity, a unity which at each stage of its existence shows itself + in a perception or idea,—each such perception however being, to + repeat the oft quoted phrase, <span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">plein de l'avenir et chargé du + passé</span></span>:—each, in other words, is not stationary, but + active and urgent, a progressive force, as well as a + representative element. Above all, Leibniz has the view that the + soul gives rise to all its ideas from itself: that its life is + its own production, not a mere inheritance of ideas which it has + from birth and nature, nor <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagelxxviii">[pg lxxviii]</span><a name="Pglxxviii" id= + "Pglxxviii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a mere importation into + an empty room from without, but a necessary result of its own + constitution acting in necessary (predetermined) reciprocity and + harmony with the rest of the universe.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But Hobbes, + Spinoza, and Leibniz, were most attentively heard in the passages + where they favoured or combatted the dominant social and + theological prepossessions. Their glimpses of truer insight and + even their palpable contributions in the line of a true + psychology were ignored or forgotten. More attention, perhaps, + was attracted by an attempt of a very different style. This was + the system of Condillac, who, as Hegel says (p. <a href="#Pg061" + class="tei tei-ref">61</a>), made an unmistakable attempt to show + the necessary interconnexion of the several modes of mental + activity. In his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Traité des Sensations</span></span> (1754), + following on his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Essai sur l'origine des connaissances + humaines</span></span> (1746), he tried to carry out + systematically the deduction or derivation of all our ideas from + sense, or to trace the filiation of all our faculties from + sensation. Given a mind with no other power than sensibility, the + problem is to show how it acquires all its other faculties. Let + us then suppose a sentient animal to which is offered a single + sensation, or one sensation standing out above the others. In + such circumstances the sensation <span class= + "tei tei-q">“becomes”</span> (<span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">devient</span></span>) attention: or a + sensation <span class="tei tei-q">“is”</span> (<span lang="fr" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">est</span></span>) attention, either because + it is alone, or because it is more lively than all the rest. + Again: before such a being, let us set two sensations: to + perceive or feel (<span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">apercevoir ou + sentir</span></span>) the two sensations is the same thing + (<span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "fr"><span style="font-style: italic">c'est la même + chose</span></span>). If one of the sensations is not present, + but a sensation made already, then to perceive it is memory. + Memory, then, is only <span class="tei tei-q">“transformed + sensation”</span> (<span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">sensation + transformée</span></span>). Further, suppose we attend to both + ideas, this is <span class="tei tei-q">“the same thing”</span> as + to compare them. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagelxxix">[pg + lxxix]</span><a name="Pglxxix" id="Pglxxix" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> And to compare them we must see difference + or resemblance. This is judgment. <span class="tei tei-q">“Thus + sensation becomes successively attention, comparison, + judgment.”</span> And—by further steps of the equating process—it + appears that sensation again <span class= + "tei tei-q">“becomes”</span> an act of reflection. And the same + may be said of imagination and reasoning: all are transformed + sensations.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If this is so + with the intelligence, it is equally the case with the Will. To + feel and not feel well or ill is impossible. Coupling then this + feeling of pleasure or pain with the sensation and its + transformations, we get the series of phases ranging from desire, + to passion, hope, will. <span class="tei tei-q">“Desire is only + the action of the same faculties as are attributed to the + understanding.”</span> A lively desire is a passion: a desire, + accompanied with a belief that nothing stands in its way, is a + volition. But combine these affective with the intellectual + processes already noticed, and you have thinking (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">penser</span></span>)<a id="noteref_40" + name="noteref_40" href="#note_40"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">40</span></span></a>. + Thus thought in its entirety is, only and always, transformed + sensation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Something not + unlike this, though scarcely so simply and directly doctrinaire, + is familiar to us in some English psychology, notably James + Mill's<a id="noteref_41" name="noteref_41" href= + "#note_41"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">41</span></span></a>. + Taken in their literal baldness, these identifications may sound + strained,—or trifling. But if we look beyond the words, we can + detect a genuine instinct for maintaining and displaying the + unity and continuity of mental life through all its + modifications,—coupled unfortunately with a bias sometimes in + favour of reducing higher or more complex states of mind to a + mere prolongation <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagelxxx">[pg + lxxx]</span><a name="Pglxxx" id="Pglxxx" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of lower and beggarly rudiments. But + otherwise such analyses are useful as aids against the tendency + of inert thought to take every name in this department as a + distinguishable reality: the tendency to part will from + thought—ideas from emotion—and even imagination from reason, as + if either could be what it professed without the other.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(iv.) Methods and Problems of + Psychology.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + difficulties of modern psychology perhaps lie in other + directions, but they are not less worth guarding against. They + proceed mainly from failure or inability to grasp the central + problem of psychology, and a disposition to let the pen (if it be + a book on the subject) wander freely through the almost + illimitable range of instance, illustration, and application. + Though it is true that the proper study of mankind is man, it is + hardly possible to say what might not be brought under this head. + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Homo sum, nihil a me + alienum puto</span></span>, it might be urged. Placed in a sort + of middle ground between physiology (summing up all the results + of physical science) and general history (including the + contributions of all the branches of sociology), the psychologist + need not want for material. He can wander into ethics, aesthetic, + and logic, into epistemology and metaphysics. And it cannot be + said with any conviction that he is actually trespassing, so long + as the ground remains so ill-fenced and vaguely enclosed. A + desultory collection of observations on traits of character, + anecdotes of mental events, mixed up with hypothetical + descriptions of how a normal human being may be supposed + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagelxxxi">[pg lxxxi]</span><a name= + "Pglxxxi" id="Pglxxxi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to develop his + so-called faculties, and including some dictionary-like verbal + distinctions, may make a not uninteresting and possibly bulky + work entitled Psychology.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is partly a + desire of keeping up to date which is responsible for the copious + extracts or abstracts from treatises on the anatomy and functions + of the nerve-system, which, accompanied perhaps by a diagram of + the brain, often form the opening chapter of a work on + psychology. Even if these researches had achieved a larger number + of authenticated results than they as yet have, they would only + form an appendix and an illustration to the proper subject<a id= + "noteref_42" name="noteref_42" href="#note_42"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">42</span></span></a>. As + they stand, and so long as they remain largely hypothetical, the + use of them in psychology only fosters the common delusion that, + when we can picture out in material outlines a theory otherwise + unsupported, it has gained some further witness in its favour. It + is quite arguable indeed that it may be useful to cut out a + section from general human biology which should include the parts + of it that were specially interesting in connexion with the + expression or generation of thought, emotion, and desire. But in + that case, there is a blunder in singling out the brain alone, + and especially the organs of sense and voluntary motion,—except + for the reason that this province of psycho-physics alone has + been fairly mapped out. The preponderant half of the soul's life + is linked to other parts of the physical system. Emotion and + volition, and the general tone of the train of ideas, if they are + to be connected with their expression and physical accompaniment + (or aspect), would require a sketch of the heart and lungs, as + well as the digestive <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagelxxxii">[pg lxxxii]</span><a name="Pglxxxii" id="Pglxxxii" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> system in general. Nor these alone. + Nerve analysis (especially confined to the larger system), though + most modern, is not alone important, as Plato and Aristotle well + saw. So that if biology is to be adapted for psychological use + (and if psychology deals with more than cognitive processes), a + liberal amount of physiological information seems required.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Experimental + psychology is a term used with a considerable laxity of content; + and so too is that of physiological psychology, or + psycho-physics. And the laxity mainly arises because there is an + uncertainty as to what is principal and what secondary in the + inquiry. Experiment is obviously a help to observation: and so + far as the latter is practicable, the former would seem to have a + chance of introduction. But in any case, experiment is only a + means to an end and only practicable under the guidance of + hypothesis and theory. Its main value would be in case the sphere + of psychology were completely paralleled with one province of + physiology. It was long ago maintained by Spinoza and (in a way + by) Leibniz, that there is no mental phenomenon without its + bodily equivalent, pendant, or correspondent. The <span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ordo rerum</span></span> (the molecular + system of movements) is, he held, the same as the order of ideas. + But it is only at intervals, under special conditions, or when + they reach a certain magnitude, that ideas emerge into full + consciousness. As consciousness presents them, they are often + discontinuous, and abrupt: and they do not always carry with them + their own explanation. Hence if we are confined to the larger + phenomena of consciousness alone, our science is imperfect: many + things seem anomalous; above all, perhaps, will, attention, and + the like. We have seen how Herbart (partly following the hints of + Leibniz), attempted to get over this difficulty by the hypothesis + of idea-forces which <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagelxxxiii">[pg lxxxiii]</span><a name="Pglxxxiii" id= + "Pglxxxiii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> generate the forms and + matter of consciousness by their mutual impact and resistance. + Physiological psychology substitutes for Herbart's reals and his + idea-forces a more materialistic sort of reality; perhaps + functions of nerve-cells, or other analogous entities. There, it + hopes one day to discover the underlying continuity of event + which in the upper range of consciousness is often obscured, and + then the process would be, as the phrase goes, explained: we + should be able to picture it out without a gap.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These large + hopes may have a certain fulfilment. They may lead to the + withdrawal of some of the fictitious mental processes which are + still described in works of psychology. But on the whole they can + only have a negative and auxiliary value. The value, that is, of + helping to confute feigned connexions and to suggest truer. They + will be valid against the mode of thought which, when Psyché + fails us for an explanation, turns to body, and interpolates soul + between the states of body: the mode which, in an older + phraseology, jumps from final causes to physical, and from + physical (or efficient) to final. Here, as elsewhere, the + physical has its place: and here, more than in many places, the + physical has been unfairly treated. But the whole subject + requires a discussion of the so-called <span class= + "tei tei-q">“relations”</span> of soul and body: a subject on + which popular conceptions and so-called science are radically + obscure.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“But the danger which threatens experimental + psychology,”</span> says Münsterberg, <span class="tei tei-q">“is + that, in investigating details, the connexion with questions of + principle may be so lost sight of that the investigation finally + lands at objects scientifically quite worthless<a id="noteref_43" + name="noteref_43" href="#note_43"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">43</span></span></a>. + Psychology <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagelxxxiv">[pg + lxxxiv]</span><a name="Pglxxxiv" id="Pglxxxiv" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> forgets only too easily that all those + numerical statistics which experiment allows us to form are only + means for psychological analysis and interpretation, not ends in + themselves. It piles up numbers and numbers, and fails to ask + whether the results so formed have any theoretical value + whatever: it seeks answers before a question has been clearly and + distinctly framed; whereas the value of experimental answers + always depends on the exactitude with which the question is put. + Let me remind the reader, how one inquirer after another made + many thousand experiments on the estimation of small intervals of + time, without a single one of them raising the question what the + precise point was which these experiments sought to measure, what + was the psychological occurrence in the case, or what + psychological phenomena were employed as the standard of + time-intervals. And so each had his own arbitrary standard of + measurement, each of them piled up mountains of numbers, each + demonstrated that his predecessor was wrong; but neither Estel + nor Mehner have carried the problem of the time-sense a single + step further.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“This must be all changed, if we are not to drift + into the barrenest scholastic.... Everywhere out of the correct + perception that problems of principle demand the investigation of + detailed phenomena, and that the latter investigation must + proceed in comparative independence of the question of + principles, there has grown the false belief that the description + of detail phenomena is the ultimate aim of science. And so, side + by side with details which are of importance to principles, we + have others, utterly indifferent and theoretically worthless, + treated with the same zeal. To the solution of their barren + problems the old Schoolmen applied a certain acuteness; but in + order to turn out <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagelxxxv">[pg + lxxxv]</span><a name="Pglxxxv" id="Pglxxxv" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> masses of numbers from barren experiments, + all that is needed is a certain insensibility to fits of ennui. + Let numbers be less collected for their own sake: and instead, + let the problems be so brought to a point that the answers may + possess the character of principles. Let each experiment be + founded on far more theoretical considerations, then the number + of the experiments may be largely diminished<a id="noteref_44" + name="noteref_44" href="#note_44"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">44</span></span></a>.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What is thus + said of a special group of inquiries by one of the foremost of + the younger psychologists, is not without its bearings on all the + departments in which psychology can learn. For physiological, or + what is technically called psychological, experiment, is + co-ordinate with many other sources of information. Much, for + instance, is to be learnt by a careful study of language by those + who combine sound linguistic knowledge with psychological + training. It is in language, spoken and written, that we find at + once the great instrument and the great document of the + distinctively human progress from a mere <span lang="el" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Psyche</span></span> to a mature <span lang= + "el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nous</span></span>, from Soul to Mind. + Whether we look at the varieties of its structure under different + ethnological influences, or at the stages of its growth in a + nation and an individual, we get light from language on the + differentiation and consolidation of ideas. But here again it is + easy to lose oneself in the world of etymology, or to be carried + away into the enticing questions of real and ideal philology.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The human being of the psychologist,”</span> says + Herbart<a id="noteref_45" name="noteref_45" href= + "#note_45"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">45</span></span></a>, + <span class="tei tei-q">“is the social and civilised human being + who stands on the apex of the whole history through which his + race has passed. In him is found visibly together all the + multiplicity of elements, which, under the name of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagelxxxvi">[pg lxxxvi]</span><a name="Pglxxxvi" + id="Pglxxxvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> mental faculties, are + regarded as a universal inheritance of humanity. Whether they are + originally in conjunction, whether they are originally a + multiplicity, is a point on which the facts are silent. The + savage and the new-born child give us far less occasion to admire + the range of their mind than do the nobler animals. But the + psychologists get out of this difficulty by the unwarranted + assumption that all the higher mental activities exist + potentially in children and savages—though not in the animals—as + a rudimentary predisposition or psychical endowment. Of such a + nascent intellect, a nascent reason, and nascent moral sense, + they find recognisable traces in the scanty similarities which + the behaviour of child or savage offers to those of civilised + man. We cannot fail to note that in their descriptions they have + before them a special state of man, and one which, far from + accurately defined, merely follows the general impression made + upon us by those beings we name civilised. An extremely + fluctuating character inevitably marks this total impression. For + there are no general facts:—the genuine psychological documents + lie in the momentary states of individuals: and there is an + immeasurably long way from these to the height of the universal + concept of man in general.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And yet Man in + general,—Man as man and therefore as mind—the concept of + Man—normal and ideal man—the complete and adequate Idea of man—is + the true terminus of the psychological process; and whatever be + the difficulties in the way, it is the only proper goal of the + science. Only it has to be built up, constructed, evolved, + developed,—and not assumed as a datum of popular imagination. We + want a concept, concrete and real, of Man and of Mind, which + shall give its proper place to each of the elements that, in the + several examples open to detailed observation, are presented + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagelxxxvii">[pg + lxxxvii]</span><a name="Pglxxxvii" id="Pglxxxvii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> with unfair or exaggerated prominence. The + savage and the child are not to be left out as free from + contributing to form the ideal: virtues here are not more + important than vices, and are certainly not likely to be so + informing: even the insane and the idiot show us what human + intelligence is and requires: and the animals are also within the + sweep of psychology. Man is not its theatre to the exclusion of + woman; if it records the results of introspection of the Me, it + will find vast and copious quarries in the various modes in which + an individual identifies himself with others as We. And even the + social and civilised man gets his designation, as usual, + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">a potiori</span></span>. He + is more civilised and social than others: perhaps rather more + civilised than not. But always, in some measure, he is at the + same time unsocial or anti-social, and uncivilised. Each unit in + the society of civilisation has to the outside observer—and + sometimes even to his own self-detached and impartial survey—a + certain oddity or fixity, a gleam of irrationality, which shows + him to fall short of complete sanity or limpid and mobile + intelligence. He has not wholly put off the savage,—least of all, + says the cynic, in his relations with the other sex. He carries + with him even to the grave some grains of the recklessness and + petulance of childhood. And rarely, if ever, can it be said of + him that he has completely let the ape and tiger die.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But that is + only one way of looking at the matter—and one which, perhaps, is + more becoming to the pathologist and the cynic, than to the + psychologist. Each of these stages of psychical development, even + if that development be obviously describable as degeneration, has + something which, duly adjusted, has its place and function in the + theory of the normally-complete human mind. The animal, the + savage, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagelxxxviii">[pg + lxxxviii]</span><a name="Pglxxxviii" id="Pglxxxviii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the child,—each has its part there. It is a + mutilated, one-sided and superficial advance in socialisation + which cuts off the civilised creature from the natural stem of + his ancestry, from the large freedom, the immense <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">insouciance</span></em>, the childlikeness + of his first estate. There is something, again, wanting in the + man who utterly lacks the individualising realism and tenderness + of the woman, as in the woman who can show no comprehension of + view or bravery of enterprise. Even pathological states of mind + are not mere anomalies and mere degenerations. Nature perhaps + knows no proper degenerations, but only by-ways and intricacies + in the course of development. Still less is the vast enormity or + irregularity of genius to be ignored. It is all—to the + philosophic mind—a question of degree and proportion,—though + often the proportion seems to exceed the scale of our customary + denominators. If an element is latent or quiescent (in arrest), + that is no index to its absolute amount: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“we know not what's resisted.”</span> Let us by all + means keep proudly to our happy mediocrity of faculty, and step + clear of insanity or idiotcy on one hand, and from genius or + heroism on the other. But the careful observer will + notwithstanding note how delicately graded and how intricately + combined are the steps which connect extremes so terribly + disparate. It is only vulgar ignorance which turns away in + hostility or contempt from the imbecile and the deranged, and + only a worse than vulgar sciolism which sees in genius and the + hero nothing but an aberration from its much-prized average. + Criminalistic anthropology, or the psychology of the criminal, + may have indulged in much frantic exaggeration as to the doom + which nature and heredity have pronounced over the fruit of the + womb even before it entered the shores of light: yet they have at + least <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagelxxxix">[pg + lxxxix]</span><a name="Pglxxxix" id="Pglxxxix" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> served to discredit the free and easy + assumption of the abstract averagist, and shown how little the + penalties of an unbending law meet the requirements of social + well-being.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet, if + psychology be willing to learn in all these and other provinces + of the estate of man, it must remember that, once it goes beyond + the narrow range in which the interpretations of symbol and + expression have become familiar, it is constantly liable to + blunder in the inevitable effort to translate observation into + theory. The happy mean between making too much of palpable + differences and hurrying on to a similar rendering of similar + signs is the rarest of gifts. Or, perhaps, it were truer to say + it is the latest and most hardly won of acquirements. To learn to + observe—observe with mind—is not a small thing. There are rules + for it—both rules of general scope and, above all, rules in each + special department. But like all <span class="tei tei-q">“major + premisses”</span> in practice, everything depends on the power of + judgment, the tact, the skill, the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“gift”</span> of applying them. They work not as mere + rules to be conned by rote, but as principles assimilated into + constituents of the mental life-blood: rules which serve only as + condensed reminders and hints of habits of thought and methods of + research which have grown up in action and reflection. To observe + we must comprehend: yet we can only comprehend by observing. We + all know how unintelligible—save for epochs of ampler + reciprocity, and it may be even of acquired unity of interest—the + two sexes are for each other. Parents can remember how + mysteriously minded they found their own elders; and in most + cases they have to experience the depth of the gulf which in + certain directions parts them from their children's hearts. Even + in civilised Europe, the ordinary member of each nation has an + underlying <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexc">[pg + xc]</span><a name="Pgxc" id="Pgxc" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + conviction (which at moments of passion or surprise will rise and + find harsh utterance) that the foreigner is queer, irrational, + and absurd. If the foreigner, further, be so far removed as a + Chinaman (or an Australian <span class= + "tei tei-q">“black”</span>), there is hardly anything too vile, + meaningless, or inhuman which the European will not readily + believe in the case of one who, it may be, in turn describes him + as a <span class="tei tei-q">“foreign devil.”</span> It can only + be in a fit of noble chivalry that the British rank and file can + so far temporise with its insular prejudice as to admit of + <span class="tei tei-q">“Fuzzy-wuzzy”</span> that</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">He's a poor + benighted 'eathen—but a first-class fightin' + man.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Not every one + is an observer who chooses to dub himself so, nor is it in a + short lapse of time and with condescension for foreign habits, + that any observer whatever can become a trustworthy reporter of + the ideas some barbarian tribe holds concerning the things of + earth and air, and the hidden things of spirits and gods. The + <span class="tei tei-q">“interviewer”</span> no doubt is a useful + being when it is necessary to find <span class= + "tei tei-q">“copy,”</span> or when sharp-drawn characters and + picturesque incidents are needed to stimulate an inert public, + ever open to be interested in some new thing. But he is a poor + contributor to the stored materials of science.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is of other + stuff that true science is made. And if even years of nominal + intercourse and spatial juxtaposition sometimes leave human + beings, as regards their inner selves, in the position of + strangers still, what shall be said of the attempt to discern the + psychic life of animals? Will the touch of curiosity which + prompts us to watch the proceedings of the strange + creatures,—will a course of experimentation on their behaviour + under artificial conditions,—justify us in drawing liberal + conclusions as to why they so behaved, <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="pagexci">[pg xci]</span><a name="Pgxci" id="Pgxci" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and what they thought and felt about it? It + is necessary in the first place to know what to observe, and how, + and above all what for. But that presumed, we must further live + with the animals not only as their masters and their examiners, + but as their friends and fellow-creatures; we must be able—and so + lightly that no effort is discernable—to lay aside the burden and + garb of civilisation; we must possess that stamp of sympathy and + similarity which invites confidence, and breaks down the reserve + which our poor relations, whether human or others, offer to the + first approaches of a strange superior. It is probable that in + that case we should have less occasion to wonder at their + oddities or to admire their sagacity. But a higher and more + philosophical wonder might, as in other cases when we get inside + the heart of our subject, take the place of the cheap and + childish love of marvels, or of the vulgar straining after comic + traits.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of all this + mass of materials the psychologist proper can directly make only + a sparing use. Even as illustrations, his data must not be + presented too often in all their crude and undigested + individuality, or he runs the risk of leaving one-sided + impressions. Every single instance, individualised and + historical,—unless it be exhibited by that true art of genius + which we cannot expect in the average psychologist—narrows, even + though it be but slightly, the complete and all-sided truth. + Anecdotes are good, and to the wise they convey a world of + meaning, but to lesser minds they sometimes suggest anything but + the points they should accentuate. Without the detail of + individual realistic study there is no psychology worth the name. + History, story, we must have: but at the same time, with the + philosopher, we must say, I don't give much weight to stories. + And this is what will always—except in rare instances where + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexcii">[pg xcii]</span><a name= + "Pgxcii" id="Pgxcii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> something like + genius is conjoined with it—make esoteric science hard and + unpopular. It dare not—if it is true to its idea—rest on any + amount of mere instances, as isolated, unreduced facts. Yet it + can only have real power so far as it concentrates into itself + the life-blood of many instances, and indeed extracts the pith + and unity of all instances.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nor, on the + other hand, can it turn itself too directly and intently towards + practical applications. All this theory of mental progress from + the animate soul to the fullness of religion and science deals + solely with the universal process of education: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the education of humanity”</span> we may call it: + the way in which mind is made true and real<a id="noteref_46" + name="noteref_46" href="#note_46"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">46</span></span></a>. It + is therefore a question of intricacy and of time how to carry + over this general theory into the arena of education as + artificially directed and planned. To try to do so at a single + step would be to repeat the mistake of Plato, if Plato may be + taken to suppose (which seems incredible) that a theoretical + study of the dialectics of truth and goodness would enable his + rulers, without the training of special experience, to undertake + the supreme tasks of legislation or administration. All politics, + like all education, rests on these principles of the means and + conditions of mental growth: but the schooling of concrete life, + though it may not develop the faculty of formulating general + laws, will often train better for the management of the relative + than a mere logical Scholastic in first or absolute + principles.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In conclusion, + there are one or two points which seem of cardinal importance for + the progress of psychology. (1) Its difference from the physical + sciences has to be set out: in other words, the peculiarity of + psychical fact. It will not do merely to say that experience + marks <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexciii">[pg + xciii]</span><a name="Pgxciii" id="Pgxciii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> out these boundaries with sufficient + clearness. On the contrary, the terms consciousness, feeling, + mind, &c., are evidently to many psychologists mere names. In + particular, the habits of physical research when introduced into + mental study lead to a good deal of what can only be called + mythology. (2) There should be a clearer recognition of the + problem of the relations of mental unity to mental elements. But + to get that, a more thorough logical and metaphysical preparation + is needed than is usually supposed necessary. The doctrine of + identity and necessity, of universal and individual, has to be + faced, however tedious. (3) The distinction between first-grade + and second-grade elements and factors in the mental life has to + be realised. The mere idea as presentative or immediate has to be + kept clear of the more logico-reflective, or normative ideas, + which belong to judgment and reasoning. And the number of these + grades in mental development seems endless. (4) But, also, a + separation is required—were it but temporary—between what may be + called principles, and what is detail. At present, in psychology, + <span class="tei tei-q">“principles”</span> is a word almost + without meaning. A complete all-explaining system is of course + impossible at present and may always be so. Yet if an effort of + thought could be concentrated on cardinal issues, and less + padding of conventional and traditional detail were foisted in, + much might thereby be done to make detailed research fruitful. + (5) And finally, perhaps, if psychology be a philosophical study, + some hint as to its purpose and problem would be desirable. If it + is only an abstract branch of science, of course, no such hint is + in place.</p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexciv">[pg xciv]</span><a name= + "Pgxciv" id="Pgxciv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc9" id="toc9"></a> <a name="pdf10" id="pdf10"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Essay III. On Some Psychological + Aspects Of Ethics.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Allusion has + already been made to the question of the boundaries between logic + and psychology, between logic and ethics, ethics and psychology, + and psychology and epistemology. Each of these occasionally comes + to cover ground that seems more appropriate to the others. Logic is + sometimes restricted to denote the study of the conditions of + derivative knowledge, of the canons of inference and the modes of + proof. If taken more widely as the science of thought-form, it is + supposed to imply a world of fixed or stereotyped relations between + ideas, a system of stable thoughts governed by inflexible laws in + an absolute order of immemorial or eternal truth. As against such + fixity, psychology is supposed to deal with these same ideas as + products—as growing out of a living process of thought—having a + history behind them and perhaps a prospect of further change. The + genesis so given may be either a mere chronicle-history, or it may + be a philosophical development. In the former case, it would note + the occasions of incident and circumstance, the reactions of mind + and environment, under which the ideas were formed. Such + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexcv">[pg xcv]</span><a name= + "Pgxcv" id="Pgxcv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a psychological + genesis of several ideas is found in the Second Book of Locke's + Essay. In the latter case, the account would be more concerned with + the inner movement, the action and reaction in ideas themselves, + considered not as due to casual occurrences, but as self-developing + by an organic growth. But in either case, ideas would be shown not + to be ready-made and independently existing kinds in a world of + idea-things, and not to form an unchanging diagram or framework, + but to be a growth, to have a history, and a development. + Psychology in this sense would be a dynamical, as opposed to the + supposed statical, treatment of ideas and concepts in logic. But it + may be doubted how far it is well to call this psychology: unless + psychology deals with the contents of the mental life, in their + meaning and purpose, instead of, as seems proper, merely in their + character of psychic events. Such psychology is rather an + evolutionist logic,—a dialectic process more than an analytic of a + datum.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the same way, + ethics may be brought into one kind of contact with psychology. + Ethics, like logic, may be supposed to presuppose and to deal with + a certain inflexible scheme of requirements, a world of moral order + governed by invariable or universal law; an eternal kingdom of + right, existing independently of human wills, but to be learned and + followed out in uncompromising obedience. As against this supposed + absolute order, psychology may be said to show the genesis of the + idea of obligation and duty, the growth of the authority of + conscience, the formation of ideals, the relativity of moral ideas. + Here also it may reach this conclusion, by a more external or a + more internal mode of argument. It may try to show, in other words, + that circumstances give rise to these forms of estimating conduct, + or it may argue that they are a necessary <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="pagexcvi">[pg xcvi]</span><a name="Pgxcvi" id="Pgxcvi" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> development in the human being, constituted + as he is. It may again be doubted whether this is properly called + psychology. Yet its purport seems ultimately to be that the + objective order is misconceived when it is regarded as an external + or quasi-physical order: as a law written up and sanctioned with an + external authority—as, in Kant's words, a heteronomy. If that order + is objective, it is so because it is also in a sense subjective: if + it is above the mere individuality of the individual, it is still + in a way identical with his true or universal self-hood. Thus + <span class="tei tei-q">“psychological”</span> here means the + recognition that the logical and the moral law is an autonomy: that + it is not given, but though necessary, necessary by the inward + movement of the mind. The metaphor of law is, in brief, misleading. + For, according to a common, though probably an erroneous, analysis + of that term, the essence of a law in the political sphere is to be + a species of command. And that is rather a one-sidedly practical or + aesthetic way of looking at it. The essence of law in general, and + the precondition of every law in special, is rather uniformity and + universality, self-consistency and absence of contradiction: or, in + other words, rationality. Its essential opposite—or its + contradiction in essence—is a privilege, an attempt at isolating a + case from others. It need not indeed always require bare + uniformity—require i.e. the same act to be done by different + people: but it must always require that every thing within its + operation shall be treated on principles of utter and thorough + harmony and consistency. It requires each thing to be treated on + public principles and with publicity: nothing apart and mere + singular, as a mere incident or as a world by itself. Differently + it may be treated, but always on grounds of common well-being, as + part of an embracing system.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is + probably another sense, however, in which <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="pagexcvii">[pg xcvii]</span><a name="Pgxcvii" id="Pgxcvii" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> psychology comes into close relation + with ethics. If we look on man as a microcosm, his inner system + will more or less reproduce the system of the larger world. The + older psychology used to distinguish an upper or superior order of + faculties from a lower or inferior. Thus in the intellectual + sphere, the intellect, judgment, and reason were set above the + senses, imagination, and memory. Among the active powers, + reasonable will, practical reason and conscience were ranked as + paramount over the appetites and desires and emotions. And this use + of the word <span class="tei tei-q">“faculty”</span> is as old as + Plato, who regards science as a superior faculty to opinion or + imagination. But this application—which seems a perfectly + legitimate one—does not, in the first instance, belong to + psychology at all. No doubt it is psychically presented: but it has + an other source. It springs from an appreciation, a judgment of the + comparative truth or reality of what the so-called psychical act + means or expresses. Such faculties are powers in a hierarchy of + means and ends and presuppose a normative or critical function + which has classified reality. Psychically, the elements which enter + into knowledge are not other than those which belong to opinion: + but they are nearer an adequate rendering of reality, they are + truer, or nearer the Idea. And in the main we may say, that is + truer or more real which succeeds in more completely organising and + unifying elements—which rises more and more above the selfish or + isolated part into the thorough unity of all parts.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The superior + faculty is therefore the more thorough organisation of that which + is elsewhere less harmoniously systematised. Opinion is fragmentary + and partial: it begins abruptly and casually from the unknown, and + runs off no less abruptly into the unknown. Knowledge, on the + contrary, is unified: and its unity gives it its <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagexcviii">[pg xcviii]</span><a name="Pgxcviii" + id="Pgxcviii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> strength and superiority. + The powers which thus exist are the subjective counterparts of + objectively valuable products. Thus, reason is the subjective + counterpart of a world in which all the constituents are harmonised + and fall into due relationship. It is a product or result, which is + not psychologically, but logically or morally important. It is a + faculty, because it means that actually its possessor has ordered + and systematised his life or his ideas of things. Psychologically, + it, like unreason, is a compound of elements: but in the case of + reason the composition is unendingly and infinitely consistent; it + is knowledge completely unified. The distinction then is not in the + strictest sense psychological: for it has an aesthetic or normative + character; it is logical or ethical: it denotes that the idea or + the act is an approach to truth or goodness. And so, when Butler or + Plato distinguishes reason or reflection from appetites and + affections, and even from self-love or from the heart which loves + and hates, this is not exactly a psychological division in the + narrower sense. That is to say: these are, in Plato's words, not + merely <span class="tei tei-q">“parts,”</span> but quite as much + <span class="tei tei-q">“kinds”</span> and <span class= + "tei tei-q">“forms”</span> of soul. They denote degrees in that + harmonisation of mind and soul which reproduces the permanent and + complete truth of things. For example, self-love, as Butler + describes it, has but a partial and narrowed view of the worth of + acts: it is engrossing and self-involved: it cannot take in the + full dependence of the narrower interest on the larger and eternal + self. So, in Plato, the man of heart is but a nature which by fits + and starts, or with steady but limited vision, realises the larger + life. These parts or kinds are not separate and co-existent + faculties: but grades in the co-ordination and unification of the + same one human nature.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagexcix">[pg xcix]</span><a name="Pgxcix" id="Pgxcix" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(i.) Psychology and + Epistemology.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Psychology + however in the strict sense is extremely difficult to define. + Those who describe it as the <span class="tei tei-q">“science of + mind,”</span> the <span class="tei tei-q">“phenomenology of + consciousness,”</span> seem to give it a wider scope than they + really mean. The psychologist of the straiter sect tends, on the + other hand, to carry us beyond mind and consciousness altogether. + His, it has been said, is a psychology without a Psyché. For him + Mind, Soul, and Consciousness are only current and convenient + names to designate the field, the ground on which the phenomena + he observes are supposed to transact themselves. But they must + not on any account interfere with the operations; any more than + Nature in general may interfere with strictly physical inquiries, + or Life and vital force with the theories of biology. The + so-called Mind is only to be regarded as a stage on which certain + events represent themselves. In this field, or on this stage, + there are certain relatively ultimate elements, variously called + ideas, presentations, feelings, or states of consciousness. But + these elements, though called ideas, must not be supposed more + than mechanical or dynamical elements; consciousness is rather + their product, a product which presupposes certain operations and + relations between them. If we are to be strictly scientific, we + must, it is urged, treat the factors of consciousness as not + themselves conscious: we must regard them as quasi-objective, or + in abstraction from the consciousness which surveys them. The Ego + must sink into a mere receptacle or arena of psychic event; its + independent meaning or purport is to be ignored, as beside the + question.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When this line + is once fixed upon, it seems inevitable to go farther. Comte was + inclined to treat psychology <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagec">[pg c]</span><a name="Pgc" id="Pgc" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> as falling between two stools: it must, he + thought, draw all its content either from physiology on the one + hand, or from social factors on the other. The dominant or + experimental psychology of the present day seems inclined, + without however formulating any very definite statement, to + pronounce for the former alternative. It does not indeed adopt + the materialistic view that mind is only a function of matter. + Its standpoint rather is that the psychical presents itself even + to unskilled observation as dependent on (i.e. not independent + of) or as concomitant with certain physical or corporeal facts. + It adds that the more accurately trained the observer becomes, + the more he comes to discover a corporeal aspect even where + originally he had not surmised its existence, and to conclude + that the two cycles of psychical and physical event never + interfere with each other: that soul does not intervene in bodily + process, nor body take up and carry on psychical. If it is said + that the will moves the limbs, he replies that the will which + moves is really certain formerly unnoticed movements of nerve and + muscle which are felt or interpreted as a discharge of power. If + the ocular impression is said to cause an impression on the mind, + he replies that any fact hidden under that phrase refers to a + change in the molecules of the brain. He will therefore conclude + that for the study of psychical phenomena the physical basis, as + it may be called, is all important. Only so can observation + really deal with fact capable of description and measurement. + Thus psychology, it may be said, tends to become a department of + physiology. From another standpoint, biology may be said to + receive its completion in psychology. How much either phrase + means, however, will depend on the estimate we form of biology. + If biology is only the study of mechanical and chemical phenomena + on the peculiar field known as <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pageci">[pg ci]</span><a name="Pgci" id="Pgci" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> an organism, and if that organism is only + treated as an environment which may be ignored, then psychology, + put on the same level, is not the full science of mind, any more + than the other is the full study of life. They both have narrowed + their subject to suit the abstract scheme of the laboratory, + where the victim of experiment is either altered by mutilation + and artificial restrictions, or is dead. If, on the contrary, + biology has a substantial unity of its own to which mechanical + and chemical considerations are subordinate and instrumental, + psychology may even take part with physiology without losing its + essential rank. But in that case, we must, as Spinoza said<a id= + "noteref_47" name="noteref_47" href="#note_47"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">47</span></span></a>, + think less mechanically of the animal frame, and recognise (after + the example of Schelling) something truly inward (i.e. not merely + locally inside the skin) as the supreme phase or characteristic + of life. We must, in short, recognise sensibility as the + culmination of the physiological and the beginning of the + psychological.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To the + strictly scientific psychologist, as has been noted—or to the + psychology which imitates optical and electrical science—ideas + are only psychical events: they are not ideas <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">of</span></em> + anything, relative, i.e. to something else; they have no meaning, + and no reference to a reality beyond themselves. They are + presentations;—not representations of something outside + consciousness. They are appearances: but not appearances of + something: they do not reveal anything beyond themselves. They + are, we may almost say, a unique kind of physical phenomena. If + we say they are presentations of something, we only mean that in + the presented something, in the felt something, the wished + something, we separate the quality or form or aspect of + presentativeness, of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecii">[pg + cii]</span><a name="Pgcii" id="Pgcii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + feltness, of wishedness, and consider this aspect by itself. + There are grades, relations, complications, of such presentations + or in such presentedness: and with the description and + explanation of these, psychology is concerned. They are fainter + or stronger, more or less correlated and antithetical. + Presentation (or ideation), in short, is the name of a train of + event, which has its peculiarities, its laws, its systems, its + history.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All reality, + it may be said, subsists in such presentation; it is for a + consciousness, or in a consciousness. All <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">esse</span></span>, in its widest sense, is + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">percipi</span></span>. And + yet, it seems but the commonest of experiences to say that all + that is presented is not reality. It <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">is</span></em>, + it has a sort of being,—is somehow presumed to exist: but it is + not reality. And this reference and antithesis to <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">what</span></em> + is presented is implied in all such terms as <span class= + "tei tei-q">“ideas,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“feelings,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“states of + consciousness”</span>: they are distinguished from and related to + objects of sense or external facts, to something, as it is + called, outside consciousness. Thoughts and ideas are set against + things and realities. In their primitive stage both the child and + the savage seem to recognise no such difference. What they + imagine is, as we might say, on the same plane with what they + touch and feel. They do not, as we reproachfully remark, + recognise the difference between fact and fiction. All of us + indeed are liable to lapses into the same condition. A strong + passion, a keen hope or fear, as we say, invests its objects with + reality: even a sanguine moment presents as fact what calmer + reflection disallows as fancy. With natural and sane + intelligences, however, the recrudescence of barbarous + imagination is soon dispelled, and the difference between + hallucinations and realities is established. With the utterly + wrecked in mind, the reality of hallucinations becomes a + permanent or habitual state. With the child and the untrained it + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageciii">[pg ciii]</span><a name= + "Pgciii" id="Pgciii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> is a recurrent + and a disturbing influence: and it need hardly be added that the + circle of these <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">decepti + deceptores</span></span>—people with the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“lie in the Soul”</span>—is a large one. There thus + emerges a distinction of vast importance, that of truth and + falsehood, of reality and unreality, or between representation + and reality. There arise two worlds, the world of ideas, and the + world of reality which it is supposed to represent, and, in many + cases, to represent badly.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With this + distinction we are brought across the problem sometimes called + Epistemological. Strictly speaking, it is really part of a larger + problem: the problem of what—if Greek compounds must be used—may + be styled Aletheiology—the theory of truth and reality: what + Hegel called Logic, and what many others have called Metaphysics. + As it is ordinarily taken up, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“ideas”</span> are believed to be something + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">in + us</span></em> which is representative or symbolical of something + truly real <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">outside us</span></em>. This inward + something is said to be the first and immediate object of + knowledge<a id="noteref_48" name="noteref_48" href= + "#note_48"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">48</span></span></a>, and + gives us—in a mysterious way we need not here discuss—the mediate + knowledge of the reality, which is sometimes said to cause it. + Ideas in the Mind, or in the Subject, or in us, bear witness to + something outside the mind,—trans-subjective—beyond us. The Mind, + Subject, or Ego, in this parallelism is evidently in some way + identified with our corporeal organism: perhaps even located, and + provided with a <span class="tei tei-q">“seat,”</span> in some + defined space of that <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageciv">[pg + civ]</span><a name="Pgciv" id="Pgciv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + organism. It is, however, the starting-point of the whole + distinction that ideas <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">do not</span></em>, no less than they do, + conform or correspond to this supra-conscious or extra-conscious + world of real things. Truth or falsehood arises, according to + these assumptions, according as psychical image or idea + corresponds or not to physical fact. But how, unless by some + miraculous second-sight, where the supreme consciousness, + directly contemplating by intuition the true and independent + reality, turns to compare with this immediate vision the results + of the mediate processes conducted along the organs of sense,—how + this agreement or disagreement of copy and original, of idea and + reality, can be detected, it is impossible to say.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As has been + already noted, the mischief lies in the hypostatisation of ideas + as something existing in abstraction from things—and, of things, + in abstraction from ideas. They are two abstractions, the first + by the realist, the second by the idealist called subjective and + psychological. To the realist, things exist by themselves, and + they manage to produce a copy of themselves (more or less exact, + or symbolical) in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">our</span></em> mind, i.e. in a + materialistically-spiritual or a spiritualistically-material + locus which holds <span class="tei tei-q">“images”</span> and + ideas. To the psychological idealist, ideas have a substantive + and primary right to existence, them alone do we really know, and + from them we more or less legitimately are said (but probably no + one takes this seriously) to infer or postulate a world of + permanent things. Now ideas have no substantive existence as a + sort of things, or even images of things anywhere. All this is + pure mythology. It is said by comparative mythologists that in + some cases the epithet or quality of some deity has been + substantialised (hypostatised) into a separate god, who, however + (so still to keep up the unity), is regarded <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagecv">[pg cv]</span><a name="Pgcv" id="Pgcv" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> as a relative, a son, or daughter, of + the original. So the phrase <span class="tei tei-q">“ideas of + things”</span> has been taken literally as if it was double. But + to have an idea of a thing merely means that we know it, or think + it. An idea is not given: it is a thing which is given in the + idea. An idea is not an additional and intervening object of our + knowledge or supposed knowledge. That a thing is our object of + thought is another word for its being our idea, and that means we + know it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + distinction between truth and falsehood, between reality and + appearance, is not arrived at by comparing what we have before us + in our mind with some inaccessible reality beyond. It is a + distinction that grows up with the growth and organisation of our + presentations—with their gradual systematisation and unification + in one consciousness. But this consciousness which thinks, i.e. + judges and reasons, is something superior to the contrast of + physical and psychical: superior, i.e. in so far as it includes + and surveys the antithesis, without superseding it. It is the + <span class="tei tei-q">“transcendental unity of + consciousness”</span> of Kant—his synthetic unity of + apperception. It means that all ideas ultimately derive their + reality from their coherence with each other in an all-embracing + or infinite idea. Real in a sense ideas always are, but with an + imperfect reality. Thus the education to truth is not—such a + thing would be meaningless—ended by a rough and ready + recommendation to compare our ideas with facts: it must teach the + art which discovers facts. And the teaching may have to go + through many grades or provinces: in each of which it is possible + to acquire a certain virtuosoship without being necessarily an + adept in another. It is through what is called the development of + intellect, judgment, and reasoning that the faculty of + truth-detecting or truth-selecting comes. And the common feature + of all <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecvi">[pg + cvi]</span><a name="Pgcvi" id="Pgcvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + of these is, so to say, their superiority to the psychological + mechanism, not in the sense of working without it and directly, + but of being the organising unity or unifier and controller and + judge of that mechanism. The certainty and necessity of truth and + knowledge do not come from a constraint from the external thing + which forces the inner idea into submission; they come from the + inner necessity of conformity and coherence in the organism of + experience. We in fact had better speak of ideas as experience—as + felt reality: a reality however which has its degrees and perhaps + even its provinces. All truth comes with the reasoned judgment, + i.e. the syllogism—i.e. with the institution or discovery of + relations of fact or element to fact or element, immediate or + derivative, partial and less partial, up to its ideal coherence + in one Idea. It is because this coherence is so imperfectly + established in many human beings that their knowledge is so + indistinguishable from opinion, and that they separate so loosely + truth from error. They have not worked their way into a + definitely articulated system, where there are no gaps, no abrupt + transitions: their mental order is so loosely put together that + divergences and contradictions which vex another drop off + ineffectual from them.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(ii.) Kant, Fichte, and + Hegel.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was the + idealism which Kant taught and Fichte promoted. Of the other + idealism there are no doubt abundant traces in the language of + Kant: and they were greedily fastened on by Schopenhauer. To him + the doctrine, that the world is my idea, is adequately + represented when it is translated into the phrase that + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecvii">[pg cvii]</span><a name= + "Pgcvii" id="Pgcvii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the world is a + phantasmagoria of my brain; and escape from the subjective + idealism thus initiated is found by him only through a supposed + revelation of immediate being communicated in the experience of + will. But according to the more consistently interpreted Kant, + the problem of philosophy consists in laying bare the supreme law + or conditions of consciousness on which depend the validity of + our knowledge, our estimates of conduct, and our aesthetic + standards. And these roots of reality are for Kant in the + mind—or, should we rather say—in mind—in <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Consciousness in General.”</span> In the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Criticism of Pure Reason</span></span> the + general drift of his examination is to show that the great things + or final realities which are popularly supposed to stand in + self-subsistent being, as ultimate and all-comprehensive objects + set up for knowledge, are not <span class= + "tei tei-q">“things”</span> as popularly supposed, but imperative + and inevitable ideas. They are not objects to be known—(these are + always finite): but rather the unification, the basis, or + condition, and the completion of all knowledge. To know them—in + the ordinary petty sense of knowledge—is as absurd and impossible + as it would be, in the Platonic scheme of reality, to know the + idea of good which is <span class="tei tei-q">“on the further + side of knowledge and being.”</span> God and the Soul—and the + same would be true of the World (though modern speculators + sometimes talk as if they had it at least within their grasp)—are + not mere <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">objects</span></em> of knowledge. It would + be truer to say they are that by which we know, and they are what + in us knows: they make knowledge possible, and actual. Kant has + sometimes spoken of them as the objects of a faith of reason. + What he means is that reason only issues in knowledge because of + and through this inevitable law of reason bidding us go on for + ever in our search, because there can be nothing isolated and + nowhere <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecviii">[pg + cviii]</span><a name="Pgcviii" id="Pgcviii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> any <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ne plus + ultra</span></span> in science, which is infinite and yet only + justified as it postulates or commands unity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Kant's central + idea is that truth, beauty, goodness, are not dependent on some + qualities of the object, but on the universal nature or law of + consciousness. Beauty is not an attribute of things in their + abstractness: but of things as ideas of a subject, and depends on + the proportion and symmetry in the play of human faculty. + Goodness is not conformity to an outward law, but is obligatory + on us through that higher nature which is our truer being. Truth + is not conformity of ideas with supposed trans-subjective things, + but coherence and stability in the system of ideas. The really + infinite world is not out there, but in here—in consciousness in + general, which is the denial of all limitation, of all finality, + of all isolation. God is the essential and inherent unity and + unifier of spirit and nature—the surety that the world in all its + differentiations is one. The Soul is not an essential entity, but + the infinite fruitfulness and freshness of mental life, which + forbids us stopping at anything short of complete continuity and + unity. The Kingdom of God—the Soul—the moral law—is within us: + within us, as supreme, supra-personal and infinite intelligences, + even amid all our littleness and finitude. Even happiness which + we stretch our arms after is not really beyond us, but is the + essential self which indeed we can only reach in detail. It is so + both in knowledge and in action. Each knowledge and enjoyment in + reality is limited and partial, but it is made stable, and it + gets a touch of infinitude, by the larger idea which it helps to + realise. Only indeed in that antithesis between the finite and + the infinite does the real live. Every piece of knowledge is + real, only because it assumes <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">pro tempore</span></span> certain premisses + which are given: every actual beauty is set in some defect of + aesthetic <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecix">[pg + cix]</span><a name="Pgcix" id="Pgcix" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + completeness: every actually good deed has to get its foil in + surrounding badness. The real is always partial and incomplete. + But it has the basis or condition of its reality in an idea—in a + transcendental unity of consciousness, which is so to say a law, + or a system and an order, which imposes upon it the condition of + conformity and coherence; but a conformity which is essential and + implicit in it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Fichte has + called his system a <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wissenschaftslehre</span></span>—a theory of + knowledge. Modern German used the word <span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wissenschaft</span></span>, as modern + English uses the word Science, to denote the certified knowledge + of piecemeal fact, the partial unification of elements still kept + asunder. But by <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Wissen</span></span>, as + opposed to <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Erkennen</span></span>, is + meant the I know, am aware and sure, am in contact with reality, + as opposed to the derivative and conditional reference of + something to something else which explains it. The former is a + wider term: it denotes all consciousness of objective truth, the + certainty which claims to be necessary and universal, which + pledges its whole self for its assertion. Fichte thus unifies and + accentuates the common element in the Kantian criticisms. In the + first of these Kant had begun by explaining the nature and + limitation of empirical science. It was essentially conditioned + by the given sensation—dependent i.e. on an unexplained and + preliminary element. This is what makes it science in the strict + or narrow sense of the term: its being set, as it were, in the + unknown, the felt, the sense-datum. The side of reality is thus + the side of limitation and of presupposition. But what makes it + truth and knowledge in general, on the other hand,—as distinct + from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">a</span></em> truth (i.e. partial truth) and + a knowledge,—is the ideal element—the mathematical, the logical, + the rational law,—or in one word, the universal and formal + character. So too every real action is on one hand the product of + an <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecx">[pg cx]</span><a name= + "Pgcx" id="Pgcx" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> impulse, a dark, + merely given, immediate tendency to be, and without that would be + nothing: but on the other hand it is only an intelligent and + moral action in so far as it has its constitution from an + intelligence, a formal system, which determine its place and + function.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is on the + latter or ideal element that Kant makes the emphasis increasingly + turn. Not truths, duties, beauties, but truth, duty, beauty, form + his theme. The formal element—the logical or epistemological + condition of knowledge and morality and of beauty—is what he (and + still more Fichte) considers the prime question of fundamental + philosophy. His philosophy is an attempt to get at the organism + of our fundamental belief—the construction, from the very base, + of our conception of reality, of our primary certainty. In + technical language, he describes our essential nature as a + Subject-object. It is the unity of an I am which is also I know + that I am: an I will which is also I am conscious of my + will<a id="noteref_49" name="noteref_49" href= + "#note_49"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">49</span></span></a>. + Here there is a radical disunion and a supersession of that + disunion. Action and contemplation are continually outrunning + each other. The I will rests upon one I know, and works up to + another: the I know reflects upon an I will, and includes it as + an element in its idea.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Kant had + brought into use the term Deduction, and Fichte follows him. The + term leads to some confusion: for in English, by its modern + antithesis to induction, it suggests <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">a priori</span></span> methods in all their + iniquity. It means a kind of jugglery which brings an endless + series <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecxi">[pg + cxi]</span><a name="Pgcxi" id="Pgcxi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + out of one small term. Kant has explained that he uses it in the + lawyer's sense in which a claim is justified by being traced step + by step back to some acknowledged and accepted right<a id= + "noteref_50" name="noteref_50" href="#note_50"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">50</span></span></a>. It + is a regressive method which shows us that if the original datum + is to be accepted it carries along with it the legitimation of + the consequence. This method Fichte applies to psychology. Begin, + he says like Condillac, with the barest nucleus of soul-life; the + mere sentiency, or feeling: the contact, as it were, with being, + at a single point. But such a mere point is unthinkable. You + find, as Mr. Spencer says, that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Thought”</span> (or Consciousness) <span class= + "tei tei-q">“cannot be framed out of one term only.”</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Every sensation to be known as one must + be perceived.”</span> Such is the nature of the Ego—a subject + which insists on each part being qualified by the whole and so + transformed. As Mr. Spencer, again, puts it, the mind not merely + tends to revive, to associate, to assimilate, to represent its + own presentations, but it carries on this process infinitely and + in ever higher multiples. Ideas as it were are growing in + complexity by re-presenting: i.e. by embracing and enveloping + elements which cannot be found existing in separation. In the + mind there is no mere presentation, no bare sensation. Such a + unit is a fiction or hypothesis we employ, like the atom, for + purposes of explanation. The pure sensation therefore—which you + admit because you must have something to begin with, not a mere + nothing, but something so simple that it seems to stand out clear + and indisputable—this pure sensation, when you think of it, + forces you to go a good deal further. Even to be itself, it must + be more than itself. It is like the pure or mere being of the + logicians. Admit the simple <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagecxii">[pg cxii]</span><a name="Pgcxii" id="Pgcxii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> sensation—and you have admitted everything + which is required to make sensation a possible reality. But you + do not—in the sense of vulgar logic—deduce what follows out of + the beginning. From that, taken by itself, you will get only + itself: mere being will give you only nothing, to the end of the + chapter. But, as the phrase is, sensation is an element in a + consciousness: it is, when you think of it, always more than you + called it: there is a curious <span class= + "tei tei-q">“continuity”</span> about the phenomena, which makes + real isolation impossible.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of course this + <span class="tei tei-q">“deduction”</span> is not history: it is + logic. It says, if you posit sensation, then in doing so, you + posit a good deal more. You have imagination, reason, and many + more, all involved in your original assumption. And there is a + further point to be noted. You cannot really stop even at reason, + at intelligence and will, if you take these in the full sense. + You must realise that these only exist as part and parcel of a + reasonable world. An individual intelligence presupposes a + society of intelligences. The successive steps in this argument + are presented by Fichte in the chief works of his earlier period + (1794-98). The works of that period form a kind of trilogy of + philosophy, by which the faint outlines of the absolute selfhood + is shown acquiring definite consistency in the moral organisation + of society. First comes the <span class="tei tei-q">“Foundation + for the collective philosophy.”</span> It shows how our + conception of reality and our psychical organisation are + inevitably presupposed in the barest function of intelligence, in + the abstractest forms of logical law. Begin where you like, with + the most abstract and formal point of consciousness, you are + forced, as you dwell upon it (you identifying yourself with the + thought you realise), to go step by step on till you accept as a + self-consistent and self-explanatory unity all that your + cognitive and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecxiii">[pg + cxiii]</span><a name="Pgcxiii" id="Pgcxiii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> volitional nature claims to own as its + birthright. Only in such an intelligent will is perception and + sensation possible. Next came the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Foundation of Natural Law, on the principles of the + general theory.”</span> Here the process of deduction is carried + a step further. If man is to realise himself as an intelligence + with an inherent bent to action, then he must be conceived as a + person among persons, as possessed of rights, as incapable of + acting without at the same moment claiming for his acts + recognition, generality, and logical consecution. The reference, + which in the conception of a practical intelligence was + implicit,—the reference to fellow-agents, to a world in which law + rules—is thus, by the explicit recognition of these references, + made a fact patent and positive—<span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">gesetzt</span></span>,—expressly instituted + in the way that the nature and condition of things postulates. + But this is not all: we step from the formal and absolute into + the material and relative. If man is to be a real intelligence, + he must be an intelligence served by organs. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The rational being cannot realise its efficient + individuality, unless it ascribes to itself a material + body”</span>: a body, moreover, in which Fichte believes he can + show that the details of structure and organs are equally with + the general corporeity predetermined by reason<a id="noteref_51" + name="noteref_51" href="#note_51"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">51</span></span></a>. In + the same way it is shown that the social and political + organisation is required for the realisation—the making positive + and yet coherent—of the rights of all individuals. You deduce + society by showing it is required to make a genuine individual + man. Thirdly came the <span class="tei tei-q">“System of + Ethics.”</span> Here it is further argued that, at least in a + certain respect<a id="noteref_52" name="noteref_52" href= + "#note_52"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">52</span></span></a>, in + spite of my absolute reason and my absolute freedom, I can only + be fully real as a part of Nature: <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagecxiv">[pg cxiv]</span><a name="Pgcxiv" id="Pgcxiv" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> that my reason is realised in a creature of + appetite and impulse. From first to last this deduction is one + process which may be said to have for its object to determine + <span class="tei tei-q">“the conditions of self-hood or + egoity.”</span> It is the deduction of the concrete and empirical + moral agent—the actual ego of actual life—from the abstract, + unconditioned ego, which in order to be actual must condescend to + be at once determining and determined.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In all of this + Fichte makes—especially formally—a decided advance upon Kant. In + Ethics Kant in particular, (—especially for readers who never got + beyond the beginning of his moral treatise and were overpowered + by the categorical imperative of duty) had found the moral + initiative or dynamic apparently in the other world. The voice of + duty seemed to speak from a region outside and beyond the + individual conscience. In a sense it must do so: but it comes + from a consciousness which is, and yet is more than, the + individual. It is indeed true that appearances here are + deceptive: and that the idea of autonomy, the self-legislation of + reason, is trying to become the central conception of Kant's + Ethics. Still it is Fichte's merit to have seen this clearly, to + have held it in view unfalteringly, and to have carried it out in + undeviating system or deduction. Man, intelligent, social, + ethical, is a being all of one piece and to be explained entirely + immanently, or from himself. Law and ethics are no accident + either to sense or to intelligence—nothing imposed by mere + external or supernal authority<a id="noteref_53" name= + "noteref_53" href="#note_53"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">53</span></span></a>. + Society is not a brand-new order of things supervening upon and + superseding a state of nature, where the individual was entirely + self-supporting. Morals, law, society, are all necessary steps + (necessary i.e. in logic, and hence in the long run <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagecxv">[pg cxv]</span><a name="Pgcxv" id= + "Pgcxv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> also inevitable in course of + time) to complete the full evolution or realisation of a human + being. The same conditions as make man intelligent make him + social and moral. He does not proceed so far as to become + intelligent and practical, under terms of natural and logical + development, then to fall into the hands of a foreign influence, + an accident <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">ab extra</span></span>, + which causes him to become social and moral. Rather he is + intelligent, because he is a social agent.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hence, in + Fichte, the absence of the ascetic element so often stamping its + character on ethics, and representing the moral life as the enemy + of the natural, or as mainly a struggle to subdue the sensibility + and the flesh. With Kant,—as becomes his position of mere + inquirer—the sensibility has the place of a predominant and + permanent foreground. Reason, to his way of talking, is always + something of an intruder, a stranger from a far-off world, to be + feared even when obeyed: sublime, rather than beautiful. From the + land of sense which we habitually occupy, the land of reason is a + country we can only behold from afar: or if we can be said to + have a standpoint in it, that is only a figurative way of saying + that though it is really over the border, we can act—it would + sometimes seem by a sort of make-believe—as if we were already + there. But these moments of high enthusiasm are rare; and Kant + commends sobriety and warns against high-minded <span lang="de" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schwärmerei</span></span>, or over-strained + Mysticism. For us it is reserved to struggle with a recalcitrant + selfhood, a grovelling sensibility: it were only fantastic + extravagance, fit for <span class="tei tei-q">“fair souls”</span> + who unfortunately often lapse into <span class="tei tei-q">“fair + sinners,”</span> should we fancy ourselves already anchored in + the haven of untempted rest and peace.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When we come + to Fichte, we find another spirit <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagecxvi">[pg cxvi]</span><a name="Pgcxvi" id="Pgcxvi" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> breathing. We have passed from the age of + Frederick the Great to the age of the French Revolution; and the + breeze that burst in the War of Liberation is already beginning + to freshen the air. Boldly he pronounces the primacy of that + faith of reason whereby not merely the just but all shall live. + Your will shall show you what you really are. You are essentially + a rational will, or a will-reason. Your sensuous nature, of + impulse and appetite, far from being the given and found obstacle + to the realisation of reason,—which Kant strictly interpreted + might sometimes seem to imply—(and in this point Schopenhauer + carries out the implications of Kant)—is really the condition or + mode of being which reason assumes, or rises up to, in order to + be a practical or moral being. Far from the body and the sensible + needs being a stumbling-block to hamper the free fullness of + rationality and morality, the truth rather is that it is only by + body and sense, by flesh and blood, that the full moral and + rational life can be realised<a id="noteref_54" name="noteref_54" + href="#note_54"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">54</span></span></a>. Or, + to put it otherwise, if human reason (intelligence and will) is + to be more than a mere and empty inner possibility, if man is to + be a real and concrete cognitive and volitional being, he must be + a member of an ethical and actual society, which lives by bread, + and which marries and has children.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(iii.) Psychology in + Ethics.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this way, + for Fichte, and through Fichte still more decidedly for Hegel, + both psychology and ethics <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagecxvii">[pg cxvii]</span><a name="Pgcxvii" id="Pgcxvii" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> breathe an opener and ampler air than + they often enjoy. Psychology ceases to be a mere description of + psychic events, and becomes the history of the self-organising + process of human reason. Ethics loses its cloistered, negative, + unnatural aspect, and becomes a name for some further conditions + of the same development, essentially postulated to complete or + supplement its shortcomings. Psychology—taken in this high + philosophical acceptation—thus leads on to Ethics; and Ethics is + parted by no impassable line from Psychology. That, at least, is + what must happen if they are still to retain a place in + philosophy: for, as Kant says<a id="noteref_55" name="noteref_55" + href="#note_55"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">55</span></span></a>, + <span class="tei tei-q">“under the government of reason our + cognitions cannot form a rhapsody, but must constitute a system, + in which alone can they support and further its essential + aims.”</span> As parts of such a system, they carry out their + special work in subordination to, and in the realisation of, a + single Idea—and therefore in essential interconnexion. From that + interconnecting band we may however in detail-enquiry dispense + ourselves; and then we have the empirical or inductive sciences + of psychology and ethics. But even with these, the necessity of + the situation is such that it is only a question of degree how + far we lose sight of the philosophical horizon, and entrench + ourselves in special enquiry. Something of the philosophic + largeness must always guide us; even when, to further the + interests of the whole, it is necessary for the special enquirer + to bury himself entirely in his part. So long as each part is + sincerely and thoroughly pursued, and no part is neglected, there + is an indwelling reason in the parts which will in the long run + tend to constitute the total.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A + philosophical psychology will show us how the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagecxviii">[pg cxviii]</span><a name="Pgcxviii" + id="Pgcxviii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> sane intelligence and + the rational will are, at least approximately, built up out of + elements, and through stages and processes, which modify and + complement, as they may also arrest and perplex, each other. The + unity, coherence, and completeness of the intelligent self is + not, as vulgar irreflectiveness supposes and somewhat angrily + maintains, a full-grown thing or agent, of whose actions and + modes of behaviour the psychologist has to narrate the history,—a + history which is too apt to degenerate into the anecdotal and the + merely interesting. This unity of self has to be <span class= + "tei tei-q">“deduced,”</span> as Fichte would say: it has to be + shown as the necessary result which certain elements in a certain + order will lead to<a id="noteref_56" name="noteref_56" href= + "#note_56"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">56</span></span></a>. A + normal mind, self-possessed, developed and articulated, yet + thoroughly one, a real microcosm, or true and full monad, which + under the mode of its individuality still represents the + universe: that is, what psychology has to show as the product of + factors and processes. And it is clearly something great and + good, something valuable, and already possessing, by implication + we may say, an ethical character.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In philosophy, + at least, it is difficult, or rather impossible to draw a hard + and fast line which shall demarcate ethical from non-ethical + characters,—to separate them from other intellectual and + reasonable motives. Kant, as we know, attempted to do so: but + with the result that he was forced to add a doubt whether a + purely moral act could ever be said to exist<a id="noteref_57" + name="noteref_57" href="#note_57"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">57</span></span></a>; or + rather to express the certainty that if it did it was for ever + inaccessible to observation. All such designations of + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecxix">[pg cxix]</span><a name= + "Pgcxix" id="Pgcxix" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the several + <span class="tei tei-q">“factors”</span> or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“moments”</span> in reality, as has been hinted, are + only <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">a potiori</span></span>. + But they are misused when it is supposed that they connote abrupt + and total discontinuity. And Kant, after all, only repeated in + his own terminology an old and inveterate habit of thought:—the + habit which in Stoicism seemed to see sage and foolish utterly + separated, and which in the straiter sects of Christendom fenced + off saint absolutely from sinner. It is a habit to which Hegel, + and even his immediate predecessors, are radically opposed. With + Herder, he might say, <span class="tei tei-q">“Ethics is only a + higher physics of the mind<a id="noteref_58" name="noteref_58" + href="#note_58"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">58</span></span></a>.”</span> + This—the truth in Spinozism—no doubt demands some emphasis on the + word <span class="tei tei-q">“higher”</span>: and it requires us + to read ethics (or something like it) into physics; but it is a + step on the right road,—the step which Utilitarianism and + Evolutionism had (however awkwardly) got their foot upon, and + which <span class="tei tei-q">“transcendent”</span> ethics seems + unduly afraid of committing itself to. Let us say, if we like, + that the mind is more than mere nature, and that it is no proper + object of a merely natural science. But let us remember that a + merely natural science is only a fragment of science: let us add + that the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">merely</span></em> natural is an abstraction + which in part denaturalises and mutilates the larger nature—a + nature which includes the natural mind, and cannot altogether + exclude the ethical.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What have been + called <span class="tei tei-q">“formal duties<a id="noteref_59" + name="noteref_59" href="#note_59"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">59</span></span></a>”</span> + seem to fall under this range—the province of a philosophical + psychology which unveils the conditions of personality. Under + that heading may be put self-control, consistency, resolution, + energy, forethought, prudence, and the like. The due proportion + of faculty, the correspondence of head and heart, the vivacity + and quickness of sympathy, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagecxx">[pg cxx]</span><a name="Pgcxx" id="Pgcxx" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the ease and simplicity of mental tone, the + due vigour of memory and the grace of imagination, sweetness of + temper, and the like, are parts of the same group<a id= + "noteref_60" name="noteref_60" href="#note_60"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">60</span></span></a>. + They are lovely, and of good report: they are praise and virtue. + If it be urged that they are only natural gifts and graces, that + objection cuts two ways. The objector may of course be reminded + that religion tones down the self-complacency of morality. Yet, + first, even apart from that, it may be said that of virtues, + which stand independent of natural conditions—of external supply + of means (as Aristotle would say)—nothing can be known and + nothing need be said. And secondly, none of these qualities are + mere gifts;—all require exercise, habituation, energising, to get + and keep them. How much and how little in each case is nature's + and how much ours is a problem which has some personal + interest—due perhaps to a rather selfish and envious curiosity. + But on the broad field of experience and history we may perhaps + accept the—apparently one-sided—proverb that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Each man is the architect of his own + fortune.”</span> Be this as it may, it will not do to deny the + ethical character of these <span class="tei tei-q">“formal + duties”</span> on the ground e.g. that self-control, prudence, + and even sweetness of temper may be used for evil ends,—that one + may smile and smile, and yet be a villain. That—let us reply,—on + one hand, is a fault (if fault it be) incidental to all virtues + in detail (for every single quality has its defect): nay it may + be a limitation attaching to the whole ethical sphere: and, + secondly, its inevitable limitation does not render the virtue in + any case one whit less genuine so far as it goes. And yet of such + virtues it may be said, as Hume<a id="noteref_61" name= + "noteref_61" href="#note_61"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">61</span></span></a> + would say (who calls them <span class= + "tei tei-q">“natural,”</span> as opposed to the more artificial + merits <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecxxi">[pg + cxxi]</span><a name="Pgcxxi" id="Pgcxxi" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of justice and its kin), that they please + in themselves, or in the mere contemplation, and without any + regard to their social effects. But they please as entering into + our idea of complete human nature, of mind and spirit as will and + intellect.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The moralists + of last century sometimes divided the field of ethics by + assigning to man three grades or kinds of duty: duties to + himself, duties to society, and duties to God. For the + distinction there is a good deal to be said: there are also + faults to be found with it. It may be said, amongst other things, + that to speak of duties to self is a metaphorical way of talking, + and that God lies out of the range of human duty altogether, + except in so far as religious service forms a part of social + obligation. It may be urged that man is essentially a social + being, and that it is only in his relations to other such beings + that his morality can find a sphere. The sphere of morality, + according to Dr. Bain, embraces whatever <span class= + "tei tei-q">“society has seen fit to enforce with all the rigour + of positive inflictions. Positive good deeds and self-sacrifice + ... transcend the region of morality proper and occupy a sphere + of their own<a id="noteref_62" name="noteref_62" href= + "#note_62"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">62</span></span></a>.”</span> + And there is little doubt that this restriction is in accordance + with a main current of usage. It may even be said that there are + tendencies towards a narrower usage still, which would restrict + the term to questions affecting the relations of the sexes. But, + without going so far, we may accept the standpoint which finds in + the phrase <span class="tei tei-q">“popular or social”</span> + sanction, as equivalent to the moral sanction, a description of + the average level of common opinion on the topic. The morality of + an age or country thus denotes, first, the average requirement in + act and behaviour imposed by general consent on the members of a + community, and secondly, the average performance of the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecxxii">[pg cxxii]</span><a name= + "Pgcxxii" id="Pgcxxii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> members in + response to these requirements. Generally speaking the two will + be pretty much the same. If the society is in a state of + equilibrium, there will be a palpable agreement between what all + severally expect and what all severally perform. On the other + hand, as no society is ever in complete equilibrium, this harmony + will never be perfect and may often be widely departed from. In + what is called a single community, if it reach a considerable + bulk, there are (in other words) often a number of minor + societies, more or less thwarting and modifying each other; and + different observers, who belong in the main to one or other of + these subordinate groups, may elicit from the facts before them a + somewhat different social code, and a different grade of social + observance. Still, with whatever diversity of detail, the + important feature of such social ethics is that the stress is + laid on the performance of certain acts, in accordance with the + organisation of society. So long as the required compliance is + given, public opinion is satisfied, and morality has got its + due.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But in two + directions this conception of morality needs to be supplementing. + There is, on one hand, what is called duty to God. The phrase is + not altogether appropriate: for it follows too closely the + analogy of social requirement, and treats Deity as an additional + and social authority,—a lord paramount over merely human + sovereigns. But though there may be some use in the analogy, to + press the conception is seriously to narrow the divine character + and the scope of religion. As in similar cases, we cannot change + one term without altering its correlative. And therefore to + describe our relation to God under the name of duty is to narrow + and falsify that relation. The word is no longer applicable in + this connexion without a strain, and where it exists it indicates + the survival of a conception of theocracy: <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagecxxiii">[pg cxxiii]</span><a name="Pgcxxiii" + id="Pgcxxiii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of God regarded as a + glorification of the magistrate, as king of kings and lord of + lords. It is the social world—and indeed we may say the outside + of the social world—that is the sphere of duties. Duty is still + with these reductions a great august name: but in literal + strictness it only rules over the medial sphere of life, the + sphere which lies between the individual as such and his + universal humanity<a id="noteref_63" name="noteref_63" href= + "#note_63"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">63</span></span></a>. + Beyond duty, lies the sphere of conscience and of religion. And + that is not the mere insistence by the individual to have a voice + and a vote in determining the social order. It is the sense that + the social order, however omnipotent it may seem, is limited and + finite, and that man has in him a kindred with the Eternal.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not very + satisfactory, either, as Aristotle and others have pointed out, + to speak of man's duties to himself. The phrase is analogical, + like the other. But it has the merit, like that of duty to God, + of reminding us that the ordinary latitude occupied by morality + is not all that comes under the larger scope of ethics. The + <span class="tei tei-q">“ethics of individual life”</span> is a + subject which Mr. Spencer has touched upon: and by this title, he + means that, besides his general relationship to others, a human + being has to mind his own health, food, and amusement, and has + duties as husband and parent. But, after all, these are not + matters of peculiarly individual interest. They rather refer to + points which society at certain epochs leaves to the common sense + of the agent,—apparently on an assumption that he is the person + chiefly interested. And these points—as the Greeks taught long + ago—are of fundamental importance: they are the very bases of + life. Yet the comparative neglect <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagecxxiv">[pg cxxiv]</span><a name="Pgcxxiv" id="Pgcxxiv" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in which so-called civilised + societies<a id="noteref_64" name="noteref_64" href= + "#note_64"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">64</span></span></a> hold + the precepts of wisdom in relation to bodily health and vigour, + in regard to marriage and progeny, serve to illustrate the + doctrine of the ancient Stoics that πάντα ὑπόληψις, or the modern + idealist utterance that the World is my idea. More and more as + civilisation succeeds in its disruption of man from nature, it + shows him governed not by bare facts and isolated experiences, + but by the systematic idea under which all things are subsumed. + He loses the naïveté of the natural man, which takes each fact as + it came, all alike good: he becomes sentimental, and artificial, + sees things under a conventional point of view, and would rather + die than not be in the fashion. And this tendency is apparently + irresistible. Yet the mistake lies in the one-sidedness of + sentiment and convention. Not the domination of the idea is evil; + but the domination of a partial and fragmentary idea: and this is + what constitutes the evil of artificiality. And the correction + must lie not in a return to nature, but in the reconstruction of + a wider and more comprehensive idea: an idea which shall be the + unity and system of all nature; not a fantastic idealism, but an + attempt to do justice to the more realist as well as the idealist + sides of life.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is + however another side of individualist ethics which needs even + more especial enforcement. It is the formation of</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + reason firm, the temperate will,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Endurance, + foresight, strength and skill:</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">the healthy + mind in a healthy body. Ethics is only too apt to suppose that + will and intelligence are assumptions which need no special + justification. But the truth is that they vary from individual to + individual in degree and <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagecxxv">[pg cxxv]</span><a name="Pgcxxv" id="Pgcxxv" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> structure. It is the business of ethical + psychology to give to these vague attributions the definiteness + of a normal standard: to show what proportions are required to + justify the proper title of reason and will—to show what reason + and will really are if they do what they are encouraged or + expected to do. It talks of the diseases of will and personality: + it must also set forth their educational ideal. The first problem + of Ethics, it may be said, is the question of the will and its + freedom. But to say this is of course not to say that, unless + freedom of will be understood in some special sense, ethics + becomes impossible. If the moral law is the <span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ratio cognoscendi</span></span> of freedom, + then must our conception of morality and of freedom hang + together. And it will clearly be indispensable to begin by some + attempt to discover in what sense man may be in the most general + way described as a moral agent—as an intelligent will, or (more + briefly, yet synonymously) as a will. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The soil of law and morality,”</span> says + Hegel<a id="noteref_65" name="noteref_65" href= + "#note_65"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">65</span></span></a>, + <span class="tei tei-q">“is the intelligent life: and its more + precise place and starting-point the will, which is free, in the + sense that freedom is its substance and characteristic, and the + system of law the realm of freedom realised, the world of + intelligence produced out of itself as a second nature.”</span> + Such a freedom is a freedom made and acquired, the work of the + mind's self-realisation, not to be taken as a given fact of + consciousness which must be believed<a id="noteref_66" name= + "noteref_66" href="#note_66"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">66</span></span></a>. To + have a will—in other words, to have freedom, is the + consummation—and let us add, only the formal or ideal + consummation—of a process by which man raises himself out of his + absorption in sensation and impulse, establishes within himself a + mental realm, an organism of ideas, a self-consciousness, and a + self.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecxxvi">[pg + cxxvi]</span><a name="Pgcxxvi" id="Pgcxxvi" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The vulgar + apprehension of these things seems to assume that we have by + nature, or are born with, a general faculty or set of general + faculties, which we subsequently fill up and embody by the aid of + experience. We possess—they seem to imply—so many <span class= + "tei tei-q">“forms”</span> and <span class= + "tei tei-q">“categories”</span> latent in our minds ready to hold + and contain the raw materials supplied from without. According to + this view we have all a will and an intelligence: the difference + only is that some put more into them, and some put less. But such + a separation of the general form from its contents is a piece of + pure mythology. It is perhaps true and safe to say that the human + being is of such a character that will and intelligence are in + the ordinary course inevitably produced. But the forms which grow + up are the more and more definite and systematic organisation of + a graded experience, of series of ideas, working themselves up + again and again in representative and re-representative degree, + till they constitute a mental or inner world of their own. The + will is thus the title appropriate to the final stage of a + process, by which sensation and impulse have polished and + perfected themselves by union and opposition, by differentiation + and accompanying redintegration, till they assume characters + quite unsurmised in their earliest aspects, and yet only the + consolidation or self-realisation of implications. Thus the + mental faculties are essentially acquired powers,—acquired not + from without, but by action which generates the faculties it + seems to imply. The process of mind is a process which creates + individual centres, raises them to completer independence;—which + produces an inner life more and more self-centered and also more + and more equal to the universe which it has embodied. And will + and intelligence are an important stage in that process.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Herbart (as + was briefly hinted at in the first essay) <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagecxxvii">[pg cxxvii]</span><a name="Pgcxxvii" + id="Pgcxxvii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> has analysed ethical + appreciation (which may or may not be accompanied by approbation) + into five distinct standard ideas. These are the ideas of inward + liberty, of perfection, of right, benevolence, and equity. Like + Hume, he regards the moral judgment as in its purity a kind of + aesthetic pronouncement on the agreement or proportion of certain + activities in relations to each other. Two of these standard + ideas,—that of inward liberty and of perfection—seem to belong to + the sphere at present under review. They emerge as conditions + determining the normal development of human nature to an + intelligent and matured personality. By inward freedom Herbart + means the harmony between the will and the intellect: what + Aristotle has named <span class="tei tei-q">“practical truth or + reality,”</span> and what he describes in his conception of + wisdom or moral intelligence,—the power of discerning the right + path and of pursuing it with will and temper: the unity, clear + but indissoluble, of will and discernment. By the idea of + perfection Herbart means the sense of proportion and of propriety + which is awakened by comparing a progress in development or an + increase in strength with its earlier stages of promise and + imperfection. The pleasure such perception affords works in two + ways: it is a satisfaction in achievement past, and a stimulus to + achievement yet to come.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such ideas of + inward liberty and of growth in ability or in performance govern + (at least in part) our judgment of the individual, and have an + ethical significance. Indeed, if the cardinal feature of the + ethical sentiment be the inwardness and independence of its + approbation and obligation, these ideas lie at the root of all + true morality. Inward harmony and inward progress, lucidity of + conscience and the resolution which knows no finality of effort, + are the very essence of moral life. Yet, if ethics is to include + in the first instance social relationships <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagecxxviii">[pg cxxviii]</span><a name= + "Pgcxxviii" id="Pgcxxviii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + external utilities and sanctions, these conditions of true life + must rather be described as pre-ethical. The truth seems to be + that here we get to a range of ethics which is far wider than + what is ordinarily called practice and conduct. At this stage + logic, aesthetic, and ethic, are yet one: the true, the good, and + the beautiful are still held in their fundamental unity. An + ethics of wide principle precedes its narrower social + application; and whereas in ordinary usage the social + provinciality is allowed to prevail, here the higher ethics + emerge clear and imperial above the limitations of local and + temporal duty.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And though it + is easy to step into exaggeration, it is still well to emphasise + this larger conception of ethics. The moral principle of the + <span class="tei tei-q">“maximising of life,”</span> as it has + been called<a id="noteref_67" name="noteref_67" href= + "#note_67"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">67</span></span></a>, may + be open to misconception (—so, unfortunately are all moral + principles when stated in the effrontery of isolation): but it + has its truth in the conviction that all moral evil is marked by + a tendency to lower or lessen the total vitality. So too + Friedrich Nietzsche's maxim, <span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sei vornehm</span></span><a id="noteref_68" + name="noteref_68" href="#note_68"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">68</span></span></a>, + ensue distinction, and above all things be not common or vulgar + (<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "de"><span style="font-style: italic">gemein</span></span>), will + easily lend itself to distortion. But it is good advice for all + that, even though it may be difficult to define in a general + formula wherein distinction consists, to mark the boundary + between self-respect and vanity or obstinacy, or to say wherein + lies the beauty and dignity of human nature. Kant has laid it + down as the principle of duty to ask ourselves if in our act we + are prepared to universalise the maxim implied by our conduct. + And that this—which essentially bids us look at an act in the + whole of its relations and context—is a safeguard against some + forms of moral evil, is certain. But there is an <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagecxxix">[pg cxxix]</span><a name="Pgcxxix" + id="Pgcxxix" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> opposite—or rather an + apparently opposite—principle which bids us be individual, be + true to our own selves, and never allow ourselves to be dismayed + from our own unique responsibility. Perhaps the two principles + are not so far apart as they seem. In any case true individuality + is the last word and the first word in ethics; though, it may be + added, there is a good deal to be said between the two + termini.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(iv.) An Excursus on Greek + Ethics.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is in these + regions that Greek ethics loves to linger; on the duty of the + individual to himself, to be perfectly lucid and true, and to + rise to ever higher heights of achievement. <span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ceteris paribus</span></span>, there is felt + to be something meritorious in superiority, something good:—even + were it that you are master, and another is slave. Thus naïvely + speaks Aristotle<a id="noteref_69" name="noteref_69" href= + "#note_69"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">69</span></span></a>. To + a modern, set amid so many conflicting ideals, perhaps, the + immense possibilities of yet further growth might suggest + themselves with overpowering force. To him the idea of perfection + takes the form of an idea of perfectibility: and sometimes it + smites down his conceit in what he has actually done, and + impresses a sense of humility in comparison with what yet remains + unaccomplished. An ancient Greek apparently was little haunted by + these vistas of possibilities of progress through worlds beyond + worlds. A comparatively simple environment, a fixed and definite + mental horizon, had its plain and definite standards, or at least + seemed to have such. There were fewer cases of the man, + unattached or faintly attached to any <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="pagecxxx">[pg cxxx]</span><a name="Pgcxxx" id="Pgcxxx" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> definite profession—moving about in worlds + half realised—who has grown so common in a more developed + civilisation. The ideals of the Greek were clearly descried: each + man had his definite function or work to perform: and to do it + better than the average, or than he himself habitually had done, + that was perfection, excellence, virtue. For virtue to the Greek + is essentially ability and respectability: promise of excellent + performance: capacity to do better than others. Virtue is + praiseworthy or meritorious character and quality: it is + achievement at a higher rate, as set against one's past and + against others' average.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Greek + moralists sometimes distinguish and sometimes combine moral + virtue and wisdom, ἀρετή and φρόνησις: capacity to perform, and + wisdom to guide that capacity. To the ordinary Greek perhaps the + emphasis fell on the former, on the attainment of all recognised + good quality which became a man, all that was beautiful and + honourable, all that was appropriate, glorious, and fame-giving; + and that not for any special reference to its utilitarian + qualities. Useful, of course, such qualities were: but that was + not in question at the time. In the more liberal commonwealths of + ancient Greece there was little or no anxious care to control the + education of its citizens, so as to get direct service, overt + contribution to the public good. A suspicious Spartan legislation + might claim to do that. But in the free air of Athens all that + was required was loyalty, good-will—εὔνοια—to the common weal; it + might be even a sentiment of human kindliness, of fraternity of + spirit and purpose. Everything beyond and upon that basis was + left to free development. Let each carry out to the full the + development of his powers in the line which national estimation + points out. He is—nature and history alike emphasise that fact + beyond the reach <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecxxxi">[pg + cxxxi]</span><a name="Pgcxxxi" id="Pgcxxxi" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of doubt, for all except the outlaw and the + casual stranger—a member of a community, and as such has a + governing instinct and ideal which animates him. But he is also a + self-centered individual, with special endowments of nature, in + his own person and in the material objects which are his. A + purely individualist or selfish use of them is not—to the normal + Greek—even dreamed of. He is too deeply rooted in the substance + of his community for that: or it is on the ground and in the + atmosphere of an assured community that his individuality is to + be made to flourish. Nature has secured that his individuality + shall rest securely in the presupposition of his citizenship. It + seems, therefore, as if he were left free and independent in his + personal search for perfection, for distinction. His place is + fixed for him: <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Spartam nactus es; hanc orna</span></span>: + his duty is his virtue. That duty, as Plato expresses it, is to + do his own deeds—and not meddle with others. Nature and history + have arranged that others, in other posts, shall do theirs: that + all severally shall energise their function. The very word + <span class="tei tei-q">“duty”</span> seems out of place; if, at + least, duty suggests external obligation, an order imposed and a + debt to be discharged. If there be a task-master and a creditor, + it is the inflexible order of nature and history:—or, to be more + accurate, of nature, the indwelling and permanent reality of + things. But the obligation to follow nature is scarcely felt as a + yoke of constraint. A man's virtue is to perform his work and to + perform it well: to do what he is specially capable of doing, and + therefore specially charged to do.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nowhere has + this character of Greek ethics received more classical expression + than in the Republic of Plato. In the prelude to his + subject—which is the nature of Right and Morality—Plato has + touched briefly on certain popular and inadequate views. There is + the view <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecxxxii">[pg + cxxxii]</span><a name="Pgcxxxii" id="Pgcxxxii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> that Right has its province in performance + of certain single and external acts—in business honesty and + commercial straightforwardness. There is the view that it is + rendering to each what is due to him; that it consists in the + proper reciprocity of services, in the balance of social give and + take. There is the critical or hyper-critical view which, from + seeing so much that is called justice to be in harmony with the + interest of the predominant social order, bluntly identifies mere + force or strength as the ground of right. And there are views + which regard it as due to social conventions and artifices, to + the influence of education, to political arrangements and the + operation of irrational prejudices. To all these views Plato + objects: not because they are false—for they are all in part, + often in large part, true—but because they are inadequate and do + not go to the root of the matter. The foundations of right lie, + he says, not in external act, but in the inner man: not in + convention, but in nature: not in relation to others, but in the + constitution of the soul itself. That ethical idea—the idea of + right—which seems most obviously to have its centre outside the + individual, to live and grow only in the relations between + individuals, Plato selects in order to show the independent + royalty of the single human soul. The world, as Hume afterwards, + called justice artificial: Plato will prove it natural. In a way + he joins company with those who bid us drive out the spectre of + duty, of obligation coming upon the soul from social authority, + from traditional idea, from religious sanctions. He preaches—or + he is about to preach—the autonomy of the will.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The four + cardinal virtues of Plato's list are the qualities which go to + make a healthy, normal, natural human soul, fit for all activity, + equipped with all arms for the battle of life. They tell us what + such a soul is, not <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecxxxiii">[pg + cxxxiii]</span><a name="Pgcxxxiii" id="Pgcxxxiii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> what it does. They are the qualities which + unless a soul has, and has them each perfect, yet all co-operant, + its mere outward and single acts have no virtue or merit, but are + only lucky accidents at the best. On the other hand, if a man has + these constitutive qualities, he will act in the social world, + and act well. Plato has said scornful things of mere outward and + verbal truthfulness, and has set at the very lowest pitch of + degradation the <span class="tei tei-q">“lie in the soul.”</span> + His <span class="tei tei-q">“temperance”</span> or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“self-restraint,”</span> if it be far from breathing + any suggestion of self-suppression or self-assertion, is still + farther from any suspicion of asceticism, or war against the + flesh. It is the noble harmony of the ruling and the ruled, which + makes the latter a partner of the sovereign, and takes from the + dictates of the ruler any touch of coercion. It is literally + sanity of soul, integrity and purity of spirit; it is what has + been sometimes called the beautiful soul—the indiscerptible unity + of reason and impulse. Plato's bravery, again, is fortitude and + consistency of soul, the full-blooded heart which is fixed in + reason, the zeal which is according to knowledge, unflinching + loyalty to the idea, the spirit which burns in the martyrs to + truth and humanity: yet withal with gentleness and courtesy and + noble urbanity in its immediate train. And his truthfulness is + that inner lucidity which cannot be self-deceived, the spirit + which is a safeguard against fanaticism and hypocrisy, the + sunlike warmth of intelligence without which the heart is a + darkness full of unclean things.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The full + development and crowning grace of such a manly nature Aristotle + has tried to present in the character of the Great-souled man—him + whom Plato has called the true king by divine right, or the + autocrat by the patent of nature. Like all such attempts to + delineate a type in the terms necessarily single and <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagecxxxiv">[pg cxxxiv]</span><a name="Pgcxxxiv" + id="Pgcxxxiv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> successive of abstract + analysis, it tends occasionally to run into caricature, and to + give partial aspects an absurd prominency. Only the greatest of + artists could cope with such a task, though that artist may be + found perhaps classed among the historians. Yet it is possible to + form some conception of the ideal which Aristotle would set + before us. The Great-souled man <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">is</span></em> + great, and he dare not deny the witness of his spirit. He is one + who does not quail before the anger and seek the applause of + popular opinion: he holds his head as his own, and as high as his + undimmed self-consciousness shows it is worth. There has been + said to him by the reason within him the word that Virgil + erewhile addressed to Dante:</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Libero, dritto, e sano è il tuo + arbitrio</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">E fallo fora non fare a suo + cenno;</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Per ch' io + te sopra te corono e mitrio.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He is his own + Emperor and his own Pope. He is the perfected man, in whom is no + darkness, whose soul is utter clearness, and complete harmony. + Calm in self-possessed majesty, he stands, if need be, + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">contra mundum</span></span>: but rather, + with the world beneath his feet. The chatter of personality has + no interest for him. Bent upon the best, lesser competitions for + distinction have no attraction for him. To the vulgar he will + seem cold, self-confined: in his apartness and distinction they + will see the signs of a <span class="tei tei-q">“prig.”</span> + His look will be that of one who pities men—rather than loves + them: and should he speak ill of a foe, it is rather out of pride + of heart and unbroken spirit than because these things touch him. + Such an one, in many ways, was the Florentine poet himself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the Greek + world in general thus conceived ἀρετή as the full bloom of manly + excellence (we all know how slightly—witness the remarks in the + Periclean oration—Greeks, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagecxxxv">[pg cxxxv]</span><a name="Pgcxxxv" id="Pgcxxxv" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in their public and official + utterances, rated womanliness), the philosophers had a further + point to emphasise. That was what they variously called + knowledge, prudence, reason, insight, intelligence, wisdom, + truth. From Socrates to Aristotle, from Aristotle to the Stoics + and Epicureans, and from the Stoics to the Neo-Platonists, this + is the common theme: the supremacy of knowledge, its central and + essential relation to virtue. They may differ—perhaps not so + widely as current prejudice would suppose—as to how this + knowledge is to be defined, what kind of knowledge it is, how + acquired and maintained, and so on. But in essentials they are at + one. None of them, of course, mean that in order to right conduct + nothing more is needed than to learn and remember what is right, + the precepts and commandments of ordinary morality. Memory is not + knowledge, especially when it is out of mind. Even an ancient + philosopher was not wholly devoid of common sense. They held—what + they supposed was a fact of observation and reflection—that all + action was prompted by feelings of the values of things, by a + desire of something good or pleasing to self, and aimed at + self-satisfaction and self-realisation, but that there was great + mistake in what thus afforded satisfaction. People chose to act + wrongly or erroneously, because they were, first, mistaken about + themselves and what they wanted, and, secondly, mistaken in the + means which would give them satisfaction. But this second point + was secondary. The main thing was to know yourself, what you + really were; in Plato's words, to <span class="tei tei-q">“see + the soul as it is, and know whether it have one form only or + many, or what its nature is; to look upon it with the eye of + reason in its original purity.”</span> Self-deception, confusion, + that worst ignorance which is unaware of itself, false + estimation—these are the radical <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagecxxxvi">[pg cxxxvi]</span><a name="Pgcxxxvi" id="Pgcxxxvi" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> evils of the natural man. To these + critics the testimony of consciousness was worthless, unless + corroborated. To cure this mental confusion, this blindness of + will and judgment, is the task set for philosophy: to give inward + light, to teach true self-measurement. In one passage, much + misunderstood, Plato has called this philosophic art the due + measurement of pleasures and pains. It should scarcely have been + possible to mistake the meaning. But, with the catchwords of + Utilitarianism ringing in their ears, the commentators ran + straight contrary to the true teaching of the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Protagoras</span></span>, consentient as it + is with that of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Phaedo</span></span> and the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Philebus</span></span>. To measure, one must + have a standard: and if Plato has one lesson always for us, it is + that a sure standard the multitude have not, but only confusion. + The so-called pleasures and pains of the world's experiences are + so entitled for different reasons, for contrary aims, and with no + unity or harmony of judgment. They are—not a fact to be accepted, + but—a problem for investigation: their reality is in question, + their genuineness, solidity and purity: and till you have settled + that, you cannot measure, for you may be measuring vacuity under + the idea that there is substance. You have still to get at the + unit—i.e. the reality of pleasure. It was not Plato's view that + pleasure was a separate and independent entity: that it was + exactly as it was felt. Each pleasure is dependent for its + pleasurable quality on the consciousness it belongs to, and has + only a relative truth and reality. Bentham has written about + computing the value of a <span class="tei tei-q">“lot”</span> of + pleasures and pains. But Plato had his mind on an earlier and + more fundamental problem, what is the truth and reality of + pleasure; and his fullest but not his only essay towards + determining the value or estimating the meaning of pleasure in + the scale of being is that given in the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Philebus</span></span>.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagecxxxvii">[pg cxxxvii]</span><a name= + "Pgcxxxvii" id="Pgcxxxvii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This then is + the knowledge which Greek philosophy meant: not mere + intellect—though, of course, there is always a danger of + theoretical inquiry degenerating into abstract and formal dogma. + But of the meaning there can be no serious doubt. It is a + knowledge, says Plato, to which the method of mathematical + science—the most perfect he can find acknowledged—is only an + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ouverture</span></span>, or perhaps, only + the preliminary tuning of the strings. It is a knowledge not + eternally hypothetical—a system of sequences which have no sure + foundation. It is a knowledge which rests upon the conviction and + belief of the <span class="tei tei-q">“idea of good”</span>: a + kind of knowledge which does not come by direct teaching, which + is not mere theory, but implies a lively conviction, a personal + apprehension, a crisis which is a kind of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“conversion,”</span> or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“inspiration.”</span> It is as it were the prize of a + great contest, in which the sword that conquers is the sword of + dialectic: a sword whereof the property is, like that of + Ithuriel's spear, to lay bare all deceptions and illusions of + life. Or, to vary the metaphor: the son of man is like the prince + in the fairy tale who goes forth to win the true queen; but there + are many false pretenders decked out to deceive his unwary eyes + and foolish heart. Yet in himself there is a power of + discernment: there is something kindred with the truth:—the + witness of the Spirit—and all that education and discipline can + do is to remove obstacles, especially the obstacles within the + self which perturb the sight and mislead the judgment. Were not + the soul originally possessed of and dominated by the idea of + good, it could never discern it elsewhere. On this original + kindred depends all the process of education; the influence of + which therefore is primarily negative or auxiliary. Thus the + process of history and experience,—which the work of education + only reproduces in an accelerated <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tempo</span></span>—serves but to bring out + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecxxxviii">[pg + cxxxviii]</span><a name="Pgcxxxviii" id="Pgcxxxviii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the implicit reason within into explicit + conformity with the rationality of the world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Knowledge, + then, in this ethical sphere means the harmony of will, emotion, + intellect: it means the clear light which has no illusions and no + deceptions. And to those who feel that much of their life and of + the common life is founded on prejudice and illusion, such white + light will occasionally seem hard and steely. At its approach + they fear the loss of the charm of that twilight hour ere the day + has yet begun, or before the darkness has fully settled down. + Thus the heart and feelings look upon the intellect as an enemy + of sentiment. And Plato himself is not without anticipations of + such an issue. Yet perhaps we may add that the danger is in part + an imaginary one, and only arises because intelligence takes its + task too lightly, and encroaches beyond its proper ground. + Philosophy, in other words, mistakes its place when it sets + itself up as a dogmatic system of life. Its function is to + comprehend, and from comprehension to criticise, and through + criticising to unify. It has no positive and additional teaching + of its own: no addition to the burden of life and experience. And + experience it must respect. Its work is to maintain the organic + or super-organic interconnexion between all the spheres of life + and all the forms of reality. It has to prevent stagnation and + absorption of departments—to keep each in its proper place, but + not more than its place, and yet to show how each is not + independent of the others. And this is what the philosopher or + ancient sage would be. If he is passionless, it is not that he + has no passions, but that they no longer perturb and mislead. If + his controlling spirit be reason, it is not the reason of the + so-called <span class="tei tei-q">“rationalist,”</span> but the + reason which seeks in patience to comprehend, and to be at home + in, a world it at first finds strange. And if <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagecxxxix">[pg cxxxix]</span><a name="Pgcxxxix" + id="Pgcxxxix" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> he is critical of + others, he is still more critical of himself: critical however + not for criticism's sake (which is but a poor thing), but because + through criticism the faith of reason may be more fully + justified. To the last, if he is true to his mission and faithful + to his loyalty to reality, he will have the simplicity of the + child.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Whether + therefore we agree or not with Plato's reduction of Right and + Duty to self-actualisation, we may at least admit that in the + idea of perfection or excellence, combined with the idea of + knowledge or inward lucidity, he has got the fundamental ideas on + which further ethical development must build. Self-control, + self-knowledge, internal harmony, are good: and so are the + development of our several faculties and of the totality of them + to the fullest pitch of excellence. But their value does not lie + entirely in themselves, or rather there is implicit in them a + reference to something beyond themselves. They take for granted + something which, because it is so taken, may also be ignored and + neglected, just because it seems so obvious. And that implication + is the social humanity in which they are the spirits of light and + leading.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To lay the + stress on ἀρετή or excellence tends to leave out of sight the + force of duty; and to emphasise knowledge is allowed to disparage + the heart and feelings. The mind—even of a philosopher—finds a + difficulty in holding very different points of view in one, and + where it is forced from one to another, tends to forget the + earlier altogether. Thus when the ethical philosopher, + presupposing as an absolute or unquestionable fact that man the + individual was rooted in the community, proceeded to discuss the + problem of the best and completest individual estate, he was + easily led to lose sight of the fundamental and governing + condition altogether. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecxl">[pg + cxl]</span><a name="Pgcxl" id="Pgcxl" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + From the moment that Aristotle lays down the thesis that man is + naturally social, to the moment when he asks how the bare ideal + of excellence in character and life can become an actuality, the + community in which man lives has retired out of sight away into + the background. And it only comes in, as it first appears, as the + paedagogue to bring us to morality. And Plato, though professedly + he is speaking of the community, and is well aware that the + individual can only be saved by the salvation of the community, + is constantly falling back into another problem—the development + of an individual soul. He feels the strength of the egoistic + effort after perfection, and his essay in the end tends to lose + sight altogether of its second theme. Instead of a man he gives + us a mere philosopher, a man, that is, not living with his + country's life, instinct with the heart and feeling of humanity, + inspired by art and religion, but a being set apart and exalted + above his fellows,—charged no doubt in theory with the duty of + saving them, of acting vicariously as the mediator between them + and the absolute truth—but really tending more and more to + seclude himself on the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">edita templa</span></span> of the world, on + the high-towers of speculation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And what Plato + and Aristotle did, so to speak, against their express purpose and + effort, yet did, because the force of contemporary tendency was + irresistible—that the Stoa and Epicurus did more openly and + professedly. With a difference in theory, it is true, owing to + the difference in the surroundings. Virtue in the older day of + the free and glorious commonwealth had meant physical and + intellectual achievement, acts done in the public eye, and of + course for the public good—a good with which the agent was + identified at least in heart and soul, if not in his explicit + consciousness. In later and worse days, when the political + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecxli">[pg cxli]</span><a name= + "Pgcxli" id="Pgcxli" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> world, with the + world divine, had withdrawn from actual identity with the central + heart of the individual, and stood over-against him as a strange + power and little better than a nuisance, virtue came to be + counted as endurance, indifference, negative independence against + a cold and a perplexing world. But even still, virtue is + excellence: it is to rise above the ignoble level: to assert + self-liberty against accident and circumstance—to attain + self-controlled, self-satisfying independence—and to become + God-like in its seclusion. Yet in two directions even it had to + acknowledge something beyond the individual. The + Epicurean—following out a suggestion of Aristotle—recognised the + help which the free society of friends gave to the full + development of the single seeker after a self-satisfying and + complete life. The Stoic, not altogether refusing such help, + tended rather to rest his single self on a fellowship of ideal + sort, on the great city of gods and men, the <span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">civitas Dei</span></span>. Thus, in separate + halves, the two schools, into which Greek ethics was divided, + gave expression to the sense that a new and higher community was + needed—to the sense that the visible actual community no longer + realised its latent idea. The Stoic emphasised the all-embracing + necessity, the absolute comprehensiveness of the moral kingdom. + The Epicurean saw more clearly that, if the everlasting city came + from heaven, it could only visibly arise by initiation upon the + earth. Christianity—in its best work—was a conjunction of the + liberty with the necessity, of the human with the divine.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">More + interesting, perhaps, it is to note the misconception of reason + and knowledge which grew up. Knowledge came more and more to be + identified with the reflective and critical consciousness, which + is outside reality and life, and judges it from a standpoint of + its own. It came to be esteemed only in its formal and + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecxlii">[pg cxlii]</span><a name= + "Pgcxlii" id="Pgcxlii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> abstract + shape, and at the expense of the heart and feelings. The + antithesis of philosophy (or knowledge strictly so called) + according to Plato was mere opinion, accidental and imperfect + knowledge. The knowledge which is truly valuable is a knowledge + which presupposes the full reality of life, and is the more and + more completely articulated theory of it as a whole. It + is—abstractly taken—a mere form of unity which has no value + except in uniting: it is—taken concretely—the matter, we may say, + in complete unity. It is ideal and perfect harmony of thought, + appetite, and emotion: or putting it otherwise, the philosopher + is one who is not merely a creature of appetite and production, + not merely a creature of feeling and practical energy, but a + creature, who to both of these superadds an intelligence which + sets eyes in the blind forehead of these other powers, and thus, + far from superseding them altogether, only raises them into + completeness, and realises all that is worthy in their implicit + natures. Always these two impulsive tendencies of our nature are + guided by some sort of ideas and intelligence, by beliefs and + opinions. But they, like their guides, are sporadically emergent, + unconnected, and therefore apt to be contradictory. It is to such + erratic and occasional ideas, half-truths and deceptions, that + philosophy is opposed. Unfortunately for all parties, the + antithesis is carried farther. Philosophy and the philosopher are + further set in opposition to the faith of the heart, the intimacy + and intensity of feeling, the depth of love and trust, which in + practice often go along with imperfect ideas. The philosopher is + made one who has emancipated himself from the heart and + feelings,—a pure intelligence, who is set above all creeds, + contemplating all, and holding none. Consistency and clearness + become his idol, to be worshipped at any cost, save one + sacrifice: and that one sacrifice is <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagecxliii">[pg cxliii]</span><a name="Pgcxliii" id="Pgcxliii" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the sacrifice of his own + self-conceit. For consistency generally means that all is made to + harmonise with one assumed standpoint, and that whatever presents + discrepancies with this alleged standard is ruthlessly thrown + away. Such a philosophy mistakes its function, which is not, as + Heine scoffs, to make an intelligible system by rejecting the + discordant fragments of life, but to follow reverently, if + slowly, in the wake of experience. Such a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“perfect sage,”</span> with his parade of + reasonableness, may often assume the post of a dictator.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And, above + all, intelligence is only half itself when it is not also will. + And both are more than mere consciousness. Plato—whom we refer + to, because he is the coryphaeus of all the diverse host of Greek + philosophy—seems to overestimate or rather to misconceive the + place of knowledge. That it is the supreme and crowning grace of + the soul, he sees. But he tends to identify it with the supreme + or higher soul:—as Aristotle did after him, to be followed by the + Stoics and Neo-Platonists. For them the supreme, or almost + supreme reality is the intelligence or reason: the soul is only + on a second grade of reality, on the borders of the natural or + physical world. When Plato takes that line, he turns towards the + path of asceticism, and treats the philosophic life as a + preparation for that truer life when intelligence shall be all in + all, for that better land where <span class="tei tei-q">“divine + dialogues”</span> shall form the staple and substance of + spiritual existence. Aristotle,—who less often treads these + solitudes,—still extols the theoretic life, when the body and its + needs trouble no more, when the activity of reason—the theory of + theory—is attained at least as entirely as mortal conditions + allow man to be deified. Of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“apathy”</span> and the reasonable conformity of the + Stoics, or of the purely negative character of Epicurean + happiness (the excision of all that pained) <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagecxliv">[pg cxliv]</span><a name="Pgcxliv" + id="Pgcxliv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> we need not here speak. + And in Plotinus and Proclus the deification of mere reason is at + any rate the dominant note; whatever protests the larger Greek + nature in the former may from time to time offer. The truth which + philosophy should have taught was that Mind or intelligence was + the element where the inner life culminated and expanded and + flourished: the error which it often tended to spread was that + intelligence was the higher life of which all other was a + degenerate shortcoming, and something valuable on its own + account.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It may be that + thus to interpret Plato is to do him an injustice. It has been + sometimes said that his division of parts or kinds of soul—or his + distinction between its fighting horses—tends to destroy the + unity of mental life. But perhaps this was exactly what he wanted + to convey. There are—we may paraphrase his meaning—three kinds of + human being, three types of human life. There is the man or the + life of appetite and the flesh: there is the man of noble emotion + and energetic depth of soul: there is the life of reasonable + pursuits and organised principle. Or, we may take his meaning to + be that there are three elements or provinces of mental life, + which in all except a few are but imperfectly coherent and do not + reach a true or complete unity. Some unity there always is: but + in the life of mere appetite and impulse, even when these + impulses are our nobler sentiments of love and hatred, the unity + falls very far short. Or, as he puts the theme elsewhere, the + soul has a passion for self-completion, a love of beauty, which + in most is but a misleading lust. It is the business of the + philosophic life to re-create or to foster this unity: or + philosophy is the persistent search of the soul for its lost + unity, the search to see that unity which is always its animating + principle, its inner faith. <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagecxlv">[pg cxlv]</span><a name="Pgcxlv" id="Pgcxlv" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> When the soul has reached this ideal—if it + can be supposed to attain it (and of this the strong-souled + ancient philosophers feel no doubt),—then a change must take + place. The love of beauty is not suppressed; it is only made + self-assured and its object freed from all imperfection. It is + not that passion has ceased; but its nature is so transfigured, + that it seems worthy of a nobler name, which yet we cannot give. + To such a life, where battle and conflict are as such unknown, we + cannot longer give the title of life: and we say that philosophy + is in life a rehearsal of death<a id="noteref_70" name= + "noteref_70" href="#note_70"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">70</span></span></a>. And + yet if there be no battle, there is not for that reason mere + inaction. Hence, as the Republic concludes, the true philosopher + is the complete man. He is the truth and reality which the + appetitive and emotional man were seeking after and failed to + realise. It is true they at first will not see this. But the + whole long process of philosophy is the means to induce this + conviction. And for Plato it remains clear that through + experience, through wisdom, and through abstract deduction, the + philosopher will justify his claim to him who hath ears to hear + and heart to understand. If that be so, the asceticism of Plato + is not a mere war upon flesh and sense as such, but upon flesh + and sense as imperfect truth, fragmentary reality, which suppose + themselves complete, though they are again and again confuted by + experience, by wisdom, and by mere calculation,—a war against + their blindness and shortsightedness.</p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecxlvi">[pg + cxlvi]</span><a name="Pgcxlvi" id="Pgcxlvi" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc11" id="toc11"></a> <a name="pdf12" id="pdf12"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Essay IV. Psycho-Genesis.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The key,”</span> says Carus, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“for the ascertainment of the nature of the conscious + psychical life lies in the region of the unconscious<a id= + "noteref_71" name="noteref_71" href="#note_71"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">71</span></span></a>.”</span> + The view which these words take is at least as old as the days of + Leibniz. It means that the mental world does not abruptly emerge a + full-grown intelligence, but has a genesis, and follows a law of + development: that its life may be described as the differentiation + (with integration) of a simple or indifferentiated mass. The terms + conscious and unconscious, indeed, with their lax popular uses, + leave the door wide open for misconception. But they may serve to + mark that the mind is to be understood only in a certain relation + (partly of antithesis) to nature, and the soul only in reference to + the body. The so-called <span class="tei tei-q">“superior + faculties”</span>—specially characteristic of humanity—are founded + upon, and do not abruptly supersede, the lower powers which are + supposed to be specially obvious in the animals<a id="noteref_72" + name="noteref_72" href="#note_72"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">72</span></span></a>. The + individual and specific phenomena of consciousness, which the + psychologist is generally supposed to study, rest upon a deeper, + less explicated, more indefinite, life of sensibility, which in its + turn fades away by immeasurable gradations into something + irresponsive to the ordinary tests for sensation and + life.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecxlvii">[pg + cxlvii]</span><a name="Pgcxlvii" id="Pgcxlvii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And yet the + moment we attempt to leave the daylight of consciousness for the + darker sides of sub-conscious life, the risks of misinterpretation + multiply. The problem is to some extent the same as confronts the + student of the ideas and principles of primitive races. There, the + temptation of seeing things through the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“spectacles of civilisation”</span> is almost + irresistible. So in psychology we are apt to import into the life + of sensation and feeling the distinctions and relations of + subsequent intellection. Nor is the difficulty lessened by Hegel's + method which deals with soul, sentiency, and consciousness as + grades or general characteristics in a developmental advance. He + borrows his illustrations from many quarters, from morbid and + anomalous states of consciousness,—less from the cases of savages, + children and animals. These illustrations may be called a loose + induction. But it requires a much more powerful instrument than + mere induction to build up a scientific system; a framework of + general principle or theory is the only basis on which to build + theory by the allegation of facts, however numerous. Yet in + philosophic science, which is systematised knowledge, all facts + strictly so described will find their place and be estimated at + their proper value.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(i.) Primitive + Sensibility.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Psychology + (with Hegel) takes up the work of science from biology. The mind + comes before it as the supreme product of the natural world, the + finest flower of organic life, the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“truth”</span> of the physical process. As such it is + called by the time-honoured name of Soul. If we further go on to + say that the soul is the principle of life, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagecxlviii">[pg cxlviii]</span><a name= + "Pgcxlviii" id="Pgcxlviii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> we must + not understand this vital principle to be something over and + above the life of which it is the principle. Such a + locally-separable principle is an addition which is due to the + analogy of mechanical movement, where a detached agent sets in + motion and directs the machinery. But in the organism the + principle is not thus detachable as a thing or agent. By calling + Soul the principle of life we rather mean that in the vital + organism, so far as it <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">lives</span></em>, all the real variety, + separation, and discontinuity of parts must be reduced to unity + and identity, or as Hegel would say, to <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ideality</span></em>. To live is thus to + keep all differences fluid and permeable in the fire of the + life-process. Or to use a familiar term of logic, the Soul is the + concept or intelligible unity of the organic body. But to call it + a concept might suggest that it is only the conception through + which <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">we</span></em> represent to ourselves the + variety in unity of the organism. The soul, however, is more than + a mere concept: and life is more than a mere mode of description + for a group of movements forming an objective unity. It is a + unity, subjective and objective. The organism is one life, + controlling difference: and it is also one by our effort to + comprehend it. The Soul therefore is in Hegelian language + described as the Idea rather than the concept of the organic + body. Life is the generic title for this subject-object: but the + life may be merely physical, or it may be intellectual and + practical, or it may be absolute, i.e. will and know all that it + is, and be all that it knows and wills.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Up to this + point the world is what is called an external, which is here + taken to mean (not a world external to the individual, but) a + self-externalised world. That is to say, it is the observer who + has hitherto by his interpretation of his perceptions supplied + the <span class="tei tei-q">“Spirit in Nature.”</span> In itself + the external world has no inside, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagecxlix">[pg cxlix]</span><a name="Pgcxlix" id="Pgcxlix" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> no centre: it is we who read into it + the conception of a life-history. We are led to believe that a + principle of unity is always at work throughout the physical + world—even in the mathematical laws of natural operation. It is + only intelligible and credible to us as a system, a continuous + and regular development. But that system is only a hypothetical + idea, though it is held to be a conclusion to which all the + evidence seems unequivocally to point. And, even in organic life, + the unity, though more perfect and palpable than in the + mechanical and inorganic world, is only a perception, a vision,—a + necessary mode of realising the unity of the facts. The + phenomenon of life reveals as in a picture and an ocular + demonstration the conformity of inward and outward, the identity + of whole and parts, of power and utterance. But it is still + outside the observer. In the function of sensibility and + sentiency, however, we stand as it were on the border-line + between biology and psychology. At one step we have been brought + within the harmony, and are no longer mere observers and + reflecters. The sentient not merely is, but is aware that it is. + Hitherto as life, it only is the unity in diversity, and + diversity in unity, for the outsider, i.e. only implicitly: now + it is so for itself, or consciously. And in the first stage it + does not know, but feels or is sentient. Here, for the first + time, is created the distinction of inward and outward. Loosely + indeed we may, like Mr. Spencer, speak of outward and inward in + physiology: but strictly speaking, what Goethe says is true, + <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Natur hat weder Kern noch + Schaale</span></span><a id="noteref_73" name="noteref_73" href= + "#note_73"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">73</span></span></a>. + Nature in the narrower sense knows no distinction of the inward + and outward in its phenomena: it is a purely superficial order + and succession of appearance and event. The Idea which has been + visible to an intelligent <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagecl">[pg cl]</span><a name="Pgcl" id="Pgcl" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> percipient in the types and laws of the + natural world, now <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">is</span></em>, actually is—is in and for + itself—but at first in a minimum of content, a mere point of + light, or rather the dawn which has yet to expand into the full + day.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Spinoza has + asserted that <span class="tei tei-q">“all individual bodies are + animate, though in different degrees<a id="noteref_74" name= + "noteref_74" href="#note_74"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">74</span></span></a>.”</span> + Now it is to a great extent this diversity of degree on which the + main interest turns. Yet it is well to remember that the abrupt + and trenchant separations which popular practice loves are + overridden to a deeper view by an essential unity of idea, + reducing them to indifference. If, that is, we take seriously the + Spinozist unity of Substance, and the continual correlation (to + call it no more) of extension and consciousness therein, we + cannot avoid the conclusion which even Bacon would admit of + something describable as attraction and perception, something + subduing diversity to unity. But whether it be well to name this + soul or life is a different matter. It may indeed only be taken + to mean that all true being must be looked on as a real unity and + individuality, must, that is, be conceived as manifesting itself + in organisation, must be referred to a self-centred and + self-developing activity. But this—which is the fundamental + thesis of idealism—is hardly all that is meant. Rather Spinoza + would imply that all things which form a real unity must have + life—must have inner principle and unifying reality: and what he + teaches is closely akin to the Leibnitian doctrine that every + substantial existence reposes upon a monad, a unity which is at + once both a force and a cognition, a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“representation”</span> and an appetite or + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">nisus</span></span> to act. + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecli">[pg cli]</span><a name= + "Pgcli" id="Pgcli" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> When Fechner in a + series of works<a id="noteref_75" name="noteref_75" href= + "#note_75"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">75</span></span></a> + expounds and defends the hypothesis that plants and planets are + not destitute of soul, any more than man and animals, he only + gives a more pronounced expression to this idealisation or + spiritualisation of the natural world. But for the moment the + point to be noted is that all of this idealistic doctrine is an + inference, or a development which finds its <span lang="fr" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">point d'appui</span></span> in the fact of + sensation. And the problem of the Philosophy of Mind is just to + trace the process whereby a mere shock of sensation has grown + into a conception and a faith in the goodness, beauty and + intelligence of the world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Schopenhauer + has put the point with his usual picturesqueness. Outward nature + presents nothing but a play of forces. At first, however, this + force shows merely the mechanical phenomena of pressure and + impact, and its theory is sufficiently described by mathematical + physics. But in the process of nature force assumes higher types, + types where it loses a certain amount of its externality<a id= + "noteref_76" name="noteref_76" href="#note_76"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">76</span></span></a>, + till in the organic world it acquires a peculiar phase which + Schopenhauer calls <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Will</span></em>, meaning by that, however, + an organising and controlling power, a tendency or <span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">nisus</span></span> to be and live, which is + persistent and potent, but without consciousness. This blind + force, which however has a certain coherence and purposiveness, + is in the animal organism endowed with a new character, in + consequence of the emergence of a new organ. This organ, the + brain and nervous system, causes the evolution into clear day of + an element which has been growing more and more urgent. The + gathering tendency of force to return into itself is now + complete: the cycle of operation is <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pageclii">[pg clii]</span><a name="Pgclii" id="Pgclii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> formed: and the junction of the two + currents issues in the spark of sensation. The blind force now + becomes seeing.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But at + first—and this is the point we have to emphasise—its powers of + vision are limited. Sensibility is either a local and restricted + phenomenon: or, in so far as it is not local, it is vague and + indefinite, and hardly entitled to the name of sensibility. + Either it is a dim, but far-reaching, sympathy with environing + existence, and in that case only so-called blind will or feeling: + or if it is clear, is locally confined, and at first within very + narrow limits. Neither of these points must be lost sight of. On + the one hand feeling has to be regarded as the dull and confused + stirring of an almost infinite sympathy with the world—a pulse + which has come from the far-distant movements of the universe, + and bears with it, if but as a possibility, the wealth of an + infinite message. On the other hand, feeling at first only + becomes real, in this boundless ideality to which its + possibilities extend, by restricting itself to one little point + and from several points organising itself to a unity of bodily + feeling, till it can go on from thence to embrace the universe in + distinct and articulate comprehension.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Soul, says + Hegel, is not a separate and additional something over and above + the rest of nature: it is rather nature's <span class= + "tei tei-q">“'universal immaterialism, and simple ideal + life<a id="noteref_77" name="noteref_77" href= + "#note_77"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">77</span></span></a>.”</span> + There were ancient philosophers who spoke of the soul as a + self-adjusting number,—as a harmony, or equilibrium<a id= + "noteref_78" name="noteref_78" href="#note_78"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">78</span></span></a>—and + the moderns have added considerably to the list of these + analogical definitions. As definitions they obviously fall short. + Yet these things give, as it were, by anticipation, an image of + soul, as the <span class="tei tei-q">“ideality,”</span> which + reduces the manifold to <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagecliii">[pg cliii]</span><a name="Pgcliii" id="Pgcliii" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> unity. The adhesions and cohesions of + matter, its gravitating attractions, its chemical affinities and + electrical polarities, the intricate out-and-in of organic + structure, are all preludes to the true incorporating unity which + is the ever-immanent supersession of the endless self-externalism + and successionalism of physical reality. But in sentiency, + feeling, or sensibility, the unity which all of these imply + without reaching, is explicitly present. It is implicitly an + all-embracing unity: an infinite,—which has no doors and no + windows, for the good reason that it needs none, because it has + nothing outside it, because it <span class= + "tei tei-q">“expresses”</span> and <span class= + "tei tei-q">“envelopes”</span> (however confusedly at first) the + whole universe. Thus, even if, with localising phraseology, we + may describe mind, where it <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">appears</span></em> emerging in the natural + world, as a mere feeble and incidental outburst,—a rebellion + breaking out as in some petty province or isolated region against + the great law of the physical realm—we are in so speaking taking + only an external standpoint. But with the rise of mind in nature + the bond of externalism is implicitly overcome. To it, and where + it really is, there is nothing outside, nothing transcendent. + Everything which is said to be outside mind is only outside a + localised and limited mind—outside a mind which is imperfectly + and abstractly realised—not outside mind absolutely. Mind is the + absolute negation of externality: not a mere relative negative, + as the organism may be biologically described as inner in respect + of the environment. To accomplish this negation in actuality, to + bring the multiplicity and externality of things into the unity + and identity of one Idea, is the process of development of mind + from animal sensibility to philosophic knowledge, from appetite + to art,—the process of culture through the social state under the + influence of religion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sentiency or + psychic matter (mind-stuff), to begin <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="pagecliv">[pg cliv]</span><a name="Pgcliv" id="Pgcliv" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> with, is in some respects like the + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">tabula rasa</span></span> + of the empiricists. It is the possibility—but the real + possibility—of intelligence rather than intelligence itself. It + is the monotonous undifferentiated inwardness—a faint + self-awareness and self-realisation of the material world, but at + first a mere vague <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">psychical protoplasm</span></em> and without + defined nucleus, without perceptible organisation or separation + of structures. If there is self-awareness, it is not yet + discriminated into a distinct and unified self, not yet + differentiated and integrated,—soul in the condition of a mere + <span class="tei tei-q">“Is,”</span> which, however, is nothing + determinate. It is very much in the situation of Condillac's + statue-man—<span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "fr"><span style="font-style: italic">une statue organisée + intérieurement comme nous, et animée d'un esprit privé de toute + espèce d'idées</span></span>: alike at least so far that the + rigid uniformity of the latter's envelope prevents all + articulated organisation of its faculties. The foundation under + all the diversity and individuality in the concrete intelligent + and volitional life is a common feeling,—a <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sensus communis</span></span>—a general and + indeterminate susceptibility to influence, a sympathy responsive, + but responsive vaguely and equivocally, to all the stimuli of the + physical environment. There was once a time, according to + primitive legend, when man understood the language of beast and + bird, and even surprised the secret converse of trees and + flowers. Such fancies are but the exaggeration of a solidarity of + conscious life which seems to spread far in the sub-conscious + realm, and to narrow the individual's soul into limited channels + as it rises into clear self-perception,</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">As + thro' the frame that binds him in</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">His + isolation grows defined.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It may be a + mere dream that, as Goethe feigns of Makaria in his romance<a id= + "noteref_79" name="noteref_79" href="#note_79"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">79</span></span></a>, + there are men and women in <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pageclv">[pg clv]</span><a name="Pgclv" id="Pgclv" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> sympathy with the vicissitudes of the + starry regions: and hypotheses of lunar influence, or dogmas of + astrological destiny, may count to the present guardians of the + sciences as visionary superstitions. Yet science in these regions + has no reason to be dogmatic; her function hitherto can only be + critical; and even for that, her data are scanty and her + principles extremely general. The influences on the mental mood + and faculty, produced by climate and seasons, by local + environment and national type, by individual peculiarities, by + the differences of age and sex, and by the alternation of night + and day, of sleep and waking, are less questionable. It is easy + no doubt to ignore or forget them: easy to remark how indefinable + and incalculable they are. But that does not lessen their radical + and inevitable impress in the determination of the whole + character. <span class="tei tei-q">“The sum of our existence, + divided by reason, never comes out exact, but always leaves a + marvellous remainder<a id="noteref_80" name="noteref_80" href= + "#note_80"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">80</span></span></a>.”</span> + Irrational this residue is, in the sense that it is inexplicable, + and incommensurable with the well-known quantities of conscious + and voluntarily organised life. But a scientific psychology, + which is adequate to the real and concrete mind, should never + lose sight of the fact that every one of its propositions in + regard to the more advanced phases of intellectual development is + thoroughly and in indefinable ways modified by these + preconditions. When that is remembered, it will be obvious how + complicated is the problem of adapting psychology for the + application to education, and how dependent the solution of that + problem is upon an experiential familiarity with the data of + individual and national temperament and character.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first + stage in mental development is the establishment of regular and + uniform relations between soul and <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pageclvi">[pg clvi]</span><a name="Pgclvi" id="Pgclvi" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> body: it is the differentiation of organs + and the integration of function: the balance between sensation + and movement, between the afferent and efferent processes of + sensitivity. Given a potential soul, the problem is to make it + actual in an individual body. It is the business of a physical + psychology to describe in detail the steps by which the body we + are attached to is made inward as our idea through the several + organs and their nervous appurtenances: whereas a psychical + physiology would conversely explain the corresponding processes + for the expression of the emotions and for the objectification of + the volitions. Thus soul inwardises (<span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">erinnert</span></span>) or envelops body: + which body <span class="tei tei-q">“expresses”</span> or develops + soul. The actual soul is the unity of both, is the percipient + individual. The solidarity or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“communion”</span> of body and soul is here the + dominant fact: the soul sentient of changes in its peripheral + organs, and transmitting emotion and volition into physical + effect. It is on this psychical unity,—the unity which is the + soul of the diversity of body—that all the subsequent + developments of mind rest. Sensation is thus the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">prius</span></span>—or basis—of all mental + life: the organisation of soul in body and of body in soul. It is + the process which historically has been prepared in the evolution + of animal life from those undifferentiated forms where + specialised organs are yet unknown, and which each individual has + further to realise and complete for himself, by learning to see + and hear, and use his limbs. At first, moreover, it begins from + many separate centres and only through much collision and mutual + compliance arrives at comparative uniformity and centralisation. + The common basis of united sensibility supplied by the one + organism has to be made real and effective, and it is so at first + by sporadic and comparatively independent developments. If + self-hood means reference <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pageclvii">[pg clvii]</span><a name="Pgclvii" id="Pgclvii" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to self of what is prima facie not + self, and projection of self therein, there is in primitive + sensibility only the germ or possibility of self-hood. In the + early phases of psychic development the centre is fluctuating and + ill-defined, and it takes time and trouble to co-ordinate or + unify the various starting-points of sensibility<a id= + "noteref_81" name="noteref_81" href="#note_81"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">81</span></span></a>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This + consolidation of inward life may be looked at either formally or + concretely. Under the first head, it means the growth of a + central unity of apperception. In the second case, it means a + peculiar aggregate of ideas and sentiments. There is growing up + within him what we may call the individuality of the + individual,—an irrational, i.e. not consciously intelligent, + nether-self or inner soul, a firm aggregation of hopes and + wishes, of views and feelings, or rather of tendencies and + temperament, of character hereditary and acquired. It is the law + of the natural will or character which from an inaccessible + background dominates our action,—which, because it is not + realised and formulated in consciousness, behaves like a guardian + spirit, or genius, or destiny within us. This genius is the + sub-conscious unity of the sensitive life—the manner of man which + unknown to ourselves we are,—and which influences us against our + nominal or formal purposes. So far as this predominates, our + ends, rough hew them how we will, are given by a force which is + not really, i.e. with full consciousness, ours: by a mass of + ingrained prejudice and unreasoned sympathies, of instincts and + passions, of fancies and feelings, which have condensed and + organised themselves into a natural power. As the child in the + mother's womb is responsive to her psychic influences, so the + development of a man's psychic life is guided by feelings centred + in objects and agents <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pageclviii">[pg clviii]</span><a name="Pgclviii" id="Pgclviii" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> external to him, who form the genius + presiding over his development. His soul, to that extent, is + really in another: he himself is selfless, and when his stay is + removed the principle of his life is gone<a id="noteref_82" name= + "noteref_82" href="#note_82"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">82</span></span></a>. He + is but a bundle of impressions, held together by influences and + ties which in years before consciousness proper began made him + what he is. Such is the involuntary adaptation to example and + environment, which establishes in the depths below personality a + self which becomes hereafter the determinant of action. Early + years, in which the human being is naturally susceptible, build + up by imitation, by pliant obedience, an image, a system, + reproducing the immediate surroundings. The soul, as yet + selfless, and ready to accept any imprint, readily moulds itself + into the likeness of an authoritative influence.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The step by + which the universality or unity of the self is realised in the + variety of its sensation is Habit. Habit gives us a definite + standing-ground in the flux of single impressions: it is the + identification of ourselves with what is most customary and + familiar: an identification which takes place by practice and + repetition. If it circumscribes us to one little province of + being, it on the other frees us from the vague indeterminateness + where we are at the mercy of every passing mood. It makes thus + much of our potential selves our very own, our acquisition and + permanent possession. It, above all, makes us free and at one + with our bodily part, so that henceforth we start as a subjective + unit of body and soul. We have now as the result of the + anthropological process a self or ego, an individual + consciousness able to reflect and compare, setting itself on one + side (a soul <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageclix">[pg + clix]</span><a name="Pgclix" id="Pgclix" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> in bodily organisation), and on the other + setting an object of consciousness, or external world, a world of + other things. All this presupposes that the soul has actualised + itself by appropriating and acquiring as its expression and organ + the physical sensibility which is its body. By restricting and + establishing itself, it has gained a fixed standpoint. No doubt + it has localised and confined itself, but it is no longer at the + disposal of externals and accident: it has laid the foundation + for higher developments.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(ii.) Anomalies of Psychical + Life.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Psychology, as + we have seen, goes for information regarding the earlier stages + of mental growth to the child and the animal,—perhaps also to the + savage. So too sociology founds certain conclusions upon the + observations of savage customs and institutions, or on the + earlier records of the race. In both cases with a limitation + caused by the externality and fragmentariness of the facts and + the need of interpreting them through our own conscious + experiences. There is however another direction in which + corresponding inquiries may be pursued; and where the danger of + the conclusions arrived at, though not perhaps less real, is + certainly of a different kind. In sociology we can observe—and + almost experiment upon—the phenomena of the lapsed, degenerate + and criminal classes. The advantage of such observation is that + the object of study can be made to throw greater light on his own + inner states. He is a little of the child and a little of the + savage, but these aspects co-exist with other features which put + him more on a level with the intelligent observer. Similar + pathological <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageclx">[pg + clx]</span><a name="Pgclx" id="Pgclx" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + regions are open to us in the case of psychology. There the + anomalous and morbid conditions of mind co-exist with a certain + amount of mature consciousness. So presented, they are thrown out + into relief. They form the negative instances which serve to + corroborate our positive inductions. The regularly concatenated + and solid structure of normal mind is under abnormal and deranged + conditions thrown into disorder, and its constituents are + presented in their several isolation. Such phenomena are relapses + into more rudimentary grades: but with the difference that they + are set in the midst of a more advanced phase of intellectual + life.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even amongst + candid and honest-minded students of psychology there is a + certain reluctance to dabble in researches into the night-side of + the mental range. Herbart is an instance of this shrinking. The + region of the Unconscious seemed—and to many still seems—a region + in which the charlatan and the dupe can and must play into each + other's hands. Once in the whirl of spiritualist and + crypto-psychical inquiry you could not tell how far you might be + carried. The facts moreover were of a peculiar type. Dependent as + they seemed to be on the frame of mind of observers and observed, + they defied the ordinary criteria of detached and abstract + observation. You can only observe them, it is urged, when you + believe; scepticism destroys them. Now there is a widespread + natural impatience against what Bacon has called <span class= + "tei tei-q">“monodical”</span> phenomena, phenomena i.e. which + claim to come under a special law of their own, or to have a + private and privileged sphere. And this impatience cuts the + Gordian knot by a determination to treat all instances which + oppose its hitherto ascertained laws as due to deception and + fraud, or, at the best, to incompetent observation, confusions of + memory, and superstitions of ignorance. Above all, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pageclxi">[pg clxi]</span><a name="Pgclxi" id= + "Pgclxi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> great interests of religion + and personality seemed to connect themselves with these + revelations—interests, at any rate, to which our common humanity + thrills; it seemed as if, in this region beyond the customary + range of the conscious and the seen, one might learn something of + the deeper realities which lie in the unseen. But to feel that so + much was at stake was naturally unfavourable to purely + dispassionate observation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + philosophers were found—as might have been expected—amongst those + most strongly attracted by these problems. Even Kant had been + fascinated by the spiritualism of Swedenborg, though he finally + turned away sceptical. At least as early as 1806 Schelling had + been interested by Ritter's researches into the question of + telepathy, or the power of the human will to produce without + mechanical means of conveyance an effect at a distance. He was + looking forward to the rise of a <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Physica coelestis</span></span>, or New + Celestial Physics, which should justify the old magic. About the + same date his brother Karl published an essay on Animal + Magnetism. The novel phenomena of galvanism and its congeners + suggested vast possibilities in the range of the physical powers, + especially of the physical powers of the human psyche as a + natural agent. The divining-rod was revived. Clairvoyance and + somnambulism were carefully studied, and the curative powers of + animal magnetism found many advocates<a id="noteref_83" name= + "noteref_83" href="#note_83"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">83</span></span></a>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Interest in + these questions went naturally with the new conception of the + place of Man in Nature, and of Nature as the matrix of mind<a id= + "noteref_84" name="noteref_84" href="#note_84"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">84</span></span></a>. But + it had been acutely stimulated by the performances and + professions of Mesmer at Vienna and Paris in the last quarter of + the eighteenth century. These—though by no means <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pageclxii">[pg clxii]</span><a name="Pgclxii" + id="Pgclxii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> really novel—had forced + the artificial world of science and fashion to discuss the claim + advanced for a new force which, amongst other things, could cure + ailments that baffled the ordinary practitioner. This new + force—mainly because of the recent interest in the remarkable + advances of magnetic and electrical research—was conceived as a + fluid, and called Animal Magnetism. At one time indeed Mesmer + actually employed a magnet in the manipulation by which he + induced the peculiar condition in his patients. The + accompaniments of his procedure were in many respects those of + the quack-doctor; and with the quack indeed he was often classed. + A French commission of inquiry appointed to examine into his + performances reported in 1784 that, while there was no doubt as + to the reality of many of the phenomena, and even of the cures, + there was no evidence for the alleged new physical force, and + declared the effects to be mainly attributable to the influence + of imagination. And with the mention of this familiar phrase, + further explanation was supposed to be rendered superfluous.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In France + political excitement allowed the mesmeric theory and practice to + drop out of notice till the fall of the first Empire. But in + Germany there was a considerable amount of investigations and + hypotheses into these mystical phenomena, though rarely by the + ordinary routine workers in the scientific field. The phenomena + where they were discussed were studied and interpreted in two + directions. Some theorists, like Jung-Stilling, Eschenmayer, + Schubert, and Kerner, took the more metaphysicist and + spiritualistic view: they saw in them the witness to a higher + truth, to the presence and operation in this lower world of a + higher and spiritual matter, a so-called ether. Thus Animal + Magnetism supplied a sort of physical theory of the other world + and the other life. Jung-Stilling, e.g. in his <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Theory of Spirit-lore.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pageclxiii">[pg clxiii]</span><a name="Pgclxiii" + id="Pgclxiii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> (1808), regarded the + spiritualistic phenomena as a justification of—what he believed + to be—the Kantian doctrine that in the truly real and persistent + world space and time are no more. The other direction of inquiry + kept more to the physical field. Ritter (whose researches + interested both Schelling and Hegel) supposed he had detected the + new force underlying mesmerism and the like, and gave to it the + name of Siderism (1808); while Amoretti of Milan named the object + of his experiments Animal Electrometry (1816). Kieser<a id= + "noteref_85" name="noteref_85" href="#note_85"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">85</span></span></a>, + again (1826) spoke of Tellurism, and connected animal magnetism + with the play of general terrestrial forces in the human + being.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At a later + date (1857) Schindler, in his <span class="tei tei-q">“Magical + Spirit-life,”</span> expounded a theory of mental polarity. The + psychical life has two poles or centres,—its day-pole, around + which revolves our ordinary and superficial current of ideas, and + its night-pole, round which gathers the sub-conscious and deeper + group of beliefs and sentiments. Either life has a memory, a + consciousness, a world of its own: and they flourish to a large + extent inversely to each other. The day-world has for its organs + of receiving information the ordinary senses. But the magical or + night-world of the soul has its feelers also, which set men + directly in telepathic rapport with influences, however distant, + exerted by the whole world: and through this <span class= + "tei tei-q">“inner sense”</span> which serves to concentrate in + itself all the telluric forces (—a sense which in its various + aspects we name instinct, presentiment, conscience) is + constructed the fabric of our sub-conscious system. Through it + man is a sort of résumé of all the cosmic life, in secret + affinity and sympathy with all natural processes; and by the will + which stands in response therewith he can exercise <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pageclxiv">[pg clxiv]</span><a name="Pgclxiv" + id="Pgclxiv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a directly creative + action on external nature. In normal and healthy conditions the + two currents of psychic life run on harmonious but independent. + But in the phenomena of somnambulism, clairvoyance, and delirium, + the magic region becomes preponderant, and comes into collision + with the other. The dark-world emerges into the realm of day as a + portentous power: and there is the feeling of a double + personality, or of an indwelling genius, familiar spirit, or + demon.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To the + ordinary physicist the so-called <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Actio in distans</span></span> was a + hopeless stumbling-block. If he did not comprehend the + transmission (as it is called) of force where there was immediate + contact, he was at least perfectly familiar with the outer aspect + of it as a condition of his limited experience. It needed one + beyond the mere hodman of science to say with Laplace: + <span class="tei tei-q">“We are so far from knowing all the + agents of nature, that it would be very unphilosophical to deny + the existence of phenomena solely because they are inexplicable + in the present state of our knowledge.”</span> Accordingly + mesmerism and its allied manifestations were generally abandoned + to the bohemians of science, and to investigators with dogmatic + bias. It was still employed as a treatment for certain ailments: + and philosophers, as different as Fichte and Schopenhauer<a id= + "noteref_86" name="noteref_86" href="#note_86"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">86</span></span></a>, + watched its fate with attention. But the herd of professional + scientists fought shy of it. The experiments of Braid at + Manchester in 1841 gradually helped to give research into the + subject a new character. Under the name of Hypnotism (or, rather + at first Neuro-hypnotism) he described the phenomena of the + magnetic sleep (induced through prolonged staring at <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pageclxv">[pg clxv]</span><a name="Pgclxv" id= + "Pgclxv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a bright object), such as + abnormal rigidity of body, perverted sensibility, and the + remarkable obedience of the subject to the command or suggestions + of the operator. Thirty years afterwards, the matter became an + object of considerable experimental and theoretic work in France, + at the rival schools of Paris and Nancy; and the question, mainly + under the title of hypnotism, though the older name is still + occasionally heard, has been for several years brought + prominently under public notice.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It cannot be + said that the net results of these observations and hypotheses + are of a very definitive character. While a large amount of + controversy has been waged on the comparative importance of the + several methods and instruments by which the hypnotic or mesmeric + trance may be induced, and a scarcely less wide range of + divergence prevails with regard to the physiological and + pathological conditions in connexion with which it has been most + conspicuously manifested, there has been less anxiety shown to + determine its precise psychical nature, or its significance in + mental development. And yet the better understanding of these + aspects may throw light on several points connected with + primitive religion and the history of early civilisation, indeed + over the whole range of what is called <span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Völkerpsychologie</span></span>. Indeed this + is one of the points which may be said to emerge out of the + confusion of dispute. Phenomena at least analogous to those + styled hypnotic have a wide range in the anthropological + sphere<a id="noteref_87" name="noteref_87" href= + "#note_87"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">87</span></span></a>: and + the proper characters which belong to them will only be caught by + an observer who examines them in the widest variety of examples. + Another feature which has been put in prominence is what has been + called <span class="tei tei-q">“psychological automatism.”</span> + And in this name two points <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pageclxvi">[pg clxvi]</span><a name="Pgclxvi" id="Pgclxvi" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> seem to deserve note. The first is + the spontaneous and as it were mechanical consecution of mental + states in the soul whence the interfering effect of voluntary + consciousness has been removed. And the second is the unfailing + or accurate regularity, so contrary to the hesitating and + uncertain procedure of our conscious and reasoned action, which + so often is seen in the unreflecting and unreasoned movements. To + this invariable sequence of psychical movement the superior + control and direction by the intelligent self has to adapt + itself, just as it respects the order of physical laws.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But, perhaps, + the chief conclusion to be derived from hypnotic experience is + the value of suggestion or suggestibility. Even cool thinkers + like Kant have recognised how much mere mental control has to do + with bodily state,—how each of us, in this way, is often for good + or for ill his own physician. An idea is a force, and is only + inactive in so far as it is held in check by other ideas. + <span class="tei tei-q">“There is no such thing as + hypnotism,”</span> says one: <span class="tei tei-q">“there are + only different degrees of suggestibility.”</span> This may be to + exaggerate: yet it serves to impress the comparatively secondary + character of many of the circumstances on which the specially + mesmeric or hypnotic experimentalist is apt to lay exclusive + stress. The methods may probably vary according to circumstances. + But the essence of them all is to get the patient out of the + general frame and system of ideas and perceptions in which his + ordinary individuality is encased. Considering how for all of us + the reality of concrete life is bound up with our visual + perceptions, how largely our sanity depends upon the spatial + idea, and how that depends on free ocular range, we can + understand that darkness and temporary loss of vision are + powerful auxiliaries in the hypnotic process, as in magical and + superstitious rites. But <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pageclxvii">[pg clxvii]</span><a name="Pgclxvii" id="Pgclxvii" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a great deal short of this may serve + to establish influence. The mind of the majority of human beings, + but especially of the young, may be compared to a vacant seat + waiting for some one to fill it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Hegel's + view hypnotic phenomena produce a kind of temporary and + artificial atavism. Mechanical or chemical means, or morbid + conditions of body, may cause even for the intelligent adult a + relapse into states of mind closely resembling those exhibited by + the primitive or the infantile sensibility. The intelligent + personality, where powers are bound up with limitations and + operate through a chain of means and ends, is reduced to its + primitively undifferentiated condition. Not that it is restored + to its infantile simplicity; but that all subsequent acquirements + operate only as a concentrated individuality, or mass of will and + character, released from the control of the self-possessed mind, + and invested (by the latter's withdrawal) with a new + quasi-personality of their own. With the loss of the world of + outward things, there may go, it is supposed, a clearer + perception of the inward and particularly of the organic life. + The Soul contains the form of unity which other experiences had + impressed upon it: but this form avails in its subterranean + existence where it creates a sort of inner self. And this inner + self is no longer, like the embodied self of ordinary + consciousness, an intelligence served by organs, and proceeding + by induction and inference. Its knowledge is not mediated or + carried along specific channels: it does not build up, piecemeal, + by successive steps of synthesis and analysis, by gradual + idealisation, the organised totality of its intellectual world. + The somnambulist and the clairvoyant see without eyes, and carry + their vision directly into regions where the waking consciousness + of orderly intelligence cannot enter. <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="pageclxviii">[pg clxviii]</span><a name="Pgclxviii" id= + "Pgclxviii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> But that region is not + the world of our higher ideas,—of art, religion, and philosophy. + It is still the sensitivity—that realm of sensitivity which is + ordinarily covered by unconsciousness. Such sensitive + clairvoyants may, as it were, hear themselves growing; they may + discern the hidden quivers and pulses of blood and tissue, the + seats of secret pain and all the unrevealed workings in the dark + chambers of the flesh. But always their vision seems confined to + that region, and will fall short of the world of light and ideal + truth. It is towards the nature-bond of sensitive solidarity with + earth, and flowers, and trees, the life that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“rolls through all things,”</span> not towards the + spiritual unity which broods over the world and <span class= + "tei tei-q">“impels all thinking things,”</span> that these + immersions in the selfless universe lead us.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What Hegel + chiefly sees in these phenomena is their indication, even on the + natural side of man, of that ideality of the material, which it + is the work of intelligence to produce in the more spiritual + life, in the fully-developed mind. The latter is the supreme + over-soul, that Absolute Mind which in our highest moods, + aesthetic and religious, we approximate to. But mind, as it tends + towards the higher end to <span class="tei tei-q">“merge itself + in light,”</span> to identify itself yet not wholly lost, but + retained, in the fullness of undivided intellectual being, so at + the lower end it springs from a natural and underlying unity, the + immense solidarity of nether-soul, the great Soul of Nature—the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Substance”</span> which is to be raised + into the <span class="tei tei-q">“Subject”</span> which is true + divinity. Between these two unities, the nature-given nether-soul + and the spirit-won over-soul, lies the conscious life of man: a + process of differentiation which narrows and of redintegration + which enlarges,—which alternately builds up an isolated + personality and dissolves it in a common intelligence and + sympathy. It is because <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pageclxix">[pg clxix]</span><a name="Pgclxix" id="Pgclxix" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> mental or tacit <span class= + "tei tei-q">“suggestion”</span><a id="noteref_88" name= + "noteref_88" href="#note_88"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">88</span></span></a> + (i.e. will-influence exercised without word or sign, or other + sensible mode of connexion), thought-transference, or + thought-reading (which is more than dexterous apprehension of + delicate muscular signs), exteriorisation or transposition of + sensibility into objects primarily non-sensitive, clairvoyance + (i.e. the power of describing, as if from direct perception, + objects or events removed in space beyond the recognised limits + of sensation), and somnambulism, so far as it implies lucid + vision with sealed eyes,—it is because these things seem to show + the essential ideality of matter, that Hegel is interested in + them. The ordinary conditions of consciousness and even of + practical life in society are a derivative and secondary state; a + product of processes of individualism, which however are never + completed, and leave a large margin for idealising intelligence + to fulfil. From a state which is not yet personality to a state + which is more than can be described as personality—lies the + mental movement. So Fichte, too, had regarded the power of the + somnambulist as laying open a world underlying the development of + egoity and self-consciousness<a id="noteref_89" name="noteref_89" + href="#note_89"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">89</span></span></a>: + <span class="tei tei-q">“the merely sensuous man is still in + somnambulism,”</span> only a somnambulism of waking hours: + <span class="tei tei-q">“the true waking is the life in God, to + be free in him, all else is sleep and dream.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Egoity,”</span> he adds, <span class="tei tei-q">“is + a merely <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">formal</span></em> principle, utterly, and + never qualitative (i.e. the essence and universal force).”</span> + For Schopenhauer, too, the experiences of animal magnetism had + seemed to prove the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageclxx">[pg + clxx]</span><a name="Pgclxx" id="Pgclxx" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> absolute supernatural power of the radical + will in its superiority to the intellectual categories of space, + time, and causal sequence: to prove the reality of the + metaphysical which is at the basis of all conscious + divisions.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(iii.) The Development of Inner + Freedom.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The result of + the first range in the process of psycho-genesis was to make the + body a sign and utterance of the Soul, with a fixed and + determinate type. The <span class="tei tei-q">“anthropological + process”</span> has defined and settled the mere general + sentiency of soul into an individualised shape, a localised and + limited self, a bundle of habits. It has made the soul an Ego or + self: a power which looks out upon the world as a spectator, + lifted above immanence in the general tide of being, but only so + lifted because it has made itself one in the world of objects, a + thing among things. The Mind has reached the point of view of + reflection. Instead of a general identifiability with all nature, + it has encased itself in a limited range, from which it looks + forth on what is now other than itself. If previously it was mere + inward sensibility, it is now sense, perceptive of an object here + and now, of an external world. The step has involved some price: + and that price is, that it has attained independence and + self-hood at the cost of surrendering the content it had hitherto + held in one with itself. It is now a blank receptivity, open to + the impressions of an outside world: and the changes which take + place in its process of apprehension seem to it to be given from + outside. The world it perceives is a world of isolated and + independent objects: and it takes them as they <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pageclxxi">[pg clxxi]</span><a name="Pgclxxi" + id="Pgclxxi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> are given. But a closer + insistance on the perception develops the implicit intelligence, + which makes it possible. The percipient mind is no mere + recipiency or susceptibility with its forms of time and space: it + is spontaneously active, it is the source of categories, or is an + apperceptive power,—an understanding. Consciousness, thus + discovered to be a creative or constructive faculty, is strictly + speaking self-consciousness<a id="noteref_90" name="noteref_90" + href="#note_90"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">90</span></span></a>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + Self-consciousness appears at first in the selfish or narrowly + egoistic form of appetite and impulse. The intelligence which + claims to mould and construe the world of objects—which, in + Kant's phrase, professes to give us nature—is implicitly the lord + of that world. And that supremacy it carries out as appetite—as + destruction. The self is but a bundle of wants—its supremacy over + things is really subjection to them: the satisfaction of appetite + is baffled by a new desire which leaves it as it was before. The + development of self-consciousness to a more adequate shape is + represented by Hegel as taking place through the social struggle + for existence. Human beings, too, are in the first instance to + the uninstructed appetite or the primitive self-consciousness + (which is simply a succession of individual desires for + satisfaction of natural want) only things,—adjectival to that + self's individual existence. To them, too, his primary relation + is to appropriate and master them. Might precedes right. But the + social struggle for existence forces him to recognise something + other which is kindred to himself,—a limiting principle, another + self which has to form an element in his calculations, not to be + neglected. And gradually, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pageclxxii">[pg clxxii]</span><a name="Pgclxxii" id="Pgclxxii" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> we may suppose, the result is the + division of humanity into two levels, a ruling lordly class, and + a class of slaves,—a state of inequality in which each knows that + his appetite is in some measure checked by a more or less + permanent other. Lastly, perhaps soonest in the inferior order, + there is fashioned the perception that its self-seeking in its + isolated appetites is subject to an abiding authority, a + continuing consciousness. There grows up a social self—a sense of + general humanity and solidarity with other beings—a larger self + with which each identifies himself, a common ground. + Understanding was selfish intelligence: practical in the egoistic + sense. In the altruistic or universal sense practical, a + principle social and unifying character, intelligence is + Reason.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus, Man, + beginning as a percipient consciousness, apprehending single + objects in space and time, and as an appetitive self bent upon + single gratifications, has ended as a rational being,—a + consciousness purged of its selfishness and isolation, looking + forward openly and impartially on the universe of things and + beings. He has ceased to be a mere animal, swallowed up in the + moment and the individual, using his intelligence only in selfish + satisfactions. He is no longer bound down by the struggle for + existence, looking on everything as a mere thing, a mere means. + He has erected himself above himself and above his environment, + but that because he occupies a point of view at which he and his + environment are no longer purely antithetical and exclusive<a id= + "noteref_91" name="noteref_91" href="#note_91"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">91</span></span></a>. He + has reached what is really the moral standpoint: the point i.e. + at which he is inspired by a universal self-consciousness, and + lives in that peaceful world where the antitheses of + individualities and of outward <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pageclxxiii">[pg clxxiii]</span><a name="Pgclxxiii" id= + "Pgclxxiii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and inward have ceased to + trouble. <span class="tei tei-q">“The natural man,”</span> says + Hegel<a id="noteref_92" name="noteref_92" href= + "#note_92"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">92</span></span></a>, + <span class="tei tei-q">“sees in the woman flesh of his flesh: + the moral and spiritual man sees spirit of his spirit in the + moral and spiritual being and by its means.”</span> Hitherto we + have been dealing with something falling below the full truth of + mind: the region of immediate sensibility with its thorough + immersion of mind in body, first of all, and secondly its gradual + progress to a general standpoint. It is only in the third part of + Subjective mind that we are dealing with the psychology of a + being who in the human sense knows and wills, i.e. apprehends + general truth, and carries out ideal purposes.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus, for the + third time, but now on a higher plane, that of intelligence and + rationality, is traced the process of development or realisation + by which reason becomes reasoned knowledge and rational will, a + free or autonomous intelligence. And, as before, the + starting-point, alike in theoretical and practical mind, is + feeling—or immediate knowledge and immediate sense of Ought. The + basis of thought is an immediate perception—a sensuous affection + or given something, and the basis of the idea of a general + satisfaction is the natural claim to determine the outward + existence conformably to individual feeling. In intelligent + perception or intuition the important factor is attention, which + raises it above mere passive acceptance and awareness of a given + fact. Attention thus involves on one hand the externality of its + object, and on the other affirms its dependence on the act of the + subject: it sets the objects before and out of itself, in space + and time, but yet in so doing it shows itself master of the + objects. If perception presuppose attention, in short, they cease + to be wholly outward: we make them ours, and the space and time + they fill are projected by us. So attended to, they are + appropriated, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageclxxiv">[pg + clxxiv]</span><a name="Pgclxxiv" id="Pgclxxiv" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> inwardised and recollected: they take their + place in a mental place and mental time: they receive a general + or de-individualised character in the memory-image. These are + retained as mental property, but retained actually only in so far + they are revivable and revived. Such revival is the work of + imagination working by the so-called laws of association. But the + possession of its ideas thus inwardised and recollected by the + mind is largely a matter of chance. The mind is not really fully + master of them until it has been able to give them a certain + objectivity, by replacing the mental image by a vocal, i.e. a + sensible sign. By means of words, intelligence turns its ideas or + representations into quasi-realities: it creates a sort of + superior sense-world, the world of language, where ideas live a + potential, which is also an actual, life. Words are sensibles, + but they are sensibles which completely lose themselves in their + meaning. As sensibles, they render possible that verbal memory + which is the handmaid of thought: but which also as merely + mechanical can leave thought altogether out of account. It is + through words that thought is made possible: for it alone permits + the movement through ideas without being distracted through a + multitude of associations. In them thought has an instrument + completely at its own level, but still only a machine, and in + memory the working of that machine. We think in names, not in + general images, but in terms which only serve as vehicles for + mental synthesis and analysis.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is as such + a thinking being—a being who can use language, and manipulate + general concepts or take comprehensive views, that man is a + rational will. A concept of something to be done—a feeling even + of some end more or less comprehensive in its quality, is the + implication of what can be called will. At first <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pageclxxv">[pg clxxv]</span><a name="Pgclxxv" + id="Pgclxxv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> indeed its material may + be found as immediately given and all its volitionality may lie + in the circumstance that the intelligent being sets this forward + as a governing and controlling Ought. Its vehicle, in short, may + be mere impulse, or inclination, and even passion: but it is the + choice and the purposive adoption of means to the given end. + Gradually it attains to the idea of a general satisfaction, or of + happiness. And this end seems positive and definite. It soon + turns out however to be little but a prudent and self-denying + superiority to particular passions and inclinations in the + interest of a comprehensive ideal. The free will or intelligence + has so far only a negative and formal value: it is the perfection + of an autonomous and freely self-developing mind. Such a mind, + which in language has acquired the means of realising an + intellectual system of things superior to the restrictions of + sense, and which has emancipated reason from the position of + slave to inclination, is endued with the formal conditions of + moral conduct. Such a mind will transform its own primarily + physical dependence into an image of the law of reason and create + the ethical life: and in the strength of that establishment will + go forth to conquer the world into a more and more adequate + realisation of the eternal Idea.</p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageclxxvi">[pg + clxxvi]</span><a name="Pgclxxvi" id="Pgclxxvi" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc13" id="toc13"></a> <a name="pdf14" id="pdf14"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Essay V. Ethics And + Politics.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“In dealing,”</span> says Hegel, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“with the Idea of the State, we must not have before + our eyes a particular state, or a particular institution: we must + rather study the Idea, this actual God, on his own account. Every + State, however bad we may find it according to our principles, + however defective we may discover this or that feature to be, still + contains, particularly if it belongs to the mature states of our + time, all the essential factors of its existence. But as it is + easier to discover faults than to comprehend the affirmative, + people easily fall into the mistake of letting individual aspects + obscure the intrinsic organism of the State itself. The State is no + ideal work of art: it stands in the everyday world, in the sphere, + that is, of arbitrary act, accident, and error, and a variety of + faults may mar the regularity of its traits. But the ugliest man, + the criminal, a sick man and a cripple, is after all a living man; + the affirmative, Life, subsists in spite of the defect: and this + affirmative is here the theme<a id="noteref_93" name="noteref_93" + href="#note_93"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">93</span></span></a>.”</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“It is the theme of philosophy,”</span> he + adds, <span class="tei tei-q">“to ascertain the substance which is + immanent in the show of the temporal and transient, and the eternal + which is present.”</span></p><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pageclxxvii">[pg clxxvii]</span><a name="Pgclxxvii" id="Pgclxxvii" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(i.) Hegel as a Political + Critic.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if this is + true, it is also to be remembered that the philosopher is, like + other men, the son of his age, and estimates the value of reality + from preconceptions and aspirations due to his generation. The + historical circumstances of his nation as well as the personal + experiences of his life help to determine his horizon, even in + the effort to discover the hidden pulse and movement of the + social organism. This is specially obvious in political + philosophy. The conception of ethics and politics which is + presented in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Encyclopaedia</span></span> was in 1820 + produced with more detail as the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Grundlinien der + Philosophie des Rechts</span></span>. Appearing, as it did, two + years after his appointment to a professorship at Berlin, and in + the midst of a political struggle between the various + revolutionary and conservative powers and parties of Germany, the + book became, and long remained, a target for embittered + criticism. The so-called War of Liberation or national movement + to shake off the French yoke was due to a coalition of parties, + and had naturally been in part supported by tendencies and aims + which went far beyond the ostensive purpose either of leaders or + of combatants. Aspirations after a freer state were entwined with + radical and socialistic designs to reform the political hierarchy + of the Fatherland: high ideals and low vulgarities were closely + intermixed: and the noble enthusiasm of youth was occasionally + played on by criminal and anarchic intriguers. In a strong and + wise and united Germany some of these schemes might have been + tolerated. But strength, wisdom, and unity were absent. In the + existing tension between Austria and Prussia for the leadership, + in the ill-adapted and effete constitutions of the several + principalities which were yet expected to realise the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageclxxviii">[pg + clxxviii]</span><a name="Pgclxxviii" id="Pgclxxviii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> advance which had taken place in society + and ideas during the last thirty years, the outlook on every hand + seemed darker and more threatening than it might have otherwise + done. Governments, which had lost touch with their peoples, + suspected conspiracy and treason: and a party in the nation + credited their rulers with gratuitous designs against private + liberty and rights. There was a vast but ill-defined enthusiasm + in the breasts of the younger world, and it was shared by many of + their teachers. It seemed to their immense aspirations that the + war of liberation had failed of its true object and left things + much as they were. The volunteers had not fought for the + political systems of Austria or Prussia, or for the + three-and-thirty princes of Germany: but for ideas, vague, + beautiful, stimulating. To such a mood the continuance of the old + system was felt as a cruel deception and a reaction. The + governments on their part had not realised the full importance of + the spirit that had been aroused, and could not at a moment's + notice set their house in order, even had there been a clearer + outlook for reform than was offered. They too had suffered, and + had realised their insecurity: and were hardly in a mood to open + their gates to the enemy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Coming on such + a situation of affairs, Hegel's book would have been likely in + any case to provoke criticism. For it took up a line of political + theory which was little in accord with the temper of the age. The + conception of the state which it expounded is not far removed in + essentials from the conception which now dominates the political + life of the chief European nations. But in his own time it came + upon ears which were naturally disposed to misconceive it. It was + unacceptable to the adherents of the <span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ancien régime</span></span>, as much as to + the liberals. It was declared by one party to be a glorification + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageclxxix">[pg + clxxix]</span><a name="Pgclxxix" id="Pgclxxix" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of the Prussian state: by another to + rationalise the sanctities of authority. It was pointed out that + the new professor was a favourite of the leading minister, that + his influence was dominant in scholastic appointments, and that + occasional gratuities from the crown proved his acceptability. A + contemporary professor, Fries, remarked that Hegel's theory of + the state had grown <span class="tei tei-q">“not in the gardens + of science but on the dung-hill of servility.”</span> Hegel + himself was aware that he had planted a blow in the face of a + <span class="tei tei-q">“shallow and pretentious sect,”</span> + and that his book had <span class="tei tei-q">“given great + offence to the demagogic folk.”</span> Alike in religious and + political life he was impatient of sentimentalism, of rhetorical + feeling, of wordy enthusiasm. A positive storm of scorn burst + from him at much-promising and little-containing declamation that + appealed to the pathos of ideas, without sense of the complex + work of construction and the system of principles which were + needed to give them reality. His impatience of demagogic gush led + him (in the preface) into a tactless attack on Fries, who was at + the moment in disgrace for his participation in the demonstration + at the Wartburg. It led him to an attack on the bumptiousness of + those who held that conscientious conviction was ample + justification for any proceeding:—an attack which opponents were + not unwilling to represent as directed against the principle of + conscience itself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet Hegel's + views on the nature of political unity were not new. Their + nucleus had been formed nearly twenty years before. In the years + that immediately followed the French revolution he had gone + through the usual anarchic stage of intelligent youth. He had + wondered whether humanity might not have had a nobler destiny, + had fate given supremacy to some heresy rather than the orthodox + creed of Christendom. He had <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pageclxxx">[pg clxxx]</span><a name="Pgclxxx" id="Pgclxxx" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> seen religion in the past + <span class="tei tei-q">“teaching what despotism wished,—contempt + of the human race, its incapacity for anything good<a id= + "noteref_94" name="noteref_94" href="#note_94"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">94</span></span></a>.”</span> + But his earliest reflections on political power belong to a later + date, and are inspired, not so much by the vague ideals of + humanitarianism, as by the spirit of national patriotism. They + are found in a <span class="tei tei-q">“Criticism of the German + Constitution”</span> apparently dating from the year 1802<a id= + "noteref_95" name="noteref_95" href="#note_95"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">95</span></span></a>. It + is written after the peace of Lunéville had sealed for Germany + the loss of her provinces west of the Rhine, and subsequent to + the disasters of the German arms at Hohenlinden and Marengo. It + is almost contemporaneous with the measures of 1803 and 1804, + which affirmed the dissolution of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Holy Roman Empire”</span> of German name. The writer + of this unpublished pamphlet sees his country in a situation + almost identical with that which Macchiavelli saw around him in + Italy. It is abused by petty despots, distracted by mean + particularist ambitions, at the mercy of every foreign power. It + was such a scene which, as Hegel recalls, had prompted and + justified the drastic measures proposed in the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Prince</span></span>,—measures which have + been ill-judged by the closet moralist, but evince the high + statesmanship of the Florentine. In the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Prince</span></span>, an intelligent reader + can see <span class="tei tei-q">“the enthusiasm of patriotism + underlying the cold and dispassionate doctrines.”</span> + Macchiavelli dared to declare that Italy must become a state, and + to assert that <span class="tei tei-q">“there is no higher duty + for a state than to maintain itself, and to punish relentlessly + every author of anarchy,—the supreme, and perhaps sole political + crime.”</span> And <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageclxxxi">[pg + clxxxi]</span><a name="Pgclxxxi" id="Pgclxxxi" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> like teaching, Hegel adds, is needed for + Germany. Only, he concludes, no mere demonstration of the + insanity of utter separation of the particular from his kin will + ever succeed in converting the particularists from their + conviction of the absoluteness of personal and private rights. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Insight and intelligence always excite + so much distrust that force alone avails to justify them; then + man yields them obedience<a id="noteref_96" name="noteref_96" + href="#note_96"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">96</span></span></a>.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The German political edifice,”</span> says the + writer, <span class="tei tei-q">“is nothing else but the sum of + the rights which the single parts have withdrawn from the whole; + and this justice, which is ever on the watch to prevent the state + having any power left, is the essence of the + constitution.”</span> The Peace of Westphalia had but served to + constitute or stereotype anarchy: the German empire had by that + instrument divested itself of all rights of political unity, and + thrown itself on the goodwill of its members. What then, it may + be asked, is, in Hegel's view, the indispensable minimum + essential to a state? And the answer will be, organised + strength,—a central and united force. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The strength of a country lies neither in the + multitude of its inhabitants and fighting men, nor in its + fertility, nor in its size, but solely in the way its parts are + by reasonable combination made a single political force enabling + everything to be used for the common defence.”</span> Hegel + speaks scornfully of <span class="tei tei-q">“the philanthropists + and moralists who decry politics as an endeavour and an art to + seek private utility at the cost of right”</span>: he tells them + that <span class="tei tei-q">“it is foolish to oppose the + interest or (as it is expressed by the more morally-obnoxious + word) the utility of the state to its right”</span>: that the + <span class="tei tei-q">“rights of a state are the utility of the + state as established and recognised by compacts”</span>: and that + <span class="tei tei-q">“war”</span> (which they <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pageclxxxii">[pg clxxxii]</span><a name= + "Pgclxxxii" id="Pgclxxxii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> would fain + abolish or moralise) <span class="tei tei-q">“has to decide not + which of the rights asserted by either party is the true right + (—for both parties have a true right), but which right has to + give way to the other.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is evident + from these propositions that Hegel takes that view of political + supremacy which has been associated with the name of Hobbes. But + his views also reproduce the Platonic king of men, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“who can rule and dare not lie.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“All states,”</span> he declares, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“are founded by the sublime force of great men, not + by physical strength. The great man has something in his features + which others would gladly call their lord. They obey him against + their will. Their immediate will is his will, but their conscious + will is otherwise.... This is the prerogative of the great man to + ascertain and to express the absolute will. All gather round his + banner. He is their God.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The + state,”</span> he says again, <span class="tei tei-q">“is the + self-certain absolute mind which recognises no definite authority + but its own: which acknowledges no abstract rules of good and + bad, shameful and mean, craft and deception.”</span> So also + Hobbes describes the prerogatives of the sovereign Leviathan. But + the Hegelian God immanent in the state is a higher power than + Hobbes knows: he is no mortal, but in his truth an immortal God. + He speaks by (what in this early essay is called) the Absolute + Government<a id="noteref_97" name="noteref_97" href= + "#note_97"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">97</span></span></a>: the + government of the Law—the true impersonal sovereign,—distinct + alike from the single ruler and the multitude of the ruled. + <span class="tei tei-q">“It is absolutely only universality as + against particular. As this absolute, ideal, universal, compared + to which everything else is a particular, it is the phenomenon of + God. Its words are his decision, and it can appear <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pageclxxxiii">[pg clxxxiii]</span><a name= + "Pgclxxxiii" id="Pgclxxxiii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + exist under no other form.... The Absolute government is divine, + self-sanctioned and not made<a id="noteref_98" name="noteref_98" + href="#note_98"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">98</span></span></a>.”</span> + The real strength—the real connecting-mean which gives life to + sovereign and to subject—is intelligence free and entire, + independent both of what individuals feel and believe and of the + quality of the ruler. <span class="tei tei-q">“The spiritual + bond,”</span> he says in a lower form of speech, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“is public opinion: it is the true legislative body, + national assembly, declaration of the universal will which lives + in the execution of all commands.”</span> This still small voice + of public opinion is the true and real parliament: not literally + making laws, but revealing them. If we ask, where does this + public opinion appear and how does it disengage itself from the + masses of partisan judgment? Hegel answers,—and to the surprise + of those who have not entered into the spirit of his age<a id= + "noteref_99" name="noteref_99" href="#note_99"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">99</span></span></a>—it + is embodied in the Aged and the Priests. Both of these have + ceased to live in the real world: they are by nature and function + disengaged from the struggles of particular existence, have risen + above the divergencies of social classes. They breathe the ether + of pure contemplation. <span class="tei tei-q">“The sunset of + life gives them mystical lore,”</span> or at least removes from + old age the distraction of selfishness: while the priest is by + function set apart from the divisions of human interest. + Understood in a large sense, Hegel's view is that the real voice + of experience is elicited through those who have attained + indifference to the distorting influence of human parties, and + who see life steadily and whole.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If this + utterance shows the little belief Hegel had in the ordinary + methods of legislation through <span class= + "tei tei-q">“representative”</span> bodies, and hints that the + real <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">substance</span></em> of political + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageclxxxiv">[pg + clxxxiv]</span><a name="Pgclxxxiv" id="Pgclxxxiv" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> life is deeper than the overt machinery of + political operation, it is evident that this theory of + <span class="tei tei-q">“divine right”</span> is of a different + stamp from what used to go under that name. And, again, though + the power of the central state is indispensable, he is far from + agreeing with the so-called bureaucratic view that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“a state is a machine with a single spring which sets + in motion all the rest of the machinery.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Everything,”</span> he says, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“which is not directly required to organise and + maintain the force for giving security without and within must be + left by the central government to the freedom of the citizens. + Nothing ought to be so sacred in the eyes of a government as to + leave alone and to protect, without regard to utilities, the free + action of the citizens in such matters as do not affect its + fundamental aim: for this freedom is itself sacred<a id= + "noteref_100" name="noteref_100" href="#note_100"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">100</span></span></a>.”</span> + He is no friend of paternal bureaucracy. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The pedantic craving to settle every detail, the + mean jealousy against estates and corporations administrating and + directing their own affairs, the base fault-finding with all + independent action on the part of the citizens, even when it has + no immediate bearing on the main political interest, has been + decked out with reasons to show that no penny of public + expenditure, made for a country of twenty or thirty millions' + population, can be laid out, without first being, not permitted, + but commanded, controlled and revised by the supreme + government.”</span> You can see, he remarks, in the first village + after you enter Prussian territory the lifeless and wooden + routine which prevails. The whole country suffers also from the + way religion has been mixed up with political rights, and a + particular creed pronounced by law indispensable both for + sovereign and full-privileged subject. In a word, the unity and + vigour of the state is quite compatible with considerable + latitude <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageclxxxv">[pg + clxxxv]</span><a name="Pgclxxxv" id="Pgclxxxv" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and divergence in laws and judicature, in + the imposition and levying of taxes, in language, manners, + civilisation and religion. Equality in all these points is + desirable for social unity: but it is not indispensable for + political strength.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This decided + preference for the unity of the state against the system of + checks and counterchecks, which sometimes goes by the name of a + constitution, came out clearly in Hegel's attitude in discussing + the dispute between the Würtembergers and their sovereign in + 1815-16. Würtemberg, with its complicated aggregation of local + laws, had always been a paradise of lawyers, and the feudal + rights or privileges of the local oligarchies—the so-called + <span class="tei tei-q">“good old law”</span>—were the boast of + the country. All this had however been aggravated by the increase + of territory received in 1805: and the king, following the + examples set by France and even by Bavaria, promulgated of his + own grace a <span class="tei tei-q">“constitution”</span> + remodelling the electoral system of the country. Immediately an + outcry burst out against the attempt to destroy the ancient + liberties. Uhland tuned his lyre to the popular cry: Rückert sang + on the king's side. To Hegel the contest presented itself as a + struggle between the attachment to traditional rights, merely + because they are old, and the resolution to carry out reasonable + reform whether it be agreeable to the reformed or not: or rather + he saw in it resistance of particularism, of separation, clinging + to use and wont, and basing itself on formal pettifogging + objections, against the spirit of organisation. Anything more he + declined to see. And probably he was right in ascribing a large + part of the opposition to inertia, to vanity and self-interest, + combined with the want of political perception of the needs of + Würtemberg and Germany. But on the other hand, he failed to + remember the insecurity and danger of such <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pageclxxxvi">[pg clxxxvi]</span><a name= + "Pgclxxxvi" id="Pgclxxxvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“gifts of the Danai”</span>: he forgot + the sense of free-born men that a constitution is not something + to be granted (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">octroyé</span></span>) as a grace, but + something that must come by the spontaneous act of the innermost + self of the community. He dealt rather with the formal arguments + which were used to refuse progress, than with the underlying + spirit which prompted the opposition<a id="noteref_101" name= + "noteref_101" href="#note_101"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">101</span></span></a>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + philosopher lives (as Plato has well reminded us) too exclusively + within the ideal. Bent on the essential nucleus of institutions, + he attaches but slight importance to the variety of externals, + and fails to realise the practice of the law-courts. He forgets + that what weighs lightly in logic, may turn the scale in real + life and experience. For feeling and sentiment he has but scant + respect: he is brusque and uncompromising: and cannot realise all + the difficulties and dangers that beset the Idea in the mazes of + the world, and may ultimately quite alter a plan which at first + seemed independent of petty details. Better than other men + perhaps he recognises in theory how the mere universal only + exists complete in an individual shape: but more than other men + he forgets these truths of insight, when the business of life + calls for action or for judgment. He cannot at a moment's notice + remember that he is, if not, as Cicero says, <span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">in faece Romuli</span></span>, the member of + a degenerate commonwealth, at least living in a world where good + and evil are not, as logic presupposes, sharply divided but + intricately intertwined.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageclxxxvii">[pg + clxxxvii]</span><a name="Pgclxxxvii" id="Pgclxxxvii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(ii.) The Ethics and Religion of + the State.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This idealism + of political theory is illustrated by the sketch of the Ethical + Life which he drew up about 1802. Under the name of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ethical System”</span> it presents in concentrated + or undeveloped shape the doctrine which subsequently swelled into + the <span class="tei tei-q">“Philosophy of Mind.”</span> At a + later date he worked out more carefully as introduction the + psychological genesis of moral and intelligent man, and he + separated out more distinctly as a sequel the universal powers + which give to social life its higher characters. In the earlier + sketch the Ethical Part stands by itself, with the consequence + that Ethics bears a meaning far exceeding all that had been + lately called moral. The word <span class= + "tei tei-q">“moral”</span> itself he avoids<a id="noteref_102" + name="noteref_102" href="#note_102"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">102</span></span></a>. It + savours of excessive subjectivity, of struggle, of duty and + conscience. It has an ascetic ring about it—an aspect of + negation, which seeks for abstract holiness, and turns its back + on human nature. Kant's words opposing duty to inclination, and + implying that moral goodness involves a struggle, an antagonism, + a victory, seem to him (and to his time) one-sided. That aspect + of negation accordingly which Kant certainly began with, and + which Schopenhauer magnified until it became the all-in-all of + Ethics, Hegel entirely subordinates. Equally little does he like + the emphasis on the supremacy of insight, intention, conscience: + they lead, he thinks, to a view which holds the mere fact of + conviction to be all-important, as if it mattered not what we + thought and believed and did, so long as we were sincere in our + belief. All this emphasis on the good-will, on the imperative of + duty, on the rights of conscience, has, he admits, its + justification in certain circumstances, as <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pageclxxxviii">[pg clxxxviii]</span><a name= + "Pgclxxxviii" id="Pgclxxxviii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + against mere legality, or mere natural instinctive goodness; but + it has been overdone. Above all, it errs by an excess of + individualism. It springs from an attitude of reflection,—in + which the individual, isolated in his conscious and superficial + individuality, yet tries—but probably tries in vain—to get + somewhat in touch with a universal which he has allowed to slip + outside him, forgetting that it is the heart and substance of his + life. Kant, indeed, hardly falls under this condemnation. For he + aims at showing that the rational will inevitably creates as + rational a law or universal; that the individual act becomes + self-regulative, and takes its part in constituting a system or + realm of duty.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Still, on the + whole, <span class="tei tei-q">“morality”</span> in this narrower + sense belongs to an age of reflection, and is formal or nominal + goodness rather than the genuine and full reality. It is the + protest against mere instinctive or customary virtue, which is + but compliance with traditional authority, and compliance with it + as if it were a sort of quasi-natural law. Moralising reflection + is the awakening of subjectivity and of a deeper personality. The + age which thus precedes morality is not an age in which kindness, + or love, or generosity is unknown. And if Hegel says that + <span class="tei tei-q">“Morality,”</span> strictly so called, + began with Socrates, he does not thereby accuse the pre-Socratic + Greeks of inhumanity. But what he does say is that such ethical + life as existed was in the main a thing of custom and law: of + law, moreover, which was not set objectively forward, but left + still in the stage of uncontradicted usage, a custom which was a + second nature, part of the essential and quasi-physical ordinance + of life. The individual had not yet learned to set his + self-consciousness against these usages and ask for their + justification. These are like the so-called law of the Medes and + Persians which alters not: customs <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pageclxxxix">[pg clxxxix]</span><a name="Pgclxxxix" id= + "Pgclxxxix" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of immemorial antiquity + and unquestionable sway. They are part of a system of things with + which for good or evil the individual is utterly identified, + bound as it were hand and foot. These are, as a traveller + says<a id="noteref_103" name="noteref_103" href= + "#note_103"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">103</span></span></a>, + <span class="tei tei-q">“oral and unwritten traditions which + teach that certain rules of conduct are to be observed under + certain penalties; and without the aid of fixed records, or the + intervention of a succession of authorised depositaries and + expounders, these laws have been transmitted to father and son, + through unknown generations, and are fixed in the minds of the + people as sacred and unalterable.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The antithesis + then in Hegel, as in Kant, is between Law and Morality, or rather + Legality and Morality,—two abstractions to which human + development is alternately prone to attach supreme importance. + The first stage in the objectivation of intelligence or in the + evolution of personality is the constitution of mere, abstract, + or strict right. It is the creation of institutions and + uniformities, i.e. of laws, or rights, which express definite and + stereotyped modes of behaviour. Or, if we look at it from the + individual's standpoint, we may say his consciousness awakes to + find the world parcelled out under certain rules and divisions, + which have objective validity, and govern him with the same + absolute authority as do the circumstances of physical nature. + Under their influence every rank and individual is alike forced + to bow: to each his place and function is assigned by an order or + system which claims an inviolable and eternal supremacy. It is + not the same place and function for each: but for each the + position and duties are predetermined in this + metaphysically-physical order. The situation and its duties + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecxc">[pg cxc]</span><a name= + "Pgcxc" id="Pgcxc" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> have been created + by super-human and natural ordinance. As the Platonic myth puts + it, each order in the social hierarchy has been framed + underground by powers that turned out men of gold, and silver, + and baser metal: or as the Norse legend tells, they are the + successive offspring of the white God, Heimdal, in his dealings + with womankind.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The central + idea of the earlier social world is the supremacy of rights—but + not of right. The sum (for it cannot be properly called a system) + of rights is a self-subsistent world, to which man is but a + servant; and a second peculiarity of it is its inequality. If all + are equal before the laws, this only means here that the laws, + with their absolute and thorough inequality, are indifferent to + the real and personal diversities of individuals. Even the + so-called equality of primitive law is of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Eye-for-eye, Tooth-for-tooth”</span> kind; it takes + no note of special circumstances; it looks abstractly and rudely + at facts, and maintains a hard and fast uniformity, which seems + the height of unfairness. Rule stands by rule, usage beside + usage,—a mere aggregate or multitude of petty tyrants, reduced to + no unity or system, and each pressing with all the weight of an + absolute mandate. The pettiest bit of ceremonial law is here of + equal dignity with the most far-reaching principle of political + obligation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the essay + already referred to, Hegel has designated something analogous to + this as Natural or Physical Ethics, or as Ethics in its relative + or comparative stage. Here Man first shows his superiority to + nature, or enters on his properly ethical function, by + transforming the physical world into his possession. He makes + himself the lord of natural objects—stamping them as his, and not + their own, making them his permanent property, his tools, his + instruments of exchange <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagecxci">[pg cxci]</span><a name="Pgcxci" id="Pgcxci" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and production. The fundamental ethical act + is appropriation by labour, and the first ethical world is the + creation of an economic system, the institution of property. For + property, or at least possession and appropriation, is the + dominant idea, with its collateral and sequent principles. And at + first, even human beings are treated on the same method as other + things: as objects in a world of objects or aggregate of things: + as things to be used and acquired, as means and instruments,—not + in any sense as ends in themselves. It is a world in which the + relation of master and slave is dominant,—where owner and + employer is set in antithesis against his tools and chattels. But + the Nemesis of his act issues in making the individual the + servant of his so-called property. He has become an objective + power by submitting himself to objectivity: he has literally put + himself into the object he has wrought, and is now a thing among + things: for what he owns, what he has appropriated, determines + what he is. The real powers in the world thus established are the + laws of possession-holding: the laws dominate man: and he is only + freed from dependence on casual externals, by making himself + thoroughly the servant of his possessions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The only + salvation, and it is but imperfect, that can be reached on this + stage is by the family union. The sexual tie, is at first + entirely on a level with the other arrangements of the sphere. + The man or woman is but a chattel and a tool; a casual + appropriation which gradually is transformed into a permanent + possession and a permanent bond<a id="noteref_104" name= + "noteref_104" href="#note_104"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">104</span></span></a>. + But, as the family constituted itself, it helped to afford a + promise of better things. An ideal interest—the religion of the + household—extending <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecxcii">[pg + cxcii]</span><a name="Pgcxcii" id="Pgcxcii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> beyond the individual, and beyond the + moment,—binding past and present, and parents to offspring, gave + a new character to the relation of property. Parents and children + form a unity, which overrides and essentially permeates their + <span class="tei tei-q">“difference”</span> from each other: + there is no exchange, no contract, nor, in the stricter sense, + property between the members. In the property-idea they are + lifted out of their isolation, and in the continuity of family + life there is a certain analogue of immortality. But, says Hegel, + <span class="tei tei-q">“though the family be the highest + totality of which Nature is capable, the absolute identity is in + it still inward, and is not instituted in absolute form; and + hence, too, the reproduction of the totality is an appearance, + the appearance of the children<a id="noteref_105" name= + "noteref_105" href="#note_105"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">105</span></span></a>.”</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“The power and the intelligence, the + <span class="tei tei-q">‘difference’</span> of the parents, + stands in inverse proportion to the youth and vigour of the + child: and these two sides of life flee from and are sequent on + each other, and are reciprocally external<a id="noteref_106" + name="noteref_106" href="#note_106"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">106</span></span></a>.”</span> + Or, as we may put it, the god of the family is a departed + ancestor, a ghost in the land of the dead: it has not really a + continuous and unified life. In such a state of society—a state + of nature—and in its supreme form, the family, there is no + adequate principle which though real shall still give ideality + and unity to the self-isolating aspects of life. There is wanted + something which shall give expression to its <span class= + "tei tei-q">“indifference,”</span> which shall control the + tendency of this partial moralisation to sink at every moment + into individuality, and lift it from its immersion in nature. + Family life and economic groups (—for these two, which Hegel + subsequently separates, are here kept close together) need an + ampler and wider <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecxciii">[pg + cxciii]</span><a name="Pgcxciii" id="Pgcxciii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> life to keep them from stagnating in their + several selfishnesses.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This + freshening and corrective influence they get in the first + instance from deeds of violence and crime. Here is the + <span class="tei tei-q">“negative unsettling”</span> of the + narrow fixities, of the determinate conditions or relationships + into which the preceding processes of labour and acquisition have + tended to stereotype life. The harsh restriction brings about its + own undoing. Man may subject natural objects to his formative + power, but the wild rage of senseless devastation again and again + bursts forth to restore the original formlessness. He may build + up his own pile of wealth, store up his private goods, but the + thief and the robber with the instincts of barbarian socialism + tread on his steps: and every stage of appropriation has for its + sequel a crop of acts of dispossession. He may secure by + accumulation his future life; but the murderer for gain's sake + cuts it short. And out of all this as a necessary consequence + stands avenging justice. And in the natural world of ethics—where + true moral life has not yet arisen—this is mere retaliation or + the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">lex + talionis</span></span>;—the beginning of an endless series of + vengeance and counter-vengeance, the blood-feud. Punishment, in + the stricter sense of the term,—which looks both to antecedents + and effects in character—cannot yet come into existence; for to + punish there must be something superior to individualities, an + ethical idea embodied in an institution, to which the injurer and + the injured alike belong. But as yet punishment is only + vengeance, the personal and natural equivalent, the physical + reaction against injury, perhaps regulated and formulated by + custom and usage, but not essentially altered from its purely + retaliatory character. These crimes—or transgressions—are thus by + Hegel quaintly conceived as storms which clear the air—which + shake the individualist <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagecxciv">[pg cxciv]</span><a name="Pgcxciv" id="Pgcxciv" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> out of his slumber. The scene in + which transgression thus acts is that of the so-called state of + nature, where particularism was rampant: where moral right was + not, but only the right of nature, of pre-occupation, of the + stronger, of the first maker and discoverer. Crime is thus the + <span class="tei tei-q">“dialectic”</span> which shakes the + fixity of practical arrangements, and calls for something in + which the idea of a higher unity, a permanent substance of life, + shall find realisation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + <span class="tei tei-q">“positive supersession<a id="noteref_107" + name="noteref_107" href="#note_107"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">107</span></span></a>”</span> + of individualism and naturalism in ethics is by Hegel called + <span class="tei tei-q">“Absolute Ethics.”</span> Under this + title he describes the ethics and religion of the state—a + religion which is immanent in the community, and an ethics which + rises superior to particularity. The picture he draws is a + romance fashioned upon the model of the Greek commonwealth as + that had been idealised by Greek literature and by the longings + of later ages for a freer life. It is but one of the many modes + in which Helena—to quote Goethe—has fascinated the German Faust. + He dreams himself away from the prosaic worldliness of a German + municipality to the unfading splendour of the Greek city with its + imagined coincidence of individual will with universal purpose. + There is in such a commonwealth no pain of surrender and of + sacrifice, and no subsequent compensation: for, at the very + moment of resigning self-will to common aims, he enjoys it + retained with the added zest of self-expansion. He is not so left + to himself as to feel from beyond the restraint of a law which + controls—even if it wisely and well controls—individual effort. + There is for his happy circumstances no possibility of doing + otherwise. Or, it may be, Hegel has reminiscences from the ideals + of other nations than the Greek. He recalls the Israelite + depicted by the Law-adoring <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagecxcv">[pg cxcv]</span><a name="Pgcxcv" id="Pgcxcv" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> psalmist, whose delight is to do the will + of the Lord, whom the zeal of God's house has consumed, whose + whole being runs on in one pellucid stream with the universal and + eternal stream of divine commandment. Such a frame of spirit, + where the empirical consciousness with all its soul and strength + and mind identifies its mission into conformity with the absolute + order, is the mood of absolute Ethics. It is what some have + spoken of as the True life, as the Eternal life; in it, says + Hegel, the individual exists <span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">auf ewige Weise</span></span><a id= + "noteref_108" name="noteref_108" href="#note_108"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">108</span></span></a>, as + it were <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">sub specie + aeternitatis</span></span>: his life is hid with his fellows in + the common life of his people. His every act, and thought, and + will, get their being and significance from a reality which is + established in him as a permanent spirit. It is there that he, in + the fuller sense, attains αὐτάρκεια, or finds himself no longer a + mere part, but an ideal totality. This totality is realised under + the particular form of a Nation (<span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Volk</span></span>), which in the visible + sphere represents (or rather is, as a particular) the absolute + and infinite. Such a unity is neither the mere sum of isolated + individuals, nor a mere majority ruling by numbers: but the + fraternal and organic commonwealth which brings all classes and + all rights from their particularistic independence into an ideal + identity and indifference<a id="noteref_109" name="noteref_109" + href="#note_109"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">109</span></span></a>. + Here all are not merely equal before the laws: but the law itself + is a living and organic unity, self-correcting, subordinating and + organising, and no longer merely defining individual privileges + and so-called liberties. <span class="tei tei-q">“In such + conjunction of the universal with the particularity lies the + divinity of a nation: or, if we give this universal a separate + place in our ideas, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecxcvi">[pg + cxcvi]</span><a name="Pgcxcvi" id="Pgcxcvi" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> it is the God of the nation.”</span> But in + this complete accordance between concept and intuition, between + visible and invisible, where symbol and significate are one, + religion and ethics are indistinguishable. It is the old + conception (and in its highest sense) of Theocracy<a id= + "noteref_110" name="noteref_110" href="#note_110"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">110</span></span></a>. + God is the national head and the national life: and in him all + individuals have their <span class= + "tei tei-q">“difference”</span> rendered <span class= + "tei tei-q">“indifferent.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Such + an ethical life is absolute truth, for untruth is only in the + fixture of a single mode: but in the everlasting being of the + nation all singleness is superseded. It is absolute culture; for + in the eternal is the real and empirical annihilation and + prescription of all limited modality. It is absolute + disinterestedness: for in the eternal there is nothing private + and personal. It, and each of its movements, is the highest + beauty: for beauty is but the eternal made actual and given + concrete shape. It is without pain, and blessed: for in it all + difference and all pain is superseded. It is the divine, + absolute, real, existing and being, under no veil; nor need one + first raise it up into the ideality of divinity, and extract it + from the appearance and empirical intuition; but it is, and + immediately, absolute intuition<a id="noteref_111" name= + "noteref_111" href="#note_111"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">111</span></span></a>.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we compare + this language with the statement of the Encyclopaedia we can see + how for the moment Hegel's eye is engrossed with the glory of the + ideal nation. In it, the moral life embraces and is co-extensive + with religion, art and science: practice and theory are at one: + life in the idea knows none of those differences which, in the + un-ideal world, make art and morality often antithetical, and set + religion at variance with science. It is, as we have said, a + memory of Greek and perhaps Hebrew ideals. Or rather it is by the + help of such <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecxcvii">[pg + cxcvii]</span><a name="Pgcxcvii" id="Pgcxcvii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> memories the affirmation of the essential + unity of life—the true, complete, many-sided life—which is the + presupposition and idea that culture and morals rest upon and + from which they get their supreme sanction, i.e. their + constitutive principle and unity. Even in the Encyclopaedia<a id= + "noteref_112" name="noteref_112" href="#note_112"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">112</span></span></a> + Hegel endeavours to guard against the severance of morality and + art and philosophy which may be rashly inferred in consequence of + his serial order of treatment. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Religion,”</span> he remarks, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“is the very substance of the moral life itself and + of the state.... The ethical life is the divine spirit indwelling + in consciousness, as it is actually present in a nation and its + individual members.”</span> Yet, as we see, there is a + distinction. The process of history carries out a judgment on + nation after nation, and reveals the divine as not only immanent + in the ethical life but as ever expanding the limited national + spirit till it become a spirit of universal humanity. Still—and + this is perhaps for each time always the more important—the + national unity—not indeed as a multitude, nor as a majority—is + the supreme real appearance of the Eternal and Absolute.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Having thus + described the nation as an organic totality, he goes on to point + out that the political constitution shows this character by + forming a triplicity of political orders. In one of these there + is but a silent, practical identity, in faith and trust, with the + totality: in the second there is a thorough disruption of + interest into particularity: and in the third, there is a living + and intellectual identity or indifference, which combines the + widest range of individual development with the completest unity + of political loyalty. This last order is that which lives in + conscious identification of private with public duty: all that it + does has a universal and public function. Such a body is the + ideal Nobility—the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecxcviii">[pg + cxcviii]</span><a name="Pgcxcviii" id="Pgcxcviii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> nobility which is the <span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">servus servorum Dei</span></span>, the + supreme servant of humanity. Its function is to maintain general + interests, to give the other orders (peasantry and industrials) + security,—receiving in return from these others the means of + subsistence. <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "fr"><span style="font-style: italic">Noblesse + oblige</span></span> gives the death-blow to particular + interests, and imposes the duty of exhibiting, in the clearest + form, the supreme reality of absolute morality, and of being to + the rest an unperturbed ideal of aesthetic, ethical, religious, + and philosophical completeness.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is here + alone, in this estate which is absolutely disinterested, that the + virtues appear in their true light. To the ordinary moralising + standpoint they seem severally to be, in their separation, + charged with independent value. But from the higher point of view + the existence, and still more the accentuation of single virtues, + is a mark of incompleteness. Even quality, it has been said, + involves its defects: it can only shine by eclipsing or + reflecting something else. The completely moral is not the sum of + the several virtues, but the reduction of them to indifference. + It is thus that when Plato tries to get at the unity of virtue, + their aspect of difference tends to be subordinated. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The movement of absolute morality runs through all + the virtues, but settles fixedly in none.”</span> It is more than + love <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">to</span></em> fatherland, and nation, and + laws:—that still implies a relation to something and involves a + difference. For love—the mortal passion, where <span class= + "tei tei-q">“self is not annulled”</span>—is the process of + approximation, while unity is not yet attained, but wished and + aimed at: and when it is complete—and become <span class= + "tei tei-q">“such love as spirits know<a id="noteref_113" name= + "noteref_113" href="#note_113"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">113</span></span></a>”</span>—it + gives place to a calmer rest and an active immanence. The + absolute morality is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">life in</span></em> the fatherland and for + the nation. In the individual however it is the process upward + and inward <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecxcix">[pg + cxcix]</span><a name="Pgcxcix" id="Pgcxcix" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> that we see, not the consummation. Then the + identity appears as an ideal, as a tendency not yet accomplished + to its end, a possibility not yet made fully actual. At bottom—in + the divine substance in which the individual inheres—the identity + is present: but in the appearance, we have only the passage from + possible to actual, a passage which has the aspect of a struggle. + Hence the moral act appears as a virtue, with merit or desert. It + is accordingly the very characteristic of virtue to signalise its + own incompleteness: it emerges into actuality only through + antagonism, and with a taint of imperfection clinging to it. + Thus, in the field of absolute morality, if the virtues appear, + it is only in their transiency. If they were undisputedly real in + morality, they would not separately show. To feel that you have + done well implies that you have not done wholly well: + self-gratulation in meritorious deed is the re-action from the + shudder at feeling that the self was not wholly good.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The essential + unity of virtue—its negative character as regards all the + empirical variety of virtues—is seen in the excellences required + by the needs of war. These military requirements demonstrate the + mere relativity and therefore non-virtuousness of the special + virtues. They equally protest against the common beliefs in the + supreme dignity of labour and its utilities. But if bravery or + soldierlike virtue be essentially a virtue of virtues, it is only + a negative virtue after all. It is the blast of the universal + sweeping away all the habitations and fixed structures of + particularist life. If it is a unity of virtue, it is only a + negative unity—an indifference. If it avoid the parcelling of + virtue into a number of imperfect and sometimes contradictory + parts, it does so only to present a bare negation. The soldier, + therefore, if in potentiality the unity of all the virtues, may + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagecc">[pg cc]</span><a name="Pgcc" + id="Pgcc" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> tend in practice to + represent the ability to do without any of them<a id= + "noteref_114" name="noteref_114" href="#note_114"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">114</span></span></a>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The home of + these <span class="tei tei-q">“relative”</span> virtues—of + morality in the ordinary sense—is the life of the second order in + the commonwealth: the order of industry and commerce. In this + sphere the idea of the universal is gradually lost to view: it + becomes, says Hegel, only a thought or a creature of the mind, + which does not affect practice. The materialistic worker of + civilisation does not see further than the empirical existence of + individuals: his horizon is limited by the family, and his final + ideal is a competency of comfort in possessions and revenues. The + supreme universal to which he attains as the climax of his + evolution is only money. But it is only with the vaster + development of commerce that this terrible consequence ensues. At + first as a mere individual, he has higher aims, though not the + highest. He has a limited ideal determined by his special sphere + of work. To win respect—the character for a limited truthfulness + and honesty and skilful work—is his ambition. He lives in a + conceit of his performance—his utility—the esteem of his special + circle. To his commercial soul the military order is a scarecrow + and a nuisance: military honour is but trash. Yet if his range of + idea is narrow and engrossing in details, his aim is to get + worship, to be recognised as the best in his little sphere. But + with the growth of the trading spirit his character changes: he + becomes the mere capitalist, is denationalised, has no definite + work and can claim no individualised function. Money now measures + all things: it is the sole ultimate reality. It <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagecci">[pg cci]</span><a name="Pgcci" id= + "Pgcci" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> transforms everything into a + relation of contract: even vengeance is equated in terms of + money. Its motto is, The Exchanges must be honoured, though + honour and morality may go to the dogs. So far as it is + concerned, there is no nation, but a federation of shopkeepers. + Such an one is the <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bourgeois</span></span> (the <span lang="de" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bürger</span></span>, as distinct from the + peasant or <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Bauer</span></span> and the + <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Adel</span></span>). As an + artisan—i.e. a mere industrial, he knows no country, but at best + the reputation and interest of his own guild-union with its + partial object. He is narrow, but honest and respectable. As a + mere commercial agent, he knows no country: his field is the + world, but the world not in its concreteness and variety, but in + the abstract aspect of a money-bag and an exchange. The larger + totality is indeed not altogether out of sight. But if he + contribute to the needy, either his sacrifice is lifeless in + proportion as it becomes general, or loses generality as it + becomes lively. As regards his general services to the great life + of his national state<a id="noteref_115" name="noteref_115" href= + "#note_115"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">115</span></span></a>, + they are unintelligently and perhaps grudgingly rendered.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of the peasant + order Hegel has less to say. On one side the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“country”</span> as opposed to the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“town”</span> has a closer natural sympathy with the + common and general interest: and the peasantry is the + undifferentiated, solid and sound, basis of the national life. It + forms the submerged mass, out of which the best soldiers are + made, and which out of the depths of earth brings forward + nourishment as well as all the materials of elementary necessity. + Faithfulness and loyalty are its virtues: but it is personal + allegiance to a commanding superior,—not to a law or a general + view—for the peasant is <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pageccii">[pg ccii]</span><a name="Pgccii" id="Pgccii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> weak in comprehensive intelligence, though + shrewd in detailed observation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of the purely + political function of the state Hegel in this sketch says almost + nothing. But under the head of the general government of the + state he deals with its social functions. For a moment he refers + to the well-known distinction of the legislative, judicial and + executive powers. But it is only to remark that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“in every governmental act all three are conjoined. + They are abstractions, none of which can get a reality of its + own,—which, in other words, cannot be constituted and organised + as powers. Legislation, judicature, and executive are something + completely formal, empty, and contentless.... Whether the others + are or are not bare abstractions, empty activities, depends + entirely on the executive power; and this is absolutely the + government<a id="noteref_116" name="noteref_116" href= + "#note_116"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">116</span></span></a>.”</span> + Treating government as the organic movement by which the + universal and the particular in the commonwealth come into + relations, he finds that it presents three forms, or gives rise + to three systems. The highest and last of these is the + <span class="tei tei-q">“educational”</span> system. By this he + understands all that activity by which the intelligence of the + state tries directly to mould and guide the character and + fortunes of its members: all the means of culture and discipline, + whether in general or for individuals, all training to public + function, to truthfulness, to good manners. Under the same head + come conquest and colonisation as state agencies. The second + system is the judicial, which instead of, like the former, aiming + at the formation or reformation of its members is satisfied by + subjecting individual transgression to a process of rectification + by the general principle. With regard to the system of + judicature, Hegel argues for a variety of procedure to suit + different ranks, and for a corresponding <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="pagecciii">[pg cciii]</span><a name="Pgcciii" id="Pgcciii" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> modification of penalties. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Formal rigid equality is just what does + not spare the character. The same penalty which in one estate + brings no infamy causes in another a deep and irremediable + hurt.”</span> And with regard to the after life of the + transgressor who has borne his penalty: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Punishment is the reconciliation of the law with + itself. No further reproach for his crime can be addressed to the + person who has undergone his punishment. He is restored to + membership of his estate<a id="noteref_117" name="noteref_117" + href="#note_117"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">117</span></span></a>.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the first + of the three systems, the economic system, or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“System of wants,”</span> the state seems at first + hardly to appear in its universal and controlling function at + all. Here the individual depends for the satisfaction of his + physical needs on a blind, unconscious destiny, on the obscure + and incalculable properties of supply and demand in the whole + interconnexion of commodities. But even this is not all. With the + accumulation of wealth in inequality, and the growth of vast + capitals, there is substituted for the dependence of the + individual on the general resultant of a vast number of agencies + a dependence on one enormously rich individual, who can control + the physical destinies of a nation. But a nation, truly speaking, + is there no more. The industrial order has parted into a mere + abstract workman on one hand, and the <span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">grande richesse</span></span> on the other. + <span class="tei tei-q">“It has lost its capacity of an organic + absolute intuition and of respect for the divine—external though + its divinity be: and there sets in the bestiality of contempt for + all that is noble. The mere wisdomless universal, the mass of + wealth, is the essential: and the ethical principle, the absolute + bond of the nation, is vanished; and the nation is + dissolved<a id="noteref_118" name="noteref_118" href= + "#note_118"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">118</span></span></a>.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would be a + long and complicated task to sift, in <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="pagecciv">[pg cciv]</span><a name="Pgcciv" id="Pgcciv" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> these ill-digested but profound + suggestions, the real meaning from the formal statement. They + are, like Utopia, beyond the range of practical politics. The + modern reader, whose political conceptions are limited by + contemporary circumstance, may find them archaic, medieval, + quixotic. But for those who behind the words and forms can see + the substance and the idea, they will perhaps come nearer the + conception of ideal commonwealth than many reforming programmes. + Compared with the maturer statements of the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophy of + Law</span></span>, they have the faults of the Romantic age to + which their inception belongs. Yet even in that later exposition + there is upheld the doctrine of the supremacy of the eternal + State against everything particular, class-like, and temporary; a + doctrine which has made Hegel—as it made Fichte—a voice in that + <span class="tei tei-q">“professorial socialism”</span> which is + at least as old as Plato.</p> + </div> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page003">[pg 003]</span><a name= + "Pg003" id="Pg003" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc15" id="toc15"></a> <a name="pdf16" id="pdf16"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Introduction.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 377. The + knowledge of Mind is the highest and hardest, just because it is the + most <span class="tei tei-q">“concrete”</span> of sciences. The + significance of that <span class="tei tei-q">“absolute”</span> + commandment, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Know thyself</span></em>—whether we look at it + in itself or under the historical circumstances of its first + utterance—is not to promote mere self-knowledge in respect of the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">particular</span></em> capacities, character, + propensities, and foibles of the single self. The knowledge it + commands means that of man's genuine reality—of what is essentially + and ultimately true and real—of mind as the true and essential being. + Equally little is it the purport of mental philosophy to teach what + is called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">knowledge of men</span></em>—the knowledge whose + aim is to detect the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">peculiarities</span></em>, passions, and foibles + of other men, and lay bare what are called the recesses of the human + heart. Information of this kind is, for one thing, meaningless, + unless on the assumption that we know the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">universal</span></em>—man as man, and, that + always must be, as mind. And for another, being only engaged with + casual, insignificant and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">untrue</span></em> aspects of mental life, it + fails to reach the underlying essence of them all—the mind + itself.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page004">[pg + 004]</span><a name="Pg004" id="Pg004" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 378. + Pneumatology, or, as it was also called, Rational Psychology, has + been already alluded to in the Introduction to the Logic as an + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">abstract</span></em> and generalising metaphysic + of the subject. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Empirical</span></em> (or inductive) psychology, + on the other hand, deals with the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“concrete”</span> mind: and, after the revival of the + sciences, when observation and experience had been made the + distinctive methods for the study of concrete reality, such + psychology was worked on the same lines as other sciences. In this + way it came about that the metaphysical theory was kept outside the + inductive science, and so prevented from getting any concrete + embodiment or detail: whilst at the same time the inductive science + clung to the conventional common-sense metaphysic, with its analysis + into forces, various activities, &c., and rejected any attempt at + a <span class="tei tei-q">“speculative”</span> treatment.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The books of + Aristotle on the Soul, along with his discussions on its special + aspects and states, are for this reason still by far the most + admirable, perhaps even the sole, work of philosophical value on this + topic. The main aim of a philosophy of mind can only be to + re-introduce unity of idea and principle into the theory of mind, and + so re-interpret the lesson of those Aristotelian books.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 379. Even our + own sense of the mind's <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">living</span></em> unity naturally protests + against any attempt to break it up into different faculties, forces, + or, what comes to the same thing, activities, conceived as + independent of each other. But the craving for a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">comprehension</span></em> of the unity is still + further stimulated, as we soon come across distinctions between + mental freedom and mental determinism, antitheses between free + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">psychic</span></em> agency and the corporeity + that lies external to it, whilst we equally note the intimate + interdependence of the one upon the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page005">[pg 005]</span><a name="Pg005" id="Pg005" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> other. In modern times especially the phenomena + of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">animal + magnetism</span></em> have given, even in experience, a lively and + visible confirmation of the underlying unity of soul, and of the + power of its <span class="tei tei-q">“ideality.”</span> Before these + facts, the rigid distinctions of practical common sense were struck + with confusion; and the necessity of a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“speculative”</span> examination with a view to the + removal of difficulties was more directly forced upon the + student.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 380. The + <span class="tei tei-q">“concrete”</span> nature of mind involves for + the observer the peculiar difficulty that the several grades and + special types which develop its intelligible unity in detail are not + left standing as so many separate existences confronting its more + advanced aspects. It is otherwise in external nature. There, matter + and movement, for example, have a manifestation all their own—it is + the solar system; and similarly the <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">differentiae</span></span> of sense-perception + have a sort of earlier existence in the properties of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bodies</span></em>, + and still more independently in the four elements. The species and + grades of mental evolution, on the contrary, lose their separate + existence and become factors, states and features in the higher + grades of development. As a consequence of this, a lower and more + abstract aspect of mind betrays the presence in it, even to + experience, of a higher grade. Under the guise of sensation, e.g., we + may find the very highest mental life as its modification or its + embodiment. And so sensation, which is but a mere form and vehicle, + may to the superficial glance seem to be the proper seat and, as it + were, the source of those moral and religious principles with which + it is charged; and the moral and religious principles thus modified + may seem to call for treatment as species of sensation. But at the + same time, when lower grades of mental life are under examination, it + becomes necessary, if we desire <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page006">[pg 006]</span><a name="Pg006" id="Pg006" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> to point to actual cases of them in experience, + to direct attention to more advanced grades for which they are mere + forms. In this way subjects will be treated of by anticipation which + properly belong to later stages of development (e.g. in dealing with + natural awaking from sleep we speak by anticipation of consciousness, + or in dealing with mental derangement we must speak of + intellect).</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">What Mind (or Spirit) is.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 381. From our + point of view Mind has for its <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">presupposition</span></em> + Nature, of which it is the truth, and for that reason its + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">absolute prius</span></span>. In this its + truth Nature is vanished, and mind has resulted as the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Idea”</span> entered on possession of itself. Here the + subject and object of the Idea are one—either is the intelligent + unity, the notion. This identity is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">absolute + negativity</span></em>—for whereas in Nature the intelligent unity + has its objectivity perfect but externalised, this + self-externalisation has been nullified and the unity in that way + been made one and the same with itself. Thus at the same time it is + this identity only so far as it is a return out of nature.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 382. For this + reason the essential, but formally essential, feature of mind is + Liberty: i.e. it is the notion's absolute negativity or + self-identity. Considered as this formal aspect, it <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">may</span></em> + withdraw itself from everything external and from its own + externality, its very existence; it can thus submit to infinite + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">pain</span></em>, the negation of its + individual immediacy: in other words, it can keep itself + affirmative in this negativity and possess its own identity. All + this is possible so long as it is considered in its abstract + self-contained universality.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 383. This + universality is also its determinate sphere <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page007">[pg 007]</span><a name="Pg007" id="Pg007" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of being. Having a being of its own, + the universal is self-particularising, whilst it still remains + self-identical. Hence the special mode of mental being is + <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">manifestation</span></em>.”</span> The spirit + is not some one mode or meaning which finds utterance or + externality only in a form distinct from itself: it does not + manifest or reveal <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">something</span></em>, but its very mode and + meaning is this revelation. And thus in its mere possibility Mind + is at the same moment an infinite, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“absolute,”</span> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">actuality</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 384. + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Revelation</span></em>, taken to mean the + revelation of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">abstract</span></em> Idea, is an unmediated + transition to Nature which <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">comes</span></em> to be. As Mind is free, its + manifestation is to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">set forth</span></em> Nature as <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">its</span></em> + world; but because it is reflection, it, in thus setting forth its + world, at the same time <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">presupposes</span></em> the world as a nature + independently existing. In the intellectual sphere to reveal is + thus to create a world as its being—a being in which the mind + procures the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">affirmation</span></em> and <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">truth</span></em> + of its freedom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">The Absolute is + Mind</span></em> (Spirit)—this is the supreme definition of the + Absolute. To find this definition and to grasp its meaning and + burthen was, we may say, the ultimate purpose of all education and + all philosophy: it was the point to which turned the impulse of all + religion and science: and it is this impulse that must explain the + history of the world. The word <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Mind”</span> (Spirit)—and some glimpse of its + meaning—was found at an early period: and the spirituality of God + is the lesson of Christianity. It remains for philosophy in its own + element of intelligible unity to get hold of what was thus given as + a mental image, and what implicitly is the ultimate reality: and + that problem is not genuinely, and by rational methods, solved so + long as liberty and intelligible unity is not the theme and the + soul of philosophy.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page008">[pg 008]</span><a name= + "Pg008" id="Pg008" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Subdivision.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 385. The + development of Mind (Spirit) is in three stages:—</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(1) In the form + of self-relation: within it it has the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ideal</span></em> + totality of the Idea—i.e. it has before it all that its notion + contains: its being is to be self-contained and free. This is + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Mind + Subjective</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(2) In the form + of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">reality</span></em>: realised, i.e. in a + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">world</span></em> produced and to be produced + by it: in this world freedom presents itself under the shape of + necessity. This is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mind Objective</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(3) In that + unity of mind as objectivity and, of mind as ideality and concept, + which essentially and actually is and for ever produces itself, + mind in its absolute truth. This is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Mind + Absolute</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 386. The two + first parts of the doctrine of Mind embrace the finite mind. Mind + is the infinite Idea; thus finitude here means the disproportion + between the concept and the reality—but with the qualification that + it is a shadow cast by the mind's own light—a show or illusion + which the mind implicitly imposes as a barrier to itself, in order, + by its removal, actually to realise and become conscious of freedom + as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">its</span></em> very being, i.e. to be fully + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">manifested</span></em>. The several steps of + this activity, on each of which, with their semblance of being, it + is the function of the finite mind to linger, and through which it + has to pass, are steps in its liberation. In the full truth of that + liberation is given the identification of the three stages—finding + a world presupposed before us, generating a world as our own + creation, and gaining freedom from it and in it. To the infinite + form of this truth the show purifies itself till it becomes a + consciousness of it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A rigid + application of the category of finitude by <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page009">[pg 009]</span><a name="Pg009" id="Pg009" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the abstract logician is chiefly seen in + dealing with Mind and reason: it is held not a mere matter of + strict logic, but treated also as a moral and religious concern, to + adhere to the point of view of finitude, and the wish to go further + is reckoned a mark of audacity, if not of insanity, of thought. + Whereas in fact such a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">modesty</span></em> of thought, as treats the + finite as something altogether fixed and <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">absolute</span></em>, is the worst of virtues; + and to stick to a post which has no sound ground in itself is the + most unsound sort of theory. The category of finitude was at a much + earlier period elucidated and explained at its place in the Logic: + an elucidation which, as in logic for the more specific though + still simple thought-forms of finitude, so in the rest of + philosophy for the concrete forms, has merely to show that the + finite <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">is + not</span></em>, i.e. is not the truth, but merely a transition and + an emergence to something higher. This finitude of the spheres so + far examined is the dialectic that makes a thing have its cessation + by another and in another: but Spirit, the intelligent unity and + the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">implicit</span></em> Eternal, is itself just + the consummation of that internal act by which nullity is nullified + and vanity is made vain. And so, the modesty alluded to is a + retention of this vanity—the finite—in opposition to the true: it + is itself therefore vanity. In the course of the mind's development + we shall see this vanity appear as <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">wickedness</span></em> at that turning-point + at which mind has reached its extreme immersion in its subjectivity + and its most central contradiction.</p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page010">[pg 010]</span><a name= + "Pg010" id="Pg010" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc17" id="toc17"></a> <a name="pdf18" id="pdf18"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Section I. Mind Subjective.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 387. Mind, on + the ideal stage of its development, is mind as <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">cognitive</span></em>: Cognition, however, being + taken here not as a merely logical category of the Idea (§ 223), but + in the sense appropriate to the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">concrete</span></em> mind.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Subjective mind + is:—</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(A) Immediate or + implicit: a soul—the Spirit in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nature</span></em>—the object treated by + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Anthropology</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(B) Mediate or + explicit: still as identical reflection into itself and into other + things: mind in correlation or particularisation: consciousness—the + object treated by the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Phenomenology of Mind</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(C) Mind defining + itself in itself, as an independent subject—the object treated by + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Psychology</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Soul is the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">awaking of + Consciousness</span></em>: Consciousness sets itself up as Reason, + awaking at one bound to the sense of its rationality: and this Reason + by its activity emancipates itself to objectivity and the + consciousness of its intelligent unity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For an + intelligible unity or principle of comprehension each modification it + presents is an advance of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">development</span></em>: and so in mind every + character under which it appears is a stage in a process of + specification and development, a step forward towards its goal, in + order <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page011">[pg 011]</span><a name= + "Pg011" id="Pg011" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to make itself into, + and to realise in itself, what it implicitly is. Each step, again, is + itself such a process, and its product is that what the mind was + implicitly at the beginning (and so for the observer) it is + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">for + itself</span></em>—for the special form, viz. which the mind has in + that step. The ordinary method of psychology is to narrate what the + mind or soul is, what happens to it, what it does. The soul is + presupposed as a ready-made agent, which displays such features as + its acts and utterances, from which we can learn what it is, what + sort of faculties and powers it possesses—all without being aware + that the act and utterance of what the soul is really invests it with + that character in our conception and makes it reach a higher stage of + being than it explicitly had before.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We must, however, + distinguish and keep apart from the progress here studied what we + call education and instruction. The sphere of education is the + individual's only: and its aim is to bring the universal mind to + exist in them. But in the philosophic theory of mind, mind is studied + as self-instruction and self-education in very essence; and its acts + and utterances are stages in the process which brings it forward to + itself, links it in unity with itself, and so makes it actual + mind.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page012">[pg + 012]</span><a name="Pg012" id="Pg012" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc19" id="toc19"></a> <a name="pdf20" id="pdf20"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Sub-Section A. Anthropology. The + Soul.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 388. Spirit + (Mind) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">came into</span></em> being as the truth of + Nature. But not merely is it, as such a result, to be held the true + and real first of what went before: this becoming or transition + bears in the sphere of the notion the special meaning of + <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">free judgment</span></em>.”</span> Mind, thus + come into being, means therefore that Nature in its own self + realises its untruth and sets itself aside: it means that Mind + presupposes itself no longer as the universality which in corporal + individuality is always self-externalised, but as a universality + which in its concretion and totality is one and simple. At such a + stage it is not yet mind, but <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">soul</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 389. The soul + is no separate immaterial entity. Wherever there is Nature, the + soul is its universal immaterialism, its simple <span class= + "tei tei-q">“ideal”</span> life. Soul is the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">substance</span></em> or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“absolute”</span> basis of all the particularising and + individualising of mind: it is in the soul that mind finds the + material on which its character is wrought, and the soul remains + the pervading, identical ideality of it all. But as it is still + conceived thus abstractly, the soul is only the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sleep</span></em> + of mind—the passive νοῦς of Aristotle, which is potentially all + things.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The question of + the immateriality of the soul has no interest, except where, on the + one hand, matter is <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page013">[pg + 013]</span><a name="Pg013" id="Pg013" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + regarded as something <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">true</span></em>, and mind conceived as a + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">thing</span></em>, on the other. But in modern + times even the physicists have found matters grow thinner in their + hands: they have come upon <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">imponderable</span></em> matters, like heat, + light, &c., to which they might perhaps add space and time. + These <span class="tei tei-q">“imponderables,”</span> which have + lost the property (peculiar to matter) of gravity and, in a sense, + even the capacity of offering resistance, have still, however, a + sensible existence and outness of part to part; whereas the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span class="tei tei-q">“vital”</span> + <span style="font-style: italic">matter</span></em>, which may also + be found enumerated among them, not merely lacks gravity, but even + every other aspect of existence which might lead us to treat it as + material. The fact is that in the Idea of Life the self-externalism + of nature is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">implicitly</span></em> at an end: subjectivity + is the very substance and conception of life—with this proviso, + however, that its existence or objectivity is still at the same + time forfeited to the sway of self-externalism. It is otherwise + with Mind. There, in the intelligible unity which exists as + freedom, as absolute negativity, and not as the immediate or + natural individual, the object or the reality of the intelligible + unity is the unity itself; and so the self-externalism, which is + the fundamental feature of matter, has been completely dissipated + and transmuted into universality, or the subjective ideality of the + conceptual unity. Mind is the existent truth of matter—the truth + that matter itself has no truth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A cognate + question is that of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">community of soul and body</span></em>. This + community (interdependence) was assumed as a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fact</span></em>, + and the only problem was how to <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">comprehend</span></em> it. The usual answer, + perhaps, was to call it an <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">incomprehensible</span></em> mystery; and, + indeed, if we take them to be absolutely antithetical and + absolutely independent, they are as impenetrable to each other as + one piece of matter to another, each being supposed <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page014">[pg 014]</span><a name="Pg014" id="Pg014" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to be found only in the pores of the + other, i.e. where the other is not: whence Epicurus, when + attributing to the gods a residence in the pores, was consistent in + not imposing on them any connexion with the world. A somewhat + different answer has been given by all philosophers since this + relation came to be expressly discussed. Descartes, Malebranche, + Spinoza, and Leibnitz have all indicated God as this <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">nexus</span></span>. They meant that the + finitude of soul and matter were only ideal and unreal + distinctions; and, so holding, these philosophers took God, not, as + so often is done, merely as another word for the incomprehensible, + but rather as the sole true identity of finite mind and matter. But + either this identity, as in the case of Spinoza, is too abstract, + or, as in the case of Leibnitz, though his Monad of monads brings + things into being, it does so only by an act of judgment or choice. + Hence, with Leibnitz, the result is a distinction between soul and + the corporeal (or material), and the identity is only like the + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">copula</span></span> of a judgment, and does + not rise or develop into system, into the absolute syllogism.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 390. The Soul + is at first—</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>) In + its immediate natural mode—the natural soul, which only <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">is</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>) + Secondly, it is a soul which <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">feels</span></em>, as individualised, enters + into correlation with its immediate being, and, in the modes of + that being, retains an abstract independence.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c</span></span>) + Thirdly, its immediate being—or corporeity—is moulded into it, and + with that corporeity it exists as <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">actual</span></em> + soul.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(a) The Physical Soul</span><a id= + "noteref_119" name="noteref_119" href="#note_119"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">119</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 391. The + soul universal, described, it may be, as an <span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">anima mundi</span></span>, a world-soul, + must not be fixed on that <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page015">[pg 015]</span><a name="Pg015" id="Pg015" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> account as a single subject; it is rather + the universal <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">substance</span></em> which has its actual + truth only in individuals and single subjects. Thus, when it + presents itself as a single soul, it is a single soul which + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">is</span></em> merely: its only modes are + modes of natural life. These have, so to speak, behind its + ideality a free existence: i.e. they are natural objects for + consciousness, but objects to which the soul as such does not + behave as to something external. These features rather are + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">physical qualities</span></em> of which it + finds itself possessed.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + (α) Physical Qualities<a id="noteref_120" name="noteref_120" + href="#note_120"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">120</span></span></a>.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 392. While + still a <span class="tei tei-q">“substance”</span> (i.e. a + physical soul) the mind (1) takes part in the general planetary + life, feels the difference of climates, the changes of the + seasons and the periods of the day, &c. This life of nature + for the main shows itself only in occasional strain or + disturbance of mental tone.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In recent + times a good deal has been said of the cosmical, sidereal, and + telluric life of man. In such a sympathy with nature the + animals essentially live: their specific characters and their + particular phases of growth depend, in many cases completely, + and always more or less, upon it. In the case of man these + points of dependence lose importance, just in proportion to his + civilisation, and the more his whole frame of soul is based + upon a substructure of mental freedom. The history of the world + is not bound up with revolutions in the solar system, any more + than the destinies of individuals with the positions of the + planets.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + difference of climate has a more solid and vigorous influence. + But the response to the changes of the seasons and hours of the + day is found only in faint changes of mood, which come + expressly to the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page016">[pg + 016]</span><a name="Pg016" id="Pg016" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> fore only in morbid states (including + insanity) and at periods when the self-conscious life suffers + depression.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In nations + less intellectually emancipated, which therefore live more in + harmony with nature, we find amid their superstitions and + aberrations of imbecility <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">a few</span></em> real cases of such + sympathy, and on that foundation what seems to be marvellous + prophetic vision of coming conditions and of events arising + therefrom. But as mental freedom gets a deeper hold, even these + few and slight susceptibilities, based upon participation in + the common life of nature, disappear. Animals and plants, on + the contrary, remain for ever subject to such influences.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 393. (2) + According to the concrete differences of the terrestrial globe, + the general planetary life of the nature-governed mind + specialises itself and breaks up into the several + nature-governed minds which, on the whole, give expression to + the nature of the geographical continents and constitute the + diversities of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">race</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The contrast + between the earth's poles, the land towards the north pole + being more aggregated and preponderant over sea, whereas in the + southern hemisphere it runs out in sharp points, widely distant + from each other, introduces into the differences of continents + a further modification which Treviranus (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Biology</span></span>, Part II) has + exhibited in the case of the flora and fauna.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 394. This + diversity descends into specialities, that may be termed + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">local</span></em> minds—shown in the + outward modes of life and occupation, bodily structure and + disposition, but still more in the inner tendency and capacity + of the intellectual and moral character of the several + peoples.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Back to the + very beginnings of national history we see the several nations + each possessing a persistent type of its own.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page017">[pg 017]</span><a name="Pg017" id= + "Pg017" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 395. (3) + The soul is further de-universalised into the individualised + subject. But this subjectivity is here only considered as a + differentiation and singling out of the modes which nature + gives; we find it as the special temperament, talent, + character, physiognomy, or other disposition and idiosyncrasy, + of families or single individuals.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + (β) Physical Alterations.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 396. + Taking the soul as an individual, we find its diversities, as + alterations in it, the one permanent subject, and as stages in + its development. As they are at once physical and mental + diversities, a more concrete definition or description of them + would require us to anticipate an acquaintance with the formed + and matured mind.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The (1) + first of these is the natural lapse of the ages in man's life. + He begins with <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Childhood</span></em>—mind wrapt up in + itself. His next step is the fully-developed antithesis, the + strain and struggle of a universality which is still subjective + (as seen in ideals, fancies, hopes, ambitions) against his + immediate individuality. And that individuality marks both the + world which, as it exists, fails to meet his ideal + requirements, and the position of the individual himself, who + is still short of independence and not fully equipped for the + part he has to play (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Youth</span></em>). Thirdly, we see man in + his true relation to his environment, recognising the objective + necessity and reasonableness of the world as he finds it,—a + world no longer incomplete, but able in the work which it + collectively achieves to afford the individual a place and a + security for his performance. By his share in this collective + work he first is really <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">somebody</span></em>, gaining an effective + existence and an objective value (<em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Manhood</span></em>). Last of all comes + the finishing touch to <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page018">[pg 018]</span><a name="Pg018" id="Pg018" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> this unity with objectivity: a unity + which, while on its realist side it passes into the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">inertia</span></em> of deadening habit, on + its idealist side gains freedom from the limited interests and + entanglements of the outward present (<em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Old + Age</span></em>).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 397. (2) + Next we find the individual subject to a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">real</span></em> antithesis, leading it to + seek and find <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">itself</span></em> in <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">another</span></em> individual. This—the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sexual relation</span></em>—on a physical + basis, shows, on its one side, subjectivity remaining in an + instinctive and emotional harmony of moral life and love, and + not pushing these tendencies to an extreme <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">universal</span></em> phase, in purposes + political, scientific or artistic; and on the other, shows an + active half, where the individual is the vehicle of a struggle + of universal and objective interests with the given conditions + (both of his own existence and of that of the external world), + carrying out these universal principles into a unity with the + world which is his own work. The sexual tie acquires its moral + and spiritual significance and function in the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">family</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 398. (3) + When the individuality, or self-centralised being, + distinguishes itself from its <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">mere</span></em> being, this immediate + judgment is the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">waking</span></em> of the soul, which + confronts its self-absorbed natural life, in the first + instance, as one natural quality and state confronts another + state, viz. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sleep</span></em>.—The waking is not + merely for the observer, or externally distinct from the sleep: + it is itself the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">judgment</span></em> (primary partition) + of the individual soul—which is self-existing only as it + relates its self-existence to its mere existence, + distinguishing itself from its still undifferentiated + universality. The waking state includes generally all + self-conscious and rational activity in which the mind realises + its own distinct self.—Sleep is an invigoration of this + activity—not as a merely negative rest from it, but as a return + back from the world of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page019">[pg 019]</span><a name="Pg019" id="Pg019" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> specialisation, from dispersion into + phases where it has grown hard and stiff,—a return into the + general nature of subjectivity, which is the substance of those + specialised energies and their absolute master.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + distinction between sleep and waking is one of those <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">posers</span></em>, as they may be called, + which are often addressed to philosophy:—Napoleon, e.g., on a + visit to the University of Pavia, put this question to the + class of ideology. The characterisation given in the section is + abstract; it primarily treats waking merely as a natural fact, + containing the mental element <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">implicite</span></span> but not yet as + invested with a special being of its own. If we are to speak + more concretely of this distinction (in fundamentals it remains + the same), we must take the self-existence of the individual + soul in its higher aspects as the Ego of consciousness and as + intelligent mind. The difficulty raised anent the distinction + of the two states properly arises, only when we also take into + account the dreams in sleep and describe these dreams, as well + as the mental representations in the sober waking + consciousness, under one and the same title of mental + representations. Thus superficially classified as states of + mental representation the two coincide, because we have lost + sight of the difference; and in the case of any assignable + distinction of waking consciousness, we can always return to + the trivial remark that all this is nothing more than mental + idea. But the concrete theory of the waking soul in its + realised being views it as <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">consciousness</span></em> + and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">intellect</span></em>: and the world of + intelligent consciousness is something quite different from a + picture of mere ideas and images. The latter are in the main + only externally conjoined, in an unintelligent way, by the laws + of the so-called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Association of Ideas</span></em>; though + here and there of course logical principles may also be + operative. But in the waking state man behaves <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page020">[pg 020]</span><a name="Pg020" id= + "Pg020" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> essentially as a concrete + ego, an intelligence: and because of this intelligence his + sense-perception stands before him as a concrete totality of + features in which each member, each point, takes up its place + as at the same time determined through and with all the rest. + Thus the facts embodied in his sensation are authenticated, not + by his mere subjective representation and distinction of the + facts as something external from the person, but by virtue of + the concrete interconnexion in which each part stands with all + parts of this complex. The waking state is the concrete + consciousness of this mutual corroboration of each single + factor of its content by all the others in the picture as + perceived. The consciousness of this interdependence need not + be explicit and distinct. Still this general setting to all + sensations is implicitly present in the concrete feeling of + self.—In order to see the difference of dreaming and waking we + need only keep in view the Kantian distinction between + subjectivity and objectivity of mental representation (the + latter depending upon determination through categories): + remembering, as already noted, that what is actually present in + mind need not be therefore explicitly realised in + consciousness, just as little as the exaltation of the + intellectual sense to God need stand before consciousness in + the shape of proofs of God's existence, although, as before + explained, these proofs only serve to express the net worth and + content of that feeling.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + (γ) Sensibility<a id="noteref_121" name="noteref_121" href= + "#note_121"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">121</span></span></a>.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_399" id="Section_399" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § + 399. Sleep and waking are, primarily, it is true, not mere + alterations, but <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">alternating</span></em> conditions (a + progression <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">in + infinitum</span></span>). This is their formal and negative + relationship: but in it the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">affirmative</span></em> relationship + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page021">[pg 021]</span><a name= + "Pg021" id="Pg021" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> is also + involved. In the self-certified existence of waking soul its + mere existence is implicit as an <span class= + "tei tei-q">“ideal”</span> factor: the features which make up + its sleeping nature, where they are implicitly as in their + substance, are <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">found</span></em> by the waking soul, in + its own self, and, be it noted, for itself. The fact that these + particulars, though as a mode of mind they are distinguished + from the self-identity of our self-centred being, are yet + simply contained in its simplicity, is what we call + sensibility.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 400. + Sensibility (feeling) is the form of the dull stirring, the + inarticulate breathing, of the spirit through its unconscious + and unintelligent individuality, where every definite feature + is still <span class="tei tei-q">“immediate,”</span>—neither + specially developed in its content nor set in distinction as + objective to subject, but treated as belonging to its most + special, its natural peculiarity. The content of sensation is + thus limited and transient, belonging as it does to natural, + immediate being,—to what is therefore qualitative and + finite.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Everything is + in sensation</span></em> (feeling): if you will, everything + that emerges in conscious intelligence and in reason has its + source and origin in sensation; for source and origin just + means the first immediate manner in which a thing appears. Let + it not be enough to have principles and religion only in the + head: they must also be in the heart, in the feeling. What we + merely have in the head is in consciousness, in a general way: + the facts of it are objective—set over against consciousness, + so that as it is put in me (my abstract ego) it can also be + kept away and apart from me (from my concrete subjectivity). + But if put in the feeling, the fact is a mode of my + individuality, however crude that individuality be in such a + form: it is thus treated as my <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">very + own</span></em>. My own is something inseparate from the actual + concrete self: and this <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page022">[pg 022]</span><a name="Pg022" id="Pg022" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> immediate unity of the soul with its + underlying self in all its definite content is just this + inseparability; which however yet falls short of the ego of + developed consciousness, and still more of the freedom of + rational mind-life. It is with a quite different intensity and + permanency that the will, the conscience, and the character, + are our very own, than can ever be true of feeling and of the + group of feelings (the heart): and this we need no philosophy + to tell us. No doubt it is correct to say that above everything + the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">heart</span></em> must be good. But + feeling and heart is not the form by which anything is + legitimated as religious, moral, true, just, &c., and an + appeal to heart and feeling either means nothing or means + something bad. This should hardly need enforcing. Can any + experience be more trite than that feelings and hearts are also + bad, evil, godless, mean, &c.? That the heart is the source + only of such feelings is stated in the words: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“From the heart proceed evil thoughts, murder, + adultery, fornication, blasphemy, &c.”</span> In such times + when <span class="tei tei-q">“scientific”</span> theology and + philosophy make the heart and feeling the criterion of what is + good, moral, and religious, it is necessary to remind them of + these trite experiences; just as it is nowadays necessary to + repeat that thinking is the characteristic property by which + man is distinguished from the beasts, and that he has feeling + in common with them.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_401" id="Section_401" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § + 401. What the sentient soul finds within it is, on one hand, + the naturally immediate, as <span class= + "tei tei-q">“ideally”</span> in it and made its own. On the + other hand and conversely, what originally belongs to the + central individuality (which as further deepened and enlarged + is the conscious ego and free mind) get the features of the + natural corporeity, and is so felt. In this way we have two + spheres of feeling. One, where what at first is a corporeal + affection (e.g. of the eye or of any bodily part whatever) is + made <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page023">[pg + 023]</span><a name="Pg023" id="Pg023" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> feeling (sensation) by being driven + inward, memorised in the soul's self-centred part. Another, + where affections originating in the mind and belonging to it, + are in order to be felt, and to be as if found, invested with + corporeity. Thus the mode or affection gets a place in the + subject: it is felt in the soul. The detailed specification of + the former branch of sensibility is seen in the system of the + senses. But the other or inwardly originated modes of feeling + no less necessarily systematise themselves; and their + corporisation, as put in the living and concretely developed + natural being, works itself out, following the special + character of the mental mode, in a special system of bodily + organs.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sensibility + in general is the healthy fellowship of the individual mind in + the life of its bodily part. The senses form the simple system + of corporeity specified. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">a</span></span>) The <span class= + "tei tei-q">“ideal”</span> side of physical things breaks up + into two—because in it, as immediate and not yet subjective + ideality, distinction appears as mere variety—the senses of + definite <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">light</span></em>, § 287—and of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sound</span></em>, § 300. The <span class= + "tei tei-q">“real”</span> aspect similarly is with its + difference double: (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">b</span></span>) the senses of smell and + taste, §§ 321, 322; (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">c</span></span>) the sense of solid + reality, of heavy matter, of heat and shape. Around the centre + of the sentient individuality these specifications arrange + themselves more simply than when they are developed in the + natural corporeity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The system + by which the internal sensation comes to give itself specific + bodily forms would deserve to be treated in detail in a + peculiar science—a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">psychical physiology</span></em>. Somewhat + pointing to such a system is implied in the feeling of the + appropriateness or inappropriateness of an immediate sensation + to the persistent tone of internal sensibility (the pleasant + and unpleasant): as also in the distinct parallelism which + underlies the symbolical employment of sensations, e.g. of + colours, tones, smells. <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page024">[pg 024]</span><a name="Pg024" id="Pg024" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> But the most interesting side of a + psychical physiology would lie in studying not the mere + sympathy, but more definitely the bodily form adopted by + certain mental modifications, especially the passions or + emotions. We should have, e.g., to explain the line of + connexion by which anger and courage are felt in the breast, + the blood, the <span class="tei tei-q">“irritable”</span> + system, just as thinking and mental occupation are felt in the + head, the centre of the 'sensible' system. We should want a + more satisfactory explanation than hitherto of the most + familiar connexions by which tears, and voice in general, with + its varieties of language, laughter, sighs, with many other + specialisations lying in the line of pathognomy and + physiognomy, are formed from their mental source. In physiology + the viscera and the organs are treated merely as parts + subservient to the animal organism; but they form at the same + time a physical system for the expression of mental states, and + in this way they get quite another interpretation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 402. + Sensations, just because they are immediate and are found + existing, are single and transient aspects of psychic + life,—alterations in the substantiality of the soul, set in its + self-centred life, with which that substance is one. But this + self-centred being is not merely a formal factor of sensation: + the soul is virtually a reflected totality of sensations—it + feels <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">in itself</span></em> the total + substantiality which it <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">virtually</span></em> is—it is a soul + which feels.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the usage + of ordinary language, sensation and feeling are not clearly + distinguished: still we do not speak of the sensation,—but of + the feeling (sense) of right, of self; sentimentality + (sensibility) is connected with sensation: we may therefore say + sensation emphasises rather the side of passivity—the fact that + we find ourselves feeling, i.e. the immediacy of mode in + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page025">[pg 025]</span><a name= + "Pg025" id="Pg025" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> feeling—whereas + feeling at the same time rather notes the fact that it is + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">we + ourselves</span></em> who feel.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(b) The Feeling Soul.—(Soul as + Sentiency.)</span><a id="noteref_122" name="noteref_122" href= + "#note_122"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">122</span></span></a></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 403. The + feeling or sentient individual is the simple <span class= + "tei tei-q">“ideality”</span> or subjective side of sensation. + What it has to do, therefore, is to raise its substantiality, its + merely virtual filling-up, to the character of subjectivity, to + take possession of it, to realise its mastery over its own. As + sentient, the soul is no longer a mere natural, but an inward, + individuality: the individuality which in the merely substantial + totality was only formal to it has to be liberated and made + independent.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nowhere so + much as in the case of the soul (and still more of the mind) if + we are to understand it, must that feature of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“ideality”</span> be kept in view, which represents + it as the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">negation</span></em> of the real, but a + negation, where the real is put past, virtually retained, + although it does not <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">exist</span></em>. The feature is one with + which we are familiar in regard to our mental ideas or to memory. + Every individual is an infinite treasury of sensations, ideas, + acquired lore, thoughts, &c.; and yet the ego is one and + uncompounded, a deep featureless characterless mine, in which all + this is stored up, without existing. It is only when <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I</span></em> + call to mind <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">an</span></em> idea, that I bring it out of + that interior to existence before consciousness. Sometimes, in + sickness, ideas and information, supposed to have been forgotten + years ago, because for so long they had not been brought into + consciousness, once more come to light. They were not in our + possession, nor by such reproduction as occurs in sickness do + they for the future come into our possession; and yet they + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page026">[pg 026]</span><a name= + "Pg026" id="Pg026" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> were in us and + continue to be in us still. Thus a person can never know how much + of things he once learned he really has in him, should he have + once forgotten them: they belong not to his actuality or + subjectivity as such, but only to his implicit self. And under + all the superstructure of specialised and instrumental + consciousness that may subsequently be added to it, the + individuality always remains this single-souled inner life. At + the present stage this singleness is, primarily, to be defined as + one of feeling—as embracing the corporeal in itself: thus denying + the view that this body is something material, with parts outside + parts and outside the soul. Just as the number and variety of + mental representations is no argument for an extended and real + multeity in the ego; so the <span class="tei tei-q">“real”</span> + outness of parts in the body has no truth for the sentient soul. + As sentient, the soul is characterised as immediate, and so as + natural and corporeal: but the outness of parts and sensible + multiplicity of this corporeal counts for the soul (as it counts + for the intelligible unity) not as anything real, and therefore + not as a barrier: the soul is this intelligible unity <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">in + existence</span></em>,—the existent speculative principle. Thus + in the body it is one simple, omnipresent unity. As to the + representative faculty the body is but <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">one</span></em> + representation, and the infinite variety of its material + structure and organisation is reduced to the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">simplicity</span></em> of one definite + conception: so in the sentient soul, the corporeity, and all that + outness of parts to parts which belongs to it, is reduced to + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ideality</span></em> (the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">truth</span></em> + of the natural multiplicity). The soul is virtually the totality + of nature: as an individual soul it is a monad: it is itself the + explicitly put totality of its particular world,—that world being + included in it and filling it up; and to that world it stands but + as to itself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 404. As + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">individual</span></em>, the soul is + exclusive and always <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page027">[pg + 027]</span><a name="Pg027" id="Pg027" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + exclusive: any difference there is, it brings within itself. What + is differentiated from it is as yet no external object (as in + consciousness), but only the aspects of its own sentient + totality, &c. In this partition (judgment) of itself it is + always subject: its object is its substance, which is at the same + time its predicate. This <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">substance</span></em> is still the content + of its natural life, but turned into the content of the + individual sensation-laden soul; yet as the soul is in that + content still particular, the content is its particular world, so + far as that is, in an implicit mode, included in the ideality of + the subject.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By itself, + this stage of mind is the stage of its darkness: its features are + not developed to conscious and intelligent content: so far it is + formal and only formal. It acquires a peculiar interest in cases + where it is as a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">form</span></em> and appears as a special + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">state</span></em> of mind (§ 350), to which + the soul, which has already advanced to consciousness and + intelligence, may again sink down. But when a truer phase of mind + thus exists in a more subordinate and abstract one, it implies a + want of adaptation, which is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">disease</span></em>. + In the present stage we must treat, first, of the abstract + psychical modifications by themselves, secondly, as morbid states + of mind: the latter being only explicable by means of the + former.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + (α) The Feeling Soul in its Immediacy.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 405. (αα) + Though the sensitive individuality is undoubtedly a monadic + individual, it is because immediate, not yet as <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">its + self</span></em> not a true subject reflected into itself, and + is therefore passive. Hence the individuality of its true self + is a different subject from it—a subject which may even exist + as another individual. By the self-hood of the latter it—a + substance, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page028">[pg + 028]</span><a name="Pg028" id="Pg028" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> which is only a non-independent + predicate—is then set in vibration and controlled without the + least resistance on its part. This other subject by which it is + so controlled may be called its <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">genius</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the + ordinary course of nature this is the condition of the child in + its mother's womb:—a condition neither merely bodily nor merely + mental, but psychical—a correlation of soul to soul. Here are + two individuals, yet in undivided psychic unity: the one as yet + no <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">self</span></em>, as yet nothing + impenetrable, incapable of resistance: the other is its + actuating subject, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">single</span></em> self of the two. The + mother is the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">genius</span></em> of the child; for by + genius we commonly mean the total mental self-hood, as it has + existence of its own, and constitutes the subjective + substantiality of some one else who is only externally treated + as an individual and has only a nominal independence. The + underlying essence of the genius is the sum total of existence, + of life, and of character, not as a mere possibility, or + capacity, or virtuality, but as efficiency and realised + activity, as concrete subjectivity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we look + only to the spatial and material aspects of the child's + existence as an embryo in its special integuments, and as + connected with the mother by means of umbilical cord, placenta, + &c., all that is presented to the senses and reflection are + certain anatomical and physiological facts—externalities and + instrumentalities in the sensible and material which are + insignificant as regards the main point, the psychical + relationship. What ought to be noted as regards this psychical + tie are not merely the striking effects communicated to and + stamped upon the child by violent emotions, injuries, &c. + of the mother, but the whole psychical <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">judgment</span></em> (partition) of the + underlying nature, by which the female (like the monocotyledons + among vegetables) can suffer disruption in twain, so that the + child has not <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page029">[pg + 029]</span><a name="Pg029" id="Pg029" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> merely got <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">communicated</span></em> to it, but has + originally received morbid dispositions as well as other + pre-dispositions of shape, temper, character, talent, + idiosyncrasies, &c.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sporadic + examples and traces of this <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">magic</span></em> tie appear elsewhere in + the range of self-possessed conscious life, say between + friends, especially female friends with delicate nerves (a tie + which may go so far as to show <span class= + "tei tei-q">“magnetic”</span> phenomena), between husband and + wife and between members of the same family.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The total + sensitivity has its self here in a separate subjectivity, + which, in the case cited of this sentient life in the ordinary + course of nature, is visibly present as another and a different + individual. But this sensitive totality is meant to elevate its + self-hood out of itself to subjectivity in one and the same + individual: which is then its indwelling consciousness, + self-possessed, intelligent, and reasonable. For such a + consciousness the merely sentient life serves as an underlying + and only implicitly existent material; and the self-possessed + subjectivity is the rational, self-conscious, controlling + genius thereof. But this sensitive nucleus includes not merely + the purely unconscious, congenital disposition and temperament, + but within its enveloping simplicity it acquires and retains + also (in habit, as to which see later) all further ties and + essential relationships, fortunes, principles—everything in + short belonging to the character, and in whose elaboration + self-conscious activity has most effectively participated. The + sensitivity is thus a soul in which the whole mental life is + condensed. The total individual under this concentrated aspect + is distinct from the existing and actual play of his + consciousness, his secular ideas, developed interests, + inclinations, &c. As contrasted with this looser aggregate + of means and methods the more intensive form of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page030">[pg 030]</span><a name="Pg030" id= + "Pg030" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> individuality is termed the + genius, whose decision is ultimate whatever may be the show of + reasons, intentions, means, of which the more public + consciousness is so liberal. This concentrated individuality + also reveals itself under the aspect of what is called the + heart and soul of feeling. A man is said to be heartless and + unfeeling when he looks at things with self-possession and acts + according to his permanent purposes, be they great substantial + aims or petty and unjust interests: a good-hearted man, on the + other hand, means rather one who is at the mercy of his + individual sentiment, even when it is of narrow range and is + wholly made up of particularities. Of such good nature or + goodness of heart it may be said that it is less the genius + itself than the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">indulgere + genio</span></span>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 406. (ββ) + The sensitive life, when it becomes a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">form</span></em> or <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">state</span></em> of the self-conscious, + educated, self-possessed human being is a disease. The + individual in such a morbid state stands in direct contact with + the concrete contents of his own self, whilst he keeps his + self-possessed consciousness of self and of the causal order of + things apart as a distinct state of mind. This morbid condition + is seen in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">magnetic somnambulism</span></em> and + cognate states.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this + summary encyclopaedic account it is impossible to supply a + demonstration of what the paragraph states as the nature of the + remarkable condition produced chiefly by animal magnetism—to + show, in other words, that it is in harmony with the facts. To + that end the phenomena, so complex in their nature and so very + different one from another, would have first of all to be + brought under their general points of view. The facts, it might + seem, first of all call for verification. But such a + verification would, it must be added, be superfluous for those + on whose account it was called for: for they <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page031">[pg 031]</span><a name="Pg031" id= + "Pg031" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> facilitate the inquiry for + themselves by declaring the narratives—infinitely numerous + though they be and accredited by the education and character of + the witnesses—to be mere deception and imposture. The + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">a priori</span></span> + conceptions of these inquirers are so rooted that no testimony + can avail against them, and they have even denied what they had + seen with their own eyes. In order to believe in this + department even what one sees with these eyes, and still more + to understand it, the first requisite is not to be in bondage + to the hard and fast categories of the practical intellect. The + chief points on which the discussion turns may here be + given:</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(α) To the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">concrete</span></em> existence of the + individual belongs the aggregate of his fundamental <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">interests</span></em>, both the essential + and the particular empirical ties which connect him with other + men and the world at large. This totality forms <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">his</span></em> + actuality, in the sense that it lies in fact immanent in him; + it has already been called his <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">genius</span></em>. This genius is not the + free mind which wills and thinks: the form of sensitivity, in + which the individual here appears immersed, is, on the + contrary, a surrender of his self-possessed intelligent + existence. The first conclusion to which these considerations + lead, with reference to the contents of consciousness in the + somnambulist stage, is that it is only the range of his + individually moulded world (of his private interests and narrow + relationships) which appear there. Scientific theories and + philosophic conceptions or general truths require a different + soil,—require an intelligence which has risen out of the + inarticulate mass of mere sensitivity to free consciousness. It + is foolish therefore to expect revelations about the higher + ideas from the somnambulist state.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(β) Where a + human being's senses and intellect are <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page032">[pg 032]</span><a name="Pg032" id="Pg032" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> sound, he is fully and intelligently + alive to that reality of his which gives concrete filling to + his individuality: but he is awake to it in the form of + interconnexion between himself and the features of that reality + conceived as an external and a separate world, and he is aware + that this world is in itself also a complex of interconnexions + of a practically intelligible kind. In his subjective ideas and + plans he has also before him this causally connected scheme of + things he calls his world and the series of means which bring + his ideas and his purposes into adjustment with the objective + existences, which are also means and ends to each other. At the + same time, this world which is outside him has its threads in + him to such a degree that it is these threads which make him + what he really is: he too would become extinct if these + externalities were to disappear, unless by the aid of religion, + subjective reason, and character, he is in a remarkable degree + self-supporting and independent of them. But, then, in the + latter case he is less susceptible of the psychical state here + spoken of.—As an illustration of that identity with the + surroundings may be noted the effect produced by the death of + beloved relatives, friends, &c. on those left behind, so + that the one dies or pines away with the loss of the other. + (Thus Cato, after the downfall of the Roman republic, could + live no longer: his inner reality was neither wider than higher + than it.) Compare home-sickness, and the like.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(γ) But when + all that occupies the waking consciousness, the world outside + it and its relationship to that world is under a veil, and the + soul is thus sunk in sleep (in magnetic sleep, in catalepsy, + and other diseases, e.g. those connected with female + development, or at the approach of death, &c.), then that + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">immanent actuality</span></em> of the + individual remains the same substantial total <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page033">[pg 033]</span><a name="Pg033" id= + "Pg033" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> as before, but now as a + purely sensitive life with an inward vision and an inward + consciousness. And because it is the adult, formed, and + developed consciousness which is degraded into this state of + sensitivity, it retains along with its content a certain + nominal self-hood, a formal vision and awareness, which however + does not go so far as the conscious judgment or discernment by + which its contents, when it is healthy and awake, exist for it + as an outward objectivity. The individual is thus a monad which + is inwardly aware of its actuality—a genius which beholds + itself. The characteristic point in such knowledge is that the + very same facts (which for the healthy consciousness are an + objective practical reality, and to know which, in its sober + moods, it needs the intelligent chain of means and conditions + in all their real expansion) are now immediately known and + perceived in this immanence. This perception is a sort of + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">clairvoyance</span></em>; for it is a + consciousness living in the undivided substantiality of the + genius, and finding itself in the very heart of the + interconnexion, and so can dispense with the series of + conditions, external one to another, which lead up to the + result,—conditions which cool reflection has in succession to + traverse and in so doing feels the limits of its own individual + externality. But such clairvoyance—just because its dim and + turbid vision does not present the facts in a rational + interconnexion—is for that very reason at the mercy of every + private contingency of feeling and fancy, &c.—not to + mention that foreign <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">suggestions</span></em> (see later) + intrude into its vision. It is thus impossible to make out + whether what the clairvoyants really see preponderates over + what they deceive themselves in.—But it is absurd to treat this + visionary state as a sublime mental phase and as a truer state, + capable of conveying general truths<a id="noteref_123" name= + "noteref_123" href="#note_123"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">123</span></span></a>.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page034">[pg 034]</span><a name="Pg034" id="Pg034" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(δ) An + essential feature of this sensitivity, with its absence of + intelligent and volitional personality, is this, that it is a + state of passivity, like that of the child in the womb. The + patient in this condition is accordingly made, and continues to + be, subject to the power of another person, the magnetiser; so + that when the two are thus in psychical <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">rapport</span></em>, the selfless + individual, not really a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“person,”</span> has for his subjective + consciousness the consciousness of the other. This latter + self-possessed individual is thus the effective subjective soul + of the former, and the genius which may even supply him with a + train of ideas. That the somnambulist perceives in himself + tastes and smells which are present in the person with whom he + stands <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">en rapport</span></span>, and that he is + aware of the other inner ideas and present perceptions of the + latter as if they were his own, shows the substantial identity + which the soul (which even in its concreteness is also truly + immaterial) is capable of holding with another. When the + substance of both is thus made one, there is only one + subjectivity of consciousness: the patient has a sort of + individuality, but it is empty, not on the spot, not actual: + and this nominal self accordingly derives its whole stock of + ideas <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page035">[pg + 035]</span><a name="Pg035" id="Pg035" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> from the sensations and ideas of the + other, in whom it sees, smells, tastes, reads, and hears. It is + further to be noted on this point that the somnambulist is thus + brought into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">rapport</span></em> with two genii and a + twofold set of ideas, his own and that of the magnetiser. But + it is impossible to say precisely which sensations and which + visions he, in this nominal perception, receives, beholds and + brings to knowledge from his own inward self, and which from + the suggestions of the person with whom he stands in relation. + This uncertainty may be the source of many deceptions, and + accounts among other things for the diversity that inevitably + shows itself among somnambulists from different countries and + under <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">rapport</span></em> with persons of + different education, as regards their views on morbid states + and the methods of cure, or medicines for them, as well as on + scientific and intellectual topics.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(ε) As in + this sensitive substantiality there is no contrast to external + objectivity, so within itself the subject is so entirely one + that all varieties of sensation have disappeared, and hence, + when the activity of the sense-organs is asleep, the + <span class="tei tei-q">“common sense,”</span> or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“general feeling”</span> specifies itself to + several functions; one sees and hears with the fingers, and + especially with the pit of the stomach, &c.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To + comprehend a thing means in the language of practical + intelligence to be able to trace the series of means + intervening between a phenomenon and some other existence on + which it depends,—to discover what is called the ordinary + course of nature, in compliance with the laws and relations of + the intellect, e.g. causality, reasons, &c. The purely + sensitive life, on the contrary, even when it retains that mere + nominal consciousness, as in the morbid state alluded to, is + just this form of immediacy, without any distinctions between + subjective <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page036">[pg + 036]</span><a name="Pg036" id="Pg036" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and objective, between intelligent + personality and objective world, and without the aforementioned + finite ties between them. Hence to understand this intimate + conjunction, which, though all-embracing, is without any + definite points of attachment, is impossible, so long as we + assume independent personalities, independent one of another + and of the objective world which is their content—so long as we + assume the absolute spatial and material externality of one + part of being to another.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + (β) Self-feeling (Sense of Self)<a id="noteref_124" name= + "noteref_124" href="#note_124"><span class="tei tei-noteref" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">124</span></span></a>.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 407. (αα) + The sensitive totality is, in its capacity of individual, + essentially the tendency to distinguish itself in itself, and + to wake up to the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">judgment in itself</span></em>, in virtue + of which it has <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">particular</span></em> feelings and stands + as a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">subject</span></em> in respect of these + aspects of itself. The subject as such gives these feelings a + place as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">its own</span></em> in itself. In these + private and personal sensations it is immersed, and at the same + time, because of the <span class="tei tei-q">“ideality”</span> + of the particulars, it combines itself in them with itself as a + subjective unit. In this way it is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">self-feeling</span></em>, and is so at the + same time only in the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">particular feeling</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 408. (ββ) + In consequence of the immediacy, which still marks the + self-feeling, i.e. in consequence of the element of + corporeality which is still undetached from the mental life, + and as the feeling too is itself particular and bound up with a + special corporeal form, it follows that although the subject + has been brought to acquire intelligent consciousness, it is + still susceptible of disease, so far as to remain fast in a + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">special</span></em> phase of its + self-feeling, unable to refine it to <span class= + "tei tei-q">“ideality”</span> and get the better of it. The + fully-furnished self of intelligent consciousness is a + conscious subject, which is consistent in itself <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page037">[pg 037]</span><a name="Pg037" id= + "Pg037" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> according to an order and + behaviour which follows from its individual position and its + connexion with the external world, which is no less a world of + law. But when it is engrossed with a single phase of feeling, + it fails to assign that phase its proper place and due + subordination in the individual system of the world which a + conscious subject is. In this way the subject finds itself in + contradiction between the totality systematised in its + consciousness, and the single phase or fixed idea which is not + reduced to its proper place and rank. This is Insanity or + mental Derangement.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In + considering insanity we must, as in other cases, anticipate the + full-grown and intelligent conscious subject, which is at the + same time the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">natural</span></em> self of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">self-feeling</span></em>. In such a phase + the self can be liable to the contradiction between its own + free subjectivity and a particularity which, instead of being + <span class="tei tei-q">“idealised”</span> in the former, + remains as a fixed element in self-feeling. Mind as such is + free, and therefore not susceptible of this malady. But in + older metaphysics mind was treated as a soul, as a thing; and + it is only as a thing, i.e. as something natural and existent, + that it is liable to insanity—the settled fixture of some + finite element in it. Insanity is therefore a psychical + disease, i.e. a disease of body and mind alike: the + commencement may appear to start from one more than other, and + so also may the cure.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + self-possessed and healthy subject has an active and present + consciousness of the ordered whole of his individual world, + into the system of which he subsumes each special content of + sensation, idea, desire, inclination, &c., as it arises, so + as to insert them in their proper place. He is the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dominant + genius</span></em> over these particularities. Between this and + insanity the difference is like that between waking and + dreaming: only that in <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page038">[pg 038]</span><a name="Pg038" id="Pg038" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> insanity the dream falls within the + waking limits, and so makes part of the actual self-feeling. + Error and that sort of thing is a proposition consistently + admitted to a place in the objective interconnexion of things. + In the concrete, however, it is often difficult to say where it + begins to become derangement. A violent, but groundless and + senseless outburst of hatred, &c., may, in contrast to a + presupposed higher self-possession and stability of character, + make its victim seem to be beside himself with frenzy. But the + main point in derangement is the contradiction which a feeling + with a fixed corporeal embodiment sets up against the whole + mass of adjustments forming the concrete consciousness. The + mind which is in a condition of mere <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">being</span></em>, and where such being is + not rendered fluid in its consciousness, is diseased. The + contents which are set free in this reversion to mere nature + are the self-seeking affections of the heart, such as vanity, + pride, and the rest of the passions—fancies and hopes—merely + personal love and hatred. When the influence of self-possession + and of general principles, moral and theoretical, is relaxed, + and ceases to keep the natural temper under lock and key, the + earthly elements are set free—that evil which is always latent + in the heart, because the heart as immediate is natural and + selfish. It is the evil genius of man which gains the upper + hand in insanity, but in distinction from and contrast to the + better and more intelligent part, which is there also. Hence + this state is mental derangement and distress. The right + psychical treatment therefore keeps in view the truth that + insanity is not an abstract <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">loss</span></em> of reason (neither in the + point of intelligence nor of will and its responsibility), but + only derangement, only a contradiction in a still subsisting + reason;—just as physical disease is not an abstract, i.e. mere + and total, loss of health (if it were that, it <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page039">[pg 039]</span><a name="Pg039" id= + "Pg039" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> would be death), but a + contradiction in it. This humane treatment, no less benevolent + than reasonable (the services of Pinel towards which deserve + the highest acknowledgment), presupposes the patient's + rationality, and in that assumption has the sound basis for + dealing with him on this side—just as in the case of bodily + disease the physician bases his treatment on the vitality which + as such still contains health.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + (γ) Habit<a id="noteref_125" name="noteref_125" href= + "#note_125"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">125</span></span></a>.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 409. + Self-feeling, immersed in the detail of the feelings (in simple + sensations, and also desires, instincts, passions, and their + gratification), is undistinguished from them. But in the self + there is latent a simple self-relation of ideality, a nominal + universality (which is the truth of these details): and as so + universal, the self is to be stamped upon, and made appear in, + this life of feeling, yet so as to distinguish itself from the + particular details, and be a realised universality. But this + universality is not the full and sterling truth of the specific + feelings and desires; what they specifically contain is as yet + left out of account. And so too the particularity is, as now + regarded, equally formal; it counts only as the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">particular + being</span></em> or immediacy of the soul in opposition to its + equally formal and abstract realisation. This particular being + of the soul is the factor of its corporeity; here we have it + breaking with this corporeity, distinguishing it from + itself,—itself a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">simple</span></em> being,—and becoming the + <span class="tei tei-q">“ideal,”</span> subjective + substantiality of it,—just as in its latent notion (§ 359) it + was the substance, and the mere substance, of it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But this + abstract realisation of the soul in its corporeal vehicle is + not yet the self—not the existence of the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page040">[pg 040]</span><a name="Pg040" id= + "Pg040" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> universal which is for the + universal. It is the corporeity reduced to its mere <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ideality</span></em>; and so far only does + corporeity belong to the soul as such. That is to say, as space + and time—the abstract one-outside-another, as, in short, empty + space and empty time—are only subjective form—pure act of + intuition; so that pure being (which through the supersession + in it of the particularity of the corporeity, or of the + immediate corporeity as such has realised itself) is mere + intuition and no more, lacking consciousness, but the basis of + consciousness. And consciousness it becomes, when the + corporeity, of which it is the subjective substance, and which + still continues to exist, and that as a barrier for it, has + been absorbed by it, and it has been invested with the + character of self-centred subject.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 410. The + soul's making itself an abstract universal being, and reducing + the particulars of feelings (and of consciousness) to a mere + feature of its being is Habit. In this manner the soul has the + contents in possession, and contains them in such manner that + in these features it is not as sentient, nor does it stand in + relationship with them as distinguishing itself from them, nor + is absorbed in them, but has them and moves in them, without + feeling or consciousness of the fact. The soul is freed from + them, so far as it is not interested in or occupied with them: + and whilst existing in these forms as its possession, it is at + the same time open to be otherwise occupied and engaged—say + with feeling and with mental consciousness in general.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This process + of building up the particular and corporeal expressions of + feeling into the being of the soul appears as a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">repetition</span></em> of them, and the + generation of habit as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">practice</span></em>. For, this being of + the soul, if in respect of the natural particular phase it be + called an abstract universality to which the former is + transmuted, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page041">[pg + 041]</span><a name="Pg041" id="Pg041" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> is a reflexive universality (§ 175); i.e. + the one and the same, that recurs in a series of units of + sensation, is reduced to unity, and this abstract unity + expressly stated.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Habit, like + memory, is a difficult point in mental organisation: habit is + the mechanism of self-feeling, as memory is the mechanism of + intelligence. The natural qualities and alterations of age, + sleep and waking, are <span class= + "tei tei-q">“immediately”</span> natural: habit, on the + contrary, is the mode of feeling (as well as intelligence, + will, &c., so far as they belong to self-feeling) made into + a natural and mechanical existence. Habit is rightly called a + second nature; nature, because it is an immediate being of the + soul; a second nature, because it is an immediacy created by + the soul, impressing and moulding the corporeality which enters + into the modes of feeling as such and into the representations + and volitions so far as they have taken corporeal form (§ + <a href="#Section_401" class="tei tei-ref">401</a>).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In habit the + human being's mode of existence is <span class= + "tei tei-q">“natural,”</span> and for that reason not free; but + still free, so far as the merely natural phase of feeling is by + habit reduced to a mere being of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">his</span></em>, and he is no longer + involuntarily attracted or repelled by it, and so no longer + interested, occupied, or dependent in regard to it. The want of + freedom in habit is partly merely formal, as habit merely + attaches to the being of the soul; partly only relative, so far + as it strictly speaking arises only in the case of bad habits, + or so far as a habit is opposed by another purpose: whereas the + habit of right and goodness is an embodiment of liberty. The + main point about Habit is that by its means man gets + emancipated from the feelings, even in being affected by them. + The different forms of this may be described as follows: (α) + The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">immediate</span></em> feeling is negated + and treated as indifferent. One who gets inured against + external sensations (frost, heat, weariness of the limbs, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page042">[pg 042]</span><a name= + "Pg042" id="Pg042" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> &c., sweet + tastes, &c.), and who hardens the heart against misfortune, + acquires a strength which consists in this, that although the + frost, &c.—or the misfortune—is felt, the affection is + deposed to a mere externality and immediacy; the universal + psychical life keeps its own abstract independence in it, and + the self-feeling as such, consciousness, reflection, and any + other purposes and activity, are no longer bothered with it. + (β) There is indifference towards the satisfaction: the desires + and impulses are by the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">habit</span></em> of their satisfaction + deadened. This is the rational liberation from them; whereas + monastic renunciation and forcible interference do not free + from them, nor are they in conception rational. Of course in + all this it is assumed that the impulses are kept as the finite + modes they naturally are, and that they, like their + satisfaction, are subordinated as partial factors to the + reasonable will. (γ) In habit regarded as <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">aptitude</span></em>, or skill, not merely + has the abstract psychical life to be kept intact <span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">per se</span></span>, but it has to be + imposed as a subjective aim, to be made a power in the bodily + part, which is rendered subject and thoroughly pervious to it. + Conceived as having the inward purpose of the subjective soul + thus imposed upon it, the body is treated as an immediate + externality and a barrier. Thus comes out the more decided + rupture between the soul as simple self-concentration, and its + earlier naturalness and immediacy; it has lost its original and + immediate identity with the bodily nature, and as external has + first to be reduced to that position. Specific feelings can + only get bodily shape in a perfectly specific way (§ <a href= + "#Section_401" class="tei tei-ref">401</a>); and the immediate + portion of body is a particular possibility for a specific aim + (a particular aspect of its differentiated structure, a + particular organ of its organic system). To mould such an aim + in the organic body is to bring out and express the + <span class="tei tei-q">“ideality”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page043">[pg 043]</span><a name="Pg043" id= + "Pg043" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> which is implicit in matter + always, and especially so in the specific bodily part, and thus + to enable the soul, under its volitional and conceptual + characters, to exist as substance in its corporeity. In this + way an aptitude shows the corporeity rendered completely + pervious, made into an instrument, so that when the conception + (e.g. a series of musical notes) is in me, then without + resistance and with ease the body gives them correct + utterance.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The form of + habit applies to all kinds and grades of mental action. The + most external of them, i.e. the spatial direction of an + individual, viz. his upright posture, has been by will made a + habit—a position taken without adjustment and without + consciousness—which continues to be an affair of his persistent + will; for the man stands only because and in so far as he wills + to stand, and only so long as he wills it without + consciousness. Similarly our eyesight is the concrete habit + which, without an express adjustment, combines in a single act + the several modifications of sensation, consciousness, + intuition, intelligence, &c., which make it up. Thinking, + too, however free and active in its own pure element it + becomes, no less requires habit and familiarity (this + impromptuity or form of immediacy), by which it is the property + of my single self where I can freely and in all directions + range. It is through this habit that I come to realise my + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">existence</span></em> as a thinking being. + Even here, in this spontaneity of self-centred thought, there + is a partnership of soul and body (hence, want of habit and + too-long-continued thinking cause headache); habit diminishes + this feeling, by making the natural function an immediacy of + the soul. Habit on an ampler scale, and carried out in the + strictly intellectual range, is recollection and memory, + whereof we shall speak later.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page044">[pg 044]</span><a name="Pg044" id="Pg044" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Habit is + often spoken of disparagingly and called lifeless, casual and + particular. And it is true that the form of habit, like any + other, is open to anything we chance to put into it; and it is + habit of living which brings on death, or, if quite abstract, + is death itself: and yet habit is indispensable for the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">existence</span></em> of all intellectual + life in the individual, enabling the subject to be a concrete + immediacy, an <span class="tei tei-q">“ideality”</span> of + soul—enabling the matter of consciousness, religious, moral, + &c., to be his as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">this</span></em> self, <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">this</span></em> soul, and no other, and + be neither a mere latent possibility, nor a transient emotion + or idea, nor an abstract inwardness, cut off from action and + reality, but part and parcel of his being. In scientific + studies of the soul and the mind, habit is usually passed + over—either as something contemptible—or rather for the further + reason that it is one of the most difficult questions of + psychology.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(c) The Actual Soul.</span><a id= + "noteref_126" name="noteref_126" href="#note_126"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">126</span></span></a></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_411" id="Section_411" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § 411. + The Soul, when its corporeity has been moulded and made + thoroughly its own, finds itself there a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">single</span></em> subject; and the + corporeity is an externality which stands as a predicate, in + being related to which, it is related to itself. This + externality, in other words, represents not itself, but the soul, + of which it is the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sign</span></em>. In this identity of + interior and exterior, the latter subject to the former, the soul + is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">actual</span></em>: in its corporeity it has + its free shape, in which it <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">feels itself</span></em> and makes + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">itself + felt</span></em>, and which as the Soul's work of art has + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">human</span></em> pathognomic and + physiognomic expression.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Under the head + of human expression are included, e.g., the upright figure in + general, and the formation of the limbs, especially the hand, as + the absolute instrument, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page045">[pg 045]</span><a name="Pg045" id="Pg045" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of the mouth—laughter, weeping, &c., + and the note of mentality diffused over the whole, which at once + announces the body at the externality of a higher nature. This + note is so slight, indefinite, and inexpressible a modification, + because the figure in its externality is something immediate and + natural, and can therefore only be an indefinite and quite + imperfect sign for the mind, unable to represent it in its actual + universality. Seen from the animal world, the human figure is the + supreme phase in which mind makes an appearance. But for the mind + it is only its first appearance, while language is its perfect + expression. And the human figure, though its proximate phase of + existence, is at the same time in its physiognomic and + pathognomic quality something contingent to it. To try to raise + physiognomy and above all cranioscopy (phrenology) to the rank of + sciences, was therefore one of the vainest fancies, still vainer + than a <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">signatura + rerum</span></span>, which supposed the shape of a plant to + afford indication of its medicinal virtue.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 412. + Implicitly the soul shows the untruth and unreality of matter; + for the soul, in its concentrated self, cuts itself off from its + immediate being, placing the latter over against it as a + corporeity incapable of offering resistance to its moulding + influence. The soul, thus setting in opposition its being to its + (conscious) self, absorbing it, and making it its own, has lost + the meaning of mere soul, or the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“immediacy”</span> of mind. The actual soul with its + sensation and its concrete self-feeling turned into habit, has + implicitly realised the 'ideality' of its qualities; in this + externality it has recollected and inwardised itself, and is + infinite self-relation. This free universality thus made explicit + shows the soul awaking to the higher stage of the ego, or + abstract universality in so far as it is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">for</span></em> + the abstract universality. In this <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page046">[pg 046]</span><a name="Pg046" id="Pg046" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> way it gains the position of thinker and + subject—specially a subject of the judgment in which the ego + excludes from itself the sum total of its merely natural features + as an object, a world external to it,—but with such respect to + that object that in it it is immediately reflected into itself. + Thus soul rises to become <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Consciousness</span></em>.</p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page047">[pg 047]</span><a name= + "Pg047" id="Pg047" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc21" id="toc21"></a> <a name="pdf22" id="pdf22"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Sub-Section B. Phenomenology Of Mind. + Consciousness.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_413" id="Section_413" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § 413. + Consciousness constitutes the reflected or correlational grade of + mind: the grade of mind as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">appearance</span></em>. <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ego</span></em> is + infinite self-relation of mind, but as subjective or as + self-certainty. The immediate identity of the natural soul has been + raised to this pure <span class="tei tei-q">“ideal”</span> + self-identity; and what the former <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">contained</span></em> is for this + self-subsistent reflection set forth as an <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">object</span></em>. + The pure abstract freedom of mind lets go from it its specific + qualities,—the soul's natural life—to an equal freedom as an + independent <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">object</span></em>. It is of this latter, as + external to it, that the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ego</span></em> is in the first instance aware + (conscious), and as such it is Consciousness. Ego, as this absolute + negativity, is implicitly the identity in the otherness: the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ego</span></em> is itself that other and + stretches over the object (as if that object were implicitly + cancelled)—it is one side of the relationship and the whole + relationship—the light, which manifests itself and something else + too.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_414" id="Section_414" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § 414. + The self-identity of the mind, thus first made <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page048">[pg 048]</span><a name="Pg048" id="Pg048" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> explicit as the Ego, is only its + abstract formal identity. As <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">soul</span></em> it was under the phase of + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">substantial</span></em> universality; now, as + subjective reflection in itself, it is referred to this + substantiality as to its negative, something dark and beyond it. + Hence consciousness, like reciprocal dependence in general, is the + contradiction between the independence of the two sides and their + identity in which they are merged into one. The mind as ego is + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">essence</span></em>; but since reality, in the + sphere of essence, is represented as in immediate being and at the + same time as <span class="tei tei-q">“ideal,”</span> it is as + consciousness only the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">appearance</span></em> (phenomenon) of + mind.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_415" id="Section_415" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § 415. + As the ego is by itself only a formal identity, the dialectical + movement of its intelligible unity, i.e. the successive steps in + further specification of consciousness, does not to it seem to be + its own activity, but is implicit, and to the ego it seems an + alteration of the object. Consciousness consequently appears + differently modified according to the difference of the given + object; and the gradual specification of consciousness appears as a + variation in the characteristics of its objects. Ego, the subject + of consciousness, is thinking: the logical process of modifying the + object is what is identical in subject and object, their absolute + interdependence, what makes the object the subject's own.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Kantian + philosophy may be most accurately described as having viewed the + mind as consciousness, and as containing the propositions only of a + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">phenomenology</span></em> (not of a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">philosophy</span></em>) of mind. The Ego Kant + regards as reference to something away and beyond (which in its + abstract description is termed the thing-at-itself); and it is only + from this finite point of view that he treats both intellect and + will. Though in the notion of a power of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">reflective</span></em> judgment he touches + upon the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Idea</span></em> of mind—a + subject-objectivity, an <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">intuitive intellect</span></em>, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page049">[pg 049]</span><a name="Pg049" id="Pg049" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> &c., and even the Idea of Nature, + still this Idea is again deposed to an appearance, i.e. to a + subjective maxim (§ 58). Reinhold may therefore be said to have + correctly appreciated Kantism when he treated it as a theory of + consciousness (under the name of <span class="tei tei-q">“faculty + of ideation”</span>). Fichte kept to the same point of view: his + non-ego is only something set over against the ego, only defined as + in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">consciousness</span></em>: it is made no more + than an infinite <span class="tei tei-q">“shock,”</span> i.e. a + thing-in-itself. Both systems therefore have clearly not reached + the intelligible unity or the mind as it actually and essentially + is, but only as it is in reference to something else.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As against + Spinozism, again, it is to be noted that the mind in the judgment + by which it <span class="tei tei-q">“constitutes”</span> itself an + ego (a free subject contrasted with its qualitative affection) has + emerged from substance, and that the philosophy, which gives this + judgment as the absolute characteristic of mind, has emerged from + Spinozism.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 416. The aim + of conscious mind is to make its appearance identical with its + essence, to raise its <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">self-certainty to truth</span></em>. The + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">existence</span></em> of mind in the stage of + consciousness is finite, because it is merely a nominal + self-relation, or mere certainty. The object is only abstractly + characterised as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">its</span></em>; in other words, in the object + it is only as an abstract ego that the mind is reflected into + itself: hence its existence there has still a content, which is not + as its own.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 417. The + grades of this elevation of certainty to truth are three in number: + first (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">a</span></span>) consciousness in general, + with an object set against it; (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>) + self-consciousness, for which <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ego</span></em> is the object; (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c</span></span>) + unity of consciousness and self-consciousness, where the mind sees + itself embodied in the object and sees itself as implicitly and + explicitly determinate, as Reason, the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">notion</span></em> + of mind.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page050">[pg + 050]</span><a name="Pg050" id="Pg050" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(a) Consciousness + Proper</span><a id="noteref_127" name="noteref_127" href= + "#note_127"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">127</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.</span></h3> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + (α) Sensuous consciousness.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 418. + Consciousness is, first, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">immediate</span></em> consciousness, and + its reference to the object accordingly the simple and + underived certainty of it. The object similarly, being + immediate, an existent, reflected in itself, is further + characterised as immediately singular. This is + sense-consciousness.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + Consciousness—as a case of correlation—comprises only the + categories belonging to the abstract ego or formal thinking; + and these it treats as features of the object (§ <a href= + "#Section_415" class="tei tei-ref">415</a>). + Sense-consciousness therefore is aware of the object as an + existent, a something, an existing thing, a singular, and so + on. It appears as wealthiest in matter, but as poorest in + thought. That wealth of matter is made out of sensations: they + are the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">material</span></em> of consciousness (§ + <a href="#Section_414" class="tei tei-ref">414</a>), the + substantial and qualitative, what the soul in its + anthropological sphere is and finds <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">in + itself</span></em>. This material the ego (the reflection of + the soul in itself) separates from itself, and puts it first + under the category of being. Spatial and temporal Singularness, + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">here</span></em> and <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">now</span></em> + (the terms by which in the Phenomenology of the Mind (W. II. p. + 73), I described the object of sense-consciousness) strictly + belongs to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">intuition</span></em>. At present the + object is at first to be viewed only in its correlation to + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">consciousness</span></em>, i.e. a + something <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">external</span></em> to it, and not yet as + external on its own part, or as being beside and out of + itself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 419. The + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sensible</span></em> as somewhat becomes + an <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">other</span></em>: the reflection in + itself of this <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">somewhat</span></em>, the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">thing</span></em>, has <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">many</span></em> properties; and as a + single (thing) in its immediacy has several <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">predicates</span></em>. The muchness of + the sense-singular <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page051">[pg + 051]</span><a name="Pg051" id="Pg051" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> thus becomes a breadth—a variety of + relations, reflectional attributes, and universalities. These + are logical terms introduced by the thinking principle, i.e. in + this case by the Ego, to describe the sensible. But the Ego as + itself apparent sees in all this characterisation a change in + the object; and self-consciousness, so construing the object, + is sense-perception.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + (β) Sense-perception<a id="noteref_128" name="noteref_128" + href="#note_128"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">128</span></span></a>.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 420. + Consciousness, having passed beyond the sensibility, wants to + take the object in its truth, not as merely immediate, but as + mediated, reflected in itself, and universal. Such an object is + a combination of sense qualities with attributes of wider range + by which thought defines concrete relations and connexions. + Hence the identity of consciousness with the object passes from + the abstract identity of <span class="tei tei-q">“I am + sure”</span> to the definite identity of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“I know, and am aware.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + particular grade of consciousness on which Kantism conceives + the mind is perception: which is also the general point of view + taken by ordinary consciousness, and more or less by the + sciences. The sensuous certitudes of single apperceptions or + observations form the starting-point: these are supposed to be + elevated to truth, by being regarded in their bearings, + reflected upon, and on the lines of definite categories turned + at the same time into something necessary and universal, viz. + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">experiences</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 421. This + conjunction of individual and universal is admixture—the + individual remains at the bottom hard and unaffected by the + universal, to which however it is related. It is therefore a + tissue of contradictions—between the single things of sense + apperception, which form the alleged ground of general + experience, and the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page052">[pg + 052]</span><a name="Pg052" id="Pg052" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> universality which has a higher claim to + be the essence and ground—between the individuality of a thing + which, taken in its concrete content, constitutes its + independence and the various properties which, free from this + negative link and from one another, are independent universal + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">matters</span></em> (§ 123). This + contradiction of the finite which runs through all forms of the + logical spheres turns out most concrete, when the somewhat is + defined as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">object</span></em> (§ 194 seqq.).</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + (γ) The Intellect<a id="noteref_129" name="noteref_129" href= + "#note_129"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">129</span></span></a>.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 422. The + proximate <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">truth</span></em> of perception is that it + is the object which is an <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">appearance</span></em>, and that the + object's reflection in self is on the contrary a + self-subsistent inward and universal. The consciousness of such + an object is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">intellect</span></em>. This inward, as we + called it, of the thing is on one hand the suppression of the + multiplicity of the sensible, and, in that manner, an abstract + identity: on the other hand, however, it also for that reason + contains the multiplicity, but as an interior <span class= + "tei tei-q">“simple”</span> difference, which remains + self-identical in the vicissitudes of appearance. This simple + difference is the realm of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the + laws</span></em> of the phenomena—a copy of the phenomenon, but + brought to rest and universality.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_423" id="Section_423" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § + 423. The law, at first stating the mutual dependence of + universal, permanent terms, has, in so far as its distinction + is the inward one, its necessity on its own part; the one of + the terms, as not externally different from the other, lies + immediately in the other. But in this manner the interior + distinction is, what it is in truth, the distinction on its own + part, or the distinction which is none. With this new + form-characteristic, on the whole, consciousness <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">implicitly</span></em> vanishes: for + consciousness as such implies the reciprocal independence + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page053">[pg 053]</span><a name= + "Pg053" id="Pg053" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of subject and + object. The ego in its judgment has an object which is not + distinct from it,—it has itself. Consciousness has passed into + self-consciousness.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(b) Self-consciousness</span><a id= + "noteref_130" name="noteref_130" href="#note_130"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">130</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 424. + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Self-consciousness</span></em> is the truth + of consciousness: the latter is a consequence of the former, all + consciousness of an other object being as a matter of fact also + self-consciousness. The object is my idea: I am aware of the + object as mine; and thus in it I am aware of me. The formula of + self-consciousness is I = I:—abstract freedom, pure <span class= + "tei tei-q">“ideality.”</span> In so far it lacks <span class= + "tei tei-q">“reality”</span>: for as it is its own object, there + is strictly speaking no object, because there is no distinction + between it and the object.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 425. + Abstract self-consciousness is the first negation of + consciousness, and for that reason it is burdened with an + external object, or, nominally, with the negation of it. Thus it + is at the same time the antecedent stage, consciousness: it is + the contradiction of itself as self-consciousness and as + consciousness. But the latter aspect and the negation in general + is in I = I potentially suppressed; and hence as this certitude + of self against the object it is the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">impulse</span></em> to realise its implicit + nature, by giving its abstract self-awareness content and + objectivity, and in the other direction to free itself from its + sensuousness, to set aside the given objectivity and identify it + with itself. The two processes are one and the same, the + identification of its consciousness and self-consciousness.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + (α) Appetite or Instinctive Desire<a id="noteref_131" name= + "noteref_131" href="#note_131"><span class="tei tei-noteref" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">131</span></span></a>.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 426. + Self-consciousness, in its immediacy, is a singular, and a + desire (appetite),—the contradiction implied <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page054">[pg 054]</span><a name="Pg054" id= + "Pg054" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in its abstraction which + should yet be objective,—or in its immediacy which has the + shape of an external object and should be subjective. The + certitude of one's self, which issues from the suppression of + mere consciousness, pronounces the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">object</span></em> null: and the outlook + of self-consciousness towards the object equally qualifies the + abstract ideality of such self-consciousness as null.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 427. + Self-consciousness, therefore, knows itself implicit in the + object, which in this outlook is conformable to the appetite. + In the negation of the two one-sided moments by the ego's own + activity, this identity comes to be <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">for</span></em> + the ego. To this activity the object, which implicitly and for + self-consciousness is self-less, can make no resistance: the + dialectic, implicit in it, towards self-suppression exists in + this case as that activity of the ego. Thus while the given + object is rendered subjective, the subjectivity divests itself + of its one-sidedness and becomes objective to itself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 428. The + product of this process is the fast conjunction of the ego with + itself, its satisfaction realised, and itself made actual. On + the external side it continues, in this return upon itself, + primarily describable as an individual, and maintains itself as + such; because its bearing upon the self-less object is purely + negative, the latter, therefore, being merely consumed. Thus + appetite in its satisfaction is always destructive, and in its + content selfish: and as the satisfaction has only happened in + the individual (and that is transient) the appetite is again + generated in the very act of satisfaction.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 429. But + on the inner side, or implicitly, the sense of self which the + ego gets in the satisfaction does not remain in abstract + self-concentration or in mere individuality; on the + contrary,—as negation of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">immediacy</span></em> and individuality + the result involves a character of universality and of the + identity of self-consciousness <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page055">[pg 055]</span><a name="Pg055" id="Pg055" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> with its object. The judgment or + diremption of this self-consciousness is the consciousness of a + <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">free</span></em>”</span> object, in which + ego is aware of itself as an ego, which however is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">also</span></em> still outside it.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + (β) Self-consciousness Recognitive<a id="noteref_132" name= + "noteref_132" href="#note_132"><span class="tei tei-noteref" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">132</span></span></a>.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_430" id="Section_430" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § + 430. Here there is a self-consciousness for a + self-consciousness, at first immediately as one of two things + for another. In that other as ego I behold myself, and yet also + an immediately existing object, another ego absolutely + independent of me and opposed to me. (The suppression of the + singleness of self-consciousness was only a first step in the + suppression, and it merely led to the characterisation of it as + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">particular</span></em>.) This + contradiction gives either self-consciousness the impulse to + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">show</span></em> itself as a free self, + and to exist as such for the other:—the process of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">recognition</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 431. The + process is a battle. I cannot be aware of me as myself in + another individual, so long as I see in that other an other and + an immediate existence: and I am consequently bent upon the + suppression of this immediacy of his. But in like measure + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">I</span></em> cannot be recognised as + immediate, except so far as I overcome the mere immediacy on my + own part, and thus give existence to my freedom. But this + immediacy is at the same time the corporeity of + self-consciousness, in which as in its sign and tool the latter + has its own <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sense of self</span></em>, and its being + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">for + others</span></em>, and the means for entering into relation + with them.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 432. The + fight of recognition is a life and death struggle: either + self-consciousness imperils the other's like, and incurs a like + peril for its own—but only peril, for either is no less bent on + maintaining his life, as the existence of his freedom. Thus the + death of one, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page056">[pg + 056]</span><a name="Pg056" id="Pg056" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> though by the abstract, therefore rude, + negation of immediacy, it, from one point of view, solves the + contradiction, is yet, from the essential point of view (i.e. + the outward and visible recognition), a new contradiction (for + that recognition is at the same time undone by the other's + death) and a greater than the other.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 433. But + because life is as requisite as liberty to the solution, the + fight ends in the first instance as a one-sided negation with + inequality. While the one combatant prefers life, retains his + single self-consciousness, but surrenders his claim for + recognition, the other holds fast to his self-assertion and is + recognised by the former as his superior. Thus arises the + status of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">master and slave</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the + battle for recognition and the subjugation under a master, we + see, on their phenomenal side, the emergence of man's social + life and the commencement of political union. <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Force</span></em>, which is the basis of + this phenomenon, is not on that account a basis of right, but + only the necessary and legitimate factor in the passage from + the state of self-consciousness sunk in appetite and selfish + isolation into the state of universal self-consciousness. + Force, then, is the external or phenomenal commencement of + states, not their underlying and essential principle.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 434. This + status, in the first place, implies <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">common</span></em> wants and common + concern for their satisfaction,—for the means of mastery, the + slave, must likewise be kept in life. In place of the rude + destruction of the immediate object there ensues acquisition, + preservation, and formation of it, as the instrumentality in + which the two extremes of independence and non-independence are + welded together. The form of universality thus arising in + satisfying the want, creates a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">permanent</span></em> means and a + provision which takes care for and secures the + future.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page057">[pg + 057]</span><a name="Pg057" id="Pg057" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 435. But + secondly, when we look to the distinction of the two, the + master beholds in the slave and his servitude the supremacy of + his <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">single</span></em> self-hood, and that by + the suppression of immediate self-hood, a suppression, however, + which falls on another. This other, the slave, however, in the + service of the master, works off his individualist self-will, + overcomes the inner immediacy of appetite, and in this + divestment of self and in <span class="tei tei-q">“the fear of + his lord”</span> makes <span class="tei tei-q">“the beginning + of wisdom”</span>—the passage to universal + self-consciousness.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + (γ) Universal Self-consciousness.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 436. + Universal self-consciousness is the affirmative awareness of + self in an other self: each self as a free individuality has + his own <span class="tei tei-q">“absolute”</span> independence, + yet in virtue of the negation of its immediacy or appetite + without distinguishing itself from that other. Each is thus + universal self-conscious and objective; each has <span class= + "tei tei-q">“real”</span> universality in the shape of + reciprocity, so far as each knows itself recognised in the + other freeman, and is aware of this in so far as it recognises + the other and knows him to be free.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This + universal re-appearance of self-consciousness—the notion which + is aware of itself in its objectivity as a subjectivity + identical with itself and for that reason universal—is the form + of consciousness which lies at the root of all true mental or + spiritual life—in family, fatherland, state, and of all + virtues, love, friendship, valour, honour, fame. But this + appearance of the underlying essence may be severed from that + essential, and be maintained apart in worthless honour, idle + fame, &c.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_437" id="Section_437" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § + 437. This unity of consciousness and self-consciousness implies + in the first instance the individuals mutually <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page058">[pg 058]</span><a name="Pg058" id= + "Pg058" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> throwing light upon each + other. But the difference between those who are thus identified + is mere vague diversity—or rather it is a difference which is + none. Hence its truth is the fully and really existent + universality and objectivity of self-consciousness,—which is + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Reason</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Reason, as + the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Idea</span></em> (§ 213) as it here + appears, is to be taken as meaning that the distinction between + notion and reality which it unifies has the special aspect of a + distinction between the self-concentrated notion or + consciousness, and the object subsisting external and opposed + to it.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(c) Reason</span><a id= + "noteref_133" name="noteref_133" href="#note_133"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">133</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 438. The + essential and actual truth which reason is, lies in the simple + identity of the subjectivity of the notion, with its objectivity + and universality. The universality of reason, therefore, whilst + it signifies that the object, which was only given in + consciousness <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">quâ</span></span> + consciousness, is now itself universal, permeating and + encompassing the ego, also signifies that the pure ego is the + pure form which overlaps the object, and encompasses it without + it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 439. + Self-consciousness, thus certified that its determinations are no + less objective, or determinations of the very being of things, + than they are its own thoughts, is Reason, which as such an + identity is not only the absolute <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">substance</span></em>, but the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">truth</span></em> + that knows it. For truth here has, as its peculiar mode and + immanent form, the self-centred pure notion, ego, the certitude + of self as infinite universality. Truth, aware of what it is, is + mind (spirit).</p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page059">[pg 059]</span><a name= + "Pg059" id="Pg059" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc23" id="toc23"></a> <a name="pdf24" id="pdf24"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Sub-Section C. Psychology. + Mind</span><a id="noteref_134" name="noteref_134" href= + "#note_134"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">134</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 144%">.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 440. Mind has + defined itself as the truth of soul and consciousness,—the former a + simple immediate totality, the latter now an infinite form which is + not, like consciousness, restricted by that content, and does not + stand in mere correlation to it as to its object, but is an + awareness of this substantial totality, neither subjective nor + objective. Mind, therefore, starts only from its own being and is + in correlation only with its own features.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Psychology + accordingly studies the faculties or general modes of mental + activity <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">quâ</span></span> + mental—mental vision, ideation, remembering, &c., desires, + &c.—apart both from the content, which on the phenomenal side + is found in empirical ideation, in thinking also and in desire and + will, and from the two forms in which these modes exist, viz. in + the soul as a physical mode, and in consciousness itself as a + separately existent object of that consciousness. This, however, is + not an arbitrary abstraction by the psychologist. Mind is just this + elevation above nature and physical modes, and above the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page060">[pg 060]</span><a name= + "Pg060" id="Pg060" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> complication with an + external object—in one word, above the material, as its concept has + just shown. All it has now to do is to realise this notion of its + freedom, and get rid of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">form</span></em> of immediacy with which it + once more begins. The content which is elevated to intuitions is + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">its</span></em> sensations: it is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">its</span></em> + intuitions also which are transmuted into representations, and its + representations which are transmuted again into thoughts, + &c.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 441. The soul + is finite, so far as its features are immediate or con-natural. + Consciousness is finite, in so far as it has an object. Mind is + finite, in so far as, though it no longer has an object, it has a + mode in its knowledge; i.e., it is finite by means of its + immediacy, or, what is the same thing, by being subjective or only + a notion. And it is a matter of no consequence, which is defined as + its notion, and which as the reality of that notion. Say that its + notion is the utterly infinite objective reason, then its reality + is knowledge or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">intelligence</span></em>: say that knowledge + is its notion, then its reality is that reason, and the realisation + of knowledge consists in appropriating reason. Hence the finitude + of mind is to be placed in the (temporary) failure of knowledge to + get hold of the full reality of its reason, or, equally, in the + (temporary) failure of reason to attain full manifestation in + knowledge. Reason at the same time is only infinite so far as it is + <span class="tei tei-q">“absolute”</span> freedom; so far, that is, + as presupposing itself for its knowledge to work upon, it thereby + reduces itself to finitude, and appears as everlasting movement of + superseding this immediacy, of comprehending itself, and being a + rational knowledge.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 442. The + progress of mind is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">development</span></em>, in so far as its + existent phase, viz. knowledge, involves as its intrinsic purpose + and burden that utter and complete autonomy which is rationality; + in which case the action of translating this purpose into reality + is strictly only <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page061">[pg + 061]</span><a name="Pg061" id="Pg061" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a + nominal passage over into manifestation, and is even there a return + into itself. So far as knowledge which has not shaken off its + original quality of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">mere</span></em> knowledge is only abstract or + formal, the goal of mind is to give it objective fulfilment, and + thus at the same time produce its freedom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The development + here meant is not that of the individual (which has a certain + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">anthropological</span></em> character), where + faculties and forces are regarded as successively emerging and + presenting themselves in external existence—a series of steps, on + the ascertainment on which there was for a long time great stress + laid (by the system of Condillac), as if a conjectural natural + emergence could exhibit the origin of these faculties and + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">explain</span></em> them. In Condillac's + method there is an unmistakable intention to show how the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">several</span></em> modes of mental activity + could be made intelligible without losing sight of mental unity, + and to exhibit their necessary interconnexion. But the categories + employed in doing so are of a wretched sort. Their ruling principle + is that the sensible is taken (and with justice) as the + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">prius</span></span> or the initial basis, but + that the later phases that follow this starting-point present + themselves as emerging in a solely <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">affirmative</span></em> manner, and the + negative aspect of mental activity, by which this material is + transmuted into mind and destroyed <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">as</span></em> a + sensible, is misconceived and overlooked. As the theory of + Condillac states it, the sensible is not merely the empirical + first, but is left as if it were the true and essential + foundation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Similarly, if + the activities of mind are treated as mere manifestations, forces, + perhaps in terms stating their utility or suitability for some + other interest of head or heart, there is no indication of the true + final aim of the whole business. That can only be the intelligible + unity of mind, and its activity can only have itself as aim; i.e. + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page062">[pg 062]</span><a name= + "Pg062" id="Pg062" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> its aim can only be + to get rid of the form of immediacy or subjectivity, to reach and + get hold of itself, and to liberate itself to itself. In this way + the so-called faculties of mind as thus distinguished are only to + be treated as steps of this liberation. And this is the only + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">rational</span></em> mode of studying the mind + and its various activities.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 443. As + consciousness has for its object the stage which preceded it, viz. + the natural soul (§ <a href="#Section_413" class= + "tei tei-ref">413</a>), so mind has or rather makes consciousness + its object: i.e. whereas consciousness is only the virtual identity + of the ego with its other (§ <a href="#Section_415" class= + "tei tei-ref">415</a>), the mind realises that identity as the + concrete unity which it and it only knows. Its productions are + governed by the principle of all reason that the contents are at + once potentially existent, and are the mind's own, in freedom. + Thus, if we consider the initial aspect of mind, that aspect is + twofold—as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">being</span></em> and as <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">its + own</span></em>: by the one, the mind finds in itself something + which <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">is</span></em>, by the other it affirms it to + be only <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">its own</span></em>. The way of mind is + therefore</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>) to + be theoretical: it has to do with the rational as its immediate + affection which it must render its own: or it has to free knowledge + from its pre-supposedness and therefore from its abstractness, and + make the affection subjective. When the affection has been rendered + its own, and the knowledge consequently characterised as free + intelligence, i.e. as having its full and free characterisation in + itself, it is</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>) + Will: <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">practical</span></em> mind, which in the first + place is likewise formal—i.e. its content is at first <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">only</span></em> + its own, and is immediately willed; and it proceeds next to + liberate its volition from its subjectivity, which is the one-sided + form of its contents, so that it</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c</span></span>) + confronts itself as free mind and thus gets rid of both its defects + of one-sidedness.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page063">[pg + 063]</span><a name="Pg063" id="Pg063" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 444. The + theoretical as well as the practical mind still fall under the + general range of Mind Subjective. They are not to be distinguished + as active and passive. Subjective mind is productive: but it is a + merely nominal productivity. Inwards, the theoretical mind produces + only its <span class="tei tei-q">“ideal”</span> world, and gains + abstract autonomy within; while the practical, while it has to do + with autonomous products, with a material which is its own, has a + material which is only nominally such, and therefore a restricted + content, for which it gains the form of universality. Outwards, the + subjective mind (which as a unity of soul and consciousness, is + thus also a reality,—a reality at once anthropological and + conformable to consciousness) has for its products, in the + theoretical range, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">word</span></em>, and in the practical (not + yet deed and action, but) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">enjoyment</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Psychology, like + logic, is one of those sciences which in modern times have yet + derived least profit from the more general mental culture and the + deeper conception of reason. It is still extremely ill off. The + turn which the Kantian philosophy has taken has given it greater + importance: it has, and that in its empirical condition, been + claimed as the basis of metaphysics, which is to consist of nothing + but the empirical apprehension and the analysis of the facts of + human consciousness, merely as facts, just as they are given. This + position of psychology, mixing it up with forms belonging to the + range of consciousness and with anthropology, has led to no + improvement in its own condition: but it has had the further effect + that, both for the mind as such, and for metaphysics and philosophy + generally, all attempts have been abandoned to ascertain the + necessity of essential and actual reality, to get at the notion and + the truth.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page064">[pg + 064]</span><a name="Pg064" id="Pg064" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(a) Theoretical mind.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_445" id="Section_445" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § 445. + Intelligence<a id="noteref_135" name="noteref_135" href= + "#note_135"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">135</span></span></a> + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">finds</span></em> itself determined: this is + its apparent aspect from which in its immediacy it starts. But as + knowledge, intelligence consists in treating what is found as its + own. Its activity has to do with the empty form—the pretence of + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">finding</span></em> reason: and its aim is + to realise its concept or to be reason actual, along with which + the content is realised as rational. This activity is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">cognition</span></em>. The nominal + knowledge, which is only certitude, elevates itself, as reason is + concrete, to definite and conceptual knowledge. The course of + this elevation is itself rational, and consists in a necessary + passage (governed by the concept) of one grade or term of + intelligent activity (a so-called faculty of mind) into another. + The refutation which such cognition gives of the semblance that + the rational is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">found</span></em>, starts from the certitude + or the faith of intelligence in its capability of rational + knowledge, and in the possibility of being able to appropriate + the reason, which it and the content virtually is.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + distinction of Intelligence from Will is often incorrectly taken + to mean that each has a fixed and separate existence of its own, + as if volition could be without intelligence, or the activity of + intelligence could be without will. The possibility of a culture + of the intellect which leaves the heart untouched, as it is said, + and of the heart without the intellect—of hearts which in + one-sided way want intellect, and heartless intellects—only + proves at most that bad and radically untrue existences occur. + But it is not philosophy which should take such untruths of + existence and of mere imagining for truth—take the worthless for + the essential nature. A host of other phrases used of + intelligence, e.g. that it <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page065">[pg 065]</span><a name="Pg065" id="Pg065" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> receives and accepts impressions from + outside, that ideas arise through the causal operations of + external things upon it, &c., belong to a point of view + utterly alien to the mental level or to the position of + philosophic study.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A favourite + reflectional form is that of powers and faculties of soul, + intelligence, or mind. Faculty, like power or force, is the fixed + quality of any object of thought, conceived as reflected into + self. Force (§ 136) is no doubt the infinity of form—of the + inward and the outward: but its essential finitude involves the + indifference of content to form (ib. note). In this lies the want + of organic unity which by this reflectional form, treating mind + as a <span class="tei tei-q">“lot”</span> of forces, is brought + into mind, as it is by the same method brought into nature. Any + aspect which can be distinguished in mental action is stereotyped + as an independent entity, and the mind thus made a skeleton-like + mechanical collection. It makes absolutely no difference if we + substitute the expression <span class= + "tei tei-q">“activities”</span> for powers and faculties. Isolate + the activities and you similarly make the mind a mere aggregate, + and treat their essential correlation as an external + incident.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The action of + intelligence as theoretical mind has been called <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">cognition</span></em> (knowledge). Yet this + does not mean intelligence <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">inter alia</span></span> knows,—besides + which it also intuites, conceives, remembers, imagines, &c. + To take up such a position is in the first instance part and + parcel of that isolating of mental activity just censured; but it + is also in addition connected with the great question of modern + times, as to whether true knowledge or the knowledge of truth is + possible,—which, if answered in the negative, must lead to + abandoning the effort. The numerous aspects and reasons and modes + of phrase with which external reflection swells <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page066">[pg 066]</span><a name="Pg066" id= + "Pg066" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the bulk of this question are + cleared up in their place: the more external the attitude of + understanding in the question, the more diffuse it makes a simple + object. At the present place the simple concept of cognition is + what confronts the quite general assumption taken up by the + question, viz. the assumption that the possibility of true + knowledge in general is in dispute, and the assumption that it is + possible for us at our will either to prosecute or to abandon + cognition. The concept or possibility of cognition has come out + as intelligence itself, as the certitude of reason: the act of + cognition itself is therefore the actuality of intelligence. It + follows from this that it is absurd to speak of intelligence and + yet at the same time of the possibility or choice of knowing or + not. But cognition is genuine, just so far as it realises itself, + or makes the concept its own. This nominal description has its + concrete meaning exactly where cognition has it. The stages of + its realising activity are intuition, conception, memory, + &c.: these activities have no other immanent meaning: their + aim is solely the concept of cognition (§ <a href="#Section_445" + class="tei tei-ref">445</a> note). If they are isolated, however, + then an impression is implied that they are useful for something + else than cognition, or that they severally procure a cognitive + satisfaction of their own; and that leads to a glorification of + the delights of intuition, remembrance, imagination. It is true + that even as isolated (i.e. as non-intelligent), intuition, + imagination, &c. can afford a certain satisfaction: what + physical nature succeeds in doing by its fundamental quality—its + out-of-selfness,—exhibiting the elements or factors of immanent + reason external to each other,—that the intelligence can do by + voluntary act, but the same result may happen where the + intelligence is itself only natural and untrained. But the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">true + satisfaction</span></em>, it is admitted, is only afforded by an + intuition <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page067">[pg + 067]</span><a name="Pg067" id="Pg067" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + permeated by intellect and mind, by rational conception, by + products of imagination which are permeated by reason and exhibit + ideas—in a word, by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">cognitive</span></em> intuition, cognitive + conception, &c. The truth ascribed to such satisfaction lies + in this, that intuition, conception, &c. are not isolated, + and exist only as <span class="tei tei-q">“moments”</span> in the + totality of cognition itself.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + (α) Intuition (Intelligent Perception)<a id="noteref_136" name= + "noteref_136" href="#note_136"><span class="tei tei-noteref" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">136</span></span></a>.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 446. The + mind which as soul is physically conditioned,—which as + consciousness stands to this condition on the same terms as to + an outward object,—but which as intelligence <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">finds + itself</span></em> so characterised—is (1) an inarticulate + embryonic life, in which it is to itself as it were palpable + and has the whole <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">material</span></em> of its knowledge. In + consequence of the immediacy in which it is thus originally, it + is in this stage only as an individual and possesses a vulgar + subjectivity. It thus appears as mind in the guise of + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">feeling</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If feeling + formerly turned up (§ <a href="#Section_399" class= + "tei tei-ref">399</a>) as a mode of the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">soul's</span></em> existence, the finding + of it or its immediacy was in that case essentially to be + conceived as a congenital or corporeal condition; whereas at + present it is only to be taken abstractly in the general sense + of immediacy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 447. The + characteristic form of feeling is that though it is a mode of + some <span class="tei tei-q">“affection,”</span> this mode is + simple. Hence feeling, even should its import be most sterling + and true, has the form of casual particularity,—not to mention + that its import may also be the most scanty and most + untrue.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is + commonly enough assumed that mind has in its feeling the + material of its ideas, but the statement <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page068">[pg 068]</span><a name="Pg068" id= + "Pg068" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> is more usually understood + in a sense the opposite of that which it has here. In contrast + with the simplicity of feeling it is usual rather to assume + that the primary mental phase is judgment generally, or the + distinction of consciousness into subject and object; and the + special quality of sensation is derived from an independent + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">object</span></em>, external or internal. + With us, in the truth of mind, the mere consciousness point of + view, as opposed to true mental <span class= + "tei tei-q">“idealism,”</span> is swallowed up, and the matter + of feeling has rather been supposed already as <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">immanent</span></em> in the mind.—It is + commonly taken for granted that as regards content there is + more in feeling than in thought: this being specially affirmed + of moral and religious feelings. Now the material, which the + mind as it feels is to itself, is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">here</span></em> the result and the mature + result of a fully organised reason: hence under the head of + feeling is comprised all rational and indeed all spiritual + content whatever. But the form of selfish singleness to which + feeling reduces the mind is the lowest and worst vehicle it can + have—one in which it is not found as a free and infinitely + universal principle, but rather as subjective and private, in + content and value entirely contingent. Trained and sterling + feeling is the feeling of an educated mind which has acquired + the consciousness of the true differences of things, of their + essential relationships and real characters; and it is with + such a mind that this rectified material enters into its + feeling and receives this form. Feeling is the immediate, as it + were the closest, contact in which the thinking subject can + stand to a given content. Against that content the subject + re-acts first of all with its particular self-feeling, which + though it <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">may</span></em> be of more sterling value + and of wider range than a onesided intellectual standpoint, may + just as likely be narrow and poor; and in any case is the form + of the particular <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page069">[pg + 069]</span><a name="Pg069" id="Pg069" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and subjective. If a man on any topic + appeals not to the nature and notion of the thing, or at least + to reasons—to the generalities of common sense—but to his + feeling, the only thing to do is to let him alone, because by + his behaviour he refuses to have any lot or part in common + rationality, and shuts himself up in his own isolated + subjectivity—his private and particular self.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 448. (2) + As this immediate finding is broken up into elements, we have + the one factor in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Attention</span></em>—the abstract + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">identical</span></em> direction of mind + (in feeling, as also in all other more advanced developments of + it)—an active self-collection—the factor of fixing it as our + own, but with an as yet only nominal autonomy of intelligence. + Apart from such attention there is nothing for the mind. The + other factor is to invest the special quality of feeling, as + contrasted with this inwardness of mind, with the character of + something existent, but as a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">negative</span></em> or as the abstract + otherness of itself. Intelligence thus defines the content of + sensation as something that is out of itself, projects it into + time and space, which are the forms in which it is intuitive. + To the view of consciousness the material is only an object of + consciousness, a relative other: from mind it receives the + rational characteristic of being <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">its very + other</span></em> (§§ 147, 254).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 449. (3) + When intelligence reaches a concrete unity of the two factors, + that is to say, when it is at once self-collected in this + externally existing material, and yet in this + self-collectedness sunk in the out-of-selfness, it is + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Intuition</span></em> or Mental + Vision.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_450" id="Section_450" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § + 450. At and towards this its own out-of-selfness, intelligence + no less essentially directs its attention. In this its + immediacy it is an awaking to itself, a recollection of itself. + Thus intuition becomes a concretion of the material with the + intelligence, which makes it its <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page070">[pg 070]</span><a name="Pg070" id="Pg070" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> own, so that it no longer needs this + immediacy, no longer needs to find the content.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + (β) Representation (or Mental Idea)<a id="noteref_137" name= + "noteref_137" href="#note_137"><span class="tei tei-noteref" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">137</span></span></a>.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_451" id="Section_451" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § + 451. Representation is this recollected or inwardised + intuition, and as such is the middle between that stage of + intelligence where it finds itself immediately subject to + modification and that where intelligence is in its freedom, or, + as thought. The representation is the property of intelligence; + with a preponderating subjectivity, however, as its right of + property is still conditioned by contrast with the immediacy, + and the representation cannot as it stands be said to + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">be</span></em>. The path of intelligence + in representations is to render the immediacy inward, to invest + itself with intuitive action in itself, and at the same time to + get rid of the subjectivity of the inwardness, and inwardly + divest itself of it; so as to be in itself in an externality of + its own. But as representation begins from intuition and the + ready-found material of intuition, the intuitional contrast + still continues to affect its activity, and makes its concrete + products still <span class="tei tei-q">“syntheses,”</span> + which do not grow to the concrete immanence of the notion till + they reach the stage of thought.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h5 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + (αα) Recollection<a id="noteref_138" name="noteref_138" href= + "#note_138"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">138</span></span></a>.</h5> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 452. + Intelligence, as it at first recollects the intuition, places + the content of feeling in its own inwardness—in a space and a + time of its own. In this way that content is (1) an + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">image</span></em> or picture, liberated + from its original immediacy and abstract singleness amongst + other things, and received into the universality of the ego. + The <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page071">[pg + 071]</span><a name="Pg071" id="Pg071" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> image loses the full complement of + features proper to intuition, and is arbitrary or contingent, + isolated, we may say, from the external place, time, and + immediate context in which the intuition stood.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_453" id="Section_453" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § + 453. (2) The image is of itself transient, and intelligence + itself is as attention its time and also its place, its when + and where. But intelligence is not only consciousness and + actual existence, but <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">quâ</span></span> intelligence is the + subject and the potentiality of its own specialisations. The + image when thus kept in mind is no longer existent, but + stored up out of consciousness.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To grasp + intelligence as this night-like mine or pit in which is + stored a world of infinitely many images and representations, + yet without being in consciousness, is from the one point of + view the universal postulate which bids us treat the notion + as concrete, in the way we treat e.g. the germ as + affirmatively containing, in virtual possibility, all the + qualities that come into existence in the subsequent + development of the tree. Inability to grasp a universal like + this, which, though intrinsically concrete, still continues + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">simple</span></em>, is what has led + people to talk about special fibres and areas as receptacles + of particular ideas. It was felt that what was diverse should + in the nature of things have a local habitation peculiar to + itself. But whereas the reversion of the germ from its + existing specialisations to its simplicity in a purely + potential existence takes place only in another germ,—the + germ of the fruit; intelligence <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">quâ</span></span> intelligence shows the + potential coming to free existence in its development, and + yet at the same time collecting itself in its inwardness. + Hence from the other point of view intelligence is to be + conceived as this sub-conscious mine, i.e. as the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">existent</span></em> universal in which + the different has not yet been realised in its separations. + And it is indeed this potentiality which <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page072">[pg 072]</span><a name="Pg072" id= + "Pg072" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> is the first form of + universality offered in mental representation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_454" id="Section_454" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § + 454. (3) An image thus abstractly treasured up needs, if it + is to exist, an actual intuition: and what is strictly called + Remembrance is the reference of the image to an + intuition,—and that as a subsumption of the immediate single + intuition (impression) under what is in point of form + universal, under the representation (idea) with the same + content. Thus intelligence recognises the specific sensation + and the intuition of it as what is already its own,—in them + it is still within itself: at the same time it is aware that + what is only its (primarily) internal image is also an + immediate object of intuition, by which it is authenticated. + The image, which in the mine of intelligence was only its + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">property</span></em>, now that it has + been endued with externality, comes actually into its + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">possession</span></em>. And so the image + is at once rendered distinguishable from the intuition and + separable from the blank night in which it was originally + submerged. Intelligence is thus the force which can give + forth its property, and dispense with external intuition for + its existence in it. This <span class= + "tei tei-q">“synthesis”</span> of the internal image with the + recollected existence is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">representation</span></em> + proper: by this synthesis the internal now has the + qualification of being able to be presented before + intelligence and to have its existence in it.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h5 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + (ββ) Imagination<a id="noteref_139" name="noteref_139" href= + "#note_139"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">139</span></span></a>.</h5> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_455" id="Section_455" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § + 455. (1) The intelligence which is active in this possession + is the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">reproductive imagination</span></em>, + where the images issue from the inward world belonging to the + ego, which is now the power over them. The images are in the + first instance referred to this external, immediate + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page073">[pg 073]</span><a name= + "Pg073" id="Pg073" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> time and space + which is treasured up along with them. But it is solely in + the conscious subject, where it is treasured up, that the + image has the individuality in which the features composing + it are conjoined: whereas their original concretion, i.e. at + first only in space and time, as a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">unit</span></em> of intuition, has been + broken up. The content reproduced, belonging as it does to + the self-identical unity of intelligence, and an out-put from + its universal mine, has a general idea (representation) to + supply the link of association for the images which according + to circumstances are more abstract or more concrete + ideas.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + so-called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">laws of the association of + ideas</span></em> were objects of great interest, especially + during that outburst of empirical psychology which was + contemporaneous with the decline of philosophy. In the first + place, it is not <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ideas</span></em> (properly so called) + which are associated. Secondly, these modes of relation are + not <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">laws</span></em>, just for the reason + that there are so many laws about the same thing, as to + suggest a caprice and a contingency opposed to the very + nature of law. It is a matter of chance whether the link of + association is something pictorial, or an intellectual + category, such as likeness and contrast, reason and + consequence. The train of images and representations + suggested by association is the sport of vacant-minded + ideation, where, though intelligence shows itself by a + certain formal universality, the matter is entirely + pictorial.—Image and idea, if we leave out of account the + more precise definition of those forms given above, present + also a distinction in content. The former is the more + consciously-concrete idea, whereas the idea (representation), + whatever be its content (from image, notion, or idea), has + always the peculiarity, though belonging to intelligence, of + being in respect of its content given and immediate. It is + still <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page074">[pg + 074]</span><a name="Pg074" id="Pg074" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> true of this idea or representation, as + of all intelligence, that it finds its material, as a matter + of fact, to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">be</span></em> so and so; and the + universality which the aforesaid material receives by + ideation is still abstract. Mental representation is the mean + in the syllogism of the elevation of intelligence, the link + between the two significations of self-relatedness—viz. + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">being</span></em> and <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">universality</span></em>, which in + consciousness receive the title of object and subject. + Intelligence complements what is merely found by the + attribution of universality, and the internal and its own by + the attribution of being, but a being of its own institution. + (On the distinction of representations and thoughts, see + Introd. to the Logic, § 20 note.)</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + Abstraction, which occurs in the ideational activity by which + general ideas are produced (and ideas <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">quâ</span></span> ideas virtually have + the form of generality), is frequently explained as the + incidence of many similar images one upon another and is + supposed to be thus made intelligible. If this super-imposing + is to be no mere accident and without principle, a force of + attraction in like images must be assumed, or something of + the sort, which at the same time would have the negative + power of rubbing off the dissimilar elements against each + other. This force is really intelligence itself,—the + self-identical ego which by its internalising recollection + gives the images <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ipso + facto</span></span> generality, and subsumes the single + intuition under the already internalised image (§ <a href= + "#Section_453" class="tei tei-ref">453</a>).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 456. + Thus even the association of ideas is to be treated as a + subsumption of the individual under the universal, which + forms their connecting link. But here intelligence is more + than merely a general form: its inwardness is an internally + definite, concrete subjectivity with a substance and value of + its own, derived from some interest, some latent concept or + Ideal principle, so far as we may by anticipation speak of + such. Intelligence <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page075">[pg + 075]</span><a name="Pg075" id="Pg075" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> is the power which wields the stores of + images and ideas belonging to it, and which thus (2) freely + combines and subsumes these stores in obedience to its + peculiar tenor. Such is creative imagination<a id= + "noteref_140" name="noteref_140" href= + "#note_140"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">140</span></span></a>—symbolic, + allegoric, or poetical imagination—where the intelligence + gets a definite embodiment in this store of ideas and informs + them with its general tone. These more or less concrete, + individualised creations are still <span class= + "tei tei-q">“syntheses”</span>: for the material, in which + the subjective principles and ideas get a mentally pictorial + existence, is derived from the data of intuition.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 457. In + creative imagination intelligence has been so far perfected + as to need no helps for intuition. Its self-sprung ideas have + pictorial existence. This pictorial creation of its intuitive + spontaneity is subjective—still lacks the side of existence. + But as the creation unites the internal idea with the vehicle + of materialisation, intelligence has therein <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">implicitly</span></em> returned both to + identical self-relation and to immediacy. As reason, its + first start was to appropriate the immediate datum in itself + (§§ <a href="#Section_445" class="tei tei-ref">445</a>, + <a href="#Section_455" class="tei tei-ref">455</a>), i.e. to + universalise it; and now its action as reason (§ <a href= + "#Section_458" class="tei tei-ref">458</a>) is from the + present point directed towards giving the character of an + existent to what in it has been perfected to concrete + auto-intuition. In other words, it aims at making itself + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">be</span></em> and be a fact. Acting on + this view, it is self-uttering, intuition-producing: the + imagination which creates signs.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Productive + imagination is the centre in which the universal and being, + one's own and what is picked up, internal and external, are + completely welded into one. The preceding <span class= + "tei tei-q">“syntheses”</span> of intuition, recollection, + &c., are unifications of the same factors, but they are + <span class="tei tei-q">“syntheses”</span>; it is not till + creative imagination that intelligence ceases to be the vague + mine and the universal, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page076">[pg 076]</span><a name="Pg076" id="Pg076" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and becomes an individuality, a + concrete subjectivity, in which the self-reference is defined + both to being and to universality. The creations of + imagination are on all hands recognised as such combinations + of the mind's own and inward with the matter of intuition; + what further and more definite aspects they have is a matter + for other departments. For the present this internal studio + of intelligence is only to be looked at in these abstract + aspects.—Imagination, when regarded as the agency of this + unification, is reason, but only a nominal reason, because + the matter or theme it embodies is to imagination <span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">quâ</span></span> imagination a matter + of indifference; whilst reason <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">quâ</span></span> reason also insists + upon the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">truth</span></em> of its content.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another + point calling for special notice is that, when imagination + elevates the internal meaning to an image and intuition, and + this is expressed by saying that it gives the former the + character of an <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">existent</span></em>, the phrase must + not seem surprising that intelligence makes itself <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">be</span></em> as a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">thing</span></em>; for its ideal import + is itself, and so is the aspect which it imposes upon it. The + image produced by imagination of an object is a bare mental + or subjective intuition: in the sign or symbol it adds + intuitability proper; and in mechanical memory it completes, + so far as it is concerned, this form of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">being</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_458" id="Section_458" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § + 458. In this unity (initiated by intelligence) of an + independent representation with an intuition, the matter of + the latter is, in the first instance, something accepted, + somewhat immediate or given (e.g. the colour of the cockade, + &c.). But in the fusion of the two elements, the + intuition does not count positively or as representing + itself, but as representative of something else. It is an + image, which has received as its soul and meaning an + independent mental representation. This intuition is the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sign</span></em>.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page077">[pg 077]</span><a name="Pg077" id= + "Pg077" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The sign + is some immediate intuition, representing a totally different + import from what naturally belongs to it; it is the pyramid + into which a foreign soul has been conveyed, and where it is + conserved. The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sign</span></em> is different from the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">symbol</span></em>: for in the symbol + the original characters (in essence and conception) of the + visible object are more or less identical with the import + which it bears as symbol; whereas in the sign, strictly + so-called, the natural attributes of the intuition, and the + connotation of which it is a sign, have nothing to do with + each other. Intelligence therefore gives proof of wider + choice and ampler authority in the use of intuitions when it + treats them as designatory (significative) rather than as + symbolical.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In logic + and psychology, signs and language are usually foisted in + somewhere as an appendix, without any trouble being taken to + display their necessity and systematic place in the economy + of intelligence. The right place for the sign is that just + given: where intelligence—which as intuiting generates the + form of time and space, but is apparently recipient of + sensible matter, out of which it forms ideas—now gives its + own original ideas a definite existence from itself, treating + the intuition (or time and space as filled full) as its own + property, deleting the connotation which properly and + naturally belongs to it, and conferring on it an other + connotation as its soul and import. This sign-creating + activity may be distinctively named <span class= + "tei tei-q">“productive”</span> Memory (the primarily + abstract <span class="tei tei-q">“Mnemosyne”</span>); since + memory, which in ordinary life is often used as + interchangeable and synonymous with remembrance + (recollection), and even with conception and imagination, has + always to do with signs only.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 459. The + intuition—in its natural phase a something given and given in + space—acquires, when employed as <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page078">[pg 078]</span><a name="Pg078" id="Pg078" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> a sign, the peculiar characteristic of + existing only as superseded and sublimated. Such is the + negativity of intelligence; and thus the truer phase of the + intuition used as a sign is existence in <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">time</span></em> (but its existence + vanishes in the moment of being), and if we consider the rest + of its external psychical quality, its <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">institution</span></em> by intelligence, + but an institution growing out of its (anthropological) own + naturalness. This institution of the natural is the vocal + note, where the inward idea manifests itself in adequate + utterance. The vocal note which receives further articulation + to express specific ideas—speech and, its system, + language—gives to sensations, intuitions, conceptions, a + second and higher existence than they naturally + possess,—invests them with the right of existence in the + ideational realm.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Language + here comes under discussion only in the special aspect of a + product of intelligence for manifesting its ideas in an + external medium. If language had to be treated in its + concrete nature, it would be necessary for its vocabulary or + material part to recall the anthropological or + psycho-physiological point of view (§ <a href="#Section_401" + class="tei tei-ref">401</a>), and for the grammar or formal + portion to anticipate the standpoint of analytic + understanding. With regard to the elementary <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">material</span></em> of language, while + on one hand the theory of mere accident has disappeared, on + the other the principle of imitation has been restricted to + the slight range it actually covers—that of vocal objects. + Yet one may still hear the German language praised for its + wealth—that wealth consisting in its special expression for + special sounds—<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rauschen</span></span>, <span lang="de" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sausen</span></span>, <span lang="de" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Knarren</span></span>, &c.;—there + have been collected more than a hundred such words, perhaps: + the humour of the moment creates fresh ones when it pleases. + Such superabundance in the realm of sense and of triviality + contributes nothing to form the real wealth of a cultivated + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page079">[pg 079]</span><a name= + "Pg079" id="Pg079" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> language. The + strictly raw material of language itself depends more upon an + inward symbolism than a symbolism referring to external + objects; it depends, i.e. on anthropological articulation, as + it were the posture in the corporeal act of oral utterance. + For each vowel and consonant accordingly, as well as for + their more abstract elements (the posture of lips, palate, + tongue in each) and for their combinations, people have tried + to find the appropriate signification. But these dull + sub-conscious beginnings are deprived of their original + importance and prominence by new influences, it may be by + external agencies or by the needs of civilisation. Having + been originally sensuous intuitions, they are reduced to + signs, and thus have only traces left of their original + meaning, if it be not altogether extinguished. As to the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">formal</span></em> element, again, it is + the work of analytic intellect which informs language with + its categories: it is this logical instinct which gives rise + to grammar. The study of languages still in their original + state, which we have first really begun to make acquaintance + with in modern times, has shown on this point that they + contain a very elaborate grammar and express distinctions + which are lost or have been largely obliterated in the + languages of more civilised nations. It seems as if the + language of the most civilised nations has the most imperfect + grammar, and that the same language has a more perfect + grammar when the nation is in a more uncivilised state than + when it reaches a higher civilisation. (Cf. W. von Humboldt's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Essay on the Dual</span></span>.)</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In + speaking of vocal (which is the original) language, we may + touch, only in passing, upon written language,—a further + development in the particular sphere of language which + borrows the help of an externally practical activity. It is + from the province of immediate <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page080">[pg 080]</span><a name="Pg080" id="Pg080" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> spatial intuition to which written + language proceeds that it takes and produces the signs (§ + <a href="#Section_454" class="tei tei-ref">454</a>). In + particular, hieroglyphics uses spatial figures to designate + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ideas</span></em>; alphabetical writing, + on the other hand, uses them to designate vocal notes which + are already signs. Alphabetical writing thus consists of + signs of signs,—the words or concrete signs of vocal language + being analysed into their simple elements, which severally + receive designation.—Leibnitz's practical mind misled him to + exaggerate the advantages which a complete written language, + formed on the hieroglyphic method (and hieroglyphics are used + even where there is alphabetic writing, as in our signs for + the numbers, the planets, the chemical elements, &c.), + would have as a universal language for the intercourse of + nations and especially of scholars. But we may be sure that + it was rather the intercourse of nations (as was probably the + case in Phoenicia, and still takes place in Canton—see + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Macartney's Travels</span></span> by + Staunton) which occasioned the need of alphabetical writing + and led to its formation. At any rate a comprehensive + hieroglyphic language for ever completed is impracticable. + Sensible objects no doubt admit of permanent signs; but, as + regards signs for mental objects, the progress of thought and + the continual development of logic lead to changes in the + views of their internal relations and thus also of their + nature; and this would involve the rise of a new + hieroglyphical denotation. Even in the case of sense-objects + it happens that their names, i.e. their signs in vocal + language, are frequently changed, as e.g. in chemistry and + mineralogy. Now that it has been forgotten what names + properly are, viz. externalities which of themselves have no + sense, and only get signification as signs, and now that, + instead of names proper, people ask for terms expressing a + sort of definition, which is <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page081">[pg 081]</span><a name="Pg081" id="Pg081" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> frequently changed capriciously and + fortuitously, the denomination, i.e. the composite name + formed of signs of their generic characters or other supposed + characteristic properties, is altered in accordance with the + differences of view with regard to the genus or other + supposed specific property. It is only a stationary + civilisation, like the Chinese, which admits of the + hieroglyphic language of that nation; and its method of + writing moreover can only be the lot of that small part of a + nation which is in exclusive possession of mental + culture.—The progress of the vocal language depends most + closely on the habit of alphabetical writing; by means of + which only does vocal language acquire the precision and + purity of its articulation. The imperfection of the Chinese + vocal language is notorious: numbers of its words possess + several utterly different meanings, as many as ten and + twenty, so that, in speaking, the distinction is made + perceptible merely by accent and intensity, by speaking low + and soft or crying out. The European, learning to speak + Chinese, falls into the most ridiculous blunders before he + has mastered these absurd refinements of accentuation. + Perfection here consists in the opposite of that <span lang= + "fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">parler sans accent</span></span> which + in Europe is justly required of an educated speaker. The + hieroglyphic mode of writing keeps the Chinese vocal language + from reaching that objective precision which is gained in + articulation by alphabetic writing.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Alphabetic + writing is on all accounts the more intelligent: in it the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">word</span></em>—the mode, peculiar to + the intellect, of uttering its ideas most worthily—is brought + to consciousness and made an object of reflection. Engaging + the attention of intelligence, as it does, it is analysed; + the work of sign-making is reduced to its few simple elements + (the primary postures of articulation) in which the + sense-factor in speech is brought to <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page082">[pg 082]</span><a name="Pg082" id="Pg082" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the form of universality, at the same + time that in this elementary phase it acquires complete + precision and purity. Thus alphabetic writing retains at the + same time the advantage of vocal language, that the ideas + have names strictly so called: the name is the simple sign + for the exact idea, i.e. the simple plain idea, not + decomposed into its features and compounded out of them. + Hieroglyphics, instead of springing from the direct analysis + of sensible signs, like alphabetic writing, arise from an + antecedent analysis of ideas. Thus a theory readily arises + that all ideas may be reduced to their elements, or simple + logical terms, so that from the elementary signs chosen to + express these (as, in the case of the Chinese <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Koua</span></span>, the simple straight + stroke, and the stroke broken into two parts) a hieroglyphic + system would be generated by their composition. This feature + of hieroglyphic—the analytical designations of ideas—which + misled Leibnitz to regard it as preferable to alphabetic + writing is rather in antagonism with the fundamental + desideratum of language,—the name. To want a name means that + for the immediate idea (which, however ample a connotation it + may include, is still for the mind simple in the name), we + require a simple immediate sign which for its own sake does + not suggest anything, and has for its sole function to + signify and represent sensibly the simple idea as such. It is + not merely the image-loving and image-limited intelligence + that lingers over the simplicity of ideas and redintegrates + them from the more abstract factors into which they have been + analysed: thought too reduces to the form of a simple thought + the concrete connotation which it <span class= + "tei tei-q">“resumes”</span> and reunites from the mere + aggregate of attributes to which analysis has reduced it. + Both alike require such signs, simple in respect of their + meaning: signs, which though consisting of several + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page083">[pg 083]</span><a name= + "Pg083" id="Pg083" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> letters or + syllables and even decomposed into such, yet do not exhibit a + combination of several ideas.—What has been stated is the + principle for settling the value of these written languages. + It also follows that in hieroglyphics the relations of + concrete mental ideas to one another must necessarily be + tangled and perplexed, and that the analysis of these (and + the proximate results of such analysis must again be + analysed) appears to be possible in the most various and + divergent ways. Every divergence in analysis would give rise + to another formation of the written name; just as in modern + times (as already noted, even in the region of sense) + muriatic acid has undergone several changes of name. A + hieroglyphic written language would require a philosophy as + stationary as is the civilisation of the Chinese.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What has + been said shows the inestimable and not sufficiently + appreciated educational value of learning to read and write + an alphabetic character. It leads the mind from the sensibly + concrete image to attend to the more formal structure of the + vocal word and its abstract elements, and contributes much to + give stability and independence to the inward realm of mental + life. Acquired habit subsequently effaces the peculiarity by + which alphabetic writing appears, in the interest of vision, + as a roundabout way to ideas by means of audibility; it makes + them a sort of hieroglyphic to us, so that in using them we + need not consciously realise them by means of tones, whereas + people unpractised in reading utter aloud what they read in + order to catch its meaning in the sound. Thus, while (with + the faculty which transformed alphabetic writing into + hieroglyphics) the capacity of abstraction gained by the + first practice remains, hieroglyphic reading is of itself a + deaf reading and a dumb writing. It is true that the audible + (which <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page084">[pg + 084]</span><a name="Pg084" id="Pg084" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> is in time) and the visible (which is + in space), each have their own basis, one no less + authoritative than the other. But in the case of alphabetic + writing there is only a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">single</span></em> basis: the two + aspects occupy their rightful relation to each other: the + visible language is related to the vocal only as a sign, and + intelligence expresses itself immediately and unconditionally + by speaking.—The instrumental function of the comparatively + non-sensuous element of tone for all ideational work shows + itself further as peculiarly important in memory which forms + the passage from representation to thought.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 460. The + name, combining the intuition (an intellectual production) + with its signification, is primarily a single transient + product; and conjunction of the idea (which is inward) with + the intuition (which is outward) is itself outward. The + reduction of this outwardness to inwardness is (verbal) + Memory.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h5 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + (γγ) Memory<a id="noteref_141" name="noteref_141" href= + "#note_141"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">141</span></span></a>.</h5> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 461. + Under the shape of memory the course of intelligence passes + through the same inwardising (recollecting) functions, as + regards the intuition of the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">word</span></em>, as representation in + general does in dealing with the first immediate intuition (§ + <a href="#Section_451" class="tei tei-ref">451</a>). (1) + Making its own the synthesis achieved in the sign, + intelligence, by this inwardising (memorising) elevates the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">single</span></em> synthesis to a + universal, i.e. permanent, synthesis, in which name and + meaning are for it objectively united, and renders the + intuition (which the name originally is) a representation. + Thus the import (connotation) and sign, being identified, + form one representation: the representation in its inwardness + is rendered concrete and gets existence for its import: all + this being the work of memory which retains names (retentive + Memory).</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page085">[pg + 085]</span><a name="Pg085" id="Pg085" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_462" id="Section_462" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § + 462. The name is thus the thing so far as it exists and + counts in the ideational realm. (2) In the name, <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Reproductive</span></em> memory has and + recognises the thing, and with the thing it has the name, + apart from intuition and image. The name, as giving an + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">existence</span></em> to the content in + intelligence, is the externality of intelligence to itself; + and the inwardising or recollection of the name, i.e. of an + intuition of intellectual origin, is at the same time a + self-externalisation to which intelligence reduces itself on + its own ground. The association of the particular names lies + in the meaning of the features sensitive, representative, or + cogitant,—series of which the intelligence traverses as it + feels, represents, or thinks.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Given the + name lion, we need neither the actual vision of the animal, + nor its image even: the name alone, if we <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">understand</span></em> it, is the + unimaged simple representation. We <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">think</span></em> in names.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The recent + attempts—already, as they deserved, forgotten—to rehabilitate + the Mnemonic of the ancients, consist in transforming names + into images, and thus again deposing memory to the level of + imagination. The place of the power of memory is taken by a + permanent tableau of a series of images, fixed in the + imagination, to which is then attached the series of ideas + forming the composition to be learned by rote. Considering + the heterogeneity between the import of these ideas and those + permanent images, and the speed with which the attachment has + to be made, the attachment cannot be made otherwise than by + shallow, silly, and utterly accidental links. Not merely is + the mind put to the torture of being worried by idiotic + stuff, but what is thus learnt by rote is just as quickly + forgotten, seeing that the same tableau is used for getting + by rote every other series of ideas, and so those previously + attached to it are effaced. What is mnemonically <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page086">[pg 086]</span><a name="Pg086" id= + "Pg086" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> impressed is not like + what is retained in memory really got by heart, i.e. strictly + produced from within outwards, from the deep pit of the ego, + and thus recited, but is, so to speak, read off the tableau + of fancy.—Mnemonic is connected with the common prepossession + about memory, in comparison with fancy and imagination; as if + the latter were a higher and more intellectual activity than + memory. On the contrary, memory has ceased to deal with an + image derived from intuition,—the immediate and incomplete + mode of intelligence; it has rather to do with an object + which is the product of intelligence itself,—such a + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">without book</span></em><a id= + "noteref_142" name="noteref_142" href= + "#note_142"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">142</span></span></a> + as remains locked up in the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">within-book</span></em><a id= + "noteref_143" name="noteref_143" href= + "#note_143"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">143</span></span></a> + of intelligence, and is, within intelligence, only its + outward and existing side.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 463. (3) + As the interconnexion of the names lies in the meaning, the + conjunction of their meaning with the reality as names is + still an (external) synthesis; and intelligence in this its + externality has not made a complete and simple return into + self. But intelligence is the universal,—the single plain + truth of its particular self-divestments; and its consummated + appropriation of them abolishes that distinction between + meaning and name. This extreme inwardising of representation + is the supreme self-divestment of intelligence, in which it + renders itself the mere <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">being</span></em>, the universal space + of names as such, i.e. of meaningless words. The ego, which + is this abstract being, is, because subjectivity, at the same + time the power over the different names,—the link which, + having nothing in itself, fixes in itself series of them and + keeps them in stable order. So far as they merely <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">are</span></em>, and intelligence is + here itself this <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">being</span></em> of theirs, its power + is a merely abstract subjectivity,—memory; which, on account + of the complete <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page087">[pg + 087]</span><a name="Pg087" id="Pg087" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> externality in which the members of + such series stand to one another, and because it is itself + this externality (subjective though that be), is called + mechanical (§ 195).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A + composition is, as we know, not thoroughly conned by rote, + until one attaches no meaning to the words. The recitation of + what has been thus got by heart is therefore of course + accentless. The correct accent, if it is introduced, suggests + the meaning: but this introduction of the signification of an + idea disturbs the mechanical nexus and therefore easily + throws out the reciter. The faculty of conning by rote series + of words, with no principle governing their succession, or + which are separately meaningless, e.g. a series of proper + names, is so supremely marvellous, because it is the very + essence of mind to have its wits about it; whereas in this + case the mind is estranged in itself, and its action is like + machinery. But it is only as uniting subjectivity with + objectivity that the mind has its wits about it. Whereas in + the case before us, after it has in intuition been at first + so external as to pick up its facts ready-made, and in + representation inwardises or recollects this datum and makes + it its own,—it proceeds as memory to make itself external in + itself, so that what is its own assumes the guise of + something found. Thus one of the two dynamic factors of + thought, viz. objectivity, is here put in intelligence itself + as a quality of it.—It is only a step further to treat memory + as mechanical—the act implying no intelligence—in which case + it is only justified by its uses, its indispensability + perhaps for other purposes and functions of mind. But by so + doing we overlook the proper signification it has in the + mind.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 464. If + it is to be the fact and true objectivity, the mere name as + an existent requires something else,—to be interpreted by the + representing intellect. Now in the shape of mechanical + memory, intelligence is at once <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page088">[pg 088]</span><a name="Pg088" id="Pg088" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> that external objectivity and the + meaning. In this way intelligence is explicitly made an + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">existence</span></em> of this identity, + i.e. it is explicitly active as such an identity which as + reason it is implicitly. Memory is in this manner the passage + into the function of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">thought</span></em>, which no longer has + a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">meaning</span></em>, i.e. its + objectivity is no longer severed from the subjective, and its + inwardness does not need to go outside for its existence.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The German + language has etymologically assigned memory (<span lang="de" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gedächtniß</span></span>), of which it + has become a foregone conclusion to speak contemptuously, the + high position of direct kindred with thought (<span lang="de" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gedanke</span></span>).—It is not matter + of chance that the young have a better memory than the old, + nor is their memory solely exercised for the sake of utility. + The young have a good memory because they have not yet + reached the stage of reflection; their memory is exercised + with or without design so as to level the ground of their + inner life to pure being or to pure space in which the fact, + the implicit content, may reign and unfold itself with no + antithesis to a subjective inwardness. Genuine ability is in + youth generally combined with a good memory. But empirical + statements of this sort help little towards a knowledge of + what memory intrinsically is. To comprehend the position and + meaning of memory and to understand its organic + interconnexion with thought is one of the hardest points, and + hitherto one quite unregarded in the theory of mind. Memory + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">quâ</span></span> + memory is itself the merely <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">external</span></em> mode, or merely + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">existential</span></em> aspect of + thought, and thus needs a complementary element. The passage + from it to thought is to our view and implicitly the identity + of reason with this existential mode: an identity from which + it follows that reason only exists in a subject, and as the + function of that subject. Thus active reason is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Thinking</span></em>.</p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page089">[pg + 089]</span><a name="Pg089" id="Pg089" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + (γ) Thinking<a id="noteref_144" name="noteref_144" href= + "#note_144"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">144</span></span></a>.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 465. + Intelligence is recognitive: it cognises an intuition, but only + because that intuition is already its own (§ <a href= + "#Section_454" class="tei tei-ref">454</a>); and in the name it + re-discovers the fact (§ <a href="#Section_462" class= + "tei tei-ref">462</a>): but now it finds <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">its</span></em> + universal in the double signification of the universal as such, + and of the universal as immediate or as being,—finds i.e. the + genuine universal which is its own unity overlapping and + including its other, viz. being. Thus intelligence is + explicitly, and on its own part cognitive: <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">virtually</span></em> it is the + universal,—its product (the thought) is the thing: it is a + plain identity of subjective and objective. It knows that what + is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">thought</span></em>, <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">is</span></em>, + and that what <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">is</span></em>, only <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">is</span></em> + in so far as it is a thought (§ <a href="#Section_521" class= + "tei tei-ref">521</a>); the thinking of intelligence is to + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">have + thoughts</span></em>: these are as its content and object.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 466. But + cognition by thought is still in the first instance formal: the + universality and its being is the plain subjectivity of + intelligence. The thoughts therefore are not yet fully and + freely determinate, and the representations which have been + inwardised to thoughts are so far still the given content.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 467. As + dealing with this given content, thought is (α) <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">understanding</span></em> with its formal + identity, working up the representations, that have been + memorised, into species, genera, laws, forces, &c., in + short into categories,—thus indicating that the raw material + does not get the truth of its being save in these + thought-forms. As intrinsically infinite negativity, thought is + (β) essentially an act of partition,—<em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">judgment</span></em>, which however does + not break up the concept again into the old antithesis of + universality and being, but distinguishes on the lines supplied + by the interconnexions peculiar to the concept. Thirdly (γ), + thought supersedes the formal distinction and <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page090">[pg 090]</span><a name="Pg090" id= + "Pg090" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> institutes at the same time + an identity of the differences,—thus being nominal <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">reason</span></em> or inferential + understanding. Intelligence, as the act of thought, cognises. + And (α) understanding out of its generalities (the categories) + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">explains</span></em> the individual, and + is then said to comprehend or understand itself: (β) in the + judgment it explains the individual to be an universal + (species, genus). In these forms the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">content</span></em> appears as given: (γ) + but in inference (syllogism) it characterises a content from + itself, by superseding that form-difference. With the + perception of the necessity, the last immediacy still attaching + to formal thought has vanished.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Logic</span></em> there was thought, but + in its implicitness, and as reason develops itself in this + distinction-lacking medium. So in <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">consciousness</span></em> thought occurs + as a stage (§ <a href="#Section_437" class= + "tei tei-ref">437</a> note). Here reason is as the truth of the + antithetical distinction, as it had taken shape within the + mind's own limits. Thought thus recurs again and again in these + different parts of philosophy, because these parts are + different only through the medium they are in and the + antithesis they imply; while thought is this one and the same + centre, to which as to their truth the antithesis return.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 468. + Intelligence which as theoretical appropriates an immediate + mode of being, is, now that it has completed <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">taking + possession</span></em>, in its own <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">property</span></em>: the last negation of + immediacy has implicitly required that the intelligence shall + itself determine its content. Thus thought, as free notion, is + now also free in point of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">content</span></em>. But when intelligence + is aware that it is determinative of the content, which is + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">its</span></em> mode no less than it is a + mode of being, it is Will.</p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page091">[pg 091]</span><a name= + "Pg091" id="Pg091" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(b) Mind Practical</span><a id= + "noteref_145" name="noteref_145" href="#note_145"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">145</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 469. As + will, the mind is aware that it is the author of its own + conclusions, the origin of its self-fulfilment. Thus fulfilled, + this independency or individuality form the side of existence or + of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">reality</span></em> for the Idea of mind. As + will, the mind steps into actuality; whereas as cognition it is + on the soil of notional generality. Supplying its own content, + the will is self-possessed, and in the widest sense free: this is + its characteristic trait. Its finitude lies in the formalism that + the spontaneity of its self-fulfilment means no more than a + general and abstract ownness, not yet identified with matured + reason. It is the function of the essential will to bring liberty + to exist in the formal will, and it is therefore the aim of that + formal will to fill itself with its essential nature, i.e. to + make liberty its pervading character, content, and aim, as well + as its sphere of existence. The essential freedom of will is, and + must always be, a thought: hence the way by which will can make + itself objective mind is to rise to be a thinking will,—to give + itself the content which it can only have as it thinks + itself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">True liberty, + in the shape of moral life, consists in the will finding its + purpose in a universal content, not in subjective or selfish + interests. But such a content is only possible in thought and + through thought: it is nothing short of absurd to seek to banish + thought from the moral, religious, and law-abiding life.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 470. + Practical mind, considered at first as formal or immediate will, + contains a double ought—(1) in the contrast which the new mode of + being projected outward by the will offers to the immediate + positivity of its old existence and condition,—an antagonism + which in <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page092">[pg + 092]</span><a name="Pg092" id="Pg092" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + consciousness grows to correlation with external objects. (2) + That first self-determination, being itself immediate, is not at + once elevated into a thinking universality: the latter, + therefore, virtually constitutes an obligation on the former in + point of form, as it may also constitute it in point of matter;—a + distinction which only exists for the observer.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + (α) Practical Sense or Feeling<a id="noteref_146" name= + "noteref_146" href="#note_146"><span class="tei tei-noteref" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">146</span></span></a>.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 471. The + autonomy of the practical mind at first is immediate and + therefore formal, i.e. it <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">finds</span></em> itself as an <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">individuality</span></em> determined in + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">its</span></em> inward <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">nature</span></em>. It is thus + <span class="tei tei-q">“practical feeling,”</span> or instinct + of action. In this phase, as it is at bottom a subjectivity + simply identical with reason, it has no doubt a rational + content, but a content which as it stands is individual, and + for that reason also natural, contingent and subjective,—a + content which may be determined quite as much by mere + personalities of want and opinion, &c., and by the + subjectivity which selfishly sets itself against the universal, + as it may be virtually in conformity with reason.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An appeal is + sometimes made to the sense (feeling) of right and morality, as + well as of religion, which man is alleged to possess,—to his + benevolent dispositions,—and even to his heart generally,—i.e. + to the subject so far as the various practical feelings are in + it all combined. So far as this appeal implies (1) that these + ideas are immanent in his own self, and (2) that when feeling + is opposed to the logical understanding, it, and not the + partial abstractions of the latter, <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">may</span></em> + be the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">totality</span></em>—the appeal has a + legitimate meaning. But on the other hand feeling too + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">may</span></em> be onesided, unessential + and bad. The rational, which exists in the shape of rationality + when it is apprehended by thought, is the same content + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page093">[pg 093]</span><a name= + "Pg093" id="Pg093" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> as the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">good</span></em> practical feeling has, + but presented in its universality and necessity, in its + objectivity and truth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus it is + on the one hand <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">silly</span></em> to suppose that in the + passage from feeling to law and duty there is any loss of + import and excellence; it is this passage which lets feeling + first reach its truth. It is equally silly to consider + intellect as superfluous or even harmful to feeling, heart, and + will; the truth and, what is the same thing, the actual + rationality of the heart and will can only be at home in the + universality of intellect, and not in the singleness of feeling + as feeling. If feelings are of the right sort, it is because of + their quality or content,—which is right only so far as it is + intrinsically universal or has its source in the thinking mind. + The difficulty for the logical intellect consists in throwing + off the separation it has arbitrarily imposed between the + several faculties of feeling and thinking mind, and coming to + see that in the human being there is only <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">one</span></em> + reason, in feeling, volition, and thought. Another difficulty + connected with this is found in the fact that the Ideas which + are the special property of the thinking mind, viz. God, law + and morality, can also be <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">felt</span></em>. But feeling is only the + form of the immediate and peculiar individuality of the + subject, in which these facts, like any other objective facts + (which consciousness also sets over against itself), may be + placed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the other + hand, it is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">suspicious</span></em> or even worse to + cling to feeling and heart in place of the intelligent + rationality of law, right and duty; because all that the former + holds more than the latter is only the particular subjectivity + with its vanity and caprice. For the same reason it is out of + place in a scientific treatment of the feelings to deal with + anything beyond their form, and to discuss their content; for + the latter, when thought, is precisely what constitutes, in + their universality and <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page094">[pg 094]</span><a name="Pg094" id="Pg094" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> necessity, the rights and duties which + are the true works of mental autonomy. So long as we study + practical feelings and dispositions specially, we have only to + deal with the selfish, bad, and evil; it is these alone which + belong to the individuality which retains its opposition to the + universal: their content is the reverse of rights and duties, + and precisely in that way do they—but only in antithesis to the + latter—retain a speciality of their own.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 472. The + <span class="tei tei-q">“Ought”</span> of practical feeling is + the claim of its essential autonomy to control some existing + mode of fact—which is assumed to be worth nothing save as + adapted to that claim. But as both, in their immediacy, lack + objective determination, this relation of the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">requirement</span></em> to existent fact + is the utterly subjective and superficial feeling of pleasant + or unpleasant.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Delight, + joy, grief, &c., shame, repentance, contentment, &c., + are partly only modifications of the formal <span class= + "tei tei-q">“practical feeling”</span> in <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">general</span></em>, but are partly + different in the features that give the special tone and + character mode to their <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ought.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + celebrated question as to the origin of evil in the world, so + far at least as evil is understood to mean what is disagreeable + and painful merely, arises on this stage of the formal + practical feeling. Evil is nothing but the incompatibility + between what is and what ought to be. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ought”</span> is an ambiguous term,—indeed + infinitely so, considering that casual aims may also come under + the form of Ought. But where the objects sought are thus + casual, evil only executes what is rightfully due to the vanity + and nullity of their planning: for they themselves were + radically evil. The finitude of life and mind is seen in their + judgment: the contrary which is separated from them they also + have as a negative in them, and thus they are the contradiction + called evil. In the dead there is neither evil nor pain: for in + inorganic <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page095">[pg + 095]</span><a name="Pg095" id="Pg095" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> nature the intelligible unity (concept) + does not confront its existence and does not in the difference + at the same time remain its permanent subject. Whereas in life, + and still more in mind, we have this immanent distinction + present: hence arises the Ought: and this negativity, + subjectivity, ego, freedom are the principles of evil and pain. + Jacob Böhme viewed egoity (selfhood) as pain and torment, and + as the fountain of nature and of spirit.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + (β) The Impulses and Choice<a id="noteref_147" name= + "noteref_147" href="#note_147"><span class="tei tei-noteref" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">147</span></span></a>.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 473. The + practical ought is a <span class="tei tei-q">“real”</span> + judgment. Will, which is essentially self-determination, finds + in the conformity—as immediate and merely <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">found</span></em> to hand—of the existing + mode to its requirement a negation, and something inappropriate + to it. If the will is to satisfy itself, if the implicit unity + of the universality and the special mode is to be realised, the + conformity of its inner requirement and of the existent thing + ought to be its act and institution. The will, as regards the + form of its content, is at first still a natural will, directly + identical with its specific mode:—natural <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">impulse</span></em> and <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">inclination</span></em>. Should, however, + the totality of the practical spirit throw itself into a single + one of the many restricted forms of impulse, each being always + in conflict to another, it is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">passion</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 474. + Inclinations and passions embody the same constituent features + as the practical feeling. Thus, while on one hand they are + based on the rational nature of the mind; they on the other, as + part and parcel of the still subjective and single will, are + infected with contingency, and appear as particular to stand to + the individual and to each other in an external relation and + with a necessity which creates bondage.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page096">[pg 096]</span><a name="Pg096" id= + "Pg096" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The special + note in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">passion</span></em> is its restriction to + one special mode of volition, in which the whole subjectivity + of the individual is merged, be the value of that mode what it + may. In consequence of this formalism, passion is neither good + nor bad; the title only states that a subject has thrown his + whole soul,—his interests of intellect, talent, character, + enjoyment,—on one aim and object. Nothing great has been and + nothing great can be accomplished without passion. It is only a + dead, too often, indeed, a hypocritical moralising which + inveighs against the form of passion as such.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But with + regard to the inclinations, the question is directly raised, + Which are good and bad?—Up to what degree the good continue + good;—and (as there are many, each with its private range) In + what way have they, being all in one subject and hardly all, as + experience shows, admitting of gratification, to suffer at + least reciprocal restriction? And, first of all, as regards the + numbers of these impulses and propensities, the case is much + the same as with the psychical powers, whose aggregate is to + form the mind theoretical,—an aggregate which is now increased + by the host of impulses. The nominal rationality of impulse and + propensity lies merely in their general impulse not to be + subjective merely, but to get realised, overcoming the + subjectivity by the subject's own agency. Their genuine + rationality cannot reveal its secret to a method of outer + reflection which pre-supposes a number of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">independent</span></em> innate tendencies + and immediate instincts, and therefore is wanting in a single + principle and final purpose for them. But the immanent + <span class="tei tei-q">“reflection”</span> of mind itself + carries it beyond their particularity and their natural + immediacy, and gives their contents a rationality and + objectivity, in which they exist as necessary ties of social + relation, as rights and duties. It is this objectification + which <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page097">[pg + 097]</span><a name="Pg097" id="Pg097" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> evinces their real value, their mutual + connexions, and their truth. And thus it was a true perception + when Plato (especially including as he did the mind's whole + nature under its right) showed that the full reality of justice + could be exhibited only in the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">objective</span></em> phase of justice, + viz. in the construction of the State as the ethical life.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The answer + to the question, therefore, What are the good and rational + propensities, and how they are to be co-ordinated with each + other? resolves itself into an exposition of the laws and forms + of common life produced by the mind when developing itself as + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">objective</span></em> mind—a development + in which the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">content</span></em> of autonomous action + loses its contingency and optionality. The discussion of the + true intrinsic worth of the impulses, inclinations, and + passions is thus essentially the theory of legal, moral, and + social <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">duties</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 475. The + subject is the act of satisfying impulses, an act of (at least) + formal rationality, as it translates them from the subjectivity + of content (which so far is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">purpose</span></em>) into objectivity, + where the subject is made to close with itself. If the content + of the impulse is distinguished as the thing or business from + this act of carrying it out, and we regard the thing which has + been brought to pass as containing the element of subjective + individuality and its action, this is what is called the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">interest</span></em>. Nothing therefore is + brought about without interest.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An action is + an aim of the subject, and it is his agency too which executes + this aim: unless the subject were in this way in the most + disinterested action, i.e. unless he had an interest in it, + there would be no action at all.—The impulses and inclinations + are sometimes depreciated by being contrasted with the baseless + chimera of a happiness, the free gift of nature, where + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page098">[pg 098]</span><a name= + "Pg098" id="Pg098" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> wants are + supposed to find their satisfaction without the agent doing + anything to produce a conformity between immediate existence + and his own inner requirements. They are sometimes contrasted, + on the whole to their disadvantage, with the morality of duty + for duty's sake. But impulse and passion are the very + life-blood of all action: they are needed if the agent is + really to be in his aim and the execution thereof. The morality + concerns the content of the aim, which as such is the + universal, an inactive thing, that finds its actualising in the + agent; and finds it only when the aim is immanent in the agent, + is his interest and—should it claim to engross his whole + efficient subjectivity—his passion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 476. The + will, as thinking and implicitly free, distinguishes itself + from the particularity of the impulses, and places itself as + simple subjectivity of thought above their diversified content. + It is thus <span class="tei tei-q">“reflecting”</span> + will.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 477. Such + a particularity of impulse has thus ceased to be a mere datum: + the reflective will now sees it as its own, because it closes + with it and thus gives itself specific individuality and + actuality. It is now on the standpoint of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">choosing</span></em> between inclinations, + and is option or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">choice</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 478. Will + as choice claims to be free, reflected into itself as the + negativity of its merely immediate autonomy. However, as the + content, in which its former universality concludes itself to + actuality, is nothing but the content of the impulses and + appetites, it is actual only as a subjective and contingent + will. It realises itself in a particularity, which it regards + at the same time as a nullity, and finds a satisfaction in what + it has at the same time emerged from. As thus contradictory, it + is the process of distracting and suspending <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page099">[pg 099]</span><a name="Pg099" id= + "Pg099" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> one desire or enjoyment by + another,—and one satisfaction, which is just as much no + satisfaction, by another, without end. But the truth of the + particular satisfactions is the universal, which under the name + of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">happiness</span></em> the thinking will + makes its aim.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + (γ) Happiness<a id="noteref_148" name="noteref_148" href= + "#note_148"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">148</span></span></a>.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_479" id="Section_479" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § + 479. In this idea, which reflection and comparison have educed, + of a universal satisfaction, the impulses, so far as their + particularity goes, are reduced to a mere negative; and it is + held that in part they are to be sacrificed to each other for + the behoof that aim, partly sacrificed to that aim directly, + either altogether or in part. Their mutual limitation, on one + hand, proceeds from a mixture of qualitative and quantitative + considerations: on the other hand, as happiness has its sole + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">affirmative</span></em> contents in the + springs of action, it is on them that the decision turns, and + it is the subjective feeling and good pleasure which must have + the casting vote as to where happiness is to be placed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 480. + Happiness is the mere abstract and merely imagined universality + of things desired,—a universality which only ought to be. But + the particularity of the satisfaction which just as much + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">is</span></em> as it is abolished, and the + abstract singleness, the option which gives or does not give + itself (as it pleases) an aim in happiness, find their truth in + the intrinsic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">universality</span></em> of the will, i.e. + its very autonomy or freedom. In this way choice is will only + as pure subjectivity, which is pure and concrete at once, by + having for its contents and aim only that infinite mode of + being—freedom itself. In this truth of its autonomy, where + concept and object are one, the will is an <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">actually free + will</span></em>.</p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page100">[pg 100]</span><a name= + "Pg100" id="Pg100" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">Free Mind</span><a id="noteref_149" + name="noteref_149" href="#note_149"><span class="tei tei-noteref" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">149</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 481. Actual + free will is the unity of theoretical and practical mind: a free + will, which realises its own freedom of will now that the + formalism, fortuitousness, and contractedness of the practical + content up to this point have been superseded. By superseding the + adjustments of means therein contained, the will is the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">immediate individuality</span></em> + self-instituted,—an individuality, however, also purified of all + that interferes with its universalism, i.e. with freedom itself. + This universalism the will has as its object and aim, only so far + as it thinks itself, knows this its concept, and is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">will</span></em> + as free <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">intelligence</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 482. The + mind which knows itself as free and wills itself as this its + object, i.e. which has its true being for characteristic and aim, + is in the first instance the rational will in general, or + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">implicit</span></em> Idea, and because + implicit only the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">notion</span></em> of absolute mind. As + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">abstract</span></em> Idea again, it is + existent only in the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">immediate</span></em> will—it is the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">existential</span></em> side of reason,—the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">single</span></em> will as aware of this its + universality constituting its contents and aim, and of which it + is only the formal activity. If the will, therefore, in which the + Idea thus appears is only finite, that will is also the act of + developing the Idea, and of investing its self-unfolding content + with an existence which, as realising the idea, is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">actuality</span></em>. It is thus + <span class="tei tei-q">“Objective”</span> Mind.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">No Idea is so + generally recognised as indefinite, ambiguous, and open to the + greatest misconceptions (to which therefore it actually falls a + victim) as the idea of Liberty: none in common currency with so + little appreciation of its meaning. Remembering that free mind is + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">actual</span></em> mind, we can see how + misconceptions about it are of tremendous consequence in + practice. When individuals and nations have once got in their + heads <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page101">[pg + 101]</span><a name="Pg101" id="Pg101" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + the abstract concept of full-blown liberty, there is nothing like + it in its uncontrollable strength, just because it is the very + essence of mind, and that as its very actuality. Whole + continents, Africa and the East, have never had this idea, and + are without it still. The Greeks and Romans, Plato and Aristotle, + even the Stoics, did not have it. On the contrary, they saw that + it is only by birth (as e.g. an Athenian or Spartan citizen), or + by strength of character, education, or philosophy (—the sage is + free even as a slave and in chains) that the human being is + actually free. It was through Christianity that this idea came + into the world. According to Christianity, the individual + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">as + such</span></em> has an infinite value as the object and aim of + divine love, destined as mind to live in absolute relationship + with God himself, and have God's mind dwelling in him: i.e. man + is implicitly destined to supreme freedom. If, in religion as + such, man is aware of this relationship to the absolute mind as + his true being, he has also, even when he steps into the sphere + of secular existence, the divine mind present with him, as the + substance of the state of the family, &c. These institutions + are due to the guidance of that spirit, and are constituted after + its measure; whilst by their existence the moral temper comes to + be indwelling in the individual, so that in this sphere of + particular existence, of present sensation and volition, he is + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">actually</span></em> free.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If to be aware + of the idea—to be aware, i.e. that men are aware of freedom as + their essence, aim, and object—is matter of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">speculation</span></em>, still this very + idea itself is the actuality of men—not something which they + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">have</span></em>, as men, but which they + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">are</span></em>. Christianity in its + adherents has realised an ever-present sense that they are not + and cannot be slaves; if they are made slaves, if the decision as + regards their property rests with an arbitrary <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page102">[pg 102]</span><a name="Pg102" id= + "Pg102" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> will, not with laws or courts + of justice, they would find the very substance of their life + outraged. This will to liberty is no longer an <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">impulse</span></em> which demands its + satisfaction, but the permanent character—the spiritual + consciousness grown into a non-impulsive nature. But this + freedom, which the content and aim of freedom has, is itself only + a notion—a principle of the mind and heart, intended to develope + into an objective phase, into legal, moral, religious, and not + less into scientific actuality.</p> + </div> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page103">[pg 103]</span><a name= + "Pg103" id="Pg103" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc25" id="toc25"></a> <a name="pdf26" id="pdf26"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Section II. Mind Objective.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 483. The + objective Mind is the absolute Idea, but only existing <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">in + posse</span></span>: and as it is thus on the territory of finitude, + its actual rationality retains the aspect of external apparency. The + free will finds itself immediately confronted by differences which + arise from the circumstance that freedom is its <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">inward</span></em> + function and aim, and is in relation to an external and already + subsisting objectivity, which splits up into different heads: viz. + anthropological data (i.e. private and personal needs), external + things of nature which exist for consciousness, and the ties of + relation between individual wills which are conscious of their own + diversity and particularity. These aspects constitute the external + material for the embodiment of the will.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 484. But the + purposive action of this will is to realise its concept, Liberty, in + these externally-objective aspects, making the latter a world moulded + by the former, which in it is thus at home with itself, locked + together with it: the concept accordingly perfected to the Idea. + Liberty, shaped into the actuality of a world, receives the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">form of + Necessity</span></em> the deeper substantial nexus of which is the + system or organisation of the principles of liberty, whilst its + phenomenal nexus is power or authority, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page104">[pg 104]</span><a name="Pg104" id="Pg104" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and the sentiment of obedience awakened in + consciousness.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 485. This unity + of the rational will with the single will (this being the peculiar + and immediate medium in which the former is actualised) constitutes + the simple actuality of liberty. As it (and its content) belongs to + thought, and is the virtual <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">universal</span></em>, the content has its right + and true character only in the form of universality. When invested + with this character for the intelligent consciousness, or instituted + as an authoritative power, it is a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Law</span></em><a id= + "noteref_150" name="noteref_150" href="#note_150"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">150</span></span></a>. When, + on the other hand, the content is freed from the mixedness and + fortuitousness, attaching to it in the practical feeling and in + impulse, and is set and grafted in the individual will, not in the + form of impulse, but in its universality, so as to become its habit, + temper and character, it exists as manner and custom, or <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Usage</span></em><a id="noteref_151" name= + "noteref_151" href="#note_151"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">151</span></span></a>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 486. This + <span class="tei tei-q">“reality,”</span> in general, where free will + has <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">existence</span></em>, is the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Law</span></em> + (Right),—the term being taken in a comprehensive sense not merely as + the limited juristic law, but as the actual body of all the + conditions of freedom. These conditions, in relation to the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">subjective</span></em> will, where they, being + universal, ought to have and can only have their existence, are its + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Duties</span></em>; whereas as its temper and + habit they are <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Manners</span></em>. What is a right is also a + duty, and what is a duty, is also a right. For a mode of existence is + a right, only as a consequence of the free substantial will: and the + same content of fact, when referred to the will distinguished as + subjective and individual, is a duty. It is the same content which + the subjective consciousness recognises as a duty, and brings into + existence in these several wills. The finitude of the objective will + thus creates the semblance of a distinction between rights and + duties.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page105">[pg + 105]</span><a name="Pg105" id="Pg105" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the phenomenal + range right and duty are <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">correlata</span></span>, at least in the sense + that to a right on my part corresponds a duty in some one else. But, + in the light of the concept, my right to a thing is not merely + possession, but as possession by a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">person</span></em> it + is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">property</span></em>, or legal possession, and + it is a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">duty</span></em> to possess things as <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">property</span></em>, + i.e. to be as a person. Translated into the phenomenal relationship, + viz. relation to another person—this grows into the duty of some one + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">else</span></em> to respect <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">my</span></em> right. + In the morality of the conscience, duty in general is in me—a free + subject—at the same time a right of my subjective will or + disposition. But in this individualist moral sphere, there arises the + division between what is only inward purpose (disposition or + intention), which only has its being in me and is merely subjective + duty, and the actualisation of that purpose: and with this division a + contingency and imperfection which makes the inadequacy of mere + individualistic morality. In social ethics these two parts have + reached their truth, their absolute unity; although even right and + duty return to one another and combine by means of certain + adjustments and under the guise of necessity. The rights of the + father of the family over its members are equally duties towards + them; just as the children's duty of obedience is their right to be + educated to the liberty of manhood. The penal judicature of a + government, its rights of administration, &c., are no less its + duties to punish, to administer, &c.; as the services of the + members of the State in dues, military services, &c., are duties + and yet their right to the protection of their private property and + of the general substantial life in which they have their root. All + the aims of society and the State are the private aim of the + individuals. But the set of adjustments, by which their duties come + back to them as the exercise and enjoyment of right, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page106">[pg 106]</span><a name="Pg106" id="Pg106" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> produces an appearance of diversity: and + this diversity is increased by the variety of shapes which value + assumes in the course of exchange, though it remains intrinsically + the same. Still it holds fundamentally good that he who has no rights + has no duties and <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">vice versa</span></span>.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc27" id="toc27"></a> <a name="pdf28" id="pdf28"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Distribution.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 487. The free + will is</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A. itself at + first immediate, and hence as a single being—the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">person</span></em>: + the existence which the person gives to its liberty is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">property</span></em>. The <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Right + as</span></em> right (law) is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">formal, abstract right</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">B. When the will + is reflected into self, so as to have its existence inside it, and + to be thus at the same time characterised as a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">particular</span></em>, it is the right of the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">subjective</span></em> will, <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">morality</span></em> of the individual + conscience.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">C. When the free + will is the substantial will, made actual in the subject and + conformable to its concept and rendered a totality of necessity,—it + is the ethics of actual life in family, civil society, and + state.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page107">[pg 107]</span><a name= + "Pg107" id="Pg107" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc29" id="toc29"></a> <a name="pdf30" id="pdf30"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Sub-Section A. Law.</span><a id= + "noteref_152" name="noteref_152" href="#note_152"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">152</span></span></a></h2> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(a) Property.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_488" id="Section_488" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § 488. + Mind, in the immediacy of its self-secured liberty, is an + individual, but one that knows its individuality as an absolutely + free will: it is a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">person</span></em>, in whom the inward sense + of this freedom, as in itself still abstract and empty, has its + particularity and fulfilment not yet on its own part, but on an + external <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">thing</span></em>. This thing, as something + devoid of will, has no rights against the subjectivity of + intelligence and volition, and is by that subjectivity made + adjectival to it, the external sphere of its liberty;—<em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">possession</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 489. By the + judgment of possession, at first in the outward appropriation, + the thing acquires the predicate of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“mine.”</span> But this predicate, on its own account + merely <span class="tei tei-q">“practical,”</span> has here the + signification that I import my personal will into the thing. As + so characterised, possession is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">property</span></em>, which as possession is + a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">means</span></em>, but as existence of the + personality is an <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">end</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 490. In his + property the person is brought into union with itself. But the + thing is an abstractly external thing, and the I in it is + abstractly external. The concrete return of me into me in the + externality is <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page108">[pg + 108]</span><a name="Pg108" id="Pg108" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + that I, the infinite self-relation, am as a person the repulsion + of me from myself, and have the existence of my personality in + the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">being of other persons</span></em>, in my + relation to them and in my recognition by them, which is thus + mutual.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_491" id="Section_491" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § 491. + The thing is the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">mean</span></em> by which the extremes meet + in one. These extremes are the persons who, in the knowledge of + their identity as free, are simultaneously mutually independent. + For them my will has its <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">definite recognisable existence</span></em> + in the thing by the immediate bodily act of taking possession, or + by the formation of the thing or, it may be, by mere designation + of it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 492. The + casual aspect of property is that I place my will in <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">this</span></em> + thing: so far my will is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">arbitrary</span></em>, I can just as well + put it in it as not,—just as well withdraw it as not. But so far + as my will lies in a thing, it is only I who can withdraw it: it + is only with my will that the thing can pass to another, whose + property it similarly becomes only with his will:—<em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Contract</span></em>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(b) Contract.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_493" id="Section_493" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § 493. + The two wills and their agreement in the contract are as an + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">internal</span></em> state of mind different + from its realisation in the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">performance</span></em>. The comparatively + <span class="tei tei-q">“ideal”</span> utterance (of contract) in + the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">stipulation</span></em> contains the actual + surrender of a property by the one, its changing hands, and its + acceptance by the other will. The contract is thus thoroughly + binding: it does not need the performance of the one or the other + to become so—otherwise we should have an infinite regress or + infinite division of thing, labour, and time. The utterance in + the stipulation is complete and exhaustive. The inwardness of the + will which surrenders and the will which accepts the property is + in the realm of ideation, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page109">[pg 109]</span><a name="Pg109" id="Pg109" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and in that realm the word is deed and + thing (§ <a href="#Section_462" class="tei tei-ref">462</a>)—the + full and complete deed, since here the conscientiousness of the + will does not come under consideration (as to whether the thing + is meant in earnest or is a deception), and the will refers only + to the external thing.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 494. Thus in + the stipulation we have the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">substantial</span></em> being of the + contract standing out in distinction from its real utterance in + the performance, which is brought down to a mere sequel. In this + way there is put into the thing or performance a distinction + between its immediate specific <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">quality</span></em> and its substantial + being or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">value</span></em>, meaning by value the + quantitative terms into which that qualitative feature has been + translated. One piece of property is thus made comparable with + another, and may be made equivalent to a thing which is (in + quality) wholly heterogeneous. It is thus treated in general as + an abstract, universal thing or commodity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 495. The + contract, as an agreement which has a voluntary origin and deals + with a casual commodity, involves at the same time the giving to + this <span class="tei tei-q">“accidental”</span> will a positive + fixity. This will may just as well not be conformable to law + (right), and, in that case, produces a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">wrong</span></em>: by which however the + absolute law (right) is not superseded, but only a relationship + originated of right to wrong.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">(c) Right versus Wrong.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 496. Law + (right) considered as the realisation of liberty in externals, + breaks up into a multiplicity of relations to this external + sphere and to other persons (§§ <a href="#Section_491" class= + "tei tei-ref">491</a>, <a href="#Section_493" class= + "tei tei-ref">493</a> seqq.). In this way there are (1) several + titles or grounds at law, of which (seeing that property both on + the personal and the real side is exclusively individual) only + one is the right, but which, because they face each other, each + and all are invested with a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">show</span></em> <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page110">[pg 110]</span><a name="Pg110" id="Pg110" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of right, against which the former is + defined as the intrinsically right.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 497. Now so + long as (compared against this show) the one intrinsically right, + still presumed identical with the several titles, is affirmed, + willed, and recognised, the only diversity lies in this, that the + special thing is subsumed under the one law or right by the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">particular</span></em> will of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">these</span></em> + several persons. This is naïve, non-malicious wrong. Such wrong + in the several claimants is a simple <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">negative + judgment</span></em>, expressing the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">civil + suit</span></em>. To settle it there is required a third + judgment, which, as the judgment of the intrinsically right, is + disinterested, and a power of giving the one right existence as + against that semblance.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 498. But (2) + if the semblance of right is willed as such <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">against</span></em> right intrinsical by the + particular will, which thus becomes <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">wicked</span></em>, then the external + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">recognition</span></em> of right is + separated from the right's true value; and while the former only + is respected, the latter is violated. This gives the wrong of + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">fraud</span></em>—the infinite judgment as + identical (§ 173),—where the nominal relation is retained, but + the sterling value is let slip.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 499. (3) + Finally, the particular will sets itself in opposition to the + intrinsic right by negating that right itself as well as its + recognition or semblance. [Here there is a negatively infinite + judgment (§ 173) in which there is denied the class as a whole, + and not merely the particular mode—in this case the apparent + recognition.] Thus the will is violently wicked, and commits a + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">crime</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_500" id="Section_500" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § 500. + As an outrage on right, such an action is essentially and + actually null. In it the agent, as a volitional and intelligent + being, sets up a law—a law however which is nominal and + recognised by him only—a universal which holds good <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">for + him</span></em>, and under which <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page111">[pg 111]</span><a name="Pg111" id="Pg111" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> he has at the same time subsumed himself by + his action. To display the nullity of such an act, to carry out + simultaneously this nominal law and the intrinsic right, in the + first instance by means of a subjective individual will, is the + work of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Revenge</span></em>. But, revenge, starting + from the interest of an immediate particular personality, is at + the same time only a new outrage; and so on without end. This + progression, like the last, abolishes itself in a third judgment, + which is disinterested—<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">punishment</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 501. The + instrumentality by which authority is given to intrinsic right is + (α) that a particular will, that of the judge, being conformable + to the right, has an interest to turn against the crime (—which + in the first instance, in revenge, is a matter of chance), and + (β) that an executive power (also in the first instance casual) + negates the negation of right that was created by the criminal. + This negation of right has its existence in the will of the + criminal; and consequently revenge or punishment directs itself + against the person or property of the criminal and exercises + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">coercion</span></em> upon him. It is in this + legal sphere that coercion in general has possible + scope,—compulsion against the thing, in seizing and maintaining + it against another's seizure: for in this sphere the will has its + existence immediately in externals as such, or in corporeity, and + can be seized only in this quarter. But more than <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">possible</span></em> compulsion is not, so + long as I can withdraw myself as free from every mode of + existence, even from the range of all existence, i.e. from life. + It is legal only as abolishing a first and original + compulsion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 502. A + distinction has thus emerged between the law (right) and the + subjective will. The <span class="tei tei-q">“reality”</span> of + right, which the personal will in the first instance gives itself + in immediate wise, is seen to be due to the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page112">[pg 112]</span><a name="Pg112" id= + "Pg112" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> instrumentality of the + subjective will,—whose influence as on one hand it gives + existence to the essential right, so may on the other cut itself + off from and oppose itself to it. Conversely, the claim of the + subjective will to be in this abstraction a power over the law of + right is null and empty of itself: it gets truth and reality + essentially only so far as that will in itself realises the + reasonable will. As such it is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">morality</span></em><a id="noteref_153" + name="noteref_153" href="#note_153"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">153</span></span></a> + proper.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The phrase + <span class="tei tei-q">“Law of Nature,”</span> or Natural + Right<a id="noteref_154" name="noteref_154" href= + "#note_154"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">154</span></span></a>, in + use for the philosophy of law involves the ambiguity that it may + mean either right as something existing ready-formed in nature, + or right as governed by the nature of things, i.e. by the notion. + The former used to be the common meaning, accompanied with the + fiction of a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">state of nature</span></em>, in which the + law of nature should hold sway; whereas the social and political + state rather required and implied a restriction of liberty and a + sacrifice of natural rights. The real fact is that the whole law + and its every article are based on free personality alone,—on + self-determination or autonomy, which is the very contrary of + determination by nature. The law of nature—strictly so called—is + for that reason the predominance of the strong and the reign of + force, and a state of nature a state of violence and wrong, of + which nothing truer can be said than that one ought to depart + from it. The social state, on the other hand, is the condition in + which alone right has its actuality: what is to be restricted and + sacrificed is just the wilfulness and violence of the state of + nature.</p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page113">[pg 113]</span><a name= + "Pg113" id="Pg113" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc31" id="toc31"></a> <a name="pdf32" id="pdf32"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Sub-Section B. The Morality Of + Conscience</span><a id="noteref_155" name="noteref_155" href= + "#note_155"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">155</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 144%">.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_503" id="Section_503" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § 503. + The free individual, who, in mere law, counts only as a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">person</span></em>, + is now characterised as a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">subject</span></em>, a will reflected into + itself so that, be its affection what it may, it is distinguished + (as existing in it) as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">its own</span></em> from the existence of + freedom in an external thing. Because the affection of the will is + thus inwardised, the will is at the same time made a particular, + and there arise further particularisations of it and relations of + these to one another. This affection is partly the essential and + implicit will, the reason of the will, the essential basis of law + and moral life: partly it is the existent volition, which is before + us and throws itself into actual deeds, and thus comes into + relationship with the former. The subjective will is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">morally</span></em> + free, so far as these features are its inward institution, its own, + and willed by it. Its utterance in deed with this freedom is an + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">action</span></em>, in the externality of + which it only admits as its own, and allows to be imputed to it, so + much as it has consciously willed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This subjective + or <span class="tei tei-q">“moral”</span> freedom is what a + European especially calls freedom. In virtue of the right thereto a + man must possess a personal knowledge of the distinction between + good and evil in general: ethical and <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page114">[pg 114]</span><a name="Pg114" id="Pg114" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> religious principles shall not merely lay + their claim on him as external laws and precepts of authority to be + obeyed, but have their assent, recognition, or even justification + in his heart, sentiment, conscience, intelligence, &c. The + subjectivity of the will in itself is its supreme aim and + absolutely essential to it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The <span class= + "tei tei-q">“moral”</span> must be taken in the wider sense in + which it does not signify the morally good merely. In French + <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">le moral</span></span> is opposed to + <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">le physique</span></span>, and means the + mental or intellectual in general. But here the moral signifies + volitional mode, so far as it is in the interior of the will in + general; it thus includes purpose and intention,—and also moral + wickedness.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">a. Purpose</span><a id= + "noteref_156" name="noteref_156" href="#note_156"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">156</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 504. So far + as the action comes into immediate touch with <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">existence</span></em>, <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">my + part</span></em> in it is to this extent formal, that external + existence is also <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">independent</span></em> of the agent. This + externality can pervert his action and bring to light something + else than lay in it. Now, though any alteration as such, which is + set on foot by the subject's action, is its <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">deed</span></em><a id="noteref_157" name= + "noteref_157" href="#note_157"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">157</span></span></a>, + still the subject does not for that reason recognise it as its + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">action</span></em><a id="noteref_158" name= + "noteref_158" href="#note_158"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">158</span></span></a>, + but only admits as its own that existence in the deed which lay + in its knowledge and will, which was its <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">purpose</span></em>. Only for that does it + hold itself <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">responsible</span></em>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">b. Intention and + Welfare</span><a id="noteref_159" name="noteref_159" href= + "#note_159"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">159</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 505. As + regards its empirically concrete <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">content</span></em> (1) the action has a + variety of particular aspects and connexions. In point of + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">form</span></em>, the agent must have known + and willed the action in its essential feature, embracing these + individual points. This is the right of <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page115">[pg 115]</span><a name="Pg115" id="Pg115" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">intention</span></em>. While <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">purpose</span></em> affects only the + immediate fact of existence, <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">intention</span></em> + regards the underlying essence and aim thereof. (2) The agent has + no less the right to see that the particularity of content in the + action, in point of its matter, is not something external to him, + but is a particularity of his own,—that it contains his needs, + interests, and aims. These aims, when similarly comprehended in a + single aim, as in happiness (§ <a href="#Section_479" class= + "tei tei-ref">479</a>), constitute his <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">well-being</span></em>. This is the right to + well-being. Happiness (good fortune) is distinguished from + well-being only in this, that happiness implies no more than some + sort of immediate existence, whereas well-being regards it as + also justified as regards morality.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 506. But the + essentiality of the intention is in the first instance the + abstract form of generality. Reflection can put in this form this + and that particular aspect in the empirically-concrete action, + thus making it essential to the intention or restricting the + intention to it. In this way the supposed essentiality of the + intention and the real essentiality of the action may be brought + into the greatest contradiction—e.g. a good intention in case of + a crime. Similarly well-being is abstract and may be set on this + or that: as appertaining to this single agent, it is always + something particular.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">c. Goodness and + Wickedness</span><a id="noteref_160" name="noteref_160" href= + "#note_160"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">160</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 507. The + truth of these particularities and the concrete unity of their + formalism is the content of the universal, essential and actual, + will,—the law and underlying essence of every phase of volition, + the essential and actual good. It is thus the absolute final aim + of the world, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">duty</span></em> for the agent who + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ought</span></em> <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page116">[pg 116]</span><a name="Pg116" id="Pg116" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> to have <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">insight</span></em> into the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">good</span></em>, + make it his <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">intention</span></em> and bring it about by + his activity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 508. But + though the good is the universal of will—a universal determined + in itself,—and thus including in it particularity,—still so far + as this particularity is in the first instance still abstract, + there is no principle at hand to determine it. Such determination + therefore starts up also outside that universal; and as + heteronomy or determinance of a will which is free and has rights + of its own, there awakes here the deepest contradiction. (α) In + consequence of the indeterminate determinism of the good, there + are always <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">several sorts</span></em> of good and + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">many + kinds of duties</span></em>, the variety of which is a dialectic + of one against another and brings them into <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">collision</span></em>. At the same time + because good is one, they <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ought</span></em> to stand in harmony; and + yet each of them, though it is a particular duty, is as good and + as duty absolute. It falls upon the agent to be the dialectic + which, superseding this absolute claim of each, concludes such a + combination of them as excludes the rest.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 509. (β) To + the agent, who in his existent sphere of liberty is essentially + as a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">particular</span></em>, his <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">interest and + welfare</span></em> must, on account of that existent sphere of + liberty, be essentially an aim and therefore a duty. But at the + same time in aiming at the good, which is the not-particular but + only universal of the will, the particular interest <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ought + not</span></em> to be a constituent motive. On account of this + independency of the two principles of action, it is likewise an + accident whether they harmonise. And yet they <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ought</span></em> + to harmonise, because the agent, as individual and universal, is + always fundamentally one identity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(γ) But the + agent is not only a mere particular in his existence; it is also + a form of his existence to be an abstract self-certainty, an + abstract reflection of freedom <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page117">[pg 117]</span><a name="Pg117" id="Pg117" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> into himself. He is thus distinct from the + reason in the will, and capable of making the universal itself a + particular and in that way a semblance. The good is thus reduced + to the level of a mere <span class="tei tei-q">“may + happen”</span> for the agent, who can therefore resolve itself to + somewhat opposite to the good, can be wicked.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 510. (δ) The + external objectivity, following the distinction which has arisen + in the subjective will (§ <a href="#Section_503" class= + "tei tei-ref">503</a>), constitutes a peculiar world of its + own,—another extreme which stands in no rapport with the internal + will-determination. It is thus a matter of chance, whether it + harmonises with the subjective aims, whether the good is + realised, and the wicked, an aim essentially and actually null, + nullified in it: it is no less matter of chance whether the agent + finds in it his well-being, and more precisely whether in the + world the good agent is happy and the wicked unhappy. But at the + same time the world <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ought</span></em> to allow the good action, + the essential thing, to be carried out in it; it <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ought</span></em> + to grant the good agent the satisfaction of his particular + interest, and refuse it to the wicked; just as it <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ought</span></em> + also to make the wicked itself null and void.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 511. The + all-round contradiction, expressed by this repeated <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ought</span></em>, with its absoluteness + which yet at the same time is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">not</span></em>—contains the most abstract + 'analysis' of the mind in itself, its deepest descent into + itself. The only relation the self-contradictory principles have + to one another is in the abstract certainty of self; and for this + infinitude of subjectivity the universal will, good, right, and + duty, no more exist than not. The subjectivity alone is aware of + itself as choosing and deciding. This pure self-certitude, rising + to its pitch, appears in the two directly inter-changing forms—of + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Conscience</span></em> and <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wickedness</span></em>. The former is the + will of goodness; but a goodness which to this pure subjectivity + is the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page118">[pg + 118]</span><a name="Pg118" id="Pg118" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">non-objective</span></em>, non-universal, + the unutterable; and over which the agent is conscious that + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">he</span></em> in his <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">individuality</span></em> has the decision. + Wickedness is the same awareness that the single self possesses + the decision, so far as the single self does not merely remain in + this abstraction, but takes up the content of a subjective + interest contrary to the good.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 512. This + supreme pitch of the <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">phenomenon</span></em>”</span> of + will,—sublimating itself to this absolute vanity—to a goodness, + which has no objectivity, but is only sure of itself, and a + self-assurance which involves the nullification of the + universal—collapses by its own force. Wickedness, as the most + intimate reflection of subjectivity itself, in opposition to the + objective and universal, (which it treats as mere sham,) is the + same as the good sentiment of abstract goodness, which reserves + to the subjectivity the determination thereof:—the utterly + abstract semblance, the bare perversion and annihilation of + itself. The result, the truth of this semblance, is, on its + negative side, the absolute nullity of this volition which would + fain hold its own against the good, and of the good, which would + only be abstract. On the affirmative side, in the notion, this + semblance thus collapsing is the same simple universality of the + will, which is the good. The subjectivity, in this its <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">identity</span></em> with the good, is only + the infinite form, which actualises and developes it. In this way + the standpoint of bare reciprocity between two independent + sides,—the standpoint of the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ought</span></em>, + is abandoned, and we have passed into the field of ethical + life.</p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page119">[pg 119]</span><a name= + "Pg119" id="Pg119" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc33" id="toc33"></a> <a name="pdf34" id="pdf34"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Sub-Section C. The Moral Life, Or + Social Ethics</span><a id="noteref_161" name="noteref_161" href= + "#note_161"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">161</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 144%">.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_513" id="Section_513" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § 513. + The moral life is the perfection of spirit objective—the truth of + the subjective and objective spirit itself. The failure of the + latter consists—partly in having its freedom <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">immediately</span></em> in reality, in + something external therefore, in a thing,—partly in the abstract + universality of its goodness. The failure of spirit subjective + similarly consists in this, that it is, as against the universal, + abstractly self-determinant in its inward individuality. When these + two imperfections are suppressed, subjective <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">freedom</span></em> + exists as the covertly and overtly <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">universal</span></em> rational will, which is + sensible of itself and actively disposed in the consciousness of + the individual subject, whilst its practical operation and + immediate universal <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">actuality</span></em> at the same time exist + as moral usage, manner and custom,—where self-conscious <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">liberty</span></em> + has become <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">nature</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 514. The + consciously free substance, in which the absolute <span class= + "tei tei-q">“ought”</span> is no less an <span class= + "tei tei-q">“is,”</span> has actuality as the spirit of a nation. + The abstract disruption of this spirit singles it out into + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">persons</span></em>, whose independence it + however controls and entirely dominates from within. But the + person, as an intelligent being, feels that underlying essence to + be his own very being—ceases when so minded to be a mere accident + of it—looks upon <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page120">[pg + 120]</span><a name="Pg120" id="Pg120" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + it as his absolute final aim. In its actuality he sees not less an + achieved present, than somewhat he brings it about by his + action,—yet somewhat which without all question <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">is</span></em>. + Thus, without any selective reflection, the person performs its + duty as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">his own</span></em> and as something which + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">is</span></em>; and in this necessity + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">he</span></em> has himself and his actual + freedom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 515. Because + the substance is the absolute unity of individuality and + universality of freedom, it follows that the actuality and action + of each individual to keep and to take care of his own being, while + it is on one hand conditioned by the pre-supposed total in whose + complex alone he exists, is on the other a transition into a + universal product.—The social disposition of the individuals is + their sense of the substance, and of the identity of all their + interests with the total; and that the other individuals mutually + know each other and are actual only in this identity, is confidence + (trust)—the genuine ethical temper.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 516. The + relations between individuals in the several situations to which + the substance is particularised form their <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ethical + duties</span></em>. The ethical personality, i.e. the subjectivity + which is permeated by the substantial life, is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">virtue</span></em>. + In relation to the bare facts of external being, to <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">destiny</span></em>, virtue does not treat + them as a mere negation, and is thus a quiet repose in itself: in + relation to substantial objectivity, to the total of ethical + actuality, it exists as confidence, as deliberate work for the + community, and the capacity of sacrificing self thereto; whilst in + relation to the incidental relations of social circumstance, it is + in the first instance justice and then benevolence. In the latter + sphere, and in its attitude to its own visible being and + corporeity, the individuality expresses its special character, + temperament, &c. as personal <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">virtues</span></em>.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page121">[pg 121]</span><a name="Pg121" id="Pg121" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 517. The + ethical substance is</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">AA. as + <span class="tei tei-q">“immediate”</span> or <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">natural</span></em> + mind,—the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Family</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">BB. The + <span class="tei tei-q">“relative”</span> totality of the + <span class="tei tei-q">“relative”</span> relations of the + individuals as independent persons to one another in a formal + universality—<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Civil Society</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">CC. The + self-conscious substance, as the mind developed to an organic + actuality—the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Political Constitution</span></em>.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">AA. The Family.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 518. The + ethical spirit, in its <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">immediacy</span></em>, contains the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">natural</span></em> factor that the + individual has its substantial existence in its natural + universal, i.e. in its kind. This is the sexual tie, elevated + however to a spiritual significance,—the unanimity of love and + the temper of trust. In the shape of the family, mind appears as + feeling.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 519. (1) The + physical difference of sex thus appears at the same time as a + difference of intellectual and moral type. With their exclusive + individualities these personalities combine to form a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">single + person</span></em>: the subjective union of hearts, becoming a + <span class="tei tei-q">“substantial”</span> unity, makes this + union an ethical tie—<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Marriage</span></em>. The 'substantial' + union of hearts makes marriage an indivisible personal + bond—monogamic marriage: the bodily conjunction is a sequel to + the moral attachment. A further sequel is community of personal + and private interests.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 520. (2) By + the community in which the various members constituting the + family stand in reference to property, that property of the one + person (representing the family) acquires an ethical interest, as + do also its industry, labour, and care for the future.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_521" id="Section_521" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § 521. + The ethical principle which is conjoined with the natural + generation of the children, and which was assumed to have primary + importance in first forming the marriage union, is actually + realised in the second or <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page122">[pg 122]</span><a name="Pg122" id="Pg122" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> spiritual birth of the children,—in + educating them to independent personality.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 522. (3) The + children, thus invested with independence, leave the concrete + life and action of the family to which they primarily belong, + acquire an existence of their own, destined however to found anew + such an actual family. Marriage is of course broken up by the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">natural</span></em> element contained in it, + the death of husband and wife: but even their union of hearts, as + it is a mere <span class="tei tei-q">“substantiality”</span> of + feeling, contains the germ of liability to chance and decay. In + virtue of such fortuitousness, the members of the family take up + to each other the status of persons; and it is thus that the + family finds introduced into it for the first time the element, + originally foreign to it, of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">legal</span></em> + regulation.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">BB. Civil Society</span><a id= + "noteref_162" name="noteref_162" href="#note_162"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">162</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 120%">.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 523. As the + substance, being an intelligent substance, particularises itself + abstractly into many persons (the family is only a single + person), into families or individuals, who exist independent and + free, as private persons, it loses its ethical character: for + these persons as such have in their consciousness and as their + aim not the absolute unity, but their own petty selves and + particular interests. Thus arises the system of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">atomistic</span></em>: by which the + substance is reduced to a general system of adjustments to + connect self-subsisting extremes and their particular interests. + The developed totality of this connective system is the state as + civil society, or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">state external</span></em>.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + a. The System of Wants<a id="noteref_163" name="noteref_163" + href="#note_163"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">163</span></span></a>.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 524. (α) + The particularity of the persons includes in <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page123">[pg 123]</span><a name="Pg123" id= + "Pg123" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the first instance their + wants. The possibility of satisfying these wants is here laid + on the social fabric, the general stock from which all derive + their satisfaction. In the condition of things in which this + method of satisfaction by indirect adjustment is realised, + immediate seizure (§ <a href="#Section_488" class= + "tei tei-ref">488</a>) of external objects as means thereto + exists barely or not at all: the objects are already property. + To acquire them is only possible by the intervention, on one + hand, of the possessors' will, which as particular has in view + the satisfaction of their variously defined interests; while on + the other hand it is conditioned by the ever continued + production of fresh means of exchange by the exchangers' + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">own + labour</span></em>. This instrument, by which the labour of all + facilitates satisfaction of wants, constitutes the general + stock.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 525. (β) + The glimmer of universal principle in this particularity of + wants is found in the way intellect creates differences in + them, and thus causes an indefinite multiplication both of + wants and of means for their different phases. Both are thus + rendered more and more abstract. This <span class= + "tei tei-q">“morcellement”</span> of their content by + abstraction gives rise to the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">division of + labour</span></em>. The habit of this abstraction in enjoyment, + information, feeling and demeanour, constitutes training in + this sphere, or nominal culture in general.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 526. The + labour which thus becomes more abstract tends on one hand by + its uniformity to make labour easier and to increase + production,—on another to limit each person to a single kind of + technical skill, and thus produce more unconditional dependence + on the social system. The skill itself becomes in this way + mechanical, and gets the capability of letting the machine take + the place of human labour.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_527" id="Section_527" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § + 527. (γ) But the concrete division of the general <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page124">[pg 124]</span><a name="Pg124" id= + "Pg124" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> stock—which is also a + general business (of the whole society)—into particular masses + determined by the factors of the notion,—masses each of which + possesses its own basis of subsistence, and a corresponding + mode of labour, of needs, and of means for satisfying them, + besides of aims and interests, as well as of mental culture and + habit—constitutes the difference of Estates (orders or ranks). + Individuals apportion themselves to these according to natural + talent, skill, option and accident. As belonging to such a + definite and stable sphere, they have their actual existence, + which as existence is essentially a particular; and in it they + have their social morality, which is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">honesty</span></em>, their recognition and + their <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">honour</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Where civil + society, and with it the State, exists, there arise the several + estates in their difference: for the universal substance, as + vital, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">exists</span></em> only so far as it + organically <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">particularises</span></em> itself. The + history of constitutions is the history of the growth of these + estates, of the legal relationships of individuals to them, and + of these estates to one another and to their centre.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_528" id="Section_528" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § + 528. To the <span class="tei tei-q">“substantial,”</span> + natural estate the fruitful soil and ground supply a natural + and stable capital; its action gets direction and content + through natural features, and its moral life is founded on + faith and trust. The second, the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“reflected”</span> estate has as its allotment the + social capital, the medium created by the action of middlemen, + of mere agents, and an ensemble of contingencies, where the + individual has to depend on his subjective skill, talent, + intelligence and industry. The third, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“thinking”</span> estate has for its business the + general interests; like the second it has a subsistence + procured by means of its own skill, and like the first a + certain subsistence, certain however because guaranteed through + the whole society.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page125">[pg + 125]</span><a name="Pg125" id="Pg125" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + b. Administration of Justice<a id="noteref_164" name= + "noteref_164" href="#note_164"><span class="tei tei-noteref" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">164</span></span></a>.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_529" id="Section_529" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § + 529. When matured through the operation of natural need and + free option into a system of universal relationships and a + regular course of external necessity, the principle of casual + particularity gets that stable articulation which liberty + requires in the shape of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">formal right</span></em>. (1) The + actualisation which right gets in this sphere of mere practical + intelligence is that it be brought to consciousness as the + stable universal, that it be known and stated in its + specificality with the voice of authority—the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Law</span></em><a id="noteref_165" name= + "noteref_165" href="#note_165"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">165</span></span></a>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">positive</span></em> element in laws + concerns only their form of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">publicity</span></em> and <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">authority</span></em>—which makes it + possible for them to be known by all in a customary and + external way. Their content <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">per se</span></span> may be reasonable—or + it may be unreasonable and so wrong. But when right, in the + course of definite manifestation, is developed in detail, and + its content analyses itself to gain definiteness, this + analysis, because of the finitude of its materials, falls into + the falsely infinite progress: the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">final</span></em> definiteness, which is + absolutely essential and causes a break in this progress of + unreality, can in this sphere of finitude be attained only in a + way that savours of contingency and arbitrariness. Thus whether + three years, ten thalers, or only 2-1/2, 2-3/4, 2-4/5 years, + and so on <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">ad + infinitum</span></span>, be the right and just thing, can by no + means be decided on intelligible principles,—and yet it should + be decided. Hence, though of course only at the final points of + deciding, on the side of external existence, the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“positive”</span> principle naturally enters law as + contingency and arbitrariness. This happens and has from of old + happened in all legislations: <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page126">[pg 126]</span><a name="Pg126" id="Pg126" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the only thing wanted is clearly to be + aware of it, and not be misled by the talk and the pretence as + if the ideal of law were, or could be, to be, at <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">every</span></em> point, determined + through reason or legal intelligence, on purely reasonable and + intelligent grounds. It is a futile perfectionism to have such + expectations and to make such requirements in the sphere of the + finite.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There are + some who look upon laws as an evil and a profanity, and who + regard governing and being governed from natural love, + hereditary, divinity or nobility, by faith and trust, as the + genuine order of life, while the reign of law is held an order + of corruption and injustice. These people forget that the + stars—and the cattle too—are governed and well governed too by + laws;—laws however which are only internally in these objects, + not <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">for them</span></em>, not as laws + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">set + to</span></em> them:—whereas it is man's privilege to + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">know</span></em> his law. They forget + therefore that he can truly obey only such known law,—even as + his law can only be a just law, as it is a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">known</span></em> law;—though in other + respects it must be in its essential content contingency and + caprice, or at least be mixed and polluted with such + elements.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The same + empty requirement of perfection is employed for an opposite + thesis—viz. to support the opinion that a code is impossible or + impracticable. In this case there comes in the additional + absurdity of putting essential and universal provisions in one + class with the particular detail. The finite material is + definable on and on to the false infinite: but this advance is + not, as in the mental images of space, a generation of new + spatial characteristics of the same quality as those preceding + them, but an advance into greater and ever greater speciality + by the acumen of the analytic intellect, which discovers new + distinctions, which again make new decisions necessary. To + provisions of this sort one may <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page127">[pg 127]</span><a name="Pg127" id="Pg127" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> give the name of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">new</span></em> + decisions or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">new</span></em> laws; but in proportion to + the gradual advance in specialisation the interest and value of + these provisions declines. They fall within the already + subsisting <span class="tei tei-q">“substantial,”</span> + general laws, like improvements on a floor or a door, within + the house—which though something <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">new</span></em>, are not a new <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">house</span></em>. But there is a contrary + case. If the legislation of a rude age began with single + provisos, which go on by their very nature always increasing + their number, there arises, with the advance in multitude, the + need of a simpler code,—the need i.e. of embracing that lot of + singulars in their general features. To find and be able to + express these principles well beseems an intelligent and + civilised nation. Such a gathering up of single rules into + general forms, first really deserving the name of laws, has + lately been begun in some directions by the English Minister + Peel, who has by so doing gained the gratitude, even the + admiration, of his countrymen.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 530. (2) + The positive form of Laws—to be <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">promulgated and + made known</span></em> as laws—is a condition of the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">external + obligation</span></em> to obey them; inasmuch as, being laws of + strict right, they touch only the abstract will,—itself at + bottom external—not the moral or ethical will. The subjectivity + to which the will has in this direction a right is here only + publicity. This subjective existence is as existence of the + essential and developed truth in this sphere of Right at the + same time an externally objective existence, as universal + authority and necessity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The legality + of property and of private transactions concerned therewith—in + consideration of the principle that all law must be + promulgated, recognised, and thus become authoritative—gets its + universal guarantee through <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">formalities</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 531. (3) + Legal forms get the necessity, to which objective existence + determines itself, in the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">judicial</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page128">[pg 128]</span><a name="Pg128" id="Pg128" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-style: italic">system</span></em>. Abstract right has to + exhibit itself to the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">court</span></em>—to the individualised + right—as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">proven</span></em>:—a process in which + there may be a difference between what is abstractly right and + what is provably right. The court takes cognisance and action + in the interest of right as such, deprives the existence of + right of its contingency, and in particular transforms this + existence,—as this exists as revenge—into <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">punishment</span></em> (§ <a href= + "#Section_500" class="tei tei-ref">500</a>).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + comparison of the two species, or rather two elements in the + judicial conviction, bearing on the actual state of the case in + relation to the accused,—(1) according as that conviction is + based on mere circumstances and other people's witness + alone,—or (2) in addition requires the confession of the + accused, constitutes the main point in the question of the + so-called jury-courts. It is an essential point that the two + ingredients of a judicial cognisance, the judgment as to the + state of the fact, and the judgment as application of the law + to it, should, as at bottom different sides, be exercised as + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">different functions</span></em>. By the + said institution they are allotted even to bodies differently + qualified,—from the one of which individuals belonging to the + official judiciary are expressly excluded. To carry this + separation of functions up to this separation in the courts + rests rather on extra-essential considerations: the main point + remains only the separate performance of these essentially + different functions.—It is a more important point whether the + confession of the accused is or is not to be made a condition + of penal judgment. The institution of the jury-court loses + sight of this condition. The point is that on this ground + certainty is completely inseparable from truth: but the + confession is to be regarded as the very acmé of + certainty-giving which in its nature is subjective. The final + decision therefore lies with the confession. To this therefore + the accused <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page129">[pg + 129]</span><a name="Pg129" id="Pg129" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> has an absolute right, if the proof is to + be made final and the judges to be convinced. No doubt this + factor is incomplete, because it is only one factor; but still + more incomplete is the other when no less abstractly + taken,—viz. mere circumstantial evidence. The jurors are + essentially judges and pronounce a judgment. In so far, then, + as all they have to go on are such objective proofs, whilst at + the same time their defect of certainty (incomplete in so far + as it is only <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">in them</span></em>) is admitted, the + jury-court shows traces of its barbaric origin in a confusion + and admixture between objective proofs and subjective or + so-called <span class="tei tei-q">“moral”</span> conviction.—It + is easy to call <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">extraordinary</span></em> punishments an + absurdity; but the fault lies rather with the shallowness which + takes offence at a mere name. Materially the principle involves + the difference of objective probation according as it goes with + or without the factor of absolute certification which lies in + confession.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 532. The + function of judicial administration is only to actualise to + necessity the abstract side of personal liberty in civil + society. But this actualisation rests at first on the + particular subjectivity of the judge, since here as yet there + is not found the necessary unity of it with right in the + abstract. Conversely, the blind necessity of the system of + wants is not lifted up into the consciousness of the universal, + and worked from that period of view.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + c. Police and Corporation<a id="noteref_166" name="noteref_166" + href="#note_166"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">166</span></span></a>.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 533. + Judicial administration naturally has no concern with such part + of actions and interests as belongs only to particularity, and + leaves to chance not only the occurrence of crimes but also the + care for public weal. In civil society the sole end is to + satisfy want—and that, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page130">[pg 130]</span><a name="Pg130" id="Pg130" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> because it is man's want, in a uniform + general way, so as to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">secure</span></em> this satisfaction. But + the machinery of social necessity leaves in many ways a + casualness about this satisfaction. This is due to the + variability of the wants themselves, in which opinion and + subjective good-pleasure play a great part. It results also + from circumstances of locality, from the connexions between + nation and nation, from errors and deceptions which can be + foisted upon single members of the social circulation and are + capable of creating disorder in it,—as also and especially from + the unequal capacity of individuals to take advantage of that + general stock. The onward march of this necessity also + sacrifices the very particularities by which it is brought + about, and does not itself contain the affirmative aim of + securing the satisfaction of individuals. So far as concerns + them, it <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">may</span></em> be far from beneficial: + yet here the individuals are the morally-justifiable end.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_534" id="Section_534" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § + 534. To keep in view this general end, to ascertain the way in + which the powers composing that social necessity act, and their + variable ingredients, and to maintain that end in them and + against them, is the work of an institution which assumes on + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">one</span></em> hand, to the concrete of + civil society, the position of an external universality. Such + an order acts with the power of an external state, which, in so + far as it is rooted in the higher or substantial state, appears + as state <span class="tei tei-q">“police.”</span> On the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">other</span></em> hand, in this sphere of + particularity the only recognition of the aim of substantial + universality and the only carrying of it out is restricted to + the business of particular branches and interests. Thus we have + the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">corporation</span></em>, in which the + particular citizen in his private capacity finds the securing + of his stock, whilst at the same time he in it emerges from his + single private interest, and has a conscious <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page131">[pg 131]</span><a name="Pg131" id= + "Pg131" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> activity for a + comparatively universal end, just as in his legal and + professional duties he has his social morality.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <h3 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.40em; margin-top: 2.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 120%">CC. The State.</span></h3> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 535. The + State is the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">self-conscious</span></em> ethical + substance, the unification of the family principle with that of + civil society. The same unity, which is in the family as a + feeling of love, is its essence, receiving however at the same + time through the second principle of conscious and spontaneously + active volition the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">form</span></em> of conscious universality. + This universal principle, with all its evolution in detail, is + the absolute aim and content of the knowing subject, which thus + identifies itself in its volition with the system of + reasonableness.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 536. The + state is (α) its inward structure as a self-relating + development—constitutional (inner-state) law: (β) a particular + individual, and therefore in connexion with other particular + individuals,—international (outer-state) law; (γ) but these + particular minds are only stages in the general development of + mind in its actuality: universal history.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + α. Constitutional Law<a id="noteref_167" name="noteref_167" + href="#note_167"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">167</span></span></a>.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 537. The + essence of the state is the universal, self-originated and + self-developed,—the reasonable spirit of will; but, as + self-knowing and self-actualising, sheer subjectivity, and—as + an actuality—one individual. Its <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">work</span></em> generally—in relation to + the extreme of individuality as the multitude of + individuals—consists in a double function. First it maintains + them as persons, thus making right a necessary actuality, then + it promotes their welfare, which each originally takes care of + for himself, but which has a thoroughly general side; it + protects the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page132">[pg + 132]</span><a name="Pg132" id="Pg132" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> family and guides civil society. + Secondly, it carries back both, and the whole disposition and + action of the individual—whose tendency is to become a centre + of his own—into the life of the universal substance; and, in + this direction, as a free power it interferes with those + subordinate spheres and retains them in substantial + immanence.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 538. The + laws express the special provisions for objective freedom. + First, to the immediate agent, his independent self-will and + particular interest, they are restrictions. But, secondly, they + are an absolute final end and the universal work: hence they + are a product of the <span class="tei tei-q">“functions”</span> + of the various orders which parcel themselves more and more out + of the general particularising, and are a fruit of all the acts + and private concerns of individuals. Thirdly, they are the + substance of the volition of individuals—which volition is + thereby free—and of their disposition: being as such exhibited + as current usage.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 539. As a + living mind, the state only is as an organised whole, + differentiated into particular agencies, which, proceeding from + the one notion (though not known as notion) of the reasonable + will, continually produce it as their result. The <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">constitution</span></em> is this + articulation or organisation of state-power. It provides for + the reasonable will,—in so far as it is in the individuals only + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">implicitly</span></em> the universal + will,—coming to a consciousness and an understanding of itself + and being <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">found</span></em>; also for that will + being put in actuality, through the action of the government + and its several branches, and not left to perish, but protected + both against <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">their</span></em> casual subjectivity and + against that of the individuals. The constitution is existent + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">justice</span></em>,—the actuality of + liberty in the development all its reasonable + provisions.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page133">[pg + 133]</span><a name="Pg133" id="Pg133" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Liberty and + Equality are the simple rubrics into which is frequently + concentrated what should form the fundamental principle, the + final aim and result of the constitution. However true this is, + the defect of these terms is their utter abstractness: if stuck + to in this abstract form, they are principles which either + prevent the rise of the concreteness of the state, i.e. its + articulation into a constitution and a government in general, + or destroy them. With the state there arises inequality, the + difference of governing powers and of governed, magistracies, + authorities, directories, &c. The principle of equality, + logically carried out, rejects all differences, and thus allows + no sort of political condition to exist. Liberty and equality + are indeed the foundation of the state, but as the most + abstract also the most superficial, and for that very reason + naturally the most familiar. It is important therefore to study + them closer.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As regards, + first, Equality, the familiar proposition, All men are by + nature equal, blunders by confusing the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“natural”</span> with the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“notion.”</span> It ought rather to read: + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">By + nature</span></em> men are only unequal. But the notion of + liberty, as it exists as such, without further specification + and development, is abstract subjectivity, as a person capable + of property (§ <a href="#Section_488" class= + "tei tei-ref">488</a>). This single abstract feature of + personality constitutes the actual <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">equality</span></em> of human beings. But + that this freedom should exist, that it should be <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">man</span></em> + (and not as in Greece, Rome, &c. <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">some</span></em> men) that is recognised + and legally regarded as a person, is so little <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">by + nature</span></em>, that it is rather only a result and product + of the consciousness of the deepest principle of mind, and of + the universality and expansion of this consciousness. That the + citizens are equal before the law contains a great truth, but + which so expressed is a tautology: it only states that the + legal status in general exists, that the laws rule. But, as + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page134">[pg 134]</span><a name= + "Pg134" id="Pg134" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> regards the + concrete, the citizens—besides their personality—are equal + before the law only in these points when they are otherwise + equal <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">outside the law</span></em>. Only that + equality which (in whatever way it be) they, as it happens, + otherwise have in property, age, physical strength, talent, + skill, &c.—or even in crime, can and ought to make them + deserve equal treatment before the law:—only it can make + them—as regards taxation, military service, eligibility to + office, &c.—punishment, &c.—equal in the concrete. The + laws themselves, except in so far as they concern that narrow + circle of personality, presuppose unequal conditions, and + provide for the unequal legal duties and appurtenances + resulting therefrom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As regards + Liberty, it is originally taken partly in a negative sense + against arbitrary intolerance and lawless treatment, partly in + the affirmative sense of subjective freedom; but this freedom + is allowed great latitude both as regards the agent's self-will + and action for his particular ends, and as regards his claim to + have a personal intelligence and a personal share in general + affairs. Formerly the legally defined rights, private as well + as public rights of a nation, town, &c. were called its + <span class="tei tei-q">“liberties.”</span> Really, every + genuine law is a liberty: it contains a reasonable principle of + objective mind; in other words, it embodies a liberty. Nothing + has become, on the contrary, more familiar than the idea that + each must <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">restrict</span></em> his liberty in + relation to the liberty of others: that the state is a + condition of such reciprocal restriction, and that the laws are + restrictions. To such habits of mind liberty is viewed as only + casual good-pleasure and self-will. Hence it has also been said + that <span class="tei tei-q">“modern”</span> nations are only + susceptible of equality, or of equality more than liberty: and + that for no other reason than that, with an assumed + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page135">[pg 135]</span><a name= + "Pg135" id="Pg135" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> definition of + liberty (chiefly the participation of all in political affairs + and actions), it was impossible to make ends meet in + actuality—which is at once more reasonable and more powerful + than abstract presuppositions. On the contrary, it should be + said that it is just the great development and maturity of form + in modern states which produces the supreme concrete inequality + of individuals in actuality: while, through the deeper + reasonableness of laws and the greater stability of the legal + state, it gives rise to greater and more stable liberty, which + it can without incompatibility allow. Even the superficial + distinction of the words liberty and equality points to the + fact that the former tends to inequality: whereas, on the + contrary, the current notions of liberty only carry us back to + equality. But the more we fortify liberty,—as security of + property, as possibility for each to develop and make the best + of his talents and good qualities, the more it gets taken for + granted: and then the sense and appreciation of liberty + especially turns in a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">subjective</span></em> direction. By this + is meant the liberty to attempt action on every side, and to + throw oneself at pleasure in action for particular and for + general intellectual interests, the removal of all checks on + the individual particularity, as well as the inward liberty in + which the subject has principles, has an insight and conviction + of his own, and thus gains moral independence. But this liberty + itself on one hand implies that supreme differentiation in + which men are unequal and make themselves more unequal by + education; and on another it only grows up under conditions of + that objective liberty, and is and could grow to such height + only in modern states. If, with this development of + particularity, there be simultaneous and endless increase of + the number of wants, and of the difficulty of satisfying them, + of the lust of argument and the fancy of detecting faults, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page136">[pg 136]</span><a name= + "Pg136" id="Pg136" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> with its + insatiate vanity, it is all but part of that indiscriminating + relaxation of individuality in this sphere which generates all + possible complications, and must deal with them as it can. Such + a sphere is of course also the field of restrictions, because + liberty is there under the taint of natural self-will and + self-pleasing, and has therefore to restrict itself: and that, + not merely with regard to the naturalness, self-will and + self-conceit, of others, but especially and essentially with + regard to reasonable liberty.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The term + political liberty, however, is often used to mean formal + participation in the public affairs of state by the will and + action even of those individuals who otherwise find their chief + function in the particular aims and business of civil society. + And it has in part become usual to give the title constitution + only to the side of the state which concerns such participation + of these individuals in general affairs, and to regard a state, + in which this is not formally done, as a state without a + constitution. On this use of the term, the only thing to remark + is that by constitution must be understood the determination of + rights, i.e. of liberties in general, and the organisation of + the actualisation of them; and that political freedom in the + above sense can in any case only constitute a part of it. Of it + the following paragraphs will speak.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 540. The + guarantee of a constitution (i.e. the necessity that the laws + be reasonable, and their actualisation secured) lies in the + collective spirit of the nation,—especially in the specific way + in which it is itself conscious of its reason. (Religion is + that consciousness in its absolute substantiality.) But the + guarantee lies also at the same time in the actual organisation + or development of that principle in suitable institutions. The + constitution presupposes that consciousness <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page137">[pg 137]</span><a name="Pg137" id= + "Pg137" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of the collective spirit, + and conversely that spirit presupposes the constitution: for + the actual spirit only has a definite consciousness of its + principles, in so far as it has them actually existent before + it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + question—To whom (to what authority and how organised) belongs + the power to make a constitution? is the same as the question, + Who has to make the spirit of a nation? Separate our idea of a + constitution from that of the collective spirit, as if the + latter exists or has existed without a constitution, and your + fancy only proves how superficially you have apprehended the + nexus between the spirit in its self-consciousness and in its + actuality. What is thus called <span class= + "tei tei-q">“making”</span> a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“constitution,”</span> is—just because of this + inseparability—a thing that has never happened in history, just + as little as the making of a code of laws. A constitution only + develops from the national spirit identically with that + spirit's own development, and runs through at the same time + with it the grades of formation and the alterations required by + its concept. It is the indwelling spirit and the history of the + nation (and, be it added, the history is only that spirit's + history) by which constitutions have been and are made.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 541. The + really living totality,—that which preserves, in other words + continually produces the state in general and its constitution, + is the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">government</span></em>. The organisation + which natural necessity gives is seen in the rise of the family + and of the 'estates' of civil society. The government is the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">universal</span></em> part of the + constitution, i.e. the part which intentionally aims at + preserving those parts, but at the same time gets hold of and + carries out those general aims of the whole which rise above + the function of the family and of civil society. The + organisation of the government is likewise its differentiation + into powers, as their peculiarities have a basis in principle; + yet <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page138">[pg + 138]</span><a name="Pg138" id="Pg138" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> without that difference losing touch with + the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">actual unity</span></em> they have in the + notion's subjectivity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the most + obvious categories of the notion are those of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">universality</span></em> and <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">individuality</span></em> and their + relationship that of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">subsumption</span></em> of individual + under universal, it has come about that in the state the + legislative and executive power have been so distinguished as + to make the former exist apart as the absolute superior, and to + subdivide the latter again into administrative (government) + power and judicial power, according as the laws are applied to + public or private affairs. The <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">division</span></em> of these powers has + been treated as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">the</span></em> condition of political + equilibrium, meaning by division their <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">independence</span></em> one of another in + existence,—subject always however to the above-mentioned + subsumption of the powers of the individual under the power of + the general. The theory of such <span class= + "tei tei-q">“division”</span> unmistakably implies the elements + of the notion, but so combined by <span class= + "tei tei-q">“understanding”</span> as to result in an absurd + collocation, instead of the self-redintegration of the living + spirit. The one essential canon to make liberty deep and real + is to give every business belonging to the general interests of + the state a separate organisation wherever they are essentially + distinct. Such real division must be: for liberty is only deep + when it is differentiated in all its fullness and these + differences manifested in existence. But to make the business + of legislation an independent power—to make it the first power, + with the further proviso that all citizens shall have part + therein, and the government be merely executive and dependent, + presupposes ignorance that the true idea, and therefore the + living and spiritual actuality, is the self-redintegrating + notion, in other words, the subjectivity which contains in it + universality as only one of its moments. (A mistake still + greater, if it goes with the fancy that the constitution and + the fundamental <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page139">[pg + 139]</span><a name="Pg139" id="Pg139" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> laws were still one day to make,—in a + state of society, which includes an already existing + development of differences.) Individuality is the first and + supreme principle <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">which</span></em> makes itself fall + through the state's organisation. Only through the government, + and by its embracing in itself the particular businesses + (including the abstract legislative business, which taken apart + is also particular), is the state <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">one</span></em>. These, as always, are the + terms on which the different elements essentially and alone + truly stand towards each other in the logic of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“reason,”</span> as opposed to the external footing + they stand on in 'understanding,' which never gets beyond + subsuming the individual and particular under the universal. + What disorganises the unity of logical reason, equally + disorganises actuality.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 542. In + the government—regarded as organic totality—the sovereign power + (principate) is (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">a</span></span>) <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">subjectivity</span></em> as the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">infinite</span></em> self-unity of the + notion in its development;—the all-sustaining, all-decreeing + will of the state, its highest peak and all-pervasive unity. In + the perfect form of the state, in which each and every element + of the notion has reached free existence, this subjectivity is + not a so-called <span class="tei tei-q">“moral person,”</span> + or a decree issuing from a majority (forms in which the unity + of the decreeing will has not an <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">actual</span></em> existence), but an + actual individual,—the will of a decreeing + individual,—<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">monarchy</span></em>. The monarchical + constitution is therefore the constitution of developed reason: + all other constitutions belong to lower grades of the + development and realisation of reason.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + unification of all concrete state-powers into one existence, as + in the patriarchal society,—or, as in a democratic + constitution, the participation of all in all affairs—impugns + the principle of the division of powers, i.e. the developed + liberty of the constituent factors of <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page140">[pg 140]</span><a name="Pg140" id="Pg140" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the Idea. But no whit less must the + division (the working out of these factors each to a free + totality) be reduced to <span class="tei tei-q">“ideal”</span> + unity, i.e. to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">subjectivity</span></em>. The mature + differentiation or realisation of the Idea means, essentially, + that this subjectivity should grow to be a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">real</span></em> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“moment,”</span> an <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">actual</span></em> existence; and this + actuality is not otherwise than as the individuality of the + monarch—the subjectivity of abstract and final decision + existent in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">one</span></em> person. All those forms of + collective decreeing and willing,—a common will which shall be + the sum and the resultant (on aristocratical or democratical + principles) of the atomistic of single wills, have on them the + mark of the unreality of an abstraction. Two points only are + all-important, first to see the necessity of each of the + notional factors, and secondly the form in which it is + actualised. It is only the nature of the speculative notion + which can really give light on the matter. That + subjectivity—being the <span class="tei tei-q">“moment”</span> + which emphasises the need of abstract deciding in + general—partly leads on to the proviso that the name of the + monarch appear as the bond and sanction under which everything + is done in the government;—partly, being simple self-relation, + has attached to it the characteristic of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">immediacy</span></em>, and then of + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">nature</span></em>—whereby the destination + of individuals for the dignity of the princely power is fixed + by inheritance.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 543. + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">b</span></span>) In the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">particular</span></em> government-power + there emerges, first, the division of state-business into its + branches (otherwise defined), legislative power, administration + of justice or judicial power, administration and police, and + its consequent distribution between particular boards or + offices, which having their business appointed by law, to that + end and for that reason, possess independence of action, + without at the same time ceasing to stand under higher + supervision. Secondly, too, there <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page141">[pg 141]</span><a name="Pg141" id="Pg141" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> arises the participation of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">several</span></em> in state-business, who + together constitute the <span class="tei tei-q">“general + order”</span> (§ <a href="#Section_528" class= + "tei tei-ref">528</a>) in so far as they take on themselves the + charge of universal ends as the essential function of their + particular life;—the further condition for being able to take + individually part in this business being a certain training, + aptitude, and skill for such ends.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_544" id="Section_544" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § + 544. The estates-collegium or provincial council is an + institution by which all such as belong to civil society in + general, and are to that degree private persons, participate in + the governmental power, especially in legislation—viz. such + legislation as concerns the universal scope of those interests + which do not, like peace and war, involve the, as it were, + personal interference and action of the State as one man, and + therefore do not belong specially to the province of the + sovereign power. By virtue of this participation subjective + liberty and conceit, with their general opinion, can show + themselves palpably efficacious and enjoy the satisfaction of + feeling themselves to count for something.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The division + of constitutions into democracy, aristocracy and monarchy, is + still the most definite statement of their difference in + relation to sovereignty. They must at the same time be regarded + as necessary structures in the path of development,—in short, + in the history of the State. Hence it is superficial and absurd + to represent them as an object of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">choice</span></em>. The pure + forms—necessary to the process of evolution—are, in so far as + they are finite and in course of change, conjoined both with + forms of their degeneration,—such as ochlocracy, &c., and + with earlier transition-forms. These two forms are not to be + confused with those legitimate structures. Thus, it may be—if + we look only to the fact that the will of one individual stands + at the head of the state—oriental despotism is included + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page142">[pg 142]</span><a name= + "Pg142" id="Pg142" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> under the vague + name monarchy,—as also feudal monarchy, to which indeed even + the favourite name of <span class="tei tei-q">“constitutional + monarchy”</span> cannot be refused. The true difference of + these forms from genuine monarchy depends on the true value of + those principles of right which are in vogue and have their + actuality and guarantee in the state-power. These principles + are those expounded earlier, liberty of property, and above all + personal liberty, civil society, with its industry and its + communities, and the regulated efficiency of the particular + bureaux in subordination to the laws.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The question + which is most discussed is in what sense we are to understand + the participation of private persons in state affairs. For it + is as private persons that the members of bodies of estates are + primarily to be taken, be they treated as mere individuals, or + as representatives of a number of people or of the nation. The + aggregate of private persons is often spoken of as the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">nation</span></em>: but as such an + aggregate it is <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">vulgus</span></span>, not <span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">populus</span></span>: and in this + direction, it is the one sole aim of the state that a nation + should <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">not</span></em> come to existence, to + power and action, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">as such an aggregate</span></em>. Such a + condition of a nation is a condition of lawlessness, + demoralisation, brutishness: in it the nation would only be a + shapeless, wild, blind force, like that of the stormy, + elemental sea, which however is not self-destructive, as the + nation—a spiritual element—would be. Yet such a condition may + be often heard described as that of true freedom. If there is + to be any sense in embarking upon the question of the + participation of private persons in public affairs, it is not a + brutish mass, but an already organised nation—one in which a + governmental power exists—which should be presupposed. The + desirability of such participation however is not to be put in + the superiority of particular intelligence, which private + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page143">[pg 143]</span><a name= + "Pg143" id="Pg143" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> persons are + supposed to have over state officials—the contrary may be the + case—nor in the superiority of their good will for the general + best. The members of civil society as such are rather people + who find their nearest duty in their private interest and (as + especially in the feudal society) in the interest of their + privileged corporation. Take the case of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">England</span></em> which, because private + persons have a predominant share in public affairs, has been + regarded as having the freest of all constitutions. Experience + shows that that country—as compared with the other civilised + states of Europe—is the most backward in civil and criminal + legislation, in the law and liberty of property, in + arrangements for art and science, and that objective freedom or + rational right is rather <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sacrificed</span></em> to formal right and + particular private interest; and that this happens even in the + institutions and possessions supposed to be dedicated to + religion. The desirability of private persons taking part in + public affairs is partly to be put in their concrete, and + therefore more urgent, sense of general wants. But the true + motive is the right of the collective spirit to appear as an + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">externally universal</span></em> will, + acting with orderly and express efficacy for the public + concerns. By this satisfaction of this right it gets its own + life quickened, and at the same time breathes fresh life in the + administrative officials; who thus have it brought home to them + that not merely have they to enforce duties but also to have + regard to rights. Private citizens are in the state the + incomparably greater number, and form the multitude of such as + are recognised as persons. Hence the will-reason exhibits its + existence in them as a preponderating majority of freemen, or + in its <span class="tei tei-q">“reflectional”</span> + universality, which has its actuality vouchsafed it as a + participation in the sovereignty. But it has already been noted + as a <span class="tei tei-q">“moment”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page144">[pg 144]</span><a name="Pg144" id= + "Pg144" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of civil society (§§ + <a href="#Section_527" class="tei tei-ref">527</a>, <a href= + "#Section_534" class="tei tei-ref">534</a>) that the + individuals rise from external into substantial universality, + and form a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">particular</span></em> kind,—the Estates: + and it is not in the inorganic form of mere individuals as such + (after the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">democratic</span></em> fashion of + election), but as organic factors, as estates, that they enter + upon that participation. In the state a power or agency must + never appear and act as a formless, inorganic shape, i.e. + basing itself on the principle of multeity and mere + numbers.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Assemblies + of Estates have been wrongly designated as the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">legislative + power</span></em>, so far as they form only one branch of that + power,—a branch in which the special government-officials have + an <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">ex officio</span></span> + share, while the sovereign power has the privilege of final + decision. In a civilised state moreover legislation can only be + a further modification of existing law, and so-called new laws + can only deal with minutiae of detail and particularities (cf. + § <a href="#Section_529" class="tei tei-ref">529</a>, note), + the main drift of which has been already prepared or + preliminarily settled by the practice of the law-courts. The + so-called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">financial law</span></em>, in so far as it + requires the assent of the estates, is really a government + affair: it is only improperly called a law, in the general + sense of embracing a wide, indeed the whole, range of the + external means of government. The finances deal with what in + their nature are only particular needs, ever newly recurring, + even if they touch on the sum total of such needs. If the main + part of the requirement were—as it very likely is—regarded as + permanent, the provision for it would have more the nature of a + law: but to be a law, it would have to be made once for all, + and not be made yearly, or every few years, afresh. The part + which varies according to time and circumstances concerns in + reality the smallest part of the amount, and the provisions + with regard to it have even less the character of a law: and + yet it is and may <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page145">[pg + 145]</span><a name="Pg145" id="Pg145" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> be only this slight variable part which + is matter of dispute, and can be subjected to a varying yearly + estimate. It is this last then which falsely bears the + high-sounding name of the <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Grant</span></em>”</span> of the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Budget</span></em>, i.e. of the whole of + the finances. A law for one year and made each year has even to + the plain man something palpably absurd: for he distinguishes + the essential and developed universal, as content of a true + law, from the reflectional universality which only externally + embraces what in its nature is many. To give the name of a law + to the annual fixing of financial requirements only serves—with + the presupposed separation of legislative from executive—to + keep up the illusion of that separation having real existence, + and to conceal the fact that the legislative power, when it + makes a decree about finance, is really engaged with strict + executive business. But the importance attached to the power of + from time to time granting <span class= + "tei tei-q">“supply,”</span> on the ground that the assembly of + estates possesses in it a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">check</span></em> on the government, and + thus a guarantee against injustice and violence,—this + importance is in one way rather plausible than real. The + financial measures necessary for the state's subsistence cannot + be made conditional on any other circumstances, nor can the + state's subsistence be put yearly in doubt. It would be a + parallel absurdity if the government were e.g. to grant and + arrange the judicial institutions always for a limited time + merely; and thus, by the threat of suspending the activity of + such an institution and the fear of a consequent state of + brigandage, reserve for itself a means of coercing private + individuals. Then again, the pictures of a condition of + affairs, in which it might be useful and necessary to have in + hand means of compulsion, are partly based on the false + conception of a contract between rulers and ruled, and partly + presuppose the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page146">[pg + 146]</span><a name="Pg146" id="Pg146" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> possibility of such a divergence in + spirit between these two parties as would make constitution and + government quite out of the question. If we suppose the empty + possibility of getting <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">help</span></em> by such compulsive means + brought into existence, such help would rather be the + derangement and dissolution of the state, in which there would + no longer be a government, but only parties, and the violence + and oppression of one party would only be helped away by the + other. To fit together the several parts of the state into a + constitution after the fashion of mere understanding—i.e. to + adjust within it the machinery of a balance of powers external + to each other—is to contravene the fundamental idea of what a + state is.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_545" id="Section_545" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § + 545. The final aspect of the state is to appear in immediate + actuality as a single nation marked by physical conditions. As + a single individual it is exclusive against other like + individuals. In their mutual relations, waywardness and chance + have a place; for each person in the aggregate is autonomous: + the universal of law is only postulated between them, and not + actually existent. This independence of a central authority + reduces disputes between them to terms of mutual violence, a + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">state + of war</span></em>, to meet which the general estate in the + community assumes the particular function of maintaining the + state's independence against other states, and becomes the + estate of bravery.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 546. This + state of war shows the omnipotence of the state in its + individuality—an individuality that goes even to abstract + negativity. Country and fatherland then appear as the power by + which the particular independence of individuals and their + absorption in the external existence of possession and in + natural life is convicted of its own nullity,—as the power + which procures the maintenance of the general substance by the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page147">[pg 147]</span><a name= + "Pg147" id="Pg147" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> patriotic + sacrifice on the part of these individuals of this natural and + particular existence,—so making nugatory the nugatoriness that + confronts it.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + β. External Public Law<a id="noteref_168" name="noteref_168" + href="#note_168"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">168</span></span></a>.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 547. In + the game of war the independence of States is at stake. In one + case the result may be the mutual recognition of free national + individualities (§ <a href="#Section_430" class= + "tei tei-ref">430</a>): and by peace-conventions supposed to be + for ever, both this general recognition, and the special claims + of nations on one another, are settled and fixed. External + state-rights rest partly on these positive treaties, but to + that extent contain only rights falling short of true actuality + (§ <a href="#Section_545" class="tei tei-ref">545</a>): partly + on so-called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">international</span></em> law, the general + principle of which is its presupposed recognition by the + several States. It thus restricts their otherwise unchecked + action against one another in such a way that the possibility + of peace is left; and distinguishes individuals as private + persons (non-belligerents) from the state. In general, + international law rests on social usage.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + <h4 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em"> + γ. Universal History<a id="noteref_169" name="noteref_169" + href="#note_169"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">169</span></span></a>.</h4> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 548. As + the mind of a special nation is actual and its liberty is under + natural conditions, it admits on this nature-side the influence + of geographical and climatic qualities. It is in time; and as + regards its range and scope, has essentially a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">particular</span></em> principle on the + lines of which it must run through a development of its + consciousness and its actuality. It has, in short, a history of + its own. But as a restricted mind its independence is something + secondary; it passes into universal world-history, the events + of which exhibit the dialectic of the several national + minds,—the judgment of the world.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page148">[pg 148]</span><a name="Pg148" id="Pg148" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_549" id="Section_549" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § + 549. This movement is the path of liberation for the spiritual + substance, the deed by which the absolute final aim of the + world is realised in it, and the merely implicit mind achieves + consciousness and self-consciousness. It is thus the revelation + and actuality of its essential and completed essence, whereby + it becomes to the outward eye a universal spirit—a world-mind. + As this development is in time and in real existence, as it is + a history, its several stages and steps are the national minds, + each of which, as single and endued by nature with a specific + character, is appointed to occupy only one grade, and + accomplish one task in the whole deed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + presupposition that history has an essential and actual end, + from the principles of which certain characteristic results + logically flow, is called an <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">a priori</span></span> view of it, and + philosophy is reproached with <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">a priori</span></span> history-writing. On + this point, and on history-writing in general, this note must + go into further detail. That history, and above all universal + history, is founded on an essential and actual aim, which + actually is and will be realised in it—the plan of Providence; + that, in short, there is Reason in history, must be decided on + strictly philosophical ground, and thus shown to be essentially + and in fact necessary. To presuppose such aim is blameworthy + only when the assumed conceptions or thoughts are arbitrarily + adopted, and when a determined attempt is made to force events + and actions into conformity with such conceptions. For such + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">a priori</span></span> + methods of treatment at the present day, however, those are + chiefly to blame who profess to be purely historical, and who + at the same time take opportunity expressly to raise their + voice against the habit of philosophising, first in general, + and then in history. Philosophy is to them a troublesome + neighbour: for it is an enemy of all arbitrariness and hasty + suggestions. Such <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">a + priori</span></span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page149">[pg + 149]</span><a name="Pg149" id="Pg149" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> history-writing has sometimes burst out + in quarters where one would least have expected it, especially + on the philological side, and in Germany more than in France + and England, where the art of historical writing has gone + through a process of purification to a firmer and maturer + character. Fictions, like that of a primitive age and its + primitive people, possessed from the first of the true + knowledge of God and all the sciences,—of sacerdotal + races,—and, when we come to minutiae, of a Roman epic, supposed + to be the source of the legends which pass current for the + history of ancient Rome, &c., have taken the place of the + pragmatising which detected psychological motives and + associations. There is a wide circle of persons who seem to + consider it incumbent on a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">learned</span></em> + and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ingenious</span></em> historian drawing + from the original sources to concoct such baseless fancies, and + form bold combinations of them from a learned rubbish-heap of + out-of-the-way and trivial facts, in defiance of the + best-accredited history.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Setting + aside this subjective treatment of history, we find what is + properly the opposite view forbidding us to import into history + an <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">objective purpose</span></em>. This is + after all synonymous with what <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">seems</span></em> to be the still more + legitimate demand that the historian should proceed with + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">impartiality</span></em>. This is a + requirement often and especially made on the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">history of + philosophy</span></em>: where it is insisted there should be no + prepossession in favour of an idea or opinion, just as a judge + should have no special sympathy for one of the contending + parties. In the case of the judge it is at the same time + assumed that he would administer his office ill and foolishly, + if he had not an interest, and an exclusive interest in + justice, if he had not that for his aim and one sole aim, or if + he declined to judge at all. This requirement which we may make + upon the judge may be called <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page150">[pg 150]</span><a name="Pg150" id="Pg150" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">partiality</span></em> for justice; and + there is no difficulty here in distinguishing it from + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">subjective</span></em> partiality. But in + speaking of the impartiality required from the historian, this + self-satisfied insipid chatter lets the distinction disappear, + and rejects both kinds of interest. It demands that the + historian shall bring with him no definite aim and view by + which he may sort out, state and criticise events, but shall + narrate them exactly in the casual mode he finds them, in their + incoherent and unintelligent particularity. Now it is at least + admitted that a history must have an object, e.g. Rome and its + fortunes, or the Decline of the grandeur of the Roman empire. + But little reflection is needed to discover that this is the + presupposed end which lies at the basis of the events + themselves, as of the critical examination into their + comparative importance, i.e. their nearer or more remote + relation to it. A history without such aim and such criticism + would be only an imbecile mental divagation, not as good as a + fairy tale, for even children expect a <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">motif</span></span> in their stories, a + purpose at least dimly surmiseable with which events and + actions are put in relation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the + existence of a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">nation</span></em> the substantial aim is + to be a state and preserve itself as such. A nation with no + state formation, (a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">mere nation</span></em>), has strictly + speaking no history,—like the nations which existed before the + rise of states and others which still exist in a condition of + savagery. What happens to a nation, and takes place within it, + has its essential significance in relation to the state: + whereas the mere particularities of individuals are at the + greatest distance from the true object of history. It is true + that the general spirit of an age leaves its imprint in the + character of its celebrated individuals, and even their + particularities are but the very distant and the dim media + through which the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page151">[pg + 151]</span><a name="Pg151" id="Pg151" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> collective light still plays in fainter + colours. Ay, even such singularities as a petty occurrence, a + word, express not a subjective particularity, but an age, a + nation, a civilisation, in striking portraiture and brevity; + and to select such trifles shows the hand of a historian of + genius. But, on the other hand, the main mass of singularities + is a futile and useless mass, by the painstaking accumulation + of which the objects of real historical value are overwhelmed + and obscured. The essential characteristic of the spirit and + its age is always contained in the great events. It was a + correct instinct which sought to banish such portraiture of the + particular and the gleaning of insignificant traits, into the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Novel</span></em> (as in the celebrated + romances of Walter Scott, &c.). Where the picture presents + an unessential aspect of life it is certainly in good taste to + conjoin it with an unessential material, such as the romance + takes from private events and subjective passions. But to take + the individual pettinesses of an age and of the persons in it, + and, in the interest of so-called truth, weave them into the + picture of general interests, is not only against taste and + judgment, but violates the principles of objective truth. The + only truth for mind is the substantial and underlying essence, + and not the trivialities of external existence and contingency. + It is therefore completely indifferent whether such + insignificancies are duly vouched for by documents, or, as in + the romance, invented to suit the character and ascribed to + this or that name and circumstances.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The point of + interest of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Biography</span></em>—to say a word on + that here—appears to run directly counter to any universal + scope and aim. But biography too has for its background the + historical world, with which the individual is intimately bound + up: even purely personal originality, the freak of humour, + &c. suggests by allusion <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page152">[pg 152]</span><a name="Pg152" id="Pg152" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> that central reality and has its interest + heightened by the suggestion. The mere play of sentiment, on + the contrary, has another ground and interest than history.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + requirement of impartiality addressed to the history of + philosophy (and also, we may add, to the history of religion, + first in general, and secondly, to church history) generally + implies an even more decided bar against presupposition of any + objective aim. As the State was already called the point to + which in political history criticism had to refer all events, + so here the <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Truth</span></em>”</span> must be the + object to which the several deeds and events of the spirit + would have to be referred. What is actually done is rather to + make the contrary presupposition. Histories with such an object + as religion or philosophy are understood to have only + subjective aims for their theme, i.e. only opinions and mere + ideas, not an essential and realised object like the truth. And + that with the mere excuse that there is no truth. On this + assumption the sympathy with truth appears as only a partiality + of the usual sort, a partiality for opinion and mere ideas, + which all alike have no stuff in them, and are all treated as + indifferent. In that way historical truth means but + correctness—an accurate report of externals, without critical + treatment save as regards this correctness—admitting, in this + case, only qualitative and quantitative judgments, no judgments + of necessity or notion (cf. notes to §§ 172 and 175). But, + really, if Rome or the German empire, &c. are an actual and + genuine object of political history, and the aim to which the + phenomena are to be related and by which they are to be judged; + then in universal history the genuine spirit, the consciousness + of it and of its essence, is even in a higher degree a true and + actual object and theme, and an aim to which all other + phenomena are essentially and actually <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page153">[pg 153]</span><a name="Pg153" id="Pg153" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> subservient. Only therefore through their + relationship to it, i.e. through the judgment in which they are + subsumed under it, while it inheres in them, have they their + value and even their existence. It is the spirit which not + merely broods <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">over</span></em> history as over the + waters, but lives in it and is alone its principle of movement: + and in the path of that spirit, liberty, i.e. a development + determined by the notion of spirit, is the guiding principle + and only its notion its final aim, i.e. truth. For Spirit is + consciousness. Such a doctrine—or in other words that Reason is + in history—will be partly at least a plausible faith, partly it + is a cognition of philosophy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_550" id="Section_550" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § + 550. This liberation of mind, in which it proceeds to come to + itself and to realise its truth, and the business of so doing, + is the supreme right, the absolute Law. The self-consciousness + of a particular nation is a vehicle for the contemporary + development of the collective spirit in its actual existence: + it is the objective actuality in which that spirit for the time + invests its will. Against this absolute will the other + particular natural minds have no rights: <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">that</span></em> nation dominates the + world: but yet the universal will steps onward over its + property for the time being, as over a special grade, and then + delivers it over to its chance and doom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 551. To + such extent as this business of actuality appears as an action, + and therefore as a work of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">individuals</span></em>, + these individuals, as regards the substantial issue of their + labour, are <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">instruments</span></em>, and their + subjectivity, which is what is peculiar to them, is the empty + form of activity. What they personally have gained therefore + through the individual share they took in the substantial + business (prepared and appointed independently of them) is a + formal universality or subjective mental idea—<em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fame</span></em>, which is their + reward.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page154">[pg + 154]</span><a name="Pg154" id="Pg154" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 552. The + national spirit contains nature-necessity, and stands in + external existence (§ <a href="#Section_423" class= + "tei tei-ref">423</a>): the ethical substance, potentially + infinite, is actually a particular and limited substance (§§ + <a href="#Section_549" class="tei tei-ref">549</a>, <a href= + "#Section_450" class="tei tei-ref">550</a>); on its subjective + side it labours under contingency, in the shape of its + unreflective natural usages, and its content is presented to it + as something <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">existing</span></em> in time and tied to + an external nature and external world. The spirit, however, + (which <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">thinks</span></em> in this moral organism) + overrides and absorbs within itself the finitude attaching to + it as national spirit in its state and the state's temporal + interests, in the system of laws and usages. It rises to + apprehend itself in its essentiality. Such apprehension, + however, still has the immanent limitedness of the national + spirit. But the spirit which thinks in universal history, + stripping off at the same time those limitations of the several + national minds and its own temporal restrictions, lays hold of + its concrete universality, and rises to apprehend the absolute + mind, as the eternally actual truth in which the contemplative + reason enjoys freedom, while the necessity of nature and the + necessity of history are only ministrant to its revelation and + the vessels of its honour.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The strictly + technical aspects of the Mind's elevation to God have been + spoken of in the Introduction to the Logic (cf. especially § + 51, note). As regards the starting-point of that elevation, + Kant has on the whole adopted the most correct, when he treats + belief in God as proceeding from the practical Reason. For that + starting-point contains the material or content which + constitutes the content of the notion of God. But the true + concrete material is neither Being (as in the cosmological) nor + mere action by design (as in the physico-theological proof) but + the Mind, the absolute characteristic and function of which is + effective reason, i.e. the self-determining <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page155">[pg 155]</span><a name="Pg155" id= + "Pg155" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and self-realising notion + itself,—Liberty. That the elevation of subjective mind to God + which these considerations give is by Kant again deposed to a + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">postulate</span></em>—a mere <span class= + "tei tei-q">“ought”</span>—is the peculiar perversity, formerly + noticed, of calmly and simply reinstating as true and valid + that very antithesis of finitude, the supersession of which + into truth is the essence of that elevation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As regards + the <span class="tei tei-q">“mediation”</span> which, as it has + been already shown (§ 192, cf. § 204 note), that elevation to + God really involves, the point specially calling for note is + the <span class="tei tei-q">“moment”</span> of negation through + which the essential content of the starting-point is purged of + its finitude so as to come forth free. This factor, abstract in + the formal treatment of logic, now gets its most concrete + interpretation. The finite, from which the start is now made, + is the real ethical self-consciousness. The negation through + which that consciousness raises its spirit to its truth, is the + purification, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">actually</span></em> accomplished in the + ethical world, whereby its conscience is purged of subjective + opinion and its will freed from the selfishness of desire. + Genuine religion and genuine religiosity only issue from the + moral life: religion is that life rising to think, i.e. + becoming aware of the free universality of its concrete + essence. Only from the moral life and by the moral life is the + Idea of God seen to be free spirit: outside the ethical spirit + therefore it is vain to seek for true religion and + religiosity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But—as is + the case with all speculative process—this development of one + thing out of another means that what appears as sequel and + derivative is rather the absolute <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">prius</span></span> of what it appears to + be mediated by, and what is here in mind known as its + truth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here then is + the place to go more deeply into the reciprocal relations + between the state and religion, and <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page156">[pg 156]</span><a name="Pg156" id="Pg156" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> in doing so to elucidate the terminology + which is familiar and current on the topic. It is evident and + apparent from what has preceded that moral life is the state + retracted into its inner heart and substance, while the state + is the organisation and actualisation of moral life; and that + religion is the very substance of the moral life itself and of + the state. At this rate, the state rests on the ethical + sentiment, and that on the religious. If religion then is the + consciousness of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“absolute”</span> <span style= + "font-style: italic">truth</span></em>, then whatever is to + rank as right and justice, as law and duty, i.e. as <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">true</span></em> in the world of free + will, can be so esteemed only as it is participant in that + truth, as it is subsumed under it and is its sequel. But if the + truly moral life is to be a sequel of religion, then perforce + religion must have the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">genuine</span></em> content; i.e. the idea + of God it knows must be the true and real. The ethical life is + the divine spirit as indwelling in self-consciousness, as it is + actually present in a nation and its individual members. This + self-consciousness retiring upon itself out of its empirical + actuality and bringing its truth to consciousness, has in its + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">faith</span></em> and in its <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">conscience</span></em> only what it has + consciously secured in its spiritual actuality. The two are + inseparable: there cannot be two kinds of conscience, one + religious and another ethical, differing from the former in + body and value of truth. But in point of form, i.e. for thought + and knowledge—(and religion and ethical life belong to + intelligence and are a thinking and knowing)—the body of + religious truth, as the pure self-subsisting and therefore + supreme truth, exercises a sanction over the moral life which + lies in empirical actuality. Thus for self-consciousness + religion is the <span class="tei tei-q">“basis”</span> of moral + life and of the state. It has been the monstrous blunder of our + times to try to look upon these inseparables as separable from + one another, and even as mutually <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page157">[pg 157]</span><a name="Pg157" id="Pg157" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> indifferent. The view taken of the + relationship of religion and the state has been that, whereas + the state had an independent existence of its own, springing + from some force and power, religion was a later addition, + something desirable perhaps for strengthening the political + bulwarks, but purely subjective in individuals:—or it may be, + religion is treated as something without effect on the moral + life of the state, i.e. its reasonable law and constitution + which are based on a ground of their own.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the + inseparability of the two sides has been indicated, it may be + worth while to note the separation as it appears on the side of + religion. It is primarily a point of form: the attitude which + self-consciousness takes to the body of truth. So long as this + body of truth is the very substance or indwelling spirit of + self-consciousness in its actuality, then self-consciousness in + this content has the certainty of itself and is free. But if + this present self-consciousness is lacking, then there may be + created, in point of form, a condition of spiritual slavery, + even though the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">implicit</span></em> content of religion + is absolute spirit. This great difference (to cite a specific + case) comes out within the Christian religion itself, even + though here it is not the nature-element in which the idea of + God is embodied, and though nothing of the sort even enters as + a factor into its central dogma and sole theme of a God who is + known in spirit and in truth. And yet in Catholicism this + spirit of all truth is in actuality set in rigid opposition to + the self-conscious spirit. And, first of all, God is in the + <span class="tei tei-q">“host”</span> presented to religious + adoration as an <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">external thing</span></em>. (In the + Lutheran Church, on the contrary, the host as such is not at + first consecrated, but in the moment of enjoyment, i.e. in the + annihilation of its externality, and in the act of faith, i.e. + in the free self-certain spirit: only then is it consecrated + and exalted <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page158">[pg + 158]</span><a name="Pg158" id="Pg158" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> to be present God.) From that first and + supreme status of externalisation flows every other phase of + externality,—of bondage, non-spirituality, and superstition. It + leads to a laity, receiving its knowledge of divine truth, as + well as the direction of its will and conscience from without + and from another order—which order again does not get + possession of that knowledge in a spiritual way only, but to + that end essentially requires an external consecration. It + leads to the non-spiritual style of praying—partly as mere + moving of the lips, partly in the way that the subject foregoes + his right of directly addressing God, and prays others to + pray—addressing his devotion to miracle-working images, even to + bones, and expecting miracles from them. It leads, generally, + to justification by external works, a merit which is supposed + to be gained by acts, and even to be capable of being + transferred to others. All this binds the spirit under an + externalism by which the very meaning of spirit is perverted + and misconceived at its source, and law and justice, morality + and conscience, responsibility and duty are corrupted at their + root.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Along with + this principle of spiritual bondage, and these applications of + it in the religious life, there can only go in the legislative + and constitutional system a legal and moral bondage, and a + state of lawlessness and immorality in political life. + Catholicism has been loudly praised and is still often + praised—logically enough—as the one religion which secures the + stability of governments. But in reality this applies only to + governments which are bound up with institutions founded on the + bondage of the spirit (of that spirit which should have legal + and moral liberty), i.e. with institutions that embody + injustice and with a morally corrupt and barbaric state of + society. But these governments are not aware that in fanaticism + they <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page159">[pg + 159]</span><a name="Pg159" id="Pg159" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> have a terrible power, which does not + rise in hostility against them, only so long as and only on + condition that they remain sunk in the thraldom of injustice + and immorality. But in mind there is a very different power + available against that externalism and dismemberment induced by + a false religion. Mind collects itself into its inward free + actuality. Philosophy awakes in the spirit of governments and + nations the wisdom to discern what is essentially and actually + right and reasonable in the real world. It was well to call + these products of thought, and in a special sense Philosophy, + the wisdom of the world<a id="noteref_170" name="noteref_170" + href="#note_170"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">170</span></span></a>; + for thought makes the spirit's truth an actual present, leads + it into the real world, and thus liberates it in its actuality + and in its own self.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus set + free, the content of religion assumes quite another shape. So + long as the form, i.e. our consciousness and subjectivity, + lacked liberty, it followed necessarily that self-consciousness + was conceived as not immanent in the ethical principles which + religion embodies, and these principles were set at such a + distance as to seem to have true being only as negative to + actual self-consciousness. In this unreality ethical content + gets the name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Holiness</span></em>. But once the divine + spirit introduces itself into actuality, and actuality + emancipates itself to spirit, then what in the world was a + postulate of holiness is supplanted by the actuality of + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">moral</span></em> life. Instead of the vow + of chastity, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">marriage</span></em> now ranks as the + ethical relation; and, therefore, as the highest on this side + of humanity stands the family. Instead of the vow of poverty + (muddled up into a contradiction of assigning merit to + whosoever gives away goods to the poor, i.e. whosoever enriches + them) is the precept of action to acquire goods through one's + own intelligence <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page160">[pg + 160]</span><a name="Pg160" id="Pg160" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and industry,—of honesty in commercial + dealing, and in the use of property,—in short moral life in the + socio-economic sphere. And instead of the vow of obedience, + true religion sanctions obedience to the law and the legal + arrangements of the state—an obedience which is itself the true + freedom, because the state is a self-possessed, self-realising + reason—in short, moral life in the state. Thus, and thus only, + can law and morality exist. The precept of religion, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Give to Caesar what is Caesar's and to + God what is God's”</span> is not enough: the question is to + settle what is Caesar's, what belongs to the secular authority: + and it is sufficiently notorious that the secular no less than + the ecclesiastical authority have claimed almost everything as + their own. The divine spirit must interpenetrate the entire + secular life: whereby wisdom is concrete within it, and it + carries the terms of its own justification. But that concrete + indwelling is only the aforesaid ethical organisations. It is + the morality of marriage as against the sanctity of a celibate + order;—the morality of economic and industrial action against + the sanctity of poverty and its indolence;—the morality of an + obedience dedicated to the law of the state as against the + sanctity of an obedience from which law and duty are absent and + where conscience is enslaved. With the growing need for law and + morality and the sense of the spirit's essential liberty, there + sets in a conflict of spirit with the religion of unfreedom. It + is no use to organise political laws and arrangements on + principles of equity and reason, so long as in religion the + principle of unfreedom is not abandoned. A free state and a + slavish religion are incompatible. It is silly to suppose that + we may try to allot them separate spheres, under the impression + that their diverse natures will maintain an attitude of + tranquillity one to another <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page161">[pg 161]</span><a name="Pg161" id="Pg161" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and not break out in contradiction and + battle. Principles of civil freedom can be but abstract and + superficial, and political institutions deduced from them must + be, if taken alone, untenable, so long as those principles in + their wisdom mistake religion so much as not to know that the + maxims of the reason in actuality have their last and supreme + sanction in the religious conscience in subsumption under the + consciousness of <span class="tei tei-q">“absolute”</span> + truth. Let us suppose even that, no matter how, a code of law + should arise, so to speak <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">a priori</span></span>, founded on + principles of reason, but in contradiction with an established + religion based on principles of spiritual unfreedom; still, as + the duty of carrying out the laws lies in the hands of + individual members of the government, and of the various + classes of the administrative <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">personnel</span></em>, it is vain to + delude ourselves with the abstract and empty assumption that + the individuals will act only according to the letter or + meaning of the law, and not in the spirit of their religion + where their inmost conscience and supreme obligation lies. + Opposed to what religion pronounces holy, the laws appear + something made by human hands: even though backed by penalties + and externally introduced, they could offer no lasting + resistance to the contradiction and attacks of the religious + spirit. Such laws, however sound their provisions may be, thus + founder on the conscience, whose spirit is different from the + spirit of the laws and refuses to sanction them. It is nothing + but a modern folly to try to alter a corrupt moral organisation + by altering its political constitution and code of laws without + changing the religion,—to make a revolution without having made + a reformation, to suppose that a political constitution opposed + to the old religion could live in peace and harmony with it and + its sanctities, and that stability could be procured for the + laws by external guarantees, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page162">[pg 162]</span><a name="Pg162" id="Pg162" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> e.g. so-called <span class= + "tei tei-q">“chambers,”</span> and the power given them to fix + the budget, &c. (cf. § <a href="#Section_544" class= + "tei tei-ref">544</a> note). At best it is only a temporary + expedient—when it is obviously too great a task to descend into + the depths of the religious spirit and to raise that same + spirit to its truth—to seek to separate law and justice from + religion. Those guarantees are but rotten bulwarks against the + consciences of the persons charged with administering the + laws—among which laws these guarantees are included. It is + indeed the height and profanity of contradiction to seek to + bind and subject to the secular code the religious conscience + to which mere human law is a thing profane.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + perception had dawned upon Plato with great clearness of the + gulf which in his day had commenced to divide the established + religion and the political constitution, on one hand, from + those deeper requirements which, on the other hand, were made + upon religion and politics by liberty which had learnt to + recognise its inner life. Plato gets hold of the thought that a + genuine constitution and a sound political life have their + deeper foundation on the Idea,—on the essentially and actually + universal and genuine principles of eternal righteousness. Now + to see and ascertain what these are is certainly the function + and the business of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">philosophy</span></em>. It is from this + point of view that Plato breaks out into the celebrated or + notorious passage where he makes Socrates emphatically state + that philosophy and political power must coincide, that the + Idea must be regent, if the distress of nations is to see its + end. What Plato thus definitely set before his mind was that + the Idea—which implicitly indeed is the free self-determining + thought—could not get into consciousness save only in the form + of a thought; that the substance of the thought could only be + true when set forth as a universal, and <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page163">[pg 163]</span><a name="Pg163" id= + "Pg163" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> as such brought to + consciousness under its most abstract form.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To compare + the Platonic standpoint in all its definiteness with the point + of view from which the relationship of state and religion is + here regarded, the notional differences on which everything + turns must be recalled to mind. The first of these is that in + natural things their substance or genus is different from their + existence in which that substance is as subject: further that + this subjective existence of the genus is distinct from that + which it gets, when specially set in relief as genus, or, to + put it simply, as the universal in a mental concept or idea. + This additional <span class= + "tei tei-q">“individuality”</span>—the soil on which the + universal and underlying principle <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">freely</span></em> and expressly + exists,—is the intellectual and thinking <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">self</span></em>. In the case of + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">natural</span></em> things their truth and + reality does not get the form of universality and essentiality + through themselves, and their <span class= + "tei tei-q">“individuality”</span> is not itself the form: the + form is only found in subjective thinking, which in philosophy + gives that universal truth and reality an existence of its own. + In man's case it is otherwise: his truth and reality is the + free mind itself, and it comes to existence in his + self-consciousness. This absolute nucleus of man—mind + intrinsically concrete—is just this—to have the form (to have + thinking) itself for a content. To the height of the thinking + consciousness of this principle Aristotle ascended in his + notion of the entelechy of thought, (which is νοῆσις τῆς + νοήσεως), thus surmounting the Platonic Idea (the genus, or + essential being). But thought always—and that on account of + this very principle—contains the immediate self-subsistence of + subjectivity no less than it contains universality; the genuine + Idea of the intrinsically concrete mind is just as essentially + under the one of its terms (subjective consciousness) as under + the other <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page164">[pg + 164]</span><a name="Pg164" id="Pg164" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> (universality): and in the one as in the + other it is the same substantial content. Under the subjective + form, however, fall feeling, intuition, pictorial + representation: and it is in fact necessary that in point of + time the consciousness of the absolute Idea should be first + reached and apprehended in this form: in other words, it must + exist in its immediate reality as religion, earlier than it + does as philosophy. Philosophy is a later development from this + basis (just as Greek philosophy itself is later than Greek + religion), and in fact reaches its completion by catching and + comprehending in all its definite essentiality that principle + of spirit which first manifests itself in religion. But Greek + philosophy could set itself up only in opposition to Greek + religion: the unity of thought and the substantiality of the + Idea could take up none but a hostile attitude to an + imaginative polytheism, and to the gladsome and frivolous + humours of its poetic creations. The <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">form</span></em> in its infinite truth, + the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">subjectivity</span></em> of mind, broke + forth at first only as a subjective free <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">thinking</span></em>, which was not yet + identical with the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">substantiality</span></em> itself,—and + thus this underlying principle was not yet apprehended as + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">absolute mind</span></em>. Thus religion + might appear as first purified only through philosophy,—through + pure self-existent thought: but the form pervading this + underlying principle—the form which philosophy attacked—was + that creative imagination.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Political + power, which is developed similarly, but earlier than + philosophy, from religion, exhibits the onesidedness, which in + the actual world may infect its <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">implicitly</span></em> true Idea, as + demoralisation. Plato, in common with all his thinking + contemporaries, perceived this demoralisation of democracy and + the defectiveness even of its principle; he set in relief + accordingly the underlying principle of the state, but could + not work <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page165">[pg + 165]</span><a name="Pg165" id="Pg165" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> into his idea of it the infinite form of + subjectivity, which still escaped his intelligence. His state + is therefore, on its own showing, wanting in subjective liberty + (§ <a href="#Section_503" class="tei tei-ref">503</a> note, § + <a href="#Section_513" class="tei tei-ref">513</a>, &c.). + The truth which should be immanent in the state, should knit it + together and control it, he, for these reasons, got hold of + only the form of thought-out truth, of philosophy; and hence he + makes that utterance that <span class="tei tei-q">“so long as + philosophers do not rule in the states, or those who are now + called kings and rulers do not soundly and comprehensively + philosophise, so long neither the state nor the race of men can + be liberated from evils,—so long will the idea of the political + constitution fall short of possibility and not see the light of + the sun.”</span> It was not vouchsafed to Plato to go on so far + as to say that so long as true religion did not spring up in + the world and hold sway in political life, so long the genuine + principle of the state had not come into actuality. But so long + too this principle could not emerge even in thought, nor could + thought lay hold of the genuine idea of the state,—the idea of + the substantial moral life, with which is identical the liberty + of an independent self-consciousness. Only in the principle of + mind, which is aware of its own essence, is implicitly in + absolute liberty, and has its actuality in the act of + self-liberation, does the absolute possibility and necessity + exist for political power, religion, and the principles of + philosophy coinciding in one, and for accomplishing the + reconciliation of actuality in general with the mind, of the + state with the religious conscience as well as with the + philosophical consciousness. Self-realising subjectivity is in + this case absolutely identical with substantial universality. + Hence religion as such, and the state as such,—both as forms in + which the principle exists—each contain the absolute truth: so + that the truth, in its philosophic phase, is after all only in + one of its forms. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page166">[pg + 166]</span><a name="Pg166" id="Pg166" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> But even religion, as it grows and + expands, lets other aspects of the Idea of humanity grow and + expand also (§ <a href="#Section_500" class= + "tei tei-ref">500</a> sqq.). As it is left therefore behind, in + its first immediate, and so also one-sided phase, Religion may, + or rather <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">must</span></em>, appear in its existence + degraded to sensuous externality, and thus in the sequel become + an influence to oppress liberty of spirit and to deprave + political life. Still the principle has in it the infinite + <span class="tei tei-q">“elasticity”</span> of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“absolute”</span> form, so as to overcome this + depraving of the form-determination (and of the content by + these means), and to bring about the reconciliation of the + spirit in itself. Thus ultimately, in the Protestant conscience + the principles of the religious and of the ethical conscience + come to be one and the same: the free spirit learning to see + itself in its reasonableness and truth. In the Protestant + state, the constitution and the code, as well as their several + applications, embody the principle and the development of the + moral life, which proceeds and can only proceed from the truth + of religion, when reinstated in its original principle and in + that way as such first become actual. The moral life of the + state and the religious spirituality of the state are thus + reciprocal guarantees of strength.</p> + </div> + </div> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page167">[pg 167]</span><a name= + "Pg167" id="Pg167" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc35" id="toc35"></a> <a name="pdf36" id="pdf36"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Section III. Absolute Mind</span><a id= + "noteref_171" name="noteref_171" href="#note_171"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">171</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 173%">.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 553. The + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">notion</span></em> of mind has its <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">reality</span></em> + in the mind. If this reality in identity with that notion is to exist + as the consciousness of the absolute Idea, then the necessary aspect + is that the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">implicitly</span></em> free intelligence be in + its actuality liberated to its notion, if that actuality is to be a + vehicle worthy of it. The subjective and the objective spirit are to + be looked on as the road on which this aspect of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">reality</span></em> + or existence rises to maturity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 554. The + absolute mind, while it is self-centred <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">identity</span></em>, + is always also identity returning and ever returned into itself: if + it is the one and universal <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">substance</span></em> it is so as a spirit, + discerning itself into a self and a consciousness, for which it is as + substance. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Religion</span></em>, as this supreme sphere may + be in general designated, if it has on one hand to be studied as + issuing from the subject and having its home in the subject, must no + less be regarded as objectively issuing from the absolute spirit + which as spirit is in its community.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That here, as + always, belief or faith is not opposite <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page168">[pg 168]</span><a name="Pg168" id="Pg168" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> to consciousness or knowledge, but rather to a + sort of knowledge, and that belief is only a particular form of the + latter, has been remarked already (§ 63 note). If nowadays there is + so little consciousness of God, and his objective essence is so + little dwelt upon, while people speak so much more of the subjective + side of religion, i.e. of God's indwelling in us, and if that and not + the truth as such is called for,—in this there is at least the + correct principle that God must be apprehended as spirit in his + community.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 555. The + subjective consciousness of the absolute spirit is essentially and + intrinsically a process, the immediate and substantial unity of which + is the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Belief</span></em> in the witness of the spirit + as the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">certainty</span></em> of objective truth. + Belief, at once this immediate unity and containing it as a + reciprocal dependence of these different terms, has in <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">devotion</span></em>—the implicit or more + explicit act of worship (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">cultus</span></span>)—passed over into the + process of superseding the contrast till it becomes spiritual + liberation, the process of authenticating that first certainty by + this intermediation, and of gaining its concrete determination, viz. + reconciliation, the actuality of the spirit.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page169">[pg 169]</span><a name="Pg169" id="Pg169" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc37" id="toc37"></a> <a name="pdf38" id="pdf38"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Sub-Section A. Art.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_556" id="Section_556" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § 556. + As this consciousness of the Absolute first takes shape, its + immediacy produces the factor of finitude in Art. On one hand that + is, it breaks up into a work of external common existence, into the + subject which produces that work, and the subject which + contemplates and worships it. But, on the other hand, it is the + concrete <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">contemplation</span></em> and mental picture + of implicitly absolute spirit as the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ideal</span></em>. + In this ideal, or the concrete shape born of the subjective spirit, + its natural immediacy, which is only a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sign</span></em> of + the Idea, is so transfigured by the informing spirit in order to + express the Idea, that the figure shows it and it alone:—the shape + or form of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Beauty</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 557. The + sensuous externality attaching to the beautiful,—the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">form of + immediacy</span></em> as such,—at the same time <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">qualifies</span></em> what it <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">embodies</span></em>: and the God (of art) has + with his spirituality at the same time the stamp upon him of a + natural medium or natural phase of existence—He contains the + so-called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">unity</span></em> of nature and spirit—i.e. + the immediate unity in sensuously intuitional form—hence not the + spiritual unity, in which the natural would be put only as + <span class="tei tei-q">“ideal,”</span> as superseded in spirit, + and the spiritual content would be only in self-relation. It is not + the absolute spirit which enters this consciousness. On the + subjective side the community has of course an <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page170">[pg 170]</span><a name="Pg170" id="Pg170" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> ethical life, aware, as it is, of the + spirituality of its essence: and its self-consciousness and + actuality are in it elevated to substantial liberty. But with the + stigma of immediacy upon it, the subject's liberty is only a + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">manner of + life</span></em>, without the infinite self-reflection and the + subjective inwardness of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">conscience</span></em>. These considerations + govern in their further developments the devotion and the worship + in the religion of fine art.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 558. For the + objects of contemplation it has to produce, Art requires not only + an external given material—(under which are also included + subjective images and ideas), but—for the expression of spiritual + truth—must use the given forms of nature with a significance which + art must divine and possess (cf. § <a href="#Section_411" class= + "tei tei-ref">411</a>). Of all such forms the human is the highest + and the true, because only in it can the spirit have its corporeity + and thus its visible expression.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This disposes of + the principle of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">imitation of nature</span></em> in art: a + point on which it is impossible to come to an understanding while a + distinction is left thus abstract,—in other words, so long as the + natural is only taken in its externality, not as the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“characteristic”</span> meaningful nature-form which is + significant of spirit.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 559. In such + single shapes the <span class="tei tei-q">“absolute”</span> mind + cannot be made explicit: in and to art therefore the spirit is a + limited natural spirit whose implicit universality, when steps are + taken to specify its fullness in detail, breaks up into an + indeterminate polytheism. With the essential restrictedness of its + content, Beauty in general goes no further than a penetration of + the vision or image by the spiritual principle,—something formal, + so that the thought embodied, or the idea, can, like the material + which it uses to work in, be of the most diverse and unessential + kind, and still the work be something beautiful and a work of + art.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page171">[pg + 171]</span><a name="Pg171" id="Pg171" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 560. The + one-sidedness of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">immediacy</span></em> on the part of the Ideal + involves the opposite one-sidedness (§ <a href="#Section_556" + class="tei tei-ref">556</a>) that it is something <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">made</span></em> by + the artist. The subject or agent is the mere technical activity: + and the work of art is only then an expression of the God, when + there is no sign of subjective particularity in it, and the net + power of the indwelling spirit is conceived and born into the + world, without admixture and unspotted from its contingency. But as + liberty only goes as far as there is thought, the action inspired + with the fullness of this indwelling power, the artist's <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">enthusiasm</span></em>, is like a foreign + force under which he is bound and passive; the artistic <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">production</span></em> has on its part the + form of natural immediacy, it belongs to the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">genius</span></em> + or particular endowment of the artist,—and is at the same time a + labour concerned with technical cleverness and mechanical + externalities. The work of art therefore is just as much a work due + to free option, and the artist is the master of the God.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 561. In work + so inspired the reconciliation appears so obvious in its initial + stage that it is without more ado accomplished in the subjective + self-consciousness, which is thus self-confident and of good cheer, + without the depth and without the sense of its antithesis to the + absolute essence. On the further side of the perfection (which is + reached in such reconciliation, in the beauty of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">classical + art</span></em>) lies the art of sublimity,—<em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">symbolic + art</span></em>, in which the figuration suitable to the Idea is + not yet found, and the thought as going forth and wrestling with + the figure is exhibited as a negative attitude to it, and yet all + the while toiling to work itself into it. The meaning or theme thus + shows it has not yet reached the infinite form, is not yet known, + not yet conscious of itself, as free spirit. The artist's theme + only is as the abstract God of pure thought, or an effort towards + him,—a restless and unappeased effort which <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page172">[pg 172]</span><a name="Pg172" id="Pg172" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> throws itself into shape after shape as + it vainly tries to find its goal.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 562. In + another way the Idea and the sensuous figure it appears in are + incompatible; and that is where the infinite form, subjectivity, is + not as in the first extreme a mere superficial personality, but its + inmost depth, and God is known not as only seeking his form or + satisfying himself in an external form, but as only finding himself + in himself, and thus giving himself his adequate figure in the + spiritual world alone. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Romantic art</span></em> gives up the task of + showing him as such in external form and by means of beauty: it + presents him as only condescending to appearance, and the divine as + the heart of hearts in an externality from which it always + disengages itself. Thus the external can here appear as contingent + towards its significance.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Philosophy + of Religion has to discover the logical necessity in the progress + by which the Being, known as the Absolute, assumes fuller and + firmer features; it has to note to what particular feature the kind + of cultus corresponds,—and then to see how the secular + self-consciousness, the consciousness of what is the supreme + vocation of man,—in short how the nature of a nation's moral life, + the principle of its law, of its actual liberty, and of its + constitution, as well as of its art and science, corresponds to the + principle which constitutes the substance of a religion. That all + these elements of a nation's actuality constitute one systematic + totality, that one spirit creates and informs them, is a truth on + which follows the further truth that the history of religions + coincides with the world-history.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As regards the + close connexion of art with the various religions it may be + specially noted that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">beautiful</span></em> art can only belong to + those religions in which the spiritual principle, though concrete + and intrinsically free, is not <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page173">[pg 173]</span><a name="Pg173" id="Pg173" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> yet absolute. In religions where the Idea has + not yet been revealed and known in its free character, though the + craving for art is felt in order to bring in imaginative visibility + to consciousness the idea of the supreme being, and though art is + the sole organ in which the abstract and radically indistinct + content,—a mixture from natural and spiritual sources,—can try to + bring itself to consciousness;—still this art is defective; its + form is defective because its subject-matter and theme is so,—for + the defect in subject-matter comes from the form not being immanent + in it. The representations of this symbolic art keep a certain + tastelessness and stolidity—for the principle it embodies is itself + stolid and dull, and hence has not the power freely to transmute + the external to significance and shape. Beautiful art, on the + contrary, has for its condition the self-consciousness of the free + spirit,—the consciousness that compared with it the natural and + sensuous has no standing of its own: it makes the natural wholly + into the mere expression of spirit, which is thus the inner form + that gives utterance to itself alone.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But with a + further and deeper study, we see that the advent of art, in a + religion still in the bonds of sensuous externality, shows that + such religion is on the decline. At the very time it seems to give + religion the supreme glorification, expression and brilliancy, it + has lifted the religion away over its limitation. In the sublime + divinity to which the work of art succeeds in giving expression the + artistic genius and the spectator find themselves at home, with + their personal sense and feeling, satisfied and liberated: to them + the vision and the consciousness of free spirit has been vouchsafed + and attained. Beautiful art, from its side, has thus performed the + same service as philosophy: it has purified the spirit from its + thraldom. The older religion in which the <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page174">[pg 174]</span><a name="Pg174" id="Pg174" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> need of fine art, and just for that reason, + is first generated, looks up in its principle to an other-world + which is sensuous and unmeaning: the images adored by its devotees + are hideous idols regarded as wonder-working talismans, which point + to the unspiritual objectivity of that other world,—and bones + perform a similar or even a better service than such images. But + even fine art is only a grade of liberation, not the supreme + liberation itself.—The genuine objectivity, which is only in the + medium of thought,—the medium in which alone the pure spirit is for + the spirit, and where the liberation is accompanied with + reverence,—is still absent in the sensuous beauty of the work of + art, still more in that external, unbeautiful sensuousness.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 563. Beautiful + Art, like the religion peculiar to it, has its future in true + religion. The restricted value of the Idea passes utterly and + naturally into the universality identical with the infinite + form;—the vision in which consciousness has to depend upon the + senses passes into a self-mediating knowledge, into an existence + which is itself knowledge,—into <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">revelation</span></em>. Thus the principle + which gives the Idea its content is that it embody free + intelligence, and as <span class="tei tei-q">“absolute”</span> + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spirit it + is for the spirit</span></em>.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page175">[pg 175]</span><a name= + "Pg175" id="Pg175" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc39" id="toc39"></a> <a name="pdf40" id="pdf40"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Sub-Section B. Revealed + Religion</span><a id="noteref_172" name="noteref_172" href= + "#note_172"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">172</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 144%">.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 564. It lies + essentially in the notion of religion,—the religion i.e. whose + content is absolute mind—that it be <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">revealed</span></em>, and, what is more, + revealed <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">by God</span></em>. Knowledge (the principle + by which the substance is mind) is a self-determining principle, as + infinite self-realising form,—it therefore is manifestation out and + out. The spirit is only spirit in so far as it is for the spirit, + and in the absolute religion it is the absolute spirit which + manifests no longer abstract elements of its being but itself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The old + conception—due to a one-sided survey of human life—of Nemesis, + which made the divinity and its action in the world only a + levelling power, dashing to pieces everything high and great,—was + confronted by Plato and Aristotle with the doctrine that God is not + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">envious</span></em>. The same answer may be + given to the modern assertions that man cannot ascertain God. These + assertions (and more than assertions they are not) are the more + illogical, because made within a religion which is expressly called + the revealed; for according to them it would rather be the religion + in which nothing of God was revealed, in which he had not revealed + himself, and those belonging to it would be the heathen + <span class="tei tei-q">“who know not God.”</span> If the word of + God <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page176">[pg 176]</span><a name= + "Pg176" id="Pg176" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> is taken in earnest + in religion at all, it is from Him, the theme and centre of + religion, that the method of divine knowledge may and must begin: + and if self-revelation is refused Him, then the only thing left to + constitute His nature would be to ascribe envy to Him. But clearly + if the word Mind is to have a meaning, it implies the revelation of + Him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we recollect + how intricate is the knowledge of the divine Mind for those who are + not content with the homely pictures of faith but proceed to + thought,—at first only <span class= + "tei tei-q">“rationalising”</span> reflection, but afterwards, as + in duty bound, to speculative comprehension, it may almost create + surprise that so many, and especially theologians whose vocation it + is to deal with these Ideas, have tried to get off their task by + gladly accepting anything offered them for this behoof. And nothing + serves better to shirk it than to adopt the conclusion that man + knows nothing of God. To know what God as spirit is—to apprehend + this accurately and distinctly in thoughts—requires careful and + thorough speculation. It includes, in its fore-front, the + propositions: God is God only so far as he knows himself: his + self-knowledge is, further, his self-consciousness in man, and + man's knowledge <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">of</span></em> God, which proceeds to man's + self-knowledge in God.—See the profound elucidation of these + propositions in the work from which they are taken: <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aphorisms on Knowing + and Not-knowing, &c.</span></span>, by C. F. G—l.: Berlin + 1829.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 565. When the + immediacy and sensuousness of shape and knowledge is superseded, + God is, in point of content, the essential and actual spirit of + nature and spirit, while in point of form he is, first of all, + presented to consciousness as a mental representation. This + quasi-pictorial representation gives to the elements of his + content, on one hand, a separate being, making them <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page177">[pg 177]</span><a name="Pg177" id="Pg177" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> presuppositions towards each other, and + phenomena which succeed each other; their relationship it makes a + series of events according to finite reflective categories. But, on + the other hand, such a form of finite representationalism is also + overcome and superseded in the faith which realises one spirit and + in the devotion of worship.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 566. In this + separating, the form parts from the content: and in the form the + different functions of the notion part off into special spheres or + media, in each of which the absolute spirit exhibits itself; (α) as + eternal content, abiding self-centred, even in its manifestation; + (β) as distinction of the eternal essence from its manifestation, + which by this difference becomes the phenomenal world into which + the content enters; (γ) as infinite return, and reconciliation with + the eternal being, of the world it gave away—the withdrawal of the + eternal from the phenomenal into the unity of its fullness.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 567. (α) Under + the <span class="tei tei-q">“moment”</span> of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Universality</span></em>,—the sphere of pure + thought or the abstract medium of essence,—it is therefore the + absolute spirit, which is at first the presupposed principle, not + however staying aloof and inert, but (as underlying and essential + power under the reflective category of causality) creator of heaven + and earth: but yet in this eternal sphere rather only begetting + himself as his <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">son</span></em>, with whom, though different, + he still remains in original identity,—just as, again, this + differentiation of him from the universal essence eternally + supersedes itself, and, though this mediating of a self-superseding + mediation, the first substance is essentially as <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">concrete + individuality</span></em> and subjectivity,—is the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Spirit</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 568. (β) Under + the <span class="tei tei-q">“moment”</span> of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">particularity</span></em>, or of judgment, it + is this concrete eternal being which is presupposed: its movement + is the creation of the phenomenal <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page178">[pg 178]</span><a name="Pg178" id="Pg178" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> world. The eternal <span class= + "tei tei-q">“moment”</span> of mediation—of the only Son—divides + itself to become the antithesis of two separate worlds. On one hand + is heaven and earth, the elemental and the concrete nature,—on the + other hand, standing in action and reaction with such nature, the + spirit, which therefore is finite. That spirit, as the extreme of + inherent negativity, completes its independence till it becomes + wickedness, and is that extreme through its connexion with a + confronting nature and through its own naturalness thereby + investing it. Yet, amid that naturalness, it is, when it thinks, + directed towards the Eternal, though, for that reason, only + standing to it in an external connexion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 569. (γ) Under + the <span class="tei tei-q">“moment”</span> of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">individuality</span></em> as such,—of + subjectivity and the notion itself, in which the contrast of + universal and particular has sunk to its identical ground, the + place of presupposition (1) is taken by the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">universal</span></em> substance, as actualised + out of its abstraction into an <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">individual</span></em> + self-consciousness. This individual, who as such is identified with + the essence,—(in the Eternal sphere he is called the Son)—is + transplanted into the world of time, and in him wickedness is + implicitly overcome. Further, this immediate, and thus sensuous, + existence of the absolutely concrete is represented as putting + himself in judgment and expiring in the pain of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">negativity</span></em>, in which he, as + infinite subjectivity, keeps himself unchanged, and thus, as + absolute return from that negativity and as universal unity of + universal and individual essentiality, has realised his being as + the Idea of the spirit, eternal, but alive and present in the + world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 570. (2) This + objective totality of the divine man who is the Idea of the spirit + is the implicit presupposition for the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">finite</span></em> + immediacy of the single subject. For such subject therefore it is + at first an Other, an object <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page179">[pg 179]</span><a name="Pg179" id="Pg179" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of contemplating vision,—but the vision of + implicit truth, through which witness of the spirit in him, he, on + account of his immediate nature, at first characterised himself as + nought and wicked. But, secondly, after the example of his truth, + by means of the faith on the unity (in that example implicitly + accomplished) of universal and individual essence, he is also the + movement to throw off his immediacy, his natural man and self-will, + to close himself in unity with that example (who is his implicit + life) in the pain of negativity, and thus to know himself made one + with the essential Being. Thus the Being of Beings (3) through this + mediation brings about its own indwelling in self-consciousness, + and is the actual presence of the essential and self-subsisting + spirit who is all in all.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 571. These + three syllogisms, constituting the one syllogism of the absolute + self-mediation of spirit, are the revelation of that spirit whose + life is set out as a cycle of concrete shapes in pictorial thought. + From this its separation into parts, with a temporal and external + sequence, the unfolding of the mediation contracts itself in the + result,—where the spirit closes in unity with itself,—not merely to + the simplicity of faith and devotional feeling, but even to + thought. In the immanent simplicity of thought the unfolding still + has its expansion, yet is all the while known as an indivisible + coherence of the universal, simple, and eternal spirit in itself. + In this form of truth, truth is the object of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">philosophy</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the + result—the realised Spirit in which all meditation has superseded + itself—is taken in a merely formal, contentless sense, so that the + spirit is not also at the same time known as <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">implicitly</span></em> existent and + objectively self-unfolding;—then that infinite subjectivity is the + merely formal self-consciousness, knowing itself in itself as + absolute,—Irony. Irony, which can make every <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page180">[pg 180]</span><a name="Pg180" id="Pg180" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> objective reality nought and vain, is + itself the emptiness and vanity, which from itself, and therefore + by chance and its own good pleasure, gives itself direction and + content, remains master over it, is not bound by it,—and, with the + assertion that it stands on the very summit of religion and + philosophy, falls rather back into the vanity of wilfulness. It is + only in proportion as the pure infinite form, the self-centred + manifestation, throws off the one-sidedness of subjectivity in + which it is the vanity of thought, that it is the free thought + which has its infinite characteristic at the same time as essential + and actual content, and has that content as an object in which it + is also free. Thinking, so far, is only the formal aspect of the + absolute content.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page181">[pg 181]</span><a name= + "Pg181" id="Pg181" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc41" id="toc41"></a> <a name="pdf42" id="pdf42"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">Sub-Section C. + Philosophy.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 572. This + science is the unity of Art and Religion. Whereas the vision-method + of Art, external in point of form, is but subjective production and + shivers the substantial content into many separate shapes, and + whereas Religion, with its separation into parts, opens it out in + mental picture, and mediates what is thus opened out; Philosophy + not merely keeps them together to make a total, but even unifies + them into the simple spiritual vision, and then in that raises them + to self-conscious thought. Such consciousness is thus the + intelligible unity (cognised by thought) of art and religion, in + which the diverse elements in the content are cognised as + necessary, and this necessary as free.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 573. + Philosophy thus characterises itself as a cognition of the + necessity in the content of the absolute picture-idea, as also of + the necessity in the two forms—on one hand, immediate vision and + its poetry, and the objective and external revelation presupposed + by representation,—on the other hand, first the subjective retreat + inwards, then the subjective movement of faith and its final + identification with the presupposed object. This cognition is thus + the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">recognition</span></em> of this content and + its form; it is the liberation from the one-sidedness of the forms, + elevation of them into the absolute form, <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page182">[pg 182]</span><a name="Pg182" id="Pg182" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> which determines itself to content, remains + identical with it, and is in that the cognition of that essential + and actual necessity. This movement, which philosophy is, finds + itself already accomplished, when at the close it seizes its own + notion,—i.e. only <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">looks back</span></em> on its knowledge.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here might seem + to be the place to treat in a definite exposition of the reciprocal + relations of philosophy and religion. The whole question turns + entirely on the difference of the forms of speculative thought from + the forms of mental representation and <span class= + "tei tei-q">“reflecting”</span> intellect. But it is the whole + cycle of philosophy, and of logic in particular, which has not + merely taught and made known this difference, but also criticised + it, or rather has let its nature develop and judge itself by these + very categories. It is only by an insight into the value of these + forms that the true and needful conviction can be gained, that the + content of religion and philosophy is the same,—leaving out, of + course, the further details of external nature and finite mind + which fall outside the range of religion. But religion is the truth + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">for all + men</span></em>: faith rests on the witness of the spirit, which as + witnessing is the spirit in man. This witness—the underlying + essence in all humanity—takes, when driven to expound itself, its + first definite form under those acquired habits of thought which + his secular consciousness and intellect otherwise employs. In this + way the truth becomes liable to the terms and conditions of + finitude in general. This does not prevent the spirit, even in + employing sensuous ideas and finite categories of thought, from + retaining its content (which as religion is essentially + speculative,) with a tenacity which does violence to them, and acts + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">inconsistently</span></em> towards them. By + this inconsistency it corrects their defects. Nothing easier + therefore for the <span class="tei tei-q">“Rationalist”</span> than + to point out <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page183">[pg + 183]</span><a name="Pg183" id="Pg183" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + contradictions in the exposition of the faith, and then to prepare + triumphs for its principle of formal identity. If the spirit yields + to this finite reflection, which has usurped the title of reason + and philosophy—(<span class="tei tei-q">“Rationalism”</span>)—it + strips religious truth of its infinity and makes it in reality + nought. Religion in that case is completely in the right in + guarding herself against such reason and philosophy and treating + them as enemies. But it is another thing when religion sets herself + against comprehending reason, and against philosophy in general, + and specially against a philosophy of which the doctrine is + speculative, and so religious. Such an opposition proceeds from + failure to appreciate the difference indicated and the value of + spiritual form in general, and particularly of the logical form; + or, to be more precise, still from failure to note the distinction + of the content—which may be in both the same—from these forms. It + is on the ground of form that philosophy has been reproached and + accused by the religious party; just as conversely its speculative + content has brought the same charges upon it from a self-styled + philosophy—and from a pithless orthodoxy. It had too little of God + in it for the former; too much for the latter.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The charge of + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Atheism</span></em>, which used often to be + brought against philosophy (that it has <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">too + little</span></em> of God), has grown rare: the more wide-spread + grows the charge of Pantheism, that it has <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">too + much</span></em> of him:—so much so, that it is treated not so much + as an imputation, but as a proved fact, or a sheer fact which needs + no proof. Piety, in particular, which with its pious airs of + superiority fancies itself free to dispense with proof, goes hand + in hand with empty rationalism—(which means to be so much opposed + to it, though both repose really on the same habit of mind)—in the + wanton assertion, almost as if it merely mentioned a notorious + fact, that <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page184">[pg + 184]</span><a name="Pg184" id="Pg184" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Philosophy is the All-one doctrine, or Pantheism. It must be said + that it was more to the credit of piety and theology when they + accused a philosophical system (e.g. Spinozism) of Atheism than of + Pantheism, though the former imputation at the first glance looks + more cruel and insidious (cf. § 71 note). The imputation of Atheism + presupposes a definite idea of a full and real God, and arises + because the popular idea does not detect in the philosophical + notion the peculiar form to which it is attached. Philosophy indeed + can recognise its own forms in the categories of religious + consciousness, and even its own teaching in the doctrine of + religion—which therefore it does not disparage. But the converse is + not true: the religious consciousness does not apply the criticism + of thought to itself, does not comprehend itself, and is therefore, + as it stands, exclusive. To impute Pantheism instead of Atheism to + Philosophy is part of the modern habit of mind—of the new piety and + new theology. For them philosophy has too much of God:—so much so, + that, if we believe them, it asserts that God is everything and + everything is God. This new theology, which makes religion only a + subjective feeling and denies the knowledge of the divine nature, + thus retains nothing more than a God in general without objective + characteristics. Without interest of its own for the concrete, + fulfilled notion of God, it treats it only as an interest which + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">others</span></em> once had, and hence treats + what belongs to the doctrine of God's concrete nature as something + merely historical. The indeterminate God is to be found in all + religions; every kind of piety (§ 72)—that of the Hindoo to asses, + cows,—or to dalai-lamas,—that of the Egyptians to the ox—is always + adoration of an object which, with all its absurdities, also + contains the generic abstract, God in General. If this theory needs + no more than such a God, so as to <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page185">[pg 185]</span><a name="Pg185" id="Pg185" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> find God in everything called religion, it + must at least find such a God recognised even in philosophy, and + can no longer accuse it of Atheism. The mitigation of the reproach + of Atheism into that of Pantheism has its ground therefore in the + superficial idea to which this mildness has attenuated and emptied + God. As that popular idea clings to its abstract universality, from + which all definite quality is excluded, all such definiteness is + only the non-divine, the secularity of things, thus left standing + in fixed undisturbed substantiality. On such a presupposition, even + after philosophy has maintained God's absolute universality, and + the consequent untruth of the being of external things, the hearer + clings as he did before to his belief that secular things still + keep their being, and form all that is definite in the divine + universality. He thus changes that universality into what he calls + the pantheistic:—<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Everything is</span></em>—(empirical things, + without distinction, whether higher or lower in the scale, + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">are</span></em>)—all possess substantiality; + and so—thus he understands philosophy—each and every secular thing + is God. It is only his own stupidity, and the falsifications due to + such misconception, which generate the imagination and the + allegation of such pantheism.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if those who + give out that a certain philosophy is Pantheism, are unable and + unwilling to see this—for it is just to see the notion that they + refuse—they should before everything have verified the alleged fact + that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">any + one philosopher, or any one man</span></em>, had really ascribed + substantial or objective and inherent reality to <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">all</span></em> + things and regarded them as God:—that such an idea had ever come + into the hand of any body but themselves. This allegation I will + further elucidate in this exoteric discussion: and the only way to + do so is to set down the evidence. If we want to take so-called + Pantheism <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page186">[pg + 186]</span><a name="Pg186" id="Pg186" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + in its most poetical, most sublime, or if you will, its grossest + shape, we must, as is well known, consult the oriental poets: and + the most copious delineations of it are found in Hindoo literature. + Amongst the abundant resources open to our disposal on this topic, + I select—as the most authentic statement accessible—the + Bhagavat-Gita, and amongst its effusions, prolix and reiterative + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ad nauseam</span></span>, some of the most + telling passages. In the 10th Lesson (in Schlegel, p. 162) Krishna + says of himself<a id="noteref_173" name="noteref_173" href= + "#note_173"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">173</span></span></a>:—<span class="tei tei-q">“I + am the self, seated in the hearts of all beings. I am the beginning + and the middle and the end also of all beings ... I am the beaming + sun amongst the shining ones, and the moon among the lunar + mansions.... Amongst the Vedas I am the Sâma-Veda: I am mind + amongst the senses: I am consciousness in living beings. And I am + Sankara (Siva) among the Rudras, ... Meru among the high-topped + mountains, ... the Himalaya among the firmly-fixed (mountains).... + Among beasts I am the lord of beasts.... Among letters I am the + letter A.... I am the spring among the seasons.... I am also that + which is the seed of all things: there is nothing moveable or + immoveable which can exist without me.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even in these + totally sensuous delineations, Krishna (and we must not suppose + there is, besides Krishna, still God, or a God besides; as he said + before he was Siva, or Indra, so it is afterwards said that Brahma + too is in him) makes himself out to be—not everything, but only—the + most excellent of everything. Everywhere there is a distinction + drawn between external, unessential existences, and one essential + amongst them, which he is. Even when, at the beginning <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page187">[pg 187]</span><a name="Pg187" id="Pg187" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of the passage, he is said to be the + beginning, middle, and end of living things, this totality is + distinguished from the living things themselves as single + existences. Even such a picture which extends deity far and wide in + its existence cannot be called pantheism: we must rather say that + in the infinitely multiple empirical world, everything is reduced + to a limited number of essential existences, to a polytheism. But + even what has been quoted shows that these very substantialities of + the externally-existent do not retain the independence entitling + them to be named Gods; even Siva, Indra, &c. melt into the one + Krishna.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This reduction + is more expressly made in the following scene (7th Lesson, p. 7 + sqq.). Krishna says: <span class="tei tei-q">“I am the producer and + the destroyer of the whole universe. There is nothing else higher + than myself; all this is woven upon me, like numbers of pearls upon + a thread. I am the taste in water;... I am the light of the sun and + the moon; I am <span class="tei tei-q">‘Om’</span> in all the + Vedas.... I am life in all beings.... I am the discernment of the + discerning ones.... I am also the strength of the strong.”</span> + Then he adds: <span class="tei tei-q">“The whole universe deluded + by these three states of mind developed from the qualities [sc. + goodness, passion, darkness] does not know me who am beyond them + and inexhaustible: for this delusion of mine,”</span> [even the + Maya is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">his</span></em>, nothing independent], + <span class="tei tei-q">“developed from the qualities is divine and + difficult to transcend. Those cross beyond this delusion who resort + to me alone.”</span> Then the picture gathers itself up in a simple + expression: <span class="tei tei-q">“At the end of many lives, the + man possessed of knowledge approaches me, (believing) that Vasudeva + is everything. Such a high-souled mind is very hard to find. Those + who are deprived of knowledge by various desires approach other + divinities... Whichever form of deity one worships with + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page188">[pg 188]</span><a name= + "Pg188" id="Pg188" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> faith, from it he + obtains the beneficial things he desires really given by me. But + the fruit thus obtained by those of little judgment is + perishable.... The undiscerning ones, not knowing my transcendent + and inexhaustible essence, than which there is nothing higher, + think me who am unperceived to have become perceptible.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This + <span class="tei tei-q">“All,”</span> which Krishna calls himself, + is not, any more than the Eleatic One, and the Spinozan Substance, + the Every-thing. This every-thing, rather, the infinitely-manifold + sensuous manifold of the finite is in all these pictures, but + defined as the <span class="tei tei-q">“accidental,”</span> without + essential being of its very own, but having its truth in the + substance, the One which, as different from that accidental, is + alone the divine and God. Hindooism however has the higher + conception of Brahma, the pure unity of thought in itself, where + the empirical everything of the world, as also those proximate + substantialities, called Gods, vanish. On that account Colebrooke + and many others have described the Hindoo religion as at bottom a + Monotheism. That this description is not incorrect is clear from + these short citations. But so little concrete is this divine + unity—spiritual as its idea of God is—so powerless its grip, so to + speak—that Hindooism, with a monstrous inconsistency, is also the + maddest of polytheisms. But the idolatry of the wretched Hindoo, + when he adores the ape, or other creature, is still a long way from + that wretched fancy of a Pantheism, to which everything is God, and + God everything. Hindoo monotheism moreover is itself an example how + little comes of mere monotheism, if the Idea of God is not deeply + determinate in itself. For that unity, if it be intrinsically + abstract and therefore empty, tends of itself to let whatever is + concrete, outside it—be it as a lot of Gods or as secular, + empirical individuals—keep its independence. That pantheism + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page189">[pg 189]</span><a name= + "Pg189" id="Pg189" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> indeed—on the + shallow conception of it—might with a show of logic as well be + called a monotheism: for if God, as it says, is identical with the + world, then as there is only one world there would be in that + pantheism only one God. Perhaps the empty numerical unity must be + predicated of the world: but such abstract predication of it has no + further special interest; on the contrary, a mere numerical unity + just means that its <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">content</span></em> is an infinite multeity + and variety of finitudes. But it is that delusion with the empty + unity, which alone makes possible and induces the wrong idea of + pantheism. It is only the picture—floating in the indefinite + blue—of the world as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">one thing</span></em>, <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the + all</span></em>, that could ever be considered capable of combining + with God: only on that assumption could philosophy be supposed to + teach that God is the world: for if the world were taken as it is, + as everything, as the endless lot of empirical existence, then it + would hardly have been even held possible to suppose a pantheism + which asserted of such stuff that it is God.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But to go back + again to the question of fact. If we want to see the consciousness + of the One—not as with the Hindoos split between the featureless + unity of abstract thought, on one hand, and on the other, the + long-winded weary story of its particular detail, but—in its finest + purity and sublimity, we must consult the Mohammedans. If e.g. in + the excellent Jelaleddin-Rumi in particular, we find the unity of + the soul with the One set forth, and that unity described as love, + this spiritual unity is an exaltation above the finite and vulgar, + a transfiguration of the natural and the spiritual, in which the + externalism and transitoriness of immediate nature, and of + empirical secular spirit, is discarded and absorbed<a id= + "noteref_174" name="noteref_174" href="#note_174"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">174</span></span></a>.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page190">[pg 190]</span><a name="Pg190" id="Pg190" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I refrain from + accumulating further examples of the religious and poetic + conceptions which it is customary to call pantheistic. Of the + philosophies to which that name is given, the Eleatic, or + Spinozist, it has been <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page191">[pg + 191]</span><a name="Pg191" id="Pg191" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + remarked earlier (§ 50, note) that so far are they from identifying + God with the world and making him finite, that in these systems + this <span class="tei tei-q">“everything”</span> has no truth, and + that we should rather call them monotheistic, or, in relation to + the popular idea of the world, acosmical. <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page192">[pg 192]</span><a name="Pg192" id="Pg192" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> They are most accurately called systems which + apprehend the Absolute only as substance. Of the oriental, + especially the Mohammedan, modes of envisaging God, we may rather + say that they represent the Absolute as the utterly universal genus + which dwells in the species or existences, but dwells so potently + that these existences have no actual reality. The fault of all + these modes of thought and systems is that they stop short of + defining substance as subject and as mind.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These systems + and modes of pictorial conception originate from the one need + common to all philosophies and all religions of getting an idea of + God, and, secondly, of the relationship of God and the world. (In + philosophy it is specially made out that the determination of God's + nature determines his relations with the world.) The <span class= + "tei tei-q">“reflective”</span> understanding begins by rejecting + all systems and modes of conception, which, whether they spring + from heart, imagination or speculation, express the interconnexion + of God and the world: and in order to have God pure in faith or + consciousness, he is as essence parted from appearance, as infinite + from the finite. But, after this partition, the conviction arises + also that the appearance has a relation to the essence, the finite + to the infinite, and so on: and thus arises the question of + reflection as to the nature of this relation. It is in the + reflective form that the whole difficulty of the affair lies, and + that causes this relation to be called incomprehensible by the + agnostic. The close of philosophy is not the place, even in a + general exoteric discussion, to waste a word on what a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“notion”</span> means. But as the view taken of this + relation is closely connected with the view taken of philosophy + generally and with all imputations against it, we may still add the + remark that though philosophy certainly has to do with unity in + general, it is not however <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page193">[pg 193]</span><a name="Pg193" id="Pg193" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> with abstract unity, mere identity, and the + empty absolute, but with concrete unity (the notion), and that in + its whole course it has to do with nothing else;—that each step in + its advance is a peculiar term or phase of this concrete unity, and + that the deepest and last expression of unity is the unity of + absolute mind itself. Would-be judges and critics of philosophy + might be recommended to familiarise themselves with these phases of + unity and to take the trouble to get acquainted with them, at least + to know so much that of these terms there are a great many, and + that amongst them there is great variety. But they show so little + acquaintance with them—and still less take trouble about it—that, + when they hear of unity—and relation <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ipso facto</span></span> implies unity—they + rather stick fast at quite abstract indeterminate unity, and lose + sight of the chief point of interest—the special mode in which the + unity is qualified. Hence all they can say about philosophy is that + dry identity is its principle and result, and that it is the system + of identity. Sticking fast to the undigested thought of identity, + they have laid hands on, not the concrete unity, the notion and + content of philosophy, but rather its reverse. In the philosophical + field they proceed, as in the physical field the physicist; who + also is well aware that he has before him a variety of sensuous + properties and matters—or usually matters alone, (for the + properties get transformed into matters also for the physicist)—and + that these matters (elements) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">also</span></em> stand in <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">relation</span></em> to one another. But the + question is, Of what kind is this relation? Every peculiarity and + the whole difference of natural things, inorganic and living, + depend solely on the different modes of this unity. But instead of + ascertaining these different modes, the ordinary physicist (chemist + included) takes up only one, the most external and the worst, viz. + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page194">[pg 194]</span><a name= + "Pg194" id="Pg194" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">composition</span></em>, applies only it in + the whole range of natural structures, which he thus renders for + ever inexplicable.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The aforesaid + shallow pantheism is an equally obvious inference from this shallow + identity. All that those who employ this invention of their own to + accuse philosophy gather from the study of God's <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">relation</span></em> to the world is that the + one, but only the one factor of this category of relation—and that + the factor of indeterminateness—is identity. Thereupon they stick + fast in this half-perception, and assert—falsely as a fact—that + philosophy teaches the identity of God and the world. And as in + their judgment either of the two,—the world as much as God—has the + same solid substantiality as the other, they infer that in the + philosophic Idea God is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">composed</span></em> of God and the world. + Such then is the idea they form of pantheism, and which they + ascribe to philosophy. Unaccustomed in their own thinking and + apprehending of thoughts to go beyond such categories, they import + them into philosophy, where they are utterly unknown; they thus + infect it with the disease against which they subsequently raise an + outcry. If any difficulty emerge in comprehending God's relation to + the world, they at once and very easily escape it by admitting that + this relation contains for them an inexplicable contradiction; and + that hence, they must stop at the vague conception of such + relation, perhaps under the more familiar names of, e.g. + omnipresence, providence, &c. Faith in their use of the term + means no more than a refusal to define the conception, or to enter + on a closer discussion of the problem. That men and classes of + untrained intellect are satisfied with such indefiniteness, is what + one expects; but when a trained intellect and an interest for + reflective study is satisfied, in matters admitted to be of + superior, if not even of supreme interest, with indefinite ideas, + it is hard to decide whether the thinker is really in earnest + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page195">[pg 195]</span><a name= + "Pg195" id="Pg195" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> with the subject. + But if those who cling to this crude <span class= + "tei tei-q">“rationalism”</span> were in earnest, e.g. with God's + omnipresence, so far as to realise their faith thereon in a + definite mental idea, in what difficulties would they be involved + by their belief in the true reality of the things of sense! They + would hardly like, as Epicurus does, to let God dwell in the + interspaces of things, i.e. in the pores of the physicists,—said + pores being the negative, something supposed to exist <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">beside</span></em> + the material reality. This very <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Beside”</span> would give their pantheism its + spatiality,—their everything, conceived as the mutual exclusion of + parts in space. But in ascribing to God, in his relation to the + world, an action on and in the space thus filled on the world and + in it, they would endlessly split up the divine actuality into + infinite materiality. They would really thus have the misconception + they call pantheism or all-one-doctrine, only as the necessary + sequel of their misconceptions of God and the world. But to put + that sort of thing, this stale gossip of oneness or identity, on + the shoulders of philosophy, shows such recklessness about justice + and truth that it can only be explained through the difficulty of + getting into the head thoughts and notions, i.e. not abstract + unity, but the many-shaped modes specified. If statements as to + facts are put forward, and the facts in question are thoughts and + notions, it is indispensable to get hold of their meaning. But even + the fulfilment of this requirement has been rendered superfluous, + now that it has long been a foregone conclusion that philosophy is + pantheism, a system of identity, an All-one doctrine, and that the + person therefore who might be unaware of this fact is treated + either as merely unaware of a matter of common notoriety, or as + prevaricating for a purpose. On account of this chorus of + assertions, then, I have believed myself obliged to speak at more + length and exoterically on the outward and <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page196">[pg 196]</span><a name="Pg196" id="Pg196" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> inward untruth of this alleged fact: for + exoteric discussion is the only method available in dealing with + the external apprehension of notions as mere facts,—by which + notions are perverted into their opposite. The esoteric study of + God and identity, as of cognitions and notions, is philosophy + itself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 574. This + notion of philosophy is the self-thinking Idea, the truth aware of + itself (§ 236),—the logical system, but with the signification that + it is universality approved and certified in concrete content as in + its actuality. In this way the science has gone back to its + beginning: its result is the logical system but as a spiritual + principle: out of the presupposing judgment, in which the notion + was only implicit and the beginning an immediate,—and thus out of + the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">appearance</span></em> which it had there—it + has risen into its pure principle and thus also into its proper + medium.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_575" id="Section_575" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § 575. + It is this appearing which originally gives the motive of the + further development. The first appearance is formed by the + syllogism, which is based on the Logical system as starting-point, + with Nature for the middle term which couples the Mind with it. The + Logical principle turns to Nature and Nature to Mind. Nature, + standing between the Mind and its essence, sunders itself, not + indeed to extremes of finite abstraction, nor itself to something + away from them and independent,—which, as other than they, only + serves as a link between them: for the syllogism is <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">in the + Idea</span></em> and Nature is essentially defined as a + transition-point and negative factor, and as implicitly the Idea. + Still the mediation of the notion has the external form of + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">transition</span></em>, and the science of + Nature presents itself as the course of necessity, so that it is + only in the one extreme that the liberty of the notion is explicit + as a self-amalgamation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><a name= + "Section_576" id="Section_576" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> § 576. + In the second syllogism this appearance is so <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page197">[pg 197]</span><a name="Pg197" id="Pg197" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> far superseded, that that syllogism is + the standpoint of the Mind itself, which—as the mediating agent in + the process—presupposes Nature and couples it with the Logical + principle. It is the syllogism where Mind reflects on itself in the + Idea: philosophy appears as a subjective cognition, of which + liberty is the aim, and which is itself the way to produce it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">§ 577. The third + syllogism is the Idea of philosophy, which has self-knowing reason, + the absolutely-universal, for its middle term: a middle, which + divides itself into Mind and Nature, making the former its + presupposition, as process of the Idea's subjective activity, and + the latter its universal extreme, as process of the objectively and + implicitly existing Idea. The self-judging of the Idea into its two + appearances (§§ <a href="#Section_575" class="tei tei-ref">575</a>, + <a href="#Section_576" class="tei tei-ref">576</a>) characterises + both as its (the self-knowing reason's) manifestations: and in it + there is a unification of the two aspects:—it is the nature of the + fact, the notion, which causes the movement and development, yet + this same movement is equally the action of cognition. The eternal + Idea, in full fruition of its essence, eternally sets itself to + work, engenders and enjoys itself as absolute Mind.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Ἡ δὲ νόησις ἡ καθ᾽ αὑτὴν τοῦ καθ᾽ αὑτὸ + ἀρίστου, καὶ ἡ μάλιστα τοῦ μάλιστα. Αὑτὸν δὲ νοεῖ ὁ νοῦς κατὰ + μετάληψιν τοῦ νοητοῦ νοητὸς γὰρ γίγνεται θιγγάνων καὶ νοῶν, ὥστε + ταὐτὸν νοῦς καὶ νοητόν. Τὸ γὰρ δεκτικὸν τοῦ νοητοῦ καὶ τῆς οὐσίας + νοῦς. Ἐνεργεῖ δὲ ἔχων. Ὥστ᾽ ἐκεῖνο μᾶλλον τούτου ὂ δοκεῖ ὁ νοῦς + θεῖον ἔχειν, καὶ ἡ θεωρία τὸ ἥδιστον καὶ ἄριστον. Εἰ οὖν οὕτως εὖ + ἔχει, ὡς ἡμεῖς ποτέ, ὁ θεὸς ἀεί, θαυμαστόν; εἰ δὲ μᾶλλον, ἔτι + θαυμασιώτερον. Ἔχει δὲ ὡδί. Καὶ ζωὴ δέ γε ὑπάρχει; ἡ γὰρ νοῦ + ἐνέργεια ζωή, ἐκεῖνος δὲ ἡ ἐνέργεια; ἐνέργεια δὲ ἡ καθ᾽ αὑτὴν + ἐκείνου ζωὴ ἀρίστη καὶ ἀΐδιος. Φαμὲν δὲ τὸν θεὸν εἶναι ζῷον ἀΐδιον + ἄριστον, ὥστε ζωὴ αἰὼν συνεχὴς καὶ ἀΐδιος ὑπάρχει τῷ θεῷ; τοῦτο γὰρ + ὁ θεός. (</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">Arist.</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Met.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">XI. 7.)</span> + </div> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page199">[pg 199]</span><a name= + "Pg199" id="Pg199" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc43" id="toc43"></a> <a name="pdf44" id="pdf44"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Index.</span></h1> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Absolute (the), <a href="#Pgxlviii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xlviii</a>, <a href="#Pg007" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Abstraction, <a href="#Pg074" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">74</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Accent, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">81</a>, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">87</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ages of man, <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">17</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Alphabets, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">81</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Altruism, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">57</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Animal magnetism, clxi, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">5</a>, <a href="#Pg029" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a> seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Anthropology, <a href="#Pgxxv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xxv</a>, <a href="#Pglxxxviii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">lxxxviii</a>, <a href= + "#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a> + seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Appetite, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">53</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aristotle</span></span>, <a href="#Pgliii" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">liii</a>, <a href= + "#Pgcxxxiii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxxxiii</a>, <a href="#Pg004" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>, <a href="#Pg063" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>, <a href= + "#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Art, <a href="#Pgxxxix" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xxxix</a> seqq., <a href="#Pg169" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">169</a> seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Asceticism, <a href="#Pgcxv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxv</a>, <a href="#Pgcxliii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxliii</a>, <a href= + "#Pgclxxxvii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxxvii</a>, <a href="#Pg159" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Association of ideas, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">73</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Atheism, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">183</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Athens, <a href="#Pgcxxx" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxxx</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Attention, <a href="#Pgclxxiii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxiii</a>, <a href="#Pg069" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Automatism (psychological), <a href="#Pgclxv" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">clxv</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bacon</span></span> (Fr.), <a href="#Pgxxi" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xxi</a>, <a href= + "#Pglii" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">lii</a>, + <a href="#Pglix" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">lix</a>, <a href="#Pgclx" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">clx</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bain</span></span> (A.), <a href="#Pgcxxi" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxxi</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Beauty, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">169</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bhagavat-Gita, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">186</a> seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Biography, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">151</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Body and Soul (relations of), <a href="#Pglxxxii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">lxxxii</a>, <a href= + "#Pgcxvi" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxvi</a>, + <a href="#Pgclvi" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clvi</a>, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">13</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Boëthius</span></span>, <a href="#Pgl" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">l</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Böhme</span></span> (J.), <a href="#Pg095" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Braid</span></span> (J.), <a href="#Pgclxiv" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">clxiv</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bravery, <a href="#Pgcxcix" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxcix</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Budget, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">144</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Capitalism, <a href="#Pgcci" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cci</a> seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cardinal virtues, <a href="#Pgcxxxii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxxxii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Categories, <a href="#Pglx" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">lx</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Catholicism, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">157</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Children, <a href="#Pglxxxvii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">lxxxvii</a>, <a href="#Pgcii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Chinese language, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">81</a> seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Choice, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">98</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Christianity, <a href="#Pgxliv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xliv</a>, <a href="#Pgcxli" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxli</a>, <a href= + "#Pgclxxix" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxix</a>, <a href="#Pg007" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>, <a href="#Pg101" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>, <a href= + "#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Clairvoyance, <a href="#Pgclviii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clviii</a>, <a href="#Pgclxi" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">clxi</a>, <a href="#Pg033" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cognition, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">64</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Commercial morality, <a href="#Pgcci" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cci</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Comte</span></span> (C.), <a href="#Pgxcix" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xcix</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Condillac</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pglxxviii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">lxxviii</a>, <a href="#Pg061" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Conscience, <a href="#Pgxxx" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xxx</a>, <a href="#Pgcxxii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxxii</a>, <a href= + "#Pgclxxxvii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxxvii</a>, <a href="#Pg117" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>, <a href="#Pg156" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>, <a href= + "#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Consciousness, <a href="#Pgxxv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xxv</a>, <a href="#Pgxcix" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">xcix</a>, <a href="#Pg047" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a> seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constitution of the State, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">132</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Contract, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">108</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Corporation, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">130</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Crime, <a href="#Pgcxciii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxciii</a>, <a href="#Pg109" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Criticism, <a href="#Pgxvi" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xvi</a>, <a href="#Pgcxxxviii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxxxviii</a>, <a href= + "#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Custom, <a href="#Pgclxxxix" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxxix</a>, <a href="#Pg104" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dante</span></span>, <a href="#Pgcxxxiv" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxxxiv</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Deduction (Kantian and Fichtean), <a href="#Pgcx" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cx</a> seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Democracy, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">141</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Development, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">60</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Disease (mental), <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">27</a>, <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">37</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Duty, <a href="#Pgcxiv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxiv</a>, <a href="#Pgcxix" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxix</a>, <a href= + "#Pgcxxi" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxxi</a> + seqq., <a href="#Pgcxxxi" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxxxi</a>, <a href="#Pgcxxxix" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxxxix</a>, <a href= + "#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>, + <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">104</a>, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">116</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Economics, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">122</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Education, <a href="#Pgxcii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xcii</a>, <a href="#Pgcxxxvii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxxxvii</a>, <a href= + "#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ego (the), <a href="#Pglxiv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">lxiv</a> seqq., <a href="#Pg047" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a> seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Egoism, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">55</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Eleaticism, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">190</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + England, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">143</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Epicureanism, <a href="#Pgcxli" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxli</a>, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">195</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Epistemology, <a href="#Pgciii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">ciii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Equality (political and social), <a href="#Pgcxc" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxc</a>, <a href="#Pg133" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Equity, <a href="#Pgxxxi" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xxxi</a>. + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page200">[pg 200]</span><a name= + "Pg200" id="Pg200" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Estates, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">123</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ethics, <a href="#Pgxv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xv</a>, <a href="#Pgxix" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">xix</a>, <a href="#Pgxxx" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xxx</a> seqq., <a href= + "#Pgxcv" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xcv</a>, + <a href="#Pgcxiii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxiii</a> seqq., <a href="#Pgcxc" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxc</a> seqq., <a href= + "#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a> + seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Experience, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">51</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Experimental psychology, <a href="#Pglxxxi" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">lxxxi</a> seqq., <a href="#Pgc" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">c</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Expression (mental), <a href="#Pg023" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">23</a>, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">45</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Faculties of Mind, <a href="#Pglxxiii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">lxxiii</a> seqq., <a href="#Pgxcvii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xcvii</a>, <a href= + "#Pgcxxvi" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxxvi</a>, <a href="#Pg058" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href="#Pg065" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">65</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Faith, <a href="#Pgcvii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cvii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Faith-cure, <a href="#Pgclxi" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxi</a>, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">35</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Fame, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">153</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Family, <a href="#Pgxxxii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xxxii</a>, <a href="#Pgcxcii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxcii</a>, <a href= + "#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fechner</span></span> (G. T.), <a href= + "#Pgcli" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cli</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Feeling, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">22</a>, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">68</a>, <a href="#Pg092" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">92</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fichte</span></span> (J. G.), <a href= + "#Pgcvi" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cvi</a>, + <a href="#Pgcix" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cix</a> seqq., <a href="#Pgclxiv" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">clxiv</a>, <a href= + "#Pgclxix" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxix</a>, <a href="#Pg049" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Finance, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">144</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Finitude, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">8</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Fraud, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">110</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="Index-Freedom" id="Index-Freedom" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Freedom, <a href="#Pgcxxv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxxv</a> seqq., <a href="#Pgclxxv" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">clxxv</a>, <a href= + "#Pg006" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">6</a>, + <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">99</a>, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">113</a>, <a href="#Pg133" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a> seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fries</span></span>, <a href="#Pgclxxix" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">clxxix</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Genius (the), <a href="#Pgclvii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clvii</a>, <a href="#Pg028" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + German language, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">78</a>, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">88</a>: + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + politics, <a href="#Pgclxxvii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxvii</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + empire, <a href="#Pgclxxxi" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxxi</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + God, <a href="#Pgxxxiv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xxxiv</a>, <a href="#Pgxli" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xli</a>, <a href= + "#Pgcxxii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxxii</a>, <a href="#Pg020" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">20</a>, <a href="#Pg154" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>, <a href= + "#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">176</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Goethe</span></span>, <a href="#Pgcliv" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cliv</a>, <a href= + "#Pgclxix" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxix</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Goodness, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">115</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Government, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">137</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + forms of, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">141</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Greek ethics, <a href="#Pgcxxix" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxxix</a> seqq., <a href="#Pgcxciv" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxciv</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + religion, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">164</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Habit, <a href="#Pgclviii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clviii</a>, <a href="#Pg039" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Happiness, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">99</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Herbart</span></span>, <a href="#Pglxii" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">lxii</a> seqq., + <a href="#Pglxxxv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">lxxxv</a>, <a href="#Pgcxxvii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxxvii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hieroglyphics, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">80</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + History, <a href="#Pgxxxiv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xxxiv</a>, <a href="#Pgxlvii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xlvii</a>, <a href= + "#Pgxci" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xci</a>, + <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">147</a> seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hobbes</span></span>, <a href="#Pglxxvi" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">lxxvi</a>, <a href= + "#Pgclxxxii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxxii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Holiness, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">159</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Honour, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">124</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Humboldt</span></span> (W. v.), <a href= + "#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hume</span></span>, <a href="#Pglxxi" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">lxxi</a>, <a href="#Pgcxx" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxx</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hypnotism, <a href="#Pgclxiv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxiv</a> seqq., <a href="#Pg031" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">31</a> seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Idea (Platonic), <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">163</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Idealism, <a href="#Pgciv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">civ</a>; political, <a href="#Pgclxxxvi" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">clxxxvi</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ideality, <a href="#Pgclxviii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxviii</a>, <a href="#Pg025" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ideas, <a href="#Pglxix" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">lxix</a> seqq., <a href="#Pgci" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">ci</a> seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Imagination, <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">72</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Immaterialism, <a href="#Pgclii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clii</a>, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">12</a>, <a href="#Pg045" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Impulse, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">95</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Individualist ethics, <a href="#Pgcxx" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxx</a> seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Individuality in the State, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">139</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Industrialism, <a href="#Pgcc" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cc</a>, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">123</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Insanity, <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">37</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Intention, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">114</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + International Law, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">147</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Intuition, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">67</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Irony, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">179</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jelaleddin-Rumi</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Judgment, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">89</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Judicial system, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">127</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jung-Stilling</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pgclxii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Juries, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">128</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kant</span></span> (I.), <a href="#Pgxv" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xv</a>, <a href= + "#Pglxiv" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">lxiv</a>, + <a href="#Pglxxi" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">lxxi</a>, <a href="#Pgxcvi" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xcvi</a>, <a href= + "#Pgcvii" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cvii</a>, + <a href="#Pgcxxviii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxxviii</a>, <a href="#Pgclxxxviii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">clxxxviii</a>, <a href= + "#Pg020" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">20</a>, + <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">48</a>, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">51</a>, <a href="#Pg063" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>, <a href="#Pg154" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kieser</span></span>, <a href="#Pgclxiii" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">clxiii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Knowledge, <a href="#Pgcv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cv</a>, <a href="#Pgcxxxv" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">cxxxv</a>, <a href="#Pgcxli" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxli</a>, <a href="#Pg064" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Krishna, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">186</a> seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Labour, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">123</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Language, <a href="#Pgclxxiv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxiv</a>, <a href="#Pg079" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a> seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Laplace</span></span>, <a href="#Pgclxiv" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">clxiv</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="Index-Law" id="Index-Law" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Law, <a href="#Pgxxix" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xxix</a>, <a href="#Pgxcvi" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xcvi</a>, <a href="#Pgcxc" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxc</a>, <a href= + "#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>, + <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">125</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Legality, <a href="#Pgxxx" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xxx</a>, <a href="#Pgclxxxix" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">clxxxix</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Legislation, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">125</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Leibniz</span></span>, <a href="#Pglxxii" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">lxxii</a>, <a href= + "#Pglxxvii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">lxxvii</a>, <a href="#Pgcxlvi" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxlvi</a>, <a href= + "#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">14</a>, + <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">80</a>, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">82</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Liberty, see <a href="#Index-Freedom" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">Freedom</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Life, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">13</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Logic, <a href="#Pgxiv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xiv</a>, <a href="#Pgxvii" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">xvii</a>, <a href="#Pglxi" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">lxi</a>, <a href="#Pgxcv" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xcv</a>, <a href= + "#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lutheranism, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">157</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Macchiavelli</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pgclxxx" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxx</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Magic, <a href="#Pgclxi" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxi</a>, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">29</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Manifestation, <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">7</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Manners, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">104</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Marriage, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">121</a>, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">159</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Master and slave, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">56</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mathematics in psychology, <a href="#Pglxviii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">lxviii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Medium, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">34</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Memory, <a href="#Pgclxxiv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxiv</a>, <a href="#Pg070" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a>, <a href="#Pg084" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mesmer</span></span>, <a href="#Pgclxi" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">clxi</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Metaphysic, <a href="#Pglviii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">lviii</a> seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mill</span></span> (James), <a href= + "#Pglxxix" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">lxxix</a>. + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page201">[pg 201]</span><a name= + "Pg201" id="Pg201" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mind (= Spirit), <a href="#Pgxlix" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xlix</a> seqq., <a href="#Pg058" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href="#Pg196" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mnemonics, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">85</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Monarchy, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">139</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Monasticism, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">159</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Monotheism, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">188</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Morality, <a href="#Pgxxx" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xxx</a>, <a href="#Pgxxxviii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xxxviii</a>, <a href= + "#Pgcxxi" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxxi</a>, + <a href="#Pgclxxxviii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxxviii</a> seqq., <a href="#Pgcxcviii" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxcviii</a>, + <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">113</a> seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Münsterberg</span></span> (H.), <a href= + "#Pglxxxiii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">lxxxiii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Napoleon</span></span>, <a href="#Pg019" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nationality, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">142</a>, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">150</a>, <a href="#Pg154" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>, <a href="#Pgcxcv" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxcv</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Natural Philosophy, <a href="#Pgxv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xv</a>, <a href="#Pgxvii" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">xvii</a>, <a href="#Pgxxii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xxii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Natural rights, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">112</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nature, <a href="#Pgcxx" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxx</a>, <a href="#Pgcxxiv" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxxiv</a>, <a href= + "#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>, + <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">133</a>, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">196</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nemesis, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">174</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nietzsche</span></span> (F.), <a href= + "#Pgcxxviii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxxviii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nobility, <a href="#Pgcxcvii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxcvii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Observation, <a href="#Pglxxxix" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">lxxxix</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Orders (social), <a href="#Pgcxcvii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxcvii</a> seqq., <a href="#Pg124" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ought, <a href="#Pgclxxv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxv</a>, <a href="#Pg094" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>, <a href="#Pg116" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pain, <a href="#Pg006" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">6</a>, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">94</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pantheism, <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">184</a>, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">194</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Parliament, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">142</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Passion, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">95</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Peasantry, <a href="#Pgcci" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cci</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Peel</span></span> (Sir R.), <a href= + "#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Perception, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">67</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Perfection, <a href="#Pgcxxvii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxxvii</a>, <a href="#Pgcxxix" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxxix</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Person, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">107</a>, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">119</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Personality, <a href="#Pglxiv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">lxiv</a>, <a href="#Pgclxvii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">clxvii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Philosophy, <a href="#Pgxiv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xiv</a>, <a href="#Pgcxvii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxvii</a>, <a href= + "#Pgcxxxviii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxxxviii</a>, <a href="#Pg159" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a> seqq., <a href= + "#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179</a> + seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Phrenology, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">35</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Physiology, <a href="#Pglxxxi" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">lxxxi</a>, <a href="#Pgc" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">c</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pinel</span></span>, <a href="#Pg039" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Plato</span></span>, <a href="#Pgxcviii" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xcviii</a>, <a href= + "#Pgcxxxi" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxxxi</a>, <a href="#Pgcxxxv" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxxxv</a>, <a href= + "#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>, + <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">102</a>, <a href="#Pg162" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pleasure, <a href="#Pgcxxxvi" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxxxvi</a>, <a href="#Pg094" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Plotinus</span></span>, <a href="#Pgcxliv" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxliv</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Police, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">130</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Porphyry</span></span>, <a href="#Pgxx" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xx</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Positivity of laws, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">125</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Powers (political), <a href="#Pgccii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">ccii</a>, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">138</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Practice, <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">92</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Property, <a href="#Pgxxix" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xxix</a>, <a href="#Pgcxcii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxcii</a>, <a href= + "#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Protestantism, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">166</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Prussia, <a href="#Pgclxxviii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxviii</a>, <a href="#Pgclxxxiv" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">clxxxiv</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Psychiatry, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">33</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Psychology, <a href="#Pgxxii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xxii</a>, <a href="#Pgxxiv" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xxiv</a>, <a href="#Pglii" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">lii</a> seqq., + <a href="#Pglxiii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">lxiii</a>, <a href="#Pglxxxvi" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">lxxxvi</a>, <a href= + "#Pgxcv" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xcv</a>, + <a href="#Pgcxvii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxvii</a>, <a href="#Pg004" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>, <a href="#Pg058" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href= + "#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Psycho-physics, <a href="#Pgclvi" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clvi</a>, <a href="#Pg023" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">23</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Punishment, <a href="#Pgcxciii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxciii</a>, <a href="#Pgcciii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cciii</a>, <a href= + "#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Purpose, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">114</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Races, <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">16</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Rationalism, <a href="#Pgclxv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxv</a>, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">183</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Reason, <a href="#Pgcxv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxv</a>, <a href="#Pgcxliii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxliii</a>, <a href= + "#Pgclxxii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxii</a>, <a href="#Pg058" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Recollection, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">70</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Reinhold</span></span>, <a href="#Pg049" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Religion, <a href="#Pgxxxvii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xxxvii</a> seqq., <a href="#Pgcxcvi" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxcvi</a>, <a href= + "#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a> + seqq., <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">167</a> seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Representation, <a href="#Pgcxi" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxi</a>, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">70</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + political, <a href="#Pgclxxxiii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxxiii</a>, <a href="#Pg142" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">142</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Responsibility, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">114</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Revelation, <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">7</a>, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">175</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Right, <a href="#Pgxxix" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xxix</a>, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">104</a> (see <a href="#Index-Law" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Law</a>). + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ritter</span></span>, <a href="#Pgclxi" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">clxi</a>, clxiii. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Romances, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">151</a>: + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + romantic art, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">172</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Savages, <a href="#Pglxxxvii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">lxxxvii</a>, <a href="#Pgcii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schelling</span></span>, <a href="#Pgclxi" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">clxi</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schindler</span></span>, <a href="#Pgclxiii" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">clxiii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schopenhauer</span></span>, <a href="#Pgcvi" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cvi</a>, <a href= + "#Pgcxvi" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxvi</a>, + <a href="#Pgcli" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cli</a>, <a href="#Pgclxiv" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">clxiv</a>, <a href= + "#Pgclxix" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxix</a>, <a href="#Pgclxxxvii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">clxxxvii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Science, <a href="#Pgxviii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xviii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Scott</span></span> (Sir W.), <a href= + "#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Self-consciousness, <a href="#Pgclxxi" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxi</a>, <a href="#Pg053" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a> seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sensibility and sensation, <a href="#Pg020" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">20</a>, <a href="#Pg050" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sex, <a href="#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">18</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Siderism, <a href="#Pgclxiii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxiii</a>, <a href="#Pg015" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">15</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Signs (in language), <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">76</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Skill (acquired), <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">42</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Slavery, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">56</a>, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">101</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sleep, <a href="#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">18</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Society, <a href="#Pgxxxii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xxxii</a>, <a href="#Pg056" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sociology, <a href="#Pgxxiii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xxiii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Somnambulism, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">30</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Soul, <a href="#Pgliv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">liv</a>, <a href="#Pglxix" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">lxix</a>, <a href="#Pglxxv" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">lxxv</a>, <a href="#Pg026" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Spencer</span></span> (H.), <a href="#Pgxxi" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">xxi</a> seqq., + <a href="#Pgcxi" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxi</a>, <a href="#Pgcxxiii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxxiii</a>, <a href= + "#Pgcxliv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxliv</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Spinoza</span></span>, <a href="#Pglxxvi" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">lxxvi</a>, <a href= + "#Pgci" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">ci</a>, + <a href="#Pgcxix" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxix</a>, <a href="#Pgcl" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">cl</a>, <a href="#Pg014" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">14</a>, <a href="#Pg049" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a>, <a href= + "#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">188</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Spiritualism, <a href="#Pgclxii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + State, <a href="#Pgxxxii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xxxii</a> seqq., <a href="#Pgclxxvi" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">clxxvi</a>, <a href= + "#Pgclxxxiii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxxiii</a>, <a href="#Pg131" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a> seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Stoicism, <a href="#Pgcxix" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxix</a>, <a href="#Pgcxxiv" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxxiv</a>, <a href= + "#Pgcxi" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxi</a>, + <a href="#Pgcxliii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxliii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Suggestion, <a href="#Pgclxv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxv</a> seqq., <a href="#Pg033" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>. + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page202">[pg 202]</span><a name= + "Pg202" id="Pg202" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Superstition, <a href="#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">158</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Syllogism, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">90</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Symbol, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">77</a>, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">171</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sympathy, <a href="#Pgclv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clv</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Telepathy, <a href="#Pgclxi" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxi</a>, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">34</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Tellurism, <a href="#Pgclxiii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxiii</a>, <a href="#Pg015" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">15</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theology, <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">155</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Thinking, <a href="#Pgclxxiv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxiv</a>, <a href="#Pg089" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tholuck</span></span>, <a href="#Pg191" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Trinity, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">177</a> seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Truth, <a href="#Pgcv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cv</a>, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">182</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Unconscious (the), <a href="#Pgcxlvi" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxlvi</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Understanding, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">52</a>, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">89</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Universalising, <a href="#Pgcxxviii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxxviii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Utilitarianism, <a href="#Pgcxxxvi" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxxxvi</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Value, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">109</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Virtues, <a href="#Pgcxxxi" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxxxi</a>, <a href="#Pgcxcviii" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxcviii</a>, <a href= + "#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + War, <a href="#Pgcxcix" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">cxcix</a>, <a href="#Pg146" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Wartburg, <a href="#Pgclxxix" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxix</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Welfare, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">114</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Wickedness, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">9</a>, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">94</a>, <a href="#Pg117" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Will, <a href="#Pgxxviii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">xxviii</a>, <a href="#Pgcxxv" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">cxxv</a>, <a href= + "#Pgclxxv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxv</a>, <a href="#Pg062" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>, <a href="#Pg090" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wolff</span></span>, <a href="#Pglxxiii" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">lxxiii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Words, <a href="#Pgclxxiv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxiv</a>, <a href="#Pg079" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wordsworth</span></span>, <a href="#Pgli" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">li</a>, <a href= + "#Pgclxviii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxviii</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Written language, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">81</a> seqq. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Wrong, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">109</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Würtemberg, <a href="#Pgclxxxv" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">clxxxv</a>. + </div> + </div> + </div> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-back" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <div id="footnotes" class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc45" id="toc45"></a> <a name="pdf46" id="pdf46"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Footnotes</span></h1> + + <dl class="tei tei-list-footnotes"> + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1" name="note_1" href= + "#noteref_1">1.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plato, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rep.</span></span> + 527.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_2" name="note_2" href= + "#noteref_2">2.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The prospectus of the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">System of Synthetic + Philosophy</span></span> is dated 1860. Darwin's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Origin of + Species</span></span> is 1859. But such ideas, both in Mr. Spencer + and others, are earlier than Darwin's book.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_3" name="note_3" href= + "#noteref_3">3.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hegel's <span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Verhältniss</span></span>, the supreme + category of what is called actuality: where object is necessitated + by outside object.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_4" name="note_4" href= + "#noteref_4">4.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf. Herbart, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Werke</span></span> + (ed. Kehrbach), iv. 372. This consciousness proper is what Leibniz + called <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "fr"><span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-style: italic">« </span><span style= + "font-style: italic">Apperception,</span><span style= + "font-style: italic"> »</span></span> <span style= + "font-style: italic">la connaissance réflexive de l'état intérieur + (Nouveaux Essais)</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_5" name="note_5" href= + "#noteref_5">5.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Herbart, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Werke</span></span>, + vi. 55 (ed. Kehrbach).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_6" name="note_6" href= + "#noteref_6">6.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">p. <a href="#Pg059" class= + "tei tei-ref">59</a> (§ 440).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_7" name="note_7" href= + "#noteref_7">7.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">p. <a href="#Pg063" class= + "tei tei-ref">63</a> (§ 440).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_8" name="note_8" href= + "#noteref_8">8.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">These remarks refer to four out of the + five Herbartian ethical ideas. See also Leibniz, who (in 1693, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Notionibus juris et justitiae</span></span>) had given the + following definitions: <span class="tei tei-q">“Caritas est + benevolentia universalis. Justitia est caritas sapientis. Sapientia + est scientia felicitatis.”</span> The jus naturae has three grades: + the lowest, jus strictum; the second, aequitas (or caritas, in the + narrower sense); and the highest, pietas, which is honeste, i.e. + pie vivere.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_9" name="note_9" href= + "#noteref_9">9.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">To which the Greek πόλις, the Latin + civitas or respublica, were only approximations. Hegel <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">is not writing a + history</span></em>. If he were, it would be necessary for him to + point out how far the individual instance, e.g. Rome, or Prussia, + corresponded to its Idea.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_10" name="note_10" href= + "#noteref_10">10.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Shakespeare's phrase, as in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Othello</span></span>, iii. 2; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lover's + Complaint</span></span>, v. 24.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_11" name="note_11" href= + "#noteref_11">11.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Iliad</span></span>, xii. 243.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_12" name="note_12" href= + "#noteref_12">12.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Hegel's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Logic</span></span>, + pp. 257 seq.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_13" name="note_13" href= + "#noteref_13">13.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p. <a href="#Pg153" class= + "tei tei-ref">153</a> (§ 550).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_14" name="note_14" href= + "#noteref_14">14.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Prolegomena to the + Study of Hegel</span></span>, chaps. xviii, xxvi.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_15" name="note_15" href= + "#noteref_15">15.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As stated in p. 167 (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Encycl.</span></span> + § 554). Cf. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Phenom. d. Geistes</span></span>, cap. vii, + which includes the Religion of Art, and the same point of view is + explicit in the first edition of the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Encyclopaedia</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_16" name="note_16" href= + "#noteref_16">16.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Philosophie der Religion</span></span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Werke</span></span>, xi. 5).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_17" name="note_17" href= + "#noteref_17">17.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hegel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Phenomenologie des + Geistes</span></span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Werke</span></span>, ii. 545). The + meeting-ground of the Greek spirit, as it passed through Rome, with + Christianity.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_18" name="note_18" href= + "#noteref_18">18.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ib., p. 584.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_19" name="note_19" href= + "#noteref_19">19.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Phenomenologie des Geistes</span></span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Werke</span></span>, ii. 572). Thus Hegelian + idealism claims to be the philosophical counterpart of the central + dogma of Christianity.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_20" name="note_20" href= + "#noteref_20">20.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">From the old Provençal <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lay of + Boëthius</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_21" name="note_21" href= + "#noteref_21">21.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is the doctrine of the <span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">intellectus agens</span></span>, or + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">in actu</span></span>; the <span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">actus purus</span></span> of the + Schoolmen.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_22" name="note_22" href= + "#noteref_22">22.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Einleitung in die Philosophie</span></span>, + §§ 1, 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_23" name="note_23" href= + "#noteref_23">23.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Psychologie als Wissenschaft</span></span>, + Vorrede.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_24" name="note_24" href= + "#noteref_24">24.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Einleitung in die Philosophie</span></span>, + §§ 11, 12.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_25" name="note_25" href= + "#noteref_25">25.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Einleitung in die Philosophie</span></span>, § + 18: cf. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Werke</span></span>, ed. Kehrbach, v. + 108.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_26" name="note_26" href= + "#noteref_26">26.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf. Plato's remarks on the problem in + the word Self-control. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Republ.</span></span> 430-1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_27" name="note_27" href= + "#noteref_27">27.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lehrbuch der Psychologie</span></span>, §§ + 202, 203.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_28" name="note_28" href= + "#noteref_28">28.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Allgemeine Metaphysik</span></span>, + Vorrede.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_29" name="note_29" href= + "#noteref_29">29.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hauptpunkte der Metaphysik</span></span> + (1806), § 13.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_30" name="note_30" href= + "#noteref_30">30.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Werke</span></span>, ed. Kehrbach + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ueber + die Möglichkeit</span></span>, &c), v. 96.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_31" name="note_31" href= + "#noteref_31">31.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span>, p. 100.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_32" name="note_32" href= + "#noteref_32">32.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">One might almost fancy Herbart was + translating into a general philosophic thesis the words in which + Goethe has described how he overcame a real trouble by transmuting + it into an ideal shape, e.g. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wahrheit und Dichtung</span></span>, cap. + xii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_33" name="note_33" href= + "#noteref_33">33.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Herbart's language is almost identical + with Hegel's: <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Encycl.</span></span> § 389 (p. 12). Cf. + Spencer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Psychology</span></span>, i. 192. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Feelings are in all cases the materials out of which + the superior tracts of consciousness and intellect are + evolved.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_34" name="note_34" href= + "#noteref_34">34.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Prolegomena to the Study of + Hegel</span></span>, ch. xvii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_35" name="note_35" href= + "#noteref_35">35.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Psychologia Empirica</span></span>, § 29.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_36" name="note_36" href= + "#noteref_36">36.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As is also the case with Herbart's + metaphysical reality of the Soul.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_37" name="note_37" href= + "#noteref_37">37.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Human Nature</span></span>, vii. 2. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Pleasure, Love, and appetite, which is + also called desire, are divers names for divers considerations of + the same thing....”</span> Deliberation is (ch. xii. 1) the + <span class="tei tei-q">“alternate succession of appetite and + fears.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_38" name="note_38" href= + "#noteref_38">38.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Eth.</span></span> ii. 48 Schol.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_39" name="note_39" href= + "#noteref_39">39.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Eth.</span></span> ii. 43 Schol.: cf. 49 + Schol.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_40" name="note_40" href= + "#noteref_40">40.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This wide scope of thinking + (<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">cogitatio</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">penser</span></span>) is at least as old as + the Cartesian school: and should be kept in view, as against a + tendency to narrow its range to the mere intellect.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_41" name="note_41" href= + "#noteref_41">41.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">e.g. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Analysis of the Human + Mind</span></span>, ch. xxiv. <span class="tei tei-q">“Attention is + but another name for the interesting character of the idea;”</span> + ch. xix. <span class="tei tei-q">“Desire and the idea of a + pleasurable sensation are convertible terms.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_42" name="note_42" href= + "#noteref_42">42.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As Mr. Spencer says (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Psychology</span></span>, i. 141), + <span class="tei tei-q">“Objective psychology can have no existence + as such without borrowing its data from subjective + psychology.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_43" name="note_43" href= + "#noteref_43">43.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The same failure to note that + experiment is valuable only where general points of view are + defined, is a common fault in biology.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_44" name="note_44" href= + "#noteref_44">44.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Münsterberg, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aufgaben und Methoden + der Psychologie</span></span>, p. 144.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_45" name="note_45" href= + "#noteref_45">45.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lehrbuch der Psychologie</span></span>, § 54 + (2nd ed.), or § 11 (1st ed.).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_46" name="note_46" href= + "#noteref_46">46.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p. <a href="#Pg011" class= + "tei tei-ref">11</a> (§ 387).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_47" name="note_47" href= + "#noteref_47">47.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf. Nietzsche, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Also sprach + Zarathustra</span></span>, i. 43. <span class="tei tei-q">“There is + more reason in thy body than in thy best wisdom.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_48" name="note_48" href= + "#noteref_48">48.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This language is very characteristic + of the physicists who dabble in psychology and imagine they are + treading in the steps of Kant, if not even verifying what they call + his guesswork: cf. Ziehen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Physiol. Psychologie</span></span>, 2nd ed. p. + 212. <span class="tei tei-q">“In every case there is given us only + the psychical series of sensations and their memory-images, and it + is only a universal hypothesis if we assume beside this psychical + series a material series standing in causal relation to it.... The + material series is not given equally originally with the + psychical.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_49" name="note_49" href= + "#noteref_49">49.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is the same radical feature of + consciousness which is thus noted by Mr. Spencer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Psychology</span></span>, i. 475. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Perception and sensation are ever tending to exclude + each other but never succeed.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Cognition and feeling are antithetical and + inseparable.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Consciousness + continues only in virtue of this conflict.”</span> Cf. Plato's + resolution in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Philebus</span></span> of the contest between + intelligence and feeling (pleasure).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_50" name="note_50" href= + "#noteref_50">50.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is the quasi-Aristotelian ἀπαγωγή, + defined as the step from one proposition to another, the knowledge + of which will set the first proposition in a full light.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_51" name="note_51" href= + "#noteref_51">51.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Grundlage des Naturrechts</span></span>, § + 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_52" name="note_52" href= + "#noteref_52">52.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">System der Sittenlehre</span></span>, § 8, + iv.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_53" name="note_53" href= + "#noteref_53">53.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Even though religion (according to + Kant) conceive them as divine commands.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_54" name="note_54" href= + "#noteref_54">54.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf. Hegel's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Werke</span></span>, + vii. 2, p. 236 (Lecture-note on § 410). <span class="tei tei-q">“We + must treat as utterly empty the fancy of those who suppose that + properly man should have no organic body,”</span> &c.; and see + p. <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref">159</a> of the present + work.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_55" name="note_55" href= + "#noteref_55">55.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Criticism of Pure Reason</span></span>, + Architectonic.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_56" name="note_56" href= + "#noteref_56">56.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Spencer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Psychology</span></span>, i. 291: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Mind can be understood only by observing how mind is + evolved.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_57" name="note_57" href= + "#noteref_57">57.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf. Spencer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Principles of + Ethics</span></span>, i. 339: <span class="tei tei-q">“The ethical + sentiment proper is, in the great mass of cases, scarcely + discernible.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_58" name="note_58" href= + "#noteref_58">58.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Prolegomena to the Study of + Hegel</span></span>, p. 143.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_59" name="note_59" href= + "#noteref_59">59.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Windelband (W.), <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Präludien</span></span> (1884), p. 288.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_60" name="note_60" href= + "#noteref_60">60.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf. Plato, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Republic</span></span>, p. 486.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_61" name="note_61" href= + "#noteref_61">61.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Human Nature: Morals</span></span>, Part + III.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_62" name="note_62" href= + "#noteref_62">62.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Emotion and Will</span></span>, ch. xv. § + 23.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_63" name="note_63" href= + "#noteref_63">63.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is characteristic of the Kantian + doctrine to absolutise the conception of Duty and make it express + the essence of the whole ethical idea.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_64" name="note_64" href= + "#noteref_64">64.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Which are still, as the Socialist + Fourier says, states of social incoherence, specially favourable to + falsehood.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_65" name="note_65" href= + "#noteref_65">65.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rechtsphilosophie</span></span>, § 4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_66" name="note_66" href= + "#noteref_66">66.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf. Schelling, ii. 12: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“There are no <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">born</span></em> sons of freedom.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_67" name="note_67" href= + "#noteref_67">67.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Simmel (G.), <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Einleitung in die + Moralwissenschaft</span></span>, i. 184.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_68" name="note_68" href= + "#noteref_68">68.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jenseits von Gut und Böse</span></span>, p. + 225.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_69" name="note_69" href= + "#noteref_69">69.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aristot. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Polit.</span></span> + i. 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_70" name="note_70" href= + "#noteref_70">70.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plato, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Phaedo</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_71" name="note_71" href= + "#noteref_71">71.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Carus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Psyche</span></span>, + p. 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_72" name="note_72" href= + "#noteref_72">72.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Arist., <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Anal. + Post.</span></span> ii. 19 (ed. Berl. 100, a. 10).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_73" name="note_73" href= + "#noteref_73">73.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Logic of + Hegel</span></span>, notes &c., p. 421.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_74" name="note_74" href= + "#noteref_74">74.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Omnia + individua corpora quamvis diversis gradibus animata sunt.”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Eth.</span></span> ii. 13. schol.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_75" name="note_75" href= + "#noteref_75">75.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nanna</span></span> (1848): <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zendavesta</span></span> (1851): <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ueber die + Seelenfrage</span></span> (1861).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_76" name="note_76" href= + "#noteref_76">76.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Described by S. as the rise from mere + physical <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">cause</span></em> to physiological <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">stimulus</span></em> (Reiz), to psychical + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">motive</span></em>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_77" name="note_77" href= + "#noteref_77">77.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Infra, p. <a href="#Pg012" class= + "tei tei-ref">12</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_78" name="note_78" href= + "#noteref_78">78.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aristot., <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Anima</span></span>, i. c. 4, 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_79" name="note_79" href= + "#noteref_79">79.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wilhelm Meister's Wanderjahre</span></span>, + i. 10.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_80" name="note_80" href= + "#noteref_80">80.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wilhelm Meister's Wanderjahre</span></span>, + iv. 18.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_81" name="note_81" href= + "#noteref_81">81.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Works like Preyer's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Seele des + Kindes</span></span> illustrate this aspect of mental evolution; + its acquirement of definite and correlated functions.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_82" name="note_82" href= + "#noteref_82">82.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf. the end of Caleb Balderstone (in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Bride + of Lammermoor</span></span>): <span class="tei tei-q">“With a + fidelity sometimes displayed by the canine race, but seldom by + human beings, he pined and died.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_83" name="note_83" href= + "#noteref_83">83.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Windischmann's letters in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Briefe + von und an Hegel</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_84" name="note_84" href= + "#noteref_84">84.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Prolegomena to the + Study of Hegel</span></span>, chaps. xii-xiv.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_85" name="note_85" href= + "#noteref_85">85.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Kieser's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tellurismus</span></span> is, according to + Schopenhauer, <span class="tei tei-q">“the fullest and most + thorough text-book of Animal Magnetism.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_86" name="note_86" href= + "#noteref_86">86.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf. Fichte, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nachgelassene + Werke</span></span>, iii. 295 (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tagebuch über den + animalischen Magnetismus</span></span>, 1813), and Schopenhauer, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Wille + in der Natur</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_87" name="note_87" href= + "#noteref_87">87.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bernheim: <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La suggestion domine + toute l'histoire de l'humanité</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_88" name="note_88" href= + "#noteref_88">88.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">An instance from an unexpected + quarter, in Eckermann's conversations with Goethe: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“In my young days I have experienced cases enough, + where on lonely walks there came over me a powerful yearning for a + beloved girl, and I thought of her so long till she actually came + to meet me.”</span> (Conversation of Oct. 7, 1827.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_89" name="note_89" href= + "#noteref_89">89.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gleichsam in einer Vorwelt, einer diese Welt + schaffenden Welt</span></span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nachgelassene + Werke</span></span>, iii. 321).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_90" name="note_90" href= + "#noteref_90">90.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Selbst-bewusstsein</span></span> is not + self-consciousness, in the vulgar sense of brooding over feelings + and self: but consciousness which is active and outgoing, rather + than receptive and passive. It is practical, as opposed to + theoretical.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_91" name="note_91" href= + "#noteref_91">91.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The more detailed exposition of this + Phenomenology of Mind is given in the book with that title: Hegel's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Werke</span></span>, ii. pp. 71-316.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_92" name="note_92" href= + "#noteref_92">92.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">System der Sittlichkeit</span></span>, p. 15 + (see Essay V).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_93" name="note_93" href= + "#noteref_93">93.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hegel's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Werke</span></span>, + viii. 313, and cf. the passage quoted in my <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Logic of + Hegel</span></span>, notes, pp. 384, 385.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_94" name="note_94" href= + "#noteref_94">94.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hegel's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Briefe</span></span>, + i. 15.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_95" name="note_95" href= + "#noteref_95">95.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kritik der Verfassung + Deutschlands</span></span>, edited by G. Mollat (1893). Parts of + this were already given by Haym and Rosenkranz. The same editor has + also in this year published, though not quite in full, Hegel's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">System + der Sittlichkeit</span></span>, to which reference is made in what + follows.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_96" name="note_96" href= + "#noteref_96">96.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In which some may find a prophecy of + the effects of <span class="tei tei-q">“blood and iron”</span> in + 1866.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_97" name="note_97" href= + "#noteref_97">97.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Absolute Regierung</span></span>: in the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">System + der Sittlichkeit</span></span>, p. 32: cf. p. 55. Hegel himself + compares it to Fichte's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ephorate</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_98" name="note_98" href= + "#noteref_98">98.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Absolute Regierung</span></span>, l.c. pp. + 37, 38.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_99" name="note_99" href= + "#noteref_99">99.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Some idea of his meaning may perhaps + be gathered by comparison with passages in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wilhelm Meister's + Wanderjahre</span></span>, ii. 1, 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_100" name="note_100" + href="#noteref_100">100.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kritik der Verfassung</span></span>, p. + 20.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_101" name="note_101" + href="#noteref_101">101.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In some respects Bacon's attitude in + the struggle between royalty and parliament may be compared.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_102" name="note_102" + href="#noteref_102">102.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Just as Schopenhauer, on the contrary, + always says <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "de"><span style="font-style: italic">moralisch</span></span>—never + <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sittlich</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_103" name="note_103" + href="#noteref_103">103.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Grey (G.), <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journals of two + Expeditions of Discovery in North-West and Western + Australia</span></span>, ii. 220.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_104" name="note_104" + href="#noteref_104">104.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">With some variation of ownership, + perhaps, according to the prevalence of so-called matriarchal or + patriarchal households.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_105" name="note_105" + href="#noteref_105">105.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf. the custom in certain tribes which + names the father after his child: as if the son first gave his + father legitimate position in society.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_106" name="note_106" + href="#noteref_106">106.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">System der Sittlichkeit</span></span>, p. + 8.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_107" name="note_107" + href="#noteref_107">107.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aufhebung</span></span> (<em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">positive</span></em>) as given in <span lang= + "de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">absolute Sittlichkeit</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_108" name="note_108" + href="#noteref_108">108.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">System der Sittlichkeit</span></span>, p. + 15.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_109" name="note_109" + href="#noteref_109">109.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This phraseology shows the influence + of Schelling, with whom he was at this epoch associated. See + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Prolegomena to the Study of + Hegel</span></span>, ch. xiv.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_110" name="note_110" + href="#noteref_110">110.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf. the intermediate function assigned + (see above, p. <a href="#Pgclxxxiii" class= + "tei tei-ref">clxxxiii</a>) to the priests and the aged.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_111" name="note_111" + href="#noteref_111">111.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">System der Sittlichkeit</span></span>, p. + 19.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_112" name="note_112" + href="#noteref_112">112.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">infra</span></span>, + p. <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref">156</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_113" name="note_113" + href="#noteref_113">113.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Wordsworth's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Laodamia</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_114" name="note_114" + href="#noteref_114">114.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“For it's Tommy this, an' Tommy that, an' + <span class="tei tei-q">‘Chuck him out, the brute!’</span><br /> + But it's <span class="tei tei-q">‘Saviour of 'is country’</span> + when the guns begin to shoot.”</span></p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_115" name="note_115" + href="#noteref_115">115.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“I can assure + you,”</span> said Werner (the merchant), <span class= + "tei tei-q">“that I never reflected on the State in my life. My + tolls, charges and dues I have paid for no other reason than that + it was established usage.”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wilh. Meisters + Lehrjahre</span></span>, viii. 2.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_116" name="note_116" + href="#noteref_116">116.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">System der Sittlichkeit</span></span>, p. + 40.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_117" name="note_117" + href="#noteref_117">117.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">System der Sittlichkeit</span></span>, p. + 65.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_118" name="note_118" + href="#noteref_118">118.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 46.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_119" name="note_119" + href="#noteref_119">119.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Natürliche Seele.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_120" name="note_120" + href="#noteref_120">120.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Natürliche Qualitäten.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_121" name="note_121" + href="#noteref_121">121.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Empfindung.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_122" name="note_122" + href="#noteref_122">122.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die fühlende Seele.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_123" name="note_123" + href="#noteref_123">123.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plato had a better idea of the + relation of prophecy generally to the state of sober consciousness + than many moderns, who supposed that the Platonic language on the + subject of enthusiasm authorised their belief in the sublimity of + the revelations of somnambulistic vision. Plato says in the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Timaeus</span></span> (p. 71), <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The author of our being so ordered our inferior parts + that they too might obtain a measure of truth, and in the liver + placed their oracle (the power of divination by dreams). And herein + is a proof that God has given the art of divination, not to the + wisdom, but, to the foolishness of man; for no man when in his wits + attains prophetic truth and inspiration; but when he receives the + inspired word, either his intelligence is enthralled by sleep, or + he is demented by some distemper or possession + (enthusiasm).”</span> Plato very correctly notes not merely the + bodily conditions on which such visionary knowledge depends, and + the possibility of the truth of the dreams, but also the + inferiority of them to the reasonable frame of mind.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_124" name="note_124" + href="#noteref_124">124.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Selbstgefühl.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_125" name="note_125" + href="#noteref_125">125.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gewohnheit.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_126" name="note_126" + href="#noteref_126">126.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die wirkliche Seele.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_127" name="note_127" + href="#noteref_127">127.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Bewußtsein als solches</span></span>: (a) + <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das sinnliche Bewußtsein.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_128" name="note_128" + href="#noteref_128">128.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wahrnehmung.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_129" name="note_129" + href="#noteref_129">129.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Verstand.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_130" name="note_130" + href="#noteref_130">130.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Selbstbewußtsein.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_131" name="note_131" + href="#noteref_131">131.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Begierde.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_132" name="note_132" + href="#noteref_132">132.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das anerkennende + Selbstbewußtsein.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_133" name="note_133" + href="#noteref_133">133.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Vernunft.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_134" name="note_134" + href="#noteref_134">134.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Geist.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_135" name="note_135" + href="#noteref_135">135.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Intelligenz.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_136" name="note_136" + href="#noteref_136">136.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Anschauung.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_137" name="note_137" + href="#noteref_137">137.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vorstellung.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_138" name="note_138" + href="#noteref_138">138.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Erinnerung.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_139" name="note_139" + href="#noteref_139">139.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Einbildungskraft.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_140" name="note_140" + href="#noteref_140">140.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Phantasie.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_141" name="note_141" + href="#noteref_141">141.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gedächtniß.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_142" name="note_142" + href="#noteref_142">142.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Auswendiges.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_143" name="note_143" + href="#noteref_143">143.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Inwendiges.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_144" name="note_144" + href="#noteref_144">144.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Denken.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_145" name="note_145" + href="#noteref_145">145.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der praktische Geist.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_146" name="note_146" + href="#noteref_146">146.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der praktische Gefühl.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_147" name="note_147" + href="#noteref_147">147.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Triebe und die + Willkühr.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_148" name="note_148" + href="#noteref_148">148.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Glückseligkeit.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_149" name="note_149" + href="#noteref_149">149.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der freie Geist.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_150" name="note_150" + href="#noteref_150">150.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gesess.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_151" name="note_151" + href="#noteref_151">151.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sitte.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_152" name="note_152" + href="#noteref_152">152.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Recht.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_153" name="note_153" + href="#noteref_153">153.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Moralität.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_154" name="note_154" + href="#noteref_154">154.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Naturrecht.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_155" name="note_155" + href="#noteref_155">155.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Moralität.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_156" name="note_156" + href="#noteref_156">156.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Vorsatz.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_157" name="note_157" + href="#noteref_157">157.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">That.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_158" name="note_158" + href="#noteref_158">158.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Handlung.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_159" name="note_159" + href="#noteref_159">159.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Absicht und das Wohl.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_160" name="note_160" + href="#noteref_160">160.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Gute und das Böse.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_161" name="note_161" + href="#noteref_161">161.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Sittlichkeit.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_162" name="note_162" + href="#noteref_162">162.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die bürgerliche + Gesellschaft.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_163" name="note_163" + href="#noteref_163">163.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das System der Bedürfnisse.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_164" name="note_164" + href="#noteref_164">164.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Rechtspflege.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_165" name="note_165" + href="#noteref_165">165.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Geseß.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_166" name="note_166" + href="#noteref_166">166.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Polizei und die + Corporation.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_167" name="note_167" + href="#noteref_167">167.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Inneres Staatsrecht.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_168" name="note_168" + href="#noteref_168">168.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das äußere Staatsrecht.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_169" name="note_169" + href="#noteref_169">169.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Weltgeschichte.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_170" name="note_170" + href="#noteref_170">170.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Weltweisheit.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_171" name="note_171" + href="#noteref_171">171.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der absolute Geist.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_172" name="note_172" + href="#noteref_172">172.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die geoffenbarte Religion.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_173" name="note_173" + href="#noteref_173">173.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">[The citation given by Hegel from + Schlegel's translation is here replaced by the version (in one or + two points different) in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sacred Books of the East</span></span>, vol. + viii.]</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_174" name="note_174" + href="#noteref_174">174.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In order to + give a clearer impression of it, I cannot refrain from quoting a + few passages, which may at the same time give some indication of + the marvellous skill of Rückert, from whom they are taken, as a + translator. [For Rückert's verses a version is here substituted + in which I have been kindly helped by Miss May Kendall.]</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">III.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I saw but One + through all heaven's starry spaces gleaming:<br /> + I saw but One in all sea billows wildly streaming.<br /> + I looked into the heart, a waste of worlds, a sea,—<br /> + I saw a thousand dreams,—yet One amid all dreaming.<br /> + And earth, air, water, fire, when thy decree is given,<br /> + Are molten into One: against thee none hath striven.<br /> + There is no living heart but beats unfailingly<br /> + In the one song of praise to thee, from earth and heaven.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">V.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As one ray of + thy light appears the noonday sun,<br /> + But yet thy light and mine eternally are one.<br /> + As dust beneath thy feet the heaven that rolls on high:<br /> + Yet only one, and one for ever, thou and I.<br /> + The dust may turn to heaven, and heaven to dust decay;<br /> + Yet art thou one with me, and shalt be one for aye.<br /> + How may the words of life that fill heaven's utmost part<br /> + Rest in the narrow casket of one poor human heart?<br /> + How can the sun's own rays, a fairer gleam to fling,<br /> + Hide in a lowly husk, the jewel's covering?<br /> + How may the rose-grove all its glorious bloom unfold,<br /> + Drinking in mire and slime, and feeding on the mould?<br /> + How can the darksome shell that sips the salt sea stream<br /> + Fashion a shining pearl, the sunlight's joyous beam?<br /> + Oh, heart! should warm winds fan thee, should'st thou floods + endure,<br /> + One element are wind and flood; but be thou pure.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">IX.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I'll tell thee + how from out the dust God moulded man,—<br /> + Because the breath of Love He breathed into his clay:<br /> + I'll tell thee why the spheres their whirling paths began,—<br /> + They mirror to God's throne Love's glory day by day:<br /> + I'll tell thee why the morning winds blow o'er the grove,—<br /> + It is to bid Love's roses bloom abundantly:<br /> + I'll tell thee why the night broods deep the earth above,—<br /> + Love's bridal tent to deck with sacred canopy:<br /> + All riddles of the earth dost thou desire to prove?—<br /> + To every earthly riddle is Love alone the key.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">XV.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Life shrinks + from Death in woe and fear,<br /> + Though Death ends well Life's bitter need:<br /> + So shrinks the heart when Love draws near,<br /> + As though 'twere Death in very deed:<br /> + For wheresoever Love finds room,<br /> + There Self, the sullen tyrant, dies.<br /> + So let him perish in the gloom,—<br /> + Thou to the dawn of freedom rise.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this + poetry, which soars over all that is external and sensuous, who + would recognise the prosaic ideas current about so-called + pantheism—ideas which let the divine sink to the external and the + sensuous? The copious extracts which Tholuck, in his work + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Anthology from the Eastern + Mystics</span></span>, gives us from the poems of Jelaleddin and + others, are made from the very point of view now under + discussion. In his Introduction, Herr Tholuck proves how + profoundly his soul has caught the note of mysticism; and there, + too, he points out the characteristic traits of its oriental + phase, in distinction from that of the West and Christendom. With + all their divergence, however, they have in common the mystical + character. The conjunction of Mysticism with so-called Pantheism, + as he says (p. 53), implies that inward quickening of soul and + spirit which inevitably tends to annihilate that external + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Everything</span></em>, which Pantheism is + usually held to adore. But beyond that, Herr Tholuck leaves + matters standing at the usual indistinct conception of Pantheism; + a profounder discussion of it would have had, for the author's + emotional Christianity, no direct interest; but we see that + personally he is carried away by remarkable enthusiasm for a + mysticism which, in the ordinary phrase, entirely deserves the + epithet Pantheistic. Where, however, he tries philosophising (p. + 12), he does not get beyond the standpoint of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“rationalist”</span> metaphysic with its uncritical + categories.</p> + </dd> + </dl> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <div id="pgfooter" class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <pre class="pre tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HEGEL'S PHILOSOPHY OF MIND*** +</pre> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="rightpageheader47" id="rightpageheader47"></a><a name= + "pgtoc48" id="pgtoc48"></a><a name="pdf49" id="pdf49"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Credits</span></h1> + + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <th class="tei tei-label tei-label-gloss">March 5, + 2012 </th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="tei tei-item tei-item-gloss"> + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" + style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <tbody> + <tr class="tei tei-labelitem"> + <th class="tei tei-label"></th> + + <td class="tei tei-item">Project Gutenberg TEI + edition 1</td> + </tr> + + <tr class="tei tei-labelitem"> + <th class="tei tei-label"></th> + + <td class="tei tei-item"><span class= + "tei tei-respStmt"><span class= + "tei tei-name">Produced by Odessa Paige Turner, + David King, and the Online Distributed Proofreading + Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. 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