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diff --git a/38799.txt b/38799.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..592e356 --- /dev/null +++ b/38799.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19238 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 7, Slice 9, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 7, Slice 9 + "Dagupan" to "David" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 9, 2012 [EBook #38799] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE DAHLMANN, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH: "It was he upon whom the + Danes afterwards threw the blame of having invented the + Schleswig-Holstein question; certainly his activities form an + important link in the chain of events which eventually led to the + solution of 1864." 'amended' from 'activites'. + + ARTICLE DAHOMEY: "... L. Brunet and L. Giethlen, Dahomey et + dependances (Paris, 1900); Edouard Foa, Le Dahomey (Paris, 1895)." + 'Dahomey' amended from 'Dohomey'. + + ARTICLE DAIRY and DAIRY-FARMING: "Most of the cheese is made from + two curds, the highly acid curd from the morning's milk being mixed + with the comparatively sweet curd from the evening's milk." + Duplicate word 'being' removed. + + ARTICLE DAIRY and DAIRY-FARMING: "To drysalt butter, place butter + on worker, let it drain 10 to 15 minutes, then work gently till all + the butter comes together. Place it on the scales and weigh; then + weigh salt, for slight salting, 1/4 oz.; medium, 1/2 oz.; heavy + salting, 3/4 oz." 'weigh' amended from 'weight'. + + ARTICLE DALLMEYER, JOHN HENRY: "Dallmeyer's position in this + workshop appears to have been an unpleasant one, and led him to + take, for a time, employment as French and German correspondent for + a commercial firm." 'correspondent' amended from 'corrrespondent'. + + ARTICLE DANIEL: "The biblical account throws no light on the + subject. According to the rabbis, Daniel went back to Jerusalem + with the return of the captivity, and is supposed to have been one + of the founders of the mythical Great Synagogue." 'Jerusalem' + amended from 'Jersualem'. + + ARTICLE DANIEL: "Darius Hystaspis was the father of Xerxes, and + according to Herodotus (iii. 89) established twenty satrapies." + 'Hystaspis' amended from 'Hystapis'. + + ARTICLE DANTE: "At that moment I saw most truly that the spirit of + life which hath its dwelling in the secretest chamber of the heart + began to tremble so violently that the least pulses of my body + shook therewith; and in trembling it said these words ..." + 'trembling' amended from 'trembing'. + + ARTICLE DARBOY, GEORGES: "... was born at Fayl-Billot in Haute + Marne on the 16th of January 1813." 'Haute' amended from 'Haut'. + + ARTICLE DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT: "For eight years (1846 to 1854) he + was chiefly engaged upon four monographs on the recent and fossil + Cirripede Crustacea (Roy. Soc., 1851 and 1854; Palaeontograph. + Soc., 1851 and 1854)." 'Roy' amended from 'Ray'. + + ARTICLE DASS, PETTER: "... a Scottish merchant of Dundee, who, + leaving his country about 1630 to 845 escape the troubles of the + Presbyterian church, settled in Bergen, and in 1646 married a Norse + girl of good family." 'church' amended from 'chursh'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME VII, SLICE IX + + Dagupan to David + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + DAGUPAN DANDY + DAHABEAH DANEGELD + DAHL, HANS DANELAGH + DAHL, JOHANN CHRISTIAN DANGERFIELD, THOMAS + DAHL, MICHAEL DANIEL (biblical figure) + DAHL, VLADIMIR IVANOVICH DANIEL (Russian travel-writer) + DAHLBERG, ERIK JOHANSEN, COUNT DANIEL, GABRIEL + DAHLGREN, JOHN ADOLF DANIEL, SAMUEL + DAHLGREN, KARL FREDRIK DANIELL, JOHN FREDERIC + DAHLIA DANIELL, THOMAS + DAHLMANN, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH DANNAT, WILLIAM T. + DAHLSTJERNA, GUNNO DANNECKER, JOHANN HEINRICH VON + DAHN, JULIUS SOPHUS FELIX DANNEWERK + DAHOMEY DANSVILLE + DAILLE, JEAN DANTE + DAIRY and DAIRY-FARMING DANTON, GEORGE JACQUES + DAIS DANUBE + DAISY DANVERS + DAKAR DANVILLE (Illinois, U.S.A.) + DALAGUETE DANVILLE (Kentucky, U.S.A.) + DALBEATTIE DANVILLE (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) + DALBERG DANVILLE (Virginia, U.S.A.) + DALE, ROBERT WILLIAM DANZIG + DALE, SIR THOMAS DAPHLA HILLS + DALECARLIA DAPHNAE + DALGAIRNS, JOHN DOBREE DAPHNE (Greek mythology) + DALGARNO, GEORGE DAPHNE (genus of shrubs) + DALHOUSIE, JAMES ANDREW RAMSAY DAPHNEPHORIA + DALHOUSIE, FOX MAULE RAMSAY DAPHNIS + DALIN, OLOF VON DARAB + DALKEITH DARBHANGA + DALKEY D'ARBLAY, FRANCES + DALLAS, ALEXANDER JAMES DARBOY, GEORGES + DALLAS, GEORGE MIFFLIN DARCY, THOMAS DARCY + DALLAS DARDANELLES (strait) + DALLE DARDANELLES (town) + DALLIN, CYRUS EDWIN DARDANUS + DALLING AND BULWER, EARLE BULWER DARDISTAN + DALLMEYER, JOHN HENRY DARES PHRYGIUS + DALL' ONGARO, FRANCESCO DAR-ES-SALAAM + DALMATIA DARESTE DE LA CHAVANNE, ANTOINE + DALMATIC DARESTE DE LA CHAVANNE, RODOLPHE + DALMELLINGTON DARFUR + DALOU, JULES DARGAI + DALRADIAN DARGOMIJSKY, ALEXANDER SERGEIVICH + DALRIADA DARIAL + DALRY DARIEN + DALTON, JOHN DARIUS + DALTON DARJEELING + DALTON-IN-FURNESS DARLEY, GEORGE + DALY, AUGUSTIN DARLING, GRACE HORSLEY + DALYELL, THOMAS DARLING + DAM DARLINGTON + DAMAGES DARLINGTONIA + DAMANHUR DARLY, MATTHIAS + DAMARALAND DARMESTETER, JAMES + DAMASCENING DARMSTADT + DAMASCIUS DARNLEY, HENRY STEWART + DAMASCUS DARRANG + DAMASK DARTFORD + DAMASK STEEL DARTMOOR + DAMASUS DARTMOUTH (town of Canada) + DAMAUN DARTMOUTH (town of England) + DAME DARTMOUTH COLLEGE + DAME'S VIOLET DARTMOUTH, EARL OF + DAMGHAN DARU, PIERRE ANTOINE NOEL BRUNO + DAMIANI, PIETRO DARWEN + DAMIEN, FATHER DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT + DAMIENS, ROBERT FRANCOIS DARWIN, ERASMUS + DAMIETTA DASENT, SIR GEORGE WEBBE + DAMIRI DASHKOV, CATHERINA ROMANOVNA VORONTSOV + DAMIRON, JEAN PHILIBERT DASS, PETTER + DAMJANICH, JANOS DASYURE + DAMMAR DATE PALM + DAMMARTIN DATIA + DAMME DATIVE + DAMOCLES DATOLITE + DAMOH DAUB, KARL + DAMON DAUBENTON, LOUIS-JEAN-MARIE + DAMOPHON DAUBENY, CHARLES GILES BRIDLE + DAMP DAUBIGNY, CHARLES FRANCOIS + DAMPIER, WILLIAM DAUBREE, GABRIEL AUGUSTE + DAN (tribe of Israel) DAUDET, ALPHONSE + DAN (town of ancient Israel) DAULATABAD + DANA, CHARLES ANDERSON DAUMIER, HONORE + DANA, FRANCIS DAUN (DHAUN), LEOPOLD JOSEF + DANA, JAMES DWIGHT DAUNOU, PIERRE CLAUDE FRANCOIS + DANAE DAUPHIN + DANAO DAUPHINE + DANAUS DAURAT, JEAN + DANBURITE DAVENANT, CHARLES + DANBURY DAVENANT, SIR WILLIAM + DANBY, FRANCIS DAVENPORT, EDWARD LOOMIS + DANCE (English family) DAVENPORT, ROBERT + DANCE (dancing) DAVENPORT + DANCOURT, FLORENT CARTON DAVENTRY + DANDELION DAVEY OF FERNHURST, HORACE DAVEY + DANDOLO DAVID + DANDOLO, VINCENZO + + + + +DAGUPAN, a town and the most important commercial centre of the province +of Pangasinan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on a branch of the Agno river +near its entrance into the Gulf of Lingayen, 120 m. by rail N.N.W. of +Manila. Pop. (1903), 20,357. It is served by the Manila & Dagupan +railway. Dagupan has a healthy climate. It is the chief point of +exportation for a very rich province, which produces sugar, indigo, +Indian corn, copra, and especially rice. There are several rice mills +here. Salt is an important export, being manufactured in salt water +swamps and marshes throughout the province of Pangasinan (whose name, +from _asin_, "salt," means "the place where salt is produced"). In +these, marshes grows the nipa palm, from which a liquor is +distilled--there are a number of small distilleries here. Dagupan has a +small shipyard in which sailing vessels and steam launches are +constructed. The principal language is Pangasinan. + + + + +DAHABEAH (also spelt dahabiya, dahabiyeh, dahabeeyah, &c.), an Arabic +word (variously derived from _dahab_, gold, and _dahab_, one of the +forms of the verb to go) for a native passenger boat used on the Nile. +The typical form is that of a barge-like house-boat provided with sails, +resembling the painted galleys represented on the tombs of the Pharaohs. +Similar state barges were used by the Mahommedan rulers of Egypt, and +from the circumstance that these vessels were ornamented with gilding is +attributed the usual derivation of the name from gold. Before the +introduction of steamers dahabeahs were generally used by travellers +ascending the Nile, and they are still the favourite means of travelling +for the leisured and wealthy classes. The modern dahabeah is often made +of iron, draws about 2 ft. of water, and is provided with one very large +and one small sail. According to size it provides accommodation for from +two to a dozen passengers. Steam dahabeahs are also built to meet the +requirements of tourists. + + + + +DAHL, HANS (1840- ), Norwegian painter, was born at Hardanger. After +being in the Swedish army he studied art at Karlsruhe and at Dusseldorf, +being a notable painter of landscape and _genre_. His work has +considerable humour, but his colouring is hard and rather crude. In 1889 +he settled in Berlin. His pictures are very popular in Norway. + + + + +DAHL, JOHANN CHRISTIAN (1778-1857), Norwegian landscape painter, was +born in Bergen. He formed his style without much tuition, remaining at +Bergen till he was twenty-four, when he left for the better field of +Copenhagen, and ultimately settled in Dresden in 1818. He is usually +included in the German school, although he was thus close on forty years +of age when he finally took up his abode in Dresden, where he was +quickly received into the Academy and became professor. German +landscape-painting was not greatly advanced at that time, and Dahl +contributed to improve it. He continued to reside in Dresden, though he +travelled into Tirol and in Italy, painting many pictures, one of his +best being that of the "Outbreak of Vesuvius, 1820." He was fond of +extraordinary effects, as seen in his "Winter at Munich," and his +"Dresden by Moonlight;" also the "Haven of Copenhagen," and the "Schloss +of Friedrichsburg," under the same condition. At Dresden may be seen +many of his works, notably a large picture called "Norway," and a "Storm +at Sea." He was received into several academic bodies, and had the +orders of Wasa and St Olaf sent him by the king of Norway and Sweden. + + + + +DAHL, MICHAEL (1656-1743), Swedish portrait painter, was born at +Stockholm. He received his first professional education from Ernst +Klocke, who had a respectable position in that northern town, which, +however, Dahl left in his twenty-second year. His first destination was +England, where he did not long remain, but crossed over to Paris, and +made his way at last to Rome, there taking up his abode for a +considerable time, painting the portraits of Queen Christina and other +celebrities. In 1688 he returned to England, and became for some years a +dangerous rival to Kneller. He died in London. His portraits still exist +in many houses, but his name is not always preserved with them. Nagler +(_Kunstler-Lexicon_) says those at Hampton Court and at Petworth contest +the palm with those of the better known and vastly more employed +painter. + + + + +DAHL (or DALE), VLADIMIR IVANOVICH (1802-1872), Russian author and +philologist, was born of Scandinavian parentage in 1802, and received +his education at the naval cadets' institution at St Petersburg. He +joined the Black Sea fleet in 1819; but at a later date he entered the +military service, and was thus engaged in the Polish campaign of 1831, +and in the expedition against Khiva. He was afterwards appointed to a +medical post in one of the government hospitals at St Petersburg, and +was ultimately transferred to a situation in the civil service. The +latter years of his life were spent at Moscow, and he died there on +November 3 (October 22), 1872. Under the name of Kossack Lugansky he +obtained considerable fame by his stories of Russian life:--_The Dream +and the Waking_, _A Story of Misery_, _Happiness, and Truth_, _The +Door-Keeper_ (Dvernik), _The Officer's Valet_ (Denshchik). His greatest +work, however, was a _Dictionary of the Living Russian Tongue_ (Tolkovyi +Slovar Zhivago Velikorusskago Yasika), which appeared in four volumes +between 1861 and 1866, and is of the most essential service to the +student of the popular literature and folk-lore of Russia. It was based +on the results of his own investigations throughout the various +provinces of Russia,--investigations which had furnished him with no +fewer than 4000 popular tales and upwards of 30,000 proverbs. Among his +other publications may be mentioned _Bemerkungen zu Zimmermann's Entwurf +des Kriegstheaters Russlands gegen Khiwa_, published in German at +Orenburg, and a _Handbook of Botany_ (Moscow, 1849). + + A collected edition of his works appeared at St Petersburg in 8 + volumes, 1860-1861. + + + + +DAHLBERG (DAHLBERGH), ERIK JOHANSEN, COUNT (1625-1703), Swedish soldier +and engineer, was born at Stockholm. His early studies took the +direction of the science of fortification, and as an engineer officer he +saw service in the latter years of the Thirty Years' War, and in Poland. +As adjutant-general and engineer adviser to Charles X. (Gustavus), he +had a great share in the famous crossing of the frozen Belts, and at the +sieges of Copenhagen and Kronborg he directed the engineers. In spite of +these distinguished services, Dahlberg remained an obscure +lieutenant-colonel for many years. His patriotism, however, proved +superior to the tempting offers Charles II. of England made to induce +him to enter the British service, though, in that age of professional +soldiering, there was nothing in the offer that a man of honour could +not accept. At last his talents were recognized, and in 1676 he became +director-general of fortifications. In the wars of the next twenty-five +years Dahlberg again rendered distinguished service, alike in attack (as +at Helsingborg in 1677, and Dunamunde in 1700) and defence (as in the +two sieges of Riga in 1700): and his work in repairing the fortresses of +his own country, not less important, earned for him the title of the +"Vauban of Sweden." He was also the founder of the Swedish engineer +corps. He retired as field-marshal in 1702, and died the following year. + +Erik Dahlberg was responsible for the fine collection of drawings called +_Suecia antiqua et hodierna_ (Stockholm, 1660-1716; 2nd edition, 1856; +3rd edition, 1864-1865), and assisted Pufendorf in his _Histoire de +Charles X Gustave_. He wrote a memoir of his life (to be found in +Svenska Bibliotek, 1757) and an account of the campaigns of Charles X. +(ed. Lundblad, Stockholm, 1823). + + + + +DAHLGREN, JOHN ADOLF (1809-1870), admiral in the U.S. navy, was the son +of the Swedish consul at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and was born in +that city on the 13th of November 1809. He entered the United States +navy in 1826, and saw some service in the Civil War in command of the +South Atlantic blockading squadron. But he was chiefly notable as a +scientific officer. His knowledge of mathematics caused him to be +employed on the coast survey in 1834. In 1837 his eyesight threatened to +fail, he retired in 1838-1842, and in 1847 he was transferred to the +ordnance department. In this post he applied himself to the improvement +of the guns of the U.S. navy. He was the inventor of the smooth bore gun +which bore his name, but was from its shape familiarly known as "the +soda water bottle." It was used in the Civil War, and for several years +afterwards in the United States navy. Dahlgren's guns were first mounted +in a vessel named the "Experiment," which cruised under his command from +1857 till 1859. They were "the first practical application of results +obtained by experimental determinations of pressure at different points +along the bore, by Colonel Bomford's tests--that is by boring holes in +the walls of the gun, through which the pressure acts upon other bodies, +such as pistol balls, pistons, &c." (Cf. article by J. M. Brooke in +Hamersley's _Naval Encyclopaedia_.) When the Civil War broke out, he was +on ordnance duty in the Washington navy yard, and he was one of the +three officers who did not resign from confederate sympathies. His rank +at the time was commander, and the command could only by held by a +captain. President Lincoln insisted on retaining Commander Dahlgren, and +he was qualified to keep the post by special act of Congress. He became +post-captain in 1862 and rear-admiral in 1863. He commanded the +Washington navy yard when he died on the 12th of July 1870. + + A memoir of Admiral Dahlgren by his widow was published at Boston in + 1882. (D. H.) + + + + +DAHLGREN, KARL FREDRIK (1791-1844), Swedish poet, was born at Stensbruk +in Ostergotland on the 20th of June 1791. At a time when literary +partisanship ran high in Sweden, and the writers divided themselves into +"Goths" and "Phosphorists," Dahlgren made himself indispensable to the +Phosphorists by his polemical activity. In the mock-heroic poem of +_Markalls somnlosa natter_ (Markall's Sleepless Nights), in which the +Phosphorists ridiculed the academician Per Adam Wallmark and others, +Dahlgren, who was a genuine humorist, took a prominent part. In 1825 he +published _Babels Torn_ (The Tower of Babel), a satire, and a comedy, +_Argus in Olympen_; and in 1828 two volumes of poems. In 1829 he was +appointed to an ecclesiastical post in Stockholm, which he held until +his death. In a series of odes and dithyrambic pieces, entitled +_Mollbergs Epistlar_ (1819, 1820), he strove to emulate the wonderful +lyric genius of K. M. Bellman, of whom he was a student and follower. +From 1825 to 1827 he edited a critical journal entitled _Kometen_ (The +Comet), and in company with Almqvist he founded the _Manhemsforbund_, a +short-lived society of agricultural socialists. In 1834 he collected his +poems in one volume; and in 1837 appeared his last book, +_Angbats-Sanger_ (Steamboat Songs). On the 1st of May 1844 he died at +Stockholm. Dahlgren is one of the best humorous writers that Sweden has +produced; but he was perhaps at his best in realistic and idyllic +description. His little poem of _Zephyr and the Girl_, which is to be +found in every selection from Swedish poetry, is a good example of his +sensuous and ornamented style. + + His works were collected and published after his death by A. J. + Arwidsson (5 vols., Stockholm, 1847-1852). + + + + +DAHLIA, a genus of herbaceous plants of the natural order Compositae, so +called after Dr Dahl, a pupil of Linnaeus. The genus contains about nine +species indigenous in the high sandy plains of Mexico. The dahlia was +first introduced into Britain from Spain in 1789 by the marchioness of +Bute. The species was probably _D. variabilis_, whence by far the +majority of the forms now common have originated. The flowers, at the +time of the first introduction of the plant, were single, with a yellow +disk and dull scarlet rays; under cultivation since the beginning of the +19th century in France and England, flowers of numerous brilliant hues +have been produced. The flower has been modified also from a flat to a +globular shape, and the arrangement of the florets has been rendered +quite distinct in the ranunculus and anemone-like kinds. The ordinary +natural height of the dahlia is about 7 or 8 ft., but one of the dwarf +races grows to only 18 in. With changes in the flower, changes in the +shape of the seed have been brought about by cultivation; varieties of +the plant have been produced which require more moisture than others; +and the period of flowering has been made considerably earlier. In 1808 +dahlias were described as flowering from September to November, but some +of the dwarf varieties at present grown are in full blossom in the +middle of June. + +The large number of varieties may be classed as under the following +heads: (1) _Single dahlias_. These have been derived from _D. coccinea_; +they have a disk of tubular florets surrounded by the large showy ray +florets. (2) _Show dahlias_, large and double with flowers self-coloured +or pale-coloured and edged or tipped with a darker colour. (3) _Fancy +dahlias_, resembling the show but having the florets striped or tipped +with a second tint. (4) _Bouquet_ or _Pompon dahlias_, with much smaller +double flowers of various colours. (5) _Cactus dahlias_, derived from D. +Juarezi, a form which has given rise to a beautiful race with pointed +starry flowers. (6) _Paeony-flowered dahlias_, a new but not pretty +race, with large floppy heads, broad florets and several disk florets in +centre. + +New varieties are procured from seed, which should be sown in pots or +pans towards the end of March, and placed in a hotbed or propagating +pit, the young plants being pricked off into pots or boxes, and +gradually hardened off for planting out in June; they will flower the +same season if the summer is a genial one. The older varieties are +propagated by dividing the large tuberous roots, in doing which care +must be taken to leave an eye to each portion of tuber, otherwise it +will not grow. Rare varieties are sometimes grafted on the roots of +others. The best and most general mode of propagation is by cuttings, to +obtain which, the old tubers are placed in heat in February, and as the +young shoots, which rise freely from them, attain the height of 3 in., +they are taken off with a heel, and planted singly in small pots filled +with fine sandy soil, and plunged in a moderate heat. They root +speedily, and are then transferred to larger pots in light rich soil, +and their growth encouraged until the planting-out season arrives, about +the middle of June north of the Thames. + +Dahlias succeed best in an open situation, and in rich deep loam, but +there is scarcely any garden soil in which they will not thrive, if it +is manured. For the production of fine show flowers the ground must be +deeply trenched, and well manured annually. The branches as well as the +blossoms require a considerable but judicious amount of thinning; they +also need shading in some cases. The plants should be protected from +cold winds, and when watered the whole of the foliage should be wetted. +They may stand singly like common border flowers, but have the most +imposing appearance when seen in masses arranged according to their +height. Florists usually devote a plot of ground to them, and plant them +in lines 5 to 10 ft. apart. This is done about the beginning of June, +sheltering them if necessary from late frosts by inverted pots or in +some other convenient way. Old roots often throw up a multitude of +stems, which render thinning necessary. As the plants increase in +height, they are furnished with strong stakes, to secure them from high +winds. Dahlias flower on till they are interrupted by frost in autumn. +The roots are then taken up, dried, and stored in a cellar, or some +other place where they may be secure from frost and moisture. Earwigs +are very destructive, eating out the young buds and florets. Small +flower-pots half filled with dry moss and inverted on stakes placed +among the branches, form a useful trap. + + + + +DAHLMANN, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH (1785-1860), German historian and +politician, was born on the 13th of May 1785; he came of an old +Hanseatic family of Wismar, which then belonged to Sweden. His father, +who was the burgomaster of the town, intended him to study theology, but +his bent was towards classical philology, and this he studied from 1802 +to 1806 at the universities of Copenhagen and Halle, and again at +Copenhagen. After finishing his studies, he translated some of the Greek +tragic poets, and the _Clouds_ of Aristophanes. But he was also +interested in modern literature and philosophy; and the troubles of the +times, of which he had personal experience, aroused in him, as in so +many of his contemporaries, a strong feeling of German patriotism, +though throughout his life he was always proud of his connexion with +Scandinavia, and Gustavus Adolphus was his particular hero. In 1809, on +the news of the outbreak of war in Austria, Dahlmann, together with the +poet Heinrich von Kleist, whom he had met in Dresden, went to Bohemia, +and was afterwards with the Imperial army, up till the battle of Aspern, +with the somewhat vague object of trying to convert the Austrian war +into a German one. This hope was shattered by the defeat of Wagram. He +now decided to try his fortunes in Denmark, where he had influential +relations. After taking his doctor's degree at Wittenberg (1810) he +qualified at Copenhagen in 1811, with an essay on the origins of the +ancient theatre, as a lecturer on ancient literature and history, on +which he delivered lectures in Latin. His influential friends soon +brought him further advancement. As early as 1812 he was summoned to +Kiel, as successor to the historian Dietrich Hermann Hegewisch +(1746-1812). This appointment was in two respects a decisive moment in +his career; on the one hand it made him give his whole attention to a +subject for which he was admirably suited, but to which he had so far +given only a secondary interest; and on the other hand, it threw him +into politics. + +In 1815 he obtained, in addition to his professorate, the position of +secretary to the perpetual deputation of the estates of +Schleswig-Holstein. In this capacity he began, by means of memoirs or of +articles in the _Kieler Blatter_, which he founded himself, to appear as +an able and zealous champion of the half-forgotten rights of the Elbe +duchies, as against Denmark, and of their close connexion with Germany. +It was he upon whom the Danes afterwards threw the blame of having +invented the Schleswig-Holstein question; certainly his activities form +an important link in the chain of events which eventually led to the +solution of 1864. So far as this interest affected himself, the chief +profit lay in the fact that it deepened his conception of the state, and +directed it to more practical ends. Whereas at that time mere +speculation dominated both the French Liberalism of the school of +Rotteck, and Karl Ludwig von Haller's Romanticist doctrine of the +Christian state, Dahlmann took as his premisses the circumstances as he +found them, and evolved the new out of the old by a quiet process of +development. Moreover, in the inevitable conflict with the Danish crown +his upright point of view and his German patriotism were further +confirmed. After his transference to Gottingen in 1829 he had the +opportunity of working in the same spirit. As confidant of the duke of +Cambridge, he was allowed to take a share in framing the Hanoverian +constitution of 1833, which remodelled the old aristocratic government +in a direction which had become inevitable since the July revolution in +Paris; and when in 1837 the new king Ernest Augustus declared the +constitution invalid, it was Dahlmann who inspired the famous protest of +the seven professors of Gottingen. He was deprived of his position and +banished, but he had the satisfaction of knowing that German national +feeling received a mighty impulse from his courageous action, while +public subscriptions prevented him from material cares. + +After he had lived for several years in Leipzig and Jena, King Frederick +William IV. appointed him in October 1842 to a professorship at Bonn. +The years that followed were those of his highest celebrity. His +_Politik_ (1835) had already made him a great name as a writer; he now +published his _Danische Geschichte_ (1840-1843), a historical work of +the first rank; and this was soon followed by histories of the English +and French revolutions, which, though of less scientific value, +exercised a decisive influence upon public opinion by their open +advocacy of the system of constitutional monarchy. As a teacher too he +was much beloved. Though no orator, and in spite of a personality not +particularly amiable or winning, he produced a profound impression upon +young men by the pregnancy of his expression, a consistent logical +method of thought based on Kant and by the manliness of his character. +When the revolution of 1848 broke out, the "father of German +nationality," as the provisional government at Milan called him, found +himself the centre of universal interest. Both Mecklenburg and Prussia +offered him in vain the post of envoy to the diet of the confederation. +Naturally, too, he was elected to the national assembly at Frankfort, +and took a leading part in the constitutional committees appointed first +by the diet, then by the parliament. His object was to make Germany as +far as possible a united constitutional monarchy, with the exclusion of +the whole of Austria, or at least, of its non-German parts. Prussia was +to provide the emperor, but at the same time--and in this lay the +doctrinaire weakness of the system--was to give up its separate +existence, consecrated by history, in the same way as the other states. +When, therefore, Frederick William IV., without showing any anxiety to +bind himself by the conditions laid down at Frankfort, concluded with +Denmark the seven months' truce of Malmo (26th August 1848), Dahlmann +proposed that the national parliament should refuse to recognize the +truce, with the express intention of clearing up once for all the +relations of the parliament with the court of Berlin. The motion was +passed by a small majority (September 5th); but the members of +Dahlmann's party were just those who voted against it, and it was they +who on the 17th of September reversed the previous vote and passed a +resolution accepting the truce, after Dahlmann had failed to form a +ministry on the basis of the resolution of the 5th, owing to his +objection to the Radicals. Dahlmann afterwards described this as the +decisive turning-point in the fate of the parliament. He did not, +however, at once give up all hope. Though he took but little active part +in parliamentary debates, he was very active on commissions and in party +conferences, and it was largely owing to him that a German constitution +was at last evolved, and that Frederick William IV. was elected +hereditary emperor (28th of March 1849). He was accordingly one of the +deputation which offered the crown to the king in Berlin. The king's +refusal was less of a surprise to him than to most of his colleagues. He +counted on being able to compel recognition of the constitution by the +moral pressure of the consent of the people. It was only when the +attitude of the Radicals made it clear to him that this course would +lead to a revolution, that he decided, after a long struggle, to retire +from the national parliament (21st May). He was still, however, one of +the chief promoters of the well-known conference of the imperial party +at Gotha, the proceedings of which were not, however, satisfactory to +him; and he took part in the sessions of the first Prussian chamber +(1849-1850) and of the parliament of Erfurt (1850). But finally, +convinced that for the moment all efforts towards the unity of Germany +were unavailing, he retired from political life, though often pressed to +stand for election, and again took up his work of teaching at Bonn. His +last years were, however, saddened by illness, bereavement and continual +friction with his colleagues. His death took place on the 5th of +December 1860, following on an apoplectic fit. He was a man whose +personality had contributed to the progress of the world, and whose +teaching was to continue to exercise a far-reaching influence on the +development of German affairs. + +His chief works were:--_Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte nach der +Folge der Begebenheiten geordnet_ (1830, 7th edition of Dahlmann-Waitz, +_Quellenkunde_, Leipzig, 1906); _Politik, auf den Grund und das Mass der +gegebenen Zustande zuruckgefuhrt_ (1 vol., 1835); _Geschichte Danemarks_ +(3 vols., 1840-1843); _Geschichte der englischen Revolution_ (1844); +_Geschichte der franzosischen Revolution_ (1845). + + See A. Springer, _Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann_ (2 vols., 1870-1872); + and H. v. Treitschke, _Histor. und polit. Aufsatze_, i. 365 et seq. + (F. Lu.) + + + + +DAHLSTJERNA, GUNNO (1661-1709), Swedish poet, whose original surname was +Eurelius, was born on the 7th of September 1661 in the parish of Ohr in +Dalsland, where his father was rector. He entered the university of +Upsala in 1677, and after gaining his degree entered the government +office of land-surveying. He was sent in 1681 on professional business +to Livonia, then under Swedish rule. A dissertation read at Leipzig in +1687 brought him the offer of a professorial chair in the university, +which he refused. Returning to Sweden he executed commissions in +land-surveying directed by King Charles XI., and in 1699 he became head +of the whole department. In 1702 he was ennobled under the name of +Dahlstjerna. He wandered over the whole of the coast of the Baltic, +Livonia, Rugen and Pomerania, preparing maps which still exist in the +office of public land-surveying in Stockholm. His death, which took +place in Pomerania on his forty-eighth birthday, 7th of September 1709, +is said to have been hastened by the disastrous news of the battle of +Poltava. Dahlstjerna's patriotism was touching in its pathos and +intensity, and during his long periods of professional exile he +comforted himself by the composition of songs to his beloved Sweden. His +genius was most irregular, but at his best he easily surpasses all the +Swedish poets of his time. His best-known original work is _Kungaskald_ +(Stettin, 1697), an elegy on the death of Charles XI. It is written in +alexandrines, arranged in _ottava rima_. The poem is pompous and +allegorical, but there are passages full of melody and high thoughts. +Dahlstjerna was a reformer in language, and it has been well said by +Atterbom that in this poem "he treats the Swedish speech just as +dictatorially as Charles XI. and Charles XII. treated the Swedish +nation." In 1690 was printed at Stettin his paraphrase of the _Pastor +Fido_ of Guarini. His most popular work is his _Gotha kampavisa om +Konungen och Herr Peder_ (The Goth's Battle Song, concerning the King +and Master Peter; Stockholm, 1701). The King is Charles XII. and Master +Peter is the tsar of Russia. This spirited ballad lived almost until our +own days on the lips of the people as a folk-song. + + The works of Dahlstjerna have been collected by P. Hanselli, in the + _Samlade Vitterhetsarbeten af svenska Forfattare fran Stjernhjelm till + Dalin_ (Upsala, 1856, &c.). + + + + +DAHN, JULIUS SOPHUS FELIX (1834- ), German historian, jurist and poet, +was born on the 9th of February 1834 in Hamburg, where his father, +Friedrich Dahn (1811-1889), was a leading actor at the city theatre. His +mother, Constance Dahn, nee Le Gay, was a noted actress. In 1834 the +family moved to Munich, where the parents took leading roles in the +classical German drama, until they retired from the stage: the mother in +1865 and the father in 1878. Felix Dahn studied law and philosophy in +Munich and Berlin from 1849 to 1853. His first works were in +jurisprudence, _Uber die Wirkung der Klagverjahrung bei Obligationen_ +(Munich, 1855), and _Studien zur Geschichte der germanischen +Gottesurteile_ (Munich, 1857). In 1857 he became docent in German law at +Munich university, and in 1862 professor-extraordinary, but in 1863 was +called to Wurzburg to a full professorship. In 1872 he removed to the +university of Konigsberg, and in 1888 settled at Breslau, becoming +rector of the university in 1895. Meanwhile in addition to many legal +works of high standing, he had begun the publication of that long series +of histories and historical romances which has made his name a household +word in Germany. The great history of the German migrations, _Die Konige +der Germanen_, Bande i.-vi. (Munich and Wurzburg, 1861-1870), Bande +vii.-xi. (Leipzig, 1894-1908), was a masterly study in constitutional +history as well as a literary work of high merit, which carries the +narrative down to the dissolution of the Carolingian empire. In his +_Urgeschichte der germanischen und romanischen Volker_ (Berlin, +1881-1890), Dahn went a step farther back still, but here as in his +_Geschichte der deutschen Urzeit_ (Gotha, 1883-1888), a wealth of +picturesque detail has been worked over and resolved into history with +such imaginative insight and critical skill as to make real and present +the indistinct beginnings of German society. Together with these larger +works Dahn wrote many monographs and studies upon primitive German +society. Many of his essays were collected in a series of six volumes +entitled _Bausteine_ (Berlin, 1879-1884). Not less important than his +histories are the historical romances, the best-known of which, _Ein +Kampf um Rom_, in four volumes (Leipzig, 1876), which has gone through +many later editions, was also the first of the series. Others are +_Odhins Trost_ (Leipzig, 1880); _Die Kreuzfahrer_ (Leipzig, 1884); +_Odhins Rache_ (Leipzig, 1891); _Julian der Abtrunnige_ (Leipzig, 1894), +and one of the most popular, _Bis zum Tode getreu_ (Leipzig, 1887). The +list is too long to be given in full, yet almost all are well-known. +Parallel with this great production of learned and imaginative works, +Dahn published some twenty small volumes of poetry. The most notable of +these are the epics of the early German period. His wife Therese, _nee_ +Freiin von Droste-Hulshoff, was joint-author with him of _Walhall, +Germanische Gotter und Heldensagen_ (Leipzig, 1898). + + A collected edition of his works of fiction, both in prose and verse, + has reached twenty-one volumes (Leipzig, 1898), and a new edition was + published in 1901. Dahn also published four volumes of memoirs, + _Erinnerungen_ (Leipzig, 1890-1895). + + + + +DAHOMEY (Fr. _Dahome_), a country of West Africa, formerly an +independent kingdom, now a French colony. Dahomey is bounded S. by the +Gulf of Guinea, E. by Nigeria (British), N. and N.W. by the French +possessions on the middle Niger, and W. by the German colony of +Togoland. The French colony extends far north of the limits of the +ancient kingdom of the same name. With a coast-line of only 75 m. (1 +deg. 38' E. to 2 deg. 46' 55" E.), the area of the colony is about +40,000 sq. m., and the population over 1,000,000. As far as 9 deg. N. +the width of the colony is no greater than the coast-line. From this +point, the colony broadens out both eastward and westward, attaining a +maximum width of 200 m. It includes the western part of Borgu (q.v.), +and reaches the Niger at a spot a little above Illo. Its greatest length +N. to S. is 430 m. + +_Physical Features._--The littoral, part of the old Slave Coast (see +GUINEA,), is very low, sandy and obstructed by a bar. Behind the +seashore is a line of lagoons, where small steamers can ply; east to +west they are those of Porto Novo (or Lake Nokue), Whydah and Grand +Popo. The Weme (300 m. long), known in its upper course as the Ofe, the +most important river running south, drains the colony from the Bariba +country to Porto Novo, entering the lagoon so named. The Zu is a western +affluent of the Weme. Farther west is the Kuffu (150 m. long), which, +before entering the Whydah lagoon, broadens out into a lake or lagoon +called Aheme, 20 m. long by 5 m. broad. The Makru and Kergigoto, each of +which has various affluents, flow north-east to the Niger, which in the +part of its course forming the north-east frontier of the colony is only +navigable for small vessels and that with great difficulty (see NIGER). + +For some 50 m. inland the country is flat, and, after the first mile or +two of sandy waste is passed, covered with dense vegetation. At this +distance (50 m.) from the coast is a great swamp known as the Lama +Marsh. It extends east to west some 25 m. and north to south 6 to 9 m. +North of the swamp the land rises by regular stages to about 1650 ft., +the high plateau falling again to the basin of the Niger. In the +north-west a range of hills known as the Atacora forms a watershed +between the basins of the Weme, the Niger and the Volta. A large part of +the interior consists of undulating country, rather barren, with +occasional patches of forest. The forests contain the baobab, the +coco-nut palm and the oil palm. The fauna resembles that of other parts +of the West Coast, but the larger wild animals, such as the elephant and +hippopotamus, are rare. The lion is found in the regions bordering the +Niger. Some kinds of antelopes are common; the buffalo has disappeared. + +_Climate._--The climate of the coast regions is very hot and moist. Four +seasons are well marked: the harmattan or long dry season, from the 1st +December to the 15th March; the season of the great rains, from the 15th +March to the 15th July; the short dry season, from the 15th July to the +15th September; and the "little rains," from the 15th September to the +1st December. Near the sea the average temperature is about 80 deg. F. +The harmattan prevails for several days in succession, and alternates +with winds from the south and south-west. During its continuance the +thermometer falls about 10 deg., there is not the slightest moisture in +the atmosphere, vegetation dries up or droops, the skin parches and +peels, and all woodwork is liable to warp and crack with a loud report. +Tornadoes occur occasionally. During nine months of the year the climate +is tempered by a sea-breeze, which is felt as far inland as Abomey (60 +m.). It generally begins in the morning, and in the summer it often +increases to a stiff gale at sundown. In the interior there are but two +seasons: the dry season (November to May) and the rainy season (June to +October). The rains are more scanty and diminish considerably in the +northern regions. + +_Inhabitants._--The inhabitants of the coast region are of pure negro +stock. The Dahomeyans (Dahomi), who inhabit the central part of the +colony, form one of eighteen closely-allied clans occupying the country +between the Volta and Porto Novo, and from their common tongue known as +the Ewe-speaking tribes. In their own tongue Dahomeyans are called Fon +or Fawin. They are tall and well-formed, proud, reserved in demeanour, +polite in their intercourse with strangers, war-like and keen traders. +The Mina, who occupy the district of the Popos, are noted for their +skill as surf-men, which has gained for them the title of the Krumen of +Dahomey. Porto Novo is inhabited by a tribe called Nago, which has an +admixture of Yoruba blood and speaks a Yoruba dialect. The Nago are a +peaceful tribe and even keener traders than the Dahomi. In Whydah and +other coast towns are many mulattos, speaking Portuguese and bearing +high-sounding Portuguese names. In the north the inhabitants--Mahi, +Bariba, Gurmai,--are also of Negro stock, but scarcely so civilized as +the coast tribes. Settled among them are communities of Fula and Hausas. +There are many converts to Islam in the northern districts, but the Mahi +and Dahomeyans proper are nearly all fetish worshippers. + +_Chief Towns._--The chief port and the seat of government is Kotonu, the +starting-point of a railway to the Niger. An iron pier, which extends +well beyond the surf, affords facilities for shipping. Kotonu was +originally a small village which served as the seaport of Porto Novo and +was burnt to the ground in 1890. It has consequently the advantage of +being a town laid out by Europeans on a definite plan. Situated on the +beach between the sea and the lagoon of Porto Novo, the soil consists of +heavy sand. Good hard roads have been made. Owing to an almost +continuous, cool, westerly sea-breeze, Kotonu is, in comparison with the +other coast towns, decidedly healthy for white men. Porto Novo (pop. +about 50,000), the former French headquarters and chief business centre, +is on the northern side of the lagoon of the same name and 20 m. +north-east of Kotonu by water. The town has had many names, and that by +which it is known to Europeans was given by the Portuguese in the 17th +century. It contains numerous churches and mosques, public buildings and +merchants' residences. Whydah, 23 m. west of Kotonu, is an old and +formerly thickly-populated town. Its population is now about 15,000. It +is built on the north bank of the coast lagoon about 2 m. from the sea. +There is no harbour at the beach, and landing is effected in boats made +expressly to pass through the surf, here particularly heavy. Whydah, +during the period of the slave-trade, was divided into five quarters: +the English, French, Portuguese, Brazilian and native. The three first +quarters once had formidable forts, of which the French fort alone +survives. In consequence of the thousands of orange and citron trees +which adorn it, Whydah is called "the garden of Dahomey." West of +Whydah, on the coast and near the frontier of Togoland, is the trading +town of Grand Popo. Inland in Dahomey proper are Abomey (q.v.), the +ancient capital, Allada, Kana (formerly the country residence and +burial-place of the kings of Dahomey) and Dogba. In the hinterland are +Carnotville (a town of French creation), Nikki and Paraku, Borgu towns, +and Garu, on the right bank of the Niger near the British frontier, the +terminus of the railway from the coast. + +_Agriculture and Trade._--The agriculture, trade and commerce of Dahomey +proper are essentially different from that of the hinterland (_Haut +Dahome_). The soil of Dahomey proper is naturally fertile and is capable +of being highly cultivated. It consists of a rich clay of a deep red +colour. Finely-powdered quartz and yellow mica are met with, denoting +the deposit of disintegrated granite from the interior. The principal +product is palm-oil, which is made in large quantities throughout the +country. The district of Toffo is particularly noted for its oil-palm +orchards. Palm-wine is also made, but the manufacture is discouraged as +the process destroys the tree. Next to palm-oil the principal vegetable +products are maize, guinea-corn, cassava, yams, sweet potatoes, +plantains, coco-nuts, oranges, limes and the African apple, which grows +almost wild. The country also produces ground-nuts, kola-nuts, +pine-apples, guavas, spices of all kinds, ginger, okros (_Hibiscus_), +sugar-cane, onions, tomatoes and papaws. Plantations of rubber trees and +vines have been made. Cattle, sheep, goats and fowls are scarce. There +is a large fishing industry in the lagoons. Round the villages, and here +and there in the forest, clearings are met with, cultivated in places, +but agriculture is in a backward condition. In the grassy uplands of the +interior cattle and horses thrive, and cotton of a fairly good quality +is grown by the inhabitants for their own use. The prosperity of the +country depends chiefly on the export of palm-oil and palm-kernels. +Copra, kola-nuts, rubber and dried fish are also exported, the fish +going to Lagos. The adulteration of the palm-kernels by the natives, +which became a serious menace to trade, was partially checked +(1900-1903) by measures taken to ensure the inspection of the kernels +before shipment. Trade is mainly with Germany and Great Britain, a large +proportion of the cargo passing through the British port of Lagos. Only +some 25% of the commerce is with France. Cotton goods (chiefly from +Great Britain), machinery and metals, alcohol (from Germany) and tobacco +are the chief imports. The volume of trade, which had increased from +L701,000 in 1898 to L1,230,000 in 1902, declined in 1903 to L826,000 in +consequence of the failure of rain, this causing a decrease in the +production of palm-oil and kernels. In 1904 the total rose to L873,399. +In 1905 the figure was L734,667, and in 1907 L853,051. By the +Anglo-French Convention of 1898 the imposition of differential duties on +goods of British origin was forbidden for a period of thirty years from +that date. + +_Communications._--The Dahomey railway from Kotonu to the Niger is of +metre gauge (3.28 ft.). Work was begun in 1900, and in 1902 the main +line was completed to Toffo, a distance of 55 m. Some difficulty was +then encountered in crossing the Lama Marsh, but by the end of 1905 the +railway had been carried through Abomey to Pauignan, 120 m. from Kotonu. +In 1907 the rails had reached Paraku, 150 m. farther north. A branch +railway from the main line serves the western part of the colony. It +goes via Whydah to Segborue on Lake Aheme. Besides the railways, tramway +lines exist in various parts of Dahomey. One, 28 m. long, runs from +Porto Novo through the market-town of Adjara to Sakete, close to the +British frontier in the direction of Lagos. This line serves a belt of +country rich in oil-palms. Kotonu is a regular port of call for steamers +from Europe to the West Coast, and there is also regular steamship +communication along the lagoons between Porto Novo and Lagos. There is a +steamboat service between Porto Novo and Kotonu. A telegraph line +connects Kotonu with Abomey, the Niger and Senegal. + +_Administration._--The colony is administered by a lieutenant-governor, +assisted by a council composed of official and unofficial members. The +colony is divided into territories annexed, territories protected, and +"territories of political action," but for administrative purposes the +division is into "circles" or provinces. Over each circle is an +administrator with extensive powers. Except in the annexed territories +the native states are maintained under French supervision, and native +laws and customs, as far as possible, retained. Natives, however, may +place themselves under the jurisdiction of the French law. Such natives +are known as "Assimiles." In general the administrative system is the +same as that for all the colonies of French West Africa (q.v.). The +chief source of revenue is the customs, while the capitation tax +contributes most to the local budget. + +_History._--The kingdom of Dahomey, like those of Benin and Ashanti, is +an instance of a purely negro and pagan state, endowed with a highly +organized government, and possessing a certain amount of indigenous +civilization and culture. Its history begins about the commencement of +the 17th century. At that period the country now known as Dahomey was +included in the extensive kingdom of Allada or Ardrah, of which the +capital was the present town of Allada, on the road from Whydah to +Abomey. Allada became dismembered on the death of a reigning sovereign, +and three separate kingdoms were constituted under his three sons. One +state was formed by one brother round the old capital of Allada, and +retained the name of Allada or Ardrah; another brother migrated to the +east and formed a state known under the name of Porto Novo; while the +third brother, Takudonu, travelled northwards, and after some +vicissitudes established the kingdom of Dahomey. The word Dahomey means +"in Danh's belly," and is explained by the following legend which, says +Sir Richard Burton, "is known (1864) to everybody in the kingdom." +Takudonu having settled in a town called Uhwawe encroached on the land +of a neighbouring chief named Danh (the snake). Takudonu wearied Danh by +perpetual demands for land, and the chief one day exclaimed in anger +"soon thou wilt build in my belly." So it came to pass. Takudonu slew +Danh and over his grave built himself a palace which was called Dahomey, +a name thenceforth adopted by the new king's followers. About 1724-1728 +Dahomey, having become a powerful state, invaded and conquered +successively Allada and Whydah. The Whydahs made several attempts to +recover their freedom, but without success; while on the other hand the +Dahomeyans failed in all their expeditions against Grand Popo, a town +founded by refugee Whydahs on a lagoon to the west. It is related that +the repulses they met with in that quarter led to the order that no +Dahomeyan warrior was to enter a canoe. Porto Novo at the beginning of +the 19th century became tributary to Dahomey. + +Such was the state of affairs at the accession of King Gezo about the +year 1818. This monarch, who reigned forty years, raised the power of +Dahomey to its highest pitch, extending greatly the border of his +kingdom to the north. He boasted of having first organized the Amazons, +a force of women to whom he attributed his successes. The Amazons, +however, were state soldiery long before Gezo's reign, and what that +monarch really did was to reorganize and strengthen the force. + +In 1851 Gezo attacked Abeokuta in the Yoruba country and the centre of +the Egba power, but was beaten back. In the same year the king signed a +commercial treaty with France, in which Gezo also undertook to preserve +"the integrity of the territory belonging to the French fort" at Whydah. +The fort referred to was one built in the 17th century, and in 1842 made +over to a French mercantile house. England, Portugal and Brazil also had +"forts" at Whydah--all in a ruinous condition and ungarrisoned. But when +in 1852 England, to prevent the slave-trade, blockaded the Dahomeyan +coast, energetic protests were made by Portugal and France, based on the +existence of these "forts." In 1858 Gezo died. He had greatly reduced +the custom of human sacrifice, and left instructions that after his +death there was to be no general sacrifice of the palace women. + +Gezo was succeeded by his son Glegle (or Gelele), whose attacks on +neighbouring states, persecution of native Christians, and encouragement +of the slave-trade involved him in difficulties with Great Britain and +with France. It was, said Earl Russell, foreign secretary, to check "the +aggressive spirit of the king of Dahomey" that England in 1861 annexed +the island of Lagos. Nevertheless in the following year Glegle captured +Ishagga and in 1864 unsuccessfully attacked Abeokuta, both towns in the +Lagos hinterland. In 1863 Commander Wilmot, R.N., and in 1864 Sir +Richard Burton (the explorer and orientalist) were sent on missions to +the king, but their efforts to induce the Dahomeyans to give up human +sacrifices, slave-trading, &c. met with no success. In 1863, however, a +step was taken by France which was the counterpart of the British +annexation of Lagos. In that year the kingdom of Porto Novo accepted a +French protectorate, and an Anglo-French agreement of 1864 fixed its +boundaries. This protectorate was soon afterwards abandoned by Napoleon +III., but was re-established in 1882. At this period the rivalry of +European powers for possessions in Africa was becoming acute, and German +agents appeared on the Dahomeyan coast. However, by an arrangement +concluded in 1885, the German protectorate in Guinea was confined to +Togo, save for the town of Little Popo at the western end of the lagoon +of Grand Popo. In January 1886 Portugal--in virtue of her ancient rights +at Whydah--announced that she had assumed a protectorate over the +Dahomeyan coast, but she was induced by France to withdraw her +protectorate in December 1887. Finally, the last international +difficulty in the way of France was removed by the Anglo-French +agreement of 1889, whereby Kotonu was surrendered by Great Britain. +France claimed rights at Kotonu in virtue of treaties concluded with +Glegle in 1868 and 1878, but the chiefs of the town had placed +themselves under the protection of the British at Lagos. + +With the arrangements between the European powers the Dahomeyans had +little to do, and in 1889, the year in which the Anglo-French agreement +was signed, trouble arose between Glegle and the French. The Dahomeyans +were the more confident, as through German and other merchants at Whydah +they were well supplied with modern arms and ammunition. Glegle claimed +the right to collect the customs at Kotonu, and to depose the king of +Porto Novo, and proceeded to raid the territory of that potentate (his +brother). A French mission sent to Abomey failed to come to an agreement +with the Dahomeyans, who attributed the misunderstandings to the fact +that there was no longer a king in France! Glegle died on the 28th of +December 1889, two days after the French mission had left his capital. +He was succeeded by his son Behanzin. A French force was landed at +Kotonu, and severe fighting followed in which the Amazons played a +conspicuous part. In October 1890 a treaty was signed which secured to +France Porto Novo and Kotonu, and to the king of Dahomey an annual +pension of L800. It was unlikely that peace on such terms would prove +lasting, and Behanzin's slave-raiding expeditions led in 1892 to a new +war with France. General A. A. Dodds was placed in command of a strong +force of Europeans and Senegalese, and after a sharp campaign during +September and October completely defeated the Dahomeyan troops. Behanzin +set fire to Abomey (entered by the French troops on the 17th of +November) and fled north. Pursued by the enemy, abandoned by his people, +he surrendered unconditionally on the 25th of January 1894, and was +deported to Martinique, being transferred in 1906 to Algeria, where he +died on the 10th of December of the same year. + +Thus ended the independent existence of Dahomey. The French divided the +kingdom in two--Abomey and Allada--placing on the throne of Abomey a +brother of the exiled monarch. Chief among the causes which led to the +collapse of the Dahomeyan kingdom was the system which devoted the +flower of its womanhood to the profession of arms. + +Whydah and the adjacent territory was annexed to France by General Dodds +on the 3rd of December 1892, and the rest of Dahomey placed under a +French protectorate at the same time. The prince who had been made king +of Abomey was found intriguing against the French, and in 1900 was +exiled by them to the Congo, and with him disappeared the last vestige +of Dahomeyan sovereignty. + +Dahomey conquered, the French at once set to work to secure as much of +the hinterland as possible. On the north they penetrated to the Niger, +on the east they entered Borgu (a country claimed by the Royal Niger +Company for Great Britain), on the west they overlapped the territory +claimed by Germany as the hinterland of Togo. The struggle with Great +Britain and Germany for supremacy in this region forms one of the most +interesting chapters in the story of the partition of Africa. In the +result France succeeded in securing a junction between Dahomey and her +other possessions in West Africa, but failed to secure any part of the +Niger navigable from the sea (see AFRICA: _History_, and NIGERIA). A +Franco-German convention of 1897 settled the boundary on the west, and +the Anglo-French convention of the 14th of June 1898 defined the +frontier on the east. In 1899, on the disintegration of the French +Sudan, the districts of Fada N'Gurma and Say, lying north of Borgu, were +added to Dahomey, but in 1907 they were transferred to Upper +Senegal-Niger, with which colony they are closely connected both +geographically and ethnographically. From 1894 onward the French devoted +great attention to the development of the material resources of the +country. + +_The "Customs."_--Reference has already been made to the Dahomey +"Customs," which gave the country an infamous notoriety. The "Customs" +appear to date from the middle of the 17th century, and were of two +kinds: the grand Customs performed on the death of a king; and the minor +Customs, held twice a year. The horrors of these saturnalia of bloodshed +were attributable not to a love of cruelty but to filial piety. Upon the +death of a king human victims were sacrificed at his grave to supply him +with wives, attendants, &c. in the spirit world. The grand Customs +surpassed the annual rites in splendour and bloodshed. At those held in +1791 during January, February and March, it is stated that no fewer than +500 men, women and children were put to death. The minor Customs were +first heard of in Europe in the early years of the 18th century. They +formed continuations of the grand Customs, and "periodically supplied +the departed monarch with fresh attendants in the shadowy world." The +actual slaughter was preluded by dancing, feasting, speechmaking and +elaborate ceremonial. The victims, chiefly prisoners of war, were +dressed in calico shirts decorated round the neck and down the sleeves +with red bindings, and with a crimson patch on the left breast, and wore +long white night-caps with spirals of blue ribbon sewn on. Some of them, +tied in baskets, were at one stage of the proceedings taken to the top +of a high platform, together with an alligator, a cat and a hawk in +similar baskets, and paraded on the heads of the Amazons. The king then +made a speech explaining that the victims were sent to testify to his +greatness in spirit-land, the men and the animals each to their kind. +They were then hurled down into the middle of a surging crowd of +natives, and butchered. At another stage of the festival human +sacrifices were offered at the shrine of the king's ancestors, and the +blood was sprinkled on their graves. This was known as _Zan Nyanyana_ or +"evil night," the king going in procession with his wives and officials +and himself executing the doomed. These semi-public massacres formed +only a part of the slaughter, for many women, eunuchs and others within +the palace were done to death privately. The skulls were used to adorn +the palace walls, and the king's sleeping-chamber was paved with the +heads of his enemies. The skulls of the conquered kings were turned into +royal drinking cups, their conversion to this use being esteemed an +honour. Sir Richard Burton insists (_A Mission to Gelele, King of +Dahome_) that the horrors of these rites were greatly exaggerated. For +instance, the story that the king floated a canoe in a tank of human +blood was, he writes, quite untrue. He denies, too, that the victims +were tortured, and affirms that on the contrary they were treated +humanely, and, in many cases, even acquiesced in their fate. It seems +that cannibalism was a sequel of the Customs, the bodies of the +slaughtered being roasted and devoured smoking hot. On the death of the +king the wives, after the most extravagant demonstrations of grief, +broke and destroyed everything within their reach, and attacked and +murdered each other, the uproar continuing until order was restored by +the new sovereign. + +_Amazonian Army._--The training of women as soldiers was the most +singular Dahomeyan institution. About one-fourth of the whole female +population were said to be "married to the fetich," many even before +their birth, and the remainder were entirely at the disposal of the +king. The most favoured were selected as his own wives or enlisted into +the regiments of Amazons, and then the chief men were liberally +supplied. Of the female captives the most promising were drafted into +the ranks as soldiers, and the rest became Amazonian camp followers and +slaves in the royal households. These female levies formed the flower of +the Dahomeyan army. They were marshalled in regiments, each with its +distinctive uniform and badges, and they took the post of honour in all +battles. Their number has been variously stated. Sir R. F. Burton, in +1862, who saw the army marching out of Kana on an expedition, computed +the whole force of female troops at 2500, of whom one-third were unarmed +or only half-armed. Their weapons were blunderbusses, flint muskets, and +bows and arrows. A later writer estimated the number of Amazons at 1000, +and the male soldiers at 10,000. The system of warfare was one of +surprise. The army marched out, and, when within a few days' journey of +the town to be attacked, silence was enjoined and no fires permitted. +The regular highways were avoided, and the advance was by a road +specially cut through the bush. The town was surrounded at night, and +just before daybreak a rush was made and every soul captured if +possible; none were killed except in self-defence, as the first object +was to capture, not to kill. The season usually selected for expeditions +was from January to March, or immediately after the annual "Customs." +The Amazons were carefully trained, and the king was in the habit of +holding "autumn manoeuvres" for the benefit of foreigners. Many +Europeans have witnessed a mimic assault, and agree in ascribing a +marvellous power of endurance to the women. Lines of thorny acacia were +piled up one behind the other to represent defences, and at a given +signal the Amazons, barefooted and without any special protection, +charged and disappeared from sight. Presently they emerged within the +lines torn and bleeding, but apparently insensible to pain, and the +parade closed with a march past, each warrior leading a pretended +captive bound with a rope. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Notre Colonie de Dahomey_, by G. Francois (Paris, + 1906), and _Le Dahomey_ (1909), an official publication, deal with + topography, ethnography and economics; L. Brunet and L. Giethlen, + _Dahomey et dependances_ (Paris, 1900); Edouard Foa, _Le Dahomey_ + (Paris, 1895). Religion, laws and language are specially dealt with in + _Ewe-Speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, by A. B. Ellis (London, + 1890), and in _La Cote des Esclaves et le Dahomey_, by P. Bouche + (Paris, 1885). Much historical matter, with particular notices of the + Amazons and the "Customs," is contained in _A Mission to Gelele_, by + Sir R. Burton (London, 1864). The story of the French conquest is told + in _Campagne du Dahomey_, by Jules Poirier (Paris, 1895). The standard + authority on the early history is _The History of Dahomey_, by + Archibald Dalzel (sometime governor of the English fort at Whydah) + (London, 1793). The annual _Reports_ issued by the British, Foreign, + and French Colonial Offices may be consulted, and the _Bibliographie + raisonnee des ouvrages concernant le Dahomey_, by A. Pawlowski (Paris, + 1895), is a useful guide to the literature of the country to that + date. A _Carte du Dahomey_, by A. Meunier, (3 sheets, scale + 1:500,000), was published in Paris, 1907. + + + + +DAILLE (DALLAEUS), JEAN (1594-1670), French Protestant divine, was born +at Chatellerault and educated at Poitiers and Saumur. From 1612 to 1621 +he was tutor to two of the grandsons of Philippe de Mornay, seigneur du +Plessis Marly. Ordained to the ministry in 1623, he was for some time +private chaplain to Du Plessis Mornay, whose memoirs he subsequently +wrote. In 1625 Daille was appointed minister of the church of Saumur, +and in 1626 was chosen by the Paris consistory to be minister of the +church of Charenton. Of his works, which are principally controversial, +the best known is the treatise _Du vrai emploi des Peres_ (1631), +translated into English by Thomas Smith under the title _A Treatise +concerning the right use of the Fathers_ (1651). The work attacks those +who made the authority of the Fathers conclusive on matters of faith and +practice. Daille contends that the text of the Fathers is often corrupt, +and that even when it is correct their reasoning is often illogical. In +his _Sermons_ on the Philippians and Colossians, Daille vindicated his +claim to rank as a great preacher as well as an able controversialist. +He was president of the last national synod held in France, which met at +Loudun in 1659 (H. M. Baird, _The Huguenots and the Revocation of the +Edict of Nantes_, 1895, i. pp. 412 ff.), when, as in the _Apologie des +Synodes d'Alencon et de Charenton_ (1655), he defended the universalism +of Moses Amyraut. He wrote also _Apologie pour les Eglises Reformees_ +and _La Foy fondee sur les Saintes Ecritures_. His life was written by +his son Adrien, who retired to Zurich at the revocation of the edict of +Nantes. + + + + +DAIRY and DAIRY-FARMING (from the Mid. Eng. _deieris_, from _dey_, a +maid-servant, particularly one about a farm; cf. Norw. _deia_, as in +_bu-deia_, a maid in charge of live-stock, and in other compounds; thus +"dairy" means that part of the farm buildings where the "dey" works). +Milk, either in its natural state, or in the form of butter and cheese, +is an article of diet so useful, wholesome and palatable, that dairy +management, which includes all that concerns its production and +treatment, constitutes a most important branch of husbandry. The +physical conditions of the different countries of the world have +determined in each case the most suitable animal for dairy purposes. The +Laplander obtains his supplies of milk from his rein-deer, the roving +Tatar from his mares, and the Bedouin of the desert from his camels. In +the temperate regions of the earth many pastoral tribes subsist mainly +upon the milk of the sheep. In some rocky regions the goat is invaluable +as a milk-yielder; and the buffalo is equally so amid the swamps and +jungles of tropical climates. The milking of ewes was once a common +practice in Great Britain; but it has fallen into disuse because of its +hurtful effects upon the flock. A few milch asses and goats are here and +there kept for the benefit of infants or invalids; but with these +exceptions the cow is the only animal now used for dairy purposes. + +No branch of agriculture underwent greater changes during the closing +quarter of the 19th century than dairy-farming; within the period named, +indeed, the dairying industry may be said to have been revolutionized. +The two great factors in this modification were the introduction about +the year 1880 of the centrifugal cream-separator, whereby the old slow +system of raising cream in pans was dispensed with, and the invention +some ten years later of a quick and easy method of ascertaining the fat +content of samples of milk without having to resort to the tedious +processes of chemical analysis. About the year 1875 the agriculturists +of the United Kingdom, influenced by various economic causes, began to +turn their thoughts more intently in the direction of dairy-farming, and +to the increased production of milk and cream, butter and cheese. On the +24th of October 1876 was held the first London dairy show, under the +auspices of a committee of agriculturists, and it has been followed by a +similar show in every subsequent year. The official report of the +pioneer show stated that "there was a much larger attendance and a +greater amount of enthusiasm in the movement than even the most sanguine +of its promoters anticipated." On the day named Professor J. Prince +Sheldon read at the show a paper on the dairying industry, and proposed +the formation of a society to be called the British Dairy Farmers' +Association. This was unanimously agreed to, and thus was founded an +organization which has since been closely identified with the +development of the dairying industry of the United Kingdom. In its +earlier publications the Association was wont to reproduce from +_Household Words_ the following tribute to the cow:-- + + "If civilized people were ever to lapse into the worship of animals, + the Cow would certainly be their chief goddess. What a fountain of + blessings is the Cow! She is the mother of beef, the source of butter, + the original cause of cheese, to say nothing of shoe-horns, hair-combs + and upper leather. A gentle, amiable, ever-yielding creature, who has + no joy in her family affairs which she does not share with man. We rob + her of her children that we may rob her of her milk, and we only care + for her when the robbing may be perpetrated." + +The association has, directly or indirectly, brought about many valuable +reforms and improvements in dairying. Its London shows have provided, +year after year, a variety of object-lessons in cheese, in butter and in +dairy equipment. In order to demonstrate to producers what is the ideal +to aim at, there is nothing more effective than a competitive exhibition +of products, and the approach to uniform excellence of character in +cheese and butter of whatever kinds is most obvious to those who +remember what these products were like at the first two or three dairy +shows. Simultaneously there has been a no less marked advance in the +mechanical aids to dairying, including, in particular, the centrifugal +cream-separator, the crude germ of which was first brought before the +public at the international dairy show held at Hamburg in the spring of +1877. The association in good time set the example, now beneficially +followed in many parts of Great Britain, of providing means for +technical instruction in the making of cheese and butter, by the +establishment of a dairy school in the Vale of Aylesbury, subsequently +removing it to new and excellent premises at Reading, where it is known +as the British Dairy Institute. The initiation of butter-making contests +at the annual dairy shows stimulated the competitive instinct of dairy +workers, and afforded the public useful object-lessons; in more recent +years milking competitions have been added. Milking trials and butter +tests of cows conducted at the dairy shows have afforded results of much +practical value. Many of the larger agricultural societies have found it +expedient to include in their annual shows a working dairy, wherein +butter-making contests are held and public demonstrations are given. + +What are regarded as the dairy breeds of cattle is illustrated by the +prize schedule of the annual London dairy show, in which sections are +provided for cows and heifers of the Shorthorn, Jersey, Guernsey, Red +Polled, Ayrshire, Kerry and Dexter breeds (see CATTLE). A miscellaneous +class is also provided, the entries in which are mostly cross-breds. +There are likewise classes for Shorthorn bulls, Jersey bulls, and bulls +of any other pure breed, but it is stipulated that all bulls must be of +proved descent from dams that have won prizes in the milking trials or +butter tests of the British Dairy Farmers' Association or other +high-class agricultural society. The importance of securing dairy +characters in the sire is thus recognized, and it is notified that, as +the object of the bull classes is to encourage the breeding of bulls for +dairy purposes, the prizes are to be given solely to animals exhibited +in good stock-getting condition. + + +MILK AND BUTTER TESTS + +The award of prizes in connexion with milking trials cannot be +determined simply by the quantity of milk yielded in a given period, say +twenty-four hours. Other matters must obviously be taken into +consideration, such as the quality of the milk and the time that has +elapsed since the birth cf the last calf. With regard to the former +point, for example, it is quite possible for one cow to give more milk +than another, but for the milk of the second cow to include the larger +quantity of butter-fat. The awards are therefore determined by the total +number of points obtained according to the following scheme:-- + + One point for every ten days since calving (deducting the first forty + days), with a maximum of fourteen points. + + One point for every pound of milk, taking the average of two days' + yield. + + Twenty points for every pound of butter-fat produced. + + Four points for every pound of "solids other than fat." + + _Deductions._--Ten points each time the fat is below 3%. Ten points + each time the solids other than fat fall below 8.5%. + + TABLE I.--_Prize Shorthorn and Jersey Cows in the Milking Trials, + London Dairy Show, 1900._ + + +------------------------+------+------+------+------+-------+-------+ + | | | In | Milk | | Other | Total | + | Cow. | Age. | Milk.| per | Fat. |Solids.|Points.| + | | | | Day. | | | | + +------------------------+------+------+------+------+-------+-------+ + | |Years.| Days.| lb. | % | % | No. | + |_Shorthorns eligible | | | | | | | + | for Herd-Book_-- | | | | | | | + | Heroine III. | 6 | 61 | 52.4 | 3.7 | 8.3 | 91.5 | + | Musical | 7 | 16 | 45.2 | 3.2 | 9.3 | 90.8 | + | Lady Rosedale | 8 | 48 | 47.8 | 3.5 | 9.0 | 88.7 | + |_Shorthorns not eligible| | | | | | | + | for Herd-Book_-- | | | | | | | + | Granny | 9 | 33 | 70.2 | 3.5 | 8.9 | 144.1 | + | Cherry | 9 | 103 | 55.5 | 4.0 | 8.9 | 127.1 | + | Chance | 6 | 23 | 60.0 | 3.6 | 8.9 | 124.6 | + |_Jerseys_-- | | | | | | | + | Sultane 14th | 12 | 256 | 41.7 | 4.9 | 9.4 | 112 | + | Queen Bess |7(1/2)| 136 | 39.4 | 4.8 | 9.0 | 101 | + | Gloaming IV. | 7 | 156 | 30.5 | 6.7 | 9.5 | 94.9 | + +------------------------+------+------+------+------+-------+-------+ + +This method of award is at present the best that can be devised, but it +is possible that, as experience accumulates, some rearrangement of the +points may be found to be desirable. Omitting many of the details, Table +I. shows some of the results in the case of Shorthorn and Jersey prize +cows. The days "in milk" denote in each case the number of days that +have elapsed since calving; and if the one day's yield of milk is +desired in gallons, it can be obtained approximately[1] by dividing the +weight in pounds by 10: thus, the Shorthorn cow Heroine III. gave 52.4 +lb., or 5.24 gallons, of milk per day. The table is incidentally of +interest as showing how superior as milch kine are the unregistered or +non-pedigree Shorthorns--which are typical of the great majority of +dairy cows in the United Kingdom--as compared with the pedigree animals +entered, or eligible for entry, in Coates's Herd-Book. The evening's +milk, it should be added, is nearly always richer in fat than the +morning's, but the percentages in the table relate to the entire day's +milk. + +The milking trials are based upon a chemical test, as it is necessary to +determine the percentage of fat and of solids other than fat in each +sample of milk. The butter test, on the other hand, is a churn test, as +the cream has to be separated from the milk and churned. The following +is the scale of points used at the London dairy show in making awards in +butter tests:-- + + One point for every ounce of butter; one point for every completed ten + days since calving, deducting the first forty days. Maximum allowance + for period of lactation, 12 points. + + Fractions of ounces of butter, and incomplete periods of less than ten + days, to be worked out in decimals and added to the total points. + + In the case of cows obtaining the same number of points, the prize to + be awarded to the cow that has been the longest time in milk. + + No prize or certificate to be given in the case of:-- + + (a) Cows under five years old failing to obtain 28 points. + (b) Cows five years old and over failing to obtain 32 points. + + TABLE II.--_Prize Shorthorn and Jersey Cows in the Butter Tests, + London Dairy Show, 1900._ + + +------------+------+-----+--------+-----------+-------+-------+----------+-------+ + | | | In | Milk | |Milk to|Points | Points | Total | + | Cows. | Age. |Milk.| per | Butter. | 1 lb. | for | for |Points.| + | | | | Day. | |Butter.|Butter.|Lactation.| | + +------------+------+-----+--------+-----------+-------+-------+----------+-------+ + | |Years.|Days.|lb. oz. | lb. oz. | lb. | No. | No. | No. | + |Shorthorns--| | | | | | | | | + | 1st | 9 | 104 | 55 2 | 2 5(1/4) | 23.67 | 37.25 | 6.40 | 43.65 | + | 2nd | 9 | 34 | 72 7 | 2 10(3/4) | 27.11 | 42.75 | .. | 42.75 | + | 3rd | 7 | 33 | 58 5 | 2 7(3/4) | 23.47 | 39.75 | .. | 39.75 | + |Jerseys-- | | | | | | | | | + | 1st | 7 | 157 | 29 10 | 2 2(1/4) | 13.83 | 34.25 | 11.70 | 45.95 | + | 2nd | 4 | 103 | 33 10 | 2 3 | 15.37 | 35.00 | 6.30 | 41.30 | + | 3rd | 12 | 257 | 40 13 | 1 12 | 23.32 | 28.00 | 12.00 | 40.00 | + +------------+------+-----+--------+-----------+-------+-------+----------+-------+ + +The manner in which butter tests are decided will be rendered clear by a +study of Table II. It is seen that whilst the much larger Shorthorn +cows--having a bigger frame to maintain and consuming more food--gave +both more milk and more butter in the day of twenty-four hours, the +Jersey milk was much the richer in fat. In the case of the first-prize +Jersey the "butter ratio," as it is termed, was excellent, as only 13.83 +lb. of milk were required to yield 1 lb. of butter; in the case of the +second-prize Shorthorn, practically twice this quantity (or 27.11 lb) +was needed. Moreover, if the days in milk are taken into account, the +difference in favour of the Jersey is seen to be 123 days. + + TABLE III.--_Summary of the English Jersey Cattle Society's Butter + Tests, Fourteen Years, 1886-1899._ + + +---------+-------+-------+------------+------------+---------+ + | | |Average| Average | Average |Quantity | + | Cows' | Cows |Time in| Milk | Butter | Milk to | + | Ages. |Tested.| Milk. | Yield. | Yield. | 1 lb. | + | | | | | | Butter | + +---------+-------+-------+------------+------------+---------+ + | Years. | No. | Days | lb. oz. | lb. oz. | lb. | + | 1 to 2 | 2 | 34 | 15 2 | 0 13 | 18.43 | + | 2 " 3 | 57 | 73 | 24 15(1/4) | 1 5(1/4) | 18.74 | + | 3 " 4 | 108 | 77 | 29 14(3/4) | 1 10 | 18.42 | + | 4 " 5 | 165 | 72 | 32 5(1/2) | 1 11(1/4) | 19.01 | + | 5 " 6 | 188 | 80 | 32 15(1/4) | 1 12 | 18.76 | + | 6 " 7 | 189 | 89 | 34 7(3/4) | 1 13 | 18.92 | + | 7 " 8 | 139 | 84 | 33 11(1/4) | 1 13(1/4) | 18.40 | + | 8 " 9 | 71 | 82 | 33 6(1/2) | 1 12 | 19.03 | + | 9 " 10 | 42 | 92 | 32 6(1/2) | 1 11(1/4) | 18.95 | + |10 " 11 | 31 | 88 | 35 4 | 1 14(1/4) | 18.60 | + |11 " 12 | 15 | 89 | 37 1 | 1 13(3/4) | 19.96 | + |12 " 13 | 13 | 95 | 34 1(1/4) | 1 10(1/2) | 20.56 | + |13 " 14 | 3 | 54 | 42 1(1/4) | 2 1(3/4) | 19.85 | + +---------+-------+-------+------------+------------+---------+ + +The butter-yielding capacity of the choicest class of butter cows, the +Jerseys, is amply illustrated in the results of the butter tests +conducted by the English Jersey Cattle Society over the period of +fourteen years 1886 to 1899 inclusive. These tests were carried out year +after year at half a dozen different shows, and the results are +classified in Table III. according to the age of the animals. The +average time in milk is measured by the number of days since calving, +and the milk and butter yields are those for the day of twenty-four +hours. The last column shows the "butter ratio." This number is lower in +the case of the Jerseys than in that of the general run of dairy cows. +The average results from the total of 1023 cows of the various ages +are:--One day's milk, 32 lb. 2(1/4) oz., equal to about 3 gallons or 12 +quarts; one day's butter, 1 lb. 10(3/4) oz.; butter ratio, 19.13 or +about 16 pints of milk to 1 lb. of butter. Individual yields are +sometimes extraordinarily high. Thus at the Tring show in 1899 the three +leading Jersey cows gave the following results:-- + + +--------------+-------+-------+--------+------------+--------+ + | Cow. | Age. | Live- |In Milk.| Butter. | Butter | + | | |Weight.| | | Ratio. | + +--------------+-------+-------+--------+------------+--------+ + | | Years.| lb. | Days. | lb. oz. | lb. | + | Sundew 4th | 8 | 929 | 77 | 3 6(3/4) | 15.10 | + | Madeira 5th | 7 | 1060 | 107 | 2 15(1/2) | 16.14 | + | Em | 7 | 864 | 44 | 3 4(3/4) | 13.32 | + +--------------+-------+-------+--------+------------+--------+ + +The eight prize-winning Jerseys on this occasion, with an average weight +of 916 lb. and an average of 117 days in milk, yielded an average of 2 +lb. 9 oz. of butter per cow in the twenty-four hours, the butter ratio +working out at 16.69. At the Tring show of 1900 a Shorthorn cow Cherry +gave as much as 4 lb. 4(1/2) oz. of butter in twenty-four hours; she had +been in milk 41 days, and her butter ratio worked out at 15.79, which is +unusually good for a big cow. + +In the six years 1895 to 1900 inclusive 285 cows of the Shorthorn, +Jersey, Guernsey and Red Polled breeds were subjected to butter tests at +the London dairy show, and the general results are summarized in Table +IV. + +Although cows in the showyard may perhaps be somewhat upset by their +unusual surroundings, and thus not yield so well as at home, yet the +average results of these butter-test trials over a number of years are +borne out by the private trials that have taken place in various herds. +The trials have, moreover, brought into prominence the peculiarities of +different breeds, such as: (a) that the Shorthorns, Red Polls and +Kerries, being cattle whose milk contains small fat globules, are better +for milk than the Jerseys and Guernseys, whose milk is richer, +containing larger-sized fat globules, and is therefore more profitable +for converting into butter; (b) that the weights of the animals, and +consequently the proportionate food, must be taken into account in +estimating the cost of the dairy produce; (c) that the influence of the +stage reached in the period of lactation is much more marked in some +breeds than in others. + + TABLE IV.--_Average Butter Yields and Butter Ratios at the London + Dairy Show, Six Years, 1895-1900._ + + +--------------+-------+-------+------------+--------------+ + | Breed. |No. of | In | Butter. | Milk to 1 lb.| + | | Cows. | Milk. | | Butter. | + +--------------+-------+-------+------------+--------------+ + | | | Days. | lb. oz. | lb. | + | Shorthorn | 106 | 50 | 1 11 | 28.81 | + | Jersey | 126 | 99 | 1 10(1/4) | 19.15 | + | Guernsey | 23 | 72 | 1 9(1/2) | 21.86 | + | Red Polled | 30 | 60 | 1 4(3/4) | 30.29 | + +--------------+-------+-------+------------+--------------+ + +An instructive example of the milk-yielding capacity of Jersey cows is +afforded in the carefully kept records of Lord Rothschild's herd at +Tring Park, Herts. Overleaf are given the figures for four years, the +gallons being calculated at the rate of 10 lb of milk to the gallon. + + In 1897, 30 cows averaged 6396 lb., or 640 gallons per cow. + In 1898, 29 " " 6209 " 621 " " + In 1899, 37 " " 6430 " 643 " " + In 1900, 39 " " 6136 " 614 " " + +The average over the four years works out at about 630 gallons per cow +per annum. + +Cows of larger type will give more milk than the Jerseys, but it is less +rich in fat. The milk record for the year 1900 of the herd of Red Polled +cattle belonging to Mr Garrett Taylor, Whitlingham, Norfolk, affords a +good example. The cows in the herd, which had before 1900 produced one +or more calves, and in 1900 added another to the list, being in full +profit the greater part of the year, numbered 82. Their total yield was +521,950 lb. of milk, or an average of 6365 lb.--equivalent to about 636 +gallons--per cow. In 1899 the average yield of 96 cows was 6283 lb. or +628 gallons; in 1898 the average yield of 75 cows was 6473 lb. or 647 +gallons. Of cows which dropped a first calf in the autumn of 1899, one +of them--Lemon--milked continuously for 462 days, yielding a total of +7166 lb. of milk, being still in milk when the herd year closed on the +27th of December. Similar cases were those of Nora, which gave 9066 lb. +of milk in 455 days; Doris, 8138 lb. in 462 days; Brisk, 9248 lb. in 469 +days; Della, 8806 lb. in 434 days, drying 28 days before the year ended; +and Lottie, 6327 lb. in 394 days, also drying 28 days before the year +ended; these were all cows with their first calf. Eight cows in the herd +gave milk on every day of the 52 weeks, and 30 others had their milk +recorded on 300 days or more. Three heifers which produced a first calf +before the 11th of April 1900, averaged in the year 4569 lb. of milk, or +about 456 gallons. In 1900 three cows, Eyke Jessie, Kathleen and Doss, +each gave over 10,000 lb., or 1000 gallons of milk; four cows gave from +9000 lb. to 10,000 lb., two from 8000 lb. to 9000 lb., 17 from 7000 lb. +to 8000 lb., 19 from 6000 lb. to 7000 lb., 30 from 5000 lb. to 6000 lb., +and 16 from 4000 lb. to 5000 lb. The practice, long followed at +Whitlingham, of developing the milk-yielding habit by milking a young +cow so long as she gives even a small quantity of milk daily, is well +supported by the figures denoting the results. + +Though milking trials and butter tests are not usually available to the +ordinary dairy farmer in the management of his herd, it is, on the other +hand, a simple matter for him to keep what is known as a milk register. +By a milk register is meant a record of the quantity of milk yielded by +a cow. In other words, it is a quantitative estimation of the milk the +cow gives. It affords no information as to the quality of the milk or as +to its butter-yielding or cheese-yielding capacity. Nevertheless, by its +aid the milk-producing capacity of a cow can be ascertained exactly, and +her character in this respect can be expressed by means of figures about +which there need be no equivocation. A greater or less degree of +exactness can be secured, according to the greater or less frequency +with which the register is taken. Even a weekly register would give a +fair idea as to the milk yields of a cow, and would be extremely +valuable as compared with no register at all. + +The practice of taking the milk register, as followed in a well-known +dairy, may be briefly described. The cows are always milked in the +stalls, and during summer they are brought in twice a day for this +purpose. After each cow is milked, the pail containing the whole of her +milk is hung on a spring balance suspended in a convenient position, and +from the gross weight indicated there is deducted the already known +weight of the pail.[2] The difference, which represents the weight of +milk, is recorded in a book suitably ruled. This book when open presents +a view of one week's records. In the left-hand column are the names of +the cows; on the right of this are fourteen columns, two of which +receive the morning and evening record of each cow. In a final column on +the right appears the week's total yield for each cow; and space is also +allowed for any remarks. Fractions of a pound are not entered, but 18 +lb. 12 oz. would be recorded as 19 lb., whereas 21 lb. 5 oz. would +appear as 21 lb., so that a fraction of over half a pound is considered +as a whole pound, and a fraction of under half a pound is ignored. By +dividing the pounds by 10 the yield in gallons is readily ascertained. + +Every dairy farmer has some idea, as to each of his cows, whether she is +a good, a bad or an indifferent milker, but such knowledge is at best +only vague. By the simple means indicated the character of each cow as a +milk-producer is slowly but surely recorded in a manner which is at once +exact and definite. Such a record is particularly valuable to the +farmer, in that it shows to him the relative milk-yielding capacities of +his cows, and thus enables him gradually to weed out the naturally poor +milkers and replace them by better ones. It also guides him in +regulating the supply of food according to the yield of milk. The +register will, in fact, indicate unerringly which are the best +milk-yielding cows in the dairy, and which therefore are, with the +milking capacity in view, the best to breed from. + +The simplicity and inexpensiveness of the milk register must not be +overlooked. These are features which should commend it especially to the +notice of small dairy farmers, for with a moderate number of cows it is +particularly easy to introduce the register. But even with a large dairy +it will be found that, as soon as the system has got fairly established, +the additional time and trouble involved will sink into insignificance +when compared with the benefits which accrue. + +The importance of ascertaining not only the quantity, but also the +quality of milk is aptly illustrated in the case of two cows at the +Tring show, 1900. The one cow gave in 24 hours 4(1/2) gallons of milk, +which at 7d. per gallon would work out at about 2s. 7d.; she made 2 lb. +12 oz. of butter, which at 1s. 4d. per lb. would bring in 3s. 8d.; +consequently by selling the milk the owner lost about 1s. 1d. per day. +The second cow gave 5(1/3) gallons of milk, which would work out at 3s. +1d.; she made 1 lb. 12 oz. of butter, which would only be worth 2s. 4d., +so that by converting the milk into butter the owner lost 9d. per day. + +The colour of milk is to some extent an indication of its quality--the +deeper the colour the better the quality. The colour depends upon the +size of the fat globules, a deep yellowish colour indicating large +globules of fat. When the globules are of large size the milk will churn +more readily, and the butter is better both in quality and in colour. + +The following fifty dairy rules relating to the milking and general +management of cows, and to the care of milk and dairy utensils, were +drawn up on behalf of, and published by, the United States department of +agriculture at Washington. They are given here with a few merely verbal +alterations:-- + + + THE OWNER AND HIS HELPERS + + 1. Read current dairy literature and keep posted on new ideas. + + 2. Observe and enforce the utmost cleanliness about the cattle, their + attendants, the cow-house, the dairy and all utensils. + + 3. A person suffering from any disease, or who has been exposed to a + contagious disease, must remain away from the cows and the milk. + + + THE COW-HOUSE + + 4. Keep dairy cattle in a shed or building by themselves. It is + preferable to have no cellar below and no storage loft above. + + 5. Cow-houses should be well ventilated, lighted and drained; should + have tight floors and walls, and be plainly constructed. + + 6. Never use musty or dirty litter. + + 7. Allow no strong-smelling material in the cow-house for any length + of time. Store the manure under cover outside the cow-house, and + remove it to a distance as often as practicable. + + 8. Whitewash the cow-house once or twice a year; use gypsum in the + manure gutters daily. + + 9. Use no dry, dusty feed just previous to milking; if fodder is + dusty, sprinkle it before it is fed. + + 10. Clean and thoroughly air the cow-house before milking; in hot + weather sprinkle the floor. + + 11. Keep the cow-house and dairy room in good condition, and then + insist that the dairy, factory or place where the milk goes be kept + equally well. + + + THE COWS + + 12. Have the herd examined at least twice a year by a skilled + veterinarian. + + 13. Promptly remove from the herd any animal suspected of being in bad + health, and reject her milk. Never add an animal to the herd until it + is ascertained to be free from disease, especially tuberculosis. + + 14. Do not move cows faster than a comfortable walk while on the way + to the place of milking or feeding. + + 15. Never allow the cows to be excited by hard driving, abuse, loud + talking or unnecessary disturbance; do not expose them to cold or + storms. + + 16. Do not change the feed suddenly. + + 17. Feed liberally, and use only fresh, palatable feed-stuffs; in no + case should decomposed or mouldy material be used. + + 18. Provide water in abundance, easy of access, and always pure; + fresh, but not too cold. + + 19. Salt should always be accessible to the cows. + + 20. Do not allow any strong-flavoured food, like garlic, cabbages and + turnips, to be eaten, except immediately after milking. + + 21. Clean the entire skin of the cow daily. If hair in the region of + the udder is not easily kept clean, it should be clipped. + + 22. Do not use the milk within twenty days before calving, nor for + three to five days afterwards. + + + MILKING + + 23. The milker should be clean in all respects; he should not use + tobacco while milking; he should wash and dry his hands just before + milking. + + 24. The milker should wear a clean outer garment, used only when + milking and kept in a clean place at other times. + + 25. Brush the udder and surrounding parts just before milking and wipe + them with a clean damp cloth or sponge. + + 26. Milk quietly, quickly, cleanly and thoroughly. Cows do not like + unnecessary noise or delay. Commence milking at exactly the same hour + every morning and evening, and milk the cows in the same order. + + 27. Throw away (but not on the floor--better in the gutter) the first + two or three streams from each teat; this milk is very watery and of + little value, but it may injure the rest. + + 28. If in any milking a part of the milk is bloody or stringy or + unnatural in appearance, the whole should be rejected. + + 29. Milk with dry hands; never let the hands come in contact with the + milk. + + 30. Do not allow dogs, cats or loafers to be around at milking time. + + 31. If any accident occurs by which a pail, full or partly full, of + milk becomes dirty, do not try to remedy this by straining, but reject + all this milk and rinse the pail. + + 32. Weigh and record the milk given by each cow, and take a sample + morning and night, at least once a week, for testing by the fat test. + + + CARE OF MILK + + 33. Remove the milk of every cow at once from the cow-house to a clean + dry room, where the air is pure and sweet. Do not allow cans to remain + in the cow-house while they are being filled with milk. + + 34. Strain the milk through a metal gauze and a flannel cloth or layer + of cotton as soon as it is drawn. + + 35. Cool the milk as soon as strained--to 45 deg. F. if the milk is for + shipment, or to 60 deg. if for home use or delivery to a factory. + + 36. Never close a can containing warm milk. + + 37. If the cover is left off the can, a piece of cloth or mosquito + netting should be used to keep out insects. + + 38. If milk is stored, it should be kept in tanks of fresh cold water + (renewed as often as the temperature increases to any material + extent), in a clean, dry, cold room. Unless it is desired to remove + cream, it should be stirred with a tin stirrer often enough to prevent + the forming of a thick cream layer. + + 39. Keep the night milk under shelter so that rain cannot get into the + cans. In warm weather keep it in a tank of fresh cold water. + + 40. Never mix fresh warm milk with that which has been cooled. + + 41. Do not allow the milk to freeze. + + 42. In no circumstances should anything be added to milk to prevent + its souring. Cleanliness and cold are the only preventives needed. + + 43. All milk should be in good condition when delivered at a creamery + or a cheesery. This may make it necessary to deliver twice a day + during the hottest weather. + + 44. When cans are hauled far they should be full, and carried in a + spring waggon. + + 45. In hot weather cover the cans, when moved in a waggon, with a + clean wet blanket or canvas. + + + THE UTENSILS + + 46. Milk utensils for farm use should be made of metal and have all + joints smoothly soldered. Never allow them to become rusty or rough + inside. + + 47. Do not haul waste products back to the farm in the cans used for + delivering milk. When this is unavoidable, insist that the skim milk + or whey tank be kept clean. + + 48. Cans used for the return of skim milk or whey should be emptied, + scalded and cleaned as soon as they arrive at the farm. + + 49. Clean all dairy utensils by first thoroughly rinsing them in warm + water; next clean inside and out with a brush and hot water in which a + cleaning material is dissolved; then rinse and, lastly, sterilize by + boiling water or steam. Use pure water only. + + 50. After cleaning, keep utensils inverted in pure air, and sun if + possible, until wanted for use. + + +FOOD AND MILK PRODUCTION + +In their comprehensive paper relating to the feeding of animals +published in 1895, Lawes and Gilbert discussed amongst other questions +that of milk production, and directed attention to the great difference +in the demands made on the food--on the one hand for the production of +meat (that is, of animal increase), and on the other for the production +of milk. Not only, however, do cows of different breeds yield different +quantities of milk, and milk of characteristically different +composition, but individual animals of the same breed have very +different milk-yielding capacity; and whatever the capacity of a cow may +be, she has a maximum yield at one period of her lactation, which is +followed by a gradual decline. Hence, in comparing the amounts of +constituents stored up in the fattening increase of an ox with the +amounts of the same constituents removed in the milk of a cow, it is +necessary to assume a wide range of difference in the yield of milk. +Accordingly, Table V. shows the amounts of nitrogenous substance, of +fat, of non-nitrogenous substance not fat, of mineral matter, and of +total solid matter, carried off in the weekly yield of milk of a cow, on +the alternative assumptions of a production of 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, +18 or 20 quarts per head per day. For comparison, there are given at the +foot of the table the amounts of nitrogenous substance, of fat, of +mineral matter, and of total solid matter, in the weekly increase in +live-weight of a fattening ox of an average weight of 1000 lb.--on the +assumption of a weekly increase, first, of 10 lb., and, secondly, of 15 +lb. The estimates of the amounts of constituents in the milk are based +on the assumption that it will contain 12.5% of total solids--consisting +of 3.65 albuminoids, 3.50 butter-fat, 4.60 sugar and 0.75 of mineral +matter. The estimates of the constituents in the fattening increase of +oxen are founded on determinations made at Rothamsted. + + TABLE V.--_Comparison of the Constituents of Food carried off in Milk, + and in the Fattening Increase of Oxen._ + + +---------------------------+---------+-------+---------+--------+--------+ + | | | | Non- | | | + | | Nitro- | | Nitro- | | | + | | genous | | genous | Mineral| Total | + | [1 Gallon = 10.33 lb.] | Sub- | Fat. | Sub- | Matter.| Solid | + | | stance. | | stance | | Matter.| + | | | | not Fat | | | + | | | | (Sugar).| | | + +---------------------------+---------+-------+---------+--------+--------+ + | _In Milk per Week._ | + +---------------------------+---------+-------+---------+--------+--------+ | | | | | + | If:-- | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. | + | 4 quarts per head per day | 2.64 | 2.53 | 3.33 | 0.54 | 9.04 | + | 6 " " " | 3.96 | 3.80 | 4.99 | 0.81 | 13.56 | + | 8 " " " | 5.28 | 5.06 | 6.66 | 1.08 | 18.08 | + |10 " " " | 6.60 | 6.33 | 8.32 | 1.35 | 22.60 | + |12 " " " | 7.92 | 7.59 | 9.99 | 1.62 | 27.12 | + |14 " " " | 9.24 | 8.86 | 11.65 | 1.89 | 31.64 | + |16 " " " | 10.56 | 10.12 | 13.32 | 2.16 | 36.16 | + |18 " " " | 11.88 | 11.39 | 14.98 | 2.43 | 40.68 | + |20 " " " | 13.20 | 12.65 | 16.65 | 2.70 | 45.20 | + +---------------------------+---------+-------+---------+--------+--------+ + | _In Increase in Live-Weight per Week.--Oxen._ | + +---------------------------+---------+-------+---------+--------+--------+ + |If 10 lb. increase | 0.75 | 6.35 | .. | 0.15 | 7.25 | + |If 15 lb. increase | 1.13 | 9.53 | .. | 0.22 | 10.88 | + +---------------------------+---------+-------+---------+--------+--------+ + +With regard to the very wide range of yield of milk per head per day +which the figures in the following table assume, it may be remarked that +it is by no means impossible that the same animal might yield the +largest amount, namely, 20 quarts, or 5 gallons, per day near the +beginning, and only 4 quarts, or 1 gallon, or even less, towards the end +of her period of lactation. At the same time, an entire herd of, for +example, Shorthorns or Ayrshires, of fairly average quality, well fed, +and including animals at various periods of lactation, should not yield +an average of less than 8 quarts, or 2 gallons, and would seldom exceed +10 quarts, or 2(1/2) gallons, per head per day the year round. + +For the sake of illustration, an average yield of milk of 10 quarts, +equal 2(1/2) gallons, or between 25 and 26 lb. per head per day, may be +assumed, and the amount of constituents in the weekly yield at this rate +may be compared with that in the weekly increase of the fattening ox at +the higher rate assumed in the table, namely, 15 lb. per 1000 lb. +live-weight, or 1.5% per week. It is seen that whilst of the nitrogenous +substance of the food the amount stored up in the fattening increase of +an ox would be only 1.13 lb., the amount carried off as such in the milk +would be 6.6 lb., or nearly six times as much. Of mineral matter, again, +whilst the fattening increase would only require about 0.22 lb., the +milk would Carry off 1.35 lb., or again about six times as much. Of fat, +however, whilst the fattening increase would contain 9.53 lb., the milk +would contain only 6.33 lb., or only about two-thirds as much. On the +other hand, whilst the fattening increase contains no other +non-nitrogenous substance than fat, the milk would carry off 8.32 lb. in +the form of milk-sugar. This amount of milk-sugar, reckoned as fat, +would correspond approximately to the difference between the fat in the +milk and that in the fattening increase. + +It is evident, then, that the drain upon the food is very much greater +for the production of milk than for that of meat. This is especially the +case in the important item of nitrogenous substance; and if, as is +frequently assumed, the butter-fat of the milk is at any rate largely +derived from the nitrogenous substance of the food, so far as it is so +at least about two parts of such substance would be required to produce +one of fat. On such an assumption, therefore, the drain upon the +nitrogenous substance of the food would be very much greater than that +indicated in the table as existing as nitrogenous substance in the milk. +To this point further reference will be made presently. + + TABLE VI.--_Constituents consumed per 1000lb. Live-Weight per Day, for + Sustenance and for Milk-Production. The Rothamsted Herd of 30 Cows, + Spring 1884._ + + +---------------------+---------+----------------------------------+ + | | | Digestible. | + | | +----------+------------+----------+ + | | Total | | | Total | + | | Dry | Nitro- | Non-Nitro- | Nitro- | + | | Sub- | genous | genous | genous | + | | stance. | Sub- | Substance | and Non- | + | | | stance. |(as Starch).| Nitro- | + | | | | | genous | + | | | | |Substance.| + +---------------------+---------+----------+------------+----------+ + | | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. | + | 3.1 lb. Cotton cake | 2.76 | 1.07 | 1.50 | 2.57 | + | 2.7 lb. Bran | 2.33 | 0.33 | 1.09 | 1.42 | + | 2.8 lb. Hay-chaff | 2.34 | 0.15 | 1.18 | 1.33 | + | 5.6 lb. Oat-straw- | | | | | + | chaff | 4.64 | 0.08 | 2.21 | 2.29 | + |62.8 lb. Mangel | 7.85 | 1.01 | 5.73 | 6.74 | + | +---------+----------+------------+----------+ + | Total | 19.92 | 2.64* | 11.71* | 14.35 | + | Required for sus- | | | | | + | tenance | | 0.57 | 7.40 | 7.97 | + | +---------+----------+------------+----------+ + | Available for milk | | 2.07 | 4.31 | 6.38 | + | In 23.3 lb. milk | | 0.85 | 3.02 | 3.87 | + | +---------+----------+------------+----------+ + | Excess in food | | 1.22 | 1.29 | 2.51 | + +---------------------+---------+----------+------------+----------+ + | _Per 1000 lb. Live-Weight._ | + +---------------------+---------+----------+------------+----------+ + | Wolff | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. | + | | 24 | 2.5 | 12.5** | 15.4 | + +---------------------+---------+----------+------------+----------+ + * Albuminoid ratio, 1-4.4. + ** Exclusive of 0.4 fat; albuminoid ratio, 1-5.4. + +Attention may next be directed to the amounts of food, and of certain of +its constituents, consumed for the production of a given amount of milk. +This point is illustrated in Table VI., which shows the constituents +consumed per 1000 lb. live-weight per day in the case of the Rothamsted +herd of 30 cows in the spring of 1884. On the left hand are shown the +actual amounts of the different foods consumed per 1000 lb. live-weight +per day; and in the respective columns are recorded--first the amounts +of total dry substance which the foods contained, and then the amounts +of digestible nitrogenous, digestible non-nitrogenous (reckoned as +starch), and digestible total organic substance which the different +foods would supply; these being calculated according to Lawes and +Gilbert's own estimates of the percentage composition of the foods, and +to Wolff's estimates of the proportion of the several constituents which +would be digestible. + +The first column shows that the amount of total dry substance of food +actually consumed by the herd, per 1000 lb. live-weight per day, was +scarcely 20 lb. whilst Wolff's[3] estimated requirement, as stated at +the foot of the table, is 24 lb. But his ration would doubtless consist +to a greater extent of hay and straw-chaff, containing a larger +proportion of indigestible and effete woody fibre. The figures show, +indeed that the Rothamsted ration supplied, though nearly the same, even +a somewhat less amount of total digestible constituents than Wolff's. + +Of digestible nitrogen substance the food supplied 2.64 lb. per day, +whilst the amount estimated to be required for sustenance merely is 0.57 +lb.; leaving, therefore, 2.07 lb. available for milk production. The +23.3 lb. of milk yielded per 1000 lb. live-weight per day would, +however, contain only 0.85 lb.; and there would thus remain an apparent +excess of 1.22 lb. of digestible nitrogenous substance in the food +supplied. But against the amount of 2.64 lb. actually consumed, Wolff's +estimate of the amount required for sustenance and for milk-production +is 2.5 lb., or but little less than the amount actually consumed at +Rothamsted. On the assumption that the expenditure of nitrogenous +substance in the production of milk is only in the formation of the +nitrogenous substances of the milk, there would appear to have been a +considerable excess given in the food. But Wolff's estimate assumes no +excess of supply, and that the whole is utilized; the fact being that he +supposes the butter-fat of the milk to have been derived largely, if not +wholly, from the albuminoids of the food. + +It has been shown that although it is possible that some of the fat of a +fattening animal may be produced from the albuminoids of the food, +certainly the greater part of it, if not the whole, is derived from the +carbohydrates. But the physiological conditions of the production of +milk are so different from those for the production of fattening +increase, that it is not admissible to judge of the sources of the fat +of the one from what may be established in regard to the other. It has +been assumed, however, by those who maintain that the fat of the +fattening animal is formed from albuminoids, that the fat of milk must +be formed in the same way. Disallowing the legitimacy of such a +deduction, there do, nevertheless, seem to be reasons for supposing that +the fat of milk may, at any rate in large proportion, be derived from +albuminoids. + +Thus, as compared with fattening increase, which may in a sense be said +to be little more than an accumulation of reserve material from excess +of food, milk is a special product, of a special gland, for a special +normal exigency of the animal. Further, whilst common experience shows +that the herbivorous animal becomes the more fat the more, within +certain limits, its food is rich in carbohydrates, it points to the +conclusion that both the yield of milk and its richness in butter are +more connected with a liberal supply of the nitrogenous constituents in +the food. Obviously, so far as this is the case, it may be only that +thereby more active change in the system, and therefore greater activity +of the special function, is maintained. The evidence at command is, at +any rate, not inconsistent with the supposition that a good deal of the +fat of milk may have its source in the breaking up of albuminoids, but +direct evidence on the point is still wanting; and supposing such +breaking up to take place in the gland, the question arises--What +becomes of the by-products? Assuming, however, that such change does +take place, the amount of nitrogenous substance supplied to the +Rothamsted cows would be less in excess of the direct requirement for +milk-production than the figures in the table would indicate, if, +indeed, in excess at all. + +The figures in the column of Table VI. relating to the estimated amount +of digestible non-nitrogenous substance reckoned as starch show that the +quantity actually consumed was 11.71 lb., whilst the amount estimated by +Wolff to be required was 12.5 lb., besides 0.4 lb. of fat. The figures +further show that, deducting 7.4 lb. for sustenance from the quantity +actually consumed, there would remain 4.31 lb. available for +milk-production, whilst only about 3.02 lb. would be required supposing +that both the fat of the milk and the sugar had been derived from the +carbohydrates of the food; and, according to this calculation, there +would still be an excess in the daily food of 1.29 lb. It is to be borne +in mind, however, that estimates of the requirement for mere sustenance +are mainly founded on the results of experiments in which the animals +are allowed only such a limited amount of food as will maintain them +without either loss or gain when at rest. But physiological +considerations point to the conclusion that the expenditure, +independently of loss or gain, will be the greater the more liberal the +ration, and hence it is probable that the real excess, if any, over that +required for sustenance and milk-production would be less than that +indicated in the table, which is calculated on the assumption of a fixed +requirement for sustenance for a given live-weight of the animal. +Supposing that there really was any material excess of either the +nitrogenous or the non-nitrogenous constituents supplied over the +requirement for sustenance and milk-production, the question +arises--Whether, or to what extent, it conduced to increase in +live-weight of the animals, or whether it was in part, or wholly, +voided, and so wasted. + + Table VII.--Percentage Composition of Milk each Month of the Year; + also Average Yield of Milk, and of Constituents, per Head per Day each + Month, according to Rothamsted Dairy Records. + + +-----------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------+ + | |Average Composition of Milk each| Rothamsted Diary. | + | | Month, 1884. +----------+----------------------+ + | | (Dr Vieth--14,235 analyses.) | | Estimated Quantity | + | | | Average | of Constituents in | + | +--------+-------+------+--------+ Yield | Milk per Head per | + | | | | | | of Milk | Day each Month. | + | |Specific|Butter-|Solids| Total | per Head +-------+------+-------+ + | |Gravity.| Fat. | not | Solids.| per Day, |Butter-|Solids| Total | + | | | | Fat. | | 6 Years. | Fat. | not |Solids.| + | | | | | | | | Fat. | | + +-----------+--------+-------+------+--------+----------+-------+------+-------+ + | | | % | % | % | lb | lb | lb | lb | + | January | 1.0325 | 3.55 | 9.34 | 12.89 | 20.31* | 0.72 | 1.90 | 2.62 | + | February | 1.0325 | 3.53 | 9.24 | 12.77 | 22.81 | 0.80 | 2.11 | 2.91 | + | March | 1.0323 | 3.50 | 9.22 | 12.72 | 24.19 | 0.85 | 2.23 | 3.08 | + | April | 1.0323 | 3.43 | 9.22 | 12.65 | 26.50 | 0.91 | 2.44 | 3.35 | + | May | 1.0324 | 3.34 | 9.30 | 12.64 | 31.31 | 1.05 | 2.91 | 3.96 | + | June | 1.0323 | 3.31 | 9.19 | 12.50 | 30.81 | 1.02 | 2.83 | 3.85 | + | July. | 1.0319 | 3.47 | 9.13 | 12.60 | 28.00 | 0.97 | 2.56 | 3.53 | + | August | 1.0318 | 3.87 | 9.08 | 12.95 | 25.00 | 0.97 | 2.27 | 3.24 | + | September | 1.0321 | 4.11 | 9.17 | 13.28 | 22.94 | 0.94 | 2.11 | 3.05 | + | October | 1.0324 | 4.26 | 9.27 | 13.53 | 21.00 | 0.89 | 1.95 | 2.84 | + | November | 1.0324 | 4.36 | 9.29 | 13.65 | 19.19 | 0.84 | 1.78 | 2.62 | + | December | 1.0326 | 4.10 | 9.29 | 13.39 | 19.31 | 0.79 | 1.79 | 2.58 | + | +--------+-------+------+--------+----------+-------+------+-------+ + | Mean | 1.0323 | 3.74 | 9.22 | 12.96 | 24.28 | 0.90 | 2.24 | 3.14 | + +-----------+--------+-------+------+--------+----------+-------+------+-------+ + * Average over five years only, as the records did not commence until + February 1884. + +As regards the influence of the period of the year, with its +characteristic changes of food, on the quantity and composition of the +milk, the first column of the second division of Table VII. shows the +average yield of milk per head per day of the Rothamsted herd, averaging +about 42 cows, almost exclusively Shorthorns, in each month of the year, +over six years, 1884 to 1889 inclusive; and the succeeding columns show +that amounts of butter-fat, of solids not fat, and of total solids in +the average yield per head per day in each month of the year, +calculated, not according to direct analytical determinations made at +Rothamsted, but according to the results of more than 14,000 analyses +made, under the superintendence of Dr Vieth, in the laboratory of the +Aylesbury Dairy Company in 1884;[4] the samples analysed representing +the milk from a great many different farms in each month. + +It should be stated that the Rothamsted cows had cake throughout the +year; at first 4 lb. per head per day, but afterwards graduated +according to the yield of milk, on the basis of 4 lb. for a yield of 28 +lb. of milk, the result being that then the amount given averaged more +per head per day during the grazing period, but less earlier and later +in the year. Bran, hay and straw-chaff, and roots (generally mangel), +were also given when the animals were not turned out to grass. The +general plan was, therefore, to give cake alone in addition when the +cows were turned out to grass, but some other dry food, and roots, when +entirely in the shed during the winter and early spring months. + +Referring to the column showing the average yield of milk per head per +day each month over the six years, it will be seen that during the six +months January, February, September, October, November and December the +average yield was sometimes below 20 lb. and on the average only about +21 lb. of milk per head per day; whilst over the other six months it +averaged 27.63 lb., and over May and June more than 31 lb. per head per +day. That is to say, the quantity of milk yielded was considerably +greater during the grazing period than when the animals had more dry +food, and roots instead of grass. + +Next, referring to the particulars of composition, according to Dr +Vieth's results, which may well be considered as typical for the +different periods of the year, it is seen that the specific gravity of +the milk was only average, or lower than average, during the grazing +period, but rather higher in the earlier and later months of the year. +The percentage of total solids was rather lower than the average at the +beginning of the year, lowest during the chief grazing months, but +considerably higher in the later months of the year, when the animals +were kept in the shed and received more dry food. The percentage of +butter-fat follows very closely that of the total solids, being the +lowest during the best grazing months, but considerably higher than the +average during the last four or five months of the year, when more dry +food was given. The percentage of solids not fat was considerably the +lowest during the later months of the grazing period, but average, or +higher than average, during the earlier and later months of the year. It +may be observed that, according to the average percentages given in the +table, a gallon of milk will contain more of both total solids and of +butter-fat in the later months of the year; that is, when there is less +grass and more dry food given. + +Turning to the last three columns of the table, it is seen that +although, as has been shown, the percentage of the several constituents +in the milk is lower during the grazing months, the actual amounts +contained in the quantity of milk yielded per head are distinctly +greater during those months. Thus, the amount of butter-fat yielded _per +head per day_ is above the average of the year from April to September +inclusive; the amounts of solids not fat are over average from April to +August inclusive; and the amounts of total solids yielded are average, +or over average, from April to August inclusive. + +From the foregoing results it is evident that the quantity of milk +yielded per head is very much the greater during the grazing months of +the year, but that the percentage composition of the milk is lower +during that period of higher yield, and considerably higher during the +months of more exclusively dry-food feeding. Nevertheless, owing to the +much greater quantity of milk yielded during the grazing months, the +actual quantity of constituents yielded per Cow is greater during those +months than during the months of higher percentage composition but lower +yield of milk per head. It may be added that a careful consideration of +the number of newly-calved cows brought into the herd each month shows +that the results as above stated were perfectly distinct, independently +of any influence of the period of lactation of the different individuals +of the herd. + +The few results which have been brought forward in relation to +_milk-production_ are admittedly quite insufficient adequately to +illustrate the influence of variation in the quantity and composition of +the food on the quantity and composition of the milk yielded. Indeed, +owing to the intrinsic difficulties of experimenting on such a subject, +involving so many elements of variation, any results obtained have to be +interpreted with much care and reservation. Nevertheless, it may be +taken as clearly indicated that, within certain limits, high feeding, +and especially high nitrogenous feeding, does increase both the yield +and the richness of the milk.[5] But it is evident that when high +feeding is pushed beyond a comparatively limited range, the tendency is +to increase the weight of the animal--that is, to favour the development +of the individual, rather than to enhance the activity of the functions +connected with the reproductive system. This is, of course, a +disadvantage when the object is to maintain the milk-yielding condition +of the animal; but when a cow is to be fattened off it will be +otherwise. + +It has been stated that, early in the period of six years in which the +Rothamsted results that have been quoted were obtained, the amount of +oil-cake given was graduated according to the yield of milk of each +individual cow; as it seemed unreasonable that an animal yielding, say, +only 4 quarts per day, should receive, beside the home foods, as much +cake as one yielding several times the quantity. The obvious inference +is, that any excess of food beyond that required for sustenance and +milk-production would tend to increase the weight of the animal, which, +according to the circumstances, may or may not be desirable. + +It may be observed that direct experiments at Rothamsted confirm the +view, arrived at by common experience, that roots, and especially +mangel, have a favourable effect on the flow of milk. Further, the +Rothamsted experiments have shown that a higher percentage of +butter-fat, of other solids, and of total solids, was obtained with +mangel than with silage as the succulent food. The yield of milk was, +however, in a much greater degree increased by grazing than by any other +change in the food; and at Rothamsted the influence of roots comes next +in order to that of grass, though far behind it, in this respect. But +with grazing, as has been shown, the percentage composition of the milk +is considerably reduced; though, owing to the greatly increased quantity +yielded, the amount of soil-constituents removed in the milk when cows +are grazing may nevertheless be greater per head per day than under any +other conditions. Lastly, it has been clearly illustrated how very much +greater is the demand upon the food, especially for nitrogenous and for +mineral constituents, in the production of milk than in that of +fattening increase. + + +MANURIAL VALUE OF FOOD CONSUMED IN THE PRODUCTION OF MILK + +In any attempt to estimate the average value of the manure derived from +the consumption of food for the production of milk, the difficulty +arising from the very wide variation in the amount of milk yielded by +different cows, or by the same cow at different periods of her +lactation, is increased by the inadequate character of information +concerning the difference in the amount of the food actually consumed by +the animal coincidently with the production of such different amounts of +milk. But although information is lacking for correlating, with +numerical accuracy, the great difference in milk-yield of individual +cows with the coincident differences in consumption to produce it, it +may be considered as satisfactorily established that more food is +consumed by a herd of cows to produce a fair yield of milk, of say 10 or +12 quarts per head per day, than by an equal live-weight of oxen fed to +produce fattening increase. In the cases supposed it may, for practical +purposes, be assumed that the cows would consume about one-fourth more +food than the oxen. Accordingly, in the Rothamsted estimates of the +value of the manure obtained on the consumption of food for the +production of milk, it is assumed that one-fourth more will be consumed +by 1000 lb. live-weight of cows than by the same weight of oxen; but the +estimates of the amounts of the constituents of the food removed in the +milk, or remaining for manure, are nevertheless reckoned per ton of each +kind of food consumed, as in the case of those relating to feeding for +the production of fattening increase. It may be added that the +calculations of the amounts of the constituents in the milk are based on +the same average composition of milk as is adopted in the construction +of Table V. Thus the nitrogen is taken at 0.579 (= 3.65 nitrogenous +substance)%, the phosphoric acid at 0.2175%, and the potash at 0.1875% +in the milk. + +Table VIII. shows in detail the estimate of the amount of nitrogen in +one ton of each food, and in the milk produced from its consumption, on +the assumption of an average yield of 10 quarts per head per day; also +the amount remaining for manure, the amount of ammonia corresponding to +the nitrogen, and the value of the ammonia at 4d. per lb. Similar +particulars are also given in relation to the phosphoric acid and the +potash consumed in the food, removed in the milk, and remaining for +manure, &c. This table will serve as a sufficient illustration of the +mode of estimating the _total or original_ value of the manure, derived +from the consumption of the different foods for the production of milk +in the case supposed; that is, assuming an average yield of a herd of 10 +quarts per head per day. + +In Table IX. are given the results of similar detailed calculations of +the _total or original_ manure-value (as in Table VIII. for 10 quarts), +on the alternative assumptions of a yield of 6, 8, 12 or 14 quarts per +head per day. For comparison there is also given, in the first column, +the estimate of the _total or original_ manure-value when the foods are +consumed for the production of fattening increase. + +So much for the plan and results of the estimations of _total or +original_ manure-value of the different foods, that is, deducting only +the constituents removed in the milk, and reckoning the remainder at the +prices at which they can be purchased in artificial manures. With a view +to direct application to practice, however, it is necessary to estimate +the _unexhausted manure-value_ of the different foods, or what may be +called their _compensation-value_, after they have been used for a +series of years by the outgoing tenant and he has realized a certain +portion of the manure-value in his increased crops. In the calculations +for this purpose the rule is to deduct one-half of the _original +manure-value_ of the food used the last year, and one-third of the +remainder each year to the eighth, in the case of all the more +concentrated foods and of the roots--in fact, of all the foods in the +list excepting the hays and the straws. For these, which contain larger +amounts of indigestible matter, and the constituents of which will be +more slowly available to crops, two-thirds of the _original +manure-value_ is deducted for the last year, and only one-fifth from +year to year to the eighth year back. The results of the estimates of +_compensation-value_ so made are given for the five yields of 6, 8, 10, +12 and 14 quarts of milk per head per day respectively in Lawes and +Gilbert's paper[6] on the valuation of the manures obtained by the +consumption of foods for the production of milk, which may be consulted +for fuller details. It must, however, be borne in mind that when cows +are fed in sheds or yards the manure is generally liable to greater +losses than is the case with fattening oxen. The manure of the cow +contains much more water in proportion to solid matter than that of the +ox. Water will, besides, frequently be used for washing, and it may be +that a good deal of the manure is washed into drains and lost. In the +event, therefore, of a claim for compensation, the management and +disposal of the manure requires the attention of the valuer. Indeed, the +varying circumstances that will arise in practice must be carefully +considered. Bearing these in mind, the estimates may be accepted as at +any rate the best approximation to the truth that existing knowledge +provides; and they should be found sufficient for the requirements of +practical use. Obviously they will be more directly applicable in the +case of cows feeding entirely on the foods enumerated in the list, and +not depending largely on grass; but, even when the animals are partially +grass-fed, the value of the manure derived from the additional dry food +or roots may be estimated according to the scale given. + + TABLE VIII.--_Estimates of the Total or Original Manure-Value of + Cattle Foods after Consumption by Cows for the Production of Milk. + Valuation on the assumption of an average production by a herd of 10 + quarts of milk per head per day._ + + +----+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------------------------+--------------------------+---------+ + | | | Nitrogen. | Phosphoric Acid. | Potash. | | + | | +-------+------+------------------------+-------+------+--------------+------+-----+-------------+Total or | + | | | | | In Manure. | | | In Manure. | | | In Manure. |Original | + | | Descrip-| | In +------------------------+ | In +-------+------+ | In +-------+-----+ Manure- | + |Nos.| tion of | In | Milk | | Nitro-| Value | In | Milk | | Value| In | Milk| |Value| Value | + | | Food. | 1 Ton | from | Total | gen | of Am- | 1 Ton | from | Total | at | 1 Ton| from| Total | at | per Ton | + | | | of |1 Ton |remain-| equal | monia | of |1 Ton |remain-| 2 d. | of |1 Ton|remain-|1-1/2| of Food | + | | | Food.| of |ing for| Am- | at 4 d.| Food. | of |ing for| per | Food.| of |ing for| d. |consumed.| + | | | | Food.|Manure.| monia.| per | | Food.|Manure.| lb. | |Food.|Manure.| per | | + | | | | | | | lb. | | | | | | | | lb. | | + +----+---------+-------+------+-------+-------+--------+-------+------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+-----+---------+ + | | | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. |L s. d.| lb. | lb. | lb. | s. d.| lb. | lb. | lb. |s. d.| L s. d.| + | 1 |Linseed | 80.64 |25.04 | 55.60 | 67.52 |1 2 6 | 34.50 | 9.34 | 25.16 | 4 2 |30.69 | 8.02| 22.67 | 2 10| 1 9 6 | + | 2 |Linseed | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | cake |106.40 |20.86 | 85.54 |103.87 |1 14 7 | 44.80 | 7.79 | 37.01 | 6 2 |31.36 | 6.71| 24.65 | 3 1| 2 3 10 | + | 3 |Decort- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | icated | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | cotton | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | cake |147.84 |19.27 |128.57 |156.13 |2 12 1 | 69.44 | 7.18 | 62.26 |10 5 |44.80 | 6.22| 38.58 | 4 10| 3 7 4 | + | 4 |Palm-nut | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | cake | 56.00 |17.86 | 38.14 | 46.31 |0 15 5 | 26.88 | 6.68 | 20.20 | 3 4 |11.20 | 5.73| 5.47 | 0 8| 0 19 5 | + | 5 |Undecor- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | ticated | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | cotton | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | cake | 84.00 |15.66 | 68.34 | 82.99 |1 7 8 | 44.80 | 5.85 | 38.95 | 6 6 |44.80 | 5.07| 39.73 | 5 0| 1 19 2 | + | 6 |Cocoa- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | nut cake| 76.16 |15.66 | 60.50 | 73.47 |1 4 6 | 31.36 | 5.85 | 25.51 | 4 3 |44.80 | 5.07| 39.73 | 5 0| 1 13 9 | + | 7 |Rape | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | cake |109.76 |12.50 | 97.26 |118.11 |1 19 4 | 56.00 | 4.69 | 51.31 | 8 7 |33.60 | 4.09| 29.51 | 3 8| 2 11 7 | + | | +-------+------+-------+-------+--------+-------+------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+-----+---------+ + | 8 |Peas | 80.64 |17.86 | 62.78 | 76.24 |1 5 5 | 19.04 | 6.68 | 12.36 | 2 1 |21.50 | 5.73| 15.77 | 2 0| 1 9 6 | + | 9 |Beans | 89.60 |17.86 | 71.74 | 87.12 |1 9 0 | 24.64 | 6.68 | 17.96 | 3 0 |29.12 | 5.73| 23.39 | 2 11| 1 14 11 | + | 10 |Lentils | 94.08 |17.86 | 76.22 | 92.56 |1 10 10 | 16.80 | 6.68 | 10.12 | 1 8 |15.68 | 5.73| 9.95 | 1 3| 1 13 9 | + | 11 |Tares | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | (seed) | 94.08 |17.86 | 76.22 | 92.56 |1 10 10 | 17.92 | 6.68 | 11.24 | 1 10 |17.92 | 5.73| 12.19 | 1 6| 1 14 2 | + | 12 |Maize | 38.08 |17.38 | 20.70 | 25.14 |0 8 5 | 13.44 | 6.50 | 6.94 | 1 2 | 8.29 | 5.56| 2.73 | 0 4| 0 9 11 | + | 13 |Wheat | 40.32 |17.38 | 22.94 | 27.86 |0 9 3 | 19.04 | 6.50 | 12.54 | 2 1 |11.87 | 5.56| 6.31 | 0 9| 0 12 1 | + | 14 |Malt | 38.08 |17.86 | 20.22 | 24.55 |0 8 2 | 17.92 | 6.68 | 11.24 | 1 10 |11.20 | 5.73| 5.47 | 0 8| 0 10 8 | + | 15 |Barley | 36.96 |17.38 | 19.58 | 23.78 |0 7 11 | 16.80 | 6.50 | 10.30 | 1 9 |12.32 | 5.56| 6.76 | 0 10| 0 10 6 | + | 16 |Oats | 44.80 |16.68 | 28.12 | 34.15 |0 11 5 | 13.44 | 6.24 | 7.20 | 1 2 |11.20 | 5.40| 5.80 | 0 9| 0 13 4 | + | 17 |Rice meal| 42.56 |16.68 | 25.88 | 31.43 |0 10 6 |(13.44)| 6.24 | 7.20 | 1 2 |(8.29)| 5.40| 2.89 | 0 4| 0 12 0 | + | 18 |Locust | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | beans | 26.88 |13.90 | 12.98 | 15.76 |0 5 3 | .. | 5.19 | .. | .. | .. | 4.42| .. | .. | .. | + | | +-------+------+-------+-------+--------+-------+------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+-----+---------+ + | 19 |Malt | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | coombs | 87.36 |15.66 | 71.70 | 87.07 |1 9 0 | 44.80 | 5.85 | 38.95 | 6 6 |44.80 | 5.07| 39.73 | 5 0| 2 0 6 | + | 20 |Fine | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | pollard | 54.88 |16.68 | 38.20 | 46.39 |0 15 6 | 64.96 | 6.24 | 58.72 | 9 9 |32.70 | 5.40| 27.30 | 3 5| 1 8 8 | + | 21 |Coarse | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | pollard | 56.00 |15.66 | 40.34 | 48.99 |0 16 4 | 78.40 | 5.85 | 72.55 |12 1 |33.60 | 5.07| 28.53 | 3 7| 1 12 0 | + | 22 |Bran | 56.00 |13.90 | 42.10 | 51.12 |0 17 0 | 80.64 | 5.19 | 75.45 |12 7 |32.48 | 4.42| 28.06 | 3 6| 1 13 1 | + | | +-------+------+-------+-------+--------+-------+------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+-----+---------+ + | 23 |Clover | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | hay | 53.76 | 8.94 | 44.82 | 54.43 |0 18 2 | 12.77 | 3.35 | 9.42 | 1 7 |33.60 | 2.94| 30.66 | 3 10| 1 3 7 | + | 24 |Meadow | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | hay | 33.60 | 8.36 | 25.24 | 30.65 |0 10 3 | 8.96 | 3.10 | 5.86 | 1 0 |35.84 | 2.62| 33.22 | 4 2| 0 15 5 | + | | +-------+------+-------+-------+--------+-------+------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+-----+---------+ + | 25 |Pea straw| 22.40 | 7.83 | 14.57 | 17.69 |0 5 11 | 7.84 | 2.91 | 4.93 | 0 10 |22.40 | 2.46| 19.94 | 2 6| 0 9 3 | + | 26 |Oat straw| 11.20 | 6.95 | 4.25 | 5.16 |0 1 9 | 5.38 | 2.60 | 2.78 | 0 6 |22.40 | 2.29| 20.11 | 2 6| 0 4 9 | + | 27 |Wheat | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | straw | 10.08 | 5.98 | 4.10 | 4.98 |0 1 8 | 5.38 | 2.23 | 3.15 | 0 6 |17.92 | 1.96| 15.96 | 2 0| 0 4 2 | + | 28 |Barley | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | straw | 8.96 | 5.46 | 3.50 | 4.25 |0 1 5 | 4.03 | 2.04 | 1.99 | 0 4 |22.40 | 1.80| 20.60 | 2 7| 0 4 4 | + | 29 |Bean | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | straw | 20.16 | 5.68 | 14.48 | 17.58 |0 5 10 | 6.72 | 2.14 | 4.58 | 0 9 |22.40 | 1.80| 20.60 | 2 7| 0 9 2 | + | | +-------+------+-------+-------+--------+-------+------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+-----+---------+ + | 30 |Potatoes | 5.60 | 2.07 | 3.53 | 4.29 |0 1 5 | 3.36 | 0.78 | 2.58 | 0 5 |12.32 | 0.66| 11.66 | 1 5| 0 3 3 | + | 31 |Carrots | 4.48 | 1.46 | 3.02 | 3.67 |0 1 3 | 2.02 | 0.54 | 1.48 | 0 3 | 6.27 | 0.49| 5.78 | 0 9| 0 2 3 | + | 32 |Parsnips | 4.93 | 1.67 | 3.26 | 3.96 |0 1 4 | 4.26 | 0.63 | 3.63 | 0 7 | 8.06 | 0.49| 7.57 | 0 11| 0 2 10 | + | 33 |Mangel | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | wurzels | 4.93 | 1.32 | 3.61 | 4.38 |0 1 6 | 1.57 | 0.49 | 1.08 | 0 2 | 8.96 | 0.49| 8.47 | 1 1| 0 2 9 | + | 34 |Swedish | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | turnips | 5.60 | 1.14 | 4.46 | 5.42 |0 1 10 | 1.34 | 0.44 | 0.90 | 0 2 | 4.93 | 0.33| 4.60 | 0 7| 0 2 7 | + | 35 |Yellow | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | turnips | 4.48 | 0.93 | 3.55 | 4.31 |0 1 5 | (1.34)| 0.34 | 1.00 | 0 2 |(4.93)| 0.33| (4.60)| 0 7| 0 2 2 | + | 36 |White | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | turnips | 4.03 | 0.84 | 3.19 | 3.87 |0 1 3 | 1.12 | 0.31 | 0.81 | 0 2 | 6.72 | 0.33| 6.39 | 0 10| 0 2 3 | + +----+---------+-------+------+-------+-------+--------+-------+------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+-----+---------+ + + +CHEESE AND CHEESE-MAKING + +For generations, perhaps for centuries, the question has been discussed +as to why there should be so large a proportion of bad and inferior +cheese and so small a proportion of really good cheese made in +farmhouses throughout the land. That the result is not wholly due to +skill and care or to the absence of these qualities on the part of the +dairymaid may now be taken for granted. Instances might be quoted in +which the most painstaking of dairymaids, in the cleanest of dairies, +have failed to produce cheese of even second-rate quality and character, +and yet others in which excellent cheese has been made under commonplace +conditions as to skill and equipment, and with not much regard to +cleanliness in the dairy. The explanation of what was so long a mystery +has been found in the domain of ferments. It is now known that whilst +various micro-organisms, which in many dairies have free access to the +milk, have ruined an incalculable quantity of cheese--and of butter +also--neither cheese nor butter of first-rate quality can be made +without the aid of lactic acid bacilli. As an illustrative case, mention +may be made of that of two most painstaking dairymaids who had tried in +vain to make good cheese from the freshest of milk in the cleanest of +dairies in North Lancashire. Advice to resort to the use of the ferment +was acted upon, and the result was a revelation and a transformation, +excellent prize-winning cheese being made from that time forward. By the +addition of a "starter," in the form of a small quantity of sour milk, +whey or buttermilk, in an advanced stage of fermentation, the +development of acidity in the main body of milk is accelerated. It has +been ascertained that the starter is practically a culture of bacteria, +which, if desired, may be obtained as a pure culture. Professor J. R. +Campbell, as the result of experiments on pure cultures for Cheddar +cheese-making, states[7] that (1) first-class Cheddar cheese can be made +by using pure cultures of a lactic organism; (2) this organism abounds +in all samples of sour milk and sour whey; (3) the use of a whey starter +is attended with results equal in every respect to those obtained from a +milk-starter. It is well within the power of any dairyman to prepare +what is practically a pure culture of the same bacterium as is supplied +from the laboratory. Moreover, the sour-whey starter used by some of the +successful cheese-makers before the introduction of the American system +is in effect a pure culture, from which it follows that these men had, +by empirical methods, attained the same end as that to which +bacteriological research subsequently led. Wherever a starter is +necessary, the use of a culture practically pure is imperative, whether +such culture be obtained from the laboratory or prepared by what may be +called the "home-made starter." Pure cultures may be bought for a few +shillings in the open market. + + TABLE IX.--_Comparison of the Estimates of Total or Original + Manure-Value when Foods are consumed for the Production of Fattening + Increase, with those when the Food is consumed by Cows giving + different Yields of Milk._ + + +----+---------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+ + | | | Total or Original Manure-Value per Ton of Food | + | | | consumed--that is, only deducting the Constituents | + | | | in Fattening Increase or in Milk. | + | | Description +---------+-------------------------------------------------+ + |Nos.| of Food. | For the | For the Production of Milk, supposing | + | | | Produc- | the Yield per Head per Day to be as under-- | + | | | tion of | | + | | |Fattening+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + | | |Increase | 6 qts. | 8 qts. | 10 qts. | 12 qts. | 14 qts. | + +----+---------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + | | | L s. d.| L s. d.| L s. d.| L s. d.| L s. d.| L s. d.| + | 1 | Linseed | 1 19 2 | 1 14 7 | 1 12 0 | 1 9 6 | 1 7 1 | 1 4 5 | + | 2 | Linseed cake | 2 11 11 | 2 8 1 | 2 6 0 | 2 3 10 | 2 1 9 | 1 19 8 | + | 3 | Decorticated | | | | | | | + | | cotton cake | 3 14 9 | 3 11 2 | 3 9 2 | 3 7 4 | 3 5 4 | 3 3 4 | + | 4 | Palm-nut cake | 1 6 4 | 1 3 2 | 1 1 4 | 0 19 5 | 0 17 9 | 0 15 11 | + | 5 | Undecorticated| | | | | | | + | | cotton cake | 2 5 3 | 2 2 4 | 2 0 8 | 1 19 2 | 1 17 6 | 1 15 11 | + | 6 | Cocoa-nut cake| 1 19 10 | 1 16 11 | 1 15 3 | 1 13 9 | 1 12 3 | 1 10 6 | + | 7 | Rape cake | 2 16 5 | 1 14 2 | 2 12 11 | 2 11 7 | 2 10 4 | 2 9 1 | + | 8 | Peas | 1 16 5 | 1 13 1 | 1 11 2 | 1 9 6 | 1 7 8 | 1 5 9 | + | 9 | Beans | 2 1 11 | 1 18 7 | 1 16 10 | 1 14 11 | 1 13 1 | 1 11 4 | + | 10 | Lentils | 2 0 8 | 1 17 5 | 1 15 7 | 1 13 9 | 1 12 2 | 1 10 1 | + | 11 | Tares (seed) | 2 1 1 | 1 17 11 | 1 16 0 | 1 14 2 | 1 12 6 | 1 10 7 | + | 12 | Maize | 0 16 7 | 0 13 4 | 0 11 7 | 0 9 11 | 0 8 1 | 0 6 5 | + | 13 | Wheat | 0 18 11 | 0 15 8 | 0 13 11 | 0 12 1 | 0 10 5 | 0 8 8 | + | 14 | Malt | 0 17 7 | 0 14 5 | 0 12 7 | 0 10 8 | 0 9 0 | 0 7 1 | + | 15 | Barley | 0 17 2 | 0 14 0 | 0 12 3 | 0 10 6 | 0 8 8 | 0 6 11 | + | 16 | Oats | 0 19 9 | 0 16 8 | 0 15 0 | 0 13 4 | 0 11 7 | 0 9 10 | + | 17 | Rice meal |(0 18 6)| 0 15 5 | 0 13 9 | 0 12 0 | 0 10 5 | 0 8 7 | + | 18 | Locust beans | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + | 19 | Malt coombs | 2 6 7 | 2 3 9 | 2 2 0 | 2 0 6 | 1 18 11 | 1 17 4 | + | 20 | Fine pollard | 1 15 2 | 1 12 0 | 1 10 5 | 1 8 8 | 1 6 11 | 1 5 3 | + | 21 | Coarse pollard| 1 18 1 | 1 15 2 | 1 13 6 | 1 12 0 | 1 10 5 | 1 8 9 | + | 22 | Bran | 1 18 6 | 1 15 11 | 1 14 6 | 1 13 1 | 1 11 8 | 1 10 3 | + | 23 | Clover hay | 1 7 0 | 1 5 5 | 1 4 5 | 1 3 7 | 1 2 8 | 1 1 8 | + | 24 | Meadow hay | 0 18 7 | 0 17 0 | 0 16 3 | 0 15 5 | 0 14 5 | 0 13 7 | + | 25 | Pea straw | 0 12 2 | 0 10 9 | 0 10 0 | 0 9 3 | 0 8 5 | 0 7 8 | + | 26 | Oat straw | 0 7 5 | 0 6 2 | 0 5 5 | 0 4 9 | 0 4 0 | 0 3 3 | + | 27 | Wheat straw | 0 6 6 | 0 5 5 | 0 4 10 | 0 4 2 | 0 3 6 | 0 3 0 | + | 28 | Barley straw | 0 6 5 | 0 5 6 | 0 4 10 | 0 4 4 | 0 3 9 | 0 3 2 | + | 29 | Bean straw | 0 11 5 | 0 10 4 | 0 9 9 | 0 9 2 | 0 8 7 | 0 8 0 | + | 30 | Potatoes | 0 4 1 | 0 3 9 | 0 3 6 | 0 3 3 | 0 3 1 | 0 2 11 | + | 31 | Carrots | 0 2 9 | 0 2 6 | 0 2 4 | 0 2 3 | 0 2 1 | 0 1 11 | + | 32 | Parsnips | 0 3 6 | 0 3 3 | 0 3 1 | 0 2 10 | 0 2 8 | 0 2 7 | + | 33 | Mangel wurzels| 0 3 2 | 0 3 0 | 0 2 10 | 0 2 9 | 0 2 7 | 0 2 5 | + | 34 | Swedish | | | | | | | + | | turnips | 0 2 11 | 0 2 9 | 0 2 8 | 0 2 7 | 0 2 5 | 0 2 3 | + | 35 | Yellow turnips|(0 2 6)| 0 2 4 | 0 2 3 | 0 2 2 | 0 2 1 | 0 2 0 | + | 36 | White turnips | 0 2 7 | 0 2 5 | 0 2 4 | 0 2 3 | 0 2 2 | 0 2 0 | + +----+---------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + +The factory-made cheese of Canada, the United States and Australasia, +which is so largely imported into the United Kingdom, is all of the +Cheddar type. The factory system has made no headway in the original +home of the Cheddar cheese in the west of England. The system was thus +described in the _Journal_ of the British Dairy Farmers' Association in +1889 by Mr R. J. Drummond:-- + + "In the year 1885 I was engaged as cheese instructor by the Ayrshire + Dairy Association, to teach the Canadian system of Cheddar + cheese-making. I commenced operations under many difficulties, being a + total stranger to both the people and the country, and with this, the + quantities of milk were very much less than I had been in the habit of + handling. Instead of having the milk from 500 to 1000 cows, we had to + operate with the milk from 25 to not over 60 cows. + + "The system of cheese-making commonly practised in the county of Ayr + at that time was what is commonly known as the Joseph Harding or + English Cheddar system, which differs from the Canadian system in many + details, and in one particular is essentially different, namely, the + manner in which the necessary acidity in the milk is produced. In the + old method a certain quantity of sour whey was added to the milk each + day before adding the rennet, and I have no doubt in my own mind that + this whey was often added when the milk was already acid enough, and + the consequence was a spoiled cheese. + + "Another objection to this system of adding sour whey was, should the + stuff be out of condition one day, the same trouble was inoculated + with the milk from day to day, and the result was sure to be great + unevenness in the quality of the cheese. The utensils commonly in use + were very different to anything I had ever seen before; instead of the + oblong cheese vat with double casings, as is used by the best makers + at the present time, a tub, sometimes of tin and sometimes of wood, + from 4 to 7 ft. in diameter by about 30 in. deep, was universally in + use. Instead of being able to heat the milk with warm water or steam, + as is commonly done now, a large can of a capacity of from 20 to 30 + gallons was filled with cold milk and placed in a common hot-water + boiler, and heated sufficiently to bring the whole body of the milk in + the tub to the desired temperature for adding the rennet. I found that + many mistakes were made in the quantity of rennet used, as scarcely + any two makers used the same quantity to a given quantity of milk. + Instead of having a graduated measure for measuring the rennet, a + common tea-cup was used for this purpose, and I have found in some + dairies as low as 3 oz. of rennet was used to 100 gallons of milk, + where in others as high as 6(1/2) oz. was used to the same quantity. + This of itself would cause a difference in the quality of the cheese. + + "Coagulation and breaking completed, the second heating was effected + by dipping the whey from the curd into the can already mentioned, and + heated to a temperature of 140 deg. F., and returned to the curd, and + thus the process was carried on till the desired temperature was + reached. This mode of heating I considered very laborious and at the + same time very unsatisfactory, as it is impossible to distribute the + heat as evenly through the curd in this way as by heating either with + hot water or steam. The other general features of the method do not + differ from our own very materially, with the exception that in the + old method the curd was allowed to mature in the bottom of the tub, + where at the same stage we remove the curd from the vat to what we + call a curd-cooler, made with a sparred bottom, so as to allow the + whey to separate from the curd during the maturing or ripening + process. In regard to the quality of cheese on the one method compared + with the other, I think that there was some cheese just as fine made + in the old way as anything we can possibly make in the new, with one + exception, and that is, that the cheese made according to the old + method will not toast--instead of the casein melting down with the + butter-fat, the two become separated, which is very much objected to + by the consumer--and, with this, want of uniformity through the whole + dairy. This is a very short and imperfect description of how the + cheese was made at the time I came into Ayrshire; and I will now give + a short description of the system that has been taught by myself for + the past four years, and has been the means of bringing this county so + prominently to the front as one of the best cheese-making counties in + Britain. + + "Our duty in this system of cheese-making begins the night before, in + having the milk properly set and cooled according to the temperature + of the atmosphere, so as to arrive at a given heat the next morning. + Our object in this is to secure, at the time we wish to begin work in + the morning, that degree of acidity or ripeness essential to the + success of the whole operation. We cannot give any definite guide to + makers how, or in what quantities, to set their milk, as the whole + thing depends on the good judgment of the operator. If he finds that + his milk works best at a temperature of 68 deg. F. in the morning, his + study the night before should tend toward such a result, and he will + soon learn by experience how best to manage the milk in his own + individual dairy. I have found in some dairies that the milk worked + quite fast enough at a temperature of 64 deg. in the morning, where in + others the milk set in the same way would be very much out of + condition by being too sweet, causing hours of delay before matured + enough to add the rennet. Great care should be taken at this point, + making sure that the milk is properly matured before the rennet is + added, as impatience at this stage often causes hours of delay in the + making of a cheese. I advise taking about six hours from the time the + rennet is added till the curd is ready for salting, which means a + six-hours' process; if much longer than this, I have found by + experience that it is impossible to obtain the best results. The cream + should always be removed from the night's milk in the morning and + heated to a temperature of about 84 deg. before returning it to the + vat. To do this properly and with safety, the cream should be heated + by adding about two-thirds of warm milk as it comes from the cow to + one-third of cream, and passed through the ordinary milk-strainers. If + colouring matter is used, it should be added fifteen to twenty minutes + before the rennet, so as to become thoroughly mingled with the milk + before coagulation takes place. + + "We use from 4 to 4(1/2) oz. of Hansen's rennet extract to each 100 + gallons of milk, at a temperature of 86 deg. in spring and 84 deg. in + summer, or sufficient to coagulate milk firm enough to cut in about + forty minutes when in a proper condition. In cutting, great care + should be taken not to bruise the curd. I cut lengthwise, then across + with perpendicular knife, then with horizontal knife the same way of + the perpendicular, leaving the curd in small cubes about the size of + ordinary peas. Stirring with the hands should begin immediately after + cutting, and continue for ten to fifteen minutes prior to the + application of heat. At this stage we use a rake instead of the hands + for stirring the curd during the heating process, which lasts about + one hour from the time of beginning until the desired temperature of + 100 deg. or 102 deg. is reached. After heating, the curd should be + stirred another twenty minutes, so as to become properly firm before + allowing it to settle. We like the curd to lie in the whey fully one + hour after allowing it to settle before it is ready for drawing the + whey, which is regulated altogether by the condition of the milk at + the time the rennet is added. At the first indication of acid, the + whey should be removed as quickly as possible. I think at this point + lies the greatest secret of cheese-making--to know when to draw the + whey. + + "I depend entirely on the hot-iron test at this stage, as I consider + it the most accurate and reliable guide known to determine when the + proper acidity has been developed. To apply this test, take a piece of + steel bar about 18 in. long by 1 in. wide and 1/4 in. thick, and heat + to a black heat; if the iron is too hot, it will burn the curd; if too + cold, it will not stick; consequently it is a very simple matter to + determine the proper heat. Take a small quantity of the curd from the + vat and compress it tightly in the hand, so as to expel all the whey; + press the curd against the iron, and when acid enough it will draw + fine silky threads 1/4 in. long. At this stage the curd should be + removed to the curd-cooler as quickly as possible, and stirred till + dry enough to allow it to mat, which generally takes from five to + eight minutes. The curd is now allowed to stand in one end of the + cooler for thirty minutes, when it is cut into pieces from 6 to 8 in. + square and turned, and so on every half-hour until it is fit for + milling. After removing the whey, a new acid makes its appearance in + the body of the curd, which seems to depend for its development upon + the action of the air, and the presence of which experience has shown + to be an essential element in the making of a cheese. This acid should + be allowed to develop properly before the addition of salt. To + determine when the curd is ready for salting, the hot-iron test is + again resorted to; and when the curd will draw fine silky threads + 1(1/2) in. long, and at the same time have a soft velvety feel when + pressed in the hand, the butter-fat will not separate with the whey + from the curd. I generally advise using 1 lb. of salt to 50 lb. of + curd, more or less, according to the condition of the curd. After + salting, we let the curd lie fifteen minutes, so as to allow the salt + to be thoroughly dissolved before pressing. + + "In the pressing, care should be taken not to press the curd too + severely at first, as you are apt to lose some of the butter-fat, and + with this I do not think that the whey will come away so freely by + heavy pressing at first. We advise three days' pressing before cheese + is taken to the curing-room. All cheese should have a bath in water at + a temperature of 120 deg. next morning after being made, so as to form + a good skin to prevent cracking or chipping. The temperature of the + curing-room should be kept as near 60 deg. as possible at all seasons + of the year, and I think it a good plan to ventilate while heating." + +With regard to the hot-iron test for acidity, Mr F. J. Lloyd, in +describing his investigations on behalf of the Bath and West of England +Society, states that cheese-makers have long known that in both the +manufacture and the ripening of cheese the acidity produced--known to +the chemist as "lactic acid"--materially influences the results +obtained, and that amongst other drawbacks to the test referred to is +the uncertainty of the temperature of the iron itself. He gives an +account,[8] however, of a chemical method involving the use of a +standard solution of an alkali (soda), and of a substance termed an +"indicator" (phenolphthalein), which changes colour according to whether +a solution is acid or alkaline. The apparatus used with these reagents +is called the acidimeter. The two stages in the manufacture of a Cheddar +cheese most difficult to determine empirically are--(1) when to stop +stirring and to draw the whey, and (2) when to grind the curd. The +introduction of the acidimeter has done away with these difficulties; +and though the use of this apparatus is not actually a condition +essential to the manufacture of a good cheese, it is to many makers a +necessity and to all an advantage. By its use the cheese-maker can +determine the acidity of the whey, and so decide when to draw the latter +off, and will thus secure not only the proper development of acidity in +the subsequent changes of cheese-making, but also materially diminish +the time which the cheese takes to make. Furthermore, it has been proved +that the acidity of the whey which drains from the curd when in the +cooler is a sufficiently accurate guide to the condition of the curd +before grinding; and by securing uniformity in this acidity the maker +will also ensure uniformity in the quality and ripening properties of +the cheese. Speaking generally, the acidity of the liquid from the press +should never fall below 0.80% nor rise above 1.20%, and, the nearer it +can be kept to 1.00% the better. Simultaneously, of course, strict +attention must be paid to temperature, time and every other factor which +can be accurately determined. Analyses of large numbers of Cheddar +cheeses manufactured in every month of the cheese-making season show the +average composition of ripe specimens to be--water, 35.58%; fat, 31.33; +casein, 29.12; mineral matter or ash, 3.97. It has been maintained that +in the ripening of Cheddar cheese fat is formed out of the curd, but a +comparison of analyses of ripe cheeses with analyses of the curd from +which the cheeses were made affords no evidence that this is the case. + +The quantity of milk required to make 1 lb. of Cheddar cheese may be +learnt from Table X., which shows the results obtained at the cheese +school of the Bath and West of England Society in the two seasons of +1899 and 1900. The cheese was sold at an average age of ten to twelve +weeks. In 1899 a total of 21,220 gallons of milk yielded 20,537 lb. of +saleable cheese, and in 1900, 31,808 gallons yielded 29,631 lb. In the +two years together 53,028 gallons yielded 50,168 lb., which is +equivalent to 1.05 gallon of milk to 1 lb. of cheese. For practical +purposes it may be taken that one gallon, or slightly over 10 lb. of +milk, yields 1 lb. of pressed cheese. The prices obtained are added as a +matter of interest. + +Cheshire cheese is largely made in the county from which it takes its +name, and in adjoining districts. It is extensively consumed in +Manchester and Liverpool, and other parts of the densely populated +county of Lancaster. + + TABLE X.--_Quantities of Milk employed and of Cheese produced in the + Manufacture of Cheddar Cheese._ + + +---------------+-------+-------+--------+---------------------+--------+ + | When Made. | Milk. | Green |Saleable| Shrinkage. | Price. | + | | |Cheese.| Cheese.| | | + +---------------+-------+-------+--------+---------------------+--------+ + | | galls.| lb. | lb. | |per cwt.| + | April 1899 | 3077 | 3100 | 2924 | 6 per cent. | 60s. | + | May | 4462 | 4502 | 4257 | 6(1/2)lb. per cwt. | 63s. | + | June | 4316 | 4434 | 4141 | 7 lb. 6 oz. per cwt.| 70s. | + | July | 3699 | 3785 | 3545 | 7 lb. 2 oz. per cwt.| 74s. | + | August | 2495 | 2539 | 2353 | 8 lb. 3 oz. per cwt.| 74s. | + | Sept. and Oct.| 3171 | 3583 | 3317 | 8 lb. 5 oz. per cwt.| 74s. | + | April 1900 | 3651 | 3505 | 3292 | 6 per cent. | 63s. | + | May | 6027 | 6048 | 5577 | 7(3/4) per cent. | 64s. | + | June | 5960 | 5889 | 5466 | 7(1/4) per cent. | 68s. | + | July and Aug. | 7227 | 7177 | 6630 | 7(1/2) per cent. | 66s. | + | Sept. and Oct.| 8943 | 9635 | 8666 | 10 per cent. | 66s. | + +---------------+-------+-------+--------+---------------------+--------+ + +The following is a description of the making of Cheshire cheese:-- + + The evening's milk is set apart until the following morning, when the + cream is skimmed off. The latter is poured into a pan which has been + heated by being placed in the boiling water of a boiler. The new milk + obtained early in the morning is poured into the vessel containing the + previous evening's milk with the warmed cream, and the temperature of + the mixture is brought to about 75 deg. F. Into the vessel is + introduced a piece of rennet, which has been kept in warm water since + the preceding evening, and in which a little Spanish annatto (1/4 oz. + is enough for a cheese of 60 lb.) is dissolved. (Marigolds, boiled in + milk, are occasionally used for colouring cheese, to which they + likewise impart a pleasant flavour. In winter, carrots scraped and + boiled in milk, and afterwards strained, will produce a richer colour; + but they should be used with moderation, on account of their taste.) + The whole is now stirred together, and covered up warm for about an + hour, or until it becomes curdled; it is then turned over with a bowl + and broken very small. After standing a little time, the whey is drawn + from it, and as soon as the curd becomes somewhat more solid it is cut + into slices and turned over repeatedly, the better to press out the + whey. + + The curd is then removed from the tub, broken by hand or cut by a + curd-breaker into small pieces, and put into a cheese vat, where it is + strongly pressed both by hand and with weights, in order to extract + the remaining whey. After this it is transferred to another vat, or + into the same if it has in the meantime been well scalded, where a + similar process of breaking and expressing is repeated, until all the + whey is forced from it. The cheese is now turned into a third vat, + previously warmed, with a cloth beneath it, and a thin loop of binder + put round the upper edge of the cheese and within the sides of the + vat, the cheese itself being previously enclosed in a clean cloth, and + its edges placed within the vat, before transfer to the cheese-oven. + These various processes occupy about six hours, and eight more are + requisite for pressing the cheese, under a weight of 14 or 15 cwt. The + cheese during that time should be twice turned in the vat. Holes are + bored in the vat which contains the cheese, and also in the cover of + it, to facilitate the extraction of every drop of whey. The pressure + being continued, the cheese is at length taken from the vat as a firm + and solid mass. + + On the following morning and evening it must be again turned and + pressed; and also on the third day, about the middle of which it + should be removed to the salting-chamber, where the outside is well + rubbed with salt, and a cloth binder passed round it which is not + turned over the upper surface. The cheese is then placed in brine + extending half-way up in a salting-tub, and the upper surface is + thickly covered with salt. Here it remains for nearly a week, being + turned twice in the day. It is then left to dry for two or three days, + during which period it is turned once--being well salted at each + turning--and cleaned every day. When taken from the brine it is put on + the salting benches, with a wooden girth round it of nearly the + thickness of the cheese, where it stands a few days, during which time + it is again salted and turned every day. It is next washed and dried; + and after remaining on the drying benches about seven days, it is once + more washed in warm water with a brush, and wiped dry. In a couple of + hours after this it is rubbed all over with sweet whey butter, which + operation is afterwards frequently repeated; and, lastly, it is + deposited in the cheese- or store-room--which should be moderately + warm and sheltered from the access of air, lest the cheese should + crack--and turned every day, until it has become sufficiently hard and + firm. These cheeses require to be kept a considerable time. + + As a matter of fact, there are three different modes of cheese-making + followed in Cheshire, known as the _early_ ripening, the _medium_ + ripening and the _late_ ripening processes. There is also a method + which produces a cheese that is permeated with "green mould" when + ripe, called "Stilton Cheshire"; this, however, is confined to limited + districts in the county. The early ripening method is generally + followed in the spring of the year, until the middle or end of April; + the medium process, from that time till late autumn, or until early in + June, when the late ripening process is adopted and followed until the + end of September, changing again to the medium process as the season + advances. The late ripening process is not found to be suitable for + spring or late autumn make. There is a decided difference between + these several methods of making. In the early ripening system a larger + quantity of rennet is used, more acidity is developed, and less + pressure employed than in the other processes. In the medium ripening + process a moderate amount of acidity is developed, to cause the + natural drainage of the whey from the curd when under press. In the + late ripening system, on the other hand, the development of acidity is + prevented as far as possible, and the whey is got out of the curd by + breaking down finer, using more heat, and skewering when under press. + In the Stilton Cheshire process a larger quantity of rennet is used, + and less pressure is employed, than in the medium or late ripening + systems. + +It is hardly possible to enunciate any general rules for the making of +Stilton cheese, which differs from Cheddar and Cheshire in that it is +not subjected to pressure. Mr J. Marshall Dugdale, in 1899, made a visit +of inspection to the chief Leicestershire dairies where this cheese is +produced, but in his report[9] he stated that every Stilton cheese-maker +worked on his own lines, and that at no two dairies did he find the +details all carried out in the same manner. There is a fair degree of +uniformity up to the point when the curd is ladled into the +straining-cloths, but at this stage, and in the treatment of the curd +before salting, diversity sets in, several different methods being in +successful use. Most of the cheese is made from two curds, the highly +acid curd from the morning's milk being mixed with the comparatively +sweet curd from the evening's milk. Opinion varies widely as to the +degree of tightening of the straining-cloths. No test for acidity +appears to be used, the amount of acidity being judged by the taste, +feel and smell of the curd. When the desired degree of acidity has +developed, the curd is broken by hand to pieces the size of small +walnuts, and salt is added at the rate of about 1 oz. to 4 lb. of dry +curd, or 1 oz. to 3(1/2) lb. of wet curd, care being taken not to get +the curd pasty. If a maker has learnt how to rennet the milk properly, +and how to secure the right amount of acidity at the time of +hooping--that is, when the broken and salted curd is put into the wooden +hoops which give the cheese its shape--he has acquired probably two of +the most important details necessary to success. It was formerly the +custom to add cream to the milk used for making Stilton cheese, but the +more general practice now is to employ new milk alone, which yields a +product apparently as excellent and mellow as that from enriched milk. + +As a cheese matures or becomes fit for consumption, not only is there +produced the characteristic flavour peculiar to the type of cheese +concerned, but with all varieties, independently of the quality of +flavours developed, a profound physical transformation of the casein +occurs. In the course of this change the firm elastic curd "breaks +down"--that is, becomes plastic, whilst chemically the insoluble casein +is converted into various soluble decomposition products. These ripening +phenomena--the production of flavour and the breaking down of the casein +(that is, the formation of proper texture)--used to be regarded as +different phases of the same process. As subsequently shown, however, +these changes are not necessarily so closely correlated. The theories +formerly advanced as explanatory of the ripening changes in cheese were +suggestive rather than based upon experimental data, and it is only +since 1896 that careful scientific studies of the problem have been +made. Of the two existing theories, the one, which is essentially +European, ascribes the ripening changes wholly to the action of living +organisms--the bacteria present in the cheese. The other, which had its +origin in the United States, asserts that there are digestive +enzymes--that is, unorganized or soluble ferments--inherent in the milk +itself that render the casein soluble. The supporters of the bacterial +theory are ranged in two classes. The one, led by Duclaux, regards the +breaking down of the casein as due to the action of liquefying bacteria +(Tyrothrix forms). On the other hand, von Freudenreich has ascribed +these changes to the lactic-acid type of bacteria, which develop so +luxuriantly in hard cheese like Cheddar. + +With regard to the American theory, and in view of the important +practical results obtained by Babcock and Russell at the Wisconsin +experiment station, the following account[10] of their work is of +interest, especially as the subject is of high practical importance. In +1897 they announced the discovery of an inherent enzyme in milk, which +they named _galactase_, and which has the power of digesting the casein +of milk, and producing chemical decomposition products similar to those +that normally occur in ripened cheese. The theory has been advanced by +them that this enzyme is an important factor in the ripening changes; +and as in their experiments bacterial action was excluded by the use of +anaesthetic agents, they conclude that, so far as the breaking down of +the casein is concerned, bacteria are not essential to this process. In +formulating a theory of cheese-ripening, they have further pointed out +the necessity of considering the action of rennet extract as a factor +concerned in the curing changes. They have shown that the addition of +increased quantities of rennet extract materially hastens the rate of +ripening, and that this is due to the pepsin which is present in all +commercial rennet extracts. They find it easily possible to +differentiate between the proteolytic action--that is, the decomposing +of proteids--of pepsin and galactase, in that the first-named enzyme is +incapable of producing decomposition products lower than the peptones +precipitated by tannin. They have shown that the increased +solubility--the ripening changes--of the casein in cheese made with +rennet is attributable solely to the products peculiar to peptic +digestion. The addition of rennet extract or pepsin to fresh milk does +not produce this change, unless the acidity of the milk is allowed to +develop to a point which experience has shown to be the best adapted to +the making of Cheddar cheese. The _rationale_ of the empirical process +of ripening the milk before the addition of the rennet is thus +explained. In studying the properties of galactase it was further found +that this enzyme, as well as those present in rennet extract, is +operative at very low temperatures, even below freezing-point. When +cheese made in the normal manner was kept at temperatures ranging from +25 deg. to 45 deg. F. for periods averaging from eight to eighteen +months, it was found that the texture of the product simulated that of a +perfectly ripened cheese, but that such cheese developed a very mild +flavour in comparison with the normally-cured product. Subsequent +storage at somewhat higher temperatures gives to such cheese a flavour +the intensity of which is determined by the duration of storage. This +indicates that the breaking down of the casein and the production of the +flavour peculiar to cheese are in a way independent of each other, and +may be independently controlled--a point of great economic importance in +commercial practice. Although it is generally believed that cheese +ripened at low temperatures is apt to develop a more or less bitter +flavour, the flavours in the cases described were found to be +practically perfect. Under these conditions of curing, bacterial +activity is inoperative, and these experiments are held to furnish an +independent proof of the enzyme theory. + +Not only are these investigations of interest from the scientific +standpoint, as throwing light on the obscure processes of cheese-curing, +but from a practical point of view they open up a new field for +commercial exploitation. The inability to control the temperature in the +ordinary factory curing-room results in serious losses, on account of +the poor and uneven quality of the product, and the consumption of +cheese has been greatly lessened thereby. These conditions may all be +avoided by this low-temperature curing process, and it is not improbable +that the cheese industry may undergo important changes in methods of +treatment. With the introduction of cold-storage curing, and the +necessity of constructing centralized plant for this purpose, the cheese +industry may perhaps come to be differentiated into the manufacture of +the product in factories of relatively cheap construction, and the +curing or ripening of the cheese in central curing stations. In this way +not only would the losses which occur under present practices be +obviated, but the improvement in the quality of the cured product would +be more than sufficient to cover the cost of cold-storage curing. + +The characteristics of typical specimens of the different kinds of +English cheese may be briefly described. Cheddar cheese possesses the +aroma and flavour of a nut--the so-called "nutty" flavour. It should +melt in the mouth, and taste neither sweet nor acid. It is of flaky +texture, neither hard nor crumbly, and is firm to the touch. It is +early-ripening and, if not too much acid is developed in the making, +long-keeping. Before all others it is a cosmopolitan cheese. Some +cheeses are "plain," that is, they possess the natural paleness of the +curd, but many are coloured with annatto--a practice that might be +dispensed with. The average weight of a Cheddar cheese is about 70 lb. +Stilton cheese is popularly but erroneously supposed to be commonly made +from morning's whole milk with evening's cream added, and to be a +"double-cream" cheese. The texture is waxy, and a blue-green mould +permeates the mass if well ripened; the flavour is suggestive of decay. +The average weight of a Stilton is 15 lb. Cheshire cheese has a fairly +firm and uniform texture, neither flaky on the one hand nor waxy on the +other; is of somewhat sharp and piquant flavour when fully ripe; and is +often--at eighteen months old, when a well-made Cheshire cheese is at +its best--permeated with a blue-green mould, which, as in the case of +Stilton cheese, contributes a characteristic flavour which is much +appreciated. Cheshire cheese is, like Cheddar, sometimes +highly-coloured, but the practice is quite unnecessary; the weight is +about 55 lb. Gloucester cheese has a firm, somewhat soapy, texture and +sweet flavour. Double Gloucester differs from single Gloucester only in +size, the former usually weighing 26 to 30 lb., and the latter 13 to 15 +lb. Leicester cheese is somewhat loose in texture, and mellow and moist +when nicely ripened. Its flavour is "clean," sweet and mild, and its +aroma pleasant. To those who prefer a mild flavour in cheese, a perfect +Leicester is perhaps the most attractive of all the so-called "hard" +cheese; the average weight of such a cheese is about 35 lb. Derby cheese +in its best forms is much like Leicester, being "clean" in flavour and +mellow. It is sometimes rather flaky in texture, and is slow-ripening +and long-keeping if made on the old lines; the average weight is 25 lb. +Lancashire cheese, when well made and ripe, is loose in texture and is +mellow; it has a piquant flavour. As a rule it ripens early and does not +keep long. Dorset cheese--sometimes called "blue vinny" (or veiny)--is +of firm texture, blue-moulded, and rather sharp-flavoured when fully +ripe; it has local popularity and the best makes are rather like +Stilton. Wensleydale cheese, a local product in North Yorkshire, is of +fairly firm texture and mild flavour, and may almost be spread with a +knife when ripe; the finest makes are equal to the best Stilton. +Cotherstone cheese, also a Yorkshire product, is very much like Stilton +and commonly preferable to it. The blue-green mould develops, and the +cheese is fairly mellow and moist, whereas many Stiltons are hard and +dry. Wiltshire cheese, in the form of "Wilts truckles," may be described +as small Cheddars, the weight being usually about 16 lb. Caerphilly +cheese is a thin, flat product, having the appearance of an undersized +single Gloucester and weighing about 8 lb.; it has no very marked +characteristics, but enters largely into local consumption amongst the +mining population of Glamorganshire and Monmouthshire. Soft cheese of +various kinds is made in many localities, beyond which its reputation +scarcely extends. One of the oldest and best, somewhat resembling +Camembert when well ripened, is the little "Slipcote," made on a small +scale in the county of Rutland; it is a soft, mellow, moist cheese, its +coat slipping off readily when the cheese is at its best for +eating--hence the name. Cream cheese is likewise made in many districts, +but nowhere to a great extent. A good cream cheese is fairly firm but +mellow, with a slightly acid yet very attractive flavour. It is the +simplest of all cheese to make--cream poured into a perforated box lined +with loose muslin practically makes itself into cheese in a few days' +time, and is usually ripe in a week. + +In France the pressed varieties of cheese with hard rinds include +Gruyere, Cantal, Roquefort and Port Salut. The first-named, a +pale-yellow cheese full of holes of varying size, is made in Switzerland +and in the Jura Mountains district in the east of France; whilst Cantal +cheese, which is of lower quality, is a product of the midland districts +and is made barrel-shape. Roquefort cheese is made from the milk of +ewes, which are kept chiefly as dairy animals in the department of +Aveyron, and the cheese is cured in the natural mountain caves at the +village of Roquefort. It is a small, rather soft, white cheese, +abundantly veined with a greenish-blue mould and weighs between 4 and 5 +lb. The Port Salut is quite a modern cheese, which originated in the +abbey of that name in Mayenne; it is a thin, flat cheese of +characteristic, and not unattractive odour and flavour. The best known +of the soft unpressed cheeses are Brie, Camembert and Coulommiers, +whilst Pont l'Eveque, Livarot and other varieties are also made. After +being shaped in moulds of various forms, these cheeses are laid on straw +mats to cure, and when fit to eat they possess about the same +consistency as butter. The Neufchatel, Gervais and Bondon cheeses are +soft varieties intended to be eaten quite fresh, like cream cheese. + +Of the varieties of cheese made in Switzerland, the best known is the +Emmenthaler, which is about the size of a cart-wheel, and has a weight +varying from 150 to 300 lb. It is full of small holes of almost uniform +size and very regularly distributed. In colour and flavour it is the +same as Gruyere. The Edam and Gouda are the common cheeses of Holland. +The Edam is spherical in shape, weighs from 3 to 4 lb., and is usually +dyed crimson on the outside. The Gouda is a flat cheese with convex +edges and is of any weight up to 20 lb. Of the two, the Edam has the +finer flavour. Limburger is the leading German cheese, whilst other +varieties are the Backstein and Munster; all are strong-smelling. +Parmesan cheese is an Italian product, round and flat, about 5 in. +thick, weighing from 60 to 80 lb. and possessed of fine flavour. +Gorgonzola cheese, so called from the Italian town of that name near +Milan, is made in the Cheddar shape and weighs from 20 to 40 lb. When +ripe it is permeated by a blue mould, and resembles in flavour, +appearance and consistency a rich old Stilton. + + For descriptions of all the named varieties of cheese, see _Bulletin + 105 of the Bureau of Animal Industry_ (U.S. Department of Agriculture, + Washington), issued 27th of June 1908, compiled by C. F. Doane and H. + W. Lawson. + + +BUTTER AND BUTTER-MAKING + +As with cheese, so with butter, large quantities of the latter have been +inferior not because the cream was poor in quality, but because the +wrong kinds of bacteria had taken possession of the atmosphere in +hundreds of dairies. The greatest if not the latest novelty in dairying +in the last decade of the 19th century was the isolation of lactic acid +bacilli, their cultivation in a suitable medium, and their employment in +cream preparatory to churning. Used thus in butter-making, an excellent +product results, provided cleanliness be scrupulously maintained. The +culture repeats itself in the buttermilk, which in turn may be used +again with marked success. Much fine butter, indeed, was made long +before the bearing of bacteriological science upon the practice of +dairying was recognized--made by using acid buttermilk from a previous +churning. + +In Denmark, which is, for its size, the greatest butter-producing +country in the world, most of the butter is made with the aid of +"starters," or artificial cultures which are employed in ripening the +cream. Though the butter made by such cultures shows little if any +superiority over a good sample made from cream ripened in the ordinary +way--that is, by keeping the cream at a fairly high temperature until it +is ready for churning, when it must be cooled--it is claimed that the +use of these cultures enables the butter-makers of Denmark to secure a +much greater uniformity in the quality of their produce than would be +possible if they depended upon the ripening of the cream through the +influence of bacteria taken up in the usual way from the air. + +Butter-making is an altogether simpler process than cheese-making, but +success demands strict attention to sound principles, the observance of +thorough cleanliness in every stage of the work, and the intelligent use +of the thermometer. The following rules for butter-making, issued by the +Royal Agricultural Society sufficiently indicate the nature of the +operation:-- + + Prepare churn, butter-worker, wooden-hands and sieve as follows:--(1) + Rinse with cold water. (2) Scald with boiling water. (3) Rub + thoroughly with salt. (4) Rinse with cold water. + + _Always use a correct thermometer._ + + The cream, when in the churn, to be at a temperature of 56 deg. to 58 + deg. F. in summer and 60 deg. to 62 deg. F. in winter. The churn + should never be more than half full. Churn at number of revolutions + suggested by maker of churn. If none are given, _churn at 40 to 45 + revolutions per minute_. Always churn slowly at first. + + _Ventilate_ the churn _freely_ and frequently during churning, until + no air rushes out when the vent is opened. + + _Stop churning immediately_ the butter comes. This can be ascertained + by the sound; if in doubt, _look_. + + The butter should now be like grains of mustard seed. Pour in a small + quantity of cold water (1 pint of water to 2 quarts of cream) to + harden the grains, and give a few more turns to the churn gently. + + Draw off the buttermilk, giving plenty of time for draining. Use a + straining-cloth placed over the hair-sieve, so as to prevent any loss, + and wash the butter in the churn with plenty of cold water: then draw + off the water, and repeat the process until the water comes off quite + clear. + + _To brine butter_, make a strong brine, 2 to 3 lb. of salt to 1 gallon + of water. Place straining-cloth over mouth of churn, pour in brine, + put lid on churn, turn sharply half a dozen times, and leave for 10 to + 15 minutes. Then lift the butter out of the churn into sieve, turn + butter out on worker, leave it a few minutes to drain, and work gently + till all superfluous moisture is pressed out. + + _To drysalt butter_, place butter on worker, let it drain 10 to 15 + minutes, then work gently till all the butter comes together. Place it + on the scales and weigh; then weigh salt, for slight salting, 1/4 oz.; + medium, 1/2 oz.; heavy salting, 3/4 oz. to the lb. of butter. Roll + butter out on worker and carefully sprinkle salt over the surface, a + little at a time; roll up and repeat till all the salt is used. + + _Never touch the butter with your hands._ + +Well-made butter is firm and not greasy. It possesses a characteristic +texture or "grain," in virtue of which it cuts clean with a knife and +breaks with a granular fracture, like that of cast-iron. Theoretically, +butter should consist of little else than fat, but in practice this +degree of perfection is never attained. Usually the fat ranges from 83 +to 88%, whilst water is present to the extent of from 10 to 15%.[11] +There will also be from 0.2 to 0.8% of milk-sugar, and from 0.5 to 0.8% +of casein. It is the casein which is the objectionable ingredient, and +the presence of which is usually the cause of rancidity. In badly-washed +or badly-worked butter, from which the buttermilk has not been properly +removed, the proportion of casein or curd left in the product may be +considerable, and such butter has only inferior keeping qualities. At +the same time, the mistake may be made of overworking or of overwashing +the butter, thereby depriving it of the delicacy of flavour which is one +of its chief attractions as an article of consumption if eaten fresh. +The object of washing with brine is that the small quantity of salt thus +introduced shall act as a preservative and develop the flavour. Streaky +butter may be due either to curd left in by imperfect washing, or to an +uneven distribution of the salt. + + +EQUIPMENT OF THE DAIRY + +The improved form of milking-pail shown in fig. 1 has rests or brackets, +which the milker when seated on his stool places on his knees; he thus +bears the weight on his thighs, and is entirely relieved of the strain +involved in gripping the can between the knees. The milk sieve or +strainer (fig. 2) is used to remove cow-hairs and any other mechanical +impurity that may have fallen into the milk. A double straining surface +is provided, the second being of very fine gauze placed vertically, so +that the pressure of the milk does not force the dirt through; the +strainer is easily washed. The cheese tub or vat receives the milk for +cheese-making. The rectangular form shown in fig. 3 is a Cheshire +cheese-vat, for steam. The inner vat is of tinned steel, and the outer +is of iron and is fitted with pipes for steam supply. Round cheese-tubs +(fig. 4) are made of strong sheets of steel, double tinned to render +them lasting. They are fitted with a strong bottom hoop and bands round +the sides, and can be double-jacketed for steam-heating if required. +Curd-knives (fig. 5) are used for cutting the coagulated mass into cubes +in order to liberate the whey. They are made of fine steel, with sharp +edges; there are also wire curd-breakers. The object of the curd-mill +(fig. 6) is to grind consolidated curd into small pieces, preparatory to +salting and vatting; two spiked rollers work up to spiked breasts. +Hoops, into which the curd is placed in order to acquire the shape of +the cheese, are of wood or steel, the former being made of well-seasoned +oak with iron bands (fig. 7), the latter of tinned steel. The cheese is +more easily removed from the steel hoops and they are readily cleaned. +The cheese-press (fig. 8) is used only for hard or "pressed" cheese, +such as Cheddar. The arrangement is such that the pressure is +continuous; in the case of soft cheese the curd is merely placed in +moulds (figs. 9 and 10) of the required shape, and then taken cut to +ripen, no pressure being applied. The cheese-room is fitted with +easily-turned shelves, on which newly-made "pressed" cheeses are laid to +ripen. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Milking-Pail.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Milk Sieve.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Rectangular Cheese-Vat.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Cheese-Tub.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Curd-Knives.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Curd-Mill] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Hoop for Flat Cheese.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Cheese-Press.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Cheese-Mould (Gervais).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Cheese-Mould (Pont l'Eveque).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Milk-Pan.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Skimmer.] + +In the butter dairy, when the centrifugal separator is not used, milk is +"set" for cream-raising in the milk-pan (fig. 11), a shallow vessel of +white porcelain, tinned steel or enamelled iron. The skimming-dish or +skimmer (fig 12), made of tin, is for collecting the cream from the +surface of the milk, whence it is transferred to the cream-crock (fig. +13), in which vessel the cream remains from one to three days, till it +is required for churning. Many different kinds of churns are in use, and +vary much in size, shape and fittings; the one illustrated in fig. 14 is +a very good type of diaphragm churn. The butter-scoop (fig. 15) is of +wood and is sometimes perforated; it is used for taking the butter out +of the churn. The butter-worker (fig. 16) is employed for consolidating +newly-churned butter, pressing out superfluous water and mixing in salt. +More extended use, however, is now being made of the "Delaiteuse" butter +dryer, a centrifugal machine that rapidly extracts the moisture from the +butter, and renders the butter-worker unnecessary, whilst the butter +produced has a better grain. Scotch hands (fig. 17), made of boxwood, +are used for the lifting, moulding and pressing of butter. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Cream-Crock.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Churn.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Butter-Scoop.] + +In the centrifugal cream-separator the new milk is allowed to flow into +a bowl, which is caused to rotate on its own axis several thousand times +per minute. The heavier portion which makes up the watery part of the +milk flies to the outer circumference of the bowl, whilst the lighter +particles of butter-fat are forced to travel in an inner zone. By a +simple mechanical arrangement the separated milk is forced out at one +tube and the cream at another, and they are collected in distinct +vessels. Separators are made of all sizes, from small machines dealing +with 10 or 20 up to 100 gallons an hour, and worked by hand (fig. 18), +to large machines separating 150 to 440 gallons an hour, and worked by +horse, steam or other power (fig. 19). Separation is found to be most +effective at temperatures ranging in different machines from 80 deg. to +98 deg. F., though as high a temperature as 150 deg. is sometimes +employed. The most efficient separators remove nearly the whole of the +butter-fat, the quantity of fat left in the separated milk falling in +some cases to as low as 0.1. When cream is raised by the deep-setting +method, from 0.2 to 0.4% of fat is left in the skim-milk; by the +shallow-setting method from 0.3 to 0.5% of the fat is left behind. As a +rule, therefore, "separated" milk is much poorer in fat than ordinary +"skim" milk left by the cream-raising method in deep or shallow vessels. + +The first continuous working separator was the invention of Dr de Laval. +The more recent invention by Baron von Bechtolsheim of what are known as +the Alfa discs, which are placed along the centre of the bowl of the +separator, has much increased the separating capacity of the machines +without adding to the power required. This has been of great assistance +to dairy farmers by lessening the cost of the manufacture of butter, and +thus enabling a large additional number of factories to be established +in different parts of the world, particularly in Ireland, where these +disc machines are very extensively used. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Butter-Worker.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Scotch Hands.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Hand-Separator.] + +The pasteurizer--so named after the French chemist Pasteur--affords a +means whereby at the outset the milk is maintained at a temperature of +170 deg. to 180 deg. F. for a period of eight or ten minutes. The object +of this is to destroy the tubercle bacillus, if it should happen to +exist in the milk, whilst incidentally the bacilli associated with +several other diseases communicable through the medium of milk would +also be killed if they were present. Discordant results have been +recorded by experimenters who have attempted to kill tubercle bacilli in +milk by heating the latter in open vessels, thereby permitting the +formation of a scum or "scalded layer" capable of protecting the +tubercle bacilli, and enabling them to resist a higher temperature than +otherwise would be fatal to them. At a temperature not much above 150 +deg. F. milk begins to acquire the cooked flavour which is objectionable +to many palates, whilst its "body" is so modified as to lessen its +suitability for creaming purposes. Three factors really enter into +effective pasteurization of milk, namely (1) the temperature to which +the milk is raised, (2) the length of time it is kept at that +temperature, (3) the maintenance of a condition of mechanical agitation +to prevent the formation of "scalded layer." Within limits, what a +higher temperature will accomplish if maintained for a very short time +may be effected by a lower temperature continued over a longer period. +The investigation of the problem forms the subject of a paper[12] in the +17th _Annual Report of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station_, +1900. The following are the results of the experiments:-- + + 1. An exposure of tuberculous milk in a tightly closed commercial + pasteurizer for a period of ten minutes destroyed in every case the + tubercle bacillus, as determined by the inoculation of such heated + milk into susceptible animals like guinea-pigs. + + 2. Where milk is exposed under conditions that would enable a pellicle + or membrane to form on the surface, the tubercle organism is able to + resist the action of heat at 140 deg. F. (60 deg. C.) for considerably + longer periods of time. + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Power Separator.] + + 3. Efficient pasteurization can be more readily accomplished in a + closed receptacle such as is most frequently used in the commercial + treatment of milk, than where the milk is heated in open bottles or + open vats. + + [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Refrigerator and Can.] + + 4. It is recommended, in order thoroughly to pasteurize milk so as to + destroy any tubercle bacilli which it may contain, without in any way + injuring its creaming properties or consistency, to heat the same in + closed pasteurizers for a period of not less than twenty minutes at + 140 deg. F. + + Under these conditions one may be certain that disease bacteria such + as the tubercle bacillus will be destroyed without the milk or cream + being injured in any way. For over a year this new standard has been + in constant use in the Wisconsin University Creamery, and the results, + from a purely practical point of view, reported a year earlier by + Farrington and Russell,[13] have been abundantly confirmed. + + [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Cyclindrical Cooler or Refrigerator.] + +Dairy engineers have solved the problem as to how large bodies of milk +may be pasteurized, the difficulty of raising many hundreds or thousands +of gallons of milk up to the required temperature, and maintaining it at +that heat for a period of twenty minutes, having been successfully dealt +with. The plant usually employed provides for the thorough filtration of +the milk as it comes in from the farms, its rapid heating in a closed +receiver and under mechanical agitation up to the desired temperature, +its maintenance thereat for the requisite time, and finally its sudden +reduction to the temperature of cold water through the agency of a +refrigerator, to be next noticed. + +Refrigerators are used for reducing the temperature of milk to that of +cold water, whereby its keeping properties are enhanced. The milk flows +down the outside of the metal refrigerator (fig. 20), which is +corrugated in order to provide a larger cooling surface, whilst cold +water circulates through the interior of the refrigerator. The conical +vessel into which the milk is represented as flowing from the +refrigerator in fig. 20 is absurdly called a "milk-churn," whereas +milk-can is a much more appropriate name. For very large quantities of +milk, such as flow from a pasteurizing plant, cylindrical refrigerators +(fig. 21), made of tinned copper, are available; the cold water +circulates inside, and the milk, flowing down the outside in a very thin +sheet, is rapidly cooled from a temperature of 140 deg. F. or higher to +1 deg. above the temperature of the water. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Butyrometer.] + +The fat test for milk was originally devised by Dr S. M. Babcock, of the +Wisconsin, U.S.A., experiment station. It combines the principle of +centrifugal force with simple chemical action. Besides the machine +itself and its graduated glass vessels, the only requirements are +sulphuric acid of standard strength and warm water. The machines--often +termed butyrometers--are commonly made to hold from two up to two dozen +testers. After the tubes or testers have been charged, they are put in +the apparatus, which is rapidly rotated as shown (fig. 22); in a few +minutes the test is complete, and with properly graduated vessels the +percentage of fat can be read off at a glance. The butyrometer is +extremely useful, alike for measuring periodically the fat-producing +capacity of individual cows in a herd, for rapidly ascertaining the +percentage of fat in milk delivered to factories and paying for such +milk on the basis of quality, and for determining the richness in fat of +milk supplied for the urban milk trade. Any intelligent person can soon +learn to work the apparatus, but its efficiency is of course dependent +upon the accuracy of the measuring vessels. To ensure this the board of +agriculture have made arrangements with the National Physical +Laboratory, Old Deer Park, Richmond, Surrey, to verify at a small fee +the pipettes, measuring-glasses, and test-bottles used in connexion with +the centrifugal butyrometer, which in recent years has been improved by +Dr N. Gerber of Zurich. + + +DAIRY FACTORIES + +In connexion with co-operative cheese-making the merit of having founded +the first "cheesery" or cheese factory is generally credited to Jesse +Williams, who lived near Rome, Oneida county, N.Y. The system, +therefore, was of American origin. Williams was a skilled cheese-maker, +and the produce of his dairy sold so freely, at prices over the average, +that he increased his output of cheese by adding to his own supply of +milk other quantities which he obtained from his neighbours. His example +was so widely followed that by the year 1866 there had been established +close upon 500 cheese factories in New York state alone. In 1870 two +co-operative cheeseries were at work in England, one in the town of +Derby and one at Longford in the same county. There are now thousands of +cheeseries in the United States and Canada, and also many "creameries," +or butter factories, for the making of high-class butter. + +The first creamery was that of Alanson Slaughter, and it was built near +Wallkill, Orange county, N.Y., in 1861, or ten years later than the +first cheese factory; it dealt daily with the milk of 375 cows. +Cheeseries and creameries would almost certainly have become more +numerous than they are in England but for the rapidly expanding urban +trade in country milk. The development of each, indeed, has been +contemporaneous since 1871, and they are found to work well in +conjunction one with the other--that is to say, a factory is useful for +converting surplus milk into cheese or butter when the milk trade is +overstocked, whilst the trade affords a convenient avenue for the sale +of milk whenever this may happen to be preferable to the making of +cheese or butter. Extensive dealers in milk arrange for its conversion +into cheese or butter, as the case may be, at such times as the milk +market needs relief, and in this way a cheesery serves as a sort of +economic safety-valve to the milk trade. The same cannot always be said +of creameries, because the machine-skimmed milk of some of these +establishments has been far too much used to the prejudice of the +legitimate milk trade in urban districts. Be this as it may, the +operations of cheeseries and creameries in conjunction with the milk +trade have led to the diminution of home dairying. A rapidly increasing +population has maintained, and probably increased, its consumption of +milk, which has obviously diminished the farmhouse production of cheese, +and also of butter. The foreign competitor has been less successful with +cheese than with butter, for he is unable to produce an article +qualified to compete with the best that is made in Great Britain. In the +case of butter, on the other hand, the imported article, though not ever +surpassing the best home-made, is on the average much better, especially +as regards uniformity of quality. Colonial and foreign producers, +however, send into the British markets as a rule only the best of their +butter, as they are aware that their inferior grades would but injure +the reputation their products have acquired. + +There are no official statistics concerning dairy factories in Great +Britain, and such figures relating to Ireland were issued for the first +time in 1901. The number of dairy factories in Ireland in 1900 was +returned at 506, comprising 333 in Munster, 92 in Ulster, 52 in Leinster +and 29 in Connaught. Of the total number of factories, 495 received milk +only, 9 milk and cream and 2 cream only. As to ownership, 219 were +joint-stock concerns, 190 were maintained by co-operative farmers and 97 +were proprietary. In the year ended 30th September 1900 these factories +used up nearly 121 million gallons of milk, namely, 94 in Munster, 14 in +Ulster, 7 in Leinster and 6 in Connaught. The number of centrifugal +cream-separators in the factories was 985, of which 889 were worked by +steam, 79 by water, 9 by horse-power and 8 by hand-power. The number of +hands permanently employed was 3653, made up of 976 in Munster, 279 in +Leinster, 278 in Ulster and 120 in Connaught. The year's output was +returned at 401,490 cwt. of butter, 439 cwt. of cheese (made from whole +milk) and 46,253 gallons of cream. In most cases the skim-milk is +returned to the farmers. A return of the number of separators used in +private establishments gave a total of 899, comprising 693 in Munster, +157 in Leinster, 39 in Ulster and 10 in Connaught. In factories and +private establishments together as many as 1884 separators were thus +accounted for. Much of the factory butter would be sent into the markets +of Great Britain, though some would no doubt be retained for local +consumption. A great improvement in the quality of Irish butter has +recently been noticeable in the exhibits entered at the London dairy +show. + + +ADULTERATION OF DAIRY PRODUCE[14] + +The Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899, which came into operation on the +1st of January 1900, contains several sections relating to the trade in +dairy produce in the United Kingdom. Section 1 imposes penalties in the +case of the importation of produce insufficiently marked, such as (a) +margarine or margarine-cheese, except in passages conspicuously marked +"Margarine" or "Margarine-cheese"; (b) adulterated or impoverished +butter (other than margarine) or adulterated or impoverished milk or +cream, except in packages or cans conspicuously marked with a name or +description indicating that the butter or milk or cream has been so +treated; (c) condensed separated or skimmed milk, except in tins or +other receptacles which bear a label whereon the words "machine-skimmed +milk" or "skimmed milk" are printed in large and legible type. For the +purposes of this section an article of food is deemed to be adulterated +or impoverished if it has been mixed with any other substance, or if any +part of it has been abstracted, so as in either case to affect +injuriously its quality, substance, or nature; provided that an article +of food shall not be deemed to be adulterated by reason only of the +addition of any preservative or colouring matter of such a nature and in +such quantity as not to render the article injurious to health. Section +7 provides that every occupier of a manufactory of margarine or +margarine-cheese, and every wholesale dealer in such substances, shall +keep a register showing the quantity and destination of each consignment +of such substances sent out from his manufactory or place of business, +and this register shall be open to the inspection of any officer of the +board of agriculture. Any such officer shall have power to enter at all +reasonable times any such manufactory, and to inspect any process of +manufacture therein, and to take samples for analysis. Section 8 is of +much practical importance, as it limits the quantity of butter-fat which +may be contained in margarine; it states that it shall be unlawful to +manufacture, sell, expose for sale or import any margarine the fat of +which contains more than 10% of butter-fat, and every person who +manufactures, sells, exposes for sale or imports any margarine which +contains more than that percentage shall be guilty of an offence under +the Margarine Act 1887. For the purposes of the act _margarine-cheese_ +is defined as "any substance, whether compound or otherwise, which is +prepared in imitation of cheese, and which contains fat not derived from +milk"; whilst _cheese_ is defined as "the substance usually known as +cheese, containing no fat derived otherwise than from milk." The +so-called "filled" cheese of American origin, in which the butter-fat of +the milk is partially or wholly replaced by some other fat, would come +under the head of "margarine-cheese." In making such cheese a cheap form +of fat, usually of animal origin, but sometimes vegetable, is added to +and incorporated with the skim-milk, and thus takes the place previously +occupied by the genuine butter-fat. The act is regarded by some as +defective in that it does not prohibit the artificial colouring of +margarine to imitate butter. + +In connexion with this act a departmental committee was appointed in +1900 "to inquire and report as to what regulations, if any, may with +advantage be made by the board of agriculture under section 4 of the +Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899, for determining what deficiency in any +of the normal constituents of genuine milk or cream, or what addition of +extraneous matter or proportion of water, in any sample of milk +(including condensed milk) or cream, shall for the purposes of the Sale +of Food and Drugs Acts 1875 to 1899, raise a presumption, until the +contrary is proved, that the milk or cream is not genuine." Much +evidence of the highest interest to dairy-farmers was taken, and +subsequently published as a Blue-Book (Cd. 484). The report of the +committee (Cd. 491) included the following "recommendations," which were +signed by all the members excepting one:-- + + I. That regulations under section 4 of the Food and Drugs Act 1899 be + made by the board of agriculture with respect to milk (including + condensed milk) and cream. + + II. (a) That in the case of any milk (other than skimmed, separated or + condensed milk) the total milk-solids in which on being dried at 100 + deg. C. do not amount to 12% a presumption shall be raised, until the + contrary is proved, that the milk is deficient in the normal + constituents of genuine milk. + + (b) That any milk (other than skimmed, separated or condensed milk) + the total milk-solids in which are less than 12%, and in which the + amount of milk-fat is less than 3.25%, shall be deemed to be + deficient in milk-fat as to raise a presumption, until the contrary + is proved, that it has been mixed with separated milk or water, or + that some portion of its normal content of milk-fat has been + removed. In calculating the percentage amount of deficiency of fat + the analyst shall have regard to the above-named limit of 3.25% of + milk-fat. + + (c) That any milk (other than skimmed, separated or condensed milk) + the total milk-solids in which are less than 12%, and in which the + amount of non-fatty milk-solids is less than 8.5%, shall be deemed + to be so deficient in normal constituents as to raise a presumption, + until the contrary is proved, that it has been mixed with water. In + calculating the percentage amount of admixed water the analyst shall + have regard to the above-named limit of 8.5% of non-fatty + milk-solids, and shall further take into account the extent to which + the milk-fat may exceed 3.25%. + + III. That the artificial thickening of cream by any addition of + gelatin or other substance shall raise a presumption that the cream is + not genuine. + + IV. That any skimmed or separated milk in which the total milk-solids + are less than 9% shall be deemed to be so deficient in normal + constituents as to raise a presumption, until the contrary is proved, + that it has been mixed with water. + + V. That any condensed milk (other than that labelled "machine-skimmed + milk" or "skimmed milk," in conformity with section 11 of the Food and + Drugs Act 1899) in which either the amount of milk-fat is less than + 10%, or the amount of non-fatty milk-solids is less than 25%, shall be + deemed to be so deficient in some of the normal constituents of milk + as to raise a presumption, until the contrary is proved, that it is + not genuine. + +The committee further submitted the following expressions of opinion on +points raised before them in evidence:-- + + (a) That it is desirable to call the attention of those engaged in the + administration of the Food and Drugs Acts to the necessity of adopting + effective measures to prevent any addition of water, separated or + condensed milk, or other extraneous matter, for the purpose of + reducing the quality of genuine milk to any limits fixed by regulation + of the board of agriculture. + + (b) That it is desirable that steps should be taken with the view of + identifying or "ear-marking" separated milk by the addition of some + suitable and innocuous substance, and by the adoption of procedure + similar to that provided by section 7 of the Food and Drugs Act 1899, + in regard to margarine. + + (c) That it is desirable that, so far as may be found practicable, the + procedure adopted in collecting, forwarding, and retaining pending + examination, samples of milk (including condensed milk) and cream + under the Food and Drugs Acts should be uniform. + + (d) That it is desirable that, so far as may be found practicable, the + methods of analysis used in the examination of samples of milk + (including condensed milk) or cream taken under the Food and Drugs + Acts should be uniform. (e) That it is desirable in the case of + condensed milk (other than that labelled "machine-skimmed milk" or + "skimmed milk," in conformity with section 11 of the Food and Drugs + Act 1899) that the label should state the amount of dilution required + to make the proportion of milk-fat equal to that found in uncondensed + milk containing not less than 3.25% of milk-fat. + + (f) That it is desirable in the case of condensed whole milk to limit, + and in the case of condensed machine-skimmed milk to exclude, the + addition of sugar. + + (g) That the official standardizing of the measuring vessels + commercially used in the testing of milk is desirable. + + +In the minority report, signed by Mr Geo. Barham, the most important +clauses are the following:-- + + (a) That in the case of any milk (other than skimmed, separated or + condensed milk) the total milk-solids in which are less than 11.75%, + and in which, during the months of July to February inclusive, the + amount of milk-fat is less than 3%, and in the case of any milk which + during the months of March to June inclusive shall fall below the + above-named limit for total solids, and at the same time shall contain + less than 2.75% of fat, it shall be deemed that such milk is so + deficient in its normal constituent of fat as to raise a presumption, + for the purposes of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts 1875 to 1899, + until the contrary is proved, that the milk is not genuine. + + (b) That any milk (other than skimmed, separated or condensed milk) + the total milk-solids in which are less than 11.75%, and in which the + amount of non-fatty solids is less than 8.5%, shall be deemed to be so + deficient in its normal constituents as to raise a presumption, for + the purposes of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts 1875 to 1899, until + the contrary is proved, that the milk is not genuine. In calculating + the amount of the deficiency the analyst shall take into account the + extent to which the milk-fat exceeds the limits above named. + + (c) That any skimmed or separated milk in which the total milk-solids + are less than 8.75% shall be deemed to be so deficient in its normal + constituents as to raise a presumption, for the purpose of the Sale of + Food and Drugs Acts 1875 to 1899, until the contrary is proved, that + the milk is not genuine. + + +Much controversy arose out of the publication of these reports, the +opinion most freely expressed being that the standard recommended in the +majority report was too high. The difficulty of the problem is +illustrated by, for example, the diverse legal standards for milk that +prevail in the United States, where the prescribed percentage of fat in +fresh cows' milk ranges from 2.5 in Rhode Island to 3.5 in Georgia and +Minnesota, and 3.7 (in the winter months) in Massachusetts, and the +prescribed total solids range from 12 in several states (11.5 in Ohio +during May and June) up to 13 in others. Standards are recognized in +twenty-one of the states, but the remaining states have no laws +prescribing standards for dairy products. That the public discussion of +the reports of the committee was effective is shown by the following +regulations which appeared in the _London Gazette_ on the 6th of August +1901, and fixed the limit of fat at 3%:-- + + The board of agriculture, in exercise of the powers conferred on them + by section 4 of the Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899, do hereby make + the following regulations:-- + + 1. Where a sample of milk (not being milk sold as skimmed, or + separated or condensed milk) contains less than 3% of milk-fat, it + shall be presumed for the purposes of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts + 1875 to 1899, until the contrary is proved, that the milk is not + genuine, by reason of the abstraction therefrom of milk-fat, or the + addition thereto of water. + + 2. Where a sample of milk (not being milk sold as skimmed, or + separated or condensed milk) contains less than 8.5% of milk-solids + other than milk-fat, it shall be presumed for the purposes of the Sale + of Food and Drugs Acts 1875 to 1899, until the contrary is proved, + that the milk is not genuine, by reason of the abstraction therefrom + of milk-solids other than milk-fat, or the addition thereto of water. + + 3. Where a sample of skimmed or separated milk (not being condensed + milk) contains less than 9% of milk-solids, it shall be presumed for + the purposes of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts 1875 to 1899, until + the contrary is proved, that the milk is not genuine, by reason of the + abstraction therefrom of milk-solids other than milk-fat, or the + addition thereto of water. + + 4. These regulations shall extend to Great Britain. + + 5. These regulations shall come into operation on the 1st of September + 1901. + + 6. These regulations may be cited as the Sale of Milk Regulations + 1901. + +In July 1901 another departmental committee was appointed by the board +of agriculture to inquire and report as to what regulations, if any, +might with advantage be made under section 4 of the Sale of Food and +Drugs Act 1899, for determining what deficiency in any of the normal +constituents of butter, or what addition of extraneous matter, or +proportion of water in any sample of butter should, for the purpose of +the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts, raise a presumption, until the contrary +is proved, that the butter is not genuine. As bearing upon this point +reference may be made to a report of the dairy division of the United +States department of agriculture on experimental exports of butter, in +the appendix to which are recorded the results of the analyses of many +samples of butter of varied origin. First, as to American butters, 19 +samples were analysed in Wisconsin, 17 in Iowa, 5 in Minnesota and 2 in +Vermont, at the respective experiment stations of the states named. The +amount of moisture throughout was low, and the quantity of fat +correspondingly high. In no case was there more than 15% of water, and +only 4 samples contained more than 14%. On the other hand, 11 samples +had less than 10%, the lowest being a pasteurized butter from Ames, +Iowa, with only 6.72% of water. The average amount of water in the total +43 samples was 11.24%. The fat varies almost inversely as the water, +small quantities of curd and ash having to be allowed for. The largest +quantity of fat was 91.23% in the sample containing only 6.72% of water. +The lowest proportion of fat was 80.18%, whilst the average of all the +samples shows 85.9%, which is regarded as a good market standard. The +curd varied from 0.55 to 1.7%, with an average of 0.98. This small +amount indicates superior keeping qualities. Theoretically there should +be no curd present, but this degree of perfection is never attained in +practice. It was desired to have the butter contain about 2(1/2)% of +salt, but the quantity of ash in the 43 samples ranged from 0.83 to +4.79%, the average being 1.88. Analyses made at Washington of butters +other than American showed a general average of 13.22% of water over 28 +samples representing 14 countries. The lowest were 10.25% in a Canadian +butter and 10.38 in an Australian sample. The highest was 19.1% in an +Irish butter, which also contained the remarkably large quantity of +8.28% of salt. Three samples of Danish butter contained 12.65, 14.27 and +15.14% respectively of water. French and Italian unsalted butter +included, the former 15.46 and the latter 14.41% of water, and yet +appeared to be unusually dry. In 7 samples of Irish butters the +percentages of water ranged from 11.48 to 19.1. Of the 28 foreign +butters 15 were found to contain preservatives. All 5 samples from +Australia, the 2 from France, the single ones from Italy, New Zealand, +Argentina, and England, and 4 out of the 7 from Ireland, contained boric +acid. + + +THE MILK TRADE + +The term "milk trade" has come to signify the great traffic in country +milk for the supply of dwellers in urban districts. Prior to 1860 this +traffic was comparatively small or in its infancy. Thirty years earlier +it could not have been brought into existence, for it is an outcome of +the great network of railways which was spread over the face of the +country in the latter half of the 19th century. It affords an +instructive illustration of the process of commercial evolution which +has been fostered by the vast increase of urban population within the +period indicated. It is a tribute to the spirit of sanitary reform +which--as an example in one special direction--has brought about the +disestablishment of urban cow-sheds and the consequent demand for milk +produced in the shires. London, in fact, is now being regularly supplied +with fresh milk from places anywhere within 150 m., and the milk traffic +on the railways, not only to London but to other great centres, is an +important item. A factor in the development of the milk trade must no +doubt be sought in the outbreak of cattle plague in 1865, for it was +then that the dairymen of the metropolis were compelled to seek milk all +over England, and the capillary refrigerator being invented soon after, +the production of milk has remained ever since in the hands of dairymen +living mainly at a distance from the towns supplied. + +This great change in country dairying, involving the continuous export +of enormous quantities of milk from the farms, has been accompanied by +subsidiary changes in the management of dairy-farms, and has +necessitated the extensive purchase of feeding-stuffs for the production +of milk, especially in winter-time. It is probable that, in this way, a +gradual improvement of the soil on such farms has been effected, and the +corn-growing soils of distant countries are adding to the store of +fertility of soils in the British Isles. Country roads, exposed to the +wear and tear of a comparatively new traffic, are lively at morn and eve +with the rattle of vehicles conveying fresh milk from the farms to the +railway stations. Most of these changes were brought about within the +limits of the last third of the 19th century. + +In the case of London the daily supply of a perishable article such as +milk, which must be delivered to the consumer within a few hours of its +production, to a population of five millions, is an undertaking of very +great magnitude, especially when it is considered that only a +comparatively minute proportion of the supply is produced in the +metropolitan area itself. To meet the demand of the London consumer some +5000 dairies proper exist, as well as a large number of businesses where +milk is sold in conjunction with other commodities. It has been computed +that some 12,000 traders are engaged in the business of milk-selling in +the metropolis, and the number of persons employed in its distribution, +&c., cannot be fewer than 25,000. The amount of capital involved is very +great, and it may be mentioned that the paid-up capital of six of the +principal distributing and retail dairy companies amounts to upwards of +one million sterling. The most significant feature in connexion with the +milk-supply of the metropolis at the beginning of the 20th century is +the gradual extinction of the town "cowkeeper"--the retailer who +produces the milk he sells. The facilities afforded by the railway +companies, the favourable rates which have been secured for the +transport of milk, and the more enlightened methods of its treatment +after production, have made it possible for milk produced under more +favourable conditions to be brought from considerable distances and +delivered to the retailer at a price lower than that at which it has +been possible to produce it in the metropolis itself. As a result, the +number of milk cows in the county of London diminished from 10,000 in +1889 to 5144 in 1900, the latter, on an estimated production of 700 +gallons per cow--the average production of stall-fed town +cows--representing a yearly milk yield of 3,600,000 gallons. How small a +proportion this is of the total supply will be gathered from the fact +that the annual quantity of milk delivered in London on the Great +Western line amounts to some 11,000,000 gallons, whilst the London & +North-Western railway delivers 9,000,000, and the Midland railway at St +Pancras 5,000,000, and at others of its London stations about 1,000,000, +making 6,000,000 in all. The London & South-Western railway brings +upwards of 8,000,000 gallons to London, a quantity of 7,500,000 gallons +is carried by the Great Northern railway, and the Great Eastern railway +is responsible for 7,000,000. The London, Brighton & South Coast railway +delivers 1,000,000 gallons, and the South-Eastern & Chatham and the +London & Tilbury railways carry approximately 1,000,000 gallons between +them. A large quantity of milk is also carried in by local lines from +farms in the vicinity of London and delivered at the local stations, and +a quantity is also brought by the Great Central railway. In addition to +this, milk is taken into London by carts from farms in the neighbourhood +of the metropolis. A computation of the total milk-supply of the +metropolis reveals a quantity approximating to 60,000,000 gallons per +annum, or rather more than a million gallons per week, which, taking 500 +gallons as the average yearly production of the cows contributing to +this supply, represents the yield of at least 120,000 cows. The growth +of the supply of country milk to London may be judged from the figures +given by Mr George Barham, chairman of the Express Dairy Co. Ltd., in an +article on "The Milk Trade" contributed to Professor Sheldon's work on +_The Farm and Dairy_. The quantities carried by the respective railways +in 1889 are therein stated in gallons as:--Great Western, 9,000,000; +London & North-Western, 7,000,000; Midland, 7,000,000; London & +South-Western, 6,000,000; Great Northern, 3,000,000; Great Eastern, +3,000,000; the southern lines, 2,000,000. The increase, therefore, on +these lines amounted to no less than 13,500,000 gallons per annum, or +36%. The diminished production in the metropolis itself amounted +approximately only to 3,000,000 gallons, and it follows, therefore, that +the consumption largely increased. + +Previously to 1864 it was only possible to bring milk into London from +short distances, but the introduction of the refrigerator has enabled +milk to be brought from places as far removed from the metropolis as +North Staffordshire, and it has even been received from Scotland. +Practically the whole of the milk supplied to the metropolis is produced +in England. Attempts have been made to introduce foreign milk, and in +1898 a company was formed to promote the sale of fresh milk from +Normandy, but the enterprise did not succeed. The trade subsequently +showed signs of reviving, owing probably to the increased cost of the +home produced article, and during the winter season of 1900-1901 the +largest quantity received into the kingdom in one week amounted to +10,000 gallons. Of recent years a large demand has sprung up for +sterilized milk in bottles, and a considerable trade is also done in +humanized milk, which is a milk preparation approximating in its +chemical composition to human milk. + +Estimating the average yield of milk of each country cow at 500 gallons +per annum, and assuming an average of 28 cows to each farm, as many as +4300 farmers are engaged in supplying London with milk; allotting ten +cows to each milker, it needs 12 battalions of 1000 men each for this +work alone. Some 3500 horses are required to convey the milk from the +farms to the country railway stations. The chief sources of supply are +in the counties of Derby, Stafford, Leicester, Northampton, Notts, +Warwick, Bucks, Oxford, Gloucester, Berks, Wilts, Hants, Dorset, Essex, +and Cambridge. It is not entirely owing to the railways that London's +enormous supply of milk has been rendered possible, for the milk must +still have been produced in the immediate neighbourhood of the +metropolis had not the method of reducing the temperature of the product +by means of the refrigerator been devised. There are probably 5700 +horses engaged in the delivery of milk in London, and more people are +employed in this work than in milking the cows. One of the great +difficulties the London dairyman has to contend with, and a cause of +frequent anxiety to him, is associated with the rise and fall of the +thermometer, for a movement to the extent of ten degrees one way or the +other may diminish or increase the supply in an inverse ratio to the +demand. Thus, at periods of extreme cold, the cows shrink in their yield +of milk, while from the same cause the Londoner is demanding more, in an +extra cup of coffee, &c. Again, at periods of extreme heat, which has +the same effect on the cow's production as extreme cold, the customer +also demands an increased quantity of milk. Ten degrees fall of +temperature in the summer will result in a lessened demand and an +enlarged supply--to such an extent, indeed, that a single firm has been +known to have had returned by its carriers some 600 gallons in one day. +In such cases the cream separator is capable of rendering invaluable +assistance. To make cheese in London in large quantities and at +uncertain intervals has been found to be impracticable, while to set for +cream a great bulk of milk is almost equally so. But now a considerable +portion of what would otherwise be lost is saved by passing the milk +through separators, and churning the cream into butter. + +Previously to the enormous development of the urban trade in country +milk, dairy farms were in the main self-sustaining in the matter of +manures and feeding-stuffs, and the cropping of arable land was governed +by routine. To-day, on the contrary, many dairy farms are run at high +pressure by the help of purchased materials,--corn, cake, and +manure,--and the land is cropped regardless of routine and independent +of courses. Such crops, moreover, are grown--white straw crops, green +crops, root crops--as are deemed likely to be most needed at the time +when they are ready. Green crops,--"soiling" crops, as they are termed +in North America,--consisting largely of vetches or tares (held up by +stalks of oat plants grown amongst them), cabbages, and in some +districts green maize, are used to supplement the failing grass-lands at +the fall of the year, and root crops, especially mangel, are +advantageously grown for the same purpose. For winter feeding the farm +is made to yield what it will in the shape of meadow and clover hay, and +of course root crops of the several kinds. This provision is +supplemented by the purchase of, for example, brewers' grains as a bulky +food, and of oilcake and corn of many sorts as concentrated food. + + TABLE XI.--_Estimated Annual Production of Milk, Butter and Cheese in + the United Kingdom for the Ten Years ended 31st December 1899._ + + +-------+-----------+-------+-----------+----------+-----------------+----------------+-----------------+ + | Year | | | |Influence | | Estimated | Estimated | + | ended | | | Cows and |of Season.| Estimated | Total Quantity | Total Quantity | + | Decem-| Cows and | Cows | Heifers |Percentage| Total Quantity | of Butter | of Cheese | + |ber 31.|Heifers in | per | giving | above or | of Milk produced| produced in the| produced in the | + | |Milk or in |1000 of| Milk all |below the | in the 52 Weeks,| 52 Weeks, | 52 Weeks, | + | | Calf on | Popu- | the year |Average of| by 75% of the | taking 32% of | taking 20% of | + | | 4th June. |lation.| round; | previous | Total Herd, at | the Total Milk | the Total Milk | + | | | | say 75% | 10 Years.| 49 cwt. or 531 | to yield 80 lb.| to yield 220 lb.| + | | | | of Total. | | gallons per Cow.| of Butter per | of Cheese per | + | | | | | | | Ton of Milk. | Ton of Milk. | + +-------+-----------+-------+-----------+----------+-----------------+----------------+-----------------+ + | | No. | No. | No. | % | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | + | 1890 | 3,956,220 | 105.5 | 2,967,165 | +3.0 | 7,487,640 | 85,572 | 147,078 | + | 1891 | 4,117,707 | 108.9 | 3,088,281 | Average. | 7,566,288 | 86,472 | 148,624 | + | 1892 | 4,120,451 | 108.1 | 3,090,339 | -5.6 | 7,147,337 | 81,684 | 140,394 | + | 1893 | 4,014,055 | 104.4 | 3,010,542 | -9.0 | 6,712,004 | 76,709 | 131,843 | + | 1894 | 3,925,486 | 101.2 | 2,944,115 | +6.3 | 7,667,505 | 87,628 | 150,611 | + | 1895 | 3,937,590 | 100.5 | 2,953,193 | -3.5 | 6,982,087 | 79,652 | 137,148 | + | 1896 | 3,958,762 | 100.0 | 2,969,387 | -4.0 | 6,983,999 | 79,817 | 130,000 | + | 1897 | 3,984,167 | 99.7 | 2,988,126 | +3.1 | 7,547,856 | 86,261 | 148,260 | + | 1898 | 4,035,501 | 100.0 | 3,025,526 | +3.2 | 7,645,105 | 87,372 | 150,171 | + | 1899 | 4,133,249 | 101.9 | 3,099,937 | -3.5 | 7,329,027 | 83,760 | 130,020 | + +-------+-----------+-------+-----------+----------+-----------------+----------------+-----------------+ + | 10 | | | | | | | | + | Years'| 4,018,318 | 103.0 | 3,013,660 | -0.7 | 7,906,874 | 83,992 | 141,412 | + |Average| | | | | | | | + +-------+-----------+-------+-----------+----------+-----------------+----------------+-----------------+ + + +BRITISH OUTPUT, IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF DAIRY PRODUCE + +Whilst the quantity of imported butter and cheese consumed in the United +Kingdom from year to year can be arrived at with a tolerable degree of +accuracy, it is more difficult to form an estimate of the amounts of +these articles annually produced at home. Various attempts have, +however, from time to time been made by competent authorities to arrive +approximately at the annual output of milk, butter and cheese in the +United Kingdom, and the results are given by Messrs W. Weddel & Co. in +their annual _Dairy Produce Review_. Table XI. shows the estimates for +each of the ten years 1890 to 1899, the numbers in the second column of +"cows and heifers in milk or in calf" being identical with those +officially recorded in the agricultural returns. In thus estimating the +quantity of milk, butter and cheese produced within the United Kingdom, +the "average milking life" of a cow is taken to be four years, from +which it follows that on the average one-fourth of the total herd has to +be renewed every year by heifers with their first calf. This leaves 75% +of the total herd giving milk throughout the year. Each cow of this 75% +is estimated as yielding 49 cwt., or 531 gallons of milk annually. It is +assumed that 15% of the total milk yield is used for the calf, 32% +utilized for butter-making, 20% for cheese-making, and the remaining 33% +consumed in the household as fresh milk. A ton of milk is estimated to +produce 80 lb. of butter or 220 lb. of cheese. A gallon of milk weighs +10.33 lb. (10(1/3) lb.). The probable effects of each season upon the +production have been taken into consideration in making these estimates, +and it will be noticed that owing to the terrible drought of 1893 a +reduction of 9% is made from the average. Accepting these estimates with +due reservation,[15] it is seen that the annual production of milk +varied in the decade to the extent of nearly a million tons, the exact +difference between the maximum of 7,667,505 tons in 1894 and the minimum +of 6,712,004 tons in 1893 being 955,501 tons. The decennial averages are +7,906,874 tons of milk, 83,992 tons of butter, and 141,412 tons of +cheese. + + Table XII. furnishes an estimate of the total consumption of butter in + the United Kingdom in each of the years 1891 to 1900. Whilst the + estimated home production did not vary greatly from year to year, the + imports from colonial and foreign sources underwent almost continuous + increase. The ten years' average indicates 37.6% home-made, 7.3% + imported colonial, and 55.1% imported foreign butter. But whereas at + the beginning of the decade the proportions were 45.4% home-made, 1.5% + colonial, and 53.2% foreign, at the end of the percentages were 32.8, + 14.7 and 52.5 respectively. It thus appears that whilst the United + Kingdom was able in 1891 to furnish nearly half of its requirements + (45.4%), by 1900 it was unable to supply more than one-third (32.8%). + + TABLE XII.--_Estimated Home Production and Imports of Butter into + the United Kingdom for the Ten Years ended 30th June 1900._ + + +------------+-------------+-------------+-----------+---------+ + | Year ended | Home | Imported | Imported | | + | 30th June. | Production, | Colonial. | Foreign. | Total. | + | | _estimated_.| | | | + +------------+-------------+-------------+-----------+---------+ + | | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | + | 1891 | 84,961 | 2,883 | 99,598 | 187,442 | + | 1892 | 86,022 | 6,323 | 101,796 | 194,141 | + | 1893 | 84,078 | 9,408 | 105,712 | 199,198 | + | 1894 | 79,196 | 15,550 | 107,534 | 202,280 | + | 1895 | 82,168 | 17,807 | 116,730 | 216,705 | + | 1896 | 83,640 | 12,949 | 133,249 | 229,838 | + | 1897 | 79,734 | 18,111 | 138,800 | 236,645 | + | 1898 | 83,039 | 17,732 | 141,426 | 242,197 | + | 1899 | 87,326 | 22,443 | 142,193 | 251,962 | + | 1900 | 83,760 | 37,534 | 133,957 | 255,251 | + | +-------------+-------------+-----------+---------+ + | 10 Years' | | | | | + | Average | 83,392 | 16,074 | 122,099 | 221,565 | + +------------+-------------+-------------+-----------+---------+ + + The rapid headway which colonial butter has made in British markets is + shown by the fact that for the five years ended 30th of June 1900 the + import had grown from 12,949 tons to 37,534 tons per annum, or an + increase of 24,585 tons. It is during the mid-winter months that the + colonial butter from Australasia arrives on the British markets, while + that from Canada begins to arrive in July, and virtually ceases in the + following January. The bulk of the Canadian butter reaches British + markets during August, September and October; the bulk of the + Australasian in December, January and February. + + It appears to be demonstrated by the experience of the last decade of + the 19th century that the United Kingdom is quite unable to turn out + sufficient dairy produce to supply its own population. In the year + ended 30th of June 1891 the total import of butter was 102,500 tons, + and for the year ended 30th of June 1900 it was 170,700 tons, which + shows an annual average increase in the decade of 6800 tons. This + growth was on the whole very uniform, any disturbance in its + regularity being attributable more to the deficient seasons in the + colonies and foreign countries than to the bountiful seasons at home. + Twice in the decade the import of butter from colonial sources fell + off slightly from the previous year, namely, in 1896 and 1898, while + only once was there any decrease in the foreign supply, and this + occurred in 1900. In 1896 the colonial supply fell off by 5000 tons, + principally owing to drought in Australia, but from foreign countries + this deficiency was more than made good, as the increased import from + these sources exceeded 16,500 tons. In 1900 the position was reversed, + for while the foreign import fell away to the extent of over 8000 + tons, the supply from the colonies exceeded that of 1899 by 15,000 + tons, thus leaving a gain in the quantity of imported butter of nearly + 7000 tons on the year. Table XII. shows that over the ten years, + 1891-1900, the import of colonial butter was augmented by 34,600 tons, + and that of foreign by 33,600 tons, so that the increased import is + fairly divided between colonial and foreign sources. If, however, the + last five years of the period be taken, it will be seen that the + increases in the arrivals of colonial butter have far exceeded those + from foreign countries. Between 1891 and 1900 the Australasian + colonies increased their quota by 13,400 tons, and Canada by 11,100 + tons. Of foreign countries, Denmark showed the greatest development in + the supply of imported butter, which increased in the ten years by + 28,678 tons. Next came Russia and Holland, with increases respectively + of 7207 tons and 6589 tons. Sweden, which made steady progress from + 1891 to 1896, subsequently declined, and in 1900 sent 1400 tons less + than in 1891. France and Germany are rapidly falling away, and the + latter country will soon cease its supply altogether. Up to 1896 it + was 6000 tons annually; by 1900 it had fallen to 1850 tons. France, + which in 1892 sent to the United Kingdom 29,000 tons, regularly + declined, and in 1900 sent only 16,800. Among the countries sending + the smaller quantities, Argentina, Belgium and Norway are all + gradually increasing their supplies; but their totals are + comparatively insignificant, as they together contributed in 1900 only + 6400 tons out of a total foreign supply of 134,000 tons. The United + States was erratic in its supplies during the decade, and up to 1900 + had not made butter specially for export to the United Kingdom, as all + the other foreign countries had done. Consequently it is only when + supplies from elsewhere fail that American butter is sought for by + British buyers. The large amount of salt in this butter, although + suitable for the American palate, prevents its becoming popular in the + United Kingdom. + + TABLE XIII.--_Annual Imports of Butter into the United Kingdom, + 1897-1900._ + + +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | From | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | + +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | Cwt. | Cwt. | Cwt. | Cwt. | + | Denmark | 1,334,726 | 1,465,030 | 1,430,052 | 1,486,342 | + | Australasia | 269,432 | 228,563 | 366,944 | 509,910 | + | France | 448,128 | 416,821 | 353,942 | 322,048 | + | Holland | 278,631 | 269,631 | 284,810 | 282,805 | + | Russia* | .. | .. | .. | 209,738 | + | Sweden | 299,214 | 294,962 | 245,599 | 196,041 | + | Canada | 109,402 | 156,865 | 250,083 | 138,313 | + | United States | 154,196 | 66,712 | 159,137 | 56,046 | + | Germany | 51,761 | 41,231 | 36,953 | 36,042 | + | Other countries | 272,312 | 269,645 | 262,331 | 141,231 | + | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Total | 3,217,802 | 3,209,153 | 3,389,851 | 3,378,516 | + | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | % | % | % | % | + | Denmark | 41.5 | 45.6 | 42.2 | 44.0 | + | Australasia | 8.4 | 7.1 | 10.8 | 15.1 | + | France | 13.9 | 13.0 | 10.5 | 9.5 | + | Holland | 8.7 | 8.4 | 8.4 | 8.4 | + | Russia* | .. | .. | .. | 6.2 | + | Sweden | 9.3 | 9.2 | 7.2 | 5.8 | + | Canada | 3.4 | 4.9 | 7.4 | 4.1 | + | United States | 4.8 | 2.1 | 4.7 | 1.6 | + | Germany | 1.6 | 1.3 | 1.1 | 1.1 | + | Other countries | 8.4 | 8.4 | 7.7 | 4.2 | + | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Total | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | + +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + * Not shown separately in the Trade and Navigation Returns prior to + 1900. + + The sources whence the United Kingdom receives butter from abroad are + sufficiently indicated in Table XIII., which shows the absolute + quantities and the relative proportions sent by the chief contributory + countries in each of the four years 1897 to 1900, the order of + precedence of the several countries being in accord with the figures + for 1900. Denmark, as a result of the efforts made by that little + kingdom to supply a sound product of uniform quality, possesses over + 40% of the trade, and in the year 1900 received from the United + Kingdom upwards of L8,000,000 for butter and over L3,000,000 for + bacon, the raising of pigs for the consumption of separated milk being + an important adjunct of the dairying industry in Denmark, where butter + factories are extensively maintained on the co-operative principle. It + is worthy of note that some at least of the butter received in the + United Kingdom from Russia is made in Siberia, whence it is sent at + the outset on a long land journey in refrigerated railway cars for + shipment at a Baltic port, usually Riga. The countries not specially + enumerated in Table XIII. from which butter is sent to the United + Kingdom are Argentina, Belgium, Norway and Spain--these are included + in "other countries." + + In Table XIV., relating to the estimated home production of cheese and + the imports of that article, the ten years' average indicates a + home-made supply of 555.3%, imports of colonial cheese 24.2%, and + imports of foreign cheese 20.5%. Comparing, however, the first with + the last year of the period 1891-1900, it appears that in 1891 the + proportions were 58.6% home-made, 17.2% colonial and 24.2% foreign, + whereas in 1900 the percentages were 50.3, 28.9 and 20.8 respectively. + Hence the colonial contribution (chiefly Canadian) has gained ground + at the expense both of the home-made and of the foreign. Again, + comparing 1891 with 1900, the import of cheese into the United Kingdom + increased to the extent of only 24,500 tons, so that it shows no + expansion comparable with that of butter, which increased by about + 70,000 tons. Simultaneously the estimated home production diminished + by 17,000 tons. + + TABLE XIV.--_Estimated Home Production and Imports of Cheese into + the United Kingdom for the Ten Years ended 30th June 1900._ + + +-----------+------------+---------+---------+---------+ + | Year ended| Home | Imported| Imported| | + | 30th June | Production,| Colonial| Foreign.| Total. | + | |_estimated._| | | | + +-----------+------------+---------+---------+---------+ + | | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | + | 1891 | 147,078 | 43,228 | 60,816 | 251,122 | + | 1892 | 148,624 | 45,781 | 59,452 | 253,857 | + | 1893 | 140,394 | 55,549 | 56,767 | 252,710 | + | 1894 | 131,843 | 57,322 | 52,498 | 241,663 | + | 1895 | 150,611 | 61,622 | 52,570 | 264,803 | + | 1896 | 137,148 | 62,478 | 44,569 | 244,195 | + | 1897 | 130,000 | 67,028 | 46,317 | 243,345 | + | 1898 | 148,260 | 77,620 | 49,114 | 274,994 | + | 1899 | 150,000 | 73,752 | 46,985 | 270,737 | + | 1900 | 130,000 | 74,702 | 53,903 | 258,605 | + | +------------+---------+---------+---------+ + | 10 Years' | | | | | + | Average | 141,396 | 61,908 | 52,299 | 255,603 | + +-----------+------------+---------+---------+---------+ + + In imported colonial cheese Canada virtually has the field to itself, + for the only other colonial cheese which finds its way into the United + Kingdom is from New Zealand, but the amount of this kind is + comparatively insignificant, having been in 1900 only 4000 tons out of + a total import of 128,600 tons. Australia, in several seasons since + 1891, sent small quantities, but they are not worth quoting. + + From foreign countries the decline in the export of cheese is mainly + in the case of the United States, which shipped to British ports + 10,000 tons less in 1900 than in 1891. France also is losing its + cheese trade in British markets, and is being supplanted by Belgium. + In 1891 France supplied over 3000 tons, in 1900 the import was below + 2000 tons. Belgium in 1891 supplied less than 1000 tons, but in 1900 + contributed 2600 tons. The import trade in Dutch cheese remains almost + stationary. In 1891 it amounted to 15,300 tons, in 1899 it was 15,600 + tons, whilst in 1900, owing to exceptionally high prices, which + stimulated the manufacture, it reached 17,000 tons. + + TABLE XV.--_Annual Imports of Cheese into the United Kingdom, + 1897-1900._ + + +----------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | From | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | + +----------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | | Cwt. | Cwt. | Cwt. | Cwt. | + | Canada |1,526,664 |1,432,181 |1,337,198 |1,511,872 | + | United States | 631,616 | 485,995 | 590,737 | 680,583 | + | Holland | 297,604 | 292,925 | 328,541 | 327,817 | + | Australasia | 68,615 | 44,608 | 32,294 | 86,513 | + | France | 36,358 | 33,086 | 34,307 | 35,110 | + | Other countries| 42,321 | 50,657 | 60,992 | 69,910 | + | +----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | Total |2,603,178 |2,339,452 |2,384,069 |2,711,805 | + | +----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | | % | % | % | % | + | Canada | 58.6 | 61.2 | 56.1 | 55.8 | + | United States | 24.3 | 20.8 | 24.8 | 25.1 | + | Holland | 11.4 | 12.5 | 13.8 | 12.0 | + | Australasia | 2.7 | 1.9 | 1.3 | 3.2 | + | France | 1.4 | 1.4 | 1.4 | 1.3 | + | Other countries| 1.6 | 2.2 | 2.6 | 2.6 | + | +----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | Total | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | + +----------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + + Over 80% of the cheese imported into the United Kingdom is derived + from North America, but the bulk of the trade belongs to Canada, which + supplies nearly 60% of the entire import. The value of the cheese + exported from Canada to the United Kingdom in the calendar year 1900 + was close upon L3,800,000. As is shown in Table XV. below, Holland, + Australasia and France participate in this trade, whilst amongst the + "other countries" are Germany, Italy and Russia. The cheese sent from + North America and Australasia is mostly of the substantial Cheddar + type, whereas soft or "fancy" cheese is the dominant feature of the + French shipments. Thus, in the calendar year 1900 the average price of + the cheese imported into the United Kingdom from France was 61s. per + cwt., whilst the average value of the cheese from all other sources + was 50s. per cwt., there being a difference of 11s. in favour of the + "soft" cheese of France. + + The imports of butter and margarine into the United Kingdom were not + separately distinguished before the year 1886. Previous to that date + they amounted, at five-year intervals, to the following aggregate + quantities:-- + + 1870. 1875. 1880. 1885. + Cwt. 1,159,210 1,467,870 2,326,305 2,401,373 + + For the same years the imports of cheese registered the subjoined + totals:-- + + 1870. 1875. 1880. 1885. + Cwt. 1,041,281 1,627,748 1,775,997 1,833,832 + + The imports of butter and margarine, both separately and together, and + also the imports of cheese in each year from 1886 to 1900 inclusive, + are set out in Table XVI., the most significant feature of which is + the rapid expansion it shows in the imports of butter. In the space of + nine years, between 1887 and 1896, the quantity was doubled. On the + other hand, the general tendency of the imports of margarine, which + have been much more uniform than those of butter, has been in the + direction of decline since 1892. It is necessary, however, to point + out that there has been an increase in the number of margarine + factories in the United Kingdom, and in the quantity of margarine + manufactured in them, during the last few years. Taking the imports of + butter and margarine together, the aggregate in 1889 and also in 1900 + was practically three times as large as a quarter of a century + earlier, in 1875. The imports of cheese have increased at a less rapid + rate than those of butter, and the quantity imported in 1900, which + was a maximum, fell considerably short of twice the quantity in 1875. + In 1886, 1887, 1888, 1890 and 1892 the imports of cheese exceeded + those of butter, but since the last-named year those of butter have + always been the larger, and 1899 were fully a million cwt. more than + the cheese imports. The cheapness of imported fresh meat has probably + had the effect of checking the growth of the demand for cheese amongst + the industrial classes. + + TABLE XVI.--_Imports of Butter, Margarine and Cheese into the United + Kingdom, 1886-1900._ + + +------+-----------+-----------+------------+-----------+ + | | | |Total Butter| | + | Year.| Butter. | Margarine.| and | Cheese. | + | | | | Margarine. | | + +------+-----------+-----------+------------+-----------+ + | | Cwt. | Cwt. | Cwt. | Cwt. | + | 1886 | 1,543,566 | 887,974 | 2,431,540 | 1,734,890 | + | 1887 | 1,513,134 | 1,276,140 | 2,789,274 | 1,836,789 | + | 1888 | 1,671,433 | 1,139,743 | 2,811,176 | 1,917,616 | + | 1899 | 1,927,842 | 1,241,690 | 3,169,532 | 1,907,999 | + | 1890 | 2,027,717 | 1,079,856 | 3,107,573 | 2,144,074 | + | 1891 | 2,135,607 | 1,235,430 | 3,371,037 | 2,041,325 | + | 1892 | 2,183,009 | 1,305,350 | 3,488,359 | 2,232,817 | + | 1893 | 2,327,474 | 1,299,970 | 3,627,444 | 2,077,462 | + | 1894 | 2,574,835 | 1,109,325 | 3,684,160 | 2,266,145 | + | 1895 | 2,825,662 | 940,168 | 3,765,830 | 2,133,819 | + | 1896 | 3,037,718 | 925,934 | 3,963,652 | 2,244,525 | + | 1897 | 3,217,802 | 936,543 | 4,154,345 | 2,603,178 | + | 1898 | 3,209,153 | 900,615 | 4,343,026 | 2,384,069 | + | 1999 | 3,389,851 | 953,175 | 4,343,026 | 2,384,069 | + | 1900 | 3,378,516 | 920,416 | 4,298,932 | 2,711,805 | + +------+-----------+-----------+------------+-----------+ + + The imports of condensed milk into the United Kingdom were not + separately distinguished before 1888. In that year they amounted to + 352,332 cwt. The quantities imported in subsequent years were the + following:-- + + +------+---------++------+---------++------+---------| + | Year.| Cwt. || Year.| Cwt. || Year.| Cwt. | + +------+---------++------+---------++------+---------| + | 1889 | 389,892 || 1893 | 501,005 || 1897 | 756,243 | + | 1890 | 407,426 || 1894 | 529,465 || 1898 | 817,274 | + | 1891 | 444,666 || 1895 | 545,394 || 1899 | 824,599 | + | 1892 | 481,374 || 1896 | 611,335 || 1900 | 986,741 | + +------+---------++------+---------++------+---------| + + The quantity thus increased continuously in each year after 1889, with + the result that in 1900 the imports had grown to nearly three times + the amount of those in 1889. Simultaneously, over the period 1889-1900 + the annual value of the imports steadily advanced from L704,849 to + L1,405,033. Thus, while the imports of condensed milk trebled in + quantity, they doubled in value. A fair proportion is, however, + exported, as is shown in the following statement of exports of + imported condensed milk for the four years 1897 to 1900:-- + + 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. + Quantity, cwt. 143,932 133,596 118,394 164,602 + Value L274,578 L256,525 L228,446 L309,460 + + There is also an export trade in condensed milk made in the United + Kingdom. Thus, in 1892 the exports of home-made condensed milk + amounted to 61,442 cwt., valued at L133,556. By 1896 the quantity had + almost doubled, and reached 111,959 cwt., of the value of L224,831. In + subsequent years the exports were:-- + + 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. + Quantity, cwt. 154,901 178,055 185,749 209,447 + Value L302,748 L343,070 L353,819 L390,559 + + Milk and cream (fresh or preserved other than condensed) received no + separate classification in the imports until 1894, in which year the + quantity imported was 161,633 gallons, followed by 126,995 gallons in + 1895, and 22,776 gallons in 1896. The quantities have since been + returned by weight--10,006 cwt. in 1897, 10,691 cwt. in 1898, 7859 + cwt. in 1899, and 15,638 cwt. in 1900. The values of these imports in + the successive years 1894 to 1900 were L21,371, L19,991, L5489, L9848, + L11,293, L16,068 and L26,837. + + The total values of the imports of dairy produce of all kinds--butter, + margarine, cheese, &c.--into the United Kingdom were, at five-year + intervals between 1875 and 1890, the following:-- + + 1875. 1880. 1885. 1890. + Value L13,211,592 L17,232,548 L15,632,852 L19,505,798 + + TABLE XVII.--_Values of Dairy Products imported into the United + Kingdom from 1891 to 1900, in Thousands of Pounds Sterling._ + + +------+----------+-----------+---------+-----------+--------+ + | Year.| Butter. | Margarine.| Cheese. | Condensed | Total. | + | | | | | Milk. | | + +------+----------+-----------+---------+-----------+--------+ + | | L1000. | L1000. | L1000. | L1000. | L1000. | + | 1891 | 11,591 | 3558 | 4813 | 900 | 20,863 | + | 1892 | 11,965 | 3713 | 5417 | 930 | 22,025 | + | 1893 | 12,754 | 3655 | 5161 | 1010 | 22,580 | + | 1894 | 13,457 | 3045 | 5475 | 1079 | 23,077 | + | 1895 | 14,245 | 2557 | 4675 | 1084 | 22,581 | + | 1896 | 15,344 | 2498 | 4900 | 1170 | 23,920 | + | 1897 | 15,917 | 2485 | 5886 | 1398 | 25,715 | + | 1898 | 15,962 | 2384 | 4970 | 1436 | 24,779 | + | 1899 | 17,214 | 2549 | 5503 | 1455 | 26,747 | + | 1900 | 17,450 | 2465 | 6838 | 1743 | 28,544 | + +------+----------+-----------+---------+-----------+--------+ + + The values in each year of the closing decade of the 19th century are + set forth in Table XVII., where the totals in the last column include + small sums for margarine-cheese and, since 1893, for fresh milk and + cream. The aggregate value more than doubled during the last quarter + of the century. The earliest year for which the value of imported + butter is separately available is 1886, when it amounted to + L8,141,438. Thirteen years later this sum had more than doubled, and + it is an impressive fact that in the closing year of the century the + United Kingdom should have expended on imported butter alone a sum + closely approximating to 17(1/2) million pounds sterling, equivalent to + about three-fourths of the total amount disbursed on imported wheat + grain.[16] + + The imports of margarine--that is, of margarine specifically declared + to be such--into the United Kingdom are derived almost entirely from + Holland. Out of a total of 920,416 cwt. imported in 1900 Holland + supplied 862,154 cwt., and out of L2,464,839 expended on imported + margarine in the same year Holland received L2,295,174. To the imports + in the year named Holland contributed 93.7%; France, 2.9; Norway, 0.9; + all other countries, 2.5; so that Holland possesses almost a monopoly + of this trade. The quantities of imported butter, margarine and cheese + that are again exported from the United Kingdom are trivial when + compared with the imports, as will be seen from the following + quantities and values in the three years 1898 to 1900:-- + + +-----------+--------+--------+--------++---------+---------+---------+ + | | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. || 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | + +-----------+--------+--------+--------++---------+---------+---------+ + | | Cwt. | Cwt. | Cwt. || L | L | L | + | Butter | 63,491 | 50,453 | 51,583 || 319,806 | 257,999 | 258,931 | + | Margarine | 10,023 | 13,139 | 11,326 || 24,721 | 33,319 | 27,882 | + | Cheese | 56,694 | 56,390 | 55,982 || 159,210 | 163,991 | 168,369 | + +-----------+--------+--------+--------++---------+---------+---------+ + + There is also a very small export trade in butter and cheese made in + the United Kingdom, but its insignificant character is evident from + the subjoined details as to quantities and values for the years + named:-- + + +-----------+--------+--------+--------++---------+---------+---------+ + | | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. || 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | + +-----------+--------+--------+--------++---------+---------+---------+ + | | Cwt. | Cwt. | Cwt. || L | L | L | + | Butter | 11,359 | 9,936 | 10,127 || 59,731 | 53,195 | 53,701 | + | Cheese | 10,126 | 9,758 | 9,356 || 36,803 | 35,890 | 36,691 | + +-----------+--------+--------+--------++---------+---------+---------+ + + +AMERICAN DAIRYING + +The development of the dairying industry in the vast region of the +United States of America has been described in the official _Year-Book_ +by Major Henry E. Alvord, chief of the dairy division of the bureau of +animal industry in the department of agriculture at Washington. The +beginning of the 20th century found the industry upon an altogether +higher level than seemed possible a few decades earlier. The milch cow +herself, upon which the whole business rests, has become almost as much +a machine as a natural product, and a very different creature from the +average animal of bygone days. The few homely and inconvenient +implements for use in the laborious duties of the dairy have been +replaced by perfected appliances, skilfully devised to accomplish their +object and to lighten labour. Long rows of shining metal pans no longer +adorn rural dooryards. The factory system of co-operative or +concentrated manufacture has so far taken the place of home dairying +that in entire states the cheese vat or press is as rare as the +handloom, and in many counties it is as difficult to find a farm churn +as a spinning-wheel. An illustration of the nature of the changes is +afforded in the butter-making district of northern Vermont, at St +Albans, the business centre of Franklin county. In 1880 the first +creamery was built in this county; ten years later there were 15. Now a +creamery company at St Albans has upwards of 50 skimming or separating +stations distributed through Franklin and adjoining counties. To these +is carried the milk from more than 30,000 cows. Farmers who possess +separators at home may deliver cream which, after being inspected and +tested, is accepted and credited at its actual butter value, just as +other raw material is sold to mills and factories. The separated cream +is conveyed by rail and waggon to the central factory, where in one room +from 10 to 12 tons of butter are made every working day--a single +churning place for a whole county! The butter is all of standard +quality, "extra creamery," and is sold on its reputation upon orders +received in advance of its manufacture. The price is relatively higher +than the average for the product of the same farms fifty years earlier. +This is mainly due to better average quality and greater uniformity--two +important advantages of the creamery system. + +In one important detail dairy labour is the same as a century ago. Cows +still have to be milked by hand. Although many attempts have been made, +and patent after patent has been issued, no mechanical contrivance has +yet proved a practical success as a substitute for the human hand in +milking. Consequently, twice (or thrice) daily every day in the year, +the dairy cows must be milked by manual labour. This is one of the main +items of labour in dairying, and is a delicate and important duty. +Assuming 10 cows per hour to a milker, which implies quick work, it +requires the continuous service of an army of 300,000 men, working 10 or +12 hours a day throughout the year, to milk the cows kept in the United +States. + +The business of producing milk for urban consumption, with the +accompanying agencies for transportation and distribution, has grown to +immense proportions. In many places the milk trade is regulated and +supervised by excellent municipal ordinances, which have done much to +prevent adulteration and to improve the average quality of the supply. +Quite as much is, however, being done by private enterprise through +large milk companies, well organized and equipped, and establishments +which make a speciality of serving milk and cream of fixed quality and +exceptional purity. Such efforts to furnish "certified" and "guaranteed" +milk, together with general competition for the best class of trade, are +doing more to raise the standard of quality and improve the service than +all the legal measures. The buildings and equipment of some of these +modern dairies are beyond precedent. This branch of dairying is +advancing fast, upon the safe basis of care, cleanliness and better +sanitary conditions. + +Cheese-making has been transferred bodily from the domain of domestic +arts to that of manufactures. In the middle of the 19th century about +100,000,000 lb. of cheese was made yearly in the United States, and all +of it in farm dairies. At the beginning of the 20th century the annual +production was about 300,000,000 lb., and 96 or 97% of this was made in +factories. Of these there are nearly 3000, but they vary greatly in +capacity, and some are very small. New York and Wisconsin possess a +thousand each, but the former state makes nearly twice as much cheese as +the latter, whilst the two together produce three-fourths of the entire +output of the country. A change is taking place in the direction of +bringing a number of factories previously independent into a +"combination" or under the same management. This tends to improve the +quality and secure greater uniformity in the product, and often reduces +cost of manufacture. More than nine-tenths of all the cheese made is of +the familiar standard type, copied after the English Cheddar, but new +kinds and imitations of foreign varieties are increasing. The annual +export of cheese from the United States ranges between 30,000,000 and +50,000,000 lb. The consumption _per capita_ does not exceed 3(1/2) lb. +per annum, which is much less than in most European countries. + +Butter differs from cheese in that it is still made much more largely on +farms in the United States than in creameries. Creamery butter controls +all the large markets, but this represents little more than one-third of +the entire business. Estimating the annual butter product of the entire +country at 1,400,000,000 lb. not much over 500,000,000 lb. of this is +made at the 7500 or 8000 creameries in operation. Iowa is the greatest +butter-producing state, and the one in which the greater proportion is +made on the factory plan. The total output of butter in this state is +one-tenth of all made in the Union. The average quality of butter has +materially improved since the introduction of the creamery system and +the use of modern appliances. Nevertheless, a vast quantity of poor +butter is made--enough to afford a large and profitable business in +collecting it at country stores at grease prices or a little more, and +then rendering or renovating it by patent processes. This renovated +butter has been fraudulently sold to a considerable extent as the true +creamery article, of which it is a fair imitation while fresh, and +several states have made laws for the identification of the product and +to prevent buyers from being imposed upon. No butter is imported, and +the quantity exported is insignificant, although there is beginning to +be a foreign demand for American butter. The home consumption is +estimated at the yearly rate of 20 lb. per person, which, if correct, +would indicate Americans to be the greatest butter-eating people in the +world. The people of the United States also consume millions of pounds +every year of butter substitutes and imitations, such as oleomargarine +and butterine. Most of this is believed to be butter by those who use +it, and the state dairy commissioners are busily employed in carrying +out the laws intended to protect purchasers from these butter frauds. + +The by-products of dairying have, within recent years, been put to +economical uses, in an increasing degree. For every pound of butter made +there are 15 to 20 lb. of skim-milk and about 3 lb. of butter-milk, and +for every pound of cheese nearly 9 lb. of whey. Up to 1889 or 1890 +enormous quantities of skim-milk and butter-milk from the creameries and +of whey from the cheese factories were entirely wasted. At farm dairies +these by-products are generally used to advantage in feeding animals, +but at the factories--especially at the seasons of greatest milk +supply--this most desirable method of utilization is to a great extent +impracticable. In many places new branches have been instituted for the +making of sugar-of-milk and other commercial products from whey, and for +the utilization of skim-milk in various ways. The albumin of the latter +is extracted for use with food products and in the arts. The casein is +desiccated and prepared as a substitute for eggs in baking, as the basis +of an enamel paint, and as a substitute for glue in paper-sizing. It has +also been proposed to solidify it to make buttons, combs, brush-backs, +electrical insulators and similar articles. + + No census of cows in the United States was taken until the year 1840, + but they have been enumerated in each subsequent decennial census. + From 23 to 27 cows to every 100 of the population were required to + keep the country supplied with milk, butter and cheese, and provide + for the export of dairy products. The export trade, though it has + fluctuated considerably, has never exceeded the produce of 500,000 + cows. At the close of the 19th century it was estimated that there was + one milch cow in the United States for every four persons, making the + number of cows about 17,500,000. They are, however, very unevenly + distributed, being largely concentrated in the great dairy states, + Iowa leading with 1,500,000 cows, and being followed closely by New + York. In the middle and eastern states the milk product goes very + largely to the supply of the numerous large towns and cities. In the + central, west and north-west butter is the leading dairy product. + + TABLE XVIII.--_Estimated Number of Cows and Quantity and Value of + Dairy Products in the United States in 1899._ + + +------------+----------+----------+--------------------+---------+-------------+ + | | | Rate of | | Rate of | | + | Cows. | Product. | Product | Total Product. | Value. | Total Value.| + | | | per Cow. | | | | + +------------+----------+----------+--------------------+---------+-------------+ + | | | | | Cents. | Dollars. | + | 11,000,000 | Butter | 130 lb. | 1,430,000,000 lb. | 18 | 257,400,000 | + | 1,000,000 | Cheese | 300 lb. | 300,000,000 lb. | 9 | 27,000,000 | + | 5,500,000 | Milk | 380 gals.| 2,090,000,000 gals.| 8 | 167,200,000 | + +------------+----------+----------+--------------------+---------+-------------+ + + Table XVIII. shows approximately the quantity and value of the dairy + products of the United States for a typical year, the grand total + representing a value of $451,600,000. Adding to this the skim-milk, + butter-milk and whey, at their proper feeding value, and the calves + dropped yearly, the annual aggregate value of the produce of the dairy + cows exceeds $500,000,000, or is more than one hundred million pounds + sterling. Accepting these estimates as conservative, they show that + the commercial importance of the dairy industry of the United States + is such as to justify all reasonable provisions for guarding its + interests. (W. Fr.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] A gallon of milk weighs 10.3 lb., so that very little error is + involved in converting pounds to gallons by dividing the number of + pounds by 10. + + [2] A portable milk-weighing appliance is made in which the weight of + the pail is included, and an indicator shows on a dial the exact + weight in pounds and ounces, and likewise the volume in gallons and + pints, of the milk in the pail. When the pail is empty the indicator + of course points to zero. + + [3] _Landw. Futterungslehre_, 5te Aufl., 1888, p. 249. + + [4] The Analyst, April 1885, vol. x. p. 67. + + [5] The evidence on this point taken by the Committee on Milk and + Cream Regulations in 1900 is somewhat conflicting. The report states + that an impression commonly prevails that the quality of milk is more + or less determined by the nature and composition of the food which + the cow receives. One witness said that farmers who produce milk for + sale feed differently from what they do if they are producing for + butter. Another stated that most of the statistics which go to show + that food has no effect on milk fail, because the experiments are not + carried far enough to counterbalance that peculiarity of the animal + first to utilize the food for itself before utilizing it for the + milk. A witness who kept a herd of 100 milking cows expressed the + opinion that improvement in the quality of milk can be effected by + feeding, though not to any large extent. On the other hand, it was + maintained that the fat percentage in the milk of a cow cannot be + raised by any manner or method of feeding. It is possible that in the + case of cows very poorly fed the addition of rich food would alter + the composition of their milk, but if the cows are well-fed to begin + with, this would not be so. The proprietor of a herd of 500 milking + cows did not think that feeding affected the quality of milk from + ordinarily well-kept animals. An experimenter found that the result + of resorting to rather poor feeding was that the first effect was + produced upon the weight of the cow and not upon the milk; the animal + began to get thin, losing its weight, though there was not very much + effect upon the quality of the milk. + + [6] _Journ. Roy. Agric. Soc._, 1898. + + [7] Trans. Highl. and Agric. Soc. Scot., 1899. + + [8] _Report on Cheddar Cheese-Making_, London, 1899. + + [9] "The Practice of Stilton Cheese-Making," _Journ. Roy. Agric. + Soc._, 1899. + + [10] _Experiment Station Record_, xii. 9 (Washington, 1901). + + [11] Market butter is sometimes deliberately over-weighted with + water, and a fraudulent profit is obtained by selling this extra + moisture at the price of butter. + + [12] "Thermal Death-Point of Tubercle Bacilli, and Relation of same + to Commercial Pasteurization of Milk," by H. L. Russell and E. G. + Hastings. + + [13] _16th Rept. Wis. Agric. Expt. Station_, 1899, p. 129. + + [14] See also the article ADULTERATION. + + [15] A special committee appointed by the council of the Royal + Statistical Society commenced in 1901 an inquiry into the home + production of milk and meat in the United Kingdom. + + [16] In 1901 the United Kingdom imported 3,702,810 cwt. of butter, + valued at L19,297,005, both totals being the largest on record. + + + + +DAIS (Fr. _dais_, _estrade_, Ital. _predella_), originally a part of the +floor at the end of a medieval hall, raised a step above the rest of the +building. On this the lord of the mansion dined with his friends at the +high table, apart from the retainers and servants. In medieval halls +there was generally a deep recessed bay window at one or at each end of +the dais, supposed to be for retirement, or greater privacy than the +open hall could afford. In France the word is understood as a canopy or +hanging over a seat; probably the name was given from the fact that the +seats of great men were then surmounted by such a feature. In ordinary +use, the term means any raised platform in a room, for dignified +occupancy. + + + + +DAISY (A.S. _daeges eage_, day's eye), the name applied to the plants +constituting the genus _Bellis_, of the natural order Compositae. The +genus contains ten species found in Europe and the Mediterranean region. +The common daisy, _B. perennis_, is the only representative of the genus +in the British Isles. It is a perennial, abundant everywhere in pastures +and on banks in Europe, except in the most northerly regions, and in +Asia Minor, and occurs as an introduced plant in North America. The stem +of the daisy is short; the leaves, which are numerous and form a +rosette, are slightly hairy, obovate-spathulate in shape, with rounded +teeth on the margin in the upper part; and the root-stock is creeping, +and of a brownish colour. The flowers are to be found from March to +November, and occasionally in the winter months. The heads of flowers +are solitary, the outer or ray-florets pink or white, the disk-florets +bright yellow. The size and luxuriance of the plant are much affected by +the nature of the soil in which it grows. The cultivated varieties, +which are numerous, bear finely-coloured flowers, and make very +effective borders for walks. What is known as the "hen-and-chicken" +daisy has the main head surrounded by a brood of sometimes as many as +ten or twelve small heads, formed in the axils of the scales of the +involucre. The ray-florets curve inwards and "close" the flower-head in +dull weather and towards evening. + +Chaucer writes-- + + "The daisie, or els the eye of the daie, + The emprise, and the floure of flouris alle"; + +and again-- + + "To seen this floure agenst the sunne sprede + Whan it riseth early by the morrow, + That blissful sight softeneth all my sorrow"; + +and the flower is often alluded to with admiration by the other poets of +nature. To the farmer, however, the daisy is a weed, and a most wasteful +one, as it exhausts the soil and is not eaten by any kind of stock. + +In French the daisy is termed _la marguerite_ ([Greek: margarites], a +pearl), and "herb margaret" is stated to be an old English appellation +for it. In Scotland it is popularly called the gowan, and in Yorkshire +it is the bairn wort, or flower beloved by children. The Christmas and +Michaelmas daisies are species of _Aster_; the ox-eye daisy is +_Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum_, a common weed in meadows and waste places. +_B. perennis flore-pleno_, the double daisy, consists of dwarf, showy, 3 +to 4 in. plants, flowering freely in spring if grown in rich light soil, +and frequently divided and transplanted. The white and pink forms, with +the white and red quilled, and the variegated-leaved _aucubaefolia_, are +some of the best. + + + + +DAKAR, a seaport of Senegal, and capital of French West Africa, in 14 +deg. 40' N., 17 deg. 24' W. The town, which is strongly fortified, holds +a commanding strategic position on the route between western Europe and +Brazil and South Africa, being situated in the Gulf of Goree on the +eastern side of the peninsula of Cape Verde, the most westerly point of +Africa. It is the only port of Senegal affording safe anchorage for the +largest ships. Pop. (1904), within the municipal limits, 18,447; +including suburbs, 23,452. + +The town consists for the most part of broad and regular streets and +possesses several fine public buildings, notably the palace of the +governor-general. It is plentifully supplied with good water and is +fairly healthy. It is the starting point of the railway to St Louis, and +is within five days steam of Lisbon. The harbour, built in 1904-1908, is +formed by two jetties, one of 6840 ft., the other of 1968 ft., the +entrance being 720 ft. wide. There are three commercial docks, with over +7000 ft. of quayage, ships drawing 26 ft. being able to moor alongside. +Cargo is transferred directly to the railway trucks. There is also a +naval dock and arsenal with a torpedo-boat basin 755 ft. by 410 ft. and +a dry dock 656 ft. long and 92 ft. broad. The Messageries Maritimes +Company use the port as a coaling station and provisioning depot for +their South American trade. Dakar is a regular port of call for other +French lines and for the Elder Dempster boats sailing between Liverpool +and the West Coast of Africa. It shares with Rufisque and St Louis the +external trade of Senegal and the adjacent regions. For trade statistics +see SENEGAL. + +Dakar was originally a dependency of Goree and was founded in 1862, a +year after the declaration of a French protectorate over the mainland. +The port was opened for commerce in 1867, and in 1885 its importance was +greatly increased by the completion of the railway (163 m. long) to St +Louis. Dakar thus came into direct communication with the countries of +Upper Senegal and the middle Niger. In 1887 the town was made a commune +on the French model, all citizens irrespective of colour being granted +the franchise. In 1903 the offices of the governor-general and of the +court of appeal of French West Africa were transferred from St Louis to +Dakar, which is also the seat of a bishop. In February 1905 a submarine +cable was laid between Brest and Dakar, affording direct telegraphic +communication between France and her West African colonies by an all +French route. + + + + +DALAGUETE, a town of the province of Cebu, island of Cebu, Philippine +Islands, at the mouth of the Tapon river on the E. coast, 50 m. S.S.W. +of Cebu, the capital. The town has a healthy climate, cool during +November, December, January and February, and hot during the rest of the +year. The inhabitants grow hemp, Indian corn, coffee, sibucao, cacao, +cocoanuts (for copra) and sugar, weave rough fabrics and manufacture +tuba (a kind of wine used as a stimulant), clay pots and jars, salt and +soap. There is some fishing here. The language is Cebu-Visayan. + + + + +DALBEATTIE, a police burgh of Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) +3469. It lies on Dalbeattie Burn, 14(1/2) m. S.W. of Dumfries by the +Glasgow & South-Western railway. The town dates from 1780 and owes its +rise to the granite quarries at Craignair and elsewhere in the vicinity, +from which were derived the supplies used in the construction of the +Thames Embankment, the docks at Odessa and Liverpool and other works. +Besides quarrying, the industries include granite-polishing, concrete +(crushed granite) works, dye-works, paper-mills and artificial manures. +The estuary of the Urr, known as Rough Firth, is navigable by ships of +from 80 to 100 tons, and small vessels can ascend as far as the mouth of +Dalbeattie Burn, within a mile of the town. A mile to the north-west +stand the ruins of the castle of Buittle or Botel, where lived John de +Baliol, founder of Baliol college, who had married Dervorguila, daughter +of Alan (d. 1234), the last "king" of Galloway. + + + + +DALBERG, the name of an ancient and distinguished German noble family, +derived from the hamlet and castle (now in ruins) of Dalberg or Dalburg +near Kreuznach in the Rhine Province. In the 14th century the original +house of Dalberg became extinct in the male line, the fiefs passing to +Johann Gerhard, chamberlain of the see of Worms, who married the heiress +of his cousin, Anton of Dalberg, about 1330. His own family was of great +antiquity, his ancestors having been hereditary ministerials of the +bishop of Worms since the time of Ekbert the chamberlain, who founded in +1119 the Augustinian monastery of Frankenthal and died in 1132. By the +close of the 15th century the Dalberg family had grown to be of such +importance that, in 1494, the German King Maximilian I. granted them the +honour of being the first to receive knighthood at the coronation; this +part of the ceremonies being opened by the herald asking in a loud voice +"Is no Dalberg present?" (_Ist kein Dalberg da?_). This picturesque +privilege the family enjoyed till the end of the Holy Roman Empire. The +elder line of the family of Dalberg-Dalberg became extinct in 1848, the +younger, that of Dalberg-Herrnsheim, in 1833. The male line of the +Dalbergs is now represented only by the family of Hessloch, descended +from Gerhard of Dalberg (c. 1239), which in 1809 succeeded to the title +and estates in Moravia and Bohemia of the extinct counts of Ostein. + +The following are the most noteworthy members of the family: + +1. JOHANN VON DALBERG (1445-1503), chamberlain and afterwards bishop of +Worms, son of Wolfgang von Dalberg. He studied at Erfurt and in Italy, +where he took his degree of doctor _utriusque juris_ at Ferrara and +devoted himself more especially to the study of Greek. Returning to +Germany, he became privy councillor to the elector palatine Philip, whom +he assisted in bringing the university of Heidelberg to the height of +its fame. He was instrumental in founding the first chair of Greek, +which was filled by his friend Rudolph Agricola, and he also established +the university library and a college for students of civil law. He was +an ardent humanist, was president of the _Sodalitas Celtica_ founded by +the poet Konrad Celtes (q.v.), and corresponded with many of the leading +scholars of his day, to whom he showed himself a veritable Maecenas. He +was employed also on various diplomatic missions by the emperor and the +elector. + + See K. Morneweg, _Johann von Dalberg, ein deutscher Humanist und + Bischof_ (Heidelberg, 1887). + +2. KARL THEODOR ANTON MARIA VON DALBERG (1744-1817), archbishop-elector +of Mainz, arch-chancellor of the Holy Roman Empire, and afterwards +primate of the Confederation of the Rhine and grand-duke of Frankfort. +He was the son of Franz Heinrich, administrator of Worms, one of the +chief counsellors of the elector of Mainz. Karl had devoted himself to +the study of canon law, and entered the church; and, having been +appointed in 1772 governor of Erfurt, he won further advancement by his +successful administration; in 1787 he was elected coadjutor of Mainz and +of Worms, and in 1788 of Constance; in 1802 he became archbishop-elector +of Mainz and arch-chancellor of the Empire. As statesman Dalberg was +distinguished by his "patriotic" attitude, whether in ecclesiastical +matters, in which he leaned to the Febronian view of a German national +church, or in his efforts to galvanize the atrophied machinery of the +Empire into some sort of effective central government of Germany. +Failing in this, he turned to the rising star of Napoleon, believing +that he had found in "the truly great man, the mighty genius which +governs the fate of the world," the only force strong enough to save +Germany from dissolution. By the peace of Luneville, accordingly, though +he had to surrender Worms and Constance, he received Regensburg, +Aschaffenburg and Wetzlar. On the dissolution of the Empire in 1806 he +formally resigned the office of arch-chancellor in a letter to the +emperor Francis, and was appointed by Napoleon prince primate of the +Confederation of the Rhine. In 1810, after the peace of Vienna +(Schonbrunn), the grand-duchy of Frankfort was created for his benefit +out of his territories, which, in spite of the cession of Regensburg to +Bavaria, were greatly augmented. Dalberg's subservience, as a prince of +the Confederation, to Napoleon was specially resented since, as a +priest, he had no excuse of necessity on the ground of saving family or +dynastic interests; his fortunes therefore fell with those of Napoleon, +and, when he died on the 10th of February 1817, of all his dignities he +was in possession only of the archbishopric of Regensburg. Weak and +shortsighted as a statesman, as a man and prelate Dalberg was amiable, +conscientious and large-hearted. Himself a scholar and author, he was a +notable patron of letters, and was the friend of Goethe, Schiller and +Wieland. + + See Karl v. Beaulieu-Marconnay, _Karl von Dalberg und seine Zeit_ + (Weimar, 1879). + +3. WOLFGANG HERIBERT VON DALBERG (1750-1806), brother of the above. He +was intendant of the theatre at Mannheim, which he brought to a high +state of excellence. His chief claim to remembrance is that it was he +who first put Schiller's earlier dramas on the stage, and it is to him +that the poet's _Briefe an den Freiherrn von Dalberg_ (Karlsruhe, 1819) +are addressed. He himself wrote several plays, including adaptations of +Shakespeare. His brother, Johann Friedrich Hugo von Dalberg (1752-1812), +canon of Trier, Worms and Spires, had some vogue as a composer and +writer on musical subjects. + +4. EMMERICH JOSEPH, DUC DE DALBERG (1773-1833), son of Baron Wolfgang +Heribert. He was born at Mainz on the 30th of May 1773. In 1803 he +entered the service of Baden, which he represented as envoy in Paris. +After the peace of Schonbrunn (1809) he entered the service of Napoleon, +who, in 1810, created him a duke and councillor of state. He had from +the first been on intimate terms with Talleyrand, and retired from the +public service when the latter fell out of the emperor's favour. In 1814 +he was a member of the provisional government by whom the Bourbons were +recalled, and he attended the congress of Vienna, with Talleyrand, as +minister plenipotentiary. He appended his signature to the decree of +outlawry launched in 1815 by the European powers against Napoleon. For +this his property in France was confiscated, but was given back after +the second Restoration, when he became a minister of state and a peer of +France. In 1816 he was sent as ambassador to Turin. The latter years of +his life he spent on his estates at Herrnsheim, where he died on the +27th of April 1833. + +The due de Dalberg had inherited the family property of Herrnsheim from +his uncle the arch-chancellor Karl von Dalberg, and this estate passed, +through his daughter and heiress, Marie Louise Pelline de Dalberg, by +her marriage with Sir (Ferdinand) Richard Edward Acton, 7th baronet (who +assumed the additional name of Dalberg), to her son the historian, John +Emerich Edward Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton (q.v.). + + + + +DALE, ROBERT WILLIAM (1829-1895), English Nonconformist divine, was born +in London on the 1st of December 1829, and was educated at Spring Hill +College, Birmingham, for the Congregational ministry. In 1853 he was +invited to Carr's Lane Chapel, Birmingham, as co-pastor with John Angell +James (q.v.), on whose death in 1859 he became sole pastor for the rest +of his life. In the London University M.A. examination (1853) Dale stood +first in philosophy and won the gold medal. The degree of LL.D. was +conferred upon him by the university of Glasgow during the lord +rectorship of John Bright. Yale University gave him its D.D. degree, but +he never used it, "not because it came from America, but because I have +a sentimental objection--perhaps it is something more--to divinity +degrees." Dale displayed a keen interest in Liberal politics and in the +municipal affairs of Birmingham; and his high moral ideal made him a +great force on the progressive side. In 1886 he adhered to Mr +Chamberlain in opposition to Irish Home Rule, but this difference did +not diminish his influence even among those Liberals and Nonconformists +who adopted the Gladstonian standpoint. In the education controversy of +1870 he took an important part, ably championing the Nonconformist +position. When Mr Foster's bill appeared, Dale attacked it on the +grounds that the schools would in many cases be purely denominational +institutions, that the conscience clause gave inadequate protection, and +that school boards were empowered by it to make grants out of the rates +to maintain sectarian schools. He was himself in favour of secular +education, claiming that it was the only logical solution and the only +legitimate outcome of Nonconformist principles. In Birmingham the +controversy was terminated in 1879 by a compromise, from which, however, +Dale stood aloof. His interest in educational affairs had led him to +accept a seat on the Birmingham school board. He was appointed a +governor of the grammar school, served on the royal commission of +education, and was also chairman of the council of Mansfield College, +Oxford, with the foundation of which he had much to do. He was a strong +advocate of disestablishment, holding that the church was essentially a +spiritual brotherhood, and that any vestige of political authority +impaired its spiritual work. In church polity he held that +congregationalism constituted the most fitting environment in which +religion could achieve her work. Perhaps the most effective +contributions he made to ecclesiastical literature were those dealing +with the history and principles of the congregational system. At his +death on the 13th of March 1895 he left an unfinished MS. of the history +of congregationalism, since edited and completed (1907) by his son, A. +W. W. Dale, principal of Liverpool University. + +Dale's powers were fully appreciated by his colleagues in the +congregational ministry, and at the early age of thirty-nine he was +elected chairman of the Congregational union of England and Wales. His +addresses from the chair on "Christ and the Controversies of +Christendom," and the "Holy Spirit and the Christian Ministry" were +remarkable for a keen insight into the conditions and demands of the +age. For some years he edited the _Congregationalist_, a monthly +magazine connected with the denomination. In 1877 he was appointed Lyman +Beecher lecturer at Yale University, and visited America to deliver his +"Lectures on Preaching." At the International Council of +Congregationalists, meeting in London in 1891, the first gathering of +the kind, Dale was nominated for the presidency. He accepted the honour +and delivered an address on "The Divine Life in Man." + +As a theologian Dale occupied an influential position amongst the +religious thinkers of the 19th century. He ably interpreted the +Evangelical thought of his age, but his Evangelicalism was of a broad +and progressive type. His chief contribution to constructive theological +thought is his work _On The Atonement_, in which he contends that the +death of Christ is the objective ground on which the sins of man were +remitted. Among his other theological books are: _The Epistle to the +Ephesians_ (a series of expositions), _Christian Doctrine_, _The Living +Christ and the Four Gospels_, _Fellowship with Christ_, _The Epistle to +James_, and _The Ten Commandments_. + + + + +DALE, SIR THOMAS (d. 1619), British naval commander and colonial +deputy-governor of Virginia. From about 1588 to 1609 he was in the +service of the Low Countries with the English army originally under +Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester; in 1606, while visiting in England, he +was knighted by King James; from 1611 to 1616 he was actually though not +always nominally in chief control of the province of Virginia either as +deputy-governor or as "high marshall," and he is best remembered for the +energy and the extreme rigour of his administration there, which +established order and in various ways seems to have benefited the +colony; he himself declared that he left it "in great prosperity and +peace." Under him began the first real expansion of the colony with the +establishment of the settlement of Henrico on and about what was later +known as Farrar's Island; it was he who, about 1614, took the first step +toward abolishing the communal system by the introduction of private +holdings, and it was during his administration that the first code of +laws of Virginia, nominally in force from 1610 to 1619, was effectively +tested. This code, entitled "Articles, Lawes, and Orders--Divine, +Politique, and Martiall," but popularly known as Dale's Code, was +notable for its pitiless severity, and seems to have been prepared in +large part by Dale himself. He left Virginia in 1616 with the intention +probably of returning to the service of the Low Countries, but instead +was given command of an English fleet sent against the Dutch, defeated +the enemy near Batavia in the East Indies late in the year 1618, arrived +at Masulipatam in July 1619, and died there on the 9th of the following +month. + + An account of Dale's career in Virginia is given in Alexander Brown's + _The First Republic in America_ (Boston, 1898); a scholarly discussion + of "Dale's Code" by Walter F. Prince may be found in vol. i. of the + _Annual Report of the American Historical Association_ for 1899 + (Washington, D.C., 1900), and the code itself is reprinted in Peter + Force's _Historical Tracts_, vol. iii., No. 11. + + + + +DALECARLIA (_Dalarne_, "the Dales"), a west midland region of Sweden, +virtually coincident with the district (_lan_) of Kopparberg, which +extends from the mountains of the Norwegian frontier to within 25 m. of +Gefle on the Baltic coast. It is a region full of historical +associations, and possesses strong local characteristics in respect of +its products, and especially of its people. The Dalecarlians or Dalesmen +speak their own peculiar dialect, wear their own peculiar costumes, and +are famed for their brave spirit and sturdy love of independence. In +1434, led by Engelbrecht, the miner, they rose against the oppressive +tyranny of the officers of Eric XIV. of Denmark, and in 1519-1523 it was +among them that Gustavus Vasa found his staunchest supporters in his +patriotic task of freeing Sweden from the yoke of the Danes. The +districts around Lakes Runn and Siljan ("the Eye of the Dales"), the +principal sheets of water in the valleys of the Dal rivers, are +consequently classic ground. By the banks of Lake Runn, for example, is +seen the barn in which Vasa threshed corn in disguise, when still a +fugitive from the Danes. The people are for the most part small peasant +proprietors. They eke out their scanty returns from tilling the soil by +a variety of home industries, such as making scythes, saws, bells, +wooden wares, hair goods, and so forth. About three quarters of the +whole district is covered with forest. Besides the wealth of the +forests, the Dales contain some of the largest and most prolific iron +mines in Sweden, notably those of Grangesberg. Copper is mined at Falun +(q.v.), the chief town of Kopparberg, and some silver and lead, zinc and +sulphur is found. In consequence of this the district has numerous +smelting furnaces, blasting and rolling mills, iron and metallurgical +works, as well as saw-mills, wood-pulp factories, and chemical works. + + See G. H. Mellin, _Skildringar af den Skandinaviska Nordens Folklif og + Natur_, vol. iii. (1865); and Frederika Bremer, _I Dalarne_ (1845), of + which there is an English translation by William and Mary Howitt + (1852). For the dialect, see a paper by A. Noreen, in _De Svenska + Landsmalen_, vol. iv. (1881). + + + + +DALGAIRNS, JOHN DOBREE (1818-1876), English Roman Catholic priest, was +born in Guernsey on the 21st of October 1818. About the age of seventeen +he entered Exeter College, Oxford, and soon after taking his degree he +contributed a letter to Louis Veuillot's ultramontane organ _L'Univers_, +on "Anglican Church Parties," which gave him considerable repute. +Together with Mark Pattison and others, he translated the _Catena aurea_ +of St Thomas Aquinas, a commentary on the Gospels, taken from the works +of the Fathers. He was a contributor to Newman's _Lives of the English +Saints_, for which he wrote the beautiful studies on the Cistercian +Saints. _The Life of St Stephen Harding_ has been translated into +several languages. Dalgairns became a Roman Catholic in 1845, and was +ordained priest in the following year. He joined his friend John Henry +Newman in Rome, and, together with him, entered the Congregation of the +Oratory. On his return to England in 1848, he was attached to the London +Oratory, where he laboured successfully as a priest, with the exception +of three years spent in Birmingham. Dalgairns was a prominent member of +the well-known "Metaphysical Society." He died at Burgess Hill, near +Brighton, on the 6th of April 1876. During the Catholic period of his +life, Dalgairns wrote _The Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, with +an Introduction on the History of Jansenism_ (London 1853); _The German +Mystics of the Fourteenth Century_ (London, 1858); _The Holy Communion, +its Philosophy, Theology and Practice_ (Dublin, 1861). + + A list of his contributions on religious and philosophical subjects, + to the reviews and periodicals, is given in J. Gillow's + _Bibliographical Dictionary of English Catholics_, vol. ii. + + + + + +DALGARNO, GEORGE (c. 1626-1687), English writer, was born at Old +Aberdeen about 1626. He appears to have studied at Marischal College; +but he finally settled in Oxford, where, according to Wood, "he taught a +private grammar-school with good success for about thirty years," and +where he died on the 28th of August 1687. He was master of Elizabeth +school, Guernsey, for some ten years, but resigned in 1672. In his work +entitled _Didascalocophus, or the Deaf and Dumb Man's Tutor_ (Oxford, +1680), he explained, for the first time, the hand alphabet for the deaf +and dumb, though he does not claim to have invented this method of +communication. Twenty years before the publication of his +_Didascalocophus_, Dalgarno had given to the world a very ingenious +piece entitled _Ars Signorum_ (1661), dividing ideas into seventeen +classes, to be represented by the letters of the Latin alphabet with the +addition of two Greek characters. Among the Sloane manuscripts are +several tracts by Dalgarno, further elucidating his system of universal +shorthand. Leibnitz on various occasions alluded to the _Ars signorum_ +in commendatory terms. + + The chief works of Dalgarno were reprinted (1834) for the Maitland + Club. + + + + +DALHOUSIE, JAMES ANDREW BROUN RAMSAY, 1ST MARQUESS and 10TH EARL OF +(1812-1860), British statesman and Indian administrator, was born at +Dalhousie Castle, Scotland, on the 22nd of April 1812. He crowded into +his short life conspicuous public services in England, and established +an unrivalled position among the master-builders of the Indian empire. +Denounced on the eve of his death as the chief offender who failed to +notice the signs of the mutiny of 1857, and even aggravated the crisis +by his overbearing self-consciousness, centralizing activity and +reckless annexations, he stands out in the clear light of history as the +far-sighted governor-general who consolidated British rule in India, +laid truly the foundations of its later administration, and by his sound +policy enabled his successors to stem the tide of rebellion. + +He was the third son of George Ramsay, 9th earl of Dalhousie +(1770-1838), one of Wellington's generals, who, after holding the +highest offices in Canada, became commander-in-chief in India, and of +his wife Christina Broun of Coalstoun, a lady of noble lineage and +distinguished gifts. From his father he inherited a vigorous +self-reliance and a family pride which urged him to prove worthy of the +Ramsays who had "not crawled through seven centuries of their country's +history," while to his mother he owed his high-bred courtesy and his +deeply seated reverence for religion. The Ramsays of Dalhousie (or +Dalwolsie) in Midlothian were a branch of the main line of Scottish +Ramsays, of whom the earliest known is Simon de Ramsay, of Huntingdon, +England, mentioned in 1140 as the grantee of lands in West Lothian at +the hands of David I. A Sir William de Ramsay of Dalhousie swore fealty +to Edward I. in 1296, but is famous for having in 1320 signed the letter +to the pope asserting the independence of Scotland; and his supposed +son, Sir Alexander Ramsay (d. 1342), was the Scottish patriot and +capturer of Roxburgh Castle (1342), who, having been made warder of the +castle and sheriff of Teviotdale by David II., was soon afterwards +carried off and starved to death by his predecessor, the Douglas, in +revenge. Sir John Ramsay of Dalhousie (1580-1626), James VI.'s +favourite, is famous for rescuing the king in the Gowrie conspiracy, and +was created (1606) Viscount Haddington and Lord Ramsay of Barns +(subsequently baron of Kingston and earl of Holderness in England). The +barony of Ramsay of Melrose was granted in 1618 to his brother George +Ramsay of Dalhousie (d. 1629), whose son William Ramsay (d. 1674) was +made 1st earl of Dalhousie in 1633. + +The 9th earl was in 1815 created Baron Dalhousie in the peerage of the +United Kingdom, and had three sons, the two elder of whom died early. +His youngest son, the subject of this article, was small in stature, but +his firm chiselled mouth, high forehead and masterful manner intimated a +dignity that none could overlook. Yet his early life gave little promise +of the dominating force of his character or of his ability to rise to +the full height of his splendid opportunities. Nor did those brought +into closest intimacy with him, whether at school or at Oxford, suspect +the higher qualities of statesmanship which afterwards established his +fame on so firm a foundation. + +Several years of his early boyhood were spent with his father and mother +in Canada, reminiscences of which were still vivid with him when +governor-general of India. Returning to Scotland he was prepared for +Harrow, where he entered in 1825. Two years later he was removed from +school, his entire education being entrusted to the Rev. Mr Temple, +incumbent of a quiet parish in Staffordshire. To this gentleman he +referred in later days as having taught him all he knew, and to his +training he must have owed those habits of regularity and that +indomitable industry which marked his adult life. In October 1829 he +passed on to Christ Church, Oxford, where he worked fairly hard, won +some distinction, and made many lifelong friends. His studies, however, +were so greatly interrupted by the protracted illness and death in 1832 +of his only surviving brother, that Lord Ramsay, as he then became, had +to content himself with entering for a "pass" degree, though the +examiners marked their appreciation of his work by placing him in the +fourth class of honours for Michaelmas 1833. He then travelled in Italy +and Switzerland, enriching with copious entries the diary which he +religiously kept up through life, and storing his mind with valuable +observations. + +An unsuccessful but courageous contest at the general election in 1835 +for one of the seats in parliament for Edinburgh, fought against such +veterans as the future speaker, James Abercrombie, afterwards Lord +Dunfermline, and John Campbell, future lord chancellor, was followed in +1837 by Ramsay's return to the House of Commons as member for East +Lothian. In the previous year he had married Lady Susan Hay, daughter of +the marquess of Tweeddale, whose companionship was his chief support in +India, and whose death in 1853 left him a heartbroken man. In 1838 his +father had died after a long illness, while less than a year later he +lost his mother. + +Succeeding to the peerage, the new earl soon made his mark in a speech +delivered on the 16th of June 1840 in support of Lord Aberdeen's Church +of Scotland Benefices Bill, a controversy arising out of the +Auchterarder case, in which he had already taken part in the "general +assembly" in opposition to Dr Chalmers. In May 1843 he became +vice-president of the board of trade, Gladstone being president, and was +sworn in as a member of the privy council. Succeeding Gladstone as +president in 1845, he threw himself into the work during the crisis of +the railway mania with such energy that his health partially broke down +under the strain. In the struggle over the corn laws he ranged himself +on the side of Sir Robert Peel, and after the failure of Lord John +Russell to form a ministry he resumed his post at the board of trade, +entering the cabinet on the retirement of Lord Stanley. When Peel +resigned office in June 1846, Lord John offered Dalhousie a seat in the +cabinet, an offer which he declined from a fear that acceptance might +"involve the loss of public character." Another attempt to secure his +services in the appointment of president of the railway board was +equally unsuccessful; but in 1847 he accepted the post of +governor-general of India in succession to Lord Hardinge, on the +understanding that he was to be left in "entire and unquestioned +possession" of his own "personal independence with reference to party +politics." + +Dalhousie assumed charge of his dual duties as governor-general of India +and governor of Bengal on the 12th of January 1848, and shortly +afterwards he was honoured with the green ribbon of the Order of the +Thistle. In writing to the president of the board of control, Sir John +Hobhouse, he was able to assure him that everything was quiet. This +statement, however, was to be falsified by events almost before it could +reach England. For on the 19th of April Vans Agnew of the civil service +and Lieutenant Anderson of the Bombay European regiment, having been +sent to take charge of Multan from Diwan Mulraj, were murdered there, +and within a short time the Sikh troops and sardars joined in open +rebellion. Dalhousie agreed with Sir Hugh Gough, the commander-in-chief, +that the Company's military forces were neither adequately equipped +with transport and supplies, nor otherwise prepared to take the field +immediately. He also foresaw the spread of the rebellion, and the +necessity that must arise, not merely for the capture of Multan, but +also for the entire subjugation of the Punjab. He therefore resolutely +delayed to strike, organized a strong army for operations in November, +and himself proceeded to the Punjab. Despite the brilliant successes +gained by Herbert Edwardes in conflict with Mulraj, and Goagh's +indecisive victories at Ramnagar in November, at Sadulapur in December, +and at Chillianwalla in the following month, the stubborn resistance at +Multan showed that the task required the utmost resources of the +government. At length, on the 22nd of January 1849, the Multan fortress +was taken by General Whish, who was thus set at liberty to join Gough at +Gujrat. Here a complete victory was won on the 21st of February, the +Sikh army surrendered at Rawal Pindi, and their Afghan allies were +chased out of India. For his services the earl of Dalhousie received the +thanks of parliament and a step in the peerage, as marquess. + +The war being now over, Dalhousie, without waiting for instructions from +home, annexed the Punjab, and made provision for the custody and +education of the infant maharaja. For the present the province was +administered by a triumvirate under the personal supervision of the +governor-general, and later, a place having been found for Henry +Lawrence in Rajputana, by John Lawrence as sole commissioner. Twice did +Dalhousie tour through its length and breadth, settling on the spot all +matters of importance, and when he left India no province could show a +better record of progress. + +One further addition to the empire was made by conquest. The arrogant +Burmese court at Ava was bound by the treaty of Yandabo, 1826, to +protect British ships in Burmese waters, but the outrageous conduct of +the governor of Rangoon towards the masters of the "Monarch" and +"Champion" met with no redress from the king. Dalhousie adopted the +maxim of Lord Wellesley "that an insult offered to the British flag at +the mouth of the Ganges should be resented as promptly and fully as an +insult offered at the mouth of the Thames"; but, anxious to save the +cost of war, he tried to settle the dispute by diplomacy. When that +failed he made vigorous preparation for the campaign to be undertaken in +the autumn, giving his attention to the adequate provision of rations, +boat transport, and medical supplies, composing differences between the +military contingents from Bengal and Madras, and between the military +and naval forces employed, and conferring with General Godwin whom he +had chosen to command the expedition. Martaban was taken on the 5th of +April 1852, and Rangoon and Bassein shortly afterwards. Since, however, +the court of Ava showed no sign of submission, the second campaign +opened in October, and after the capture of Prome and Pegu the +annexation of the province of Pegu was declared by a proclamation dated +the 20th of December 1853. To any further invasion of the Burmese empire +Dalhousie was firmly opposed, being content to "consolidate" the +Company's possessions by uniting Arakan to Tenasserim. By his wise +policy he pacified the new province, placing Colonel Arthur Phayre in +sole charge of it, personally visiting it, and establishing a complete +system of telegraphs and communications. + +These military operations added force to the conviction which Dalhousie +had formed of the need of consolidating the Company's ill-knit +possessions, and as a step in that direction he decided to apply the +doctrine of "lapse," and annex any Hindu native states, created or +revived by the grants of the British government, in which there was a +failure of male lineal descendants, reserving for consideration the +policy of permitting adoptions in other Hindu chiefships tributary and +subordinate to the British government as paramount. Under the first head +he recommended the annexation of Satara in January 1849, of Jaitpur and +Sambalpur in the same year, and of Jhansi and Nagpur in 1853. In these +cases his action was approved by the home authorities, but his proposal +to annex Karauli in 1849 was disallowed, while Baghat and the petty +estate of Udaipur, which he had annexed in 1851 and 1852 respectively, +were afterwards restored to native rule. + +Other measures with the same object were carried out in the Company's +own territories. Bengal, too long ruled by the governor-general or his +delegate, was placed under a separate lieutenant-governor in May 1854; a +department of public works was established in each presidency, and +engineering colleges were provided. An imperial system of telegraphs +followed; the first link of railway communication was completed in 1855; +well-considered plans mapped out the course of other lines and their +method of administration; the Ganges canal, which then exceeded "all the +irrigation lines of Lombardy and Egypt together," was completed; and +despite the cost of wars in the Punjab and Burma, liberal provision was +made for metalled roads and bridges. The useless military boards were +swept away; selection took the place of seniority in the higher +commands; an army clothing and a stud department were created, and the +medical service underwent complete reorganization. + +"Unity of authority coupled with direct responsibility" was the keynote +of his policy. In nine masterly minutes he suggested means for +strengthening the Company's European forces, calling attention to the +dangers that threatened the English community, "a handful of scattered +strangers"; but beyond the additional powers of recruitment which at his +entreaty were granted in the last charter act of 1853, his proposals +were shelved by the home authorities, who scented no danger and wished +to avoid expense. In his administration Dalhousie vigorously asserted +the control of the civil government over military affairs, and when Sir +Charles Napier ordered certain allowances, given as compensation for the +dearness of provisions, to be granted to the sepoys on a system which +had not been sanctioned from headquarters, and threatened to repeat the +offence, the governor-general found it necessary to administer such a +rebuke that the hot-headed soldier resigned his command. + +Dalhousie's reforms were not confined to the departments of public works +and military affairs. He created an imperial system of post-offices, +reducing the rates of carrying letters and introducing postage stamps. +To him India owes the first department of public instruction; it was he +who placed the gaols under proper inspection, abolishing the practice of +branding convicts; put down the crime of _meriahs_ or human sacrifices; +freed converts to other religions from the loss of their civil rights; +inaugurated the system of administrative reports; and enlarged and +dignified the legislative council of India. His wide interest in +everything that concerned the welfare of the country was shown in the +encouragement he gave to the culture of tea, in his protection of +forests, in the preservation of ancient and historic monuments. With the +object of improving civil administration, he closed the useless college +in Calcutta for the education of young civilians, establishing in its +place a proper system of training them in _mufasal_ stations, and +subjecting them to departmental examinations. He was equally careful of +the well-being of the European soldier, providing him with healthy +recreations and public gardens. To the civil service he gave improved +leave and pension rules, while he purified its _moral_ by forbidding all +share in trading concerns, by vigorously punishing insolvents, and by +his personal example of careful selection in the matter of patronage. As +a comprehensive view of the constitution of the Indian government, +dealing with the functions of its various members and the different +parts of the official machinery, nothing could be more masterly than his +minute of the 13th of October 1852. Indeed no governor-general ever +penned a larger number of weighty papers dealing with public affairs in +India. Even after laying down office and while on his way home, he +forced himself, ill as he was, to review his own administration in a +document of such importance that the House of Commons gave orders for +its being printed (Blue Book 245 of 1856). + +His foreign policy was guided by a desire to recognize the +"independence" of the larger native states, and to avoid extending the +political relations of his government with foreign powers outside India. +Pressed to intervene in Hyderabad, he refused to do so, laying down the +doctrine that interference was only justified "if the administration of +native princes tends unquestionably to the injury of the subjects or of +the allies of the British government." Protection in his view carried no +right of interference in the affairs of what he called "independent" +states. In this spirit he negotiated in 1853 a treaty with the nizam, +which provided funds for the maintenance of the contingent kept up by +the British in support of that prince's authority, by the assignment of +the Berars in lieu of annual payments of the cost and large outstanding +arrears. "The Berar treaty," he told Sir Charles Wood, "is more likely +to keep the nizam on his throne than anything that has happened for +fifty years to him," while at the same time the control thus acquired +over a strip of territory intervening between Bombay and Nagpur promoted +his policy of consolidation and his schemes of railway extension. The +same spirit induced him to tolerate a war of succession in Bahawalpur, +so long as the contending candidates did not violate British territory. +This reluctance to increase his responsibilities further caused him to +refrain from punishing Dost Mahommed for the part he had taken in the +Sikh War, and resolutely to refuse to enter upon any negotiations until +the amir himself came forward. Then he steered a middle course between +the proposals of his own agent, Herbert Edwardes, who advocated an +offensive alliance, and those of John Lawrence, who would have avoided +any sort of engagement. He himself drafted the short treaty of peace and +friendship which Lawrence signed in 1855, that officer receiving in 1856 +the order of K.C.B, in acknowledgment of his services in the matter. +While, however, Dalhousie was content with a mutual engagement with the +Afghan chief, binding each party to respect the territories of the +other, he saw that a larger measure of interference was needed in +Baluchistan, and with the khan of Kalat he authorized Major Jacob to +negotiate a treaty of subordinate co-operation on the 14th of May 1854. +The khan was guaranteed an annual subsidy of Rs. 50,000, in return for +the treaty which "bound him to us wholly and exclusively." To this the +home authorities demurred, but the engagement was duly ratified, and the +subsidy was largely increased by Dalhousie's successors. On the other +hand, he insisted on leaving all matters concerning Persia and Central +Asia to the decision of the queen's advisers. The frontier tribesmen it +was obviously necessary to coerce into good behaviour after the +annexation of the Punjab. "The hillmen," he wrote, "regard the plains as +their food and prey," and the Afridis, Mohmands, Black Mountain tribes, +Waziris and others had to be taught that their new neighbours would not +tolerate outrages. But he proclaimed to one and all his desire for +peace, and urged upon them the duty of tribal responsibility. + +The settlement of the Oudh question was reserved to the last. The home +authorities had begged Dalhousie to prolong his tenure of office during +the Crimean War, but the difficulties of the problem no less than +complications elsewhere had induced him to delay operations. In 1854 he +appointed Outram as resident at the court of Lucknow, directing him to +submit a report on the condition of the province. This was furnished in +March 1855. But though the state of disorder and misrule revealed by it +called for prompt remedy, Dalhousie, looking at the treaty of 1801, +considered that he was bound to proceed in the matter of reform with the +king's consent. He proposed, therefore, to demand a transfer to the +Company of the entire administration, the king merely retaining his +royal rank, certain privileges in the courts, and a liberal allowance. +If he should refuse this arrangement, a general rising was almost +certain to follow, and then the British government would of necessity +intervene on its own terms. On the 21st of November 1855 the court of +directors instructed Dalhousie to assume the powers essential to the +permanence of good government in Oudh, and to give the king no option +unless he was sure that his majesty would surrender the administration +rather than risk a revolution. Dalhousie was in wretched health and on +the eve of retirement when the belated orders reached him; but he at +once laid down instructions for Outram in every detail, moved up troops, +and elaborated a scheme of government with particular orders as to +conciliating local opinion. The king refused to sign the treaty put +before him, and a proclamation annexing the province was therefore +issued on the 13th of February 1856. + +Only one important matter now remained to him before quitting office. +The insurrection of the half-civilized Kolarian Santals of Bengal +against the extortions of landlords and money-lenders had been severely +repressed, but the causes of the insurrection had still to be reviewed +and a remedy provided. By removing the tract of country from the +ordinary regulations, enforcing the residence of British officers there, +and employing the Santal headmen in a local police, he ensured a system +of administration which afterwards proved eminently successful. + +At length, after seven years of strenuous labour, Dalhousie, on the 6th +of March 1856, set sail for England on board the Company's "Firoze," an +object of general sympathy and not less general respect. At Alexandria +he was carried by H.M.S. "Caradoc" to Malta, and thence by the "Tribune" +to Spithead, which he reached on the 13th of May. His return had been +eagerly looked for by statesmen who hoped that he would resume his +public career, by the Company which voted him an annual pension of +L5000, by public bodies which showered upon him every mark of respect, +and by the queen who earnestly prayed for the "blessing of restored +health and strength." That blessing was not to be his. He lingered on, +seeking sunshine in Malta and medical treatment at Malvern, Edinburgh +and other places in vain obedience to his doctors. The outbreak of the +mutiny led to bitter attacks at home upon his policy, and to strange +misrepresentation of his public acts, while on the other hand John +Lawrence invoked his counsel and influence, and those who really knew +his work in India cried out, "Oh, for a dictator," and his return "for +one hour!" To all these cries he turned a deaf ear, refusing to +embarrass those who were responsible by any expressions of opinion, +declining to undertake his own defence or to assist in his vindication +through the public press, and by his last directions sealing up his +private journal and papers of personal interest against publication +until fifty years after his death. On the 9th of August 1859 his +youngest daughter, Edith, was married at Dalhousie Castle to Sir James +Fergusson, Bart. In the same castle Dalhousie died on the 19th of +December 1860; he was buried in the old churchyard of Cockpen. + +Dalhousie's family consisted of two daughters, and the marquessate +became extinct at his death. + + The detailed events of the period will be found in Sir William + Lee-Warner's _Life of the Marquis of Dalhousie, K.T._; Sir E. Arnold's + _Dalhousie's Administration of British India_; Sir C. Jackson's + _Vindication of Dalhousie's Indian Administration_; Sir W. W. Hunter's + _Dalhousie_; Capt. L. J. Trotter's _Life of the Marquis of Dalhousie_; + the duke of Argyll's _India under Dalhousie and Canning_; Broughton + MSS. (British Museum); and parliamentary papers. (W. L.-W.) + + + + +DALHOUSIE, FOX MAULE RAMSAY, 11th EARL OT (1801-1874), was the eldest +son of William Ramsay Maule, 1st Baron Panmure (1771-1852), and a +grandson of George, 8th earl of Dalhousie. Born on the 22nd of April +1801 and christened Fox as a compliment to the great Whig, he served for +a term in the army, and then in 1835 entered the House of Commons as +member for Perthshire. In Lord Melbourne's ministry (1835-1841) Maule +was under-secretary for home affairs, and under Lord John Russell he was +secretary-at-war from July 1846 to January 1852, when for two or three +weeks he was president of the board of control. In April 1852 he became +the 2nd Baron Panmure, and early in 1855 he joined Lord Palmerston's +cabinet, filling the new office of secretary of state for war. Panmure +held this office until February 1858, being at the war office during the +concluding period of the Crimean War and having to meet a good deal of +criticism, some of which was justified and some of which was not. In +December 1860 he succeeded his kinsman, the marquess of Dalhousie, as +11th earl of Dalhousie, and he died childless on the 6th of July 1874. +Always interested in church matters, Dalhousie was a prominent supporter +of the Free Church of Scotland after the disruption of 1843. On his +death the barony became extinct, but his earldom passed to his cousin, +George Ramsay (1806-1880), an admiral who, in 1875, was created a peer +of the United Kingdom as Baron Ramsay. George's grandson, Arthur George +Maule Ramsay (b. 1878), became the 14th earl in 1887. + + See the _Panmure Papers_, a selection from Panmure's correspondence, + edited in two volumes (1908), by Sir G. Douglas, Bart., and Sir G. D. + Ramsay. These numerous letters throw much light on the concluding + stage of the Crimean War. + + + + +DALIN, OLOF VON (1708-1763), Swedish poet, was born on the 29th of +August 1708 in the parish of Vinberg in Halland, where his father was +the minister. He was nearly related to Rydelius, the philosophical +bishop of Lund, and he was sent at a very early age to be instructed by +him, Linnaeus being one of his fellow-pupils. While studying at Lund, +Dalin had visited Stockholm in the year 1723, and in 1726 entered one of +the public offices there. Under the patronage of Baron Ralamb he rapidly +rose to preferment, and his skill and intelligence won him golden +opinions. In 1733 he started the weekly _Svenska Argus_, on the model of +Addison's _Spectator_, writing anonymously till 1736. His next work was +_Tankar ofver Critiquer_ (Thoughts about Critics, 1736). With the avowed +purpose of enlarging the horizon of his cultivation and tastes, Dalin +set off, in company with his pupil, Baron Ralamb's son, on a tour +through Germany and France, in 1739-1740. On his return the shifting of +political life at home caused him to write his famous satiric allegories +of _The Story of the Horse_ and _Aprilverk_ (1738), which were very +popular and provoked countless imitations. His didactic epos of _Svenska +Friheten_ (Swedish Liberty) appeared in 1742. Hitherto Addison and Pope +had been his models; in this work he draws his inspiration from Thomson, +whose poem of _Liberty_ it emulated. On the accession of Adolphus +Freduck in 1751 Dalin received the post of tutor to the crown prince, +afterwards Gustavus III. He had enjoyed the confidence of Queen Louisa +Ulrika, sister of Frederick the Great of Germany, while she was crown +princess, and she now made him secretary of the Swedish academy of +literature, founded by her in 1753. His position at court involved him +in the queen's political intrigues, and separated him to a vexatious +degree from the studies in which he had hitherto been absorbed. He held +the post of tutor to the crown prince until 1756, when he was arrested +on suspicion of having taken part in the attempted _coup d'etat_ of that +year, and was tried for his life before the diet. He was acquitted, but +was forbidden on any pretence to show himself at court. This period of +exile, which lasted until 1761, Dalin spent in the preparation of the +third volume of his great historical work, the _Svea Rikes historia_ +(History of the Swedish Kingdom), which came down to the death of +Charles IX. in 1611. The first two volumes appeared in 1746-1750; the +third, in two parts, in 1760-1762. Dalin had been ennobled in 1751, and +made privy councillor in 1753; and now, in 1761, he once more took his +place at court. During his exile, however, his spirit and his health had +been broken; in a fit of panic he had destroyed some packets of his best +unpublished works and this he constantly brooded over. On the 12th of +August 1763 he died at his house in Drottningholm. In the year 1767 his +writings in _belles lettres_ were issued in six volumes, edited by J. C. +Bokman, his half-brother. Amid an enormous mass of occasional verses, +anagrams, epigrams, impromptus and the like, his satires and serious +poems were almost buried. But some of these former, even, are found to +be songs of remarkable grace and delicacy, and many display a love of +natural scenery and a knowledge of its forms truly remarkable in that +artificial age. His dramas also are of interest, particularly his +admirable comedy of _Den afvundsjuke_ (The Envious Man, 1738); he also +wrote a tragedy, _Brynilda_ (1739), and a pastoral in three scenes on +King Adolphus Frederick's return from Finland. During the early part of +his life he was universally admitted to be _facile princeps_ among the +Swedish poets of his time. + + See also K. Warburg, "Olof von Dalin," in the _Handlingar_ (vol. lix., + 1884) of the Swedish Academy. A selection of his works was edited by + E. V. Lindblad (Orebro, 1872). + + + + +DALKEITH, a municipal and police burgh of Edinburghshire, Scotland, +lying between the North and South Esk, 7(1/2) m. S.E. of Edinburgh, by +the North British railway. Pop. (1891) 7035; (1901) 6812. It is an +important agricultural centre, and has every week one of the largest +grain-markets in Scotland. Besides milling, brewing and tanning, the +chief industries are the making of carpets, brushes and bricks, and iron +and brass founding. Near Eskbank, a handsome residential quarter with a +railway station, coal-mining is carried on. Market-gardening, owing to +the proximity of the capital, flourishes. The parish church--an old +Gothic edifice, which was originally the Castle chapel, and was restored +in 1852--the municipal buildings, corn exchange, Foresters' hall and +Newmills hospital are among the principal public buildings. Dalkeith was +the birthplace of Professor Peter Guthrie Tait, the mathematician +(1831-1901). Dalkeith Palace, a seat of the duke of Buccleuch, was +designed by Sir John Vanbrugh in 1700 for the widow of the duke of +Monmouth, countess of Buccleuch in her own right. It occupies the site +of a castle which belonged first to the Grahams and afterwards to the +Douglases, and was sold in 1642 by William, seventh or eighth earl of +Morton, to Francis, second earl of Buccleuch, for the purpose of raising +money to assist Charles I. in the Civil War. The palace has been the +residence of several sovereigns during their visits to Edinburgh, among +them George IV. in 1822, Queen Victoria in 1842, and Edward VII. in +1903. The picture gallery possesses important examples of the Old +Masters; the gardens are renowned for their fruit and flowers; and the +beautiful park of over 1000 acres--containing a remnant of the +Caledonian Forest, with oaks, beeches and ashes of great girth and +height--is watered by the North and South Esk, which unite before they +leave the policy. About 1 m. south is Newbattle Abbey, the seat of the +marquess of Lothian, delightfully situated on the South Esk. It is built +on the site of an abbey founded by David I., the ancient crypt being +incorporated in the mansion. The library contains many valuable books +and illuminated MSS., and excellent pictures and carvings. In the park +are several remarkable trees, among them one of the largest beeches in +the United Kingdom. Two miles still farther south lies Cockpen, +immortalized by the Baroness Nairne's humorous song "The Laird of +Cockpen," and Dalhousie Castle, partly ancient and partly modern, which +gives a title to the earls of Dalhousie. About 6 m. south-east of +Dalkeith are Borthwick and Crichton castles, 1 m. apart, both now in +ruins. Queen Mary spent three weeks in Borthwick Castle, as in durance +vile, after her marriage with Bothwell, and fled from it to Dunbar in +the guise of a page. The castle, which is a double tower, was besieged +by Cromwell, and the marks of his cannon-balls are still visible. In the +manse of the parish of Borthwick, William Robertson, the historian, was +born in 1721. About 4 m. west of Dalkeith is the village of Burdiehouse, +the limestone quarries of which are famous for fossils. The name is said +to be a corruption of Bordeaux House, which was bestowed on it by Queen +Mary's French servants, who lived here when their mistress resided at +Craigmillar. + + + + +DALKEY, a small port and watering-place of Co. Dublin, Ireland, in the +south parliamentary division; 9 m. S.E. of Dublin by the Dublin & +South-Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 3398. It is +pleasantly situated on and about Sorrento Point, the southern horn of +Dublin Bay. Dalkey Island, lying off the town, has an ancient ruined +chapel, of the history of which nothing is certainly known, and a +disused battery, which protected the harbour, a landing-place of some +former importance. A castle in the town, of the 15th century, is +restored to use as offices for the urban district council. There are +also ruins of an old church, the dedication of which, like the island +chapel, is ascribed to one St Begnet, perhaps a diminutive form of Bega, +but the identity is not clear. Until the close of the 18th century +Dalkey was notorious for the burlesque election of a "king," a mock +ceremony which became invested with a certain political importance. + + + + +DALLAS, ALEXANDER JAMES (1759-1817), American statesman and financier, +was born on the island of Jamaica, West Indies, on the 21st of June +1759, the son of Dr Robert C. Dallas (d. 1774), a Scottish physician +then practising there. Dr Dallas soon returned to England with his +family, and Alexander was educated at Edinburgh and Westminster. He +studied law for a time in the Inner Temple, and in 1780 returned to +Jamaica. There he met the younger Lewis Hallam (1738-1808), a pioneer +American theatrical manager and actor, who induced him to remove to the +United States, and in 1783 he settled in Philadelphia, where he at once +took the oath of allegiance to the United States, was admitted to +practise law in 1785, and rapidly attained a prominent position at the +bar. He was interested in the theatrical projects of Hallam, for whom he +wrote several dramatic compositions, and from 1787 to 1789 he edited +_The Columbian Magazine_. From 1791 to 1801 he was secretary of the +commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Partly owing to his publication of an able +pamphlet against the Jay treaty in 1795, he soon acquired a position of +much influence in the Democratic-Republican party in the state. During +the Whisky Insurrection he was paymaster-general of the state militia. +His official position as secretary did not entirely prevent him from +continuing his private law practice, and, with Jared Ingersoll, he was +the counsel of Senator William Blount in his impeachment trial. Dallas +was United States attorney for the eastern district of Pennsylvania from +1801 until 1814, a period marked by bitter struggles between the +Democratic-Republican factions in the state, in which he took a leading +part in alliance with Governor Thomas M'Kean and Albert Gallatin, and in +opposition to the radical factions led by Michael Leib (1759-1822) and +William Duane (1760-1835), of the _Aurora_. The quarrel led in 1805 to +the M'Kean party seeking Federalist support. By such an alliance, +largely due to the political ingenuity of Dallas, M'Kean was re-elected. +In October 1814 President Madison appointed Dallas secretary of the +treasury, to succeed George W. Campbell (1768-1848), whose brief and +disastrous term had been marked by wholesale bank suspensions, and an +enormous depreciation of state and national bank notes. The appointment +itself inspired confidence, and Dallas's prompt measures still further +relieved the situation. He first issued new interest-bearing treasury +notes of small denominations, and in addition proposed the +re-establishment of a national bank, by which means he expected to +increase the stability and uniformity of the circulating medium, and +furnish the government with a powerful engine in the upholding of its +credit. In spite of his already onerous duties, Dallas, with +characteristic energy, served also as secretary of war _ad interim_ from +March to August 1815, and in this capacity successfully reorganized the +army on a peace footing. Although peace brought a more favourable +condition of the money market, Dallas's attempt to fund the treasury +notes on a satisfactory basis was unsuccessful, but a bill, reported by +Calhoun, as chairman of the committee on national currency, for the +establishment of a national bank, became law on the 10th of April 1816. +Meanwhile (12th of February 1816) Dallas, in a notable report, +recommended a protective tariff, which was enacted late in April, +largely in accordance with his recommendation. Although Dallas left the +cabinet in October 1816, it was through his efforts that the new bank +began its operations in the following January, and specie payments were +resumed in February. Dallas, who belonged to the financial school of +Albert Gallatin, deserves to rank among America's greatest financiers. +He found the government bankrupt, and after two years at the head of the +treasury he left it with a surplus of $20,000,000; moreover, as Henry +Adams points out, his measures had "fixed the financial system in a firm +groove for twenty years." He retired from office to resume his practice +of the law, but the burden of his official duties had undermined his +health, and he died suddenly at Philadelphia on the 16th of June 1817. +He was the author of several notable political pamphlets and state +papers, and in addition edited _The Laws of Pennsylvania, 1700-1801_ +(1801), and _Reports of Cases ruled and adjudged by the Courts of the +United States and of Pennsylvania before and since the Revolution_ (4 +vols., 1790-1807; new edition with notes by Thomas J. Wharton, 1830). He +wrote _An Exposition of the Causes and Character of the War of 1812-15_ +(1815), which was republished by government authority in New York and +London and widely circulated. He left in MS. an unfinished _History of +Pennsylvania_. + +His brother, ROBERT CHARLES DALLAS (1754-1824), was born in Jamaica, and +lived at various times in the West Indies, the United States, England +and France. He was an intimate friend of Lord Byron. He wrote +_Recollections of Lord Byron_ (1824), and several novels, plays and +miscellaneous works. + + See G. M. Dallas, _Life and Writings of Alexander James Dallas_ + (Philadelphia, 1871). + + + + +DALLAS, GEORGE MIFFLIN (1792-1864), American statesman and diplomat, was +born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 10th of July 1792. He +graduated at Princeton in 1810 at the head of his class; then studied +law in the office of his father, Alexander J. Dallas, the financier, and +was admitted to the bar in 1813. In the same year he accompanied Albert +Gallatin, as his secretary, to Russia, and in 1814 returned to the +United States as the bearer of important dispatches from the American +peace commissioners at Ghent. He practised law in New York and +Philadelphia, was chosen mayor of Philadelphia in 1828, and in 1829 was +appointed by President Jackson, whom he had twice warmly supported for +the presidency, United States attorney for the eastern district of +Pennsylvania, a position long held by his father. From 1831 to 1833 he +was a Democratic member of the United States Senate, in which he +advocated a compromise tariff and strongly supported Jackson's position +in regard to nullification. On the bank question he was at first at +variance with the president; in January 1832 he presented in the Senate +a memorial from the bank's president, Nicholas Biddle, and its managers, +praying for a recharter, and subsequently he was chairman of a committee +which reported a bill re-chartering the institution for a fifteen-year +period. Afterwards, however, his views changed and he opposed the bank. +From 1833 to 1835 Dallas was attorney-general of Pennsylvania, and from +1835 to 1839 was minister to Russia. During the following years he was +engaged in a long struggle with James Buchanan for party leadership in +Pennsylvania. He was vice-president of the United States from 1845 to +1849, but the appointment of Buchanan as secretary of state at once shut +him off from all hope of party patronage or influence in the Polk +administration, and he came to be looked upon as the leader of that body +of conservative Democrats of the North, who, while they themselves +chafed at the domination of Southern leaders, were disposed to disparage +all anti-slavery agitation. By his casting vote at a critical period +during the debate in the Senate on the tariff bill of 1846, he +irretrievably lost his influence with the protectionist element of his +native state, to whom he had given assurances of his support of the +Tyler tariff of 1842. For several years after his retirement from +office, he devoted himself to his law practice, and in 1856 succeeded +James Buchanan as United States minister to England, where he remained +until relieved by Charles Francis Adams in May 1861. During this trying +period he represented his country with ability and tact, making every +endeavour to strengthen the Union cause in Great Britain. He died at +Philadelphia on the 1st of December 1864. He wrote a biographical memoir +for an edition of his father's writings, which was published in 1871. + + His _Diary_ of his residence in St Petersburg and London was published + in Philadelphia in 1892. + + + + +DALLAS, a city and the county-seat of Dallas county, Texas, U.S.A., +about 220 m. N.W. of Houston, on the E. bank of the Trinity river. Pop. +(1880) 10,358; (1890) 38,067; (1900) 42,638, of whom 9035 were negroes +and 3381 were foreign-born; (1910) 92,104. Area, about 15 sq. m. Dallas +is served by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Gulf, Colorado & +Santa Fe, the Houston & Texas Central, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the +St Louis South-western, the Texas & New Orleans, the Trinity & Brazos +Valley, and the Texas & Pacific railways, and by interurban electric +railways to Fort Worth and Sherman. The lower channel of the Trinity +river has been greatly improved by the Federal government; but in 1908 +the river was not navigable as far as Dallas. Among public buildings are +the Carnegie library (1901), Dallas county court house, the city hall, +the U.S. government building, St Matthew's cathedral (Prot. Episc.), the +cathedral of the Sacred Heart (Rom. Cath.), the city hospital, St Paul's +sanitarium (Rom. Cath.), and the Baptist Memorial sanitarium. +Educational institutions include Dallas medical college (1901), the +colleges of medicine and pharmacy of Baylor University, the medical +college of South-western University (at Georgetown, Texas), Oak Cliff +female academy, Patton seminary, St Mary's female college (Prot. +Episc.), and Holy Trinity college (Rom. Cath.). The city had in 1908 +three parks--Bachman's Reservoir (500 acres); Fair (525 acres)--the +Texas state fair grounds, in which an annual exhibition is held--and +City park (17 acres). Lake Cliff, Cycle and Oak Lawn parks are amusement +grounds. A Confederate soldiers' monument, a granite shaft 50 ft. high, +was erected in 1897, with statues of R. E. Lee, Jefferson Davis, +"Stonewall" Jackson and A. S. Johnston. Dallas was in 1900 the third +city in population and the most important railway centre in Texas. It is +a shipping centre for a large wheat, fruit and cotton-raising region, +and the principal jobbing market for northern Texas, Oklahoma and part +of Louisiana, and the biggest distributing point for agricultural +machinery in the South-west. It is a livestock market, and one of the +chief centres in the United States for the manufacture of saddlery and +leather goods, and of cotton-gin machinery. It has flour and grist mills +(the products of which ranked first in value among the city's +manufactures in 1905), wholesale slaughtering and meat-packing +establishments, cooperage works, railway repair shops, cotton +compresses, lumber yards, salt works, and manufactories of cotton-seed +oil and cake, boots and shoes and cotton and agricultural machinery. In +1900 and 1905 it was the principal manufacturing centre in the state, +the value of its factory product in 1905 being $15,627,668, an increase +of 64.7% over that in 1900. The water-works are owned and operated by +the city, and the water is taken from the Elm fork of Trinity river. +There are several artesian wells. Dallas, named in honour of G. M. +Dallas, was settled in 1841, and first chartered as a city in 1856. The +city is governed, under a charter of 1907, by a mayor and four +commissioners, who together pass ordinances, appoint nearly all city +officers, and generally are responsible for administering the +government. In addition a school board is elected by the people. The +charter contains initiative and referendum provisions, provides for the +recall of any elective city official, and prohibits the granting of any +franchise for a longer term than twenty years. + + + + +DALLE (pronounced "dal," Fr. for a flag-stone or flat tile), a rapid +falling over flat smooth rock surfaces in a river bed, especially in +rivers flowing between basaltic rocks. The name is common in America, +and came into use through the French employes of the Hudson's Bay +Company. Well-known "dalles" are on the St Louis, St Croix and Wisconsin +rivers. The "dalles" of the Columbia river are very beautiful, and have +given its name to Dalles (1910 pop. 4880), county-seat of Wasco county, +Oregon. + + + + +DALLIN, CYRUS EDWIN (1861- ), American sculptor, was born at +Springville, Utah, on the 22nd of November 1861. He was a pupil of +Truman H. Bartlett in Boston, of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, the Academie +Julien and the sculptors Henri M. Chapu and Jean Dampt (born 1858), in +Paris, and on his return to America became instructor in modelling in +the state normal art school in Boston. He is best known for his plastic +representations of the North American Indian--especially for "The Signal +of Peace" in Lincoln Park, Chicago, and "The Medicine Man," in Fairmount +Park, Philadelphia. As a boy he had lived among the Indians in the Far +West, and had learned their language. His later works include "Pioneer +Monument," Salt Lake City; "Sir Isaac Newton," Congressional Library, +Washington; and "Don Quixote." He won a silver medal at the Paris +Exposition, 1900, and a gold medal at the St Louis Exposition, 1904. + + + + +DALLING AND BULWER, WILLIAM HENRY LYTTON EARLE BULWER, BARON +(1801-1872), better known as Sir HENRY BULWER, English diplomatist and +author, was born in London on the 13th of February 1801. His father, +General William Earle Bulwer, when colonel of the 106th regiment, had +married Elizabeth Barbara Lytton, who--as the only child of Richard +Warburton Lytton, of Knebworth Park, in Hertfordshire--was sole heiress +of the family of Norreys-Robinson-Lytton of Monacdhu in the island of +Anglesea and of Guersylt in Denbighshire. Three sons were the fruit of +this marriage. The second, afterwards Lord Dalling, was amply provided +for by his selection as heir to his maternal grandmother; the paternal +estates in Norfolk went to his elder brother William, and the maternal +property in Herts to the youngest, Edward, known first as Bulwer the +novelist and dramatist, and afterwards as the first Baron Lytton (q.v.) +of Knebworth. + +General Bulwer, as brigadier-general of volunteers, was one of the four +commanding officers to whom was entrusted the defence of England in +1804, when threatened with invasion by Napoleon. Three years afterwards, +on the 7th of July 1807, he died prematurely at fifty-two at Heyden +Hall. His young widow had then devolved upon her not only the double +charge of caring for the estates in Herts and Norfolk, but the far +weightier responsibility of superintending the education of her three +sons, then in their earliest boyhood. Henry Bulwer was educated at +Harrow, under Dr George Butler, and at Trinity College and Downing +College, Cambridge. In 1822 he published a small volume of verse, +beginning with an ode on the death of Napoleon. It is chiefly +interesting now for its fraternal dedication to Edward Lytton Bulwer, +then a youth of nineteen. + +On leaving Cambridge in the autumn of 1824, Henry Bulwer went, as +emissary of the Greek committee then sitting in London, to the Morea, +carrying with him L80,000 sterling, which he handed over to Prince +Mavrocordato and his colleagues, as the responsible leaders of the War +of Independence. He was accompanied on this expedition by Hamilton +Browne, who, a year before, had been despatched by Lord Byron to +Cephalonia to treat with the insurgent government. Shortly after his +return to England in 1826, Bulwer published a record of this excursion, +under the title of _An Autumn in Greece_. Meanwhile, bent for the moment +upon following in his father's footsteps, he had, on the 19th of October +1825, been gazetted as a cornet in the 2nd Life Guards. Within less than +eight months, however, he had exchanged from cavalry to infantry, being +enrolled on the 2nd of June 1826 as an ensign in the 58th regiment. That +ensigncy he retained for little more than a month, obtaining another +unattached, which he held until the 1st of January 1829, when he finally +abandoned the army. The court, not the camp, was to be the scene of his +successes; and for thirty-eight years altogether--from August 1827 to +August 1865--he contrived, while maturing from a young attache to an +astute and veteran ambassador, to hold his own with ease, and in the end +was ranked amongst the subtlest intellects of his time as a master of +diplomacy. His first appointment in his new profession was as an attache +at Berlin. In April 1830 he obtained his next step through his +nomination as an attache at Vienna. Thence, exactly a year afterwards, +he was employed nearer home in the same capacity at the Hague. + +As yet ostensibly no more than a careless lounger in the _salons_ of the +continent, the young ex-cavalry officer veiled the keenest observation +under an air of indifference. His constitutional energy, which +throughout life was exceptionally intense and tenacious, wore from the +first a mask of languor. When in reality most cautious he was seemingly +most negligent. No matter what he happened at the moment to take in +hand, the art he applied to it was always that highest art of all, the +_ars celare artem_. His mastery of the lightest but most essential +weapon in the armoury of the diplomatist, tact, came to him as it seemed +intuitively, and from the outset was consummate. Talleyrand himself +would have had no reason, even in Henry Bulwer's earliest years as an +attache, to write entreatingly, "_pas de zele_," to one who concealed so +felicitously, even at starting, a lynx-like vigilance under an aspect +the most phlegmatic. He had hardly reached his new post at the Hague +when he found and seized his opportunity. The revolutionary explosion of +July at Paris had been echoed on the 25th of August 1830 by an outburst +of insurrection at Brussels. During the whole of September a succession +of stormy events swept over Belgium, until the popular rising reached +its climax on the 4th of October in the declaration of Belgian +independence by the provisional government. At the beginning of the +revolution, the young attache was despatched by the then foreign +secretary at Whitehall, Lord Aberdeen, to watch events as they arose and +report their character. In the execution of his special mission he +traversed the country in all directions amidst civil war, the issue of +which was to the last degree problematic. Under those apparently +bewildering circumstances, he was enabled by his sagacity and +penetration to win his spurs as a diplomatist. Writing almost haphazard +in the midst of the conflict, he sent home from day to day a series of +despatches which threw a flood of light upon incidents that would +otherwise have appeared almost inexplicable. Scarcely a week had +elapsed, during which his predictions had been wonderfully verified, +when he was summoned to London to receive the congratulations of the +cabinet. He returned to Brussels no longer in a merely temporary or +informal capacity. As secretary of legation, and afterwards as charge +d'affaires, he assisted in furthering the negotiations out of which +Belgium rose into a kingdom. Scarcely had this been accomplished when he +wrote what may be called the first chapter of the history of the newly +created Belgian kingdom. It appeared in 1831 as a brief but luminous +paper in the January number of the _Westminster Review_. And as the +events it recorded had helped to inaugurate its writer's career as a +diplomatist, so did his narrative of those occurrences in the pages of +the Radical quarterly signalize in a remarkable way the commencement of +his long and consistent career as a Liberal politician. Shortly before +his appearance as a reviewer, and immediately prior to the carrying of +the first Reform Bill, Bulwer had won a seat in the House of Commons as +member for Wilton, afterwards in 1831 and 1832 sitting there as M.P. for +Coventry. Nearly two years having elapsed, during which he was absent +from parliament, he was in 1834 returned to Westminster as member for +Marylebone. That position he retained during four sessions, winning +considerable distinction as a debater. Within the very year in which he +was chosen by the Marylebone electors, he brought out in two volumes, +entitled _France--Literary, Social and Political_, the first half of a +work which was only completed upon the publication, two years +afterwards, of a second series, also in two volumes, under the title of +_The Monarchy of the Middle Classes_. Through its pages he made good his +claim to be regarded not merely as a keen-witted observer, but as one of +the most sagacious and genial delineators of the generic Frenchman, +above all of that supreme type of the race, with whom all through his +life he especially delighted to hold familiar intercourse, the true +Parisian. Between the issuing from the press of these two series, Henry +Bulwer had prefixed an intensely sympathetic _Life of Lord Byron_ to the +Paris edition of the poet's works published by Galignani,--a memoir +republished sixteen years afterwards. A political argument of a +curiously daring and outspoken character, entitled _The Lords, the +Government, and the Country_, was given to the public in 1836 by Bulwer, +in the form of an elaborate letter to a constituent. At this point his +literary labours, which throughout life were with him purely labours +by-the-way, ceased for a time, and he disappeared during three decades +from authorship and from the legislature. + +During the period of his holding the position of charge d'affaires at +Brussels, Bulwer had seized every opportunity of making lengthened +sojourns at Paris, always for him the choicest place of residence. It +was in the midst of one of these _dolce far niente_ loiterings on the +boulevards that, on the 14th of August 1837, he received his nomination +as secretary of embassy at Constantinople. Recognizing his exceptional +ability Lord Ponsonby, the British ambassador at Constantinople, at once +entrusted to him the difficult task of negotiating a commercial treaty, +which had the double object of removing the intolerable conditions which +hampered British trade with Turkey and of dealing a blow at the +threatening power of Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, by shattering the +system of monopolies on which it was largely based. In this difficult +task Bulwer was helped by the hatred of Sultan Mahmed II. for Mehemet +Ali, but the treaty was none the less a remarkable proof of his +diplomatic skill, and the compliment was well deserved when Palmerston, +in writing his congratulations to him from Windsor Castle, on the 13th +of September 1838, pronounced the treaty a _capo d'opera_, adding that +without reserve it would be at once ratified. Shortly after this +achievement Bulwer was nominated secretary of embassy at St Petersburg. +Illness, however, compelled him to delay his northern journey--almost +opportunely, as it happened, for in June 1839 he was despatched, in the +same capacity, to the more congenial atmosphere of Paris. At that +juncture the developments of the feud between Mehemet Ali and the Porte +were threatening to bring England and France into armed collision (see +MEHEMET ALI). In 1839 and 1840, during the temporary absence of his +chief, Lord Granville, the secretary of embassy was gazetted _ad +interim_ charge d'affaires at the court of France, and thus during this +critical time he had fresh opportunities of winning distinction as a +diplomatist. + +On the 14th of November 1843 he was appointed ambassador at the court of +the young Spanish queen Isabella II. Upon his arrival at Madrid signal +evidence was afforded of the estimation in which he was then held as a +diplomatist. He was chosen arbitrator between Spain and Morocco, then +confronting each other in deadly hostility, and, as the result of his +mediation, a treaty of peace was signed between the two powers in 1844. +In 1846 a much more formidable difficulty arose,--one which, after +threatening war between France and England, led at last to a diplomatic +rupture between the British and Spanish governments. The dynastic +intrigues of Louis Philippe were the immediate cause of this +estrangement, and those intrigues found their climax in what has ever +since been known in European annals as the Spanish Marriages. The storm +sown in the Spanish marriages was reaped in the whirlwind of the +February revolution. And the explosion which took place at Paris was +answered a month afterwards at Madrid by a similar outbreak. Marshal +Narvaez thereupon assumed the dictatorship, and wreaked upon the +insurgents a series of reprisals of the most pitiless character. These +excessive severities of the marshal-dictator the British ambassador did +his utmost to mitigate. When at last, however, Narvaez carried his +rigour to the length of summarily suppressing the constitutional +guarantees, Bulwer sent in a formal protest in the name of England +against an act so entirely ruthless and unjustifiable. This courageous +proceeding at once drew down upon the British envoy a counter-stroke as +ill-judged as it was unprecedented. Narvaez, with matchless effrontery, +denounced the ambassador from England as an accomplice in the +conspiracies of the Progressistas; and despite his position as an envoy, +and in insolent defiance of the Palmerstonian boast, _Civis +Britannicus_, Bulwer, on the 12th of June, was summarily required to +quit Madrid within twenty-four hours. Two days afterwards M. Isturitz, +the Spanish ambassador at the court of St James's, took his departure +from London. Diplomatic relations were not restored between the two +countries until years had elapsed, nor even then until after a formal +apology, dictated by Lord Palmerston, had been signed by the prime +minister of Queen Isabella. Before his return the ambassador was +gazetted a K.C.B., being promoted to the grand cross some three years +afterwards. In addition to this mark of honour he received the formal +approbation of the ministry, and with it the thanks of both Houses of +Parliament. + +Before the year of his return from the peninsula had run out Sir Henry +Bulwer was married to the Hon. Georgiana Charlotte Mary Wellesley, +youngest daughter of the 1st Baron Cowley, and niece to the duke of +Wellington. Early in the following year, on the 27th of April 1849, he +was nominated ambassador at Washington. There he acquired immense +popularity. His principal success was the compact known as the +Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (q.v.), ratified in May 1850, pledging the +contracting governments to respect the neutrality of the meditated ship +canal through Central America, bringing the waters of the Atlantic and +Pacific into direct communication. After having been accredited as +ambassador to the United States for three years, Sir Henry Bulwer, early +in 1852, was despatched as minister plenipotentiary at the court of the +grand duke of Tuscany at Florence. Shortly after his retirement from +that post in the January of 1855, he was entrusted with various +diplomatic missions, in one of which he was empowered as commissioner +under the 23rd article of the treaty of Paris, 1856, to investigate the +state of things in the Danubian principalities, with a view to their +definite reorganization. Finally he was installed, from May 1858 to +August 1865, as the immediate successor, after the close of the Crimean +war, of the "Great Elchi," Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe, as +ambassador extraordinary to the Ottoman Porte at Constantinople. + +In the winter of 1865 Bulwer returned home from the Bosporus, and +retired with a pension. He was elected member for Tamworth on the 17th +of November 1868, and retained his seat until gazetted as a peer of the +realm on the 21st of March 1871, under the title of Baron Dalling and +Bulwer of Wood Dalling in the county of Norfolk. Upon the eve of his +return to his old haunts as a debater and a politician he had asserted +his claim to literary distinction by giving to the world in two volumes +his four masterly sketches of typical men, entitled _Historical +Characters_. This work, dedicated to his brother Edward, in testimony of +the writer's fraternal affection and friendship, portrayed in luminous +outline Talleyrand the Politic Man, Cobbett the Contentious Man, Canning +the Brilliant Man, and Mackintosh the Man of Promise. Two other kindred +sketches, those of Sir Robert Peel and Viscount Melbourne, having been +selected from among their author's papers, were afterwards published +posthumously. Another work of ampler outline and larger pretension was +begun and partially issued from the press during Lord Dalling's +lifetime, but not completed. This was the _Life of Viscount Palmerston_, +the first two volumes of which were published in 1870. A third volume +appeared four years afterwards. Even then it left the story of the +English statesman broken off so abruptly that the work remained at the +last the merest fragment. It was completed by Evelyn Ashley. + +Lord Dalling died unexpectedly on the 23rd of May 1872 at Naples. He had +no issue, and the title became extinct. In his public career he enjoyed +a three-fold success--as ambassador, as politician and as man of +letters. His popularity in society was at all times remarkable, mainly +no doubt from his mastery of all the subtler arts of a skilled +conversationalist. The apparent languor with which he related an +anecdote, flung off a _bon mot_, or indulged in a momentary stroke of +irony imparted interest to the narrative, wings to the wit and point to +the sarcasm in a manner peculiarly his own. (C. K.) + + + + +DALLMEYER, JOHN HENRY (1830-1883), Anglo-German optician, was born on +the 6th of September 1830 at Loxten, Westphalia, the son of a landowner. +On leaving school at the age of sixteen he was apprenticed to an +Osnabruck optician, and in 1851 he came to London, where he obtained +work with an optician, W. Hewitt, who shortly afterwards, with his +workmen, entered the employment of Andrew Ross, a lens and telescope +manufacturer. Dallmeyer's position in this workshop appears to have been +an unpleasant one, and led him to take, for a time, employment as French +and German correspondent for a commercial firm. After a year he was, +however, re-engaged by Ross as scientific adviser, and was entrusted +with the testing and finishing of the highest class of optical +apparatus. This appointment led to his marriage with Ross's second +daughter, Hannah, and to the inheritance, at Ross's death (1859), of a +third of his employer's large fortune and the telescope manufacturing +portion of the business. Turning from astronomical work to the making of +photographic lenses (see PHOTOGRAPHY), he introduced improvements in +both portrait and landscape lenses, in object-glasses for the microscope +and in condensers for the optical lantern. In connexion with celestial +photography he constructed photo-heliographs for the Wilna observatory +in 1863, for the Harvard College observatory in 1864, and, in 1873, +several for the British government. Dallmeyer's instruments achieved a +wide success in Europe and America, taking the highest awards at various +international exhibitions. The Russian government gave him the order of +St Stanislaus, and the French government made him chevalier of the +Legion of Honour. He was for many years upon the councils of both the +Royal Astronomical and Royal Photographic societies. About 1880 he was +advised to give up the personal supervision of his workshops, and to +travel for his health, but he died on board ship, off the coast of New +Zealand, on the 30th of December 1883. + +His second son, THOMAS RUDOLPHUS DALLMEYER (1859-1906), who assumed +control of the business on the failure of his father's health, was +principally known as the first to introduce telephotographic lenses into +ordinary practice (patented 1891), and he was the author of a standard +book on the subject (_Telephotography_, 1899). He served as president of +the Royal Photographic Society in 1900-1903. + + + + +DALL' ONGARO, FRANCESCO (1808-1873), Italian writer, born in Friuli, was +educated for the priesthood, but abandoned his orders, and taking to +political journalism founded the _Favilla_ at Trieste in the Liberal +interest. In 1848 he enlisted under Garibaldi, and next year was a +member of the assembly which proclaimed the republic in Rome, being +given by Mazzini the direction of the _Monitor officiale_. On the +downfall of the republic he fled to Switzerland, then to Belgium and +later to France, taking a prominent part in revolutionary journalism; it +was not till 1860 that he returned to Italy, where he was appointed +professor of dramatic literature at Florence. Subsequently he was +transferred to Naples, where he died on the 10th of January 1873. His +patriotic poems, _Stornelli_, composed in early life, had a great +popular success; and he produced a number of plays, notably +_Fornaretto_, _Bianca Capello_, _Fasma_ and _Il Tesoro_. His collected +_Fantasie drammatiche e liriche_ were published in his lifetime. + + + + +DALMATIA (Ger. _Dalmatien_; Ital. _Dalmazia_; Serbo-Croatian, +_Dalmacija_), a kingdom and crownland of the Austro-Hungarian empire, in +the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula, and on the Adriatic Sea. +Dalmatia is bounded, on the landward side, by Croatia and Bosnia, in the +N. and N.E.; and by Herzegovina and Montenegro, in the S.E. and S. Its +area amounts to 4923 sq. m.; its greatest length, from north-west to +south-east, is 210 m.; its breadth reaches 35 m. between Point Planca +and the Bosnian frontier, diminishing to less than 1 m. at Cattaro. Near +the ports of Klek and Castelnuovo the Herzegovinian frontier comes down +to the sea,[1] but only for a total distance of 14(1/2) m. + +_Physical Features._--No part of the Mediterranean shore, except the +coast of Greece, is so deeply indented as the Dalmatian littoral, with +its multitude of rock-bound bays and inlets. It is sheltered from the +open sea by a rampart of islands which vary greatly in size; a few being +large enough to support several thousand inhabitants, while others are +mere reefs, swept bare by the sea, or tenanted only by rabbits and +seabirds. This Dalmatian archipelago, separated from the Istrian by the +Gulf of Quarnerolo, forms two island groups, the northern or Liburnian, +and the southern; with open water intervening, off Point Planca. In calm +weather the channels between the islands and the mainland resemble a +chain of landlocked lakes, brilliantly clear to a depth of several +fathoms. As a rule, the surrounding hills are rugged, bleached almost +white or pale russet, and destitute of verdure; but their monotony is +relieved by the half-ruined castles and monasteries clinging to the +rocks, or by the beauty of such cities as Ragusa, or Arbe, with its +fantastic row of steeples overlooking the beach. The principal islands, +Arbe, Brazza, Curzola, Lacroma, Lesina, Lissa and Meleda, are described +under separate headings. The promontory of Sabbioncello, or Punta di +Stagno, which juts out for 41 m. into the sea, between Curzola and +Lesina, is almost another island; for its breadth, which nowhere exceeds +5 m., dwindles to about 1 m. at the narrow isthmus which unites it with +the shore. There are two small ports on this isthmus--on the south, +Stagno Grande (Serbo-Croatian, _Ston Veliki_), once celebrated for its +salt and shipbuilding industries, and, on the north, Stagno Piccolo +(_Ston Mali_). Dalmatia possesses a magnificent anchorage in the Bocche +di Cattaro, and there are numerous lesser havens, at Sebenico, Trau, +Zara and elsewhere along the coast and among the islands. + +The country is almost everywhere hilly or mountainous. On the Croatian +border rises the lofty barrier of the Velebit, which culminates in Sveto +Brdo (5751 ft.), and Vakanski Vrh (5768 ft.). The Dinaric Alps form the +frontier between Dalmatia and Bosnia; Dinara (6007 ft.), which gives its +name to the whole chain, and Troglav (6276 ft.), being the highest +Dalmatian summits. North-west of Sinj rise the Svilaja and Mosec +Planinas; the ridges of Mosor and Biokovo, with Sveto Juraj (5781 ft.), +follow the windings of the coast from Spalato to Macarsca; Orjen marks +the meeting-place of the Herzegovinian, Montenegrin and Dalmatian +frontiers, and the Sutorman range appears in the extreme south. The +barren dry limestone of the Dalmatian highlands has been aptly compared +with a petrified sponge; for it is honeycombed with underground caverns +and water-courses, into which the rainfall is at once filtered. Thus +arises a complete system of subterranean rivers, with waterfalls, lakes +and regular seasons of flood. Even the few surface rivers vanish and +emerge again at intervals. The Trebinjcica, for instance, disappearing +in Herzegovina, supplies both the broad and swift estuary of Ombla, near +Ragusa, and the fresh-water spring of Doli, which issues from the bottom +of the sea. Apart from the Ombla, and the Narenta (Serbo-Croatian, +_Neretva_; Roman, _Naro_), which creates a broad marshy delta between +Metkovic and the sea, Dalmatia has only three rivers more than 25 m. +long; the Zermagna (_Zrmanja_, _Tedanium_), Kerka, (_Krka_, _Titius_), +and Cetina (_Cetina_; _Narona_ or _Tilurus_). The Zermagna skirts the +southern foothills of the Velebit and falls into the harbour of +Novigrad. Better known is the Kerka, which rises in the Dinaric Alps and +flows south-westward to the Adriatic. Near Scardona (_Skradin_) it +spreads into a broad lake, and forms several fine waterfalls, after +receiving its tributary the Cikola (_Cikola_), from the east. South of +Spalato, the Cetina, which also springs from the Dinaric Alps, descends +to the sea at Almissa (_Omis_), after passing between the Mosor and +Biokovo ranges. There are a few small lakes near Zara, Zaravecchia and +the Narenta estuary; while the fertile, but unhealthy, hollows among the +mountains fill with water after heavy rain, and sometimes cause +disastrous floods. But most parts of the country suffer from drought. + +For an account of the chief geological formations see BALKAN PENINSULA. +Small quantities of iron, lignite, asphalt and bay salt are the only +minerals of commercial importance. + +The climate is warm and healthy, the mean temperature at Zara being 57 +deg. F., at Lesina 62 deg., and at Ragusa 63 deg. The prevailing wind is +the sirocco, or S.E.; but the terrible Bora, or N.N.E., may blow at any +season of the year. The average annual rainfall is about 28 in., but a +dry and a wet year usually alternate. + +_Fauna._--Bears, badgers and wild cats, with a larger number of wolves +and foxes, find shelter in the Dinaric Alps and on the heights of +Svilaja, Mosor and Biokovo; while jackals exist on Curzola and +Sabbioncello, almost their last refuges in Europe. Roedeer are uncommon, +and the wild boar, chamois, red-deer and beaver are extinct; but hares +and rabbits abound. The game-laws are not strict, and are often evaded +by the Morlachs; but moderate sport may be obtained in the fens formed +by the Cetina about Sinj, and the lagoons of the Narenta estuary; both +regions being frequented by wild swans, geese, duck, snipe and other +aquatic birds. Among land-birds, the commonest are quails, woodcock, +partridges, and especially the so-called "stone-fowl" (_Steinhuhn_, +_Perdix Graeca_). Tortoises are numerous; snakes, lizards, scorpions and +innumerable sand-flies infest the dry hillsides; and the limestone +caverns are peopled by sightless bats, reptiles, fish, flies, beetles, +spiders, crustacea and molluscs. + +_Fisheries._--No region of Europe is richer in its marine fauna and +flora. Sponge and coral fisheries afford a valuable source of income to +the peasantry, many of whom also go northward for the sardine and tunny +fisheries of the Istrian coast, while salmon, trout and eels are caught +in the Dalmatian rivers. + +_Flora._--The olive, almond, fig, orange, palm, aloe, myrtle, +locust-tree and other characteristic members of the Mediterranean flora +thrive in the sheltered valleys of the Dalmatian littoral, where +almond-blossoms appear in mid-winter, and the palm occasionally bears +ripe fruit. The _marasca_, or wild cherry, is abundant, and yields the +celebrated liqueur called _maraschino_. But at a little distance from +the rivers and on the more exposed parts of the coast the aspect of the +country changes entirely. Patches of thin grass, heather, juniper, +thyme, tamarisks and mountain roses hardly relieve the bareness and +aridity of the seaward slopes. + +_Forests._--Oaks, pines and beeches still, in a few parts, clothe the +landward slopes, but, as a rule, the forests for which Dalmatia was once +famous were cut down for the Venetian shipyards or burned by pirates; +while every attempt at replanting is frustrated by the shallowness of +the soil, the drought and the multitude of goats that browse on the +young trees. + +_Agriculture._--Little more than one-tenth of the whole surface is under +the plough; the rest, where it is not altogether sterile, being chiefly +mountain pasture, vineyards and garden land. Asses are the favourite +beasts of burden; goats are strikingly numerous; and sheep are kept for +the sake of their mutton, which is almost the only animal food freely +consumed by the peasantry. Cattle-breeding, bee-keeping, and the +cultivation of fruit and vegetables, especially potatoes and beetroot, +are among the principal resources of the people, while wheat, rye, +barley, oats, Indian corn, hemp and millet are also grown. Viticulture +is carried on with great and increasing success (see WINE). + +_Land-tenure._--Individual proprietorship of the soil is rare, for, +despite the decadence of the _zadruga_ or household community, the +tenure of land and the privilege of using the communal domain still +appertain to the family as a whole. There are a few large estates, but +most of the land is parcelled out in small holdings. + +_Industries._--Besides fishing, farming and such allied trades as +shipbuilding, wine and oil pressing, and the distillation of spirits, +notably _maraschino_, a few other industries are practised, such as +tile-burning and the manufacture of soap; but these are of minor +importance. Certain crafts are also carried on by the country-folk, in +their own homes; thus the peasant is sometimes his own mason, carpenter, +weaver and miller. Manufactured goods and foodstuffs are imported, in +return for asphalt, lignite, bay salt, wine, spirits, oil, honey, wax +and hides; and there is a lucrative transit trade with Bosnia and +Herzegovina, Montenegro, Turkey and various Adriatic and Mediterranean +ports. + +_Communications._--Communications are defective, some parts of the +interior being only accessible by the roughest of mountain roads. The +principal railway, in point of size, traverses the central districts, +linking together Knin, Spalato, Sebenico and Sinj; but the southern +lines, which unite Dalmatia with Herzegovina and terminate at Ragusa, +Metkovic and Castlenuovo on the Bocche di Cattaro, are almost of equal +importance, Cattaro being one of the chief outlets for Montenegrin +commerce, while the vessels which steam up the Narenta to Metkovic carry +the bulk of the sea-borne trade of Herzegovina. In 1897 Dalmatia +possessed 151 post and 98 telegraph offices. + +_Chief Towns._--The chief towns are Zara, the capital, with 32,506[2] +inhabitants in 1900, Spalato (27,198), Sebenico (24,751), Trau (17,064), +Ragusa (13,174), Macarsca (11,016), and Cattaro (5418). All these are +described under separate headings. + +_Population and National Characteristics._--With a constant excess of +male over female children, the population increased steadily from 1869 +to 1900, when it reached 591,597. Of this total 1% are foreigners and +about 3% Italians, whose numbers tend slowly to diminish. The Morlachs, +who constitute the remaining 96%, belong to the Serbo-Croatian branch of +the Slavonic race, having absorbed the Latinized Illyrians, Albanians +and other alien elements with which they have been associated. The name +of _Morlachs_, _Morlaks_ or _Morlacks_ commonly bestowed by English +writers on the Dalmatian Slavs, though sometimes restricted to the +peasantry of the hills, is an abbreviated form of _Mavrovlachi_, meaning +either "Black Vlachs," or, less probably, "Sea Vlachs." It was +originally applied to the scattered remnants of the Latin or Latinized +inhabitants of central Illyria, who were driven from their homes by the +barbarian invaders during the 7th century, and took refuge among the +mountains. Throughout the middle ages the Mavrovlachi were usually +nomadic shepherds, cattle-drovers or muleteers. In the 14th century they +emigrated from central Illyria into northern Dalmatia and maritime +Croatia; and these regions were thenceforward known as _Morlacchia_, +until the 18th century. Gradually, however, the Mavrovlachi became +identified with the Slavs, whose language and manners they adopted, and +to whom they gave their own name. In northern Dalmatia the Slavs of the +interior are still called _Morlacchi_; in the south this name expresses +contempt. Of the Vlachs, properly so called, very few are left in the +country; although the name Vlachs (q.v.) is frequently used by the Slavs +to designate the Italians and the town-dwellers generally. The literary +languages of Dalmatia are Italian and Serbo-Croatian; the spoken +language is, in each case, modified by the introduction of various +dialect forms. + +The Morlachs wear a picturesque and brightly-coloured costume, +resembling that of the Serbs (see SERVIA). In appearance they are +sometimes blond, with blue or grey eyes, like the Shumadian peasantry of +Servia; more often, olive-skinned, with dark hair and eyes, like the +Montenegrins, whom they rival in stature, strength and courage; while +their conservative spirit, their devotion to national traditions, poetry +and music, their pride, indolence and superstition, are typically +Servian. Dalmatian public life is deeply affected by the jealousies +which subsist between the Slavs and the Italians, whose influence, +though everywhere waning, remains predominant in some of the towns; and +between Orthodox "Serbs," who use the Cyrillic alphabet, and Roman +Catholic "Croats," who prefer the Latin. + +_Government._--Dalmatia occupies a somewhat anomalous position in the +Austro-Hungarian state system. Itself a crownland of Austria, returning +eleven members to the Austrian parliament, it is severed geographically +from the other Austrian lands by the Hungarian kingdom of Croatia. +Ethnologically it is one with Croatia, and it is included in the +official title of the Croatian king, i.e. the emperor. The political +system is based on a law of the 26th of February 1861. The provincial +diet is composed of 43 members, comprising the Roman Catholic +archbishop, the Orthodox bishop of Zara and representatives of the chief +taxpayers, the towns and the communes. Benkovac, on the main road from +Zara to Spalato, Cattaro, Curzola, Imotski, 21 m. N. by E. of Macarsca, +Knin, Lesina, Macarsca, Ragusa, Sebenico, Sinj, Spalato and Zara, give +names to the twelve administrative districts, of which they are the +capitals. + +_Defence._--Conscription is in force, as elsewhere in Austria, and the +Dalmatian coast furnishes the Austrian--as formerly the Venetian--navy +with many of its best recruits. + +_Religion._--Roman Catholicism is the religion of more than 80% of the +population, the remainder belonging chiefly to the Orthodox Church. The +Roman Catholic archbishop has his seat in Zara, while Cattaro, Lesina, +Ragusa, Sebenico and Spalato are bishoprics. At the head of the Orthodox +community stands the bishop of Zara. + +The use of Slavonic liturgies written in the Glagolitic alphabet, a very +ancient privilege of the Roman Catholics in Dalmatia and Croatia, caused +much controversy during the first years of the 20th century. There was +considerable danger that the Latin liturgies would be altogether +superseded by the Glagolitic, especially among the northern islands and +in rural communes, where the Slavonic element is all-powerful. In 1904 +the Vatican forbade the use of Glagolitic at the festival of SS. Cyril +and Methodius, as likely to impair the unity of Catholicism. A few +years previously the Slavonic archbishop Rajcevic of Zara, in discussing +the "Glagolitic controversy," had denounced the movement as "an +innovation introduced by Panslavism to make it easy for the Catholic +clergy, after any great revolution in the Balkan States, to break with +Latin Rome." This view is shared by very many, perhaps by the majority, +of the Roman Catholics in Dalmatia. + +_Education._--Education progressed slowly between 1860 and 1900, +attendance at school being often a hardship in the poor and widely +scattered hamlets of the interior. In 1890 more than 80% of the +population could neither read nor write, although schools are maintained +by every commune. In 1893 the country possessed 5 intermediate and 337 +elementary schools, 6 theological seminaries, 6 gymnasia, and about 40 +continuation and technical schools. + +_Antiquities._--To the foreign visitor Dalmatia is chiefly interesting +as a treasury of art and antiquities. The grave-mounds of Curzola, +Lesina and Sabbioncello have yielded a few relics of prehistoric man, +and the memory of the early Celtic conquerors and Greek settlers is +preserved only in a few place-names; but the monuments left by the +Romans are numerous and precious. They are chiefly confined to the +cities; for the civilization of the country was always urban, just as +its history is a record of isolated city-states rather than of a united +nation. Beyond the walls of its larger towns, little was spared by the +barbarian Goths, Avars and Slavs; and the battered fragments of Roman +work which mark the sites of Salona, near Spalato, and of many other +ancient cities, are of slight antiquarian interest and slighter artistic +value. Among the monuments of the Roman period, by far the most +noteworthy in Dalmatia, and, indeed, in the whole Balkan Peninsula, is +the Palace of Diocletian at Spalato (q.v.). Dalmatian architecture was +Byzantine in its general character from the 6th century until the close +of the 10th. The oldest memorials of this period are the vestiges of +three basilicas, excavated in Salona, and dating from the first half of +the 7th century at latest. Byzantine art, in the latter half of this +period and the two succeeding centuries, continued to flourish in those +cities which, like Zara, gave their allegiance to Venice; just as, in +the architecture of Trau and other cities dominated by Hungary, there +are distinct traces of German influence. The belfry of S. Maria, at +Zara, erected in 1105, is first in a long list of Romanesque buildings. +At Arbe there is a beautiful Romanesque campanile which also belongs to +the 12th century; but the finest example in this style is the cathedral +of Trau. The 14th century Dominican and Franciscan convents in Ragusa +are also noteworthy. Romanesque lingered on in Dalmatia until it was +displaced by Venetian Gothic in the early years of the 15th century. The +influence of Venice was then at its height. Even in the hostile republic +of Ragusa the Romanesque of the custom-house and Rectors' palace is +combined with Venetian Gothic, while the graceful balconies and ogee +windows of the Prijeki closely follow their Venetian models. Gothic, +however, which had been adopted very late, was abandoned very early; for +in 1441 Giorgio Orsini of Zara, summoned from Venice to design the +cathedral of Sebenico, brought with him the influence of the Italian +Renaissance. The new forms which he introduced were eagerly imitated and +developed by other architects, until the period of decadence--which +virtually concludes the history of Dalmatian art--set in during the +latter half of the 17th century. Special mention must be made of the +carved woodwork, embroideries and plate preserved in many churches. The +silver statuette and the reliquary of St Biagio at Ragusa, and the +silver ark of St Simeon at Zara, are fine specimens of Byzantine and +Italian jewellers' work, ranging in date from the 11th or 12th to the +17th century. + + +HISTORY + +_Dalmatia under Roman Rule_, A.D. 9-1102.--The history of Dalmatia may +be said to begin with the year 180 B.C., when the tribe from which the +country derives its name declared itself independent of Gentius, the +Illyrian king, and established a republic. Its capital was +Delminium[3]; its territory stretched northwards from the Narenta to the +Cetina, and later to the Kerka, where it met the confines of Liburnia. +In 156 B.C. the Dalmatians were for the first time attacked by a Roman +army and compelled to pay tribute; but only in the time of Augustus (31 +B.C.-A.D. 14) was their land finally annexed, after the last of many +formidable revolts had been crushed by Tiberius in A.D. 9. This event +was followed by total submission and a ready acceptance of the Latin +civilization which overspread Illyria (q.v.). The downfall of the +Western Empire left this region subject to Gothic rulers, Odoacer and +Theodoric, from 476 to 535, when it was added by Justinian to the +Eastern Empire. The great Slavonic migration into Illyria, which wrought +a complete change in the fortunes of Dalmatia, took place in the first +half of the 7th century. In other parts of the Balkan Peninsula these +invaders--Serbs, Croats or Bulgars--found little difficulty in expelling +or absorbing the native population. But here they were baffled when +confronted by the powerful maritime city-states, highly civilized, and +able to rely on the moral if not the material support of their kinsfolk +in Italy. Consequently, while the country districts were settled by the +Slavs, the Latin or Italian population flocked for safety to Ragusa, +Zara and other large towns, and the whole country was thus divided +between two frequently hostile communities. This opposition was +intensified by the schism between Eastern and Western Christianity +(1054), the Slavs as a rule preferring the Orthodox or sometimes the +Bogomil creed, while the Italians were firmly attached to the Papacy. +Not until the 15th century did the rival races contribute to a common +civilization in the literature of Ragusa. To such a division of +population may be attributed the two dominant characteristics of local +history--the total absence of national as distinguished from civic life, +and the remarkable development of art, science and literature. Bosnia, +Servia and Bulgaria had each its period of national greatness, but +remained intellectually backward; Dalmatia failed ever to attain +political or racial unity, but the Dalmatian city-states, isolated and +compelled to look to Italy for support, shared perforce in the march of +Italian civilization. Their geographical position suffices to explain +the relatively small influence exercised by Byzantine culture throughout +the six centuries (535-1102) during which Dalmatia was part of the +Eastern empire. Towards the close of this period Byzantine rule tended +more and more to become merely nominal. In 806 Dalmatia was added to the +Holy Roman empire, but was soon restored; in 829 the coast was ravaged +by Saracens. A strange republic of Servian pirates arose at the mouth of +the Narenta. In the 10th century description of Dalmatia by Constantine +Porphyrogenitus (_De Administrando Imperio_, 29-37), this region is +called _Pagania_, from the fact that its inhabitants had only accepted +Christianity about 890, or 250 years later than the other Slavs. These +_Pagani_, or _Arentani_ (Narentines), utterly defeated a Venetian fleet +despatched against them in 887, and for more than a century exacted +tribute from Venice itself. In 998 they were finally crushed by the doge +Pietro Orseolo II., who assumed the title duke of Dalmatia, though +without prejudice to Byzantine suzerainty. Meanwhile the Croatian kings +had extended their rule over northern and central Dalmatia, exacting +tribute from the Italian cities, Trau, Zara and others, and +consolidating their own power in the purely Slavonic towns, such as Nona +or Belgrad (Zaravecchia). The Church was involved in the general +confusion; for the synod of Spalato, in 1059, had forbidden the use of +any but Greek or Latin liturgies, and so had accentuated the differences +between Latin and Slav. A raid of Norman corsairs in 1073 was hardly +defeated with the help of a Venetian fleet. + +_Rivalry of Venice and Hungary in Dalmatia_, 1102-1420.--Unable amid +such dissensions to stand alone, unprotected by the Eastern empire and +hindered by their internal dissensions from uniting in a defensive +league, the city-states turned to Venice and Hungary for support. The +Venetians, to whom they were already bound by race, language and +culture, could afford to concede liberal terms because their own +principal aims was not the territorial aggrandizement sought by Hungary, +but only such a supremacy as might prevent the development of any +dangerous political or commercial competitor on the eastern Adriatic. +Hungary had also its partisans; for in the Dalmatian city-states, like +those of Greece and Italy, there were almost invariably two jealous +political factions, each ready to oppose any measure advocated by its +antagonist. The origin of this division seems here to have been +economic. The farmers and the merchants who traded in the interior +naturally favoured Hungary, their most powerful neighbour on land; while +the seafaring community looked to Venice as mistress of the Adriatic. In +return for protection, the cities often furnished a contingent to the +army or navy of their suzerain, and sometimes paid tribute either in +money or in kind. Arbe, for example, annually paid ten pounds of silk or +five pounds of gold to Venice. The citizens clung to their municipal +privileges, which were reaffirmed after the conquest of Dalmatia in +1102-1105 by Coloman of Hungary. Subject to the royal assent they might +elect their own chief magistrate, bishop and judges. Their Roman law +remained valid. They were even permitted to conclude separate alliances. +No alien, not even a Hungarian, could reside in a city where he was +unwelcome; and the man who disliked Hungarian dominion could emigrate +with all his household and property. In lieu of tribute, the revenue +from customs was in some cases shared equally by the king, chief +magistrate, bishop and municipality. These rights and the analogous +privileges granted by Venice were, however, too frequently infringed, +Hungarian garrisons being quartered on unwilling towns, while Venice +interfered with trade, with the appointment of bishops, or with the +tenure of communal domains. Consequently the Dalmatians remained loyal +only while it suited their interests, and insurrections frequently +occurred. Even in Zara four outbreaks are recorded between 1180 and +1345, although Zara was treated with special consideration by its +Venetian masters, who regarded its possession as essential to their +maritime ascendancy. The doubtful allegiance of the Dalmatians tended to +protract the struggle between Venice and Hungary, which was further +complicated by internal discord due largely to the spread of the Bogomil +heresy; and by many outside influences, such as the vague suzerainty +still enjoyed by the Eastern emperors during the 12th century; the +assistance rendered to Venice by the armies of the Fourth Crusade in +1202; and the Tartar invasion of Dalmatia forty years later (see Trau). +The Slavs were no longer regarded as a hostile race, but the power of +certain Croatian magnates, notably the counts of Bribir, was from time +to time supreme in the northern districts (see CROATIA-SLAVONIA); and +Stephen Tvrtko, the founder of the Bosnian kingdom, was able in 1389 to +annex the whole Adriatic littoral between Cattaro and Fiume, except +Venetian Zara and his own independent ally, Ragusa (see BOSNIA AND +HERZEGOVINA). Finally, the rapid decline of Bosnia, and of Hungary +itself when assailed by the Turks, rendered easy the success of Venice; +and in 1420 the whole of Dalmatia, except Almissa, which yielded in +1444, and Ragusa, which preserved its freedom, either submitted or was +conquered. Many cities welcomed the change with its promise of +tranquillity. + +_Venetian and Turkish Rule_, 1420-1797.--An interval of peace ensued, +but meanwhile the Turkish advance continued. Constantinople fell in +1453, Servia in 1459, Bosnia in 1463 and Herzegovina in 1483. Thus the +Venetian and Ottoman frontiers met; border wars were incessant; Ragusa +sought safety in friendship with the invaders. In 1508 the hostile +league of Cambrai compelled Venice to withdraw its garrison for home +service, and after the overthrow of Hungary at Mohacs in 1526 the Turks +were able easily to conquer the greater part of Dalmatia. The peace of +1540 left only the maritime cities to Venice, the interior forming a +Turkish province, governed from the fortress of Clissa by a _Sanjakbeg_, +or administrator with military powers. Christian Slavs from the +neighbouring lands now thronged to the towns, outnumbering the Italian +population and introducing their own language, but falling under the +influence of the Roman Catholic Church. The pirate community of the +Uskoks (q.v.) had originally been a band of these fugitives; its +exploits contributed to a renewal of war between Venice and Turkey +(1571-1573). An extremely curious picture of contemporary manners is +presented by the Venetian agents,[4] whose reports on this war resemble +some knightly chronicle of the middle ages, full of single combats, +tournaments and other chivalrous adventures. They also show clearly that +the Dalmatian levies far surpassed the Italian mercenaries in skill and +courage. Many of these troops served abroad; at Lepanto, for example, in +1571, a Dalmatian squadron assisted the allied fleets of Spain, Venice, +Austria and the Papal States to crush the Turkish navy. A fresh war +broke out in 1645, lasting intermittently until 1699, when the peace of +Carlowitz gave the whole of Dalmatia to Venice, including the coast of +Herzegovina, but excluding the domains of Ragusa and the protecting band +of Ottoman territory which surrounded them. After further fighting this +delimitation was confirmed in 1718 by the treaty of Passarowitz; and it +remains valid, though modified by the destruction of Ragusan liberty and +the substitution of Austria-Hungary for Venice and Turkey. + +The intellectual life of Dalmatia during the 15th, 16th and 17th +centuries reached a higher level than any attained by the purely +Slavonic peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. Its chief monuments are +described elsewhere,--the work of the Ragusan poets and historians as a +part of Servian literature, the scientific achievements of R. G. +Boscovich and Marcantonio de Dominis in separate biographies. +Architecture and art generally have been discussed above. But this +intellectual development was the work of a small and opulent minority in +all the cities except Ragusa. Popular education was neglected; Zara had +no printing-press until 1796; Venetian Dalmatia possessed only one +public school, and that an ecclesiastical seminary; and even the sons of +the rich, though free to visit the universities of Italy, France, +Holland and England, ran the risk of exile or worse punishment if they +brought home too liberal a culture. Poorer students learned what they +could from the clergy, and the peasantry were wholly illiterate. +Although the secular power of the Church was strictly limited, the +country was overrun by ecclesiastics. When Fortis visited the island of +Arbe in the 18th century, he found a population of 3000, mostly +fishermen, contributing to the stipends of sixty priests. There were +also three monasteries and three nunneries. Heavy taxes, the salt +monopoly, reckless destruction of timber, and a deliberate attempt to +ruin the oil and silk industries, were among the means by which Venice +prevented competition with its own trade. Although justice was fairly +well administered and some show of municipal autonomy conceded, the +right of electing a chief magistrate had been withheld after 1420; and +the Grand Council or Senate of each city, losing its original democratic +character, had degenerated into a mere tool of the resident Venetian +agents (_provveditori_), officials who held their post for thirty-two +months and were subject to little effective control. Nevertheless, 150 +years of war against the common Turkish enemy had drawn the Venetians +and their subjects closely together, and the loyalty of the Dalmatian +soldiers and sailors abroad, if not of their fellow-citizens at home, +rests beyond doubt. + +_Dalmatia after 1797._--After the fall of the Venetian republic in 1797, +the treaty of Campo Formio gave Dalmatia to Austria. The republics of +Ragusa and Poglizza retained their independence, and Ragusa grew rich by +its neutrality during the earlier Napoleonic wars. By the peace of +Pressburg in 1805 the country was handed over to France, but its +occupation was ineffectually contested by a Russian force which seized +the Bocche di Cattaro and induced the Montenegrins to render aid. +Poglizza was deprived of its independence by Napoleon in 1807, Ragusa +in 1808. In 1809 the French troops were withdrawn, but in the same year +Dalmatia was restored to France and united to the Illyrian kingdom by +the treaty of Vienna. A British naval force under Captain Hoste, after a +successful engagement with a small French squadron off Lissa, occupied +the islands of Curzola, Lesina and Lagosta from 1812 to 1815, and +established a considerable overland trade through Dalmatia, Austria and +Germany. The allied British and Austrian forces drove out the last +French garrison in 1814, and in 1815 Dalmatia was finally incorporated +in the Austro-Hungarian empire, with which its history has since been +identified. Its subsequent tranquillity has only been disturbed by the +ineffectual risings of 1869 and 1881-1882, which took place near Cattaro +(q.v.). For an account of the development of Croatian nationalism among +the Dalmatians, during the 19th and 20th centuries, see +CROATIA-SLAVONIA. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A minute and accurate account of Dalmatian history, art + (especially architecture), antiquities and topography, is given by T. + G. Jackson, in _Dalmatia, the Quarnero and Istria_ (Oxford, 1887), (3 + vols. illustrated). E. A. Freeman, _Subject and Neighbour Lands of + Venice_ (London, 1881), and G. Modrich, _La Dalmazia_ (Turin, 1892), + describe the chief towns, their history and antiquities. Much + miscellaneous information is contained in the following mainly + topographical works:--P. Bauron, _Les Rives illyriennes_ (Paris, + 1888); Sir A. A. Paton, _Highlands and Islands of the Adriatic_ + (London, 1849); Sir J. G. Wilkinson, _Dalmatia and Montenegro_ + (London, 1840); A. Fortis, _Travels into Dalmatia_ (London, 1778); and + the periodicals, _Rivista Dalmatica_ (Zara, 1899, &c.), and _Annuario + Dalmatico_ (Zara, 1884, &c.). The best maps are those of the Austrian + General Staff and Vincenzo de Haardt's _Zemljovid Kraljevine + Dalmacije_ (Zara, 1892). See also for trade, the Annual British + Consular Reports; for sport, "Snaffle," _In the Land of the Bora_ + (London, 1897); for Roman and pre-Roman antiquities, R. Munro, + _Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia_ (Edinburgh, 1904). Besides the works + mentioned above, and those by Farlatus, Makushev, Miklosich, Theiner, + Shafarik, Orbini and du Cange, which are quoted under BOSNIA AND + HERZEGOVINA, the chief authority for Dalmatian history is G. Lucio + (Lucius of Trau), _De regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae, a gentis origine ad + annum 1480_ (Amsterdam, 1666). To this edition are appended the works + of the Presbyter Diocleas, Thomas of Spalato and other native + chroniclers from the 12th century onwards. An Italian translation, + omitting the appendix, was published at Trieste in 1892, entitled + _Storia del Regno di Dalmatia e di Croazia_, and edited by Luigi + Cesare. Lucio's work is singularly trustworthy and scientific. See + also P. Pisani, _La Dalmatie de 1797 a 1815_ (Paris, 1893). + (K. G. J.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] This arrangement is based on the terms of the peace of Carlowitz + 1699 (articles IX. and XI. of the Turco-Venetian Treaty). It is due + to the commercial and maritime rivalry between Venice and Ragusa. The + Ragusans bribed the Turkish envoys at Carlowitz to stipulate for a + double extension of the Ottoman dominions down to the Adriatic; and + thus the Ragusan lands, which otherwise would have bordered upon the + Dalmatian possessions of Venice, were surrounded by neutral + territory. + + [2] These figures, taken from the Austrian official returns, include + the population of the entire commune, not merely the urban residents. + Only in Zara, Spalato, Sebenico and Ragusa, do the actual townsfolk + number more than 1000. + + [3] Also written _Dalminium_, _Deminium_, and _Delmis_. Thomas of + Spalato (c. 1200-1250) mentions that the site of Delminium had been + forgotten in his time, although certain ancient walls among the + mountains were believed to be its ruins. It has been variously + identified, by modern archaeologists, with Almissa, on the coast, + Dalen, in the Herzegovina, Duvno, near Sinj, and Gardun, in the same + locality. It was evidently a stronghold of considerable size and + importance, and Appian (_De bellis Illyricis_) alludes to its almost + impregnable fortifications. + + [4] Long extracts from these reports or diaries are published by + Wilkinson, _Dalmatia and Montenegro_ (London, 1840), ii. 297-350. + + + + +DALMATIC (Lat. _dalmatica_, _tunica dalmatica_), a liturgical vestment +of the Western Church, proper to deacons, as the tunicle (_tunicella_) +is to subdeacons. Dalmatic and tunicle are now, however, practically +identical in shape and size; though, strictly, the latter should be +somewhat smaller and with narrower arms. In most countries, e.g. +England, France, Spain and Germany, dalmatic and tunicle are now no +longer tunics, but scapular-like cloaks, with an opening for the head to +pass through and square lappets falling from the shoulder over the upper +part of the arm; in Italy, on the other hand, though open up the side, +they still have regular sleeves and are essentially tunics. The most +characteristic ornament of the dalmatic and tunicle is the vertical +stripes running from the shoulder to the lower hem, these being +connected by a cross-band, the position of which differs in various +countries (see figs. 3, 4). Less essential are the orphreys on the hem +of the arms and the fringes along the slits at the sides and the lower +hem. The tassels hanging from either shoulder at the back (see fig. 6), +formerly very much favoured, have now largely gone out of use. + +The _dalmatica_, which originated--as its name implies--in Dalmatia, +came into fashion in the Roman world in the 2nd century A.D. It was a +loose tunic with very wide sleeves, and was worn over the _tunica alba_ +by the better class of citizens (see. fig. 2). According to the _Liber +pontificalis_ (ed. Duchesne, l. 171) the dalmatic was first introduced +as a vestment in public worship by Pope Silvester I. (314-335), who +ordered it to be worn by the deacons; but Braun (_Liturg. Gewandung_, p. +250) thinks that it was probably in use by the popes themselves so early +as the 3rd century, since St Cyprian (d. 258) is mentioned as wearing it +when he went to his death. If this be so, it was probably given to the +Roman deacons to distinguish them from the other clergy and to mark +their special relations to the pope. However this may be, the dalmatic +remained for centuries the vestment distinctive of the pope and his +deacons, and--according at least to the view held at Rome--could be worn +by other clergy only by special concession of the pope. Thus Pope +Symmachus (498-514) granted the right to wear it to the deacons of +Bishop Caesarius of Arles; and so late as 757 Pope Stephen II. gave +permission to Fulrad, abbot of St Denis, to be assisted by six deacons +at mass, and these are empowered to wear "the robe of honour of the +dalmatic." How far, however, this rule was strictly observed, and what +was the relation of the Roman dalmatic to the diaconal alba and +subdiaconal tunica, which were in liturgical use in Gaul and Spain so +early as the 6th century, are moot points (see Braun, p. 252). The +dalmatic was in general use at the beginning of the 9th century, partly +as a result of the Carolingian reforms, which established the Roman +model in western Europe; but it continued to be granted by the popes to +distinguished ecclesiastics not otherwise entitled to wear it, e.g. to +abbots or to the cardinal priests of important cathedrals. So far as the +records show, Pope John XIII. (965-972) was the first to bestow the +right to wear the dalmatic on an abbot, and Pope Benedict VII. the first +to grant it to a cardinal priest of a foreign cathedral (975). The +present rule was firmly established by the 11th century. According to +the actual use of the Roman Catholic Church dalmatic and tunicle are +worn by deacon and subdeacon when assisting at High Mass, and at solemn +processions and benedictions. They are, however, traditionally vestments +symbolical of joy (the bishop in placing the dalmatic on the newly +ordained deacon says:--"May the Lord clothe thee in the tunic of joy and +the garment of rejoicing"), and they are therefore not worn during +seasons of fasting and penitence or functions connected with these, the +folded chasuble (_paenula plicata_) being substituted (see CHASUBLE). +Dalmatic and tunicle are never worn by priests, as priests, but both are +worn by bishops under the chasuble (never under the cope) and also by +those prelates, not being bishops, to whom the pope has conceded the +right to wear the episcopal vestments. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Deacon in dalmatic, apparelled amice and alb.] + +In England at the Reformation the dalmatic ultimately shared the fate of +the chasuble and other mass vestments. It was, however, certainly one of +the "ornaments of the minister" in the second year of Edward VI., the +rubric in the office for Holy Communion directing the priest's "helpers" +to wear "albes with tunacles." In many Anglican churches it has +therefore been restored, as a result of the ritual revival of the 19th +century, it being claimed that its use is obligatory under the +"ornaments rubric" of the Book of Common Prayer (see VESTMENTS). + +In the Eastern churches the only vestment that has any true analogy with +the dalmatic or liturgical upper tunic is the _sakkos_, the tunic worn +by deacons and subdeacons over their everyday clothes being the +equivalent of the Western alb (q.v.). The sakkos, which, as a liturgical +vestment, first appears in the 12th century as peculiar to patriarchs, +is now a scapular-like robe very similar to the modern dalmatic (see +fig. 5). Its origin is almost certainly the richly embroidered dalmatic +that formed part of the consular insignia, which under the name of +sakkos became a robe of state special to the emperors. It is clear, +then, that this vestment can only have been assumed with the emperor's +permission; and Braun suggests (p. 305) that its use was granted to the +patriarchs, after the completion of the schism of East and West, in +order "in some sort to give them the character, in outward appearance as +well, of popes of the East." Its use is confined to the Greek rite. In +the Greek and Greek-Melchite churches it is confined to the +patriarchs and metropolitans; in the Russian, Ruthenian and Bulgarian +churches it is worn by all bishops. Unlike the practice of the Latin +church, it is not worn under, but has replaced the phelonion (chasuble). + +[Illustration: PLATE I. + + FIG. 2.--TUNIC OF LINEN, WOVEN WITH BANDS OF PURPLE WOOL EMBROIDERED + WITH WHITE FLAX. + + From the tombs at Akhmim. Egypto-Roman; 1st to 4th century. (In the + Victoria and Albert Museum.) + + FIG. 3.--BACK OF A DALMATIC OF STAMPED GREEN WOOLLEN VELVET: THE + ORPHREYS AND APPARELS ARE OF EMBROIDERED SILK VELVET. + + The two figures on the cross-band or apparel represent St. Gregory the + Great and St. Augustine. The shields of arms are for the dukes of + Julich and Berg, counts of Ravensberg, and for the electors of + Bavaria. Said to have come from the church of St. Severin, Cologne. + German (Cologne); second half of 15th century. (In the Victoria and + Albert Museum.)] + +[Illustration: PLATE II. + + FIG. 4.--DALMATIC OF WHITE SATIN EMRROIDERED WITH COLOURED SILKS AND + SILVER-GILT AND SILVER THREAD + + Spanish; early 17th century. (In the Victoria and Albert Museum.) + + FIG. 5.--GREEK SAKKOS, OF RED SATIN EMBROIDERED WITH SILVER-GILT AND + SILVER THREAD WITH SILK. + + It has the names and arms of two archbishops. 18th century. (In the + Victoria and Albert Museum.) + + FIG. 6.--DALMATIC OF POPE PIUS V. + + An early example of the modern Roman type. Roman; 16th century. + Preserved at Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome. From a photograph taken by + Father J. Braun (in _Die liturgische Gewandung_), by permission of B. + Herder.] + +A silk dalmatic forms one (the undermost) of the English coronation +robes. Its use would seem to have been borrowed, not from the robes of +the Eastern emperors, but from the church, and to symbolize with the +other robes the quasi-sacerdotal character of the kingship (see +CORONATION). The magnificent so-called dalmatic of Charlemagne, +preserved at Rome (see EMBROIDERY), is really a Greek sakkos. + + See Joseph Braun, S.J., _Die liturgische Gewandung_ (Freiburg im + Breisgau, 1907), pp. 247-305. For further references and illustrations + see the article VESTMENTS. (W. A. P.) + + + + +DALMELLINGTON, a village of Ayrshire, Scotland, 15 m. S.E. of Ayr by a +branch line, of which it is the terminus, of the Glasgow & South-Western +railway. Pop. (1901) 1448. The district is rich in minerals--coal, +ironstone, sandstone and limestone. Though the place is of great +antiquity, the Roman road running near it, few remains of any interest +exist. It was, however, a centre of activity in the Covenanting times. + + + + +DALOU, JULES (1838-1902), French sculptor, was the pupil of Carpeaux and +Duret, and combined the vivacity and richness of the one with the +academic purity and scholarship of the other. He is one of the most +brilliant virtuosos of the French school, admirable alike in taste, +execution and arrangement. He first exhibited at the Salon in 1867, but +when in 1871 the troubles of the Commune broke out in Paris, he took +refuge in England, where he rapidly made a name through his appointment +at South Kensington. Here he laid the foundation of that great +improvement which resulted in the development of the modern British +school of sculpture, and at the same time executed a remarkable series +of terra-cotta statuettes and groups, such as "A French Peasant Woman" +(of which a bronze version under the title of "Maternity" is erected +outside the Royal Exchange), the group of two Boulogne women called "The +Reader" and "A Woman of Boulogne telling her Beads." He returned to +France in 1879 and produced a number of masterpieces. His great relief +of "Mirabeau replying to M. de Dreux-Breze," exhibited in 1883 and now +at the Palais Bourbon, and the highly decorative panel, "Triumph of the +Republic," were followed in 1885 by "The Procession of Silenus." For the +city of Paris he executed his most elaborate and splendid achievement, +the vast monument, "The Triumph of the Republic," erected, after twenty +years' work, in the Place de la Nation, showing a symbolical figure of +the Republic, aloft on her car, drawn by lions led by Liberty, attended +by Labour and Justice, and followed by Peace. It is somewhat in the +taste of the Louis XIV. period, ornate, but exquisite in every detail. +Within a few days there was also inaugurated his great "Monument to +Alphand" (1899), which almost equalled in the success achieved the +monument to Delacroix in the Luxembourg Gardens. Dalou, who gained the +_Grand Prix_ of the International exhibition of 1889, and was an officer +of the Legion of Honour, was one of the founders of the New Salon +(_Societe Nationale des Beaux-Arts_), and was the first president of the +sculpture section. In portraiture, whether statues or busts, his work is +not less remarkable. + + + + +DALRADIAN, in geology, a series of metamorphic rocks, typically +developed in the high ground which lies E. and S. of the Great Glen of +Scotland. This was the old Celtic region of Dalradia, and in 1891 Sir A. +Geikie proposed the name Dalradian as a convenient provisional +designation for the complicated set of rocks to which it is difficult to +assign a definite position in the stratigraphical sequence (_Q.J.G.S._ +47, p. 75). In Sir A. Geikie's words, "they consist in large proportion +of altered sedimentary strata, now found in the form of mica-schist, +graphite-schist, andalusite-schist, phyllite, schistose grit, greywacke +and conglomerate, quartzite, limestone and other rocks, together with +epidiorites, chlorite-schists, hornblende schists and other allied +varieties, which probably mark sills, lava-sheets or beds of tuff, +intercalated among the sediments. The total thickness of this assemblage +of rocks must be many thousand feet." The Dalradian series includes the +"Eastern or Younger schists" of eastern Sutherland, Ross-shire and +Inverness-shire--the Moine gneiss, &c.--as well as the metamorphosed +sedimentary and eruptive rocks of the central, eastern and south-western +Highlands. The series has been traced into the north-western counties of +Ireland. The whole of the Dalradian complex has suffered intense +crushing and thrusting. + + See PRE-CAMBRIAN; also J. B. Hill, _Q.J.G.S._, 1899, 55, and G. + Barrow, loc. cit., 1901, 57, and the _Annual Reports and Summaries of + Progress of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom_ from 1893 + onwards. + + + + +DALRIADA, the name of two ancient Gaelic kingdoms, one in Ireland and +the other in Scotland. The name means the home of the descendants of +Riada. Irish Dalriada was the district which now forms the northern part +of county Antrim, and from which about A.D. 500 some emigrants crossed +over to Scotland, and founded in Argyllshire the Scottish kingdom of +Dalriada. For a time Scottish Dalriada appears to have been dependent +upon Irish Dalriada, but about 575 King Aidan secured its independence. +One of Aidan's successors, Kenneth, became king of the Picts about 843, +and gradually the name Dalriada both in Ireland and Scotland fell into +disuse. + + See W. F. Skene, _Celtic Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1876-1880). + + + + +DALRY (Gaelic, "the field of the king"), a mining and manufacturing town +of Ayrshire, Scotland, on the Garnock, 23(1/4) m. S.W. of Glasgow, by the +Glasgow & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 5316. The public buildings +include the library and reading-room, the assembly rooms, Davidshill +hospital, Temperance hall and night asylum. There is a public park. The +industries consist of woollen factories, worsted spinning, box-, +cabinet-, coke- and brick-making, machine-knitting, currying and the +manufacture of aerated waters. Coal and iron are found, but mining is +not extensively pursued. In the vicinity are the iron works of Blair and +Glengarnock, and a curious stalactite cave, known as Elf House, 30 ft. +high and about 200 ft. long, offering some resemblance to a pointed +aisle. Rye Water flows into the Garnock close to the town. Captain +Thomas Crawford of Jordanhill (1530-1603), the captor of Dumbarton +Castle, spent the closing years of his life at Dalry, where a +considerable estate had been granted to him. + + + + +DALTON, JOHN (1766-1844), English chemist and physicist, was born about +the 6th of September 1766 at Eaglesfield, near Cockermouth in +Cumberland. His father, Joseph Dalton, was a weaver in poor +circumstances, who, with his wife (Deborah Greenup), belonged to the +Society of Friends; they had three children--Jonathan, John and Mary. +John received his early education from his father and from John +Fletcher, teacher of the Quakers' school at Eaglesfield, on whose +retirement in 1778 he himself started teaching. This youthful venture +was not successful, the amount he received in fees being only about five +shillings a week, and after two years he took to farm work. But he had +received some instruction in mathematics from a distant relative, Elihu +Robinson, and in 1781 he left his native village to become assistant to +his cousin George Bewley who kept a school at Kendal. There he passed +the next twelve years, becoming in 1785, through the retirement of his +cousin, joint manager of the school with his elder brother Jonathan. +About 1790 he seems to have thought of taking up law or medicine, but +his projects met with no encouragement from his relatives and he +remained at Kendal till, in the spring of 1793, he moved to Manchester, +where he spent the rest of his life. Mainly through John Gough +(1757-1825), a blind philosopher to whose aid he owed much of his +scientific knowledge, he was appointed teacher of mathematics and +natural philosophy at the New College in Moseley Street (in 1880 +transferred to Manchester College, Oxford), and that position he +retained until the removal of the college to York in 1799, when he +became a "public and private teacher of mathematics and chemistry." + +During his residence in Kendal, Dalton had contributed solutions of +problems and questions on various subjects to the _Gentlemen's_ and +_Ladies' Diaries_, and in 1787 he began to keep a meteorological diary +in which during the succeeding fifty-seven years he entered more than +200,000 observations. His first separate publication was _Meteorological +Observations and Essays_ (1793), which contained the germs of several of +his later discoveries; but in spite of the originality of its matter, +the book met with only a limited sale. Another work by him, _Elements of +English Grammar_, was published in 1801. In 1794 he was elected a member +of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, and a few weeks +after election he communicated his first paper on "Extraordinary facts +relating to the vision of colours," in which he gave the earliest +account of the optical peculiarity known as Daltonism or +colour-blindness, and summed up its characteristics as observed in +himself and others. Besides the blue and purple of the spectrum he was +able to recognize only one colour, yellow, or, as he says in his paper, +"that part of the image which others call red appears to me little more +than a shade or defect of light; after that the orange, yellow and green +seem one colour which descends pretty uniformly from an intense to a +rare yellow, making what I should call different shades of yellow." This +paper was followed by many others on diverse topics--on rain and dew and +the origin of springs, on heat, the colour of the sky, steam, the +auxiliary verbs and participles of the English language and the +reflection and refraction of light. In 1800 he became a secretary of the +society, and in the following year he presented the important paper or +series of papers, entitled "Experimental Essays on the constitution of +mixed gases; on the force of steam or vapour of water and other liquids +in different temperatures, both in Torricellian vacuum and in air; on +evaporation; and on the expansion of gases by heat." The second of these +essays opens with the striking remark, "There can scarcely be a doubt +entertained respecting the reducibility of all elastic fluids of +whatever kind, into liquids; and we ought not to despair of effecting it +in low temperatures and by strong pressures exerted upon the unmixed +gases"; further, after describing experiments to ascertain the tension +of aqueous vapour at different points between 32 deg. and 212 deg. F., +he concludes, from observations on the vapour of six different liquids, +"that the variation of the force of vapour from all liquids is the same +for the same variation of temperature, reckoning from vapour of any +given force." In the fourth essay he remarks, "I see no sufficient +reason why we may not conclude that all elastic fluids under the same +pressure expand equally by heat and that for any given expansion of +mercury, the corresponding expansion of air is proportionally something +less, the higher the temperature.... It seems, therefore, that general +laws respecting the absolute quantity and the nature of heat are more +likely to be derived from elastic fluids than from other substances." He +thus enunciated the law of the expansion of gases, stated some months +later by Gay-Lussac. In the two or three years following the reading of +these essays, he published several papers on similar topics, that on the +"Absorption of gases by water and other liquids" (1803), containing his +"Law of partial pressures." + +But the most important of all Dalton's investigations are those +concerned with the Atomic Theory in chemistry, with which his name is +inseparably associated. It has been supposed that this theory was +suggested to him either by researches on olefiant gas and carburetted +hydrogen or by analysis of "protoxide and deutoxide of azote," both +views resting on the authority of Dr Thomas Thomson (1773-1852), +professor of chemistry in Glasgow university. But from a study of +Dalton's own MS. laboratory notebooks, discovered in the rooms of the +Manchester society, Roscoe and Harden (_A New View of the Origin of +Dalton's Atomic Theory_, 1896) conclude that so far from Dalton being +led to the idea that chemical combination consists in the approximation +of atoms of definite and characteristic weight by his search for an +explanation of the law of combination in multiple proportions, the idea +of atomic structure arose in his mind as a purely physical conception, +forced upon him by study of the physical properties of the atmosphere +and other gases. The first published indications of this idea are to be +found at the end of his paper on the "Absorption of gases" already +mentioned, which was read on the 21st of October 1803 though not +published till 1805. Here he says: "Why does not water admit its bulk of +every kind of gas alike? This question I have duly considered, and +though I am not able to satisfy myself completely I am nearly persuaded +that the circumstance depends on the weight and number of the ultimate +particles of the several gases." He proceeds to give what has been +quoted as his first table of atomic weights, but on p. 248 of his +laboratory notebooks for 1802-1804, under the date 6th of September +1803, there is an earlier one in which he sets forth the relative +weights of the ultimate atoms of a number of substances, derived from +analysis of water, ammonia, carbon-dioxide, &c. by chemists of the time. +It appears, then, that, confronted with the "problem of ascertaining the +relative diameter of the particles of which, he was convinced, all gases +were made up, he had recourse to the results of chemical analysis. +Assisted by the assumption that combination always takes place in the +simplest possible way, he thus arrived at the idea that chemical +combination takes place between particles of different weights, and this +it was which differentiated his theory from the historic speculations of +the Greeks. The extension of this idea to substances in general +necessarily led him to the law of combination in multiple proportions, +and the comparison with experiment brilliantly confirmed the truth of +his deduction" (_A New View, &c._, pp. 50, 51). It may be noted that in +a paper on the "Proportion of the gases or elastic fluids constituting +the atmosphere," read by him in November 1802, the law of multiple +proportions appears to be anticipated in the words--"The elements of +oxygen may combine with a certain portion of nitrous gas or with twice +that portion, but with no intermediate quantity," but there is reason to +suspect that this sentence was added some time after the reading of the +paper, which was not published till 1805. + +Dalton communicated his atomic theory to Dr Thomson, who by consent +included an outline of it in the third edition of his _System of +Chemistry_ (1807), and Dalton gave a further account of it in the first +part of the first volume of his _New System of Chemical Philosophy_ +(1808). The second part of this volume appeared in 1810, but the first +part of the second volume was not issued till 1827, though the printing +of it began in 1817. This delay is not explained by any excess of care +in preparation, for much of the matter was out of date and the appendix +giving the author's latest views is the only portion of special +interest. The second part of vol. ii. never appeared. + +Altogether Dalton contributed 116 memoirs to the Manchester Literary and +Philosophical Society, of which from 1817 till his death he was the +president. Of these the earlier are the most important. In one of them, +read in 1814, he explains the principles of volumetric analysis, in +which he was one of the earliest workers. In 1840 a paper on the +phosphates and arsenates, which was clearly unworthy of him, was refused +by the Royal Society, and he was so incensed that he published it +himself. He took the same course soon afterwards with four other papers, +two of which--"On the quantity of acids, bases and salts in different +varieties of salts" and "On a new and easy method of analysing sugar," +contain his discovery, regarded by him as second in importance only to +the atomic theory, that certain anhydrous salts when dissolved in water +cause no increase in its volume, his inference being that the "salt +enters into the pores of the water." + +As an investigator, Dalton was content with rough and inaccurate +instruments, though better ones were readily attainable. Sir Humphry +Davy described him as a "very coarse experimenter," who "almost always +found the results he required, trusting to his head rather than his +hands." In the preface to the second part of vol. i. of his _New System_ +he says he had so often been misled by taking for granted the results of +others that he "determined to write as little as possible but what I can +attest by my own experience," but this independence he carried so far +that it sometimes resembled lack of receptivity. Thus he distrusted, and +probably never fully accepted, Gay-Lussac's conclusions as to the +combining volumes of gases; he held peculiar and quite unfounded views +about chlorine, even after its elementary character had been settled by +Davy; he persisted in using the atomic weights he himself had adopted, +even when they had been superseded by the more accurate determinations +of other chemists; and he always objected to the chemical notation +devised by J. J. Berzelius, although by common consent it was much +simpler and more convenient than his cumbersome system of circular +symbols. His library, he was once heard to declare, he could carry on +his back, yet he had not read half the books it contained. + +Before he had propounded the atomic theory he had already attained a +considerable scientific reputation. In 1804 he was chosen to give a +course of lectures on natural philosophy at the Royal Institution in +London, where he delivered another course in 1809-1810. But he was +deficient, it would seem, in the qualities that make an attractive +lecturer, being harsh and indistinct in voice, ineffective in the +treatment of his subject, and "singularly wanting in the language and +power of illustration." In 1810 he was asked by Davy to offer himself as +a candidate for the fellowship of the Royal Society, but declined, +possibly for pecuniary reasons; but in 1822 he was proposed without his +knowledge, and on election paid the usual fee. Six years previously he +had been made a corresponding member of the French Academy of Sciences, +and in 1830 he was elected as one of its eight foreign associates in +place of Davy. In 1833 Lord Grey's government conferred on him a pension +of L150, raised in 1836 to L300. Never married, though there is evidence +that he delighted in the society of women of education and refinement, +he lived for more than a quarter of a century with his friend the Rev. +W. Johns (1771-1845), in George Street, Manchester, where his daily +round of laboratory work and tuition was broken only by annual +excursions to the Lake district and occasional visits to London, "a +surprising place and well worth one's while to see once, but the most +disagreeable place on earth for one of a contemplative turn to reside in +constantly." In 1822 he paid a short visit to Paris, where he met many +of the distinguished men of science then living in the French capital, +and he attended several of the earlier meetings of the British +Association at York, Oxford, Dublin and Bristol. Into society he rarely +went, and his only amusement was a game of bowls on Thursday afternoons. +He died in Manchester in 1844 of paralysis. The first attack he suffered +in 1837, and a second in 1838 left him much enfeebled, both physically +and mentally, though he remained able to make experiments. In May 1844 +he had another stroke; on the 26th of July he recorded with trembling +hand his last meteorological observation, and on the 27th he fell from +his bed and was found lifeless by his attendant. A bust of him, by +Chantrey, was publicly subscribed for in 1833 and placed in the entrance +hall of the Manchester Royal Institution. + + See Henry, _Life of Dalton_, Cavendish Society (1854); Angus Smith, + _Memoir of John Dalton and History of the Atomic Theory_ (1856), which + on pp. 253-263 gives a list of Dalton's publications; and Roscoe and + Harden, _A New View of the Origin of Dalton's Atomic Theory_ (1896); + also Atom. + + + + +DALTON, a city and the county-seat of Whitfield county, Georgia, U.S.A., +in the N.W. part of the state, 100 m. N.N.W. of Atlanta. Pop. (1890) +3046; (1900) 4315 (957 negroes); (1910) 5324. Dalton is served by the +Southern, the Nashville, Chattanooga & St Louis, and the Western & +Atlanta (operated by the Nashville, Chattanooga & St Louis) railways. +The city is in a rich agricultural region; ships cotton, grain, fruit +and ore; and has various manufactures, including canned fruit and +vegetables, flour and foundry and machine shop products. It is the seat +of Dalton Female College. Dalton was founded by Duff Green and others in +1848, and was incorporated in 1874. Hither General Braxton Bragg +retreated after his defeat at Chattanooga in the last week of November +1863. Three weeks afterwards Bragg, in command of the army in northern +Georgia in winter quarters here, was replaced by General Joseph E. +Johnston, who, with his force of 54,400, adopted defensive tactics to +meet Sherman's invasion of Georgia, with his 99,000 or 100,000 men in +the Army of the Cumberland (60,000) under General G. H. Thomas, the Army +of the Tennessee (25,000) under General J. B. M'Pherson, and the Army of +the Ohio (14,000) under General J. M. Schofield. The Federal forces +stretched for 20 m. in a position south of Ringgold and between Ringgold +and Dalton. Johnston's line of defences included Rocky Face Ridge, a +wall of rock through which the railway passes about 5 m. north-west of +the city, Mill Creek (1 m. north-north-west of Dalton), which he dammed +so that it could not be forded, and earthworks north and east of the +city. On the 7th of May General M'Pherson started for Resaca, 18 m. +south of Dalton, to occupy the railway there in Johnston's rear, but he +did not attack Resaca, thinking it too strongly protected; Thomas, with +Schofield on his left, on the 7th forced the Confederates through +Buzzard's Roost Gap (the pass at Mill Creek) north-west of Dalton; at +Dug Gap, 4 m. south-west of Dalton, on the 8th a fierce Federal assault +under Brigadier-General John W. Geary failed to dislodge the +Confederates from a quite impregnable position. On the 11th the main +body of Sherman's army followed M'Pherson toward Resaca, and Johnston, +having evacuated Dalton on the night of the 12th, was thus forced, after +five days' manoeuvring and skirmishing, to march to Resaca and to meet +Sherman there. + + See J. D. Cox, _The Atlanta Campaign_ (New York, 1882); Johnson and + Buel, _Battles and Leaders of the Civil War_ (4 vols., New York, + 1887); and _Official Records of the War of the Rebellion_, series 1, + vols. 32, 38, 39, 45, 49; series ii., vol. 8. + + + + +DALTON-IN-FURNESS, a market town in the North Lonsdale parliamentary +division of Lancashire, England, 4 m. N.E. by N. of Barrow-in-Furness by +the Furness railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 13,020. The church of +St Mary is in the main a modern reconstruction, but retains ancient +fragments and a font believed to have belonged to Furness Abbey. This +fine ruin lies 3 m. south of Dalton (see FURNESS). St Mary's churchyard +contains the tomb of the painter George Romney, a native of the town. Of +Dalton Castle there remains a square tower, showing decorated windows. +Here was held the manorial court of Furness Abbey. There are numerous +iron-ore mines in the parish, and ironworks at Askam-in-Furness, in the +northern part of the district. + + + + +DALY, AUGUSTIN (1838-1899), American theatrical manager and playwright, +was born in Plymouth, North Carolina, on the 20th of July 1838. He was +dramatic critic for several New York papers from 1859, and he adapted or +wrote a number of plays, _Under the Gaslight_ (1867) being his first +success. In 1869 he was the manager of the Fifth Avenue theatre, and in +1879 he built and opened Daly's theatre in New York, and, in 1893, +Daly's theatre in London. At the former he gathered a company of +players, headed by Miss Ada Rehan, which made for it a high reputation, +and for them he adapted plays from foreign sources, and revived +Shakespearean comedies in a manner before unknown in America. He took +his entire company on tour, visiting England, Germany and France, and +some of the best actors on the American stage have owed their training +and first successes to him. Among these were Clara Morris, Sara Jewett, +John Drew, Fanny Davenport, Maude Adams, Mrs Gilbert and many others. +Daly was a great book-lover, and his valuable library was dispersed by +auction after his death, which occurred in Paris on the 7th of June +1899. Besides plays, original and adapted, he wrote _Woffington: a +Tribute to the Actress and the Woman_ (1888). + + + + +DALYELL (or DALZIELL or DALZELL), THOMAS (d. 1685), British soldier, was +the son of Thomas Dalyell of Binns, Linlithgowshire, a cadet of the +family of the earls of Carnwath, and of Janet, daughter of the 1st Lord +Bruce of Kinloss, master of the rolls in England. He appears to have +accompanied the Rochelle expedition in 1628, and afterwards, becoming +colonel, served under Robert Munro, the general in Ireland. He was taken +prisoner at the capitulation of Carrickfergus in August 1650, but was +given a free pass, and having been banished from Scotland remained in +Ireland. He was present at the battle of Worcester (3rd of September +1651), where his men surrendered, and he himself was captured and +imprisoned in the Tower. In May he escaped abroad, and in 1654 took part +in the Highland rebellion and was excepted from Cromwell's act of grace, +a reward of L200 being offered for his capture, dead or alive. The +king's cause being now for the time hopeless, Dalyell entered the +service of the tsar of Russia, and distinguished himself as general in +the wars against the Turks and Tatars. He returned to Charles in 1665, +and on the 19th of July 1666 he was appointed commander-in-chief in +Scotland to subdue the Covenanters. He defeated them at Rullion Green +and exercised his powers with great cruelty, his name becoming a terror +to the peasants. He obtained several of the forfeited estates. On the +3rd of January 1667 he was made a privy councillor, and from 1678 till +his death represented Linlithgow in the Scottish parliament. He was +incensed by the choice of the duke of Monmouth as commander-in-chief in +June 1679, and was confirmed in his original appointment by Charles, but +in consequence did not appear at Bothwell Bridge till after the close of +the engagement. On the 25th of November 1681, a commission was issued +authorizing him to enrol the regiment afterwards known as the Scots +Greys. He was continued in his appointment by James II., but died soon +after the latter's accession in August 1685. He married Agnes, daughter +of John Ker of Cavers, by whom he had a son, Thomas, created a baronet +in 1685, whose only son and heir, Thomas, died unmarried. The baronetage +apparently became extinct, but it was assumed about 1726 by James +Menteith, a son of the sister of the last baronet, who took the name of +Dalyell; his last male descendant, Sir Robert Dalyell, died unmarried in +1886. + + + + +DAM. (1) (A common Teutonic word, cf. Swed. and Ger. _damm_, and the +Gothic verb _faurdammjan_, to block up), a barrier of earth or masonry +erected to restrain, divert or contain a body of water, particularly in +order to form a reservoir. (2) (Fr. _dame_, dame; Lat. _domina_, +feminine of _dominus_, lord, master), the mother of an animal, now +chiefly used of the larger quadrupeds, and particularly of a mare, the +mother of a foal. + + + + +DAMAGES (through O. Fr. _damage_, mod. Fr. _dommage_, from Lat. +_damnum_, loss), the compensation which a person who has suffered a +legal wrong is by law entitled to recover from the person responsible +for the wrong. Loss caused by an act which is not a legal wrong (_damnum +sine injuria_) is not recoverable, e.g. where a father loses a young +child by the negligence of a third party. + +The principle of compensation in law makes its first appearance as a +substitute for personal retaliation. In primitive law something of the +nature of the Anglo-Saxon _wer-gild_, or the [Greek: poine] of the +_Iliad_, appears to be universal. It marks out with great minuteness the +measure of the compensation appropriate to each particular case of +personal injury. And there is a resemblance between the legal +compensation, as it may be called, and the compensation which an injured +person, seeking his own remedy, would be likely to exact for himself. In +such a system the two entirely different objects of personal +satisfaction and criminal punishment are not clearly separated, and in +fact, criminal and civil remedies were administered in the same +proceeding. + +Under modern systems of law, the object of legal compensation is to +place the injured person as nearly as possible in the situation in which +he would have been but for the injury; and the controlling principle is +that compensation should be determined so far as possible by the actual +amount of the loss sustained. In England, civil proceedings for +reparation and criminal proceedings for punishment are with few +exceptions carefully kept separate. In Scotland, pursuit of the two +kinds of remedies in the same proceeding is possible but very rare; but +in France and other European states it is lawful and usual in the case +of those delicts which are also punishable criminally. + +In the law of England the two historical systems of common law and +equity viewed compensation or reparation from two different points of +view. The principle of the common law was that the amount of every +injury might be estimated by pecuniary valuation. The idea was no doubt +derived from the old tariffs of _were_, _bot_ and _wite_, in which the +valuations were elaborate. Until 1858 (Cairns' Act) courts of equity had +no direct jurisdiction to award damages, and their business was to place +the injured party in the actual position to which he was entitled +(_restitutio ad integrum_). This difference comes out most clearly in +cases of breach of contract. The common law, with a few partial +exceptions, could do no more than compel the defaulter to make good the +loss of the other party, by paying him an ascertained sum of money as +damages. Equity, recognizing the fact that complete satisfaction was not +in all cases to be obtained by mere money payment, compelled those who +broke certain classes of contracts specifically to perform them, and in +the case of acts or defaults not amounting to breach of contract, on +satisfactory proof that a wrong was contemplated, would interfere to +prevent it by injunction; while at common law no action could be brought +until the injury was accomplished, and then only pecuniary damages could +be obtained. Since the Judicature Acts this distinction has ceased and +the appropriate remedy may be awarded in any division of the High Court +of Justice. + +Under the common law damages were always assessed by a jury. Under the +existing procedure in England they may be assessed (1) by a jury under +the directions of a judge; (2) by a judge alone or sitting with +assessors; (3) by a referee, official or special, or officer of the +courts with or without the assistance of mercantile or other assessors; +(4) by a consensual tribunal such as an arbitrator or valuer selected by +the parties. Whatever the mode of assessment, it is subject to review if +the assessors have clearly mistaken the proper measure of damage. + +In the case of assessment by a jury, the verdict may be set aside +because the damages are clearly excessive or palpably insufficient, or +arrived at by some irregular conduct, e.g. by setting down the sum which +each juryman would give and dividing the result by twelve. The appellate +court, however, cannot, without the consent of the parties, itself fix +the amount of damages in a case which has been submitted to a jury +(_Watt_ v. _Watt_, 1905, Appeal Cases 115). + + + Measure of damages. + +The courts have gradually evolved certain rules or principles for the +proper assessment of damages, although extreme difficulty is found in +their application to concrete cases. A distinction is drawn between +_general_ and _special_ damages. (1) General damage is that _implied by +law_ as necessarily flowing from the breach of right, and requiring no +proof. (2) Special damage is that _in fact_ caused by the wrong. Under +existing practice this form of damage cannot be recovered unless it has +been specifically claimed and proved, or unless the best available +particulars or details have been before trial communicated to the party +against whom it is claimed. + +_Contracts._--"The law imposes or implies a term that upon breach of +contract damages must be paid." The general tendency of legal decisions +in cases of contract is (i.) to make the amount of damages which may be +awarded a matter of legal certainty, (ii.) to leave to a jury or like +tribunal little more to do than find the facts, (iii.) and to revise the +assessment if it is clear that it has been made in disregard of the +terms of the contract or of the natural and direct consequences of the +breach. The measure of damage, general speaking, is the sum necessary to +place the aggrieved party in the same position so far as money will do +it as if the contract had been performed. If the breach is proved, but +the person complaining has suffered no real damage, he is entitled to +have his legal right recognized by an award of what are called _nominal +damages_, i.e. a sum just sufficient to carry a judgment in his favour +on the infraction of his rights. Nominal damages, it will therefore be +seen, are not the same as "small damages." He is, however, also entitled +to prove and recover the special or particular damage lawfully +attributable to the breach. Where the contract is to pay a fixed sum of +money or liquidated amount, the measure of damages for non-payment is +the sum agreed to be paid and interest thereon at the rate stipulated in +the contract or recognized by law. + +The law is the same in Scotland and in France (Civil Code, art. 1153). +In some contracts the parties themselves fix the sum to be paid as +damages if the contract is not fulfilled. These damages are described as +_liquidated_, in Scots law _stipulated_ or _estimated_. It would be +supposed that the sum thus fixed would be the proper damages to be +awarded. And under the French Civil Code (arts. 1152, 1153, 1780) the +stipulation of the parties as to the damages to be paid for breach of a +stipulation other than for paying a sum of money is binding on the +courts. But in England, Scotland and the United States, courts disregard +the words used, and inquire into the real nature of the transaction in +order to see whether the sum fixed is to be treated as ascertained +damage or as a penalty to be held _in terrorem_ over the defaulter, and +in the latter case, notwithstanding the stipulation, will require proof +of the actual loss. In _Kemble_ v. _Farren_ (1829, 6 Bingham, 141), a +contract between a manager and an actor provided that for a breach of +any of the stipulations therein, the sum of L1000 should be payable by +the defaulter, not as a penalty, but as liquidated and ascertained +damages. Yet, the court, observing that under the stipulations of the +contract the sum of L1000, if it were taken to be liquidated damages, +might become payable for mere non-payment of a trifling sum, held that +it was not fixed as damages, but as a penalty only. The case in which an +agreed sum is most usually treated as a penalty is a bond to pay a fixed +sum containing a condition that it shall be void if certain acts are +done or a certain smaller sum paid. Another case is where a single lump +sum is fixed as the liquidated amount of damage to be paid for doing or +failing to do a number of different things of very varying degrees of +importance (_Elphinstone_ v. _Monkland Iron Co._, 1887, 11 A.C. 333). +But the courts have accepted as creating a contractual measure of damage +a stipulation to finish sewerage works by a given day (_Law_ v. +_Redditch Local Board_, 1892, 1 Q.B. 127); or to complete torpedo boats +within a limited time for a foreign government (_Clydebank Engineering +Co._ v. _Yzquierda_, 1905, A.C. 6). In this last case the law lords +indicated that the provision of an agreed sum was peculiarly appropriate +in view of the difficulty of showing the exact damage which a state +sustains by non-delivery of a warship. Where the damage is not +liquidated or agreed it is assessed to upon evidence as to the actual +loss naturally and directly flowing from the breach of contract. + +In contracts for the sale of goods the measure of damages is fixed by +statute. Where the buyer wrongfully refuses or neglects to accept and +pay for, or the seller wrongfully neglects or refuses to deliver the +goods, the measure is the estimated loss directly and naturally +resulting in the ordinary course of events from the buyer's or seller's +breach of contract. Where there is an available market for the goods in +question, the measure of damages is prima facie to be ascertained by the +difference between the contract price and the market or current price at +the time or times when the goods ought to have been accepted or +delivered, or if no such time was fixed for acceptance or delivery, then +at the time of refusal to accept or deliver (Sale of Goods Act 1893, SS +50, 51). + +Where there is no market, the value is fixed by the price of the nearest +available substitute. Where the sufferer, at the request of the person +in default, postpones purchase or sale, any increased loss thereby +caused falls on the defaulter. If the buyer, before the time fixed for +delivery, has resold the goods to a sub-vendor, he cannot claim against +his own vendor any damages which the sub-vendor may recover against him +for breach of contract, because he ought to have gone into the market +and purchased other goods. But this is subject to modification in cases +falling within the rule in _Hadley_ v. _Baxendale_ (1854, 9 Exchequer, +341). But trouble and expense incurred by the seller of finding a new +purchaser or other goods may be taken account of in assessing the +damages. + +Where the goods delivered are not as contracted the buyer may as a rule +sue the seller for a breach of warranty, or set it up as reduction of +price. Where the warranty is of quality the loss is prima facie the +difference between the value of the goods delivered when delivered and +the value which they would have then had if they had answered to the +warranty (Sale of Goods Act 1893, S 53). In an American case, where a +person had agreed with a boarding-house keeper for a year, and quitted +the house within the time, it was held that the measure of damages was +not the price stipulated to be paid, but only the loss caused by the +breach of contract. In contracts to marry, a special class of +considerations is recognized, and the jury in assessing damages will +take notice of the conduct of the parties. The social position and means +of the defendant may be given in evidence to show what the plaintiff has +lost by the breach of contract. + +On a breach of contract to replace stock lent, the measure of damages is +the price of the stock on the day when it ought to have been delivered, +or on the day of trial, at the plaintiff's option. + +In contracts for the sale of realty, the measure of damage for breach by +the vendor is the amount of any deposit paid by the would-be purchaser +and of the expenses thrown away. But the purchaser may, in a proper +case, obtain specific performance, and if he has been cheated may obtain +damages in an action for deceit. + +Breaches of trust are in a sense distinct from breaches of contract, as +they fell under the jurisdiction of courts of equity and not of the +common law courts. The rule applied was to require a defaulting trustee +to make good to the beneficiaries any loss flowing from a breach of +trust and not to allow him to set off against this liability any gain to +the trust fund resulting from a different breach of trust or from good +management (Lewin on _Trusts_, ed. 1904, 1146). + +In estimating the proper amount to be assessed as damages for a breach +of contract, it is not permissible to include every loss caused by the +act or default upon which the claim for damages is based. The damage to +be awarded must be that fairly and naturally arising from the breach +under ordinary circumstances or the special circumstances of the +particular contract, or in other words, which may reasonably be supposed +to have been in the contemplation of the parties at the time of making +the contract. The chief authority for this rule is the case of _Hadley_ +v. _Baxendale_ (1854, 9 Exch. 341), which has been accepted in Scotland +and the United States and throughout the British empire, and often +differs little, if at all, from the rule adopted in the French civil +code (art. 1150). In that case damages were sought for the loss of +profits caused by a steam mill being kept idle, on account of the delay +of the defendants in sending a new shaft which they had contracted to +make. The court held the damage to be too remote, and stated the proper +rule as follows:-- + + "Where two parties have made a contract which one of them has broken, + the damages which the other party ought to receive in respect of such + breach of contract should be such as may fairly and reasonably be + considered either arising naturally, i.e. according to the usual + course of things, from such breach of contract itself, or such as may + reasonably be supposed to have been in the contemplation of both + parties at the time they made the contract as the probable result of + the breach of it. Now if the special circumstances under which the + contract was actually made were communicated by the plaintiffs to the + defendants, and thus known to both parties, the damages resulting from + such contract which they would reasonably contemplate would be the + amount of injury which would ordinarily flow from a breach of contract + under these special circumstances so known and communicated. But on + the other hand, if those special circumstances were wholly unknown to + the party breaking the contract, he at the most could only be supposed + to have had in his mind the amount of injury which would arise + generally, and in the great multitude of cases not affected by any + special circumstances, from such breach of contract."[1] + +The rule is, however, only a general guide, and does not obviate the +necessity of inquiring in each case what are the natural or contemplated +damages. In an action by the proprietor of a theatre, it was alleged +that the defendant had written a libel on one of the plaintiff's +singers, whereby she was deterred from appearing on the stage, and the +plaintiff lost his profits; such loss was held to be too remote to be +the ground of an action for damages. In _Smeed_ v. _Foord_ (1 Ellis and +Ellis, 602), the defendant contracted to deliver a threshing-machine to +the plaintiff, a farmer, knowing that it was needed to thresh the wheat +in the field. Damages were sought for injury done to the wheat by rain +in consequence of the machine not having been delivered in time, and +also for a fall in the market before the grain could be got ready. It +was held that the first claim was good, as the injury might have been +anticipated, but that the second was bad. When, through the negligence +of a railway company in delivering bales of cotton, the plaintiffs, +having no cotton to work with, were obliged to keep their workmen +unemployed, it was held that the wages paid and the profits lost were +too remote for damages. On the other hand, where the defendant failed to +keep funds on hand to meet the drafts of the plaintiff, so that a draft +was returned dishonoured, and his business in consequence was for a time +suspended and injured, the plaintiff was held entitled to recover damage +for such loss. + +The rule that the contract furnishes the measure of the damages does not +prevail in the case of unconscionable, i.e. unreasonable, absurd or +impossible contracts. The old school-book juggle in geometrical +progression has more than once been before the courts as the ground of +an action. Thus, when a man agreed to pay for a horse a barley-corn per +nail, doubling it every nail, and the amount calculated as 32 nails was +500 quarters of barley, the judge directed the jury to disregard the +contract, and give as damages the value of the horse. And when a +defendant had agreed for L5 to give the plaintiff two grains of rye on +Monday, four on the next Monday,[2] and so on doubling it every Monday, +it was contended that the contract was impossible, as all the rye in the +world would not suffice for it; but one of the judges said that, though +foolish, it would hold in law, and the defendant ought to pay something +for his folly. And when a man had promised L1000 to the plaintiff if he +should find his owl, the jury were directed to mitigate the damages. + +Interest is recoverable as damages at common law only upon mercantile +securities, such as bills of exchange and promissory notes or where a +promise to pay interest has been made in express terms or may be implied +from the usage of trade or other circumstances [Mayne, _Damages_ (7th +ed.) 166]. Under the Civil Procedure Act 1833, the jury is allowed to +give interest by way of damages on debts or sums payable at a certain +time, or if not so payable, from the date of demand in writing, and in +actions on policies of insurance, and in actions of tort arising out of +conversion or seizure of goods. + +In the United States, interest is in the discretion of the court, and is +made to depend on the equity of the case. In both England and America +compound interest, or interest on interest, appears to have been +regarded with the horror that formerly attached to usury. Lord Eldon +would not recognize as valid an agreement to pay compound interest. And +Chancellor Kent held that compound interest could not be taken except +upon a special agreement made after the simple interest became due. + +In Scotland compound interest is not allowed by way of damages. + +_Torts._--In actions arising otherwise than from breach of contract +(i.e. of tort, delict or quasi-delict), the principles applied to the +assessment of damage in cases arising _ex contractu_ are generally +applicable (_The Notting Hill_, 1884, 9 P.D. 105); but from the nature +of the case less precision in assessment is attainable. The remoteness +of the damage claimed is a ground for excluding it from the assessment. +In some actions of tort the damages can be calculated with exactness +just as in cases of contract, e.g. in most cases of interference with +rights of property or injury to property. Thus, for wrongful +dispossession from a plantation (in Samoa) it was held that the measure +of damage was the annual value of the produce of the lands when +wrongfully seized, less the cost of management, and that the wilful +character of the seizure did not justify the infliction of a penalty +over and above the loss to the plaintiff (_McArthur_ v. _Cornwall_, +1892, A.C. 75). Where minerals are wrongfully severed and carried away, +the damage is assessed by calculating the value of the mineral as a +chattel and deducting the reasonable expense of getting it. But where +the interference with property, whether real or personal, is attended by +circumstances of aggravation such as crime or fraud or wanton insult, it +is well established that additional damages may be awarded which in +effect are penal or vindictive. In actions for injuries to the person or +to reputation, it is difficult to make the damages a matter for exact +calculation, and it has been found impossible or inexpedient by the +courts to prevent juries from awarding amounts which operate as a +punishment of the delinquent rather than as a true assessment of the +reparation due to the sufferer. And while a bad motive (malice) is +seldom enough to give a cause of action, proof of its existence is a +potent inducement to a jury to swell the assessment of damages, as +evidence of bad character may induce them to reduce the damages to a +derisory amount. In the case of injuries to the person caused by +negligence, the tribunal considers, as part of the general damage, the +actual pain and suffering, including nervous shock (but not wounded +feelings) and the permanent or temporary character of the injury, and as +special damage the loss of time and employment during recovery and the +cost of cure. It is difficult by any arithmetical calculation to value +pain and suffering; nor is it easy to value the effect of a permanent +injury; and in the Workmen's Compensation Act and Employers' Liability +Act, an attempt has been made in the case of workmen to assess by +reference to the earnings of the injured person. + +In the case of such wrongs as assault, arrest or prosecution, the +motives of the defendant naturally affect the amount of general damage +awarded, even when not essential elements in the case, and the damages +are "at large." Any other rule would enable a man to distribute blows as +he can utter curses at a statutory tariff of so much a curse, according +to his rank. This position was strongly asserted in the cases arising +out of the celebrated "General Warrants" (1763) in the time of Lord +Camden, who is reported in one case to have said, "damages are designed +not only as a satisfaction to the injured person, but as a punishment to +the guilty, and as a proof of the detestation in which the wrongful act +is held by the jury." In another case he mentioned the importance of the +question at issue, the attempt to exercise arbitrary power, as a reason +why the jury might give exemplary damages. Another judge, in another +case, said "I remember a case when the jury gave L500 damages for +knocking a man's hat off; and the court refused a new trial." And he +urged that exemplary damages for personal insult would tend to prevent +the practice of duelling. + +The right to give exemplary or punitive or (as they are sometimes +called) vindictive damages is fully recognized both in England and in +the United States, and especially in the following cases. (1) Against +the co-respondent in a divorce suit. This right is the same as that +recognized at common law in the abolished action of criminal +conversation, but the damages awarded may by the court be applied for +the maintenance and education of the children of the marriage or the +maintenance of the offending wife. (2) In actions of trespass to land +where the conduct of the defendant has been outrageous. (3) In actions +of defamation spoken or written, attended by circumstances of +aggravation, and the analogous action of malicious prosecution. (4) In +the anomalous actions of seduction and breach of promise of marriage. + +In actions for wrongs, as in those _ex contractu_, the damages may be +general or special. In a few cases of tort, the action fails wholly if +special damage is not proved, e.g. slander by imputing to a man vicious, +unchaste or immoral conduct, slander of title to land or goods or +nuisance. + +In theory, English law does not recognize "moral or intellectual" +damage, such as was claimed by the South African Republic after the +Jameson Raid. The law of Scotland allows a solatium for wounded +feelings, as does French law under the name of _dommage moral, eprouve +par la partie lesee dans sa liberte, sa surete, son honneur, sa +consideration, ses affections legitimes ou dans la jouissance de son +patrimoine_. Under this head compensation is awarded to widow, child or +sister, for the loss of husband, parent or brother, in addition to the +actual pecuniary loss (Dalloz, _Nouveau Code civil_, art. 1382). Claims +of damage for negligence are defeated by proof of what is known as +contributory negligence (_faute commune_). In other claims of tort, as +already stated, the conduct of the claimant may materially reduce the +amount of his damages. + +In cases of damages to ships or cargo by collision at sea, the rule of +the old court of admiralty (derived from the civil law and preserved by +the Judicature Acts) is that when both or all vessels are to blame, the +whole amount of the loss is divided between them. The rule appears not +to apply to cases where death or personal injury results from the +collision ("Vera Cruz," 1884, 14 A.C. 59. "Bernina," 1888, 13 A.C. 1). + +_Costs._--The costs of a legal proceeding are no longer treated as +damages to be assessed by the jury, nor do they depend on any act of the +jury. The right to receive them depends on the court, and they are taxed +or assessed by its officers (see COSTS). In a few cases where costs +cannot be given, e.g. on compulsory acquisition of land in London, the +assessing tribunal is invited to add to the compensation price the +owner's expense in the compensation proceedings. + +_Death._--In English law a right to recover damages for a tort as a +general rule was lost on the death of the sufferer or of the delinquent. +The cause of action was considered not to survive. This rule differs +from that of Scots law (under which the claim for damages arises at the +moment of injury and is not affected by the death of either party). The +English rule has been criticized as barbarous, and has been considerably +broken in upon by legislation, in cases of taking the goods of another +(4 Edw. III., c. 7, 1330), and injuries to real or personal property (3 +& 4 Will. IV., c. 42, 1833), but continues in force as to such matters +as defamation, malicious prosecution and trespass to the person. By the +Fatal Accidents Act 1846 (commonly called Lord Campbell's Act), it is +enacted that wherever a wrongful act would have entitled the injured +person to recover damages (if death had not ensued), the person who in +such case would have been liable "shall be liable to an action for +damages for the pecuniary loss which the death has caused to certain +persons, and although the death shall have been caused under such +circumstances as amount in law to felony." The only persons by whom or +for whose benefit such an action may be brought are the husband, wife, +parent and child (including grandchild and stepchild, but not +illegitimate child) of the deceased. The right of action and the measure +of damages are statutory and distinct from the right which the deceased +had till he died. It was held in _Osborne_ v. _Gillett_, 1873, L.R. 8 +Ex. 88, and has since been approved (_Clark_ v. _London General Omnibus +Co._, 1906, 2 K.B. 648), that no person can recover damages for the +death of another wrongfully killed by the act of a third person, unless +he claims through or represents the person killed, and unless that +person in case of an injury short of death would have had a good claim +to recover damages. + + In Scotland the law of compensation for breach of contract is + substantially the same as in England. In cases of delict or + quasi-delict, the measure of reparation is a fair and reasonable + compensation for the advantage which the sufferer would, but for the + wrong, have enjoyed and has lost as a natural and proximate result of + the wrong, coupled with a solatium for wounded feelings. The claim for + reparation vests as a debt when it arises and survives to the + representatives of the sufferer, and against the representatives of + the delinquent. In other words, the maxim _actio personalis moritur + cum persona_ does not apply in Scots law; and even in cases of murder + there has always been recognized a right to "assythement." + + See also Mayne on _Damages_, 7th ed.; Sedgwick on _Damage_; Bell, + _Principles of Law of Scotland_. (W. F. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In the Indian Contracts Code (Act xii. of 1872), the rule is thus + summarized:-- + + "When a contract has been broken, the party who suffers by such + breach is entitled to receive from the party who has broken the + contract, compensation for any loss or damage caused to him thereby, + which naturally arose in the usual course of things from such breach, + or which the parties knew when they made the contract to be likely to + result from the breach of it. Such compensation is not to be given + for any remote or indirect loss or damage sustained by reason of the + breach.... In estimating the loss or damage arising from a breach of + contract, the means of remedying the inconvenience caused by the + non-performance must be taken into account" (S 73). + + [2] _Quolibet alio die lunae_, which was translated by some _every + Monday_, and by others _every other Monday_. The amount in the latter + case would have been 125 quarters, in the former 524,288,000 + quarters. + + + + +DAMANHUR, a town of Lower Egypt, 38 m. E.S.E. of Alexandria by rail, +capital of the richly-cultivated province of Behera. It is the ancient +Timenhor, "town of Horus," which in Ptolemaic times was capital of a +nome and lay on the Canopic branch of the Nile. Its name and other +circumstances imply that Horus (= Apollo) was worshipped there in the +same form as at Edfu (Brugsch, _Dictionnaire geographique_, p. 521), but +its Greek name, Hermopolis Parva, should indicate Thoth as the local +god. This apparent contradiction is perhaps due to some early +misunderstanding that held its ground after the Greeks knew Egypt +better. A much frequented fair is held at Damanhur three times a year, +and there are several cotton manufactories. Population (1907) 38,752. + + + + +DAMARALAND, a region of south-western Africa, bounded W. by the +Atlantic, E. by the Kalahari, N. by Ovampoland, and S. by Great +Namaqualand. It forms the central portion of German South-West Africa. +Damaraland is alternatively known as Hereroland, both names being +derived from the tribes inhabiting the region. The so-called Damara +consist of two probably distinct peoples. They are known respectively as +"the Hill Damara" and "the Cattle Damara," i.e. those who breed cattle +in the plains. The Hill Damara are Negroes with much Hottentot blood, +and have adopted the Hottentot tongue, while the Cattle Damara are of +distinct Bantu-Negro descent and speak a Bantu language. The term Damara +("Two Dama Women") is of Hottentot origin, and is not used by the +people, who call themselves Ova-herero, "the Merry People" (see +HOTTENTOTS and HERERO). + + + + +DAMASCENING, or DAMASKEENING, a term sometimes applied to the production +of damask steel, but properly the art of in-crusting wire of gold (and +sometimes of silver or copper) on the surface of iron, steel or bronze. +The surface upon which the pattern is to be traced is finely undercut +with a sharp instrument, and the gold thread by hammering is forced into +and securely held by the minute furrows of the cut surface. This system +of ornamentation is peculiarly Oriental, having been much practised by +the early goldsmiths of Damascus, and it is still eminently +characteristic of Persian metal work. + + + + +DAMASCIUS, the last of the Neoplatonists, was born in Damascus about +A.D. 480. In his early youth he went to Alexandria, where he spent +twelve years partly as a pupil of Theon, a rhetorician, and partly as a +professor of rhetoric. He then turned to philosophy and science, and +studied under Hermeias and his sons, Ammonius and Heliodorus. Later on +in life he migrated to Athens and continued his studies under Marinus, +the mathematician, Zenodotus, and Isidore, the dialectician. He became a +close friend of Isidore, succeeded him as head of the school in Athens, +and wrote his biography, part of which is preserved in the _Bibliotheca_ +of Photius (see appendix to the Didot edition of Diogenes Laertius). In +529 Justinian closed the school, and Damascius with six of his +colleagues sought an asylum, probably in 532, at the court of Chosroes +I., king of Persia. They found the conditions intolerable, and in 533, +in a treaty between Justinian and Chosroes, it was provided that they +should be allowed to return. It is believed that Damascius settled in +Alexandria and there devoted himself to the writing of his works. The +date of his death is not known. + +His chief treatise is entitled _Difficulties and Solutions of First +Principles_ ([Greek: 'Aporiai kai chuseis peri ton proton apxon]). It +examines into the nature and attributes of God and the human soul. This +examination is, in two respects, in striking contrast to that of certain +other Neoplatonist writers. It is conspicuously free from that Oriental +mysticism which stultifies so much of the later pagan philosophy of +Europe. Secondly, it contains no polemic against Christianity, to the +doctrines of which, in fact, there is no allusion. Hence the charge of +impiety which Photius brings against him. His main result is that God is +infinite, and as such, incomprehensible; that his attributes of +goodness, knowledge and power are credited to him only by inference from +their effects; that this inference is logically valid and sufficient for +human thought. He insists throughout on the unity and the indivisibility +of God, whereas Plotinus and Porphyry had admitted not only a Trinity, +but even an Ennead (nine-fold personality). + +Interesting as Damascius is in himself, he is still more interesting as +the last in the long succession of Greek philosophers. (See +NEOPLATONISM.) + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The [Greek: Aporiai] was partly edited by J. Kopp + (1826), and in full by C. E. Ruelle (Paris, 1889). French trans. by + Chaignet (1898). See T. Whittaker, _The Neo-platonists_ (Cambridge, + 1901); E. Zeller, _History of Greek Philosophy_; C. E. Ruelle, _Le + Philosophe Damascius_ (1861); Ch. Leveque, "Damascius" (_Journal des + savants_, February 1891). See also works quoted under NEOPLATONISM and + ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL. + + + + +DAMASCUS, the chief town of Syria, and the capital of a government +province of the same name, 57 m. from Beirut, situated in 33 deg. 30' +N., and 36 deg. 18' E. + +_History._--The origin of the city is unknown, and the popular belief +that it is the oldest city in the world still inhabited has much to +recommend it. It has been suggested that the ideogram by which it is +indicated in Babylonian monuments literally means "fortress of the +Amorites"; could this be proved it would be valuable testimony to its +antiquity if not its origin. The city is mentioned in the document that +describes the battle of the four kings against five, inserted in the +book of Genesis (ch. xiv.): Abram (Abraham) is reported to have pursued +the routed kings to Hobah _north of Damascus_ (v. 15). The name of the +steward of Abram's establishment is given in Genesis xv. 2, as _Dammesek +Eliezer_, which is explained in the Aramaic and Syriac versions as +"Eliezer of Damascus." This reading is adopted by the authorized +version, but the Hebrew, as it stands, will not support it. There is +probably here some textual corruption. + +In the period of the Egyptian suzerainty over Palestine in the +eighteenth dynasty Damascus (whose name frequently appears in the Tell +el-Amarna tablets) was capital of the small province of Ubi. The name of +the city in the Tell el-Amarna correspondence is Dimashka. Towards the +end of that period the overrunning of Palestine and Syria by the Khabiri +and Suti, the forerunners of the Aramaean immigration, changed the +conditions, language and government of the country. One of the first +indications of this change that has been traced is the appearance of the +Aramaean Darmesek for Damascus in an inscription of Rameses III. + +The growth of an independent kingdom with Damascus as centre must date +from very early in the Aramaean occupation. It had reached such strength +that though Tiglath-Pileser I. reduced the whole of northern Syria, and +by the fame of his victories induced the king of Egypt to send him +presents, yet he did not venture to attack Kadesh and Damascus, so that +this kingdom acted as a "buffer" between the king of Assyria and the +rising kingdom of Saul. + +David, however, after his accession made an expedition against Damascus +as a reprisal for the assistance the city had given his enemy Hadadezer, +king of Zobah. The expedition was successful; David smote of the Syrians +22,000 men, and took and garrisoned the city; "and the Syrians became +servants to David, and brought gifts" (2 Sam. viii. 5, 6; 1 Chron. +xviii. 5). This statement, it should be noticed, has been questioned by +some modern historical and textual critics, who believe that "Syria" +(Hebrew _Aram_) is here a corruption for "Edom." There is no other +evidence--save the corrupt passage, 2 Sam. xxiv. 6, where +"Tahtim-hodshi" is explained as meaning "the land of the Hittites to +Kadesh"--that David's kingdom was so far extended northward. However +this may be, it is evident that the Israelite possession of Syria did +not last long. A subordinate of Hadadezer named Rezon (Rasun) succeeded +in establishing himself in Damascus and in founding there a royal +dynasty. Throughout the reign of Solomon (1 Kings xi. 23, 24) this Rezon +seems to have been a constant enemy to the kingdom of Israel. + +It is inferred from 1 Kings xv. 19 that Abijah, son of Rehoboam, king of +Judah, made a league with Tab-Rimmon of Damascus to assist him in his +wars against Israel, and that afterwards Tab-Rimmon's son Ben-Hadad came +to terms with the second successor of Jeroboam, Baasha. Asa, son of +Abijah, followed his father's policy, and bought the aid of Syria, +whereby he was enabled to destroy the border fort that Baasha had +erected (1 Kings xv. 22). + +Hostilities between Israel and Syria lasted to the days of Ahab. From +Omri the king of Syria took cities and the right to establish a quarter +for his merchants in Samaria (1 Kings xx. 34). His son Ben-Hadad made an +unsuccessful attack on Israel at Aphek, and was allowed by Ahab to +depart on a reversal of these terms (loc. cit.). This was the cause of a +prophetic denunciation (1 Kings xx. 42). According to the Assyrian +records Ahab fought as Ben-Hadad's ally at the battle of Karkar against +Shalmaneser in 854. This seems to indicate an intermediate defeat and +vassalage of Ahab, of which no direct record remains; and it was +probably in the attempt to throw off this vassalage in 853, the year +after the battle of Karkar, that Ahab met his death in battle with the +Syrians (1 Kings xxii. 34-40). In the reign of Jehoram, Naaman, the +Syrian general, came and was cleansed by the prophet Elisha of leprosy +(2 Kings v.). + +In 843 Hazael assassinated Ben-Hadad and made himself king of Damascus. +The states which Ben-Hadad had brought together into a coalition against +the advancing power of Assyria all revolted; and Shalmaneser, king of +Assyria, took advantage of this in 842 and attacked Syria. He wasted the +country, but could not take the capital. Jehu, king of Israel, paid +tribute to Assyria, for which Hazael afterwards revenged himself, during +the time when Shalmaneser was distracted by his Armenian wars, by +attacking the borders of Israel (2 Kings x. 32). + +Adad-nirari IV. invaded Syria and besieged Damascus in 806. Taking +advantage of this and similar succeeding events, Jehoash, king of +Israel, recovered the cities that his father had lost to Hazael. + +In 734 Ahaz became king of Judah, and Rezon (Rasun, Rezin), the king of +Damascus at the time, came up against him; at the same time the Edomites +and the Philistines revolted. Ahaz appealed to Tiglath-Pileser III., +king of Assyria, sent him gifts, and besought his protection. +Tiglath-Pileser invaded Syria, and in 732 succeeded in reducing Damascus +(see also BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA, _Chronology_, S 5, and JEWS, SS 10 +sqq.). + +Except for the abortive rising under Sargon in 720, we hear nothing more +of Damascus for a long period. In 333 B.C., after the battle of Issus, +it was delivered over by treachery to Parmenio, the general of Alexander +the Great; the harem and treasures of Darius had here been lodged. It +had a chequered history during the wars of the successors of Alexander, +being occasionally in Egyptian hands. In 112 B.C. the empire of Syria +was divided by Antiochus Grypus and Antiochus Cyzicenus; the city of +Damascus fell to the share of the latter. Hyrcanus took advantage of the +disputes of these rulers to advance his own kingdom. Demetrius Eucaerus, +successor of Cyzicenus, invaded Palestine in 88 B.C., and defeated +Alexander Jannaeus at Shechem. On his dethronement and captivity by the +Parthians, Antiochus Dionysus, his brother, succeeded him, but was slain +in battle by Haritha (Aretas) the Arab--the first instance of Arab +interference with Damascene politics. Haritha yielded to Tigranes, king +of Armenia, who in his turn was driven out by Q. Caecilius Metellus (son +of Scipio Nasica), the Roman general. In 63 Syria was made a Roman +province. + +In the New Testament Damascus appears only in connexion with the +miraculous conversion of St Paul (Acts ix., xxii., xxvi.), his escape +from Aretas the governor by being lowered in a basket over the wall +(Acts ix. 25; 2 Cor. xi. 32, 33), and his return thither after his +retirement in Arabia (Gal. i. 17). + +In 150, under Trajan, Damascus became a Roman provincial city. + +On the establishment of Christianity Damascus became the seat of a +bishop who ranked next to the patriarch of Antioch. The great temple of +Damascus was turned by Arcadius into a Christian church. + +In 635 Damascus was captured for Islam by Khalid ibn Walid, the great +general of the new religion, being the first city to yield after the +battle of the Yarmuk (Hieromax). After the murder of Ali, the fourth +caliph, his successor Moawiya transferred the seat of the Caliphate +(q.v.) from Mecca to Damascus and thus commenced the great dynasty of +the Omayyads, whose rule extended from the Atlantic to India. This +dynasty lasted about ninety years; it was supplanted by that of the +Abbasids, who removed the seat of empire to Mesopotamia; and Damascus +passed through a period of unrest in which it was captured and ravaged +by Egyptians, Carmathians and Seljuks in turn. The crusaders attacked +Damascus in 1126, but never succeeded in keeping a firm hold of it, even +during their brief domination of the country. It was the headquarters of +Saladin in the wars with the Franks. Of its later history we need only +mention the Mongolian capture in 1260; its Egyptian recapture by the +Mameluke Kotuz; the ferocious raid of Timur (Tamerlane) in 1399; and the +conquest by the Turkish sultan Selim, whereby it became a city of the +Ottoman empire (1516). In its more recent history the only incidents +that need be mentioned are its capture by Ibrahim Pasha, the Egyptian +general, in 1832, when the city was first opened to the representatives +of foreign powers; its revolt against Ibrahim's tyranny in 1834, which +he crushed with the aid of the Druses; the return of the city to Turkish +domination, when the Egyptians were driven out of Syria in 1840 by the +allied powers; and the massacre of July 1860, when the Moslem population +rose against the Christians, burnt their quarter, and slaughtered about +3000 adult males. + +_Modern City._--Damascus is a city with a population estimated at from +154,000 (35,000 Christians and Jews) to 225,000 (55,000 Christians and +Jews), situated near the northern edge of a plain called the Ghutah, at +the foot of Anti-Lebanon, 2250 ft. above the sea. The river Barada (the +_Abanah_ of 2 Kings v. 12) rises in the Anti-Lebanon, runs for about 10 +m. in a narrow channel, and then spreads itself fan-wise over the plain. +About 18 m. east of the city it loses itself in the marshlands known as +the Meadow Lakes. A second river, the 'Awaj (possibly the _Pharpar_ of 2 +Kings), pursues a similar course. The plain is thus exceptionally well +irrigated, and its consequent fertility is proverbial over the East. +Damascus is situated on both banks of the Barada, about 2 m. from the +exit of the river from the gorge. On the right bank is all the older +part of the city, and a long suburb called El-Meidan extending about a +mile along the Hajj Road. On the left bank are the suburbs El 'Amaara +and El-Salihia. The waters of the river are carried by channels and +conduits to all the houses of the city. The orchards, gardens, vineyards +and fields of Damascus are said to extend over a circuit of at least 60 +m. In the surrounding plain are one hundred and forty villages, occupied +in all by about 50,000 persons (1000 Christians, 2000 Druses). + +The rough mud walls in the private houses give poor promise of splendour +within. The entrance is usually by a low door, and through a narrow +winding passage which leads to the outer court, where the master has his +reception room. From this another winding passage leads to the harem, +which is the principal part of the house. The plan of all is the +same--an open court, with a tesselated pavement, and one or two marble +fountains; orange and lemon trees, flowering shrubs, and climbing plants +give freshness and fragrance. All the apartments open into the court; +and on the south side is an open alcove, with a marble floor, and raised +dais round three sides, covered with cushions; the front wall is +supported by an ornamented Saracenic arch. The decoration of some of the +rooms is gorgeous, the walls being covered in part with mosaics and in +part with carved work, while the ceilings are rich in arabesque +ornaments, elaborately gilt. A few of the modern Jewish houses have been +embellished at an enormous cost, but they are wanting in taste. + +_Antiquities._--Considering the great age of Damascus, its comparative +poverty in antiquities is remarkable. The walls of the city seem to be +Seleucid in origin; some of the Roman gateways being still in good +order. The _Derb el-Mistakiim_, or "Straight Street," still runs through +the city from the eastern to the western gate. At the north-west corner +is a large castle built in A.D. 1219, by El-Malik el-Ashraf, on the site +of an earlier palace. It is quadrangular, surrounded by a moat filled by +the Barada. The outer walls are in good preservation, but the interior +is ruined. + +The church of St John the Baptist constructed by Arcadius on the site of +the temple was turned by Caliph Walid I. (705-717) to a mosque which was +the most important building of Damascus. It was a structure 431 ft. by +125 ft. interior dimensions, extending along the south side of a +quadrangle 163 yds. by 108 yds. Except the famous inscription over the +door--"Thy kingdom, O Christ, is an everlasting kingdom, and thy +dominion endureth throughout all generations"--every trace of +Christianity was effaced from the church at its conversion. It was +destroyed by fire on the 14th of October 1893, and though it was +subsequently rebuilt, much that was of archaeological and historical +interest perished. It is estimated that there are over two hundred +mosques in Damascus. + +_Products, Manufactures, &c._--Damascus occupies an important commercial +position, being the market for the whole of the desert; it also is of +great importance religiously, as being the starting-point for the Hajj +pilgrimage from Syria to Mecca, which leaves on the 15th of the lunar +month of Shawwal each year. This of course brings much trade to the +city. Its chief manufactures are silk work, cloths and cloaks, gold and +silver ornaments, &c., brass and copper work, furniture and ornamental +woodwork. The bazaars of Damascus are among the most famous of their +kind. It is connected with Beirut and Mezerib by railway, and at the end +of the past century the great undertaking of running a line to Mecca was +commenced. In the surrounding gardens and fields walnuts, apricots, +wheat, barley, maize, &c. are grown. Its commercial importance is +referred to by Ezekiel (xxvii. 18), who mentions its trade in wines and +wool. The climate is good; in winter there is often hard frost and much +snow, and even in summer, with a day temperature of 100 deg. F., the +nights are always cool. Fever, dysentery and ophthalmia, chiefly due to +exposure to heavy dews and cold nights, are prevalent. Though still the +market of the nomads, the surer and cheaper sea route has almost +destroyed the transit trade to which it once owed its wealth, and has +even diminished the importance of the annual pilgrim caravan to Mecca. +The Damascene, however, still retains his skill as a craftsman and +tiller of the soil. The chief imports are cloths, prints, muslins, raw +silk, sugar, rice, &c. + +The value of exports and imports in certain specified years is shown in +the following table:-- + + +---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | | 1890. | 1894. | 1898. | 1905. | + +---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | Exports | L325,660 | L400,830 | L302,050 | L386,000 | + | Imports | 525,710 | 614,490 | 675,080 | 872,400 | + +---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + +Most of the Christians belong to the Orthodox and Roman Catholic +(United) Greek Churches; and there are also communities of Melchites, +Jacobites, Maronites, Nestorians, Armenians and Protestants. There are +Protestant missions, founded 1843, and a British hospital. + + AUTHORITIES.--Lortet, _La Syrie d'aujourd'hui_, p. 567 f. (Paris, + 1884); Von Oppenheim, _Vom Mittelmeer zum Persischen Golf_, i. 49 f. + (Berlin, 1899); G. A. Smith, _Historical Geography of the Holy Land_; + _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, art. "Damascus"; Consular Reports; + Baedeker-Socin, _Handbook to Syria and Palestine_. For the Great + Mosque see Dickie, Phene Spiers, and Sir C. W. Wilson in _Palestine + Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement_, Oct. 1897. (R. A. S. M.) + + + + +DAMASK, the technical term applied to certain distinct types of fabric. +The term owes its origin to the ornamental silk fabrics of Damascus, +fabrics which were elaborately woven in colours, sometimes with the +addition of gold and other metallic threads. At the present day it +denotes a linen texture richly figured in the weaving with flowers, +fruit, forms of animal life, and other types of ornament. "China, no +doubt," says Dr Rock (_Catalogue of Textile Fabrics_, Victoria and +Albert Museum), "was the first country to ornament its silken webs with +a pattern. India, Persia, and Syria, then Byzantine Greece followed, but +at long intervals between, in China's footsteps. Stuffs so figured +brought with them to the West the name 'diaspron' or diaper, bestowed +upon them at Constantinople. But about the 12th century the city of +Damascus, even then long celebrated for its looms, so far outstripped +all other places for beauty of design, that her silken textiles were in +demand everywhere; and thus, as often happens, traders fastened the name +of damascen or damask upon every silken fabric richly wrought and +curiously designed, no matter whether it came or not from Damascus." The +term is perhaps now best known in reference to damask table-cloths, a +species of figured cloth usually of flax or tow yarns, but sometimes +made partly of cotton. The finer qualities are made of the best linen +yarn, and, although the latter is of a brownish colour during the +weaving processes, the ultimate fabric is pure white. The high lights in +these cloths are obtained by long floats of warp and weft, and, as these +are set at right angles, they reflect the light differently according to +the angle of the rays of light; the effect changes also with the +position of the observer. Subdued effects are produced by shorter floats +of yarn, and sometimes by special weaves. Any subject, however +intricate, can be copied by this method of weaving, provided that +expense is no object. The finest results are obtained when the so-called +double damask weaves are used. These weaves are shown under DIE, and it +will be seen that each weave gives a maximum float of seven threads. (In +some special cases a weave is used which gives a float of nine.) The +small figure here shown to illustrate a small section of a damask design +is composed of the two single damask weaves; these give a maximum float +of four threads or picks. No shading is shown in the design, and this +for two reasons--(1) the single damask weaves do not permit of elaborate +shading, although some very good effects are obtainable; (2) the +available space is not sufficiently large to show the method to +advantage. The different single damask weaves used in the shading of +these cloths appear, however, at the bottom of the figure, while between +these and the design proper there is an illustration of the thirty-first +pick interweaving with all the forty-eight threads. + +[Illustration] + +The principal British centres for fine damasks are Belfast and +Dunfermline, while the medium qualities are made in several places in +Ireland, in a few places in England, and in the counties of Fife, Forfar +and Perth in Scotland. Cotton damasks, which are made in Paisley, +Glasgow, and several places in Lancashire, are used for toilet covers, +table-cloths, and similar purposes. They are often ornamented with +colours and sent to the Indian and West Indian markets. Silk damasks for +curtains and upholstery decoration are made in the silk-weaving centres. + + + + +DAMASK STEEL, or DAMASCUS STEEL, a steel with a peculiar watered or +streaked appearance, as seen in the blades of fine swords and other +weapons of Oriental manufacture. One way of producing this appearance is +to twist together strips of iron and steel of different quality and then +weld them into a solid mass. A similar but inferior result may be +obtained by etching with acid the surface of a metal; parts of which are +protected by some greasy substance in such a way as to give the watered +pattern desired. The art of producing damask steel has been generally +practised in Oriental countries from a remote period, the most famous +blades having come from Isfahan, Khorasan, and Shiraz in Persia. + + + + +DAMASUS, the name of two popes. + +DAMASUS I. was pope from 366 to 384. At the time of the banishment of +Pope Liberius (355), the deacon Damasus, like all the Roman clergy, made +energetic protest. When, however, the emperor Constantius sent to Rome +an anti-pope in the person of Felix II., Damasus, with the other clergy, +rallied to his cause. When Liberius returned from exile and Felix was +expelled from Rome, Damasus again took his place among the adherents of +Liberius. On the death of Liberius (366) a considerable party nominated +Damasus successor; but the irreconcilables of the party of Liberius +refused to pardon his trimming, and set up against him another deacon, +Ursinus. A serious conflict ensued between the rival factions, which +quickly led to rioting and hand-to-hand fighting. In one of these +encounters the then new basilica, called the Liberian Basilica (S. Maria +Maggiore), was partially destroyed, and 137 dead bodies were left in the +building. On several occasions the secular arm had to intervene, +although the government of the emperor Valentinian was averse from +involving itself in ecclesiastical affairs. From the outset the prefect +of Rome recognized the claims of Damasus, and exerted himself to support +him. Ursinus and the leading men of his faction were expelled from Rome, +and afterwards from central Italy, or even interned in Gaul. They, +however, persisted obstinately in their opposition to Damasus, combating +him at first by riots, and then by calumnious law-suits, such as that +instituted by one Isaac, a converted and relapsed Jew. + +To the official support, which never failed him, Damasus endeavoured to +join the popular sympathy. From before his election he had been in high +favour with the Roman aristocracy, and especially with the great ladies. +At that period the urban masses, but recently converted to Christianity, +sought in the worship of the martyrs a sort of substitute for +polytheism. Damasus showed great zeal in discovering the tombs of +martyrs, adorning them with precious marbles and monumental +inscriptions. The inscriptions he composed himself, in mediocre verse, +full of Virgilian reminiscences. Several have come down to us on the +original marbles, entire or in fragments; others are known from old +copies. In the interior of Rome he erected or embellished the church +which still bears his name (S. Lorenzo in Damaso), near which his +father's house appears to have stood. + +The West was recovering gradually from the troubles caused by the Arian +crisis. Damasus took part, more or less effectually, in the efforts to +eliminate from Italy and Illyria the last champions of the council of +Rimini. In spite of his declaration at the council convened by him in +372, he did not succeed in evicting Auxentius from Milan. But Auxentius +died soon afterwards, and his successor, Ambrose, undertook to bring +these hitherto abortive efforts to a successful conclusion, and to +complete the return of Illyria to the confessions of Nicaea. The bishops +of the East, however, under the direction of St Basil, were involved in +a struggle with the emperor Valens, whose policy was favourable to the +council of Rimini. Damasus, to whom they appealed for help, was unable +to be of much service to them, the more so because that episcopal group, +viewed askance by St Athanasius and his successor Peter, was incessantly +combated at the papal court by the inveterate hatred of Alexandria. The +Eastern bishops triumphed in the end under Theodosius, at the council of +Constantinople (381), in which the pope and the Western church took no +part. They were invited to a council of wider convocation, held at Rome +in 382, but very few attended. + +This council had brought to Rome the learned monk Jerome, for whom +Damasus showed great esteem. To him Damasus entrusted the revision of +the Latin text of the Bible and other works of religious erudition. A +short time before, the pope had received a visit from the +Priscillianists after their condemnation in Spain, and had dismissed +them. Damasus died in 384, on the 11th of December, the day on which his +memory is still celebrated. + +DAMASUS II., pope from the 17th of July to the 9th of August 1048, was +the ephemeral successor of Clement II. His original name was Poppo, and +he was bishop of Brixen when the emperor Henry III. raised him to the +papacy. (L. D.*) + + + + +DAMAUN or DAMAN, a town of Portuguese India, capital of the settlement +of Damaun, situated on the east side of the entrance of the Gulf of +Cambay within the Bombay Presidency. The area of the settlement is 82 +sq. m. Pop. (1900) 41,671. The settlement is divided into two parts, +Damaun proper, and the larger _pargana_ of Nagar Havili, the two being +separated by a narrow strip of British territory. The soil is fertile, +and rice, wheat and tobacco are the chief crops. The teak forests are +valuable. Weaving is an industry less important than formerly; mats and +baskets are manufactured, and deep-sea fishing is an important +industry. The shipbuilding business at the town of Damaun is important. +Early in the 19th century a large transit trade in opium between Karachi +and China was carried on at Damaun, but it ceased in 1837, when the +British prohibited it after their conquest of Sind. The settlement is +administered as a unit, and has a municipal chamber. + +Damaun town was sacked and burnt by the Portuguese in 1531. It was +subsequently rebuilt, and in 1558 was again taken by the Portuguese, who +made a permanent settlement and converted the mosque into a Christian +church. From that time it has remained in their hands. The territory of +Damaun proper was conquered by the Portuguese in 1559; that of Nagar +Havili was ceded to them by the Mahrattas in 1780 in indemnification for +piracy. + + + + +DAME (through the Fr. from Lat. _domina_, mistress, lady, the feminine +of _dominus_, master, lord), properly a name of respect or a title +equivalent to "lady," now surviving in English as the legal designation +of the wife or widow of a baronet or knight and prefixed to the +Christian name and surname. It has also been used in modern times by +certain societies or orders, e.g. the Primrose League, as the name of a +certain rank among the lady members, answering to the male rank of +knight. The ordinary use of the word by itself is for an old woman. As +meaning "mistress," i.e. teacher, "dame" was used of the female keepers +of schools for young children, which have become obsolete since the +advance of public elementary education. At Eton College boarding-houses +kept by persons other than members of the teaching staff of the school +were known as "Dames' Houses," though the head might not necessarily be +a lady. As a term of address to ladies of all ranks, from the sovereign +down, "madam," shortened to "ma'am," represents the French _madame_, my +lady. + +"Damsel," a young girl or maiden, now only used as a literary word, is +taken from the Old French _dameisele_, formed from _dame_, and parallel +with the popular _dansele_ or _doncele_ from the medieval Latin +_domicella_ or _dominicella_, diminutive of _domina_. The French +_damoiselle_ and _demoiselle_ are later formations. The English literary +form "damosel" was another importation from France in the 15th century. +In the early middle ages _damoiseau_, medieval Latin _domicellus_, +_dameicele_, _damoiselle_, _domicella_, were used as titles of honour +for the unmarried sons and daughters of royal persons and lords +(_seigneurs_). Later the _damoiseau_ (in the south _donzel_, in Bearn +_domengar_) was specifically a young man of gentle birth who aspired to +knighthood, equivalent to _ecuyer_, esquire, or valet (q.v.). The +_damoiseau_ performed certain functions and received training in +knightly accomplishments in the domestic service of his lord. Later +again the name was also used of nobles who had not been knighted. In +certain _seigneuries_ in France, notably in that of Commercy, in +Lorraine, _damoiseau_ became the permanent title of the holder. In +England the title, when used by the French-speaking nobility and members +of the court, was only applied to the son or grandson of the king; thus +in the _Laws of Edward the Confessor_, quoted in Du Cange (_Glossarium, +s.v. Domicellus_), we find "Rex vero Edgarum ... pro filio nutrivit et +quia cogitavit ipsum heredem facere, nominavit _Ethelinge_, quod nos +Domicellum, id, _Damisell_; sed nos indiscrete de pluribus dicimus, quia +Baronum filios vocamus domicellos, Angli vero nullos nisi natos regum." +Froissart calls Richard II. during the lifetime of his father the Black +Prince, _le jeune Demoisel_. The use of _damoiselle_ followed much the +same development; it was first applied to the unmarried daughters of +royal persons and _seigneurs_, then to the wife of a _damoiseau_, and +also to the young ladies of gentle birth who performed for the wives of +the _seigneurs_ the same domestic services as the _damoiseaus_ for their +husbands. Hence the later form _demoiselle_ became merely the title of +address of a young unmarried lady, the _mademoiselle_ of modern usage, +the English "miss." At the court of France, after the 17th century, +_Mademoiselle_, without the name of the lady, was a courtesy title given +to the eldest daughter of the eldest brother of the king, who was known +as _Monsieur_. To distinguish the daughter of Gaston d'Orleans, brother +of Louis XIII., from the daughter of Philippe d'Orleans, brother of +Louis XIV., the former, Anne Marie Louise, duchesse de Montpensier, was +called _La Grande Mademoiselle_, by which title she is known to history +(see MONTPENSIER, A. M. L., DUCHESSE DE). + + + + +DAME'S VIOLET, the English name for _Hesperis matronalis_, a herbaceous +plant belonging to the natural order Cruciferae, and closely allied to +the wallflower and stock. It has an erect stout leafy stem 2 to 3 ft. +high, with irregularly toothed short-stalked leaves and white or lilac +flowers, 3/4 in. across, which are scented in the evening (hence the name +of the genus, from the Gr. [Greek: hesperos], evening). The slender pods +are constricted between the seeds. The plant is a native of Europe and +temperate Asia, and is found in Britain as an escape from gardens, in +meadows and plantations. + + + + +DAMGHAN, a town of Persia in the province of Semnan va Damghan, 216 m. +from Teheran on the high-road thence to Khorasan, at an elevation of +3770 ft. and in 36 deg. 10' N., 54 deg. 20' E. Pop. about 10,000. There +are post and telegraph offices, and a great export trade is done in +pistachios and almonds, the latter being of the kind called _Kaghazi_ +("of paper") with very thin shells, famous throughout the country. +Damghan was an important city in the middle ages, but only a ruined +mosque with a number of massive columns and some fine wood carvings and +two minarets of the 11th century remain of that period. Near the city, a +few miles south and south-west, are the remains of Hecatompylos, +extending from Frat, 16 m. south of Damghan, to near Gusheh, 20 m. west. +Damghan was destroyed by the Afghans in 1723. On an eminence in the +western part of the city are the ruins of a large square citadel with a +small white-washed building, called _Molud Khaneh_ (the house of birth), +in which Fath Ali Shah was born (1772). + + + + +DAMIANI, PIETRO (c. 1007-1072), one of the most celebrated ecclesiastics +of the 11th century, was born at Ravenna, and after a youth spent in +hardship and privation, gained some renown as a teacher. About 1035, +however, he deserted his secular calling and entered the hermitage of +Fonte Avellana, near Gubbio; and winning sound reputation through his +piety and his preaching, he became the head of this establishment about +1043. A zealot for monastic and clerical reform, he introduced a more +severe discipline, including the practice of flagellation, into the +house, which, under his rule, quickly attained celebrity, and became a +model for other foundations. Extending the area of his activities, he +entered into communication with the emperor Henry III., addressed to +Pope Leo IX. in 1049 a writing denouncing the vices of the clergy and +entitled _Liber Gomorrhianus_; and soon became associated with +Hildebrand in the work of reform. As a trusted counsellor of a +succession of popes he was made cardinal bishop of Ostia, a position +which he accepted with some reluctance; and presiding over a council at +Milan in 1059, he courageously asserted the authority of Rome over this +province, and won a signal victory for the principles which he +advocated. He rendered valuable assistance to Pope Alexander II. in his +struggle with the anti-pope, Honorius II.; and having served the papacy +as legate to France and to Florence, he was allowed to resign his +bishopric in 1067. After a period of retirement at Fonte Avellana, he +proceeded in 1069 as papal legate to Germany, and persuaded the emperor +Henry IV. to give up his intention of divorcing his wife Bertha. During +his concluding years he was not altogether in accord with the political +ideas of Hildebrand. He died at Faenza on the 22nd of February 1072. +Damiani was a determined foe of simony, but his fiercest wrath was +directed against the married clergy. He was an extremely vigorous +controversialist, and his Latin abounds in denunciatory epithets. He was +specially devoted to the Virgin Mary, and wrote an _Officium Beatae +Virginis_, in addition to many letters, sermons, and other writings. + + His works were collected by Cardinal Cajetan, and were published in + four volumes at Rome (1606-1615), and then at Paris in 1642, at Venice + in 1743, and there are other editions. See A. Vogel, _Peter Damiani_ + (Jena, 1856); A. Capecelatro, _Storia di S. Pier Damiani e del suo + tempo_ (Florence, 1862); F. Neukirch, _Das Leben des Peter Damiani_ + (Gottingen, 1875); L. Guerrier, _De Petro Damiano_ (Orleans, 1881); W. + von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_ (Leipzig, + 1885-1890); and Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, Band iv. (Leipzig, + 1898). + + + + +DAMIEN, FATHER, the name in religion of JOSEPH DE VEUSTER (1840-1889), +Belgian missionary, was born at Tremeloo, near Louvain, on the 3rd of +January 1840. He was educated for a business career, but in his +eighteenth year entered the Church, joining the Society of the Sacred +Heart of Jesus and Mary (also known as the Picpus Congregation), and +taking Damien as his name in religion. In October 1863, while he was +still in minor orders, he went out as a missionary to the Pacific +Islands, taking the place of his brother, who had been prevented by an +illness. He reached Honolulu in March 1864, and was ordained priest in +Whitsuntide of that year. Struck with the sad condition of the lepers, +whom it was the practice of the Hawaian government to deport to the +island of Molokai, he conceived an earnest desire to mitigate their lot, +and in 1873 volunteered to take spiritual charge of the settlement at +Molokai. Here he remained for the rest of his life, with occasional +visits to Honolulu, until he became stricken with leprosy in 1885. +Besides attending to the spiritual needs of the lepers, he managed, by +the labour of his own hands and by appeals to the Hawaian government, to +improve materially the water-supply, the dwellings, and the victualling +of the settlement. For five years he worked alone; subsequently other +resident priests from time to time assisted him. He succumbed to leprosy +on the 15th of April 1889. Some ill-considered imputations upon Father +Damien by a Presbyterian minister produced a memorable tract by Robert +Louis Stevenson (_An Open Letter to the Rev. Dr Hyde_, 1890). + + See also lives by E. Clifford (1889) and Fr. Pamphile (1889). + (J. M'F.) + + + + +DAMIENS, ROBERT FRANCOIS (1715-1757), a Frenchman who attained notoriety +by his attack on Louis XV. of France in 1757, was born in a village near +Arras in 1715, and early enlisted in the army. After his discharge, he +became a menial in the college of the Jesuits in Paris, and was +dismissed from this as well as from other employments for misconduct, +his conduct earning for him the name of Robert le Diable. During the +disputes of Clement XI. with the parlement of Paris the mind of Damiens +seems to have been excited by the ecclesiastical disorganization which +followed the refusal of the clergy to grant the sacraments to the +Jansenists and Convulsionnaires; and he appears to have thought that +peace would be restored by the death of the king. He, however, asserted, +perhaps with truth, that he only intended to frighten the king without +wounding him severely. On the 5th of January 1757, as the king was +entering his carriage, he rushed forward and stabbed him with a knife, +inflicting only a slight wound. He made no attempt to escape, and was at +once seized. He was condemned as a regicide, and sentenced to be torn in +pieces by horses in the Place de Greve. Before being put to death he was +barbarously tortured with red-hot pincers, and molten wax, lead, and +boiling oil were poured into his wounds. After his death his house was +razed to the ground, his brothers and sisters were ordered to change +their names, and his father, wife, and daughter were banished from +France. + + See _Pieces originales et procedures du proces fait a Robert Francois + Damiens_ (Paris, 1757). + + + + +DAMIETTA, a town of Lower Egypt, on the eastern (Damietta or Phatnitic) +branch of the Nile, about 12 m. above its mouth, and 125 m. N.N.E. of +Cairo by rail. Pop. (1907) 29,354. The town is built on the east bank of +the river between it and Lake Menzala. Though in general ill-built and +partly ruinous, the town possesses some fine mosques, with lofty +minarets, public baths and busy bazaars. Along the river-front are many +substantial houses furnished with terraces, and with steps leading to +the water. Their wooden lattices of saw-work are very graceful. After +Cairo and Alexandria, Damietta was for centuries the largest town in +Egypt, but the silting up of the entrance to the harbour, the rise of +Port Said, and the remarkable development of Alexandria have robbed +Damietta of its value as a port. It has still, however, a coasting trade +with Syria and the Levant. Ships over 6 ft. draught cannot enter the +river, but must anchor in the offing. Lake Menzala yields large +supplies of fish, which are dried and salted, and these, with rice, +furnish the chief articles of trade. + +Damietta is a Levantine corruption of the Coptic name _Tamiati_, Arabic +_Dimyat_. The original town was 4 m. nearer the sea than the modern +city, and first rose into importance on the decay of Pelusium. When it +passed into the hands of the Saracens it became a place of great wealth +and commerce, and, as the eastern bulwark of Egypt, was frequently +attacked by the crusaders. The most remarkable of these sieges lasted +eighteen months, from June 1218 to November 1219, and ended in the +capture of the town, which was, however, held but for a brief period. In +June 1249 Louis IX. of France occupied Damietta without opposition, but +being defeated near Mansura in the February following, and compelled +(6th April) to surrender himself prisoner, Damietta was restored to the +Moslems as part of the ransom exacted. To prevent further attacks from +the sea the Mameluke sultan Bibars blocked up the Phatnitic mouth of the +Nile (about 1260), razed old Damietta to the ground, and transferred the +inhabitants to the site of the modern town. It continued to be a place +of commercial importance for a considerable period, until in fact Port +Said gave the eastern part of the Delta a better port. Damietta gives +its name to dimity, a kind of striped cloth, for which the place was at +one time famous. Cotton and silk goods are still manufactured here. + + + + +DAMIRI, the common name of KAMAL UD-DIN MUHAMMAD IBN MUSA UD-DAMIRI +(1344-1405), Arabian writer on canon law and natural history, belonged +to one of the two towns called Damira near Damietta and spent his life +in Egypt. Of the Shafi'ite school of law, he became professor of +tradition in the _Rukniyya_ at Cairo, and also at the mosque el-Azhar; +in connexion with this work he wrote a commentary on the _Minhaj +ut-Talibin_ of Nawawi (q.v.). He is, however, better known in the +history of literature for his _Life of Animals_ (_Hayat ul-Hayawan_), +which treats in alphabetic order of 931 animals mentioned in the Koran, +the traditions and the poetical and proverbial literature of the Arabs. +The work is a compilation from over 500 prose writers and nearly 200 +poets. The correct spelling of the names of the animals is given with an +explanation of their meanings. The use of the animals in medicine, their +lawfulness or unlawfulness as food, their position in folk-lore are the +main subjects treated, while occasionally long irrelevant sections on +political history are introduced. + + The work exists in three forms. The fullest has been published several + times in Egypt; a mediate and a short recension exist in manuscript. + Several editions have been made at various times of extracts, among + them the poetical one by Suyuti (q.v.), which was translated into + Latin by A. Ecchelensis (Paris, 1667). Bochartus in his _Hierozoicon_ + (1663) used Damiri's work. There is a translation of the whole into + English by Lieutenant-Colonel Jayakar (Bombay, 1906-1908). + (G. W. T.) + + + + +DAMIRON, JEAN PHILIBERT (1794-1862), French philosopher, was born at +Belleville. At nineteen he entered the normal school, where he studied +under Burnouf, Villemain, and Cousin. After teaching for several years +in provincial towns, he came to Paris, where he lectured on philosophy +in various institutions, and finally became professor in the normal +school, and titular professor at the Sorbonne. In 1824 he took part with +P. F. Dubois and Th. S. Jouffroy in the establishment of the _Globe_; +and he was also a member of the committee of the society which took for +its motto _Aide-toi, le ciel t'aidera_. In 1833 he was appointed +chevalier of the Legion of Honour, and in 1836 member of the Academy of +Moral Sciences. Damiron died at Paris on the 11th of January 1862. + +The chief works of Damiron, of which the best are his accounts of French +philosophers, are the following:--An edition of the _Nouveaux melanges +philosophiques de Jouffroy_ (1842), with a notice of the author, in +which Damiron softened and omitted several expressions used by Jouffroy, +which were opposed to the system of education adopted by the Sorbonne, +an article which gave rise to a bitter controversy, and to a book by +Pierre Leroux, _De la mutilation des manuscrits de M. Jouffroy_ (1843); +_Essai sur l'histoire de la philosophie en France au XIX^e siecle_ +(1828, 3rd ed. 1834); _Essai sur l'histoire de la philosophie en France +au XVII. siecle_ (1846); _Memoires a servir pour l'histoire de la +philosophie en France au XVIII. siecle_ (1858-1864); _Cours de la +philosophie_; _De la Providence_ (1849, 1850). + + See A. Franck, _Moralistes et philosophes_ (1872). + + + + +DAMJANICH, JANOS (1804-1849), Hungarian soldier, was born at Stasa in +the Banat. He entered the army as an officer in the 61st regiment of +foot, and on the outbreak of the Hungarian war of independence was +promoted to be a major in the third Honved regiment at Szeged. Although +an orthodox Serb, he was from the first a devoted adherent of the Magyar +liberals. He won his colonelcy by his ability and valour at the battles +of Alibunar and Lagerdorf in 1848. At the beginning of 1849 he was +appointed commander of the 3rd army corps in the middle Theiss, and +quickly gained the reputation of being the bravest man in the Magyar +army, winning engagement after engagement by sheer dash and daring. At +the beginning of March 1849 he annihilated a brigade at Szolnok, perhaps +his greatest exploit. He was elected deputy for Szolnok to the Hungarian +diet, but declined the honour. Damjanich played a leading part in the +general advance upon the Hungarian capital under Gorgei. He was present +at the engagements of Hort and Hatvan, converted the doubtful fight of +Tapio-Bicsk into a victory, and fought with irresistible _elan_ at the +bloody battle of Isaszeg. At the ensuing review at Godollo, Kossuth +expressed the sentiments of the whole nation when he doffed his hat as +Damjanich's battalions passed by. Always a fiery democrat, Damjanich +uncompromisingly supported the extremist views of Kossuth, and was +appointed commander of one of the three divisions which, under Gorgei, +entered Vacz in April 1849. His fame reached its culmination when, on +the 19th of April, he won the battle of Nagysarlo, which led to the +relief of the hardly-pressed fortress of Komarom. At this juncture +Damjanich broke his leg, an accident which prevented him from taking +part in field operations at the most critical period of the war, when +the Magyars had to abandon the capital for the second time. He recovered +sufficiently, however, to accept the post of commandant of the fortress +of Arad. After the Vilagos catastrophe, Damjanich, on being summoned to +surrender, declared he would give up the fortress to a single company of +Cossacks, but would defend it to the last drop of his blood against the +whole Austrian army. He accordingly surrendered to the Russian general +Demitrius Buturlin (1790-1849), by whom he was handed over to the +Austrians, who shot him in the market-place of Arad a few days later. + + See Odon Hamvay, _Life of Janos Damjanich_ (Hung.), (Budapest, 1904). + (R. N. B.) + + + + +DAMMAR, or DAMMER (Hind, _damar_ = resin, pitch), a resin, or rather +series of resins, obtained from various coniferous trees of the genus +_Dammara_ (_Agathis_). East Indian dammar or cat's eye resin is the +produce of _Dammara orientalis_, which grows in Java, Sumatra, Borneo +and other eastern islands and sometimes attains a height of 80-100 ft. +It oozes in large quantities from the tree in a soft viscous state, with +a highly aromatic odour, which, however, it loses as it hardens by +exposure. The resin is much esteemed in oriental communities for +incense-burning. Dammar is imported into England by way of Singapore; +and as found in British markets it is a hard, transparent, brittle, +straw-coloured resin, destitute of odour. It is readily soluble in +ether, benzol and chloroform, and with oil of turpentine it forms a fine +transparent varnish which dries clear, smooth and hard. The allied kauri +gum, or dammar of New Zealand (Australian dammar), is produced by +_Dammara australis_, or kauri-pine, the wood of which is used for wood +paving. Much of the New Zealand resin is found fossil in circumstances +analogous to the conditions under which the fossil copal of Zanzibar is +obtained. Dammar is besides a generic Indian name for various other +resins, which, however, are little known in western commerce. Of these +the principal are black dammar (the Hindustani _kala-damar_), yielded by +_Canarium strictum_, and white dammar, Indian copal, or piney varnish +(_sufed-damar_), the produce of _Vateria indica_. Sal dammar (_damar_) +is obtained from _Shorea robusta_; _Hopea micrantha_ is the source of +rock dammar (the Malay _dammer-batu_); and other species yield resins +which are similarly named and differ little in physical properties. + + + + +DAMMARTIN, a small town of France, in the department of Seine et Marne, +22 m. N.E. of Paris. It is well situated on a hill forming part of the +plateau of la Goele, and is known as Dammartin-en-Goele to distinguish +it from Dammartin-sous-Tigeaux, a small commune in the same department. +Dammartin is historically important as the seat of a countship of which +the holders played a considerable part in French history. The earliest +recorded count of Dammartin was a certain Hugh, who made himself master +of the town in the 10th century; but his dynasty was replaced by another +family in the 11th century. Reynald I. (Renaud), count of Dammartin (d. +1227), who was one of the coalition crushed by King Philip Augustus at +the battle of Bouvines (1214), left two co-heiresses, of whom the elder, +Maud (Matilda or Mahaut), married Philip Hurepel, son of Philip +Augustus, and the second, Alix, married Jean de Trie, in whose line the +countship was reunited after the death of Philip Hurepel's son Alberic. +The countship passed, through heiresses, to the houses of Fayel and +Nanteuil, and in the 15th century was acquired by Antoine de Chabannes +(d. 1488), one of the favourites of King Charles VII., by his marriage +with Marguerite, heiress of Reynald V. of Nanteuil-Aci and Marie of +Dammartin. This Antoine de Chabannes, count of Dammartin in right of his +wife, fought under the standard of Joan of Arc, became a leader of the +_Ecorcheurs_, took part in the war of the public weal against Louis XI., +and then fought for him against the Burgundians. The collegiate church +at Dammartin was founded by him in 1480, and his tomb and effigy are in +the chancel. His son, Jean de Chabannes, left three heiresses, of whom +the second left a daughter who brought the countship to Philippe de +Boulainvilliers, by whose heirs it was sold in 1554 to the dukes of +Montmorency. In 1632 the countship was confiscated by Louis XIII. and +bestowed on the princes of Conde. + + + + +DAMME, a decayed city of Belgium, 5 m. N.E. of Bruges, once among the +most important commercial ports of Europe. It is situated on the canal +from Bruges to Sluys (Ecluse), but in the middle ages a navigable +channel or river called the Zwyn gave ships access to it from the North +Sea. The great naval battle of Sluys, in which Edward III. destroyed the +French fleet and secured the command of the channel, was fought in the +year 1340 at the mouth of the Zwyn. About 1395 this channel began to +show signs of silting up, and during the next hundred years the process +proved rapid. In 1490 a treaty was signed at Damme between the people of +Bruges and the archduke Maximilian, and very soon after this event the +channel became completely closed up, and the foreign merchant gilds or +"nations" left the place for Antwerp. This signified the death of the +port and was indirectly fatal to Bruges as well. The marriage of Charles +the Bold and Margaret of York, sister of Edward IV., was celebrated at +Damme on the 2nd of July 1468. It will give some idea of the importance +of the town to mention that it had its own maritime law, known as _Droit +maritime de Damme_. The new ship canal from Zeebrugge will not revive +the ancient port, as it follows a different route, leaving Damme and +Ecluse quite untouched. Damme, although long neglected, preserves some +remains of its former prosperity, thanks to its remoteness from the area +of international strife in the Low Countries. The tower of Notre Dame, +dating from 1180, is a landmark across the dunes, and the church behind +it, although a shell, merits inspection. Out of a portion of the ancient +markets a hotel-de-ville of modest dimensions has been constructed, and +in the hospital of St Jean are a few pictures. Camille Lemonnier has +given in one of his _Causeries_ a striking picture of this faded scene +of former greatness, now a solitude in which the few residents seem +spectres rather than living figures. + + + + +DAMOCLES, one of the courtiers of the elder Dionysius of Syracuse. When +he spoke in extravagant terms of the happiness of his sovereign, +Dionysius is said to have invited him to a sumptuous banquet, at which +he found himself seated under a naked sword suspended by a single hair +(Cicero, _Tusc._ v. 21; Horace, _Odes_, iii. 1, 17; Persius iii. 40). + + + + +DAMOH, a town and district of British India, in the Jubbulpore division +of the Central Provinces. The town has a railway station, 48 m. E. of +Saugor. Pop. (1901) 13,355. It has a considerable cattle-market, and a +number of small industries, such as weaving, dyeing and pottery-making. + +The DISTRICT OF DAMOH has an area of 2816 sq. m. Except on the south and +east, where the offshoots from the surrounding hills and patches of +jungle break up the country, the district consists of open plains of +varying degrees of fertility, interspersed with low ranges and isolated +heights. The richest tracts lie in the centre. The gentle declivity of +the surface and the porous character of the prevailing sandstone +formation render the drainage excellent. All the streams flow from south +to north. The Sunar and the Bairma, the two principal rivers, traverse +the entire length of the district. Little use has been made of any of +the rivers for irrigation, though in many places they offer great +facilities for the purpose. Damoh was first formed into a separate +district in 1861. In 1901 the population was 285,326, showing a decrease +of 12% in one decade due to famine. Damoh suffered severely from the +famine of 1896-1897. Fortunately the famine of 1900 was little felt. A +branch of the Indian Midland railway was opened throughout from Saugor +to Katni in January 1899. + + + + +DAMON, of Syracuse, a Pythagorean, celebrated for his disinterested +affection for Phintias (not, as commonly given, Pythias), a member of +the same sect. Condemned to death by Dionysius the Elder (or Younger) of +Syracuse, Phintias begged to be set at liberty for a short time that he +might arrange his affairs. Damon pledged his life for the return of his +friend; and Phintias faithfully returned before the appointed day of +execution. The tyrant, to express his admiration of their fidelity, +released both the friends and begged to be admitted to their friendship +(Diod. Sic. x. 4; Cicero, _De Off._ iii. 10). Hyginus (_Fab._ 257, who +is followed by Schiller in his ballad, _Die Burgschaft_) tells a similar +story, in which the two friends are named Moerus and Selinuntius. + + + + +DAMOPHON, a Greek sculptor of Messene, who executed many statues for the +people of Messene, Megalopolis, Aegium and other cities of Peloponnesus. +Considerable fragments, including three colossal heads from a group by +him representing Demeter, Persephone, Artemis and the giant Anytus, have +been discovered on the site of Lycosura in Arcadia, where was a temple +of the goddess called "The Mistress." They are preserved in part in the +museum at Athens and partly on the spot. Hence there has arisen a great +controversy as to the date of the artist, who has been assigned to +various periods, from the 4th century B.C. to the 2nd A.D. A good +account of the whole matter will be found in Frazer's _Pausanias_, iv. +372-379. Frazer wisely inclines to an early date; it is in fact +difficult to find any period, when the cities mentioned were in a +position to found temples, later than the time of Alexander. + + + + +DAMP, a common Teutonic word, meaning vapour or mist (cf. Ger. _Dampf_, +steam), and hence moisture. In its primitive sense the word persists in +the vocabulary of coal-miners. Their "firedamp" (formerly fulminating +damp) is marsh gas, which, when mixed with air and exploded, produced +"choke damp," "after damp," or "suffocating damp" (carbon dioxide). +"Black damp" consists of accumulations of irrespirable gases, mostly +nitrogen, which cause the lights to burn dimly, and the term "white +damp" is sometimes applied to carbon monoxide. As a verb, the word means +to stifle or check; hence damped vibrations or oscillations are those +which have been reduced or stopped, instead of being allowed to die out +naturally; the "dampers" of the piano are small pieces of felt-covered +wood which fall upon the strings and stop their vibrations as the keys +are allowed to rise; and the "damper" of a chimney or flue, by +restricting the draught, lessens the rate of combustion. + + + + +DAMPIER, WILLIAM (1652-1715), English buccaneer, navigator and +hydrographer, was born at East Coker, Somersetshire, in 1652 (baptized +8th of June). Having early become an orphan, he was placed with the +master of a ship at Weymouth, in which he made a voyage to Newfoundland. +On his return he sailed to Bantam in the East Indies. He served in 1673 +in the Dutch War under Sir Edward Sprague, and was present at two +engagements (28th of May; 4th of June); but then fell sick and was put +ashore. In 1674 he became an under-manager of a Jamaica estate, but +continued only a short time in this situation. He afterwards engaged in +the coasting trade, and thus acquired an accurate knowledge of all the +ports and bays of the island. He made two voyages to the Bay of +Campeachy (1675-1676), and remained for some time with the +logwood-cutters, varying this occupation with buccaneering. In 1678 he +returned to England, again visiting Jamaica in 1679 and joining a party +of buccaneers, with whom he crossed the Isthmus of Darien, spent the +year 1680 on the Peruvian coast, and sacking, plundering and burning, +made his way down to Juan Fernandez Island. After serving with another +privateering expedition in the Spanish Main, he went to Virginia and +engaged with a captain named Cook for a privateering voyage against the +Spaniards in the South Seas. They sailed in August 1683, touched at the +Guinea coast, and then proceeded round Cape Horn into the Pacific. +Having touched at Juan Fernandez, they made the coast of South America, +cruising along Chile and Peru. They took some prizes, and with these +they proceeded to the Galapagos Islands and to Mexico, which last they +fell in with near Cape Blanco. While they lay here Captain Cook died, +and the command devolved on Captain Davis, who, with several other +pirate vessels, English and French, raided the west American shores for +the next year, attacking Guayaquil, Puebla Nova, &c. At last Dampier, +leaving Davis, went on board Swan's ship, and proceeded with him along +the northern parts of Mexico as far as southern California. Swan then +proposed, as the expedition met with "bad success" on the Mexican coast, +to run across the Pacific and return by the East Indies. They started +from Cape Corrientes on the 31st of March 1686, and reached Guam in the +Ladrones on the 20th of May; the men, having almost come to an end of +their rations, had decided to kill and eat their leaders next, beginning +with the "lusty and fleshy" Swan. After six months' drunkenness and +debauchery in the Philippines, the majority of the crew, including +Dampier, left Swan and thirty-six others behind in Mindanao, cruised +(1687-1688) from Manila to Pulo Condore, from the latter to China, and +from China to the Spice Islands and New Holland (the Australian +mainland). In March 1688 they were off Sumatra, and in May off the +Nicobars, where Dampier was marooned (at his own request, as he +declares, for the purpose of establishing a trade in ambergris) with two +other Englishmen, a Portuguese and some Malays. He and his companions +contrived to navigate a canoe to Achin in Sumatra; but the fatigues and +distress of the voyage proved fatal to several and nearly carried off +Dampier himself. After making several voyages to different places of the +East Indies (Tongking, Madras, &c.), he acted for some time, and +apparently somewhat unwillingly, as gunner to the English fort of +Benkulen. Thence he ultimately contrived to return to England in 1691. + +In 1699 he was sent out by the English admiralty in command of the +"Roebuck," especially designed for discovery in and around Australia. He +sailed from the Downs, the 14th of January, with twenty months' +provisions, touched at the Canaries, Cape Verdes and Bahia, and ran from +Brazil round the Cape of Good Hope direct to Australia, whose west coast +he reached on the 26th of July, in about 26 deg. S. lat. Anchoring in +Shark's Bay, he began a careful exploration of the neighbouring +shore-lands, but found no good harbour or estuary, no fresh water or +provisions. In September, accordingly, he left Australia, recruited and +refitted at Timor, and thence made for New Guinea, where he arrived on +the 3rd of December. By sailing along to its easternmost extremity, he +discovered that it was terminated by an island, which he named New +Britain (now Neu Pommern), whose north, south and east coasts he +surveyed. That St George's Bay was really St George's Channel, dividing +the island into two, was not perceived by Dampier; it was the discovery +of his successor, Philip Carteret. Nor did Dampier visit the west coast +of New Britain or realize its small extent on that side. He was +prevented from prosecuting his discoveries by the discontent of his men +and the state of his ship. In May 1700 he was again at Timor, and thence +he proceeded homeward by Batavia (4th July-17th October) and the Cape of +Good Hope. In February 1701 he arrived off Ascension Island, when the +vessel foundered (21st-24th February), the crew reaching land and +staying in the island till the 3rd of April, when they were conveyed to +England by some East Indiamen and warships bound for home. In 1703-1707 +Dampier commanded two government privateers on an expedition to the +South Seas with grievous unsuccess; better fortune attended him on his +last voyage, as pilot to Woodes Rogers in the circumnavigation of +1708-1711. On the former venture Alexander Selkirk, the master of one of +the vessels, was marooned at Juan Fernandez; on the latter Selkirk was +rescued and a profit of nearly L200,000 was made. But four years before +the prize-money was paid Dampier died (March 1715) in St Stephen's +parish, Coleman Street, London. Dampier's accounts of his voyages are +famous. He had a genius for observation, especially of the scientific +phenomena affecting a seaman's life; his style is usually +admirable--easy, clear and manly. His knowledge of natural history, +though not scientific, appears surprisingly accurate and trustworthy. + + See Dampier's _New Voyage Round the World_ (1697); his _Voyages and + Descriptions_ (1699), a work supplementary to the _New Voyage_; his + _Voyage to New Holland in ... 1699_ (1703, 1709); also Funnell's + Narrative of the Voyage of 1703-1707; Dampier's _Vindication of his + Voyage_ (1707); Welbe's _Answer to Captain Dampier's Vindication_; + Woodes Rogers, _Cruising Voyage Round the World_ (1712). + (C. R. B.) + + + + +DAN (from a Hebrew word meaning "judge"), a tribe of Israel, named after +a son of Jacob and Bilhah, the maid of Rachel. The meaning of the name +(referred to in Gen. xxx. 5 seq., xlix. 16) connects Dan with Dinah +("judgment"), the daughter of Leah, whose story in Gen. xxxiv. (cf. +xlix. 5 seq.) seems to point to an Israelite occupation of Shechem, a +treacherous massacre of its Canaanite inhabitants by Simeon and Levi, +and the subsequent scattering of the latter. But, historically, the +occupation of Shechem, whether by conquest (Gen. xlviii. 22) or purchase +(xxxiii. 19), is as obscure as the conquest of central Palestine itself +(see JOSHUA), and the true relation between Dan and Dinah is uncertain. +The earliest seats of Dan lay at Zorah, Eshtaol and Kirjath-jearim, west +of Jerusalem, whence they were forced to seek a new home, and a valuable +narrative detailing some of the events of the move is preserved in the +story of the sanctuary of the Ephraimite Micah (q.v.). Laish (Leshem) +was taken with the sword and re-named Dan (see below). Here a sanctuary +was founded under the guardianship of Jonathan, the grandson of Moses, +which survived until the "captivity of the land" (by Tiglath-Pileser IV. +in 733-732), or, according to another notice, until the fall of Shiloh +(Judg. xviii. 30 seq.). Dan formed the northern limit of the land,[1] +and with Abel (-beth-Maacah) was an old place renowned for Israelite +lore (2 Sam. xx. 18; on the text see the commentaries). Little can be +made of Dan's history. The reference to it as a seafaring folk (Judg. v. +17) is difficult, and it is uncertain whether its character as +represented in Gen. xlix. 17, Deut. xxxiii. 22, refers to its earlier or +later seat. The post-exilic accounts of its southern border would make +it part of Judah, and both of them are in tradition the greatest of the +tribes in the wanderings in the wilderness. Dan was subsequently either +regarded as the embodiment of wickedness or entirely ignored; late +speculation that the Antichrist should spring from it appears to be +based upon an interpretation of Gen. xlix. 17 (see further R. H. +Charles, _Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs_, pp. 128 seq.). + +A brief record of the Danite migration is found in some old detached +fragments which K. Budde (_Richter und Samuel_) ingeniously arranges +thus:--Judg. i. 34 (Amorite pressure); Josh. xix. 47a (see the +Septuagint), 47_b_; Judg. i. 35. The position of Judg. xvii. seq. +(after the stories of Samson) may imply that the Philistines, not the +Amorites, caused the migration (cf. 1 Sam. vii. 14, where the two +ethnical terms interchange). The Mosaic priesthood and the reference to +Shiloh suggest that the story of Eli may have belonged to this cycle of +narratives; and the spoliation of the unknown sanctuary of the +Ephraimite Micah and the character of the fierce Puritan tribesmen +connect Dan with the problems of the tribes of Simeon and Levi. Dan's +northern home lay near Beth-rehob, which appears to have been Aramean in +David's time (2 Sam. x. 6), and it is possible that the migration has +been antedated (cf. similarly the case of Jair, Num. xxxii. 41, Judg. x. +3-5). The Tyrian artificer sent to Solomon by Hiram was partly of Danite +descent (2 Chron. ii. 13 seq.; but of Naphtali, so 1 Kings vii. 14); and +of the two workers in brass who took part in the building of the +tabernacle in the desert, one was Danite (Oholiab, Ex. xxxi. 6), while +the other appears to have been Calebite (Bezalel, ib., v. 2; 1 Chron. +ii. 20). The Kenites, too, have been regarded as a race of metal-workers +(see CAIN, KENITES), and there is evidence which would show that +Danites, Calebites and Kenites were once closely associated in +tradition. + + See S. A. Cook, _Critical Notes_, Index, _s.v._: E. Meyer, + _Israeliten_, pp. 525 seq. (S. A. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] On the late phrase "Dan to Beersheba" as the extreme points of + religious life in Israel, see H. W. Hogg, _Expositor_, viii. 411-421 + (1898); and for a complete discussion of the tribe, his art. "Dan" in + _Encyc. Bib._ + + + + +DAN, a town of ancient Israel, near the head-waters of the Jordan, +inhabited before its conquest by the Danites by a peaceful commercial +population who called their city Laish or Leshem (Josh. xix. 47, Judg. +xviii.). It appears to have been even at this early period a sacred +city, the shrine of Micah being removed hither, and it was chosen by +Jeroboam as the site of one of his calf-shrines. It makes the north +limit of Palestine in the proverbial expression "from Dan to Beersheba." +The town was plundered by Benhadad of Damascus, and appears from that +time to have gradually declined. Its site is sought in the mound called +Tell-el-Kadi, "the hill of the judge" (Dan = "judge" in Hebrew), though +weighty authorities incline to place it 4 m. east of this, at Banias, +the old Caesarea Philippi. (See above.) + + + + +DANA, CHARLES ANDERSON (1819-1897), American journalist, was born in +Hinsdale, New Hampshire, on the 8th of August 1819. At the age of twelve +he became a clerk in his uncle's general store at Buffalo, which failed +in 1837. In 1839 he entered Harvard, but the impairment of his eyesight +in 1841 forced him to leave college, and caused him to abandon his +intention of entering the ministry and of studying in Germany. From +September 1841 until March 1846 he lived at Brook Farm, where he was +made one of the trustees of the farm, was head waiter when the farm +became a Fourierite phalanx, and was in charge of the phalanstery's +finances when its buildings were burned in 1846. He had previously +written for (and managed) the _Harbinger_, the Brook Farm organ, and had +written as early as 1844 for the Boston _Chronotype_. In 1847 he joined +the staff of the New York _Tribune_, and in 1848 he wrote from Europe +letters to it and other papers on the revolutionary movements of that +year. Returning to the _Tribune_ in 1849, he became its managing-editor, +and in this capacity actively promoted the anti-slavery cause, seeming +to shape the paper's policy at a time when Greeley was undecided and +vacillating. In 1862 his resignation was asked for by the board of +managers of the _Tribune_, apparently because of wide temperamental +differences between him and Greeley. Secretary of War Stanton +immediately made him a special investigating agent of the war +department; in this capacity Dana discovered frauds of quartermasters +and contractors, and as the "eyes of the administration," as Lincoln +called him, he spent much time at the front, and sent to Stanton +frequent reports concerning the capacity and methods of various generals +in the field; he went through the Vicksburg campaign and was at +Chickamauga and Chattanooga, and urged the placing of General Grant in +supreme command of all the armies in the field. Dana was second +assistant-secretary of war in 1864-1865, and in 1865-1866 conducted the +newly-established and unsuccessful Chicago _Republican_. He became the +editor and part-owner of the New York _Sun_ in 1868, and remained in +control of it until his death at Glen Cove, Long Island, New York, on +the 17th of October 1897. Under Dana's control the _Sun_ opposed the +impeachment of President Johnson; it supported Grant for the presidency +in 1868; it was a sharp critic of Grant as president; and in 1872 took +part in the Liberal Republican revolt and urged Greeley's nomination. It +favoured Tilden, the Democratic candidate for the presidency, in 1876, +opposed the Electoral Commission and continually referred to Hayes as +the "fraud president." In 1884 it supported Benjamin F. Butler, the +candidate of Greenback-Labor and Anti-Monopolist parties, for the +presidency, and opposed Blaine (Republican) and even more bitterly +Cleveland (Democrat); it supported Cleveland and opposed Harrison in +1888, although it had bitterly criticized Cleveland's first +administration, and was to criticize nearly every detail of his second, +with the exception of Federal interference in the Pullman strike of +1894; and in 1896, on the free-silver issue, it opposed Bryan, the +Democratic candidate for the presidency. Dana's literary style came to +be the style of the _Sun_--simple, strong, clear, "boiled down." _The +Art of Newspaper Making_, containing three lectures which he wrote on +journalism, was published in 1900. With George Ripley he edited _The New +American Cyclopaedia_ (15 vols., 1857-1863), reissued as the _American +Cyclopaedia_ in 1873-1876. He had excellent taste in the fine arts and +edited an anthology, _The Household Book of Poetry_ (1857). He was a +very good linguist, published several versions from the German, and read +the Romance and Scandinavian languages; he was an art connoisseur and +left a remarkable collection of Chinese porcelain. Dana's _Reminiscences +of the Civil War_ was published in 1898, as was his _Eastern Journeys, +Notes of Travel_. He also edited a campaign _Life of U. S. Grant_, +published over his name and that of General James H. Wilson in 1868. + + See James Wilson, _The Life of Charles A. Dana_ (New York, 1907). + + + + +DANA, FRANCIS (1743-1811), American jurist, was born in Charlestown, +Massachusetts, on the 13th of June 1743. He was the son of Richard Dana +(1699-1772), a leader of the Massachusetts provincial bar, and a +vigorous advocate of colonial rights in the pre-revolutionary period. +Francis Dana graduated at Harvard in 1762, was admitted to the bar in +1767, and, being an opponent of the British colonial policy, became a +leader of the Sons of Liberty, and in 1774 was a member of the first +provincial congress of Massachusetts. During a two years' visit to +England he sought earnestly to gain friends to his colony's cause, but +returned to Boston in April 1776 convinced that a friendly settlement of +the dispute was impossible. He was a member of the Massachusetts +executive council from 1776 to 1780, and a delegate to the Continental +Congress from 1776 to 1778. As a member of the latter body he became +chairman in January 1778 of the committee appointed to visit Washington +at Valley Forge, and confer with him concerning the reorganization of +the army. This committee spent about three months in camp, and assisted +Washington in preparing the plan of reorganization which Congress in the +main adopted. In this year he was also a member of a committee to +consider Lord North's offer of conciliation, which he vigorously +opposed. In the autumn of 1779 he was appointed secretary to John Adams, +who had been selected as minister plenipotentiary to negotiate treaties +of peace and commerce with Great Britain, and in December 1780 he was +appointed diplomatic representative to the Russian government. He +remained at St Petersburg from 1781 to 1783, but was never formally +received by the empress Catherine. In February 1784 he was again chosen +a delegate to Congress, and in January 1785 he became a justice of the +Massachusetts supreme court. He was chief justice of this court from +1791 to 1806, and presided with ability and rare distinction. He was an +earnest advocate of the adoption of the Federal constitution, was a +member of the Massachusetts convention which ratified that instrument, +and was one of the most influential advisers of the leaders of the +Federalist party. His tastes were scholarly, and he was one of the +founders of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He died at +Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 25th of April 1811. + +His son, RICHARD HENRY DANA (1787-1879), was born in Cambridge, +Massachusetts, on the 15th of November 1787. He was educated at Harvard +in the class of 1808. Subsequently he studied law and in 1811 was +admitted to practice. But all other interests were early subordinated to +his love of literature, to which the greater part of his long life was +devoted. He became in 1814 a member of a literary society in Cambridge, +known as the Anthology Club. This club began the publication of a +monthly magazine, _The Monthly Anthology_, which gave way in 1815 to +_The North American Review_. In the editorial control of this periodical +he was associated with Jared Sparks and Edward T. Channing (1790-1856) +until 1821, contributing essays and criticisms which attracted wide +attention. In 1821-1822 he edited in New York a short-lived literary +magazine, _The Idle Man_. He published his first volume of _Poems_ in +1827, and in 1833 appeared his _Poems and Prose Writings_, republished +in 1850 in two volumes, in which were included practically all of his +poems and of his prose contributions to periodical literature. Although +the bulk of his published writings was not large, his influence on +American literature during the first half of the 19th century was +surpassed by that of few of his contemporaries. + +RICHARD HENRY DANA (1815-1882), son of the last-mentioned, was born in +Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 1st of August 1815. He entered Harvard +in the class of 1835, but at the beginning of his junior year an illness +affecting his sight necessitated a suspension of his college work, and +in August 1834 he shipped before the mast for California, returning in +September 1836. The rough experience of this voyage did more than endow +him with renewed health; it changed him from a dreamy, sensitive boy, +hereditarily disinclined to any sort of active career, into a +self-reliant, energetic man, with broad interests and keen sympathies. +He re-entered Harvard in December 1836 and graduated in June 1837. He +was a student at the Harvard law school from 1837 to 1840, and from +January 1839 to February 1840 he was also an instructor in elocution in +the college. In 1840 the notes of his sea-trip were published under the +title _Two Years Before the Mast_. The book attained an almost +unprecedented popularity both in America and in Europe, where it was +translated into several languages; and it came to be considered a +classic. Immediately after the appearance of this book Dana began the +practice of law, which brought him a large number of maritime cases. In +1841 he published _The Seaman's Friend_, republished in England as _The +Seaman's Manual_, which was long the highest authority on the legal +rights and duties of seamen. After gaining recognition as one of the +most prominent members of the Suffolk bar, he became associated in 1848 +with the Free Soil movement, and took a prominent part in the Buffalo +convention of that year. This step, which caused him to be ostracized +for a time from the Boston circles in which he had been reared, brought +him the cases of the fugitive slaves, Shadrach, Sims and Burns, and of +the rescuers of Shadrach. On the night following the surrender of Burns +(May 1854) Dana was brutally assaulted on the Boston streets. In 1853 he +took a prominent part in the state constitutional convention. He allied +himself with the Republican party on its organization, but his inborn +dislike for political manoeuvring prevented his ever becoming prominent +in its councils. In 1857 he became a regular attendant at the meetings +of the famous Boston Saturday Club, to the members of which he dedicated +his account of a vacation trip, _To Cuba and Back_ (1857). He returned +to America from a trip round the world in time to participate in the +presidential campaign of 1860, and after Lincoln's inauguration he was +appointed United States district attorney for Massachusetts. In this +office in 1863 he won before the Supreme Court of the United States the +famous prize case of the "Amy Warwick," on the decision in which +depended the right of the government to blockade the Confederate ports, +without giving the Confederate States an international status as +belligerents. He brought out in 1865 an edition of _Wheaton's +International Law_, his notes constituting a most learned and valuable +authority on international law and its bearings on American history and +diplomacy; but immediately after its publication Dana was charged by the +editor of two earlier editions, William Beach Lawrence, with infringing +his copyright, and was involved in litigation which was continued for +thirteen years. In such minor matters as arrangement of notes and +verification of citations the court found against Dana, but in the main +Dana's notes were vastly different from Lawrence's. In 1865 Dana +declined an appointment as a United States district judge. During the +Reconstruction period he favoured the congressional plan rather than +that of President Johnson, and on this account resigned the +district-attorneyship. In 1867-1868 he was a member of the Massachusetts +House of Representatives, and in 1867 was retained with William M. +Evarts to prosecute Jefferson Davis, whose admission to bail he +counselled. In 1877 he was one of the counsel for the United States +before the commission which in accordance with the treaty of Washington +met at Halifax, N.S., to arbitrate the fisheries question between the +United States and Great Britain. In 1878 he gave up his law practice and +devoted the rest of his life to study and travel. He died in Rome, +Italy, on the 9th of January 1882. + + See Charles Francis Adams, _Richard Henry Dana: a Biography_ (2 vols., + Boston, Mass., 1891). + + + + +DANA, JAMES DWIGHT (1813-1895), American geologist, mineralogist and +zoologist, was born in Utica, New York, on the 12th of February 1813. He +early displayed a taste for science, which had been fostered by Fay +Edgerton, a teacher in the Utica high school, and in 1830 he entered +Yale College, in order to study under Benjamin Silliman the elder. +Graduating in 1833, for the next two years he was teacher of mathematics +to midshipmen in the navy, and sailed to the Mediterranean while engaged +in his duties. In 1836-1837 he was assistant to Professor Silliman in +the chemical laboratory at Yale, and then, for four years, acted as +mineralogist and geologist of a United States exploring expedition, +commanded by Captain Charles Wilkes, in the Pacific ocean (see WILKES, +CHARLES). His labours in preparing the reports of his explorations +occupied parts of thirteen years after his return to America in 1842. In +1844 he again became a resident of New Haven, married the daughter of +Professor Silliman, and in 1850, on the resignation of the latter, was +appointed Silliman Professor of Natural History and Geology in Yale +College, a position which he held till 1892. In 1846 he became joint +editor and during the later years of his life he was chief editor of the +_American Journal of Science and Arts_ (founded in 1818 by Benjamin +Silliman), to which he was a constant contributor, principally of +articles on geology and mineralogy. A bibliographical list of his +writings shows 214 titles of books and papers, beginning in 1835 with a +paper on the conditions of Vesuvius in 1834, and ending with the fourth +revised edition (finished in February 1895) of his _Manual of Geology_. +His reports on _Zoophytes_, on the _Geology of the Pacific Area_, and on +_Crustacea_, summarizing his work on the Wilkes expedition, appeared in +1846, 1849 and 1852-1854, in quarto volumes, with copiously illustrated +atlases; but as these were issued in small numbers, his reputation more +largely rests upon his _System of Mineralogy_ (1837 and many later +editions in 1892); _Manual of Geology_ (1862; ed. 4, 1895); _Manual of +Mineralogy_ (1848), afterwards entitled _Manual of Mineralogy and +Lithology_ (ed. 4, 1887); and Corals and Coral Islands (1872; ed. 2, +1890). In 1887 Dana revisited the Hawaiian Islands, and the results of +his further investigations were published in a quarto volume in 1890, +entitled _Characteristics of Volcanoes_. By the Royal Society of London +he was awarded the Copley medal in 1877; and by the Geological Society +the Wollaston medal in 1874. His powers of work were extraordinary, and +in his 82nd year he was occupied in preparing a new edition of his +_Manual of Geology_, the 4th edition being issued in 1895. He died on +the 14th of April 1895. + +His son EDWARD SALISBURY DANA, born at New Haven on the 16th of November +1849, is author of _A Textbook of Mineralogy_ (1877; new ed. 1898) and a +_Text Book of Elementary Mechanics_ (1881). In 1879-80 he was professor +of natural philosophy and then became professor of physics at Yale. + + See _Life of J. D. Dana_, by Daniel C. Gilman (1899). + + + + +DANAE, in Greek legend, daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos. Her father, +having been warned by an oracle that she would bear a son by whom he +would be slain, confined Danae in a brazen tower. But Zeus descended to +her in a shower of gold, and she gave birth to Perseus, whereupon +Acrisius placed her and her infant in a wooden box and threw them into +the sea. They were finally driven ashore on the island of Seriphus, +where they were picked up by a fisherman named Dictys. His brother +Polydectes, who was king of the island, fell in love with Danae and +married her. According to another story, her son Perseus, on his return +with the head of Medusa, finding his mother persecuted by Polydectes, +turned him into stone, and took Danae back with him to Argos. Latin +legend represented her as landing on the coast of Latium and marrying +Pilumnus or Picumnus, from whom Turnus, king of the Rutulians, was +descended. Danae formed the subject of tragedies by Aeschylus, +Sophocles, Euripides, Livius Andronicus and Naevius. She is the +personification of the earth suffering from drought, on which the +fertilizing rain descends from heaven. + + Apollodorus ii. 4; Sophocles, _Antigone_, 944; Horace, _Odes_, iii. + 16; Virgil, _Aeneid_, vii. 410. See also P. Schwarz, _De Fabula + Danaeia_ (1881). + + + + +DANAO, a town of the province of Cebu, island of Cebu, Philippine +Islands, on the E. coast, at the mouth of the Danao river, 17 m. N.N.E. +of Cebu, the capital. Pop. (1903) 16,173. Danao has a comparatively cool +and healthy climate, is the centre of a rich agricultural region +producing rice, Indian corn, sugar, copra and cacao, and coal is mined +in the vicinity. The language is Cebu-Visayan. + + + + +DANAUS, in Greek legend, son of Belus, king of Egypt, and twin-brother +of Aegyptus. He was born at Chemmis (Panopolis) in Egypt, but having +been driven out by his brother he fled with his fifty daughters to +Argos, the home of his ancestress Io. Here he became king and taught the +inhabitants of the country to dig wells. In the meantime the fifty sons +of Aegyptus arrived in Argos, and Danaus was obliged to consent to their +marriage with his daughters. But to each of these he gave a knife with +injunctions to slay her husband on the marriage night. They all obeyed +except Hyperm(n)estra, who spared Lynceus. She was brought to trial by +her father, acquitted and afterwards married to her lover. Being unable +to find suitors for the other daughters, Danaus offered them in marriage +to the youths of the district who proved themselves victorious in racing +contests (Pindar, _Pythia_, ix. 117). According to another story, +Lynceus slew Danaus and his daughters and seized the throne of Argos +(schol. on Euripides, _Hecuba_, 886). By way of expiation for their +crime the Danaides were condemned to the endless task of filling with +water a vessel which had no bottom. This punishment, originally +inflicted on those who neglected certain mystic rites, was transferred +to those who, like the Danaides, despised the mystic rite of marriage; +cf. the water-bearing figure ([Greek: loutrophoros]) on the grave of +unmarried persons. The murder of the sons of Aegyptus by their wives is +supposed to represent the drying up of the rivers and springs of Argolis +in summer by the agency of the nymphs. + + Apollodorus ii. 1; Horace, _Odes_, iii. 11; O. Waser, in _Archiv fur + Religionswissenschaft_, ii. Heft 1, 1899; articles in Pauly-Wissowa's + _Realencyclopadie_ and W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_; + Campbell Bonner, in _Harvard Studies_, xiii. (1902). + + + + +DANBURITE, a rare mineral species consisting of calcium and boron +orthosilicate, CaB2(SiO4)2, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system. It +was discovered by C.U. Shepard in 1839 at Danbury, Connecticut, U.S.A., +and named by him after this locality. The crystals are prismatic in +habit, and closely resemble topaz in form and interfacial angles. There +is an imperfect cleavage parallel to the basal plane. Crystals are +transparent to translucent, and colourless to pale yellow; hardness 7; +specific gravity 3.0. At Danbury the mineral occurs with microcline and +oligoclase embedded in dolomite. Large crystals, reaching 4 in. in +length, have been found with calcite in veins traversing granite at +Russell in St Lawrence county, New York. Smaller but well-developed +crystals have been found on gneiss at Mt. Scopi and Petersthal (the +valley of the Vals Rhine) in Switzerland. Splendid crystals have +recently been obtained from Japan. + + + + +DANBURY, a city and one of the county-seats of Fairfield county, +Connecticut, U.S.A., in Danbury township, in the south-west part of the +state, on the Still river, a tributary of the Housatonic. Pop. (1890) +16,552; (1900) 16,537 (3702 foreign-born); (1910) 20,234. In 1900 the +population of the township, including that of the city, was 19,474, and +in 1910, 23,502. Danbury is served by three divisions of the New York, +New Haven & Hartford railway; by the Danbury & Harlem electric railway, +which connects at Goldens Bridge, New York, with the Harlem division of +the New York Central; and by an electric line to Bethel, Connecticut. +Lake Kenosia, about 2(1/2) m. from the centre of the city, is a pleasure +resort. A state normal school was opened in Danbury in 1904, and there +is a home for destitute and homeless children under private +(unsectarian) control. The city has good water-power, and the +municipality owns the water works. The principal industry is the +manufacture of felt hats, begun in 1780, and in 1905 engaging about +thirty factories, with a product for the year valued at $5,798,107 +(71.9% of the value of all the factory products of the city, and 15.8% +of the value of all the felt hats produced in the United States). The +city ranked first among the cities of the country in this industry in +1900 and second in 1905, and in 1905 no other city showed so high a +degree of specialization in it. Silver-plated ware (mostly manufactured +by Rogers Bros.) is another important product. At Danbury is held +annually the well-known agricultural Danbury Fair. The township was +settled in 1684 by emigrants from Norwalk, and received its present name +in 1687. When the War of Independence opened, Enoch Crosby, believed to +be the original of Harvey Birch, the hero of J. F. Cooper's _The Spy_, +was a resident of Danbury. A depot of military supplies was established +in the village of Danbury in 1776; in April 1777 Governor William Tryon, +of New York, raided the place, destroying the military stores and +considerable private property. During his retreat he was attacked (April +26th) at Ridgefield (about 9 m. south by east of Danbury) by the +Americans under General David Wooster (1710-1777), who was fatally +wounded in the conflict (being succeeded by General Benedict Arnold), +and to whose memory a monument was erected in Danbury in 1854. Danbury +was chartered as a borough in 1832 and as a city in 1880. In 1870 the +_Danbury News_ was established by the consolidation of the +_Jeffersonian_ and the _Times_, by James Montgomery Bailey (1841-1894), +from 1865 to 1870 proprietor of the _Times_. He wrote for the _News_ +humorous sketches, which made him and the paper famous, Bailey being +known as the "Danbury News Man"; among his books are _Life in Danbury_ +(1873), _The Danbury News Man's Almanac_ (1873), _They All Do It_ +(1877), _England from a Back Window_ (1878), _Mr Philip's Goneness_ +(1879), _The Danbury Boom_ (1880), and _History of Danbury_ (1896). + + + + +DANBY, FRANCIS (1793-1861), English painter, was born in the south of +Ireland on the 16th of November 1793. His father farmed a small property +he owned near Wexford, but his death caused the family to remove to +Dublin, while Francis was still a schoolboy. He began to practice +drawing at the Royal Dublin Society's schools; and under an erratic +young artist named O'Connor he began painting landscape. Danby also made +acquaintance with George Petrie, and all three left for London together +in 1813. This expedition, undertaken with very inadequate funds, quickly +came to an end, and they had to get home again by walking. At Bristol +they made a pause, and Danby, finding he could get trifling sums for +water-colour drawings, remained there working diligently and sending to +the London exhibitions pictures of importance. There his large pictures +in oil quickly attracted attention. "The Upas Tree" (1820) and "The +Delivery of the Israelites" (1825) brought him his election as an +associate of the Royal Academy. He left Bristol for London, and in 1828 +exhibited his "Opening of the Sixth Seal" at the British Institution, +receiving from that body a prize of 200 guineas; and this picture was +followed by two others from the Apocalypse. He suddenly left London, +declaring that he would never live there again, and that the Academy, +instead of aiding him, had, somehow or other, used him badly. Some +insurmountable domestic difficulty overtook him also, and for eleven or +twelve years he lived on the Lake of Geneva, a Bohemian with +boat-building fancies, painting only now and then. He returned to +England in 1841, when his sons, James and Thomas, both artists, were +growing up. Other pictures by him were "The Golden Age" and "The Evening +Gun," the first begun before he left England, the second painted after +his return; he had taken up his abode at Exmouth, where he died on the +9th of February 1861. + + + + +DANCE, the name of an English family distinguished in architecture, art +and the drama. GEORGE DANCE, the elder (1700-1768), obtained the +appointment of architect to the city of London, and designed the Mansion +House (1739); the churches of St Botolph, Aldgate (1741), St Luke's, Old +Street; St Leonard, Shoreditch; the old excise office; Broad Street; and +other public works of importance. He died on the 8th of February 1768. +His eldest son, JAMES DANCE (1722-1744), was born on the 17th of March +1722, and educated at the Merchant Taylors' School and St John's +College, Oxford, which he left before graduating. He took the name of +Love, and became an actor and playwright of no great merit. In the +former capacity he was for twelve years connected with Drury Lane +theatre. He wrote "an heroic poem" on _Cricket_, about 1740, and a +volume of _Poems on Several Occasions_ (1754), and a number of +comedies--the earliest _Pamela_ (1742). + +George Dance's third son, Sir NATHANIEL DANCE-HOLLAND, Bart. +(1735-1811), was born on the 18th of May 1735, and studied art under +Francis Hayman, and in Italy, where he met Angelica Kauffmann, to whom +he was devotedly and hopelessly attached. From Rome he sent home "Dido +and Aeneas" (1763), and he continued to paint occasional historical +pictures of the same quasi-classic kind throughout his career. On his +return to England he took up portrait-painting with great success, and +contributed to the first exhibition of the Royal Academy, of which he +was a foundation member, full-length portraits of George III. and his +queen. These, and his portraits of Captain Cook and of Garrick as +Richard III., engraved by Dixon, are his best-known works. Himself a +rich man, in 1790 he married a widow with L15,000 a year, dropped his +profession, and became M.P. for East Grinstead, taking the additional +name of Holland. He was made a baronet in 1800. He died on the 15th of +October 1811, leaving a fortune of L200,000. + +George Dance's fifth and youngest son, GEORGE DANCE, the younger +(1741-1825), succeeded his father as city surveyor and architect in +1768. He was then only twenty-seven, had spent several years abroad, +chiefly in Italy with his brother Nathaniel, and had already +distinguished himself by designs for Blackfriars Bridge sent to the 1761 +exhibition of the Incorporated Society of Artists. His first important +public work was the rebuilding of Newgate prison in 1770. The front of +the Guildhall was also his. He, too, was a foundation member of the +Royal Academy, and for a number of years the last survivor of the forty +original academicians. His last years were devoted to art rather than to +architecture, and after 1798 his Academy contributions consisted solely +of chalk portraits of his friends, seventy-two of which were engraved +and published (1808-1814). He resigned his office in 1815, and after +many years of illness died on the 14th of January 1825, and was buried +in St Paul's. His son, CHARLES DANCE (1794-1863), was for thirty years +registrar, taxing officer and chief clerk of the insolvent debtors' +court, retiring, when it was abolished, on an allowance. In +collaboration with J. R. Planche and others, or alone, he wrote a great +number of extravaganzas, farces and comediettas. He was one of the +first, if not the first, of the burlesque writers, and was the author of +those produced so successfully by Madame Vestris for years at the +Olympic. Of his farces, _Delicate Ground, Who Speaks First?_, _A Morning +Call_ and others are still occasionally revived. He died on the 6th of +January 1863. + + + + +DANCE (Fr. _danse_; of obscure origin, connected with Old High Ger. +_danson_, to stretch). The term "dancing" in its widest sense includes +three things:--(1) the spontaneous activity of the muscles under the +influence of some strong emotion, such as social joy or religious +exultation; (2) definite combinations of graceful movements performed +for the sake of the pleasure which the exercise affords to the dancer +or to the spectator; (3) carefully trained movements which are meant by +the dancer vividly to represent the actions and passions of other +people. In the highest sense it seems to be for prose-gesture what song +is for the instinctive exclamations of feeling. Regarded as the outlet +or expression of strong feeling, dancing does not require much +discussion, for the general rule applies that such demonstrations for a +time at least sustain and do not exhaust the flow of feeling. The voice +and the facial muscles and many of the organs are affected at the same +time, and the result is a high state of vitality which among the +spinning Dervishes or in the ecstatic worship of Bacchus and Cybele +amounted to something like madness. Even here there is traceable an +undulatory movement which, as Herbert Spencer says, is "habitually +generated by feeling in its bodily discharge." But it is only in the +advanced or volitional stage of dancing that we find developed the +essential feature of _measure_, which has been said to consist in "the +alternation of stronger muscular contractions with weaker ones," an +alternation which, except in the cases of savages and children, "is +compounded with longer rises and falls in the degree of muscular +excitement." In analysing the state of mind which this measured dancing +produces, we must first of all allow for the pleasant glow of excitement +caused by the excess of blood sent to the brain. But apart from this, +there is an agreeable sense of uniformity in the succession of muscular +efforts, and in the spaces described, and also in the period of their +recurrence. If the steps of dancing and the intervals of time be not +precisely equal, there is still a pleasure depending on the gradually +increasing intensity of motion, on the undulation which uniformly rises +in order to fall. As Florizel says to Perdita, "When you do dance, I +wish you a wave of the sea" (_Winter's Tale_, iv. 3). The mind feels the +beauty of emphasis and cadence in muscular motion, just as much as in +musical notes. Then, the figure of the dance is frequently a circle or +some more graceful curve or series of curves,--a fact which satisfies +the dancer as well as the eye of the spectator. But all such effects are +intensified by the use of music, which not only brings a perfectly +distinct set of pleasurable sensations to dancer and spectator, but by +the control of dancing produces an inexpressibly sweet harmony of sound +and motion. This harmony is further enriched if there be two dancing +together on one plan, or a large company of dancers executing certain +evolutions, the success of which depends on the separate harmonies of +all the couples. The fundamental condition is that throughout the dance +all the dancers keep within their bases of gravity. This is not only +required for the dancers' own enjoyment, but, as in the famous Mercury +on tiptoe, it is essential to the beautiful effect for the spectator. +The idea of much being safely supported by little is what proves +attractive in the posturing ballet. But this is merely one condition of +graceful dancing, and if it be made the chief object the dancer sinks +into the acrobat. + +Dancing is, in fact, the universal human expression, by movements of the +limbs and body, of a sense of rhythm which is implanted among the +primitive instincts of the animal world. The rhythmic principle of +motion extends throughout the universe, governing the lapse of waves, +the flow of tides, the reverberations of light and sound, and the +movements of celestial bodies; and in the human organism it manifests +itself in the automatic pulses and flexions of the blood and tissues. +Dancing is merely the voluntary application of the rhythmic principle, +when excitement has induced an abnormally rapid oxidization of brain +tissue, to the physical exertion by which the overcharged brain is +relieved. This is primitive dancing; and it embraces all movements of +the limbs and body expressive of joy or grief, all pantomimic +representations of incidents in the lives of the dancers, all +performances in which movements of the body are employed to excite the +passions of hatred or love, pity or revenge, or to arouse the warlike +instincts, and all ceremonies in which such movements express homage or +worship, or are used as religious exercises. Although music is not an +essential part of dancing, it almost invariably accompanies it, even in +the crudest form of a rhythm beaten out on a drum. + +_Primitive and Ancient Dancing._--In Tigre the Abyssinians dance the +_chassee_ step in a circle, and keep time by shrugging their shoulders +and working their elbows backwards and forwards. At intervals the +dancers squat on the ground, still moving the arms and shoulders in the +same way. The Bushmen dance in their low-roofed rooms supporting +themselves by sticks; one foot remains motionless, the other dances in a +wild irregular manner, while the hands are occupied with the sticks. The +Gonds, a hill-tribe of Hindustan, dance generally in pairs, with a +shuffling step, the eyes on the ground, the arms close to the body, and +the elbows at an angle with the closed hand. Advancing to a point, the +dancer suddenly erects his head, and wheels round to the starting point. +The women of the Pultooah tribe dance in a circle, moving backwards and +forwards in a bent posture. The Santal women, again, are slow and +graceful in dance; joining hands, they form themselves into the arc of a +circle, towards the centre of which they advance and then retire, moving +at the same time slightly towards the right, so as to complete the +circle in an hour. The Kukis of Assam have only the rudest possible +step, an awkward hop with the knees very much bent. The national dance +of the Kamchadale is one of the most violent known, every muscle +apparently quivering at every movement. But there, and in some other +cases where men and women dance together, there is a trace of deliberate +obscenity; the dance is, in fact, a rude representation of sexual +passion. It has been said that some of the Tasmanian _corrobories_ have +a phallic design. The Yucatan dance of _naual_ may also be mentioned. +The Andamans hop on one foot and swing the arms violently backwards and +forwards. The Veddahs jump with both feet together, patting their +bodies, or clapping their hands, and make a point of bringing their long +hair down in front of the face. In New Caledonia the dance consists of a +series of twistings of the body, the feet being lifted alternately, but +without change of place. The Fijians jump half round from side to side +with their arms akimbo. The only modulation of the Samoan dance is one +of time--a _crescendo_ movement, which is well-known in the modern +ball-room. The Javans are perhaps unique in their distinct and graceful +gestures of the hands and fingers. At a Mexican feast called +Huitzilopochtli, the noblemen and women danced tied together at the +hands, and embracing one another, the arms being thrown over the neck. +This resembles the dance variously known as the Greek Bracelet or Brawl, +[Greek: Hormos], or Bearsfeet; but all of them[1] probably are to a +certain extent symbolical of the relations between the sexes. Actual +contact of the partners, however, is quite intelligible as matter of +pure dancing; for, apart altogether from the pleasure of the embrace, +the harmony of the double rotation adds very much to the enjoyment. In a +very old Peruvian dance of ceremony before the Inca, several hundreds of +men formed a chain, each taking hold of the hand of the man beyond his +immediate neighbour, and the whole body moving forwards and backwards +three steps at a time as they approached the throne. In this, as in the +national dance of the Coles of Lower Bengal, there was perhaps a +suggestion of "l'union fait la force." In Yucatan stilts were +occasionally used for dancing. + +It seldom happens that dancing takes place without accompaniment, either +by the dancers or by others. This is not merely because the feelings +which find relief in dancing express themselves at the same time in +other forms; in some cases, indeed, the vocal and instrumental elements +largely predominate, and form the ground-work of the whole emotional +demonstration. Whether they do so or not will of course depend on the +intellectual advancement of the nation or tribe and upon the particular +development of their aesthetical sensibility. A striking instance occurs +among the Zulus, whose grand dances are merely the accompaniment to the +colloquial war and hunting songs, in which the women put questions which +are answered by the men. So also in Tahiti there is a set of national +ballads and songs, referring to many events in the past and present +lives of the people. The fisherman, the woodsman, the canoe-builder, +has each his trade song, which on public occasions at least is +illustrated by dancing. But the accompaniment is often consciously +intended, by an appeal to the ear, to regulate and sustain the +excitement of the muscles. And a close relation will be found always to +exist between the excellence of a nation's dancing and the excellence or +complexity of its music and poetry. In some cases the performer himself +sings or marks time by the clanking of ornaments on his person. In +others the accompaniment consists sometimes of a rude chant improvised +by those standing round, or of music from instruments, or of mere +clapping of the hands, or of striking one stick against another or on +the ground, or of "marking time," in the technical sense. The Tasmanians +beat on a rolled-up kangaroo-skin. The Kamchadales make a noise like a +continuous hiccough all through the dance. The Andamans use a large +hollow dancing-board, on which one man is set apart to stamp. Sometimes +it is the privilege of the tribal chief to sing the accompaniment while +his people dance. The savages of New Caledonia whistle and strike upon +the hip. + +The rude imitative dances of early civilization are of extreme interest. +In the same way the dances of the Ostyak tribes (Northern Asiatic) +imitate the habitual sports of the chase and the gambols of the wolf and +the bear and other wild beasts, the dancing consisting mainly of sudden +leaps and violent turns which exhaust the muscular powers of the whole +body. The Kamchadales, too, in dancing, imitate bears, dogs and birds. +The _Kru_ dances of the Coast Negroes represent hunting scenes; and on +the Congo, before the hunters start, they go through a dance imitating +the habits of the gorilla and its movements when attacked. The Damara +dance is a mimic representation of the movements of oxen and sheep, four +men stooping with their heads in contact and uttering harsh cries. The +canter of the baboon is the humorous part of the ceremony. The Bushmen +dance in long irregular jumps, which they compare to the leaping of a +herd of calves, and the Hottentots not only go on all-fours to +counterfeit the baboon, but they have a dance in which the buzzing of a +swarm of bees is represented. The Kennowits in Borneo introduce the mias +and the deer for the same purpose. The Australians and Tasmanians in +their dances called _corrobories_ imitate the frog and the kangaroo +(both leaping animals). The hunt of the emu is also performed, a number +of men passing slowly round the fire and throwing their arrows about so +as to imitate the movements of the animal's head while feeding. The +Gonds are fond of dancing the bison hunt, one man with skin and horns +taking the part of the animal. Closely allied to these are the mimic +fights, almost universal among tribes to which war is one of the great +interests of life. The Bravery dance of the Dahomans and the Hoolee of +the Bhil tribe in the Vindhya Hills are illustrations. The latter seems +to have been reduced to an amusement conducted by professionals who go +from village to village,--the battle being engaged in by women with long +poles on the one side, and men with short cudgels on the other. There is +here an element of comedy, which also appears in the Fiji club-dance. +This, although no doubt originally suggested by war, is enlivened by the +presence of a clown covered with leaves and wearing a mask. The +monotonous song accompanying the club-dance is by way of commentary or +explanation. So, also, in Guatemala there is a public _baile_ or dance, +in which all the performers, wearing the skins and heads of beasts, go +through a mock battle, which always ends in the victory of those wearing +the deer's head. At the end the victors trace in the sand with a pole +the figure of some animal; and this exhibition is supposed to have some +historical reference. But nearly all savage tribes have a regular +war-dance, in which they appear in fighting costume, handle their +weapons, and go through the movements of challenge, conflict, pursuit or +defeat. The women generally supply the stimulus of music. There is one +very picturesque dance of the Natal Kaffirs, which probably refers to +the departure of the warriors for the battle. The women appeal +plaintively to the men, who slowly withdraw, stamping on the ground and +darting their short spears or _assegais_ towards the sky. In +Madagascar, when the men are absent on war, the women dance for a great +part of the day, believing that this inspires their husbands with +courage. In this, however, there may be some religious significance. +These war-dances are totally distinct from the institution of military +drill, which belongs to a later period, when social life has become less +impulsive and more reflective.[2] There can be little doubt that some of +the characteristic movements of these primitive hunting and war-dances +survive in the smooth and ceremonious dances of the present day. But the +early mimetic dance was not confined to these two subjects; it embraced +the other great events of savage life--the drama of courtship and +marriage, the funeral dance, the consecration of labour, the celebration +of harvest or vintage;[3] sometimes, too, purely fictitious scenes of +dramatic interest, while other dances degenerated into games. For +instance, in Yucatan one man danced in a cowering attitude round a +circle, while another followed, hurling at him _bohordos_ or canes, +which were adroitly caught on a small stick. Again, in Tasmania, the +dances of the women describe their "clamber for the opossum, diving for +shell-fish, digging for roots, nursing children and quarrelling with +husbands." Another dance, in which a woman by gesture taunts a chieftain +with cowardice, gives him an opportunity of coming forward and +recounting his courageous deeds in dance. The funeral dance of the Todas +(another Indian hill-tribe) consists in walking backwards and forwards, +without variation, to a howling tune of "ha! hoo!" The meaning of this +is obscure, but it can scarcely be solely an outburst of grief. In +Dahomey the blacksmiths, carpenters, hunters, braves and bards, with +their various tools and instruments, join in a dramatic dance. We may +add here a form of dance which is almost precisely equivalent to the +spoken incantation. It is used by the professional devil-dancer of the +wild Veddahs for the cure of diseases. An offering of eatables is put on +a tripod of sticks, and the dancer, decorated with green leaves, goes +into a paroxysm of dancing, in the midst of which he receives the +required information. This, however, rather belongs to the subject of +religious dances. + +It is impossible here to enumerate either the names or the forms of the +sacred dances which formed so prominent a part of the worship of +antiquity. A mystic philosophy found in them a resemblance to the +courses of the stars. This Pythagorean idea was expanded by Sir John +Davies, in his epic poem _Orchestra_, published in 1596. They were +probably adapted to many purposes,--to thanksgiving, praise, +supplication and humiliation. It is only one striking illustration of +this widespread practice, that there was at Rome a very ancient order of +priests especially named Salii, who struck their shields and sang +_assamenta_ as they danced. The practice reappeared in the early church, +special provision being made for dancing in the choir. Scaliger, who +astonished Charles V. by his dancing powers, says the bishops were +called _Praesules_, because they led the dance on feast days. According +to some of the fathers, the angels are always dancing, and the glorious +company of the apostles is really a _chorus_ of dancers. Dancing, +however, fell into discredit with the feast of the _Agapae_. St +Augustine says, "Melius est fodere quam saltare"; and the practice was +generally prohibited for some time. No church or sect has raged so +fiercely against the cardinal sin of dancing as the Albigenses of +Languedoc and the Waldenses, who agreed in calling it the devil's +procession. After the middle of the 18th century there were still traces +of religious dancing in the cathedrals of Spain, Portugal and +Roussillon--especially in the Mozarabic Mass of Toledo. An account of +the numerous secular dances, public and private, of Greece and Rome will +be found in the classical histories, and in J. Weaver's _Essay towards a +History of Dancing_, (London, 1712), which, however, must be revised by +more recent authorities. The Pyrrhic (derived from the Memphitic) in all +its local varieties, the Bacchanalia and the Hymenaea were among the +more important. The name of Lycurgus is also associated with the +Trichoria. Among the stage dances of the Athenians, which formed +interludes to the regular drama, one of the oldest was the Delian dance +of the Labyrinth, ascribed to Theseus, and called [Greek: Geranos], from +its resemblance to the flight of cranes, and one of the most powerful +was the dance of the Eumenides. A further development of the art took +place at Rome, under Augustus, when Pylades and Bathyllus brought +serious and comic pantomime to great perfection. The subjects chosen +were such as the labours of Hercules, and the surprise of Venus and Mars +by Vulcan. The state of public feeling on the subject is well shown in +Lucian's amusing dialogue _De Saltatione_. Before this Rome had only +very inferior buffoons, who attended dinner parties, and whose art +traditions belonged not to Greece, but to Etruria.[4] Apparently, +however, the Romans, though fond of ceremony and of the theatre, were by +temperament not great dancers in private. Cicero says: "Nemo fere saltat +sobrius, nisi forte insanit." But the Italic dance of the imperial +theatre, supported by music and splendid dresses, supplanted for a time +the older dramas. It was the policy of Augustus to cultivate other than +political interests for the people; and he passed laws for the +protection and privilege of the pantomimists. They were freed from the +_jus virgarum_, and they used their freedom against the peace of the +city. Tiberius and Domitian oppressed and banished them; Trajan and +Aurelius gave them such titles as decurions and priests of Apollo; but +the pantomime stage soon yielded to the general corruption of the +empire. + +_Modern Dancing._--In modern civilized countries dancing has developed +as an art and pastime, as an entertainment. Its direct application to +arouse emotion or religious feeling tends to be obscured and finally +dropped out. + +Italy, in the 15th century, saw the renaissance of dancing, and France +may be said to have been the nursery of the modern art, though +comparatively few modern dances are really French in origin. The +national dances of other countries were brought to France, studied +systematically, and made perfect there. An English or a Bohemian dance, +practised only amongst peasants, would be taken to France, polished and +perfected, and would at last find its way back to its own country, no +more recognizable than a piece of elegant cloth when it returns from the +printer to the place from which as "grey" material it was sent. The fact +that the terminology of dancing is almost entirely French is a +sufficient indication of the origin of the rules that govern it. The +earliest dances that bear any relation to the modern art are probably +the _danses basses_ and _danses hautes_ of the 16th century. The _danse +basse_ was the dance of the court of Charles IX. and of good society, +the steps being very grave and dignified, not to say solemn, and the +accompaniment a psalm tune. The _danses hautes_ or _baladines_ had a +skipping step, and were practised only by clowns and country people. +More lively dances, such as the _Gaillarde_ and _Volta_, were introduced +into France from Italy by Catherine de' Medici, but even in these the +interest was chiefly spectacular. Other dances of the same period were +the _Branle_ (afterwards corrupted to _Braule_, and known in England as +the Brawle)--a kind of generic dance which was capable of an almost +infinite amount of variety. Thus there were imitative dances--_Branles +mimes_, such as the _Branles des Ermites_, _Branles des flambeaux_ and +the _Branles des lavandieres_. The _Branle_ in its original form had +steps like the _Allemande_. Perhaps the most famous and stately dance of +this period was the _Pavane_ (of Spanish origin), which is very fully +described in Tabouret's _Orchesographie_, the earliest work in which a +dance is found minutely described. The _Pavane_, which was really more a +procession than a dance, must have been a very gorgeous and noble sight, +and it was perfectly suited to the dress of the period, the stiff +brocades of the ladies and the swords and heavily-plumed hats of the +gentlemen being displayed in its simple and dignified measures to great +advantage. The dancers in the time of Henry III. of France usually +sang, while performing the _Pavane_, a _chanson_, of which this is one +of the verses: + + "Approche donc, ma belle, + Approche-toi, mon bien; + Ne me sois plus rebelle, + Puisque mon coeur est tien; + Pour mon ame apaiser, + Donne-moi un baiser." + +In the _Pavane_ and _Branle_, and in nearly all the dances of the 17th +and 18th centuries, the practice of kissing formed a not unimportant +part, and seems to have added greatly to the popularity of the pastime. +Another extremely popular dance was the _Saraband_, which, however, died +out after the 17th century. It was originally a Spanish dance, but +enjoyed an enormous success for a time in France. Every dance at that +time had its own tune or tunes, which were called by its own name, and +of the _Saraband_ the chevalier de Grammont wrote that "it either +charmed or annoyed everyone, for all the guitarists of the court began +to learn it, and God only knows the universal twanging that followed." +Vauquelin des Yveteaux, in his eightieth year, desired to die to the +tune of the _Saraband_, "so that his soul might pass away sweetly." +After the _Pavane_ came the _Courante_, a court dance performed on +tiptoe with slightly jumping steps and many bows and curtseys. The +_Courante_ is one of the most important of the strictly modern dances. +The minuet and the waltz were both in some degree derived from it, and +it had much in common with the famous _Seguidilla_ of Spain. It was a +favourite dance of Louis XIV., who was an adept in the art, and it was +regarded in his time as of such importance that a nobleman's education +could hardly have been said to be begun until he had mastered the +_Courante_. + +The dance which the French brought to the greatest perfection--which +many, indeed, regard as the fine flower of the art--was the _Minuet_. +Its origin, as a rustic dance, is not less antique than that of the +other dances from which the modern art has been evolved. It was +originally a _branle_ of Poitou, derived from the _Courante_. It came to +Paris in 1650, and was first set to music by Lully. It was at first a +gay and lively dance, but on being brought to court it soon lost its +sportive character and became grave and dignified. It is mentioned by +Beauchamps, the father of dancing-masters, who flourished in Louis +XIV.'s reign, and also by Blondy, his pupil; but it was Pecour who +really gave the minuet its popularity, and although it was improved and +made perfect by Dauberval, Gardel, Marcel and Vestris, it was in Louis +XV.'s reign that it saw its golden age. It was then a dance for two in +moderate triple time, and was generally followed by the gavotte. +Afterwards the minuet was considerably developed, and with the gavotte +became chiefly a stage dance and a means of display; but it should be +remembered that the minuets which are now danced on the stage are +generally highly elaborated with a view to their spectacular effect, and +have imported into them steps and figures which do not belong to the +minuet at all, but are borrowed from all kinds of other dances. The +original court minuet was a grave and simple dance, although it did not +retain its simplicity for long. But when it became elaborated it was +glorified and moulded into a perfect expression of an age in which +deportment was most sedulously cultivated and most brilliantly polished. +The "languishing eye and smiling mouth" had their due effect in the +minuet; it was a school for chivalry, courtesy and ceremony; the hundred +slow graceful movements and curtseys, the pauses which had to be filled +by neatly-turned compliments, the beauty and bravery of attire--all were +eloquent of graces and outward refinements which we cannot boast now. +The fact that the measure of the minuet has become incorporated in the +structure of the symphony shows how important was its place in the +polite world. The _Gavotte_, which was often danced as a pendant to the +minuet, was also originally a peasant's dance, a _danse des Gavots_, and +consisted chiefly of kissing and capering. It also became stiff and +artificial, and in the later and more prudish half of the 18th century +the ladies received bouquets instead of kisses in dancing the gavotte. +It rapidly became a stage dance, and it has never been restored to the +ballroom. Gretry attempted to revive it, but his arrangement never +became popular. Other dances which were naturalized in France were the +_Ecossaise_, popular in 1760; the _Cotillon_, fashionable under Charles +X., derived from the peasant _branles_ and danced by ladies in short +skirts; the _Galop_, imported from Germany; the _Lancers_, invented by +Laborde in 1836; the _Polka_, brought by a dancing-master from Prague in +1840; the _Schottische_, also Bohemian, first introduced in 1844; the +_Bourree_, or French clog-dance; the _Quadrille_, known in the 18th +century as the _Contre-danse_; and the _Waltz_, which was danced as a +_volte_ by Henry III. of France, but only became popular in the +beginning of the 19th century. We shall return to the history of some of +these later dances in discussing the dances at present in use. + +If France has been the nursery and school of the art of dancing, Spain is +its true home. There it is part of the national life, the inevitable +expression of the gay, contented, irresponsible, sunburnt nature of the +people. The form of Spanish dances has hardly changed; some of them are +of great antiquity, and may be traced back with hardly a break to the +performances in ancient Rome of the famous dancing-girls of Cadiz. The +connexion is lost during the period of the Arab invasion, but the art was +not neglected, and Jovellanos suggests that it took refuge in the +Asturias. At any rate, dances of the 10th and 12th centuries have been +preserved uncorrupted. The earliest dances known were the _Turdion_, the +_Gibidana_, the _Pie-de-gibao_, and (later) the _Madama Orleans_, the +_Alemana_ and the _Pavana_. Under Philip IV. theatrical dancing was in +high popularity, and ballets were organized with extraordinary +magnificence of decoration and costume. They supplanted the national +dances, and the _Zarabanda_ and _Chacona_ were practically extinct in the +18th century. It is at this period that the famous modern Spanish dances, +the _Bolero_, _Seguidilla_ and the _Fandango_, first appear. Of these the +_Fandango_ is the most important. It is danced by two people in 6-8 time, +beginning slowly and tenderly, the rhythm marked by the click of +castanets, the snapping of the fingers and the stamping of feet, and the +speed gradually increasing until a whirl of exaltation is reached. A +feature of the _Fandango_ and also of the _Seguidilla_ is a sudden pause +of the music towards the end of each measure, upon which the dancers +stand rigid in the attitudes in which the stopping of the music found +them, and only move again when the music is resumed. M. Vuillier, in his +_History of Dancing_, gives the following description of the +_Fandango_:--"Like an electric shock, the notes of the Fandango animate +all hearts. Men and women, young and old, acknowledge the power of this +air over the ears and soul of every Spaniard. The young men spring to +their places, rattling castanets or imitating their sound by snapping +their fingers. The girls are remarkable for the willowy languor and +lightness of their movements, the voluptuousness of their +attitudes--beating the exactest time with tapping heels. Partners tease +and entreat and pursue each other by turns. Suddenly the music stops, and +each dancer shows his skill by remaining absolutely motionless, bounding +again into the full life of the Fandango as the orchestra strikes up. The +sound of the guitar, the violin, the rapid tic-tac of heels (_taconeos_), +the crack of fingers and castanets, the supple swaying of the dancers, +fill the spectator with ecstasy. The measure whirls along in a rapid +triple time. Spangles glitter; the sharp clank of ivory and ebony +castanets beats out the cadence of strange, throbbing, deepening +notes--assonances unknown to music, but curiously characteristic, +effective and intoxicating. Amidst the rustle of silks, smiles gleam over +white teeth, dark eyes sparkle and droop and flash up again in flame. All +is flutter and glitter, grace and animation--quivering, sonorous, +passionate, seductive." + +The _Bolero_ is a comparatively modern dance, having been invented by +Sebastian Cerezo, a celebrated dancer of the time of King Charles III. +It is remarkable for the free use made in it of the arms, and is said to +be derived from the ancient _Zarabanda_, a violent and licentious dance, +which has entirely disappeared, and with which the later Saraband has +practically nothing in common. The step of the _Bolero_ is low and +gliding but well marked. It is danced by one or more couples. The +_Seguidilla_ is hardly less ancient than the _Fandango_, which it +resembles. Every province in Spain has its own _Seguidilla_, and the +dance is accompanied by _coplas_, or verses, which are sung either to +traditional melodies or to the tunes of local composers; indeed, the +national music of Spain consists largely of these coplas. Baron +Davillier, among several specimens of _Seguidillas_, gives this one + + "Mi corazon volando + Se fue a tu pecho; + Le cortaste las alas, + Y quedo dentro. + Por atrevido + Se quedara por siempre + En el metido."[5] + +M. Vuillier quotes a _copla_ which he heard at Polenza, in the Balearic +Islands. This verse is formed on the rhythm of the _Malaguena_: + + "Una estrella se ha pardida + En el ciel y no parece; + En tu cara se ha metido; + Y en tu frente resplandece."[6] + +The _Jota_ is the national dance of Aragon, a lively and splendid, but +withal dignified and reticent, dance derived from the 16th-century +_Passacaille_. It is still used as a religious dance. The _Cachuca_ is a +light and graceful dance in triple time. It is performed by a single +dancer of either sex. The head and shoulders play an important part in +the movements of this dance. Other provincial dances now in existence +are the _Jaleo de Jerez_, a whirling measure performed by gipsies, the +_Palotea_, the _Polo_, the _Gallegada_, the _Muyneria_, the _Habas +Verdes_, the _Zapateado_, the _Zorongo_, the _Vito_, the _Tirano_ and +the _Tripola Trapola_. Most of these dances are named either after the +places where they are danced or after the composers who have invented +tunes for them. Many of them are but slight variations from the +_Fandango_ and _Seguidilla_. + +The history of court dancing in Great Britain is practically the same as +that of France, and need not occupy much of our attention here. But +there are strictly national dances still in existence which are quite +peculiar to the country, and may be traced back to the dances and games +of the Saxon gleemen. The Egg dance and the Carole were both Saxon +dances, the Carole being a Yule-tide festivity, of which the present-day +Christmas carol is a remnant. The oldest dances which remain unchanged +in England are the Morris dances, which were introduced in the time of +Edward III. The name Morris or Moorish refers to the origin of these +dances, which are said to have been brought back by John of Gaunt from +his travels in Spain. The Morris dances are associated with May-day, and +are danced round a maypole to a lively and capering step, some of the +performers having bells fastened to their knees in the Moorish manner. +They are dressed as characters of old English tradition, such as Robin +Hood, Maid Marian, Friar Tuck, Little John and Tom the Piper. All the +true country dances of Great Britain are of an active and lively +measure; they may all, indeed, be said to be founded on the jig; and the +hornpipe, which is a kind of jig, is the national dance of England. +Captain Cook, on his voyages, made his sailors dance hornpipes in calm +weather to keep them in good health. A characteristic of English dances +was that they partook to a great extent of the nature of games; there +was little variety in the steps, which were nearly all those of the jig +or hornpipe, but these were incorporated into various games or plays, of +which the Morris dances were the most elaborate. Richard Baxter wrote +that "sometimes the Morris dancers would come into the church in all +their linen and scarves and antic dresses, with Morris bells jingling at +their legs; and as soon as Common Prayer was read, did haste and +presently to their play again." May-day has always been celebrated in +England with rustic dances and festivities. Before the Reformation there +were no really national dances in use at court; but in the reign of +Elizabeth the homely, domestic style of dancing reached the height of +its popularity. Remnants of many of these dances remain to-day in the +games played by children and country people; "Hunt the Slipper," "Kiss +in the Ring," "Here we go round the Mulberry Bush," are examples. All +the Tudor dances were kissing dances, and must have been the occasion of +a great deal of merriment. Mrs Groves gives the following description of +the Cushion dance:--"The dance is begun by a single person, man or +woman, who, taking a cushion in hand, dances about the room, and at the +end of a short time stops and sings: 'This dance it will no farther go,' +to which the musician answers: 'I pray you, good sir, why say so?' +'Because Joan Sanderson will not come to.' 'She must come to whether she +will or no,' returns the musician, and then the dancer lays the cushion +before a woman; she kneels and he kisses her, singing 'Welcome, Joan +Sanderson.' Then she rises, takes up the cushion, and both dance and +sing 'Prinkum prankum is a fine dance, and shall we go dance it over +again?' Afterwards the woman takes the cushion and does as the man did." +Other popular dances--generally adapted to the tunes of popular songs, +the nature of some of which may be guessed from their titles--were the +Trenchmore, Omnium-gatherum, Tolly-polly, Hoite cum toite, Dull Sir +John, Faine I would, Sillinger, All in a Garden Green, An Old Man's a +Bed Full of Bones, If All the World were Paper, John, Come Kiss Me Now, +Cuckholds All Awry, Green Sleeves and Pudding Pies, Lumps of Pudding, +Under and Over, Up Tails All, The Slaughter House, Rub her Down with +Straw, Have at thy Coat Old Woman, The Happy Marriage, Dissembling Love, +Sweet Kate, Once I Loved a Maiden Fair. Dancing practically disappeared +during the Puritan _regime_, but with the Restoration it again became +popular. It underwent no considerable developments, however, until the +reign of Queen Anne, when the glories of Bath were revived in the +beginning of the 18th century, and Beau Nash drew up his famous codes of +rules for the regulation of dress and manners, and founded the balls in +which the polite French dances completely eclipsed the simpler English +ones. An account of a dancing lesson witnessed by a fond parent at this +time is worth quoting, as it shows how far the writer (but not his +daughter) had departed from the jolly, romping traditions of the old +English dances:--"As the best institutions are liable to corruption, so, +sir, I must acquaint you that very great abuses are crept into this +entertainment. I was amazed to see my girl handed by and handing young +fellows with so much familiarity, and I could not have thought it had +been my child. They very often made use of a most impudent and +lascivious step called _setting_ to partners, which I know not how to +describe to you but by telling you that it is the very reverse of _back_ +to _back_. At last an impudent young dog bid the fiddlers play a dance +called _Moll Patley_, and, after having made two or three capers, ran to +his partner, locked his arms in hers, and whisked her round cleverly +above ground in such a manner that I, who sat upon one of the lowest +benches, saw farther above her shoe than I can think fit to acquaint you +with. I could no longer endure these enormities, wherefore, just as my +girl was going to be made a whirligig, I ran in, seized my child and +carried her home." What we may call polite dancing, when it became +fashionable, soon invaded London, its first home being Madame Cornely's +famous Carlisle House in Soho Square. Ranelagh and Vauxhall and Almack's +were all extensively patronized, and the rage for magnificent +entertainment and dancing culminated in the erection of the palatial +Pantheon in Oxford Street--a place so universally patronized that even +Dr Johnson was to be found there. White's and Boodle's were also famous +assembly rooms, but the most exclusive of all these establishments was +Almack's, the original of Brooks's Club. + +The only true national dances of Scotland are reels, strathspeys and +flings, while in Ireland there is but one dance--the jig, which is +there, however, found in many varieties and expressive of many shades of +emotion, from the maddest gaiety to the wildest lament. Curiously +enough, although the Welsh dance often, they have no strictly national +dances. + +Dancing in present-day society is a comparatively simple affair, as +five-sixths of almost all ball programmes consists of waltzes. The +origin of the waltz is a much-debated subject, the French, Italians and +Bavarians each claiming for their respective countries the honour of +having given birth to it. As a matter of fact the waltz, as it is now +danced, comes from Germany; but it is equally true that its real origin +is French, since it is a development of the _Volte_, which in its turn +came from the _Lavolta_ of Provence, one of the most ancient of French +dances. The _Lavolta_ was fashionable in the 16th century and was the +delight of the Valois court. The _Volte_ danced by Henry III. was really +a _Valse a deux pas_; and Castil-Blaze says that "the waltz which we +took again from the Germans in 1795 had been a French dance for four +hundred years." The change, it is true, came upon it during its visit to +Germany, hence the theory of its German origin. The first German waltz +tune is dated 1770--"Ach! du lieber Augustin." It was first danced at +the Paris opera in 1793, in Gardel's ballet _La Dansomanie_. It was +introduced to English ballrooms in 1812, when it roused a storm of +ridicule and opposition, but it became popular when danced at Almack's +by the emperor Alexander in 1816. The waltz _a trois temps_ has a +sliding step in which the movements of the knees play an important part. +The _tempo_ is moderate, so as to allow three distinct movements on the +three beats of each bar; and the waltz is written in 3-4 time and in +eight-bar sentences. Walking up and down the room and occasionally +breaking into the step of the dance is not true waltzing, and the habit +of pushing one's partner backwards along the room is an entirely English +one. But the dancer must be able to waltz equally well in all +directions, pivoting and crossing the feet when necessary in the reverse +turn. It need hardly be said that the feet should never leave the floor +in the true waltz. Gungl, Waldteufel and the Strauss family may be said +to have moulded the modern waltz to its present form by their rhythmical +and agreeable compositions. There are variations which include hopping +and lurching steps; these are degradations, and foreign to the spirit of +the true waltz. + +The _Quadrille_ is of some antiquity, and a dance of this kind was first +brought to England from Normandy by William the Conqueror, and was +common all over Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. The term +quadrille means a kind of card game, and the dance is supposed to be in +some way connected with the game. A species of quadrille appeared in a +French ballet in 1745, and since that time the dance has gone by that +name. Like many other dances, it came from Paris to Almack's in 1815, +and in its modern form was danced in England for the first time by Lady +Jersey, Lady Harriet Butler, Lady Susan Ryder and Miss Montgomery, with +Count Aldegarde, Mr Montgomery, Mr Harley and Mr Montague. It +immediately became popular. It then consisted of very elaborate steps, +which in England have been simplified until the degenerate practice has +become common of walking through the dance. The quadrille, properly +danced, has many of the graces of the minuet. It is often stated that +the square dance is of modern French origin. This is incorrect, and +probably arises from a mistaken identification of the terms quadrille +and square dance. "Dull Sir John" and "Faine I would" were square dances +popular in England three hundred years ago. + +An account of the country-dance, with the names of some of the old +dance-tunes, has been given above. The word is not, as has been +supposed, an adaptation of the French _contre-danse_, neither is the +dance itself French in origin. According to the _New English +Dictionary_, _contre-danse_ is a corruption of "country-dance," possibly +due to a peculiar feature of many of such dances, like Sir Roger de +Coverley, where the partners are drawn up in lines opposite to each +other. The earliest appearance of the French word is in its application +to English dances, which are contrasted with the French; thus in the +_Memoirs of Grammont_, Hamilton says: "On quitta les danses francaises +pour se mettre aux contre-danses." The English "country-dances" were +introduced into France in the early part of the 18th century and became +popular; later French modifications were brought back to England under +the French form of the name, and this, no doubt, caused the +long-accepted but confused derivation. + +The _Lancers_ were invented by Laborde in Paris in 1836. They were +brought over to England in 1850, and were made fashionable by Madame +Sacre at her classes in Hanover Square Rooms. The first four ladies to +dance the lancers in England were Lady Georgina Lygon, Lady Jane +Fielding, Mdlle. Olga de Lechner and Miss Berkeley. + +The _Polka_, the chief of the Bohemian national dances, was adopted by +Society in 1835 at Prague. Josef Neruda had seen a peasant girl dancing +and singing the polka, and had noted down the tune and the steps. From +Prague it readily spread to Vienna, and was introduced to Paris by +Cellarius, a dancing-master, who gave it at the Odeon in 1840. It took +the public by storm, and spread like an infection through England and +America. Everything was named after the polka, from public-houses to +articles of dress. Mr Punch exerted his wit on the subject weekly, and +even _The Times_ complained that its French correspondence was +interrupted, since the polka had taken the place of politics in Paris. +The true polka has three slightly jumping steps, danced on the first +three beats of a four-quaver bar, the last beat of which is employed as +a rest while the toe of the unemployed foot is drawn up against the heel +of the other. + +The _Galop_ is strictly speaking a Hungarian dance, which became popular +in Paris in 1830. But some kind of a dance corresponding to the galop +was always indulged in after _Voltes_ and _Contre-danses_, as a relief +from their grave and constrained measures. + +The _Washington Post_ and several varieties of _Barn-dance_ are of +American origin, and became fashionable towards the end of the 19th +century. + +The _Polka-Mazurka_ is extremely popular in Vienna and Budapest, and is +a favourite theme with Hungarian composers. The six movements of this +dance occupy two bars of 3-4 time, and consist of a mazurka step joined +to the polka. It is of Polish origin. + +The _Polonaise_ and _Mazurka_ are both Polish dances, and are still +fashionable in Russia and Poland. Every State ball in Russia is opened +with the ceremonious Polonaise. + +The _Schottische_, a kind of modified polka, was "created" by Markowski, +who was the proprietor of a famous dancing academy in 1850. The +_Highland Schottische_ is a fling. The Fling and Reel are Celtic dances, +and form the national dances of Scotland and Denmark. They are +complicated measures of a studied and classical order, in which free use +is made of the arms and of cries and stampings. The _Strathspey_ is a +slow and grandiose modification of the Reel. + +_Sir Roger de Coverley_ is the only one of the old English social dances +which has survived to the present day, and it is frequently danced at +the conclusion of the less formal sort of balls. It is a merry and +lively game in which all the company take part, men and women facing +each other in two long rows. The dancers are constantly changing places +in such a way that if the dance is carried to its conclusion everyone +will have danced with everyone else. The music was first printed in +1685, and is sometimes written in 2-4 time, sometimes in 6-8 time, and +sometimes in 3-9 time. + +The _Cotillon_ is a modern development of the French dance of the same +name referred to above. It is an extremely elaborate dance, in which a +great many toys and accessories are employed; hundreds of figures may be +contrived for it, in which presents, toys, lighted tapers, biscuits, +air-balloons and hurdles are used. + +_Ballet, &c._--The modern ballet (q.v.) seems to have been first +produced on a considerable scale in 1489 at Tortona, before Duke +Galeazzo of Milan. It soon became a common amusement on great occasions +at the European courts. The ordinary length was five acts, each +containing several _entrees_, and each _entree_ containing several +quadrilles. The accessories of painting, sculpture and movable scenery +were employed, and the representation often took place at night. The +allegorical, moral and ludicrous ballets were introduced to France by +Baif in the time of Catherine de' Medici. The complex nature of these +exhibitions may be gathered from the title of one played at Turin in +1634--_La verita nemica della apparenza, sollevata dal tempo._ Of the +ludicrous, one of the best known was the Venetian ballet of _I a verita +raminga_. Now and then, however, a high political aim may be discovered, +as in the "Prosperity of the Arms of France," danced before Richelieu in +1641, or "Religion uniting Great Britain to the rest of the World," +danced at London on the marriage of Princess Elizabeth to the elector +Frederick. Outside the theatre, the Portuguese revived an ambulatory +ballet which was played on the canonization of Carlo Borromeo, and to +which they gave the name of the Tyrrhenic Pomp. During this time also +the ceremonial ball (with all its elaborate detail of _courante_, minuet +and saraband) was cultivated. The fathers of the church assembled at +Trent gave a ball in which they took a part. Masked balls, too, +resembling in some respects the Roman Saturnalia, became common towards +the end of the 17th century. In France a ball was sometimes diversified +by a masquerade, carried on by a limited number of persons in +character-costume. Two of the most famous were named "au Sauvage" and +"des Sorciers." In 1715 the regent of France started a system of public +balls in the opera-house, which did not succeed. Dancing, also, formed a +leading element in the Opera Francais introduced by Quinault. His +subjects were chiefly marvellous, drawn from the classical mythologies; +and the choral dancing was not merely _divertissement_, but was intended +to assist and enrich the dramatic action of the whole piece. + +_Musical Gymnastics._--Dancing is an important branch of physical +education. Long ago Locke pointed out (_Education_, SS 67, 196) that the +effects of dancing are not confined to the body; it gives to children, +he says, not mere outward gracefulness of motion, but manly thoughts and +a becoming confidence. Only lately, however, has the advantage been +recognized of making gymnastics attractive by connecting it with what +Homer calls "the sweetest and most perfect of human enjoyments." The +practical principle against heavy weights and intense monotonous +exertion of particular muscles was thus stated by Samuel Smiles +(_Physical Education_, p. 148):--"The greatest benefit is derived from +that exercise which calls into action the greatest number of muscles, +and in which the action of these is intermitted at the shortest +intervals." It required only one further step to see how, if light and +changing movements were desirable, music would prove a powerful stimulus +to gymnastics. It touches the play-impulse, and substitutes a +spontaneous flow of energy for the mechanical effort of the will. The +force of imitation or contagion, one of the most valuable forces in +education, is also much increased by the state of exhilaration into +which dancing puts the system. This idea was embodied by Froebel in his +_Kindergarten_ plan, and was developed by Jahn and Schreber in Germany, +by Dio Lewis in the United States, and by Ling (the author of the +_Swedish Cure Movement_) in Sweden. + + AUTHORITIES.--For the old division of the _Ars Gymnastica_ into + _palaestrica_ and _saltatoria_, and of the latter into _cubistica_, + _sphaeristica_ and _orchestica_, see the learned work of Hieronymus + Mercurialis, _De arte Gymnastica_ (Amsterdam, 1572). Cubistic was the + art of throwing somersaults, and is described minutely by Tuccaro in + his _Trois Dialogues_ (Paris, 1599). Sphaeristic included several + complex games at ball and tilting--the Greek [Greek: korukos], and the + Roman _trigonalis_ and _paganica_. Orchestic, divided by Plutarch into + _latio_, _figura_ and _indicatio_, was really imitative dancing, the + "silent poetry" of Simonides. The importance of the [Greek: + cheironomia] or hand-movement is indicated by Ovid:--"Si vox est, + canta; si mollia brachia, salta." For further information as to modern + dancing, see Rameau's _Le maitre a danser_ (1726); Querlon's _Le + triomphe des graces_ (1774); Cahousac, _La danse ancienne et moderne_ + (1754); Vuillier, _History of Dancing_ (Eng. trans., 1897); Giraudet, + _Traite de la danse_ (1900). (W. C. S.; A. B. F. Y.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Compare the Chica of South America, the Fandango of Spain, and + the Angrismene or la Fachee of modern Greece. See also _Romaunt de la + rose_, v. 776. + + [2] The Greek [Greek: karpaia] represented the surprise by robbers of + a warrior ploughing a field. The gymnopaedic dances imitated the + sterner sports of the palaestra. + + [3] The Greek Lenaea and Dionysia had a distinct reference to the + seasons. + + [4] The Pantomimus was an outgrowth from the _canticum_ or choral + singing of the older comedies and _fabulae Atellanae_. + + [5] "My heart flew to thy breast. Thou didst cut its wings, so that + it remained there. And now it has waxed daring, and will stay with + thee for evermore." + + [6] "A star is lost and appears not in the sky; in thy face it has + set itself; on thy brow it shines." + + + + +DANCOURT, FLORENT CARTON (1661-1725), French dramatist and actor, was +born at Fontainebleau on the 1st of November 1661. He belonged to a +family of rank, and his parents entrusted his education to Pere de la +Rue, a Jesuit, who made earnest efforts to induce him to join the order. +But he had no religious vocation and proceeded to study law. He +practised at the bar for some time, but his marriage to the daughter of +the comedian Francois Lenoir de la Thorilliere led him to become an +actor, and in 1685, in spite of the strong opposition of his family, he +appeared at the Theatre Francais. His gifts as a comedian gave him +immediate and marked success, both with the public and with his fellow +actors. He was the spokesman of his company on occasions of state, and +in this capacity he frequently appeared before Louis XIV., who treated +him with great favour. One of his most famous impersonations was Alceste +in the _Misanthrope_ of Moliere. His first play, _Le Notaire obligeant_, +produced in 1685, was well received. _La Desolation des joueuses_ (1687) +was still more successful. _Le Chevalier a la mode_ (1687) is generally +regarded as his best work, though his claim to original authorship in +this and some other cases has been disputed. In _Le Chevalier a la mode_ +appears the _bourgeoise_ infatuated with the desire to be an aristocrat. +The type is developed in _Les Bourgeoises a la mode_ (1692) and _Les +Bourgeoises de qualite_ (1700). Dancourt was a prolific author, and +produced some sixty plays in all. Some years before his death he +terminated his career both as an actor and as an author by retiring to +his chateau at Courcelles le Roi, in Berry, where he employed himself in +making a poetical translation of the Psalms and in writing a sacred +tragedy. He died on the 7th of December 1725. The plays of Dancourt are +faithful descriptions of the manners of the time, and as such have real +historical value. The characters are drawn with a realistic touch that +led to his being styled by Charles Palissot the Teniers of comedy. He is +very successful in his delineation of low life, and especially of the +peasantry. The dialogue is sparkling, witty and natural. Many of the +incidents of his plots were derived from actual occurrences in the +"fast" and scandalous life of the period, and several of his characters +were drawn from well-known personages of the day. Most of the plays +incline to the type of farce rather than of pure comedy. Voltaire +defined his talent in the words: "Ce que Regnard etait a l'egard de +Moliere dans la haute comedie, le comedien Dancourt l'etait dans la +farce." + +His two daughters, Manon and Marie Anne (Mimi), both obtained success on +the stage of the Theatre Francais. + + The complete works of Dancourt were published in 1760 (12 vols. 12mo). + An edition of his _Theatre choisi_, with a preface by F. Sarcey, + appeared in 1884. + + + + +DANDELION (_Taraxacum officinale_), a perennial herb belonging to the +natural order Compositae. The plant has a wide range, being found in +Europe, Central Asia, North America, and the Arctic regions, and also in +the south temperate zone. The leaves form a spreading rosette on the +very short stem; they are smooth, of a bright shining green, sessile, +and tapering downwards. The name dandelion is derived from the French +_dent-de-lion_, an appellation given on account of the tooth-like lobes +of the leaves. The long tap-root has a simple or many-headed rhizome; it +is black externally, and is very difficult of extirpation. The +flower-stalks are smooth, brittle, leafless, hollow, and very numerous. +The flowers bloom from April till August, and remain open from five or +six in the morning to eight or nine at night. The flower-heads are of a +golden yellow, and reach 1(1/2) to 2 in. in width; the florets are all +strap-shaped. The fruits are olive or dull yellow in colour, and are +each surmounted by a long beak, on which rests a pappus of delicate +white hairs, which occasions the ready dispersal of the fruit by the +wind; each fruit contains one seed. The globes formed by the plumed +fruits are nearly two inches in diameter. The involucre consists of an +outer spreading (or reflexed) and an inner and erect row of bracts. In +all parts of the plant a milky juice is contained, which has a somewhat +complex composition. The chief constituent is taraxacin, a neutral +principle. In addition the juice contains taraxacerin (derived from the +former), asparagin, inulin, resins and salts. An extract (dose 5-15 +grains), a liquid extract (dose (1/2)-1 drachm) and a succus (dose 1-2 +drachms) of the root are all used medicinally. For the purposes formerly +recognized taraxacum is now never used, but it has been shown to possess +definite cholagogue properties, and may therefore be prescribed along +with ammonium chloride in cases of hepatic constipation, which it very +constantly relieves. The root--which is the medicinal product--is most +bitter from March to July, but the milky juice it contains is less +abundant in the summer than in the autumn. For this reason, the extract +and succus are usually prepared during the months of September and +October. After a frost a change takes place in the root, which loses its +bitterness to a large extent. In the dried state the root will not keep +well, being quickly attacked by insects. Externally it is brown and +wrinkled, internally white, with a yellow centre and concentric paler +rings. It is two inches to a foot long, and about a quarter to half an +inch in diameter. The leaves are bitter, but are sometimes eaten as a +salad; they serve as food for silkworms when mulberry leaves are not to +be had. The root is roasted as a substitute for coffee. Several +varieties of the dandelion are recognized by botanists; they differ in +the degree and mode of cutting of the leaf-margin and the erect or +spreading character of the outer series of bracts. The variety +_palustre_, which affects boggy situations, and flowers in late summer +and autumn, has nearly entire leaves, and the outer bracts of its +involucre are erect. + +[Illustration: Dandelion (_Taraxacum officinale_). + +1, Unopened head; 2, ripe head from which all the fruits except two have +been removed; 3, one floret, enlarged; 4, one fruit.] + + + + +DANDOLO, the name of one of the most illustrious patrician families of +Venice, of which the earliest recorded member was one of the electors of +the first doge (A.D. 697). The Dandolo gave to Venice four doges; of +these the first and most famous was Enrico Dandolo (c. 1120-1205), +elected on the 1st of January 1193 (_more Veneto_, 1192). He had +distinguished himself in various military enterprises and diplomatic +negotiations in the course of an active career, and although over +seventy years old and of very weak sight (the story that he had been +made blind by the emperor Manuel Comnenus while he was at Constantinople +is a legend), he proved a most energetic and capable ruler. His first +care was to re-establish Venetian authority over the Dalmatians who had +rebelled with the king of Hungary's protection, but he failed to capture +Zara, owing to the arrival of the Pisan fleet, and although the latter +was defeated by the Venetians, the undertaking was suspended. In the +meanwhile the situation in the East was becoming critical. The Eastern +emperor Isaac II. Angelus had been deposed, imprisoned, and blinded by +his brother Alexius, who usurped the throne. The new emperor proved +unfriendly to the Venetians and made difficulties about renewing their +privileges. In the West a new crusade to the Holy Land was in +preparation, and the crusaders sent ambassadors, one of whom was +Villehardouin, the historian of the expedition, to ask the Venetians to +give them passage and means of transport (1201). After much deliberation +the republic agreed to transport 4500 horse and 29,000 foot to Palestine +with provisions for one year, for a sum of 85,000 marks; in addition 50 +Venetian galleys would be provided free of charge, while Venice was to +receive half the conquests made by the crusaders. But as the time agreed +upon for the departure approached, it appeared that the crusaders had +not the money to pay the stipulated advance. Dandolo then proposed that +if they helped him to reduce Zara payment might be deferred. Some of the +crusaders disapproved of this attack on a Christian city, but the +majority, only too glad of an opportunity for plunder, willingly agreed. +The expedition sailed on the 8th of October 1202, three hundred sail in +all, with the aged Dandolo himself in command. Zara was taken and +pillaged, for which the Venetians were severely reprimanded by the pope. +But new possibilities of conquest were now opened up at the suggestion +of Alexius, the son of the deposed emperor Isaac. He promised the +crusaders that if they went first to Constantinople and re-instated +Isaac, the latter would maintain them for a year, contribute 10,000 men +and 200,000 marks for the expedition to Egypt, and subject the Eastern +to the Western Church. The proposal was accepted, largely owing to the +influence of Dandolo, who saw in it a means for further extending the +dominions and commerce of the Venetians. After wintering at Zara the +fleet set sail on the 7th of April 1203, and on the 23rd of June +anchored in the Bosporus. After long parleys the city was attacked by +land and sea on the 17th of July (the fleet being commanded by Dandolo) +and taken by storm. The emperor Alexius fled, and Isaac reoccupied the +throne, but, although grateful to the crusaders, he was not disposed to +fulfil the promises made by his son. Tumults between crusaders and +Greeks arose, and the people of the city, excited by a certain Alexis +Murzuphlus, murmured at the new taxes which were imposed on them. A +revolt broke out, and an officer named Nicholas Canabus was placed on +the throne; Prince Alexius was strangled by order of Murzuphlus, Isaac +died of the shock, Murzuphlus imprisoned Canabus and made himself +emperor (Alexius V.). The crusaders thereupon attacked Constantinople a +second time (12th of April 1204), and after a desperate struggle +captured the city, which they subjected to hideous carnage. Immense +booty was secured, the Venetians obtaining among other treasures the +four bronze horses which adorn the facade of St Mark's. The Eastern +empire was abolished, and a feudal Latin empire erected in its stead. +The leaders of the crusaders then met to elect an emperor. Dandolo was +one of the candidates, but Count Baldwin of Flanders was elected and +crowned on the 23rd of May. The Venetians were given Crete and several +other islands and ports in the Levant, which formed an uninterrupted +chain from Venice to the Black Sea, a large part of Constantinople +(whence the doge assumed the title of "lord of a quarter and a half of +Romania"), and many valuable privileges. But hardly had the new state +been established when various provinces rose in rebellion and the +Bulgarians invaded Thrace. A Latin army was defeated by them at +Adrianople (April 1205), and the emperor himself was captured and +killed, the fragments of the force being saved only by Dandolo's +prowess. But he was now old and ill, and on the 23rd of June 1205 he +died. He certainly consolidated Venice's dominion in the East and +increased its commercial prosperity to a very high degree. But the +policy he pursued in turning the crusaders against Constantinople, in +order to promote the interests of the republic, while serving to break +up the Greek empire, created in its place a Latin state that was far too +feeble to withstand the onslaught of Greek national feeling and Orthodox +fanaticism; at the same time the Greeks were greatly weakened and their +power of resisting the Turks consequently lessened. This paved the way +for the Turkish invasion of Europe, which proved an unmixed calamity +for all Christendom, Venice included. + +Enrico Dandolo's sons distinguished themselves in the public service, +and his grandson Giovanni was doge from 1280 to 1289. The latter's son +Andrea commanded the Venetian fleet in the war against Genoa in 1294, +and, having been defeated and taken prisoner, he was so overwhelmed with +shame that he committed suicide by beating his head against the mast +(according to Andrea Navagero). Francesco Dandolo, also known as Dandolo +Cane, was doge from 1329 to 1339. During his reign the Venetians went to +war with Martino della Scala, lord of Verona, with the result that they +occupied Treviso and otherwise extended their possessions on the _terra +firma_. Andrea Dandolo (1307/10-1354), the last doge of the family, +reigned from 1343 to 1354. He had been the first Venetian noble to take +a degree at the university of Padua, where he had also been professor of +jurisprudence. The terrible plague of 1348, wars with Genoa, against +whom the great naval victory of Lojera was won in 1353, many treaties, +and the subjugation of the seventh revolt of Zara, are the chief events +of his reign. The poet Petrarch, who was the doge's intimate friend, was +sent to Venice on a peace mission by Giovanni Visconti, lord of Milan. +"Just, incorruptible, full of zeal and of love for his country, and at +the same time learned, of rare eloquence, wise, affable, and humane," is +the poet's verdict on Andrea Dandolo (_Varior. epist._ xix.). Dandolo +died on the 7th of September 1354. He is chiefly famous as a historian, +and his _Annals_ to the year 1280 are one of the chief sources of +Venetian history for that period; they have been published by Muratori +(_Rer. Ital. Script._ tom. xxi.). He also had a new code of laws +compiled (issued in 1346) in addition to the statute of Jacopo Tiepolo. + +Another well-known member of this family was Silvestro Dandolo +(1796-1866), son of Girolamo Dandolo, who was the last admiral of the +Venetian republic and died an Austrian admiral in 1847. Silvestro was an +Italian patriot and took part in the revolution of 1848. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--S. Romanin, _Storia documentata di Venezia_ (Venice, + 1853); among more recent books H. Kretschmayr's excellent _Geschichte + von Venedig_ (Gotha, 1905) should be consulted: it contains a + bibliography of the authorities and all the latest researches and + discoveries; C. Cipolla and G. Monticolo have published many essays + and editions of chronicles in the _Archivio Veneto_, and the "Fonti + per la Storia d'Italia," in the _Istituto storico italiano_; H. + Simonsfeld has written a life of _Andrea Dandolo_ in German (Munich, + 1876). (L. V.*) + + + + +DANDOLO, VINCENZO, COUNT (1758-1819), Italian chemist and agriculturist, +was born at Venice, of good family, though not of the same house as the +famous doges, and began his career as a physician. He was a prominent +opponent of the oligarchical party in the revolution which took place on +the approach of Napoleon; and he was one of the envoys sent to seek the +protection of the French. When the request was refused, and Venice was +placed under Austria, he removed to Milan, where he was made member of +the great council. In 1799, on the invasion of the Russians and the +overthrow of the Cisalpine republic, Dandolo retired to Paris, where, in +the same year, he published his treatise _Les Hommes nouveaux, ou moyen +d'operer une regeneration nouvelle_. But he soon after returned to the +neighbourhood of Milan, to devote himself to scientific agriculture. In +1805 Napoleon made him governor of Dalmatia, with the title of +_provediteur general_, in which position Dandolo distinguished himself +by his efforts to remove the wretchedness and idleness of the people, +and to improve the country by draining the pestilential marshes and +introducing better methods of agriculture. When, in 1809, Dalmatia was +re-annexed to the Illyrian provinces, Dandolo returned to Venice, having +received as his reward from the French emperor the title of count and +several other distinctions. He died in his native city on the 13th of +December 1819. + + Dandolo published in Italian several treatises on agriculture, + vine-cultivation, and the rearing of cattle and sheep; a work on + silk-worms, which was translated into French by Fontanelle; a work on + the discoveries in chemistry which were made in the last quarter of + the 18th century (published 1796); and translations of several of the + best French works on chemistry. + + + + +DANDY, a word of uncertain origin which about 1813-1816 became a London +colloquialism for the exquisite or fop of the period. It seems to have +been in use on the Scottish border at the end of the 18th century, its +full form, it is suggested, being "Jack-a-Dandy," which from 1659 had a +sense much like its later one. It is probably ultimately derived from +the French _dandin_, "a ninny or booby," but a more direct derivation +was suggested at the time of the uprise of the Regency dandies. In _The +Northampton Mercury_, under date of the 17th of April 1819, occurs the +following: "Origin of the word 'dandy.' This term, which has been +recently applied to a species of reptile very common in the metropolis, +appears to have arisen from a small silver coin struck by King Henry +VII., of little value, called a _dandiprat_; and hence Bishop Fleetwood +observes the term is applied to worthless and contemptible persons." + +It was Beau Brummel, the high-priest of fashion, who gave dandyism its +great vogue. But before his day foppery in dress had become something +more than the personal eccentricity which it had been in the Stuart days +and earlier. About the middle of the 18th century was founded the +Macaroni Club. This was a band of young men of rank who had visited +Italy and sought to introduce the southern elegances of manner and dress +into England. The Macaronis gained their name from their introduction of +the Italian dish to English tables, and were at their zenith about 1772, +when their costume is described as "white silk breeches, very tight coat +and vest with enormous white neckcloths, white silk stockings and +diamond-buckled red-heeled shoes." For some time the moving spirit of +the club was Charles James Fox. It was with the advent of Brummel, +however, that the cult of dandyism became a social force. Beau Brummel +was supreme dictator in matters of dress, and the prince regent is said +to have wept when he disapproved of the cut of the royal coat. Around +the Beau collected a band of young men whose insolent and affected +manners made them universally unpopular. Their chief glory was their +clothes. They wore coats of blue or brown cloth with brass buttons, the +coat-tails almost touching the heels. Their trousers were buckskin, so +tight that it is said they "could only be taken off as an eel would be +divested of his skin." A pair of highly-polished Hessian boots, a +waistcoat buttoned incredibly tight so as to produce a small waist, and +opening at the breast to exhibit the frilled shirt and cravat, completed +the costume of the true dandy. Upon the Beau's disgrace and ruin, Lord +Alvanley was regarded as leader of the dandies and "first gentleman in +England." Though in many ways a worthier man than Brummel, his vanity +exposed him to much derision, and he fought a duel on Wimbledon Common +with Morgan O'Connell, who, in the House of Commons, had called him a +"bloated buffoon." After 1825 "dandy" lost its invidious meaning, and +came to be applied generally to those who were neat in dress rather than +to those guilty of effeminacy. + + See Barbey D'Aurevilly, _Du dandysme et de G. Brummel_ (Paris, 1887). + + + + +DANEGELD, an English national tax originally levied by Aethelred II. +(the Unready) as a means of raising the tribute which was the price of +the temporary cessation of the Danish ravages. This expedient of buying +off the invader was first adopted in 991 ou the advice of certain great +men of the kingdom. It was repeated in 994, 1002, 1007 and 1012. With +the accession of the Danish king Canute, the original _raison d'etre_ of +the tax ceased to exist, but it continued to be levied, though for a +different purpose, assuming now the character of an occasional war-tax. +It was exceedingly burdensome, and its abolition by Edward the Confessor +in 1051 was welcomed as a great relief. William the Conqueror revived it +immediately after his accession, as a convenient method of national +taxation, and it was with the object of facilitating its collection that +he ordered the compilation of Domesday Book. It continued to be levied +until 1163, in which year the name Danegeld appears for the last time in +the Rolls. Its place was taken by other imposts of similar character +but different name. + + + + +DANELAGH, the name given to those districts in the north and north-east +of England which were settled by Danes and other Scandinavian invaders +during the period of the Viking invasions. The real settlement of +England by Danes began in the year 866 with the appearance of a large +army in East Anglia, which turned north in the following year. The Danes +captured York and overthrew the Northumbrian kingdom, setting up a +puppet king of their own. They encamped in Nottingham in 868, and +Northern Mercia was soon in their hands; in 870 Edmund, king of the East +Anglians, fell before them. During the next few years they maintained +their hold on Mercia, and we have at this time coins minted in London +with the inscription "Alfdene rex," the name of the Danish leader. In +the winter of 874-875 they advanced as far north as the Tyne, and at the +same time Cambridge was occupied. In the meantime the great struggle +with Alfred the Great was being carried on. This was terminated by the +peace of Wedmore in 878, when the Danes withdrew from Wessex and settled +finally in East Anglia under their king Guthrum. This peace was finally +and definitely ratified in the document known as the peace of Alfred and +Guthrum, which is probably to be referred to the year 880. The peace +determined the boundary of Guthrum's East Anglian kingdom. According to +the terms of the agreement the boundary was to run along the Thames +estuary to the mouth of the Lea (a few miles east of London), then up +the Lea to its source near Leighton Buzzard, then due north to Bedford, +then eastwards up the Ouse to Watling Street somewhere near Fenny or +Stony Stratford. From this point the boundary is left undefined, perhaps +because the kingdoms of Alfred and Guthrum ceased to be conterminous +here, though if Northamptonshire was included in the kingdom of Guthrum, +as seems likely, the boundary must be carried a few miles along Watling +Street. Thus Northern Mercia, East Anglia, the greater part of Essex and +Northumbria were handed over to the Danes and henceforth constitute the +district known as the Danelagh. + +The three chief divisions of the Danelagh were (1) the kingdom of +Northumbria, (2) the kingdom of East Anglia, (3) the district of the +Five (Danish) Boroughs--lands grouped round Leicester, Nottingham, +Derby, Stamford and Lincoln, and forming a loose confederacy. Of the +history of the two Danish kingdoms we know very little. Guthrum of East +Anglia died in 890, and later we hear of a king Eric or Eohric who died +in 902. Another Guthrum was ruling there in the days of Edward the +Elder. The history of the Northumbrian kingdom is yet more obscure. +After an interregnum consequent on the death of Healfdene the kingdom +passed in 883 to one Guthred, son of Hardicanute, who ruled till 894, +when his realm was taken over by King Alfred, though probably only under +a very loose sovereignty. It may be noted here that Northumbria north of +the Tyne, the old Bernicia, seems never to have passed under Danish +authority and rule, but to have remained in independence until the +general submission to Edward in 924. + +More is known of the history of the five boroughs. From 907 onwards +Edward the Elder, working together with Aethelred of Mercia and his +wife, worked for the recovery of the Danelagh. In that year Chester was +fortified. In 911-912 an advance on Essex and Hertfordshire was begun. +In 914 Buckingham was fortified and the Danes of Bedfordshire submitted. +In 917 Derby was the first of the five boroughs to fall, followed by +Leicester a few months later. In the same year after a keen struggle all +the Danes belonging to the "borough" of Northampton, as far north as the +Welland (i.e. the border of modern Northamptonshire), submitted to +Edward and at the same time Colchester was fortified; a large portion of +Essex submitted and the whole of the East Anglian Danes came in. +Stamford was the next to yield, soon followed by Nottingham, and in 920 +there was a general submission on the part of the Danes and the +reconquest of the Danelagh was now complete. + +Though the independent occupation of the Danelagh by Viking invaders did +not last for more than fifty years at the outside, the Danes left +lasting marks of their presence in these territories. + +The divisions of the land are foreign not native. The grouping of shires +round a county town as distinct from the old national shires is probably +of Scandinavian origin, and so certainly is the division of Yorkshire +and Lincolnshire into "ridings." In Derbyshire, Leicestershire, +Lincolnshire, part of Northamptonshire, Nottinghamshire, Rutlandshire +(of later formation) and Yorkshire we have the counties divided into +"wapentakes" instead of "hundreds," again a mark of Danish influence. + +When we turn to the social divisions we find in Domesday and other +documents classes of society in these districts bearing purely Norse +names, _dreng_, _karl_, _karlman_, _bonde_, _thrall_, _lysing_, _hold_; +in the system of taxation we have an assessment by _carucates_ and not +by hides and _virgates_, and the duodecimal rather than the decimal +system of reckoning. + +The highly developed Scandinavian legal system has also left abundant +traces in this district. We may mention specially the institution of the +"lawmen," whom we find as a judicial body in several of the towns in or +near the Danelagh. They are found at Cambridge, Stamford, Lincoln, York +and Chester. There can be no doubt that these "lawmen," who can be shown +to form a close parallel to and indeed the ultimate source of our jury, +were of Scandinavian origin. Many other legal terms can be definitely +traced to Scandinavian sources, and they are first found in use in the +district of the Danelagh. + +The whole of the place nomenclature of Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, +Nottinghamshire and Northern Northamptonshire is Scandinavian rather +than native English, and in the remaining districts of the Danelagh a +goodly proportion of Danish place-names may be found. Their influence is +also evident in the dialects spoken in these districts to the present +day. It is probable that until the end of the 10th century Scandinavian +dialects were almost the sole language spoken in the district of the +Danelagh, and when English triumphed, after an intermediate bilingual +state, large numbers of words were adopted from the earlier Scandinavian +speech. + + See _The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, edited by Earle and Plummer (Oxford, + 1892-1899); J. C. H. R. Steenstrup, _Normannerne_ (4 vols., + 1876-1882); and A. Bugge, _Vikingerne_ (2 vols.). (A. Mw.) + + + + +DANGERFIELD, THOMAS (c. 1650-1685), English conspirator, was born about +1650 at Waltham, Essex, the son of a farmer. He began his career by +robbing his father, and, after a rambling life, took to coining false +money, for which offence and others he was many times imprisoned. False +to everyone, he first tried to involve the duke of Monmouth and others +by concocting information about a Presbyterian plot against the throne, +and this having been proved a lie, he pretended to have discovered a +Catholic plot against Charles II. This was known as the "Meal-tub Plot," +from the place where the incriminating documents were hidden at his +suggestion, and found by the king's officers by his information. Mrs +Elizabeth Cellier,--in whose house the tub was,--almoner to the countess +of Powis, who had befriended Dangerfield when he posed as a Catholic, +was, with her patroness, actually tried for high treason and acquitted +(1680). Dangerfield, when examined at the bar of the House of Commons, +made other charges against prominent Papists, and attempted to defend +his character by publishing, among other pamphlets, _Dangerfield's +Narrative_. This led to his trial for libel, and on the 29th of June +1685 he received sentence to stand in the pillory on two consecutive +days, be whipped from Aldgate to Newgate, and two days later from +Newgate to Tyburn. On his way back he was struck in the eye with a cane +by a barrister, Robert Francis, and died shortly afterwards from the +blow. The barrister was, tried and executed for the murder. + + + + +DANIEL, the name given to the central figure[1] of the biblical Book of +Daniel (see below), which is now generally regarded as a production +dating from the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (175-164 B.C.). There are +no means of ascertaining anything definite concerning the origin of the +hero Daniel. The account of him in Dan. i. has been generally +misunderstood. According to i. 3, the Babylonian chief eunuch was +commanded to bring "certain of the children of Israel, and of the king's +seed, and of the nobles" to serve in the court. Many commentators have +considered this to mean that some of the children were of the royal +Judaean line of Jewish noble families, an interpretation which is not +justified by the wording of the passage, which contains nothing to +indicate that the author meant to convey the idea that Daniel was either +royal or noble. Josephus,[2] never doubting the historicity of Daniel, +made the prophet a relative of Zedekiah and consequently of Jehoiakim, a +conclusion which he apparently drew from the same passage, i. 3. +Pseudo-Epiphanius,[3] again, probably having the same source in mind, +thought that Daniel was a Jewish noble. The true Epiphanius[4] even +gives the name of his father as Sabaan, and states that the prophet was +born at Upper Beth-Horon, a village near Jerusalem. The after life and +death of the seer are as obscure as his origin. The biblical account +throws no light on the subject. According to the rabbis,[5] Daniel went +back to Jerusalem with the return of the captivity, and is supposed to +have been one of the founders of the mythical Great Synagogue. Other +traditions affirm that he died and was buried in Babylonia in the royal +vault, while the Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela (12th cent. A.D.) +was shown his tomb in Susa, which is also mentioned by the Arab, +Abulfaragius (Bar-hebraeus). The author of _Daniel_ did not pretend to +give any sketch of the prophet's career, but was content merely with +making him the central figure, around which to group more or less +disconnected narratives and accounts of visions. In view of these facts, +and also of the generally inaccurate character of all the historical +statements in the work, there is really no evidence to prove even the +existence of the Daniel described in the book bearing his name. + +The question at once arises as to where the Maccabaean author of +_Daniel_ could have got the name and personality of his Daniel. It is +not probable that he could have invented both name and character. There +is an allusion in the prophet Ezekiel (xiv. 14, 20, xxviii. 3) to a +Daniel whom he places as a great personality between Noah and Job. But +this could not be our Daniel, whom Ezekiel, probably a man of ripe age +at the time of the Babylonian deportation of the Jews, would hardly have +mentioned in the same breath with two such characters, much less have +put him _between_ them, because, had the Daniel of the biblical book +existed at this time, he would have been a mere boy, lacking any such +distinction as to make him worthy of so high a mention. It is evident +that Ezekiel considered his Daniel to be a celebrated ancient prophet, +concerning whose date and origin, however, there is not a single trace +to guide research. Hitzig's[6] conjecture that the Daniel of Ezekiel was +Melchizedek is quite without foundation. The most that can be said in +this connexion is that there may really have been a spiritual leader of +the captive Jews who resided at Babylon and who was either named Daniel, +perhaps after the unknown patriarch mentioned by Ezekiel, or to whom the +same name had been given in the course of tradition by some historical +confusion of persons. Following this hypothesis, it must be assumed that +the fame of this Judaeo-Babylonian leader had been handed down through +the unclear medium of oral tradition until the time of Antiochus +Epiphanes, when some gifted Jewish author, feeling the need of producing +a work which should console his people in their affliction under the +persecutions of that monarch, seized upon the personality of the seer +who lived during a time of persecution bearing many points of +resemblance to that of Antiochus IV., and moulded some of the legends +than extant about the life and activity of this misty prophet into such +a form as should be best suited to a didactic purpose.[7] + + +DANIEL, BOOK OF.--The Book of Daniel stands between Ezra and Esther in +the third great division of the Hebrew Bible known as the _Hagiographa_, +in which are classed all works which were not regarded as being part of +the Law or the Prophets. The book presents the unusual peculiarity of +being written in two languages, i.-ii. 4 and viii.-xii. being in Hebrew, +while the text of ii. 4-vii. is the Palestinian dialect of Aramaic.[8] +The subject matter, however, falls naturally into two divisions which +are not co-terminous with the linguistic sections; viz. i.-vi. and +vii.-xii. The first of these sense-divisions deals only with narratives +regarding the reign of Nebuchadrezzar and his supposed son Belshazzar, +while the second section consists exclusively of apocalyptic prophecies. +There can be no doubt that a definite plan was followed in the +arrangement of the work. The author's object was clearly to demonstrate +to his readers the necessity of faith in Israel's God, who shall not for +ever allow his chosen ones to be ground under the heel of a ruthless +heathen oppressor. To illustrate this, he makes use on the one hand +(i.-vi.) of carefully chosen narratives, somewhat loosely connected it +is true, but all treating substantially the same subject,--the physical +triumph of God's servant over his unbelieving enemies; and on the other +hand (vii.-xii.), he introduces certain prophetic visions illustrative +of God's favour towards the same servant, Daniel. So carefully is this +record of the visions arranged that the first two chapters of the second +part of the book (vii.-viii.) were no doubt purposely made to appear in +a symbolic form, in order that in the last two revelations (xi.-xii.), +which were couched in such direct language as to be intelligible even to +the modern student of history, the author might obtain the effect of a +climax. The book is probably not therefore a number of parts of +different origin thrown loosely together by a careless editor, who does +not deserve the title of author.[9] The more or less disconnected +sections of the first part of the work were probably so arranged +purposely, in order to facilitate its diffusion at a time when books +were known to the people at large chiefly by being read aloud in public. + +Various attempts have been made to explain the sudden change from Hebrew +to Aramaic in ii. 4. It was long thought, for example, that Aramaic was +the vernacular of Babylonia and was consequently employed as the +language of the parts relating to that country. But this was not the +case, because the Babylonian language survived until a later date than +that of the events portrayed in Daniel.[10] Nor is it possible to follow +the theory of Merx, that Aramaic, which was the popular tongue of the +day when the Book of Daniel was written, was therefore used for the +simpler narrative style, while the more learned Hebrew was made the +idiom of the philosophical portions.[11] The first chapter, which is +just as much in the narrative style as are the following Aramaic +sections, is in Hebrew, while the distinctly apocalyptic chapter vii. is +in Aramaic. A third view, that the bilingual character of the work +points to a time when both languages were used indifferently, is equally +unsatisfactory,[12] because it is highly questionable whether two idioms +can ever be used quite indifferently. In fact, a hybrid work in two +languages would be a literary monstrosity. In view of the apparent unity +of the entire work, the only possible explanation seems to be that the +book was written at first all in Hebrew, but for the convenience of the +general reader whose vernacular was Aramaic, a translation, possibly +from the same pen as the original, was made into Aramaic. It must be +supposed then that, certain parts of the original Hebrew manuscript +being lost, the missing places were supplied from the current Aramaic +translation.[13] + +It cannot be denied in the light of modern historical research that if +the Book of Daniel be regarded as pretending to full historical +authority, the biblical record is open to all manner of attack. It is +now the general opinion of most modern scholars who study the Old +Testament from a critical point of view that this work cannot possibly +have originated, according to the traditional theory, at any time during +the Babylonian monarchy, when the events recorded are supposed to have +taken place. + +The chief reasons for such a conclusion are as follows.[14] + +1. The position of the book among the _Hagiographa_, instead of among +the Prophetical works, seems to show that it was introduced after the +closing of the Prophetical Canon. Some commentators have believed that +Daniel was not an actual prophet in the proper sense, but only a seer, +or else that he had no official standing as a prophet and that therefore +the book was not entitled to a place among official prophetical books. +But if the work had really been in existence at the time of the +completion of the second part of the canon, the collectors of the +prophetical writings, who in their care did not neglect even the parable +of Jonah, would hardly have ignored the record of so great a prophet as +Daniel is represented to have been. + +2. Jesus ben Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), who wrote about 200-180 B.C., in +his otherwise complete list of Israel's leading spirits (xlix.), makes +no mention of Daniel. Hengstenberg's plea that Ezra and Mordecai were +also left unmentioned has little force, because Ezra appears in the book +bearing his name as nothing more than a prominent priest and scholar, +while Daniel is represented as a great prophet. + +3. Had the Book of Daniel been extant and generally known after the time +of Cyrus (537-529 B.C.), it would be natural to look for some traces of +its power among the writings of Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi, whose +works, however, show no evidence that either the name or the history of +Daniel was known to these authors. Furthermore, the manner in which the +prophets are looked back upon in ix. 6-10 cannot fail to suggest an +extremely late origin for the book. Besides this, a careful study of ix. +2 seems to indicate that the Prophetical Canon was definitely completed +at the time when the author of Daniel wrote. It is also highly probable +that much of the material in the second part of the book was suggested +by the works of the later prophets, especially by Ezekiel and Zechariah. + +4. Some of the beliefs set forth in the second part of the book also +practically preclude the possibility of the author having lived at the +courts of Nebuchadrezzar and his successors. Most noticeable among these +doctrines is the complete system of angelology consistently followed out +in the Book of Daniel, according to which the management of human +affairs is entrusted to a regular hierarchy of commanding angels, two of +whom, Gabriel and Michael, are even mentioned by name. Such an idea was +distinctly foreign to the primitive Israelitish conception of the +indivisibility of Yahweh's power, and must consequently have been a +borrowed one. It could certainly not have come from the Babylonians, +however, whose system of attendant spirits was far from being so +complete as that which is set forth in the Book of Daniel, but rather +from Persian sources where a more complicated angelology had been +developed. As many commentators have brought out, there can be little +doubt that the doctrine of angels in Daniel is an indication of +prolonged Persian influence. Furthermore, it is now very generally +admitted that the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead, which is +advanced for the first time in the Old Testament in Daniel, also +originated among the Persians,[15] and could only have been engrafted on +the Jewish mind after a long period of intercourse with the Zoroastrian +religion, which came into contact with the Jewish thinkers considerably +after the time of Nebuchadrezzar. + +5. All the above evidences are merely internal, but we are now able to +draw upon the Babylonian historical sources to prove that Daniel could +not have originated at the time of Nebuchadrezzar. There can be no doubt +that the author of Daniel thought that Belshazzar (q.v.), who has now +been identified beyond all question with _Bel-sar-uzur_, the son of +Nabonidus, the last Semitic king of Babylon, was the son of +Nebuchadrezzar, and that Belshazzar attained the rank of king.[16] This +prince did not even come from the family of Nebuchadrezzar. Nabonidus, +the father of Belshazzar, was the son of a nobleman _Nabu-baladsu-iqbi_, +who was in all probability not related to any of the preceding kings of +Babylon. Had Nabonidus been descended from Nebuchadrezzar he could +hardly have failed in his records, which we possess, to have boasted of +such a connexion with the greatest Babylonian monarch; yet in none of +his inscriptions does he trace his descent beyond his father. Certain +expositors have tried to obviate the difficulty, first by supposing that +the expression "son of Nebuchadrezzar" in Daniel means "descendant" or +"son," a view which is rendered untenable by the facts just cited. This +school has also endeavoured to prove that the author of Daniel did not +mean to imply Belshazzar's kingship of Babylon at all by his use of the +word "king," but they suggest that the writer of Daniel believed +Belshazzar to have been co-regent. If Belshazzar had ever held such a +position, which is extremely unlikely in the absence of any evidence +from the cuneiform documents, he would hardly have been given the +unqualified title "king of Babylon" as occurs in Daniel.[17] For +example, Cambyses, son of Cyrus, was undoubtedly co-regent and bore the +title "king of Babylon" during his father's lifetime, but, in a contract +which dates from the first year of Cambyses, it is expressly stated that +Cyrus was still "king of the lands." This should be contrasted with Dan. +viii. 1, where reference is made to the "third year of Belshazzar, king +of Babylon" without any allusion to another over-ruler. Such attempts +are at best subterfuges to support an impossible theory regarding the +origin of the Book of Daniel, whose author clearly believed in the +kingship of Belshazzar and in that prince's descent from Nebuchadrezzar. + +Furthermore, the writer of Daniel asserts (v. 1) that a monarch "Darius +the Mede" received the kingdom of Babylon after the fall of the native +Babylonian house, although it is evident, from i. 21, x. 1, that the +biblical author was perfectly aware of the existence of Cyrus.[18] The +fact that in no other scriptural passage is mention made of any Median +ruler between the last Semitic king of Babylon and Cyrus, and the +absolute silence of the authoritative ancient authors regarding such a +king, make it apparent that the late author of Daniel is again in error +in this particular. It is known that Cyrus became master of Media by +conquering Astyages, and that the troops of the king of Persia capturing +Babylon took Nabonidus prisoner with but little difficulty. Unsuccessful +attempts have been made to identify this mythical Darius with the +Cyaxares, son of Astyages, of Xenophon's _Cyropaedia_, and also with the +Darius of Eusebius, who was in all probability Darius Hystaspis. There +is not only no room in history for this Median king of the Book of +Daniel, but it is also highly likely that the interpolation of "Darius +the Mede" was caused by a confusion of history, due both to the +destruction of the Assyrian capital Nineveh by the Medes, sixty-eight +years before the capture of Babylon by Cyrus, and also to the fame of +the later king, Darius Hystaspis, a view which was advanced as early in +the history of biblical criticism as the days of the Benedictine monk, +Marianus Scotus. It is important to note in this connexion that Darius +the Mede is represented as the son of Xerxes (Ahasuerus) and it is +stated that he established 120 satrapies. Darius Hystaspis was the +father of Xerxes, and according to Herodotus (iii. 89) established +twenty satrapies. Darius the Mede entered into possession of Babylon +after the death of Belshazzar; Darius Hystaspis conquered Babylon from +the hands of certain rebels (Her. iii. 153-160). In fine, the +interpolation of a Median Darius must be regarded as the most glaring +historical inaccuracy of the author of Daniel. In fact, this error of +the author alone is proof positive that he must have lived at a very +late period, when the record of most of the earlier historical events +had become hopelessly confused and perverted. + +With these chief reasons why the Book of Daniel cannot have originated +in the Babylonian period, if the reader will turn more especially to the +apocalyptic sections (vii.-xii.), it will be quite evident that the +author is here giving a detailed account of historical events which may +easily be recognized through the thin veil of prophetic mystery thrown +lightly around them. It is indeed highly suggestive that just those +occurrences which are the most remote from the assumed standpoint of the +writer are the most correctly stated, while the nearer we approach the +author's supposed time, the more inaccurate does he become. It is quite +apparent that the predictions in the Book of Daniel centre on the period +of Antiochus Epiphanes (175-164 B.C.), when that Syrian prince was +endeavouring to suppress the worship of Yahweh and substitute for it the +Greek religion.[19] There can be no doubt, for example, that in the +"Little Horn" of vii. 8, viii. 9, and the "wicked prince" described in +ix.-x., who is to work such evil among the saints, we have clearly one +and the same person. It is now generally recognized that the king +symbolized by the Little Horn, of whom it is said that he shall come of +one of four kingdoms which shall be formed from the Greek empire after +the death of its first king (Alexander), can be none other than +Antiochus Epiphanes, and in like manner the references in ix. must +allude to the same prince. It seems quite clear that xi. 21-45 refers to +the evil deeds of Antiochus IV. and his attempts against the Jewish +people and the worship of Yahweh. In xii. follows the promise of +salvation from the same tyrant, and, strikingly enough, the predictions +in this last section, x.-xii., relating to future events, become +inaccurate as soon as the author finishes the section describing the +reign of Antiochus Epiphanes. The general style of all these prophecies +differs materially from that of all other prophetic writings in the Old +Testament. Other prophets confine themselves to vague and general +predictions, but the author of Daniel is strikingly particular as to +detail in everything relating to the period in which he lived, i.e. the +reign of Antiochus IV. Had the work been composed during the Babylonian +era, it would be more natural to expect prophecies of the return of the +exiled Jews to Palestine, as in Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Isaiah, rather +than the acclamation of an ideal Messianic kingdom such as is emphasized +in the second part of Daniel. + +As a specimen of the apocalyptic method followed in Daniel, the +celebrated prophecy of the seventy weeks (ix. 24-27) may be cited, a +full discussion of which will be found in Prince, _Daniel_ 157-161. +According to Jer. xxv. 11-12, the period of Israel's probation and trial +was to last seventy years. In the angelic explanation in Daniel of +Jeremiah's prophecy, these years were in reality year-weeks, which +indicated a period of 490 years. This is the true apocalyptic system. +The author takes a genuine prophecy, undoubtedly intended by Jeremiah to +refer simply to the duration of the Babylonian captivity, and, by means +of a purely arbitrary and mystical interpretation, makes it denote the +entire period of Israel's degradation down to his own time. This +prophecy is really nothing more than an extension of the vision of the +2300 evening-mornings of viii. 14, and of the "time, times and a half a +time" of vii. 25. The real problem is as to the beginning and end of +this epoch, which is divided into three periods of uneven length; viz. +one of seven weeks; one of sixty-two weeks; and the last of one week. It +seems probable that the author of Daniel, like the Chronicler, began his +period with the fall of Jerusalem in 586. His first seven weeks, +therefore, ending with the rule of "Messiah the Prince,"[20] probably +Joshua ben Jozadak, the first high-priest after the exile (Ezra iii. 2), +seem to coincide exactly with the duration of the Babylon exile, i.e. +forty-nine years. + +The second period of the epoch, during which Jerusalem is to be peopled +and built, and at the end of which the Messiah is to be cut off, is much +more difficult to determine. The key to the problem lies undoubtedly in +the last statement regarding the overthrow of the Messiah or Anointed +One. Such a reference coming from a Maccabean author can only allude to +the deposition by Antiochus IV. of the high-priest Onias III., which +took place about 174 B.C., and the Syrian king's subsequent murder of +the same person not later than 171 (2 Macc. iv. 33-36). The difficulty +now arises that between 537 and 171 there are only 366 years instead of +the required number 434. It was evidently not the author's intention to +begin the second period of sixty weeks simultaneously with the first +period, as some expositors have thought, because the whole passage shows +conclusively that he meant seventy independent weeks. Besides, nothing +is gained by such a device, which would bring the year of the end of the +second period down to the meaningless date 152, too late to refer to +Onias. Cornill therefore adopted the only tenable theory regarding the +problem; viz. that the author of Daniel did not know the chronology +between 537 and 312, the establishment of the Seleucid era, and +consequently made the period too long. A parallel case is the much +quoted example of Demetrius, who placed the fall of Samaria (722 B.C.) +573 years before the succession of Ptolemy IV. (222), thus making an +error of seventy-three years. Josephus, who places the reign of Cyrus +forty to fifty years too early, makes a similar error. + +The last week is divided into two sections (26-27), in the first of +which the city and sanctuary shall be destroyed and in the second the +daily offering is to be suspended. All critical scholars recognize the +identity of this second half-week with the "time, times and a half a +time" of vii. 25. This last week must, therefore, end with the +restoration of the temple worship in 164 B.C. + +This whole prophecy, which is perhaps the most interesting in the Book +of Daniel, presents problems which can never be thoroughly understood, +first because the author must have been ignorant of both history and +chronology, and secondly, because, in his effort to be as mystical as +possible, he purposely made use of indefinite and vague expressions +which render the criticism of the passage a most unsatisfactory task. + +The Book of Daniel loses none of its beauty and force because we are +bound, in the light of modern criticism, to consider it as a production +of the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes, nor should conservative +Bible-readers lament because the historical accuracy of the work is thus +destroyed. The influence of the work was very great on the subsequent +development of Christianity, but it was not the influence of the +_history_ contained in it which made itself felt, but rather of that +sublime hope for a future deliverance of which the author of Daniel +never lost sight. The allusion to the book by Jesus (Matt. xxiv. 15) +shows merely that our Lord was referring to the work by its commonly +accepted title, and implies no authoritative utterance with regard to +its date or authorship. Our Lord simply made use of an apt quotation +from a well-known work in order to illustrate and give additional force +to his own prediction. If the book be properly understood, it must not +only be admitted that the author made no pretence at accuracy of detail, +but also that his prophecies were clearly intended to be merely an +historical resume, clothed for the sake of greater literary vividness in +a prophetic garb. The work, which is certainly not a forgery, but only a +consolatory political pamphlet, is just as powerful, viewed according to +the author's evident intention, as a consolation to God's people in +their dire distress at the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, as if it were, +what an ancient but mistaken tradition had made it, really an accurate +account of events which took place at the close of the Babylonian +period.[21] + + LITERATURE.--See bibliography in Bevan, _Daniel_ 9, and add + Kamphausen, _Dan._, in Haupt's _Sacred Books of the Old Testament_; + Behrmann, _Dan._ (1894); J. D. Prince, _Dan._ (1899); G. A. Barton, + "The Compilation of the Book of Daniel," in _Journ. Bibl. Lit._ + (1898), 62-86, against the unity of the book, &c., &c.; J. D. Davis, + "Persian Words and the Date of O.T. Documents," in _Old Testament and + Semitic Studies: in Memory of W. R. Harper_ (Chicago, 1908). + (J. D. Pr.) + + +ADDITIONS TO DANIEL.--The "additions to Daniel" are three in number: +_Susannah and the Elders_, _Bel and the Dragon_, and _The Song of the +Three Children_. Of these the two former have no organic connexion with +the text. The case is otherwise with regard to the last. In some +respects it helps to fill up a gap in the canonical text between verses +23 and 24 of chapter iii. And yet we find Polychronius, early in the 5th +century, stating that this song was not found in the Syriac version. + +_Susannah._--This addition was placed by Theodotion before chap. i., and +Bel and the Dragon at its close, whereas by the Septuagint and the +Vulgate it was reckoned as chap. xiii. after the twelve canonical +chapters, Bel and the Dragon as xiv. Theodotion's version is the source +of the Peshitto and the Vulgate, for all three additions, and the +Septuagint is the source of the Syro-Hexaplaric which has been published +by Ceriani (_Mon. Sacr._ vii.). The legend recounts how that in the +early days of the Captivity Susannah, the beautiful and pious wife of +the rich Joakim, was walking in her garden and was there seen by two +elders who were also judges. Inflamed with lust, they made infamous +proposals to her, and when repulsed they brought against her a false +charge of adultery. When brought before the tribunal she was condemned +to death and was on the way to execution, when Daniel interposed and, by +cross-questioning the accusers apart, convinced the people of the +falsity of the charge. + +The source of the story may, according to Ewald (_Gesch._^3 iv. 636), +have been suggested by the Babylonian legend of the seduction of two old +men by the goddess of love (see also Koran, _Sur._ ii. 96). Another and +much more probable origin of the work is that given by Brull (_Das +apocr. Susanna-Buch_, 1877) and Ball (_Speaker's Apocr._ ii. 323-331). +The first half of the story is based on a tradition--originating +possibly in Jer. xxix. 21-32 and found in the Talmud and Midrash--of two +elders Ahab and Zedekiah, who in the Captivity led certain women astray +under the delusion that they should thereby become the mother of the +Messiah. But the most interesting part of the investigation is concerned +with the latter half of the story, which deals with the trial. The +characteristics of this section point to its composition about 100-90 +B.C., when Simon ben Shetah was president of the Sanhedrin. Its object +was to support the attempts of the Pharisees to bring about a reform in +the administration of the law courts. According to Sadducean principles +the man who was convicted of falsely accusing another of a capital +offence was not put to death unless his victim was already executed. The +Pharisees held that the intention of the accusers was equivalent to +murder. Our apocryph upholds the Pharisaic contention. As Simon ben +Shetah insisted on a rigorous examination of the witnesses, so does our +writer: as he and his party required that the perjurer should suffer the +same penalty he sought to inflict on another, so our writer represents +the death penalty as inflicted on the perjured elders. + +The language was in all probability Semitic-Hebrew or Aramaic. The +paronomasiae in the Greek in verses 54-55 ([Greek: hupo schinon ... +schisei]) and 58-59 ([Greek: hupo prinon ... prisei]) present no cogent +difficulty against this view; for they may be accidental and have arisen +for the first time in the translation. But as Brull and Ball have shown +(see _Speaker's Apocr._ ii. 324), the same paronomasiae are possible +either in Hebrew or Aramaic. + + LITERATURE.--Ball in the _Speaker's Apocr._ ii. 233 sqq.; Schurer, + _Gesch._^3 iii. 333; Rothstein in Kautzsch's _Apocr. u. Pseud._ i. 176 + sqq.; Kamphausen in _Ency. Bib._; Marshall in Hastings' _Bible Dict._; + Toy in the _Jewish Encyc._ + +_Bel and the Dragon._--We have here two independent narratives, in both +of which Daniel appears as the destroyer of heathenism. The latter had a +much wider circulation than the former, and is most probably a Judaized +form of the old Semitic myth of the destruction of the old dragon, which +represents primeval chaos (see Ball, _Speaker's Apocr._ ii. 346-348; +Gunkel, _Schopfung und Chaos_, 320-323). Marduk destroys Tiamat in a +similar manner to that in which Daniel destroys the dragon (Delitzsch, +_Das babylonische Weltschopfung Epos_), by driving a storm-wind into the +dragon which rends it asunder. Marshall (Hastings' _Bib. Dict._ i. 267) +suggests that the "pitch" of the Greek (Aramaic [Aramaic: zifa]) arose +from the original term for storm-wind ([Aramaic: zafa]). + +The Greek exists in two recensions, those of the Septuagint and +Theodotion. Most scholars maintain a Greek original, but this is by no +means certain. Marshall (Hastings' _Bib Dict._ i. 268) argues for an +Aramaic, and regards Gasters's Aramaic text [_Proceedings of the Society +of Biblical Archaeology_ (1894), pp. 280-290, 312-317; (1895) 75-94] as +of primary value in this respect, but this is doubtful. + + LITERATURE.--Fritzsche's _Handbuch zu den Apoc._; Ball in the + _Speaker's Apocr._ ii. 344 sqq.; Schurer,^3 _Gesch._ iii. 332 sqq.; and + the articles in the _Ency. Bibl., Bible Dict._, and _Jewish Encyc._ + + The Greek text is best given in Swete iii., and the Syriac will be + found in Walton's _Polyglot_, Lagarde and Neubauer's _Tobit_. + +_Song of the Three Children._--This section is composed of the Prayer of +Azariah and the Song of Azariah, Ananias and Misael, and was inserted +after iii. 23 of the canonical text of Daniel. According to Fritzsche, +Konig, Schurer, &c., it was composed in Greek and added to the Greek +translation. On the other hand, Delitzsch, Bissell, Ball, &c., maintain +a Hebrew original. The latter view has been recently supported by +Rothstein, _Apocr. und Pseud._ i. 173-176, who holds that these +additions were made to the text before its translation into Greek. These +additions still preserve, according to Rothstein, a fragment of the +original text, i.e. verses 23-28, which came between verses 23 and 24 of +chapter iii. of the canonical text. They certainly fill up excellently a +manifest gap in this text. "The Song of the Three Children" was first +added after the verses just referred to, and subsequently the Prayer of +Azariah was inserted before these verses. + + LITERATURE.--Ball in the _Speaker's Apocr._ ii. 305 sqq.; Rothstein in + Kautzsch's _Apocr. und Pseud._ i. 173 sqq.; Schurer,^3 _Gesch._ iii. + 332 sqq. (R. H. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Four personages of the name of Daniel appear in the Old + Testament: (1) the patriarch of Ezekiel (see above); (2) a son of + David (1 Chron. iii. 1); (3) a Levite contemporary with Ezra (Ezra + viii. 2; Neh. x. 6); (4) our Daniel. + + [2] Ant. x. 10, 1. + + [3] Chap, x., on the Prophets. + + [4] Panarion, _adv._ Haeres. 55, 3. + + [5] Prince, _Dan._ p. 26, n. 6. + + [6] _Dan._ p. viii. + + [7] The account in chap. ii. of the promotion of Daniel to be + governor of Babylon, as a reward for his correct interpretation of + Nebuchadrezzar's dream, is very probably an imitation of the story of + Joseph in Gen. xl-xli. The points of resemblance are very striking. + In both accounts, we have a young Hebrew raised by the favour of a + heathen king to great political prominence, owing to his + extraordinary God-given ability to interpret dreams. In both + versions, the heathen astrologers make the first attempt to solve the + difficulty, which results in failure, whereupon the pious Israelite, + being summoned to the royal presence, in both cases through the + friendly intervention of a court official, triumphantly explains the + mystery to the king's satisfaction (cf. Prince, _Dan._ p. 29). + + [8] See Bevan, _Dan._ 28-40, on the Hebrew and Aramaic of Daniel. + + [9] According to Lagarde, _Mitteilungen_, iv. 351 (1891); also Gott, + _Gelehrte Anzeigen_ (1891), 497-520. + + [10] The latest connected Babylonian inscription is that of Antiochus + Soter (280-260 B.C.), but the language was probably spoken until + Hellenic times; cf. Gutbrod, _Zeitschr. fur Assyriol._ vi. 27. + + [11] Prince, _Dan._ 12. + + [12] Bertholdt, Dan. 15; Franz Delitzsch, in Herzog, + _Realencyklopadie_, 2nd ed., iii. 470. + + [13] Bevan, _Dan._ 27 ff.; Prince, _Dan._ 13. + + [14] For this whole discussion, see Prince, _Dan._ 15 ff. + + [15] The investigations of Haug, Spiegel and Windischmann show that + this was a real Zoroastrian doctrine. + + [16] Prince, _Dan._ 35-42. + + [17] Certain tablets published by Strassmaier, bearing date + continuously from Nabonidus to Cyrus, show that neither Belshazzar + nor "Darius the Mede" could have had the title "king of Babylon." See + Driver, _Introduction_,[3] xxii. + + [18] Prince, _Dan._ 44-56. + + [19] Prince, _Dan._ 19-20, 140, 155, 179 ff. + + [20] That "Messiah" or "Anointed One" was used of the High-Priest is + seen from Lev. x, 3, v. 16. + + [21] Prince, _Dan._ 22-24. + + + + +DANIEL (DANIL), of Kiev, the earliest Russian travel-writer, and one of +the leading Russian travellers in the middle ages. He journeyed to Syria +and other parts of the Levant about 1106-1107. He was the _igumen_, or +abbot, of a monastery probably near Chernigov in Little Russia: some +identify him with one Daniel, bishop of Suriev (fl. 1115-1122). He +visited Palestine in the reign of Baldwin I., Latin king of Jerusalem +(1100-1118), and apparently soon after the crusading capture of Acre +(1104); he claims to have accompanied Baldwin, who treated him with +marked friendliness, on an expedition against Damascus (c. 1107). Though +Daniel's narrative, beginning (as it practically ends) at +Constantinople, omits some of the most interesting sections of his +journey, his work has considerable value. His picture of the Holy Land +preserves a record of conditions (such as the Saracen raiding almost up +to the walls of Christian Jerusalem, and the friendly relations +subsisting between Roman and Eastern churches in Syria) peculiarly +characteristic of the time; his account of Jerusalem itself is +remarkably clear, minute and accurate; his three excursions--to the Dead +Sea and Lower Jordan (which last he compares to a river of Little +Russia, the Snov), to Bethlehem and Hebron, and towards Damascus--gave +him an exceptional knowledge of certain regions. In spite of some +extraordinary blunders in topography and history, his observant and +detailed record, marked by evident good faith, is among the most +valuable of medieval documents relating to Palestine: it is also +important in the history of the Russian language, and in the study of +ritual and liturgy (from its description of the Easter services in +Jerusalem, the Descent of the Holy Fire, &c.). Several Russian friends +and companions, from Kiev and Old Novgorod, are recorded by Daniel as +present with him at the Easter Eve "miracle," in the church of the Holy +Sepulchre. + + There are seventy-six MSS. of Daniel's Narrative, of which only five + are anterior to A.D. 1500; the oldest is of 1475 (St Petersburg, + Library of Ecclesiastical History 9/1086). Three editions exist, of + which I. P. Sakharov's (St Petersburg, 1849) is perhaps the best known + (in _Narratives of the Russian People_, vol. ii. bk. viii. pp. 1-45). + See also the French version in _Itineraires russes en orient_, ed M^e + B. de Khitrovo (Geneva, 1889) (_Societe de l'orient latin_); and the + account of Daniel in C. R. Beazley, _Dawn of Modern Geography_, ii. + 155-174. (C. R. B.) + + + + +DANIEL, GABRIEL (1649-1728), French Jesuit historian, was born at Rouen +on the 8th of February 1649. He was educated by the Jesuits, entered the +order at the age of eighteen, and became superior at Paris. He is best +known by his _Histoire de France depuis l'etablissement de la monarchie +francaise_ (first complete edition, 1713), which was republished in +1720, 1721, 1725, 1742, and (the last edition, with notes by Father +Griffet) 1755-1760. Daniel published an abridgment in 1724 (English +trans., 1726), and another abridgment was published by Dorival in 1751. +Though full of prejudices which affect his accuracy, Daniel had the +advantage of consulting valuable original sources. His _Histoire de la +milice francaise_, &c. (1721) is superior to his _Histoire de France_, +and may still be consulted with advantage. Daniel also wrote a by no +means successful reply to Pascal's _Provincial Letters_, entitled +_Entretiens de Cleanthe et d'Eudoxe sur les lettres provinciales_ +(1694); two treatises on the Cartesian theory as to the intelligence of +the lower animals, and other works. + + See Sommervogel, _Bibliotheque de la Compagnie de Jesus_, t. ii. + + + + +DANIEL, SAMUEL (1562-1619), English poet and historian, was the son of a +music-master, and was born near Taunton, in Somersetshire, in 1562. +Another son, John Daniel, was a musician, who held some offices at +court, and was the author of _Songs for the Lute, Viol and Voice_ +(1606). In 1579 Samuel was admitted a commoner of Magdalen Hall, Oxford, +where he remained for about three years, and then gave himself up to the +unrestrained study of poetry and philosophy. The name of Samuel Daniel +is given as the servant of Lord Stafford, ambassador in France, in 1586, +and probably refers to the poet. He was first encouraged and, if we may +believe him, taught in verse, by the famous countess of Pembroke, whose +honour he was never weary of proclaiming. He had entered her household +as tutor to her son, William Herbert. His first known work, a +translation of Paulus Jovius, to which some original matter is appended, +was printed in 1585. His first known volume of verse is dated 1592; it +contains the cycle of sonnets to _Delia_ and the romance called _The +Complaint of Rosamond_. Twenty-seven of the sonnets had already been +printed at the end of Sir Philip Sidney's _Astrophel and Stella_ without +the author's consent. Several editions of _Delia_ appeared in 1592, and +they were very frequently reprinted during Daniel's lifetime. We learn +by internal evidence that Delia lived on the banks of Shakespeare's +river, the Avon, and that the sonnets to her were inspired by her memory +when the poet was in Italy. To an edition of _Delia_ and _Rosamond_, in +1594, was added the tragedy of _Cleopatra_, a severe study in the manner +of the ancients, in alternately rhyming heroic verse, diversified by +stiff choral interludes. _The First Four Books of the Civil Wars_, an +historical poem in _ottava rima_, appeared in 1595. The bibliography of +Daniel's works is attended with great difficulty, but as far as is known +it was not until 1599 that there was published a volume entitled +_Poetical Essays_, which contained, besides the "Civil Wars," +"Musophilus," and "A letter from Octavia to Marcus Antonius," poems in +Daniel's finest and most mature manner. About this time he became tutor +to Anne Clifford, daughter of the countess of Cumberland. On the death +of Spenser, in the same year, Daniel received the somewhat vague office +of poet-laureate, which he seems, however, to have shortly resigned in +favour of Ben Jonson. Whether it was on this occasion is not known, but +about this time, and at the recommendation of his brother-in-law, +Giovanni Florio, he was taken into favour at court, and wrote a +_Panegyric Congratulatorie offered to the King at Burleigh Harrington in +Rutlandshire_, in _ottava rima_. In 1603 this poem was published, and in +many cases copies contained in addition his _Poetical Epistles_ to his +patrons and an elegant prose essay called _A Defence of Rime_ +(originally printed in 1602) in answer to Thomas Campion's _Observations +on the Art of English Poesie_, in which it was contended that rhyme was +unsuited to the genius of the English language. In 1603, moreover, +Daniel was appointed master of the queen's revels. In this capacity he +brought out a series of masques and pastoral tragi-comedies,--of which +were printed _A Vision of the Twelve Goddesses_, in 1604; _The Queen's +Arcadia_, an adaptation of Guarini's _Pastor Fido_, in 1606; _Tethys +Festival or the Queenes Wake_, written on the occasion of Prince Henry's +becoming a Knight of the Bath, in 1610; and _Hymen's Triumph_, in honour +of Lord Roxburgh's marriage in 1615. Meanwhile had appeared, in 1605, +_Certain Small Poems_, with the tragedy of _Philotas_; the latter was a +study, in the same style as _Cleopatra_, written some five years +earlier. This drama brought its author into difficulties, as Philotas, +with whom he expressed some sympathy, was taken to represent Essex. In +1607, under the title of _Certaine small Workes heretofore divulged by +Samuel Daniel_, the poet issued a revised version of all his works +except _Delia_ and the _Civil Wars_. In 1609 the Civil Wars had been +completed in eight books. In 1612 Daniel published a prose _History of +England_, from the earliest times down to the end of the reign of Edward +III. This work afterwards continued, and published in 1617, was very +popular with Drayton's contemporaries. The section dealing with William +the Conqueror was published in 1692 as being the work of Sir Walter +Raleigh, apparently without sufficient grounds. + +Daniel was made a gentleman-extraordinary and groom of the chamber to +Queen Anne, sinecure offices which offered no hindrance to an active +literary career. He was now acknowledged as one of the first writers of +the time. Shakespeare, Selden and Chapman are named among the few +intimates who were permitted to intrude upon the seclusion of a +garden-house in Old Street, St Luke's, where, Fuller tells us, he would +"lie hid for some months together, the more retiredly to enjoy the +company of the Muses, and then would appear in public to converse with +his friends." Late in life Daniel threw up his titular posts at court +and retired to a farm called "The Ridge," which he rented at Beckington, +near Devizes in Wiltshire. Here he died on the 14th of October 1619. + +The poetical writings of Daniel are very numerous, but in spite of the +eulogies of all the best critics, they were long neglected. This is the +more singular since, during the 18th century, when so little Elizabethan +literature was read, Daniel retained his poetical prestige. In later +times Coleridge, Charles Lamb and others expended some of their most +genial criticisms on this poet. Of his multifarious works the sonnets +are now, perhaps, most read. They depart from the Italian sonnet form in +closing with a couplet, as is the case with most of the sonnets of +Surrey and Wyat, but they have a grace and tenderness all their own. Of +a higher order is _The Complaint of Rosamond_, a soliloquy in which the +ghost of the murdered woman appears and bewails her fate in stanzas of +exquisite pathos. Among the _Epistles to Distinguished Persons_ will be +found some of Daniel's noblest stanzas and most polished verse. The +epistle to Lucy, countess of Bedford, is remarkable among those as being +composed in genuine _terza rima_, till then not used in English. Daniel +was particularly fond of a four-lined stanza of solemn alternately +rhyming iambics, a form of verse distinctly misplaced in his dramas. +These, inspired it would seem by like attempts of the countess of +Pembroke's, are hard and frigid; his pastorals are far more pleasing; +and _Hymen's Triumph_ is perhaps the best of all his dramatic writing. +An extract from this masque is given in Lamb's _Dramatic Poets_, and it +was highly praised by Coleridge. In elegiac verse he always excelled, +but most of all in his touching address _To the Angel Spirit of the Most +Excellent Sir Philip Sidney_. We must not neglect to quote _Musophilus_ +among the most characteristic writings of Daniel. It is a dialogue +between a courtier and a man of letters, and is a general defence of +learning, and in particular of poetic learning as an instrument in the +education of the perfect courtier or man of action. It is addressed to +Fulke Greville, and written, with much sententious melody, in a sort of +_terza rima_, or, more properly, _ottava rima_ with the couplet omitted. +Daniel was a great reformer in verse, and the introducer of several +valuable novelties. It may be broadly said of his style that it is full, +easy and stately, without being very animated or splendid. It attains a +high average of general excellence, and is content with level flights. +As a gnomic writer Daniel approaches Chapman, but is far more musical +and coherent. He is wanting in fire and passion, but he is preeminent in +scholarly grace and tender, mournful reverie. + + Daniel's works were edited by A. B. Grosart in 1885-1896. (E. G.) + + + + + +DANIELL, JOHN FREDERIC (1700-1845), English chemist and physicist, was +born in London on the 12th of March 1790, and in 1831 became the first +professor of chemistry at the newly founded King's College, London. His +name is best known for his invention of the Daniell cell (_Phil. +Trans._, 1836), still extensively used for telegraphic and other +purposes. He also invented the dew-point hygrometer known by his name +(_Quar. Journ. Sci._, 1820), and a register pyrometer (_Phil. Trans._, +1830); and in 1830 he erected in the hall of the Royal Society a +water-barometer, with which he carried out a large number of +observations _(Phil. Trans._, 1832). A process devised by him for the +manufacture of illuminating gas from turpentine and resin was in use in +New York for a time. His publications include _Meteorological Essays_ +(1823), an _Essay on Artificial Climate considered in its Applications +to Horticulture_ (1824), which showed the necessity of a humid +atmosphere in hothouses devoted to tropical plants, and an _Introduction +to the Study of Chemical Philosophy_ (1839). He died suddenly of +apoplexy on the 13th of March 1845, in London, while attending a meeting +of the council of the Royal Society, of which he became a fellow in 1813 +and foreign secretary in 1839. + + + + +DANIELL, THOMAS (1749-1840), English landscape painter, was born at the +Chertsey inn, kept by his father, in 1749, and apprenticed to an +heraldic painter. Daniell, however, was animated with a love of the +romantic and beautiful in architecture and nature. Up to 1784 he painted +topographical subjects and flower pieces. By this time his two nephews +(see below) had come under his influence, the younger, Samuel, being +apprenticed to Medland the landscape engraver, and the elder, William, +being under his own care. In this year (1784) he embarked for India +accompanied by William, and found at Calcutta ample encouragement. Here +he remained ten years, and on returning to London he published his +largest work, _Oriental Scenery_, in six large volumes, not completed +till 1808. From 1795 till 1828 he continued to exhibit Eastern subjects, +temples, jungle hunts, &c., and at the same time continued the +publication of illustrated works. These are--_Views of Calcutta_; +_Oriental Scenery_, 144 plates; _Views in Egypt_; _Excavations at +Ellora_; _Picturesque Voyage to China_. These were for the most part +executed in aquatint. He was elected an Academician in 1799, fellow of +the Royal Society about the same time, and at different times member of +several minor societies. His nephews both died before him; his Indian +period had made him independent, and he lived a bachelor life in much +respect at Kensington till his death on the 19th of March 1840. + +WILLIAM DANIELL (1769-1837), his nephew, was fourteen when he +accompanied his uncle to India. His own publications, engraved in +aquatint, were--_Voyage to India_; _Zoography_; _Animated Nature_; +_Views of London_; _Views of Bootan_, a work prepared from his uncle's +sketches; and a _Voyage Round Great Britain_, which occupied him several +years. The British Institution made him an award of L100 for a "Battle +of Trafalgar," and he was elected R.A. in 1822. He turned to panorama +painting before his death, beginning in 1832 with Madras, the picture +being enlivened by a representation of the Hindu mode of taming wild +elephants. + +SAMUEL DANIELL, William's younger brother, was brought up as an +engraver, and first appears as an exhibitor in 1792. A few years later +he went to the Cape and travelled into the interior of Africa, with his +sketching materials in his haversack. The drawings he made there were +published, after his return, in his _African Scenery_. He did not rest +long at home, but left for Ceylon in 1806, where he spent the remaining +years of his life, publishing _The Scenery, Animals and Natives of +Ceylon_. + + + + +DANNAT, WILLIAM T. (1853- ), American artist, was born in New York city +in 1853. He was a pupil of the Royal Academy of Munich and of Munkacsy, +and became an accomplished draughtsman and a distinguished figure and +portrait painter. He early attracted attention with sketches and +pictures made in Spain, and a large composition, "The Quartette," now in +the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, was one of the successes of +the Paris Salon of 1884. Dannat settled in Paris, became an officer of +the Legion of Honour, and is represented in the Luxembourg. + + + + +DANNECKER, JOHANN HEINRICH VON (1758-1841), German sculptor, was born at +Stuttgart, where his father was employed in the stables of the duke of +Wurttemberg, on the 15th of October 1758. The boy was entered in the +military school at the age of thirteen, but after two years he was +allowed to take his own taste for art. We find him at once associating +with the young sculptors Scheffauer and Le Jeune, the painters Guibal +and Harper, and also with Schiller, and the musician Zumsteeg. His busts +of some of these are good; that of Schiller is well known. In his +eighteenth year he carried off the prize at the Concours with his model +of Milo of Crotona. On this the duke made him sculptor to the palace +(1780), and for some time he was employed on child-angels and caryatides +for the decoration of the reception rooms. In 1783 he left for Paris +with Scheffauer, and placed himself under Pajou. His Mars, a sitting +figure sent home to Stuttgart, marks this period; and we next find him, +still travelling with his friend, at Rome in 1785, where he settled down +to work hard for five years. Goethe and Herder were then in Rome and +became his friends, as well as Canova, who was the hero of the day, and +who had undoubtedly a great authoritative influence on his style. His +marble statues of Ceres and Bacchus were done at this time. These are +now in the Residenz-schloss, at Stuttgart. On his return to Stuttgart, +which he never afterwards quitted except for short trips to Paris, +Vienna and Zurich, the double influence of his admiration for Canova and +his study of the antique is apparent in his works. The first was a girl +lamenting her dead bird, which pretty light motive was much admired. +Afterwards, Sappho, in marble for the Lustschloss, and two +offering-bearers for the Jagdschloss; Hector, now in the museum, not in +marble; the complaint of Ceres, from Schiller's poem; a statue of +Christ, worthy of mention for its nobility, which has been skilfully +engraved by Amsler; Psyche; kneeling water-nymph; Love, a favourite he +had to repeat. These stock subjects with sculptors had freshness of +treatment; and the Ariadne, done a little later, especially had a charm +of novelty which has made it a European favourite in a reduced size. It +was repeated for the banker Von Bethmann in Frankfort, and it now +appears the ornament of the Bethmann Museum. Many of the illustrious men +of the time were modelled by him. The original marble of Schiller is now +at Weimar; after the poet's death it was again modelled in colossal +size. Lavater, Metternich, Countess Stephanie of Baden, General +Benkendorf and others are much prized. Dannecker was director of the +Gallery of Stuttgart, and received many academic and other distinctions. +His death in 1841 was preceded by a period of mental failure. + + + + +DANNEWERK, or DANEWERK (Danish, _Dannevirke_ or _Danevirke_, "Danes' +rampart"), the ancient frontier rampart of the Danes against the +Germans, extending 10(1/2) m. from just south of the town of Schleswig +to the marshes of the river Trene near the village of Hollingstedt. The +rampart was begun by Guethoethr (_Godefridus_), king of Vestfold, early +in the 9th century. In 934 it was passed by the German king Henry I., +after which it was extended by King Harold Bluetooth (940-986), but was +again stormed by the emperor Otto II. in 974. The chronicler Saxo +Grammaticus mentions in his _Gesta Danorum_ the "rampart of Jutland" +(_Jutiae moenia_) as having been once more extended by Valdemar the +Great (1157-1182), which has been cited among the proofs that Schleswig +(_Sonderjylland_) forms an integral part of Jutland (_Manuel hist. de la +question de Slesvig_, 1906). After the union of Schleswig and Holstein +under the Danish crown, the Danevirke fell into decay, but in 1848 it +was hastily strengthened by the Danes, who were, however, unable to hold +it in face of the superiority of the Prussian artillery, and on the 23rd +of April it was stormed. From 1850 onwards it was again repaired and +strengthened at great cost, and was considered impregnable; but in the +war of 1864 the Prussians turned it by crossing the Schlei, and it was +abandoned by the Danes on the 6th of February without a blow. It was +thereupon destroyed by the Prussians; in spite of which, however, a long +line of imposing ruins still remains. The systematic excavation of +these, begun in 1900, has yielded some notable finds, especially of +valuable runic inscriptions (F. de Jessen, _La Question de Slesvig_, pp. +25, 44-50, &c.). + + See Lorenzen, _Dannevirke og Omegn_ (2nd ed., Copenhagen, 1864); H. + Handelmann, _Das Dannewerk_ (Kiel, 1885); Philippsen and Sunksen, + _Fuhrer durch das Danewerk_ (Hamburg, 1903). + + + + +DANSVILLE, a village of Livingston county, New York, U.S.A., 49 m. S. of +Rochester, on the Canaseraga Creek. Pop. (1890) 3758; (1900) 3633, of +whom 417 were foreign-born; (1905) 3908; (1910) 3938. The village is +served by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, and the Dansville & Mount +Morris railways. At Dansville is the Jackson Health Resort, a large +sanatorium, with which a nurses' training school is connected. There is +a public library. The village has large nurseries and vineyards, flour +and paper mills, a large printing establishment, a foundry, and a shoe +factory. Dansville, named in honour of Daniel P. Faulkner, was settled +about 1800, and was incorporated in 1845. + + + + +DANTE, Dante (or Durante) Alighieri (1265-1321), the greatest of Italian +poets, was born at Florence about the middle of May 1265. He was +descended from an ancient family, but from one which at any rate for +several generations had belonged to the burgher and not to the knightly +class. His biographers have attempted on very slight grounds to deduce +his origin from the Frangipani, one of the oldest senatorial families of +Rome. We can affirm with greater certainty that he was connected with +the Elisei who took part in the building of Florence under Charles the +Great. Dante himself does not, with the exception of a few obscure and +scattered allusions, carry his ancestry beyond the warrior Cacciaguida, +whom he met in the sphere of Mars (_Par._ xv. 87, foll.). Of +Cacciaguida's family nothing is known. The name, as he told Dante +(_Par._ xv. 139, 5), was given him at his baptism; it has a Teutonic +ring. The family may well have sprung from one of the barons who, as +Villani tells us, remained behind Otto I. It has been noted that the +phrase "Tonde venner quivi" (xvi. 44) seems to imply that they were not +Florentines. He further tells his descendant that he was born in the +year 1106 (or, if another reading of xvi, 37, 38 be adopted, in 1091), +and that he married an Aldighieri from the valley of the Po. Here the +German strain appears unmistakably; the name Aldighiero (Aldiger) being +purely Teutonic. He also mentions two brothers, Moronte and Eliseo, and +that he accompanied the emperor Conrad III. upon his crusade into the +Holy Land, where he died (1147) among the infidels. From Eliseo was +probably descended the branch of the Elisei; from Aldighiero, son of +Cacciaguida, the branch of the Alighieri. Bellincione, son of +Aldighiero, was the grandfather of Dante. His father was a second +Aldighiero, a lawyer of some reputation. By his first wife, Lapa di +Chiarissimo Cialuffii, this Aldighiero had a son Francesco; by his +second, Donna Bella, whose family name is not known, Dante and a +daughter. Thus the family of Dante held a most respectable position +among the citizens of his beloved city; but had it been reckoned in the +very first rank they could not have remained in Florence after the +defeat of the Guelphs at Montaperti in 1260. It is clear, however, that +Dante's mother at least did so remain, for Dante was born in Florence in +1265. The heads of the Guelph party did not return till 1267. + +Dante was born under the sign of the twins, "the glorious stars pregnant +with virtue, to whom he owes his genius such as it is." Astrologers +considered this constellation as favourable to literature and science, +and Brunetto Latini, the philosopher and diplomatist, his instructor, +tells him in the _Inferno_ (xv. 25, foll.) that, if he follows its +guidance, he cannot fail to reach the harbour of fame. Boccaccio relates +that before his birth his mother dreamed that she lay under a very lofty +laurel, growing in a green meadow, by a very clear fountain, when she +felt the pangs of childbirth,--that her child, feeding on the berries +which fell from the laurel, and on the waters of the fountain, in a very +short time became a shepherd, and attempted to reach the leaves of the +laurel, the fruit of which had nurtured him,--that, trying to obtain +them he fell, and rose up, no longer a man, but in the guise of a +peacock. We know little of Dante's boyhood except that he was a hard +student and was profoundly influenced by Brunetto Latini. Boccaccio +tells us that he became very familiar with Virgil, Horace, Ovid and +Statius, and all other famous poets. From the age of eighteen he, like +most cultivated young men of that age, wrote poetry assiduously, in the +philosophical amatory style of which his friend, older by many years +than himself, Guido Cavalcanti, was a great exponent, and of which Dante +regarded Guido Guinicelli of Bologna as the master (_Purg._ xxvi. 97, +8). Leonardo Bruni of Arezzo, writing a hundred years or more after his +death, says that "by study of philosophy, of theology, astrology, +arithmetic and geometry, by reading of history, by the turning over many +curious books, watching and sweating in his studies, he acquired the +science which he was to adorn and explain in his verses." Of Brunetto +Latini Dante himself speaks with the most loving gratitude and +affection, though he does not hesitate to brand his vices with infamy. +Under such guidance Dante became master of all the science of his age at +a time when it was not impossible to know all that could be known. He +had some knowledge of drawing; at any rate he tells us that on the +anniversary of the death of Beatrice he drew an angel on a tablet. He +was an intimate friend of Giotto, who has immortalized his youthful +lineaments in the chapel of the Bargello, and who is recorded to have +drawn from his friend's inspiration the allegories of Virtue and Vice +which fringe the frescoes of the Scrovegni Chapel at Padua. Nor was he +less sensible to the delights of music. Milton had not a keener ear for +the loud uplifted angel trumpets and the immortal harps of golden wires +of the cherubim and seraphim; and the English poet was proud to compare +his own friendship with Henry Lawes with that between Dante and Casella, +"met in the milder shades of purgatory." Of his companions the most +intimate and sympathetic were the lawyer-poet Cino of Pistoia, Lapo +Gianni, Guido Cavalcanti and others, similarly gifted and dowered with +like tastes, who moved in the lively and acute society of Florence, and +felt with him the first warm flush of the new spirit which was soon to +pass over Europe. He has written no sweeter or more melodious lines than +those in which he expresses the wish that he, with Guido and Lapo, might +be wafted by enchantment over the sea wheresoever they might list, +shielded from tempest and foul weather, in such contentment that they +should wish to live always in one mind, and that the good enchanter +should bring Monna Vanna and Monna Bice and that other lady into their +barque, where they should for ever discourse of love and be for ever +happy. It is a wonderful thing (says Leonardo Bruni) that, though he +studied without intermission, it would not have appeared to anyone that +he studied, from his joyous mien and youthful conversation. Like Milton +he was trained in the strictest academical education which the age +afforded; but Dante lived under a warmer sun and brighter skies, and +found in the rich variety and gaiety of his early life a defence against +the withering misfortunes of his later years. Milton felt too early the +chill breath of Puritanism, and the serious musing on the experience of +life, which saddened the verse of both poets, deepened in his case +rather into grave and desponding melancholy, than into the fierce scorn +and invective which disillusion wrung from Dante. + + + Political life. + +We must now consider the political circumstances in which lay the +activity of Dante's manhood. From 1115, the year of the death of Matilda +countess of Tuscany, to 1215, Florence enjoyed a nearly uninterrupted +peace. Attached to the Guelph party, it remained undivided against +itself. But in 1215 a private feud between the families of Buondelmonte +and Uberti introduced into the city the horrors of civil war. Villani +(lib. v. cap. 38) relates how Buondelmonte de' Buondelmonti, a noble +youth of Florence, being engaged to marry a lady of the house of Amidei, +allied himself instead to a Donati, and how Buondelmonte was attacked +and killed by the Amidei and Uberti at the foot of the Ponte Vecchio, +close by the pilaster which bears the image of Mars. "The death of +Messer Buondelmonte was the occasion and beginning of the accursed +parties of Guelphs and Ghibellines in Florence." Of the seventy-two +families then in Florence thirty-nine became Guelph under the leadership +of the Buondelmonte and the rest Ghibelline under the Uberti. The strife +of parties was for a while allayed by the war against Pisa in 1222, and +the constant struggles against Siena; but in 1248 Frederick II. sent +into the city his natural son Frederick "of Antioch," with 1600 German +knights. The Guelphs were driven away from the town, and took refuge, +part in Montevarchi, part in Capraia. The Ghibellines, masters of +Florence, behaved with great severity, and destroyed the towers and +palaces of the Guelph nobles. At last the people became impatient. They +rose in rebellion, reduced the powers of the podesta, elected a captain +of the people to manage the internal affairs of the city, with a council +of twelve, established a more democratic constitution, and, encouraged +by the death of Frederick II. in December 1250, recalled the exiled +Guelphs. Manfred, the bastard son of Frederick, pursued the policy of +his father. He stimulated the Ghibelline Uberti to rebel against their +position of subjection. A rising of the vanquished party was put down by +the people, in July 1258 the Ghibellines were expelled from the town, +and the towers of the Uberti razed to the ground. The exiles betook +themselves to the friendly city of Siena. Manfred sent them a +reinforcement of German horse, under his kinsman Count Giordano Lancia. +The Florentines, after vainly demanding their surrender, despatched an +army against them. On the 4th of September 1260 was fought the great +battle of Montaperti, which dyed the Arbia red, and in which the Guelphs +were entirely defeated. The hand which held the banner of the republic +was sundered by the sword of a traitor (_Inf._ xxxii. 106). For the +first time in the history of Florence the Carroccio was taken. Florence +lay at the mercy of her enemies. A parliament was held at Empoli, in +which the deputies of Siena, Pisa, Arezzo and other Tuscan towns +consulted on the best means of securing their new war power. They voted +that the accursed Guelph city should be blotted out. But Farinata degli +Uberti stood up in their midst, bold and defiant as when he stood erect +among the sepulchres of hell, and said that if, from the whole number of +the Florentines, he alone should remain, he would not suffer, whilst he +could wield a sword, that his country should be destroyed, and that, if +it were necessary to die a thousand times for her, a thousand times +would he be ready to encounter death. Help came to the Guelphs from an +unexpected quarter. Clement IV., elected pope in 1265, offered the crown +of Apulia and Sicily to Charles of Anjou. The French prince, passing +rapidly through Lombardy, Romagna and the Marches, reached Rome by way +of Spoleto, was crowned on the 6th of January 1266, and on the 23rd of +February defeated and killed Manfred at Benevento. In such a storm of +conflict did Dante first see the light. In 1267 the Guelphs were +recalled, but instead of settling down in peace with their opponents +they summoned Charles of Anjou to vengeance, and the Ghibellines were +driven out. The meteor passage of Conradin gave hope to the imperial +party, which was quenched when the head of the fair-haired boy fell on +the scaffold at Naples. Pope after pope tried in vain to make peace. +Gregory X. placed the rebellious city under an interdict; in 1278 +Cardinal Latini by order of Nicholas III. effected a truce, which lasted +for four years. The city was to be governed by a committee of fourteen +_buonomini_, on which the Guelphs were to have a small majority. In 1282 +the constitution of Florence received the final form which it retained +till the collapse of freedom. From the three arti _maggiori_ were chosen +six priors, in whose hands was placed the government of the republic. +Before the end of the century, seven greater arts were recognized, +including the _speziali_,--druggists and dealers in all manner of +oriental goods, and in books--among whom Dante afterwards enrolled +himself. They remained in office for two months, and during that time +lived and shared a common table in the public palace. We shall see what +influence this office had upon the fate of Dante. The success of the +"Sicilian Vespers" (March 1282), the death of Charles of Anjou (January +1285), and of Martin IV. in the following March, roused again the +courage of the Ghibellines. They entered Arezzo, where the Ghibellines +at present had the upper hand, and threatened to drive out the Guelphs +from Tuscany. Skirmishes and raids, of which Villani and Bruni have left +accounts, went on through the winter of 1288-1289, forming a prelude to +the great battle of Campaldino in the following summer. Then it was +that Dante saw "horsemen moving camp and commencing the assault, and +holding muster, and the march of foragers, the shock of tournaments, and +race of jousts, now with trumpets and now with bells, with drums and +castle signals, with native things and foreign" (_Inf._ xxii. 1, foll.). +On the 11th of June 1289, at Campaldino near Poppi, in the Casentino, +the Ghibellines were utterly defeated. They never again recovered their +hold on Florence, but the violence of faction survived under other +names. In a letter quoted, though not at first hand, by Leonardo Bruni, +which is not now extant, Dante is said to mention that he himself fought +with distinction at Campaldino. He was present shortly afterwards at the +battle of Caprona (_Inf._ xxi. 95, foll.), and returned in September +1289 to his studies and his love. His peace was of short duration. On +the 9th of June 1290 died Beatrice, whose mortal love had guided him for +thirteen years, and whose immortal spirit purified his later life, and +revealed to him the mysteries of Paradise. + +Dante had first met Beatrice Portinari at the house of her father Folco +on May-day 1274. In his own words, "already nine times after my birth +the heaven of light had returned as it were to the same point, when +there appeared to my eyes the glorious lady of my mind, who was by many +called Beatrice who knew not what to call her. She had already been so +long in this life that already in its time the starry heaven had moved +towards the east the twelfth part of a degree, so that she appeared to +me about the beginning of her ninth year, and I saw her about the end of +my ninth year. Her dress on that day was of a most noble colour, a +subdued and goodly crimson, girdled and adorned in such sort as best +suited with her tender age. At that moment I saw most truly that the +spirit of life which hath its dwelling in the secretest chamber of the +heart began to tremble so violently that the least pulses of my body +shook therewith; and in trembling it said these words, 'Ecce deus +fortior me qui veniens dominabitur mihi.'" In the _Vita Nuova_ is +written the story of his passion from its commencement to within a year +after the lady's death (June 9th, 1290). He saw Beatrice only once or +twice, and she probably knew little of him. She married Simone de' +Bardi. But the worship of her lover was stronger for the remoteness of +its subject. The last chapter of the Vita Nuova relates how, after the +lapse of a year, "it was given me to behold a wonderful vision, wherein +I saw things which determined me to say nothing further of this blessed +one until such time as I could discourse more worthily concerning her. +And to this end I labour all I can, as she in truth knoweth. Therefore +if it be His pleasure through whom is the life of all things that my +life continue with me a few years, it is my hope that I shall yet write +concerning her what hath not before been written of any woman. After the +which may it seem good unto Him who is the master of grace that my +spirit should go hence to behold the glory of its lady, to wit, of that +blessed Beatrice who now gloriously gazes on the countenance of Him qui +est per omnia saecula benedictus." In the _Convito_ he resumes the story +of his life. "When I had lost the first delight of my soul (that is, +Beatrice) I remained so pierced with sadness that no comforts availed me +anything, yet after some time my mind, desirous of health, sought to +return to the method by which other disconsolate ones had found +consolation, and I set myself to read that little-known book of Boetius +in which he consoled himself when a prisoner and an exile. And hearing +that Tully had written another work, in which, treating of friendship, +he had given words of consolation to Laelius, I set myself to read that +also." He so far recovered from the shock of his loss that in 1292 he +married Gemma, daughter of Manetto Donati, a connexion of the celebrated +Corso Donati, afterwards Dante's bitter foe. It is possible that she is +the lady mentioned in the _Vita Nuova_ as sitting full of pity at her +window and comforting Dante for his sorrow. By this wife he had two sons +and two daughters, and although he never mentions her in the _Divina +Commedia_, and although she did not accompany him into exile, there is +no reason to suppose that she was other than a good wife, or that the +union was otherwise than happy. Certain it is that he spares the memory +of Corso in his great poem, and speaks kindly of his kinsmen Piccarda +and Forese. + +In 1293 Giano della Bella, a man of old family who had thrown in his lot +with the people, induced the commonwealth to adopt the so-called +"Ordinances of Justice," a severely democratic constitution, by which +among other things it was enacted that no man of noble family, even +though engaged in trade, could hold office as prior. Two years later +Giano was banished, but the ordinances remained in force, though the +_grandi_ recovered much of their power. + +Dante now began to take an active part in politics. He was inscribed in +the _arte_ of the _Medici_ and _Speziali_, which made him eligible as +one of the six _priori_ to whom the government of the city was entrusted +in 1282. Documents still existing in the archives of Florence show that +he took part in the deliberations of the several councils of the city in +1295, 1296, 1300 and 1301. The notice in the last year is of some +importance. The pope had demanded a contingent of 100 Florentine knights +to serve against his enemies, the Colonna family. On the 19th of June we +read in the contemporary report of the debate on this question in the +Council of a Hundred: "_Dantes Alagherius consuluit quod de servitio +faciendo Domino Papae nihil fieret_." Other instances of his invariable +opposition to Boniface occur. Filelfo says that he served on fourteen +embassies, a statement not only unsupported by evidence, but impossible +in itself. Filelfo does not mention the only embassy in which we know +for certain that Dante was engaged, that to the town of San Gemignano in +May 1300. From the 15th of June to the 15th of August 1300 he held the +office of prior, which was the source of all the miseries of his life. +The spirit of faction had again broken out in Florence. The two rival +families were the Cerchi and the Donati,--the first of great wealth but +recent origin, the last of ancient ancestry but poor. A quarrel had +arisen in Pistoia between the two branches of the Cancellieri,--the +Bianchi and Neri, the Whites and the Blacks. The quarrel spread to +Florence, the Donati took the side of the Blacks, the Cerchi of the +Whites. Pope Boniface was asked to mediate, and sent Cardinal Matteo +d'Acquasparta to maintain peace. He arrived just as Dante entered upon +his office as prior. The cardinal effected nothing, but Dante and his +colleagues banished the heads of the rival parties in different +directions to a distance from the capital. The Blacks were sent to Citta +della Pieve in the Tuscan mountains; the Whites, among whom was Dante's +dearest friend Guido Cavalcanti, to Serrezzano in the unhealthy Maremma. +After the expiration of Dante's office both parties returned, Guido +Cavalcanti so ill with fever that he shortly afterwards died. At a +meeting held in the church of the Holy Trinity the Whites were denounced +as Ghibellines, enemies of the pope. The Blacks sought for vengeance. +Their leader, Corso Donati, hastened to Rome, and persuaded Boniface +VIII. to send for Charles of Valois, brother of the French king, Philip +the Fair, to act as "peacemaker." The priors sent at the end of +September four ambassadors to the pope, one of whom, according to the +chronicler Dino, was Dante. There are, however, improbabilities in the +story, and the passage quoted in support of it bears marks of later +interpolation. He never again saw the towers of his native city. Charles +of Valois, after visiting the pope at Anagni, retraced his steps to +Florence, entering the city on All Saints' Day and taking up his abode +in the Oltr' Arno. Corso Donati, who had been banished a second time, +returned in force and summoned the Blacks to arms. The prisons were +broken open, the podesta driven from the town, the Cerchi confined +within their houses, a third of the city was destroyed with fire and +sword. By the help of Charles the Blacks were victorious. They appointed +Cante de' Gabrielli of Gubbio as podesta, a man devoted to their +interests. More than 600 Whites were condemned to exile and cast as +beggars upon the world. On the 27th of January 1302, Dante, with four +others of the White party, was charged before the podesta, Cante de' +Gabrielli, with _baratteria_, or corrupt jobbery and peculation when in +office, and, not appearing, condemned to pay a fine of 5000 lire of +small florins. If the money was not paid within three days their +property was to be destroyed and laid waste; if they did pay the fine +they were to be exiled for two years from Tuscany; in any case they were +never again to hold office in the republic. The charge in Dante's case +was obviously preposterous, though ingeniously devised; for he was known +to be at the time in somewhat straitened circumstances, and had recently +been in control of certain public works. But of all sins, that of +"barratry" was one of the most hateful to him. No doubt the papal finger +may be traced in the affair. On the 10th of March Dante and fourteen +others were condemned to be burned alive if they should come into the +power of the republic. Similar sentences were passed in September 1311 +and October 1315. The sentence was not formally reversed till 1494, +under the government of the Medici. + +Leonardo Bruni, who accepts the story of the embassy to Rome, states +that Dante received the news of his banishment in that city, and at once +joined the other exiles at Siena. How he escaped arrest in the papal +states is not explained. The exiles met first at Gargonza, a castle +between Siena and Arezzo, and then at Arezzo itself. They joined +themselves to the Ghibellines, to which party the podesta Uguccione +della Faggiuola belonged. The Ghibellines, however, were divided amongst +themselves, and the more strict Ghibellines were not disposed to favour +the cause of the White Guelphs. On the 8th of June 1302, however, a +meeting was held at San Godenzo, a place in the Florentine territory, +Dante's presence at which is proved by documentary evidence, and an +alliance was there made with the powerful Ghibelline clan of the +Ubaldini. The exiles remained at Arezzo till the summer of 1304. In +September 1303 the fleur-de-lis had entered Anagni, and Christ had a +second time been made prisoner in the person of his vicar. At the +instigation of Philip the Fair, William of Nogaret and Sciarra Colonna +had entered the papal palace at Anagni, and had insulted and, it is +said, even beaten the aged pontiff under his own roof. Boniface did not +survive the insult long, but died in the following month. He was +succeeded by Benedict XI., and in March the cardinal da Prato came to +Florence, sent by the new pope to make peace. The people received him +with enthusiasm; ambassadors came to him from the Whites; and he did his +best to reconcile the two parties. But the Blacks resisted all his +efforts. He shook the dust from off his feet, and departed, leaving the +city under an interdict. Foiled by the calumnies and machinations of the +one party, the cardinal gave his countenance to the other. It happened +that Corso Donati and the heads of the Black party were absent at +Pistoia. Da Prato advised the Whites to attack Florence, deprived of its +heads and impaired by a recent fire. An army was collected of 16,000 +foot and 9000 horse. Communications were opened with the Ghibellines of +Bologna and Romagna, and a futile attempt was made to enter Florence +from Lastra, the failure of which further disorganized the party. Dante +had, however, already separated from the "ill-conditioned and foolish +company" of common party-politicians, who rejected his counsels of +wisdom, and had learnt that he must henceforth form a party by himself. +In 1303 he had left Arezzo and gone to Forli in Romagna, of which city +Scarpetta degli Ordelaffi was lord. To him, according to Flavius Blondus +the historian (d. before 1484), a native of the place, Dante acted for a +time as secretary. + + + Dante's Ghibellinism. + +From Forli Dante probably went to Bartolommeo della Scala, lord of +Verona, where the country of the great Lombard gave him his first refuge +and his first hospitable reception. Can Grande, to whom he afterwards +dedicated the _Paradiso_, was then a boy. Bartolommeo died in 1304, and +it is possible that Dante may have remained in Verona till his death. We +must consider, if we would understand the real nature of Dante's +Ghibellinism, that he had been born and bred a Guelph; but he saw that +the conditions of the time were altered, and that other dangers menaced +the welfare of his country. There was no fear now that Florence, Siena, +Pisa, Arezzo should be razed to the ground in order that the castle of +the lord might overlook the humble cottages of his contented subjects; +but there was danger lest Italy should be torn in sunder by its own +jealousies and passions, and lest the fair domain bounded by the sea and +the Alps should never properly assert the force of its individuality, +and should present a contemptible contrast to a united France and a +confederated Germany. Sick with petty quarrels and dissensions, Dante +strained his eyes towards the hills for the appearance of a universal +monarch, raised above the jars of faction and the spur of ambition, +under whom each country, each city, each man, might, under the +institutions best suited to it, lead the life and do the work for which +it was best fitted. United in spiritual harmony with the vicar of +Christ, he should show for the first time to the world an example of a +government where the strongest force and the highest wisdom were +interpenetrated by all that God had given to the world of piety and +justice. In this sense and in no other was Dante a Ghibelline. The +vision was never realized--the hope was never fulfilled. Not till 500 +years later did Italy become united and the "greyhound of deliverance" +chase from city to city the wolf of cupidity. But is it possible to say +that the dream did not work its own realization, or to deny that the +high ideal of the poet, after inspiring a few minds as lofty as his own, +has become embodied in the constitution of a state which acknowledges no +stronger bond of union than a common worship of the exile's indignant +and impassioned verse? + + + Wanderings. + +It is very difficult to determine with exactness the order and the place +of Dante's wanderings. Many cities and castles in Italy have claimed the +honour of giving him shelter, or of being for a time the home of his +inspired muse. He certainly spent some time with Count Guido Salvatico +in the Casentino near the sources of the Arno, probably in the castle of +Porciano, and with Uguccione in the castle of Faggiuola in the mountains +of Urbino. After this he is said to have visited the university of +Bologna; and in August 1306 we find him at Padua. Cardinal Napoleon +Orsini, the legate of the French pope Clement V., had put Bologna under +a ban, dissolved the university and driven the professors to the +northern city. In May or June 1307 the same cardinal collected the +Whites at Arezzo and tried to induce the Florentines to recall them. The +name of Dante is found attached to a document signed by the Whites in +the church of St Gaudenzio in the Mugello. This enterprise came to +nothing. Dante retired to the castle of Moroello Malespina in the +Lunigiana, where the marble ridges of the mountains of Carrara descend +in precipitous slopes to the Gulf of Spezzia. From this time till the +arrival of the emperor Henry VII. in Italy, October 1310, all is +uncertain. His old enemy Corso Donati had at last allied himself with +Uguccione della Faggiuola, the leader of the Ghibellines. Dante thought +it possible that this might lead to his return. But in 1308 Corso was +declared a traitor, attacked in his house, put to flight and killed. +Dante lost his last hope. He left Tuscany, and went to Can Grande della +Scala at Verona. From this place it is thought that he visited the +university of Paris (1309), studied in the rue du Fouarre and went on +into the Low Countries. That he ever crossed the Channel or went to +Oxford, or himself saw where the heart of Henry, son of Richard, earl of +Cornwall, murdered by his cousin Guy of Montfort in 1271, was "still +venerated on the Thames," may safely be disbelieved. The only evidence +for it is in the _Commentary_ of John of Serravalle, bishop of Fermo, +who lived a century later, had no special opportunity of knowing, and +was writing for the benefit of two English bishops. The election in 1308 +of Henry of Luxemburg as emperor stirred again his hopes of a deliverer. +At the end of 1310, in a letter to the princes and people of Italy, he +proclaimed the coming of the saviour; at Milan he did personal homage to +his sovereign. The Florentines made every preparation to resist the +emperor. Dante wrote from the Casentino a letter dated the 31st of March +1311, in which he rebuked them for their stubbornness and obstinacy. +Henry still lingered in Lombardy at the siege of Cremona, when Dante, on +the 16th of April 1311, in a celebrated epistle, upbraided his delay, +argued that the crown of Italy was to be won on the Arno rather than on +the Po, and urged the tarrying emperor to hew the rebellious Florentines +like Agag in pieces before the Lord. Henry was as deaf to this +exhortation as the Florentines themselves. After reducing Lombardy he +passed from Genoa to Pisa, and on the 29th of June 1312 was crowned by +some cardinals in the church of St John Lateran at Rome; the Vatican +being in the hands of his adversary King Robert of Naples. Then at +length he moved towards Tuscany by way of Umbria. Leaving Cortona and +Arezzo, he reached Florence on the 19th of September. He did not dare to +attack it, but returned in November to Pisa. In the summer of the +following year he prepared to invade the kingdom of Naples; but in the +neighbourhood of Siena he caught a fever and died at the monastery of +Buonconvento, on the 24th of August 1313. He lies in the Campo Santo of +Pisa; and the hopes of Dante and his party were buried in his grave. + + + Old age and death. + +After the death of the emperor Henry (Bruni tells us) Dante passed the +rest of his life as an exile, sojourning in various places throughout +Lombardy, Tuscany and the Romagna, under the protection of various +lords, until at length he retired to Ravenna, where he ended his life. +Very little can be added to this meagre story. There is reason for +supposing that he stayed at Gubbio with Bosone dei Rafaelli, and +tradition assigns him a cell in the monastery of Sta Croce di Fonte +Avellana in the same district, situated on the slopes of Catria, one of +the highest peaks of the Apennines in that region. After the death of +the French pope, Clement V., he addressed a letter, dated the 14th of +July 1314, to the cardinals in conclave, urging them to elect an Italian +pope. About this time he came to Lucca, then lately conquered by his +friend Uguccione. Here he completed the last cantos of the _Purgatory_, +which he dedicated to Uguccione, and here he must have become acquainted +with Gentucca, whose name had been whispered to him by her countryman on +the slopes of the Mountain of Purification (_Purg._ xxiv. 37). That the +intimacy between the "world-worn" poet and the young married lady (who +is thought to be identifiable with Gentucca Morla, wife of one +Cosciorino Fondora) was other than blameless, is quite incredible. In +August 1315 was fought the battle of Monte Catini, a day of humiliation +and mourning for the Guelphs. Uguccione made but little use of his +victory; and the Florentines marked their vengeance on his adviser by +condemning Dante yet once again to death if he ever should come into +their power. In the beginning of the following year Uguccione lost both +his cities of Pisa and Lucca. At this time Dante was offered an +opportunity of returning to Florence. The conditions given to the exiles +were that they should pay a fine and walk in the dress of humiliation to +the church of St John, and there do penance for their offences. Dante +refused to tolerate this shame; and the letter is still extant in which +he declines to enter Florence except with honour, secure that the means +of life will not fail him, and that in any corner of the world he will +be able to gaze at the sun and the stars, and meditate on the sweetest +truths of philosophy. He preferred to take refuge with his most +illustrious protector Can Grande della Scala of Verona, then a young man +of twenty-five, rich, liberal and the favoured head of the Ghibelline +party. His name has been immortalized by an eloquent panegyric in the +seventeenth canto of the _Paradiso_. Whilst on a visit at the court of +Verona he maintained, on the 20th of January 1320, the philosophical +thesis _De aqua et terra_, on the levels of land and water, which is +included in his minor works. The last three years of his life were spent +at Ravenna, under the protection of Guido da Polenta. In his service +Dante undertook an embassy to the Venetians. He failed in the object of +his mission, and, returning disheartened and broken in spirit through +the unhealthy lagoons, caught a fever and died in Ravenna on the 14th of +September 1321. His bones still repose there. His doom of exile has been +reversed by the union of Italy, which has made the city of his birth and +the various cities of his wanderings component members of a common +country. His son Piero, who wrote a commentary on the _Divina Commedia_, +settled as a lawyer in Verona, and died in 1364. His daughter Beatrice +lived as a nun in Ravenna, dying at some time between 1350 (when +Boccaccio brought her a present of ten gold crowns from a Florentine +gild) and 1370. His direct line became extinct in 1509. + + + Divina Commedia. + +_Dante's Works._--Of Dante's works, that by which he is known to all the +educated world, and in virtue of which he holds his place as one of the +half-dozen greatest writers of all time, is of course the _Commedia_. +(The epithet _divina_, it may be noted, was not given to the poem by its +author, nor does it appear on a title-page until 1555, in the edition +of Ludovico Dolce, printed by Giolito; though it is applied to the poet +himself as early as 1512.) The poem is absolutely unique in literature; +it may safely be said that at no other epoch of the world's history +could such a work have been produced. Dante was steeped in all the +learning, which in its way was considerable, of his time; he had read +the _Summa Theologica_ of Aquinas, the _Tresor_ of his master Brunetto, +and other encyclopaedic works available in that age; he was familiar +with all that was then known of the Latin classical and post-classical +authors. Further, he was a deep and original political thinker, who had +himself borne a prominent part in practical politics. He was born into a +generation in which almost every man of education habitually wrote +verse, as indeed their predecessors had been doing for the last fifty +years. Vernacular poetry had come late into Italy, and had hitherto, +save for a few didactic or devotional treatises hitched into rough +rhyme, been exclusively lyric in form. Amatory at first, later, chiefly +in the hands of Guittone of Arezzo and Guido Cavalcanti, taking an +ethical and metaphysical tone, it had never fully shaken off the +Provencal influence under which it had started, and of which Dante +himself shows considerable traces. + +The age also was unique, though the two great events which made the 15th +century a turning-point in the world's history--the invention of +printing and the discovery of the new world (to which might perhaps be +added the intrusion of Islam into Europe)--were still far in the future. +But the age was essentially one of great men; of free thought and free +speech; of brilliant and daring action, whether for good or evil. It is +easy to understand how Dante's bitterest scorn is reserved for those +"sorry souls who lived without infamy and without renown, displeasing to +God and to His enemies." + +The time was thus propitious for the production of a great imaginative +work, and the man was ready who should produce it. It called for a +prophet, and the prophet said, "Here am I." "Dante," says an acute +writer, "is not, as Homer is, the father of poetry springing in the +freshness and simplicity of childhood out of the arms of mother earth; +he is rather, like Noah, the father of a second poetical world, to whom +he pours forth his prophetic song fraught with the wisdom and the +experience of the old world." Thus the _Commedia_, though often classed +for want of a better description among epic poems, is totally different +in method and construction from all other poems of that kind. Its "hero" +is the narrator himself; the incidents do not modify the course of the +story; the place of episodes is taken by theological or metaphysical +disquisitions; the world through which the poet takes his readers is +peopled, not with characters of heroic story, but with men and women +known personally or by repute to him and those for whom he wrote. Its +aim is not to delight, but to reprove, to rebuke, to exhort; to form +men's characters by teaching them what courses of life will meet with +reward, what with penalty, hereafter; "to put into verse," as the poet +says, "things difficult to think." For such new matter a new vehicle was +needed. We have Bembo's authority for believing that the _terza rima_, +surpassed, if at all, only by the ancient hexameter, as a measure +equally adaptable to sustained narrative, to debate, to fierce +invective, to clear-cut picture and to trenchant epigram, was first +employed by Dante. + +The action of the _Commedia_ opens in the early morning of the Thursday +before Easter, in the year 1300. The poet finds himself lost in a +forest, escaping from which he has his way barred by a wolf, a lion and +a leopard. All this, like the rest of the poem, is highly symbolical. +This branch of the subject is too vast to be entered on at any length +here; but so far as this passage is concerned it may be said that it +seems to indicate that at this period of his life, about the age of +thirty-five, Dante went through some experience akin to what is now +called "conversion." Having led up till then the ordinary life of a +cultivated Florentine of good family; taking his part in public affairs, +military and civil, as an hereditary member of the predominant Guelph +party; dallying in prose which with all its beauty and passion is full +of the conceits familiar to the 13th century, and in verse which save +for the excellence of its execution differs in no way from that of his +predecessors, with the memory of his lost love; studying more +seriously, perhaps, than most of his associates; possibly travelling a +little,--gradually or suddenly he became convinced that all was not well +with him, and that not by leading, however blamelessly, the "active" +life could he save his soul. The strong vein of mysticism, found in so +many of the deepest thinkers of that age, and conspicuous in Dante's +mind, no doubt played its part. His efforts to free himself from the +"forest" of worldly cares were impeded by the temptations of the +world--cupidity (including ambition), the pride of life and the lusts of +the flesh, symbolized by the three beasts. But a helper is at hand. +Virgil appears and explains that he has a commission from three ladies +on high to guide him. The ladies are the Blessed Virgin, St Lucy (whom +for some reason never yet explained Dante seems to have regarded as in a +special sense his protector) and Beatrice. In Virgil we are apparently +intended to see the symbol of what Dante calls philosophy, what we +should rather call natural religion; Beatrice standing for theology, or +rather revealed religion. Under Virgil's escort Dante is led through the +two lower realms of the next world, Hell and Purgatory; meeting on the +way with many persons illustrious or notorious in recent or remoter +times, as well as many well enough known then in Tuscany and the +neighbouring states; but who, without the immortality, often unenviable, +that the poet has conferred on them, would long ago have been forgotten. +Popes, kings, emperors, poets and warriors, Florentine citizens of all +degrees, are there found; some doomed to hopeless punishment, others +expiating their offences in milder torments, and looking forward to +deliverance in due time. It is remarkable to notice how rarely, if ever, +Dante allows political sympathy or antagonism to influence him in his +distribution of judgment. Hell is conceived as a vast conical hollow, +reaching to the centre of the earth. It has three great divisions, +corresponding to Aristotle's three classes of vices, incontinence, +brutishness and malice. The first are outside the walls of the city of +Dis; the second, among whom are included unbelievers, tyrants, suicides, +unnatural offenders, usurers, are within; the first apparently on the +same level as those without, the rest separated from them by a steep +descent of broken rocks. (It should be said that many Dante scholars +hold that Aristotle's "brutishness" has no place in Dante's scheme; but +the symmetry of the arrangement, the special reference made to that +division, and certain expressions used elsewhere by Dante, seem to make +it probable that he would here, as in most other cases, have followed +his master in philosophy.) The sinners by malice, which includes all +forms of fraud or treachery, are divided from the last by a yet more +formidable barrier. They lie at the bottom of a pit, the depth of which +is not stated, with vertical sides, and accessible only by supernatural +means; a monster named Geryon bearing the poets down on his back. The +torments here are of a more terrible, often of a loathsome character. +Ignominy is added to pain, and the nature of Dante's demeanour towards +the sinners changes from pity to hatred. At the very bottom of the pit +is Lucifer, immovably fixed in ice; climbing down his limbs they reach +the centre of the earth, whence a cranny conducts them back to the +surface, at the foot of the purgatorial mountain, which they reach as +Easter Day is dawning. Before the actual Purgatory is attained they have +to climb for the latter half of the day and rest at night. The occupants +of this outer region are those who have delayed repentance till death +was upon them. They include many of the most famous men of the last +thirty years. In the morning the gate is opened, and Purgatory proper is +entered. This is divided into seven terraces, corresponding to the seven +deadly sins, which encircle the mountain and have to be reached by a +series of steep climbs, compared by Dante in one instance to the path +from Florence to Samminiato. The penalties are not degrading, but rather +tests of patience or endurance; and in several cases Dante has to bear a +share in them as he passes. On the summit is the Earthly Paradise. Here +Beatrice appears, in a mystical pageant; Virgil departs, leaving Dante +in her charge. By her he is led through the various spheres of which, +according to both the astronomy and the theology of the time, Heaven is +composed, to the supreme Heaven, or Empyrean, the seat of the Godhead. +For one moment there is granted him the intuitive vision of the Deity, +and the comprehension of all mysteries, which is the ultimate goal of +mystical theology; his will is wholly blended with that of God, and the +poem ends. + + + Convito. + +The _Convito_, or _Banquet_, also called _Convivio_ (Bembo uses the +first form, Trissino the other), is the work of Dante's manhood, as the +_Vita Nuova_ is the work of his youth. It consists, in the form in which +it has come down to us, of an introduction and three treatises, each +forming an elaborate commentary in a long canzone. It was intended, if +completed, to have comprised commentaries on eleven more canzoni, making +fourteen in all, and in this shape would have formed a _tesoro_ or +handbook of universal knowledge, such as Brunetto Latini and others have +left to us. It is perhaps the least well known of Dante's Italian works, +but crabbed and unattractive as it is in many parts, it is well worth +reading, and contains many passages of great beauty and elevation. +Indeed a knowledge of it is quite indispensable to the full +understanding of the _Divina Commedia_ and the _De Monarchia_. The time +of its composition is uncertain. As it stands it has very much the look +of being the contents of note-books partially arranged. Dante mentions +princes as living who died in 1309; he does not mention Henry VII. as +emperor, who succeeded in 1310. There are some passages which seem to +have been inserted at a later date. The canzoni upon which the +commentary is written were probably composed between 1292 and 1300, when +he was seeking in philosophy consolation for the loss of Beatrice. The +_Convito_ was first printed in Florence by Buonaccorsi in 1490. It has +never been adequately edited. + + + Vita Nuova. + +The _Vita Nuova_ (_Young Life_ or _New Life_, for both significations +seem to be intended) contains the history of his love for Beatrice. He +describes how he met Beatrice as a child, himself a child, how he often +sought her glance, how she once greeted him in the street, how he +feigned a false love to hide his true love, how he fell ill and saw in a +dream the death and transfiguration of his beloved, how she died, and +how his health failed from sorrow, how the tender compassion of another +lady nearly won his heart from its first affection, how Beatrice +appeared to him in a vision and reclaimed his heart, and how at last he +saw a vision which induced him to devote himself to study that he might +be more fit to glorify her who gazes on the face of God for ever. This +simple story is interspersed with sonnets, ballads and canzoni, arranged +with a remarkable symmetry, to which Professor Charles Eliot Norton was +the first to draw attention, chiefly written at the time to emphasize +some mood of his changing passion. After each of these, in nearly every +case, follows an explanation in prose, which is intended to make the +thought and argument intelligible to those to whom the language of +poetry was not familiar. The whole has a somewhat artificial air, in +spite of its undoubted beauty; showing that Dante was still under the +influence of the _Dugentisti_, many of whose conceits he reproduces. The +book was probably completed by 1300. It was first printed by Sermartelli +in Florence, 1576. + + + Canzoniere. + +Besides the smaller poems contained in the _Vita Nuova_ and _Convito_ +there are a considerable number of canzoni, ballate and sonnetti bearing +the poet's name. Of these many undoubtedly are genuine, others as +undoubtedly spurious. Some which have been preserved under the name of +Dante belong to Dante de Maiano, a poet of a harsher style; others which +bear the name of Aldighiero are referable to Dante's sons Jacopo or +Pietro, or to his grandsons; others may be ascribed to Dante's +contemporaries and predecessors Cino da Pistoia and others. Those which +are genuine secure Dante a place among lyrical poets scarcely if at all +inferior to that of Petrarch. Most of these were printed in _Sonetti e +canzoni_ (Giunta, 1527). The best edition of the _Canzoniere_ of Dante +is that by Fraticelli published by Barbera at Florence. His collection +includes seventy-eight genuine poems, eight doubtful and fifty-four +spurious. To these are added an Italian paraphrase of the seven +penitential psalms in _terza rima_, and a similar paraphrase of the +Credo, the seven sacraments, the ten commandments, the Lord's Prayer and +the Ave Maria. + + + De monarchia. + +The Latin treatise _De monarchia_, in three books, contains the mature +statement of Dante's political ideas. In it he propounds the theory that +the supremacy of the emperor is derived from the supremacy of the Roman +people over the world, which was given to them direct from God. As the +emperor is intended to assure their earthly happiness, so does their +spiritual welfare depend upon the pope, to whom the emperor is to do +honour as to the first-born of the Father. The date of its publication +is almost universally admitted to be the time of the descent of Henry +VII. into Italy, between 1310 and 1313, although its composition may +have been in hand from a much earlier period. The book was first printed +by Oporinus at Basel in 1559, and placed on the Index of forbidden +books. + + + De vulgari eloquentia. + +The treatise _De vulgari eloquentia_, in two books, also in Latin, is +mentioned in the _Convito_. Its object was first to establish the +Italian language as a literary tongue, and to distinguish the noble or +"courtly" speech which might become the property of the whole nation, at +once a bond of internal unity and a line of demarcation against external +nations, from the local dialects peculiar to different districts; and +secondly, to lay down rules for poetical composition in the language so +established. The work was intended to be in four books, but only two are +extant. The first of these deals with the language, the second with the +style and with the composition of the canzone. The third was probably +intended to continue this subject, and the fourth was destined to the +laws of the ballata and sonetto. It contains much acute criticism of +poetry and poetic diction. This work was first published in the Italian +translation of Trissino at Vicenza in 1529. The original Latin was not +published till 1577 at Paris by Jacopo Corbinelli, one of the Italians +who were brought from Florence by Catherine de' Medici, from a MS. now +preserved at Grenoble. The work was probably left unfinished in +consequence of Dante's death. + + + Eclogues. + +Boccaccio mentions in his life of Dante that he wrote two eclogues in +Latin in answer to Johannes de Virgilio, who invited him to come from +Ravenna to Bologna and compose a great work in the Latin language. The +most interesting passage in the work is that in the first poem, where he +expresses his hope that when he has finished the three parts of his +great poem his grey hairs may be crowned with laurel on the banks of the +Arno. Although the Latin of these poems is superior to that of his prose +works, we may feel thankful that Dante composed the great work of his +life in his own vernacular. The versification, however, is good, and +there are pleasant touches of gentle humour. The _Eclogues_ have been +edited by Messrs Wicksteed and Gardiner (_Dante and Giovanni del +Virgilio_, London, 1902). + + + De aqua et terra. + +A treatise _De aqua et terra_ has come down to us, which Dante tells us +was delivered at Mantua in January 1320 (perhaps 1321) as a solution of +the question which was being at that time much discussed--whether in any +place on the earth's surface water is higher than the earth. It was +first published at Venice in 1508, by an ecclesiastic named Moncetti, +from a MS. which he alleged to be in his possession, but which no one +seems to have seen. Its genuineness is accordingly very doubtful; but Dr +Moore has from internal evidence made out a very strong case for it. + + + Letters. + +The _Letters_ of Dante are among the most important materials for his +biography. Giovanni Villani mentions three as specially remarkable--one +to the government of Florence, in which he complains of undeserved +exile; another to the emperor Henry VII., when he lingered too long at +the siege of Brescia; and a third to the Italian cardinals to urge them +to the election of an Italian pope after the death of Clement V. The +first of these letters has not come down to us, the two last are extant. +Besides these we have one addressed to the cardinal da Prato, one to a +Florentine friend refusing the base conditions of return from exile, one +to the princes and lords of Italy to prepare them for the coming of +Henry of Luxembourg, another to the Florentines reproaching them with +the rejection of the emperor, and a long letter to Can Grande della +Scala, containing directions for interpreting the _Divina Commedia_, +with especial reference to the _Paradiso_. Of less importance are the +letters to the nephews of Count Alessandro da Romena, to the marquis +Moroello Malespina, to Cino da Pistoia and to Guido da Polenta. The +genuineness of all the letters has at one time or another been impugned; +but the more important are now generally accepted. They have been +translated by Mr C. S. Latham, ed. by Mr G. R. Carpenter (Cambridge, +Massachusetts and London, 1891). + +Dante's reputation has passed through many vicissitudes, and much +trouble has been spent by critics in comparing him with other poets of +established fame. Read and commented upon with more admiration than +intelligence in the Italian universities in the generation immediately +succeeding his death, his name became obscured as the sun of the +Renaissance rose higher towards its meridian. In the 16th century he was +held inferior to Petrarch; in the 17th and first half of the 18th he was +almost universally neglected. His fame is now fully vindicated. +Translations and commentaries issue from every press in Europe and +America, and many studies for separate points are appearing every year. + + AUTHORITIES.--It would be impossible here to give anything like a + complete account even of the editions of Dante's works; still more of + the books which have been written to elucidate the _Commedia_ as a + whole, or particular points in it. The section "Dante" in the British + Museum catalogue down to 1887 occupies twenty-nine folio pages; the + supplement, to 1900, as many more. The catalogue of the Fiske + collection, in Cornell University library, is in two quarto volumes + and covers 606 pages. A few of the more important editions and of the + more valuable commentaries and aids may, however, be recorded. + + _Editions._--The _Commedia_ was first printed by John Numeister at + Foligno, in April 1472. Two other editions followed in the same year: + one at Jesi (_Federicus Veronensis_), and Mantua (_Georgius et Paulus + Teutonici_). These, together with a Naples edition of about 1477 + (Francesco del Tuppo), were included by Lord Vernon in _Le Prime + Quattro Edizioni_ (1858). Another Neapolitan edition, without + printer's name, is dated 1477, and in the same year Wendelin of Spires + published the first Venetian edition. Milan followed in 1478 with that + known from the name of its editor as the _Nidobeatine_. In 1481 + appeared the first Florentine edition (_Nicolo and Lorenzo della + Magna_) with the commentary of Cristoforo Landino, and a series of + copper engravings ascribed to Baccio Baldini, varying in number in + different copies from two to twenty; a sumptuous and very carelessly + printed volume. Venice supplied most of the editions for many years to + come. Altogether twelve existed by the end of the century. In 1502 + Aldus produced the first "pocket" edition in his new "italic" type, + probably cut from the handwriting of his friend Bembo. A second + edition of this is dated 1515. The firm of Giunta at Florence printed + the poem in a small volume with cuts, in 1506; and for the rest of the + 16th century edition follows edition, to the number of about thirty in + all. The most noteworthy commentaries are those of Alessandro + Vellutello (Venice, 1544), and Bernardo Daniello (Venice, 1568), both + of Lucca. The Cruscan Academicians edited the text in 1595. The first + edition with woodcuts is that of Boninus de Boninis (Brescia, 1487). + Bernardino Benali followed at Venice in 1491, and from that time + onward few if any of the folio editions are without them. The 17th + century produced three (or perhaps four) small, shabby and inaccurate + editions. In 1716 a revival of interest in Dante had set in, and + before 1800 some score of editions had appeared, the best-known being + those of G. A. Volpi (Padua, 1727), Pompeo Venturi (Venice, 1739) and + Baldassare Lombardi (Rome, 1791). + + _Commentaries._--The _Commedia_ began to be the subject of + commentaries as soon as, if not before, the author was in his grave. + One known as the _Anonimo_ until in 1881 Dr Moore identified its + writer as Graziole de' Bambaglioli, was in course of writing in 1324. + It was published by Lord Vernon, to whose munificence we owe the + accessibility of most of the earlier commentaries, in 1848. That of + Jacopo della Lana is thought to have been composed before 1340. It was + printed in the Venice and Milan editions of 1477, and 1478 + respectively. The so-called _Ottimo Comento_ (Pisa, 1837) is of about + the same date. It embodies parts of Lana's, but is largely an + independent work. Witte ascribes it to Andrea della Lancia, a + Florentine notary. Dante's sons Pietro and Jacopo also commented on + their father's poem. Their works were published, again at Lord + Vernon's expense, in 1845 and 1848. Boccaccio's lectures on the + _Commedia_, cut short at _Inf._ xvii. 17 by his death in 1375, are + accessible in various forms. His work was achieved by his disciple + Benvenuto Rambaldi of Imola (d. c. 1390). Benvenuto's commentary, + written in Latin, genial in temper, and often acute, was popular from + the first. Extracts from it were used as notes in many MSS. Much of it + was printed by Muratori in his _Antiquitates Italicae_; but the entire + work was first published in 1887 by Mr William Warren Vernon, with the + aid of Sir James Lacaita. No greater boon has ever been offered to + students of Dante. Another early annotator who must not be overlooked + is Francesco da Buti of Pisa, who lectured in that city towards the + close of the same century. His commentary, which served as the basis + of Landino's already mentioned, was first printed in Pisa in 1858. One + more commentary deserves mention. During the council of Constance, + John of Serravalle, bishop of Fermo, fell in with the English bishops + Robert Hallam and Nicholas Bubwith, and at their request compiled a + voluminous exposition of the _Commedia_. This remained in MS. till + recently, when it was printed in a costly form. + + _Translations._--Probably the first complete translation of Dante into + a modern language was the Castilian version of Villena (1428). In the + following year Andreu Febrer produced a rendering into Catalan verse. + In 1515 Villegas published the _Inferno_ in Spanish. The earliest + French version is that of B. Grangier (1597). Chaucer has rendered + several passages beautifully, and similar fragments are embedded in + Milton and others. But the first attempt to reproduce any considerable + portion of the poem was made by Rogers, who only completed the + _Inferno_ (1782). The entire poem appeared first in English in the + version of Henry Boyd (1802) in six-line stanzas; but the first + adequate rendering is the admirable blank verse of H. F. Cary (1814, + 2nd ed. 1819), which has remained the standard translation, though + others of merit, notably those of Pollock (1854) and Longfellow (1867) + in blank verse, Plumptre (1887) and Haselfoot (1887) in _terza rima_; + J. A. Carlyle (_Inferno_ only, 1847). C. E. Norton (1891), and H. F. + Tozer (1904), in prose, have since appeared. The best in German are + those of "Philalethes" (the late King John of Saxony) and Witte, both + in blank verse. + + _Modern Editions and Commentaries._--The first serious attempt to + establish an accurate text in recent times was made by Carl Witte, + whose edition (1862) has been subsequently used as the basis for the + text of the _Commedia_ in the Oxford edition of Dante's complete works + (1896 and later issues). Dr Toynbee's text (1900) follows the Oxford, + with some modifications. The notes of Cary, Longfellow, Witte and + "Philalethes," appended to their several translations, and Tozer's, in + an independent volume, are valuable. Scartazzini's commentary is the + most voluminous that has appeared since the 15th century. With a good + deal of superfluous, and some superficial, erudition, it cannot be + neglected by any one who wishes to study the poem thoroughly. An + edition by A.J. Butler contains a prose version and notes. Of modern + Italian editions, Bianchi's and Fraticelli's are still as good as any. + + _Other Aids._--For beginners no introduction is equal to the essay on + Dante by the late Dean Church. Maria Rossetti's _Shadow of Dante_ is + also useful. _A Study of Dante_, by J. A. Symonds, is interesting. + More advanced students will find Dr Toynbee's _Dante Dictionary_ + indispensable, and Dr E. Moore's _Studies in Dante_ of great service + in its discussion of difficult places. Two concordances, to the + _Commedia_ by Dr Fay (Cambridge, Mass., 1888), and to the minor works + by Messrs Sheldon and White (Oxford, 1905), are due to American + scholars. Mr W. W. Vernon's _Readings in Dante_ have profited many + students. Dante's minor works still lack thorough editing and + scholarly elucidation, with the exception of the _De vulgari + eloquentia_, which has been well handled by Professor Pio Rajna + (1896), and the _Vita Nuova_ by F. Beck (1896) and Barbi (1907). Good + translations of the latter by D. G. Rossetti and C. E. Norton, and of + the _De monarchia_ by F. C. Church and P. H. Wicksteed are in + existence. The best text is that of the Oxford _Dante_, though much + confessedly remains to be done. The dates of their original + publication have already been given. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The first attempt at a bibliography of editions of + Dante was made in Pasquali's edition of his collected works (Venice, + 1739); but the first really adequate work on the subject is that of + the viscount Colomb de Batines (1846-1848). A supplement by Dr Guido + Biagi appeared in 1888. Julius Petzholdt had already covered some of + the same ground in _Bibliographia Dantea_, extending from 1865 to + 1880. The period from 1891 to 1900 has been dealt with by SS. + Passerini and Mazzi in _Un Decennio di bibliografia Dantesca_ (1905). + The catalogues of the two libraries already named, and that of Harvard + University, are worth consulting. For the MSS. Dr E. Moore's _Textual + Criticism_ (1889) is the most complete guide. (A. J. B.*) + + + + +DANTON, GEORGE JACQUES (1759-1794), one of the most conspicuous actors +in the decisive episodes of the French Revolution, was born at +Arcis-sur-Aube on the 26th of October 1759. His family was of +respectable quality, though of very moderate means. They contrived to +give him a good education, and he was launched in the career of an +advocate at the Paris bar. When the Revolution broke out, it found +Danton following his profession with apparent success, leading a +cheerful domestic life, and nourishing his intelligence on good books. +He first appears in the revolutionary story as president of the popular +club or assembly of the district in which he lived. This was the famous +club of the Cordeliers, so called from the circumstance that its +meetings were held in the old convent of the order of the Cordeliers, +just as the Jacobins derived their name from the refectory of the +convent of the Jacobin brothers. It is an odd coincidence that the old +rivalries of Dominicans and Franciscans in the democratic movement +inside the Catholic Church should be recalled by the names of the two +factions in the democratic movement of a later century away from the +church. The Cordeliers were from the first the centre of the popular +principle in the French Revolution carried to its extreme point; they +were the earliest to suspect the court of being irreconcilably hostile +to freedom; and it was they who most vehemently proclaimed the need for +root-and-branch measures. Danton's robust, energetic and impetuous +temperament made him the natural leader in such a quarter. We find no +traces of his activity in the two great insurrectionary events of +1789--the fall of the Bastille, and the forcible removal of the court +from Versailles to the Tuileries. In the spring of 1790 we hear his +voice urging the people to prevent the arrest of Marat. In the autumn we +find him chosen to be the commander of the battalion of the national +guard of his district. In the beginning of 1791 he was elected to the +post of administrator of the department of Paris. This interval was for +all France a barren period of doubt, fatigue, partial reaction and +hoping against hope. It was not until 1792 that Danton came into the +prominence of a great revolutionary chief. + +In the spring of the previous year (1791) Mirabeau had died, and with +him had passed away the only man who was at all likely to prove a wise +guide to the court. In June of that year the king and queen made a +disastrous attempt to flee from their capital and their people. They +were brought back once more to the Tuileries, which from that time forth +they rightly looked upon more as a prison than a palace or a home. The +popular exasperation was intense, and the constitutional leaders, of +whom the foremost was Lafayette, became alarmed and lost their judgment. +A bloody dispersion of a popular gathering, known afterwards as the +massacre of the Champ-de-Mars (July 1791), kindled a flame of resentment +against the court and the constitutional party which was never +extinguished. The Constituent Assembly completed its infertile labours +in September 1791. Then the elections took place to its successor, the +short-lived Legislative Assembly. Danton was not elected to it, and his +party was at this time only strong enough to procure for him a very +subordinate post in the government of the Parisian municipality. Events, +however, rapidly prepared a situation in which his influence became of +supreme weight. Between January and August 1792 the want of sympathy +between the aims of the popular assembly and the spirit of the king and +the queen became daily more flagrant and beyond power of disguise. In +April war was declared against Austria, and to the confusion and +distraction caused by the immense civil and political changes of the +past two years was now added the ferment and agitation of war with an +enemy on the frontier. The distrust felt by Paris for the court and its +loyalty at length broke out in insurrection. On the memorable morning of +the 10th of August 1792 the king and queen took refuge with the +Legislative Assembly from the apprehended violence of the popular forces +who were marching on the Tuileries. The share which Danton had in +inspiring and directing this momentous rising is very obscure. Some look +upon him as the head and centre of it. Apart from documents, support is +given to this view by the fact that on the morrow of the fall of the +monarchy Danton is found in the important post of minister of justice. +This sudden rise from the subordinate office which he had held in the +commune is a proof of the impression that his character had made on the +insurrectionary party. To passionate fervour for the popular cause he +added a certain broad steadfastness and an energetic practical judgment +which are not always found in company with fervour. Even in those days, +when so many men were so astonishing in their eloquence, Danton stands +out as a master of commanding phrase. One of his fierce sayings has +become a proverb. Against Brunswick and the invaders, "_il nous faut de +l'audace, et encore de l'audace, et toujours de l'audace_,"--we must +dare, and again dare, and for ever dare. The tones of his voice were +loud and vibrant. As for his bodily presence, he had, to use his own +account of it, the athletic shape and the stern physiognomy of the +Liberty for which he was ready to die. Jove the Thunderer, the rebel +Satan, a Titan, Sardanapalus, were names that friends or enemies +borrowed to describe his mien and port. He was thought about as a +coarser version of the great tribune of the Constituent Assembly; he was +called the Mirabeau of the sansculottes, and Mirabeau of the markets. + +In the executive government that was formed on the king's dethronement, +this strong revolutionary figure found himself the colleague of the +virtuous Roland and others of the Girondins. Their strength was speedily +put to a terrible test. The alarming successes of the enemy on the +frontier, and the surrender of two important fortresses, had engendered +a natural panic in the capital. But in the breasts of some of the wild +men whom the disorder of the time had brought to prominent place in the +Paris commune this panic became murderously heated. Some hundreds of +captives were barbarously murdered in the prisons. There has always been +much dispute as to Danton's share in this dreadful transaction. At the +time, it must be confessed, much odium on account of an imputed +direction of the massacres fell to him. On the whole, however, he cannot +be fairly convicted of any part in the plan. What he did was to make the +best of the misdeed, with a kind of sombre acquiescence. He deserves +credit for insisting against his colleagues that they should not flee +from Paris, but should remain firm at their posts, doing what they could +to rule the fierce storm that was raging around them. + +The elections to the National Convention took place in September, when +the Legislative Assembly surrendered its authority. The Convention ruled +France until October 1795. Danton was a member; resigning the ministry +of justice, he took a foremost part in the deliberations and proceedings +of the Convention, until his execution in April 1794. This short period +of nineteen months was practically the life of Danton, so far as the +world is concerned with him. + +He took his seat in the high and remote benches which gave the name of +the Mountain to the thoroughgoing revolutionists who sat there. He found +himself side by side with Marat, whose exaggerations he never +countenanced; with Robespierre, whom he did not esteem very highly, but +whose immediate aims were in many respects his own; with Camille +Desmoulins and Phelippeaux, who were his close friends and constant +partisans. The foes of the Mountain were the group of the +Girondins,--eloquent, dazzling, patriotic, but unable to apprehend the +fearful nature of the crisis, too full of vanity and exclusive +party-spirit, and too fastidious to strike hands with the vigorous and +stormy Danton. The Girondins dreaded the people who had sent Danton to +the Convention; and they insisted on seeing on his hands the blood of +the prison massacres of September. Yet in fact Danton saw much more +clearly than they saw how urgent it was to soothe the insurrectionary +spirit, after it had done the work of abolition which to him, as to them +too, seemed necessary and indispensable. Danton discerned what the +Girondins lacked the political genius to see, that this control of Paris +could only be wisely effected by men who sympathized with the vehemence +and energy of Paris, and understood that this vehemence and energy made +the only force to which the Convention could look in resisting the +Germans on the north-east frontier, and the friends of reaction in the +interior. "Paris," he said, "is the natural and constituted centre of +free France. It is the centre of light. When Paris shall perish there +will no longer be a republic." + +Danton was among those who voted for the death of the king (January +1793). He had a conspicuous share in the creation of the famous +revolutionary tribunal, his aim being to take the weapons away from that +disorderly popular vengeance which had done such terrible work in +September. When all executive power was conferred upon a committee of +public safety, Danton had been one of the nine members of whom that body +was originally composed. He was despatched on frequent missions from the +Convention to the republican armies in Belgium, and wherever he went he +infused new energy into the work of national liberation. He pressed +forward the erection of a system of national education, and he was one +of the legislative committee charged with the construction of a new +system of government. He vainly tried to compose the furious dissensions +between Girondins and Jacobins. The Girondins were irreconcilable, and +made Danton the object of deadly attack. He was far too robust in +character to lose himself in merely personal enmities, but by the +middle of May (1793) he had made up his mind that the political +suppression of the Girondins had become indispensable. The position of +the country was most alarming. Dumouriez, the victor of Valmy and +Jemmappes, had deserted. The French arms were suffering a series of +checks and reverses. A royalist rebellion was gaining formidable +dimensions in the west. Yet the Convention was wasting time and force in +the vindictive recriminations of faction. There is no positive evidence +that Danton directly instigated the insurrection of the 31st of May and +the 2nd of June, which ended in the purge of the Convention and the +proscription of the Girondins. He afterwards spoke of himself as in some +sense the author of this revolution, because a little while before, +stung by some trait of factious perversity in the Girondins, he had +openly cried out in the midst of the Convention, that if he could only +find a hundred men, they would resist the oppressive authority of the +Girondin commission of twelve. At any rate, he certainly acquiesced in +the violence of the commune, and he publicly gloried in the expulsion of +the men who stood obstinately in the way of a vigorous and concentrated +exertion of national power. Danton, unlike the Girondins, accepted the +fury of popular passion as an inevitable incident in the work of +deliverance. Unlike Billaud Varenne or Hebert, or any other of the +Terrorist party, he had no wish to use this frightful two-edged weapon +more freely than was necessary. Danton, in short, had the instinct of +the statesman. His object was to reconcile France with herself; to +restore a society that, while emancipated and renewed in every part, +should yet be stable; and above all to secure the independence of his +country, both by a resolute defence against the invader, and by such a +mixture of vigour with humanity as should reconcile the offended opinion +of the rest of Europe. This, so far as we can make it out, was what was +in his mind. + +The position of the Mountain had now undergone a complete change. In the +Constituent Assembly its members did not number more than 30 out of the +578 of the third estate. In the Legislative Assembly they had not been +numerous, and none of their chiefs had a seat. In the Convention for the +first nine months they had an incessant struggle for their very lives +against the Girondins. They were now (June 1793) for the first time in +possession of absolute power. It was not easy, however, for men who had +for many months been nourished on the ideas and stirred to the methods +of opposition, all at once to develop the instincts of government. +Actual power was in the hands of the two committees--that of public +safety and of general security. Both were chosen out of the body of the +Convention. The drama of the nine months between the expulsion of the +Girondins and the execution of Danton turns upon the struggle of the +committee to retain power--first, against the insurrectionary commune of +Paris, and second, against the Convention, from which the committees +derived an authority that was regularly renewed on the expiry of each +short term. + +Danton, immediately after the fall of the Girondins, had thrown himself +with extraordinary energy into the work to be done. The first task in a +great city so agitated by anarchical ferment had been to set up a strong +central authority. In this genuinely political task Danton was +prominent. He was not a member of the committee of public safety when +that body was renewed in the shape that speedily made its name so +redoubtable all over the world. This was the result of a self-denying +ordinance which he imposed upon himself. It was he who proposed that the +powers of the committee should be those of a dictator, and that it +should have copious funds at its disposal. In order to keep himself +clear of any personal suspicion, he announced his resolution not to +belong to the body which he had thus done his best to make supreme in +the state. His position during the autumn of 1793 was that of a powerful +supporter and inspirer, from without, of the government which he had +been foremost in setting up. Danton was not a great practical +administrator and contriver, like Carnot, for instance. But he had the +gift of raising in all who heard him an heroic spirit of patriotism and +fiery devotion, and he had a clear eye and a cool judgment in the +tempestuous emergencies which arose in such appalling succession. His +distinction was that he accepted the insurrectionary forces, instead of +blindly denouncing them as the Girondins had done. After these forces +had shaken down the throne, and then, by driving away the Girondins, had +made room for a vigorous government, Danton perceived the expediency of +making all haste to an orderly state. Energetic prosecution of the war, +and gradual conciliation of civil hatreds, had been, as we have said, +the two marks of his policy ever since the fall of the monarchy. The +first of these objects was fulfilled abundantly, partly owing to the +energy with which he called for the arming of the whole nation against +its enemies. His whole mind was now given to the second of them. But the +second of them, alas, was desperate. + +It was to no purpose that, both in his own action and in the writings of +Camille Desmoulins (_Le Vieux Cordelier_), of whom he was now and always +the intimate and inspirer, he worked against the iniquities of the bad +men, like Carrier and Collot d'Herbois, in the provinces, and against +the severity of the revolutionary tribunal in Paris. The black flood +could not at a word or in an hour subside from its storm-lashed fury. +The commune of Paris was now composed of men like Hebert and Chaumette, +to whom the restoration of any sort of political order was for the time +indifferent. They wished to push destruction to limits which even the +most ardent sympathizers with the Revolution condemn now, and which +Danton condemned then, as extravagant and senseless. Those men were not +politicians, they were fanatics; and Danton, who was every inch a +politician, though of a vehement type, had as little in common with them +as John Calvin of Geneva had with John of Leiden and the Munster +Anabaptists. The committee watched Hebert and his followers uneasily for +many weeks, less perhaps from disapproval of their excesses than from +apprehensions of their hostility to the committee's own power. At length +the party of the commune proposed to revolt against the Convention and +the committees. Then the blow was struck, and the Hebertists were +swiftly flung into prison, and thence under the knife of the guillotine +(March 24th, 1794). The execution of the Hebertists was the first +victory of the revolutionary government over the extreme insurrectionary +party. But the committees had no intention to concede anything to their +enemies on the other side. If they refused to follow the lead of the +anarchists of the commune, they were none the more inclined to give way +to the Dantonian policy of clemency. Indeed, such a course would have +been their own instant and utter ruin. The Terror was not a policy that +could be easily transformed. A new policy would have to be carried out +by new men, and this meant the resumption of power by the Convention, +and the death of the Terrorists. In Thermidor 1794 such a revolution did +take place, with those very results. But in Germinal feeling was not +ripe. The committees were still too strong to be overthrown. And Danton +seems to have shown a singular heedlessness. Instead of striking by +vigour in the Convention, he waited to be struck. In these later days a +certain discouragement seems to have come over his spirit. His wife had +died during his absence on one of his expeditions to the armies; he had +now married again, and the rumour went that he was allowing domestic +happiness to tempt him from the keen incessant vigilance proper to the +politician in such a crisis. He must have known that he had enemies. +When the Jacobin club was "purified" in the winter, Danton's name would +have been struck out as a moderate if Robespierre had not defended him. +The committees had deliberated on his arrest soon afterwards, and again +it was Robespierre who resisted the proposal. Yet though he had been +warned of the lightning that was thus playing round his head, Danton did +not move. Either he felt himself powerless, or he rashly despised his +enemies. At last Billaud Varenne, the most prominent spirit of the +committee after Robespierre, succeeded in gaining Robespierre over to +his designs against Danton. Robespierre was probably actuated by the +motives of selfish policy which soon proved the greatest blunder of his +life. The Convention, aided by Robespierre and the authority of the +committee, assented with ignoble unanimity. On the 30th of March Danton, +Desmoulins and others of the party were suddenly arrested. Danton +displayed such vehemence before the revolutionary tribunal, that his +enemies feared lest he should excite the crowd in his favour. The +Convention, in one of its worst fits of cowardice, assented to a +proposal made by St Just that, if a prisoner showed want of respect for +justice, the tribunal might pronounce sentence without further delay. +Danton was at once condemned, and led, in company with fourteen others, +including Camille Desmoulins, to the guillotine (April 5th, 1794). "I +leave it all in a frightful welter," he said; "not a man of them has an +idea of government. Robespierre will follow me; he is dragged down by +me. Ah, better be a poor fisherman than meddle with the government of +men!" + +Events went as Danton foresaw. The committees presently came to quarrel +with the pretensions of Robespierre. Three months after Danton, +Robespierre fell. His assent to the execution of Danton had deprived him +of the single great force that might have supported him against the +committee. The man who had "saved France from Brunswick" might perhaps +have saved her from the White reaction of 1794. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Sources for the life of Danton abound in the national + archives and in the columns of the _Moniteur_. His _Oeuvres_ were + published by A. Vermorel (Paris, 1866), and his speeches are included + in H. Morse Stephens' _Principal Speeches of the Statesmen and Orators + of the French Revolution_ (vol. ii., Oxford, 1892); cf. F. V. Aulard, + _Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention_ (Danton and his + group; 2 vols., 1885-1886). The charges of corruption freely brought + against Danton by contemporaries were accepted by many historians, and + he has been persistently accused of instigating or at least abetting, + by failure to use the power he possessed, the September massacres. A + minute examination of the evidence by F. V. Aulard and J. F. E. + Robinet in France, followed by A. H. Beesly in England, has placed his + career and his character in a fairer light. The chief books on + Danton's life are:--A. Bougeart, _Danton, documents pour servir a + l'histoire de la Revolution francaise_ (Brussels, 1861); J. F. E. + Robinet, _Danton, memoire sur sa vie privee_ (Paris, 1865), _Le Proces + des Dantonistes_ (Paris, 1879), _Danton emigre_ (Paris, 1887), + _Danton, homme d'etat_ (Paris, 1889); F. V. Aulard, _Hist. pol. de la + Rev. fr._ (Paris, 1901), and _Danton_ (Paris, 1887); A. Dubost, + _Danton et la politique contemporaine_ (Paris, 1880); A. H. Beesly, + _Life of Danton_ (1899, new ed. 1906); H. Belloc, _Danton_ (1899). + There is a short "Life of Danton" in Morse Stephens' _Principal + Speeches_, cited above. See also C. F. Warwick, _Danton and the French + Revolution_ (1909). (J. Mo.) + + + + +DANUBE (Ger. _Donau_, Hungarian _Duna_, Rumanian _Dunarea_, Lat. +_Danubius_ or _Danuvius_, and in the lower part of its course _Ister_), +the most important river of Europe as regards the volume of its outflow, +but inferior to the Volga in length and in the area of its drainage. It +originates at Donaueschingen in the Black Forest, where two mountain +streams, the Brigach and the Brege, together with a third stream from +the Palace Gardens, unite at an elevation of 2187 ft. above the sea to +form the Danube so called. From this point it runs in an easterly +direction until it falls into the Black Sea some 1750 m. from its +source, being the only European river of importance with a course from +west to east. Its basin, which comprises a territory of nearly 300,000 +sq. m., is bounded by the Black Forest, some of the minor Alpine ranges, +the Bohemian Forest and the Carpathian Mountains on the north, and by +the Alps and the Balkan range on the south. From the point where the +Danube first becomes navigable, i.e. at its junction with the Iller at +Ulm (1505 ft. above sea-level), it is fed by at least 300 tributaries, +the principal of which on the right bank are the Inn, the Drave and the +Save; while on the left bank are the Theiss or Tisza, the Olt, the +Sereth and the Pruth. These seven rivers have a total length of 2920 m. +and drain one half of the basin of the Danube. + + + Historical and political associations. + +The course of this mighty river is rich in historical and political +associations. For a long period it formed the frontier of the Roman +empire; near Eining (above Regensburg) was the ancient Abusina, which +for nearly five centuries was the chief Roman outpost against the +northern barbarians. Traces of Trajan's wall still exist between that +point and Wiesbaden, while another line of fortifications bearing the +same emperor's name are found in the Dobrudja between Cernavoda (on the +lower Danube) and Constantza. At intervening points are still found many +notable Roman remains, such as Trajan's road, a marvellous work on the +right bank of the river in the rocky Kazan defile (separating the +Balkans on the south from the Carpathians on the north), where a +contemporary commemorative tablet is still conspicuously visible. At +Turnu Severin below the end of this famous gorge are the remains of a +solid masonry bridge constructed by the same emperor at the period of +his Dacian conquests. But since Roman days the central Danube has never +formed the boundary of a state; on the contrary it became the route +followed from east to west by successive hordes of barbarians--the Huns, +Avars, Slavs, Magyars and Turks; while the Franks under Charlemagne, the +Bavarians and the Crusaders all marched in the opposite direction +towards the east. In more modern days its banks were the scenes of many +bloody battles during the Napoleonic Wars. Still more recently it has +become the great highway of commerce for central Europe. It has been +pointed out by J. G. Kohl (_Austria and the Danube_, London, 1844) and +others that, in consequence of the Danube having been in constant use as +the line of passage of migratory hostile tribes, it nowhere forms the +boundary between two states from Orsova upwards, and thus it traverses +as a central artery Wurttemberg, Bavaria, Austria and Hungary, while on +the other hand various tributaries both north and south, which formed +serious obstacles to the march of armies, have become lines of +separation between different states. Thus Hungary is separated from +Austria by the rivers March and Leitha; the river Enns, for a +considerable period the extreme western boundary of the Magyar kingdom, +still separates Upper and Lower Austria; the Inn and the Salzach divide +Austria from Bavaria, and farther west the Iller separates Bavaria from +Wurttemberg. + + + Course. + +The Danube after leaving Donaueschingen flows south-east in the +direction of Lake Constance, and below Immendingen a considerable +quantity of its waters escapes through subterranean fissures to the +river Ach in the Rhine basin. At Gutmadingen it turns to the north-east, +which general direction, although with many windings, it maintains as +far as Linz. At Tuttlingen it contracts and the hills crowd close to the +banks, while ruins of castles crown almost every possible summit. The +scenery is wild and beautiful until the river passes Sigmaringen. At +Ulm, where the river leaves Wurttemberg and enters Bavaria, it is joined +by a large tributary, the Iller, and from this point becomes navigable +downstream for specially constructed boats carrying 100 tons of +merchandise. It is here some 78 yds. in breadth, with an average depth +of 3 ft. 6 in. Continuing its north-easterly course it passes through +Bavaria, gradually widening its channel first at Steppberg, then at +Ingolstadt, but finally narrowing again until it reaches Regensburg +(height 949 ft.). At this point it changes its direction to the +south-east, and passing along the southern slopes of the Bavarian Forest +enters Austria at Passau (height 800 ft.). In its passage through +Bavaria it receives several important affluents on both banks, notably +on the right the Alpine rivers Lech, Isar and Inn, the last of which at +the junction near Passau exceeds in volume the waters of the Danube. + +From Passau the Danube flows through Austria for a distance of 233 m. +Closed in by mountains it flows past Linz in an unbroken stream--below, +it expands and divides into many arms until it reaches the famous +whirlpool near Grein where its waters unite and flow on in one channel +for 40 m., through mountains and narrow passes. Beyond Krems it again +divides, forming arms and islands beyond Vienna. The Danube between Linz +and Vienna is renowned not only for its picturesque beauty but for the +numerous medieval and modern buildings of historical and archaeological +interest which crown its banks. The splendid Benedictine monastery of +Melk and the ruins of Durrenstein, the prison of Richard Coeur de Lion, +are among the most interesting. + +After passing Vienna and the Marchfeld, the Danube (here 316 yds. wide +and 429 ft. above sea-level) passes through a defile formed by the lower +spurs of the Alps and the Carpathians and enters Hungary at the ruined +castle of Theben a little above Pressburg, the old Magyar capital, after +leaving which the river passes through the Hungarian plains, receiving +several affluents on both sides. It divides into three channels, forming +several islands. After passing the fortress of Komarom it loses its +easterly course at Vacz (Waitzen), and flows nearly due south for 230 m. +down to its junction with the Drave (81 ft. above sea-level), passing in +its course Budapest, the capital of Hungary, and farther on Mohacs. +Below Mohacs the Franz Josef canal connects the Danube with the Theiss. +After its junction with the Save the Danube follows a south-easterly +direction for 200 m. until it is joined on the right bank of the Drave +at Belgrade, above which it receives on the left bank the Theiss or +Tisz., the largest of its Hungarian affluents. From Belgrade the Danube +separates Hungary from Servia. It flows eastward until it has passed +through the stupendous Kazan defile, in which its waters (at Semlin 1700 +yds. wide and 40 ft. deep) are hemmed in by precipitous rocks to a width +of only 162 yds., with a depth of 150 ft. and a tremendous current. +Emerging, above Orsova, at a height of 42 ft. above sea-level, it opens +to nearly a mile in width and, turning south-eastwards, is again +narrowed by its last defile, the Iron Gates, where it passes over the +Prigrada rock. The course of the river through Hungary, from Pressburg +to Orsova, is some 600 m. + +The river now flows south, separating Servia from Rumania down to its +junction with the Timok, after which as far as Silistria, a distance of +284 m., it separates Rumania from Bulgaria. The north bank is mostly +flat and marshy, whereas the Bulgarian bank is almost continuously +crowned by low heights on which are built the considerable towns of +Vidin (Widdin), Lom Palanka, Rustchuk and Silistria, all memorable names +in Turko-Russian wars. From Silistria the river flows through Rumanian +territory and after passing Cernavoda, where it is crossed by a modern +railway bridge, it reaches (left bank) the important commercial ports of +Braila and Galatz. A few miles east of Galatz the Pruth enters on the +left bank, which is thenceforward Russian territory. The Danube flows in +a single channel from Galatz for 30 m. to the Ismail Chatal (or fork), +where it breaks up into the several branches of the delta. The Kilia +branch from this point flows to the north-east past the towns of Ismail +and Kilia, and 17 m. below the latter breaks up into another delta +discharging by seven channels into the Black Sea. The Tulcea branch +flows south-east from the Ismail Chatal, and 7 m. below the town of +Tulcea separates into two branches. The St George's branch, holding a +general, though winding, course to the south-east, discharges by two +channels into the sea; and the Sulina branch, taking an easterly +direction, emerges into the Black Sea 20 m. south of the Ochakov mouth +of the Kilia, and 20 m. north of the Kedrilles mouth of the St George. + +In 1857 the proportion of discharge by the three branches of the Danube +was Sulina 7%, St George's 30% and Kilia 63%; but in 1905 the relative +proportions had altered to Sulina 9%, St George's 24% and Kilia 67%. The +average outflow by the three mouths combined is 236,432 cub. ft. per +second. The delta enclosed between the Kilia and St George's branches, +about 1000 sq. m. in area, mainly consists of one large marsh covered +with reeds, and intersected by channels, relieved in places by isolated +elevations covered with oak, beech and willows, many of them marking the +ancient coast-line. On the eastern side of the Kilia delta the +coast-line is constantly advancing and the sea becoming shallower, owing +to the enormous amount of solid deposits brought down by the river. In +time of ordinary flood the Kilia branch with its numerous mouths pours +into the sea some 3000 cub. ft. of sand and mud per minute. Its effects +are felt as far south as Sulina, and tend to necessitate the farther +extension into the sea of the guiding piers of that port. + + + Navigation. + +In the course of the 19th century, more especially during its latter +half, much was done to render the Danube more available as a means of +communication. In 1816 Austria and Bavaria made arrangements for the +common utilization of the upper portion of the river, and since then +both governments have been liberal in expenditure on its improvement. In +1844 the Ludwigs Canal was constructed by King Louis of Bavaria. It is +110 m. in length and 7 ft. in depth, and connects the Danube at Kelheim +(half way between Ulm and Passau) with the Rhine at Mainz by means of +the rivers Altmuhl, Regnitz and Main. Various other projects exist, one +for the connexion of the Danube (near Vienna) with the river Oder at +Oderberg, another for a canal from the Danube to the Moldau at Budweis, +125 m. in length, which owing to the regularization of the Moldau is the +last uncompleted link of a navigable channel 1875 m. in length between +Sulina and Hamburg at the mouths of the Danube and the Elbe +respectively. There also exist other schemes for joining the Danube with +the rivers Neckar and Theiss, and also for connecting the Oder Canal +with the Vistula and the Dniester. Between Ulm and Vienna, a distance of +629 m., works of rectification have been numerous and have greatly +improved the navigability of the river. The draining of the Donau-moos +between Neuburg and Ingolstadt, commenced in 1791, was successfully +completed about 1835; and in 1853 the removal of the rocks which +obstructed the river below Grein was finally achieved; while at Vienna +itself the whole mass of the Danube was conducted nearer the town for a +distance of nearly 2 m. through an artificial channel 10 m. in length +and 330 yds. in width, with a depth of about 12 ft., and at a cost with +subsidiary works of over three millions sterling. The work, begun in +1866, involved the removal of 12,000,000 cub. metres of sand and gravel, +and proved a great success, not only amply realizing its principal +object, the protection of Vienna from disastrous inundations, but also +improving the navigability of the river in that portion of its course. +The Hungarian government also, throughout the latter half of the 19th +century, expended vast sums at Budapest for the improvement of +navigation and the protection of the town from inundation, and in the +regularization of the Danube down to Orsova. + +In prehistoric times a great part of the plains of Hungary formed a +large inland sea, which ultimately burst its bounds, whereupon the +Danube forced its way through the Carpathians at the Kazan defile. Much +of what then formed the bottom of this sea consisted until modern times +of marshes and waste lands lying in the vicinity of its numerous rivers. +The problem of draining and utilizing these lands was not the only +difficulty to be surmounted by the Hungarian engineers; the requirements +of navigation and the necessity in winter of preventing the formation of +large ice-fields, such as caused the disastrous floods at Budapest in +1838, had also to be considered. In carrying out these works the +Hungarian government between 1867 and 1895 spent seven millions +sterling, and a further expenditure of three and a half millions was +provided for up to 1907. At Budapest, where the formation of ice-fields +at the upper entrance of the two side arms of the Danube--the Promontor +on the north, 20 m. in length, and the Soroksar, 35 m. long,--caused the +inundation alluded to, the latter branch has been artificially blocked +and the whole of the Danube now flows through Budapest in a single +channel. For the first section of 60 m. after entering Hungary, the bed +of the river, here surcharged with gravel, was constantly changing its +course. It has been regularized throughout, the width of the stream +varying from 320 to 400 yds. In the second section from Gonyo to Paks, +164 m. in length, the river had a tendency to form islands and +sandbanks--its width now varies uniformly from 455 to 487 yds. The third +section of 113 m., from Paks to the mouth of the Drave, differed from +the others and made innumerable twists and curves. No fewer than +seventeen cuttings have been made, reducing the original course of the +river by 75 m. The fourth section, 217 m. in length, from the Drave to +Old Moldova, resembles in its characteristics the second section and has +been similarly treated. Cuttings have also been made where necessary, +and the widths of the channel are 487 yds. to the mouth of the Theiss, +650 between that point and the Save, and lower down 760 yds. In the +fifth and last section from Old Moldova to Orsova and the Iron Gates the +river is enclosed by mountains and rocky banks, and the obstacles to +navigation are rocks and whirlpools. + +Article VI. of the treaty of London (1871) authorized the powers which +possess the shores of this part of the Danube to come to an +understanding with the view of removing these impediments, and to have +the right of levying a provisional tax on vessels of every flag which +may henceforth benefit thereby until the extinction of the debt +contracted for the execution of the works. As the riverain powers could +not come to an agreement on the subject, the great powers at the +congress of Berlin (1878) entrusted to Austria-Hungary the execution of +the works in question. Austria-Hungary subsequently conferred its rights +on Hungary, by which country the works were carried out at a cost of +about one and a half millions sterling. + +The principal obstructions between Old Moldova and Turnu Severin were +the Stenka Rapids, the Kozla Dojke Rapids, the Greben section and the +Iron Gates. At the first named there was a bank of rocks, some of them +dry at low water, extending almost across the river (985 yds. wide). The +fall of the river bed is small, but the length of the rapid is 1100 yds. +The Kozla Dojke, 9 m. below the Stenka Rapids, extend also for 1100 +yds., with a fall of 1 in 1000, where two banks of rocks cause a sudden +alternation in the direction of the current. The river is here only 170 +to 330 yds. in width. Six miles farther on is the Greben section, the +most difficult part of the works of improvement. A spur of the Greben +mountains runs out below two shoals where the river suddenly narrows to +300 yds. at low water, but presently widens to 1(1/2) m. Seven miles +lower down are the Jucz Rapids, where the river-bed has a fall of 1 in +433. At the Iron Gates, 34 m. below the Greben, the Prigrada rocky bank +nearly blocked the river at the point where it widens out after leaving +the Kazan defile. The general object of the works was to obtain a +navigable depth of water at all seasons of 2 metres (6.56 ft.) on that +portion of the river above Orsova, and a depth of 3 metres (9.84 ft.) +below that town. To effect this at Stenka, Kozla Dojke, Islaz and +Tachtalia, channels 66 yds. wide had to be cut in the solid rock to a +depth of 6 ft. 6 in. below low water. The point of the Greben spur had +to be entirely removed for a distance of 167 yds. back from its original +face. Below the Greben point a training wall 7 to 9 ft. high, 10 ft. at +top and nearly 4 m. in length, has been built along the Servian shore in +order to confine the river in a narrow channel. At Jucz another similar +channel had to be cut and a training wall built. At the Iron Gates a +channel 80 yds. wide, nearly 2000 yds. in length and 10 ft. deep (in the +immediate vicinity of traces of an old Roman canal) had to be cut on the +Servian side of the river through solid rock. Training walls have been +built on either side of the channel to confine the water so as to raise +its level; that on the right bank having a width of 19 ft. 6 in. at top, +and serving as a tow-path; that on the left being 13 ft. in width. These +training walls are built of stone with flat revetments to protect them +against ice. These formidable and expensive works have not altogether +realized the expectations that had been formed of them. One most +important result, however, has been attained, i.e. vessels can now +navigate the Iron Gates at all seasons of the year when the river is not +closed by ice, whereas formerly at extreme low water, lasting generally +for about three months in the late summer and autumn, through navigation +was always at a standstill, and goods had to be landed and transported +considerable distances by land. The canal was opened for traffic on the +1st of October 1898. It was designed of sufficient width, as was +supposed, for the simultaneous passage of boats in opposite directions; +but on account of the great velocity of the current this has been found +to be impracticable. + + + European commission of the Danube. + +From the Iron Gates down to Braila, which is the highest point to which +large sea-going ships ascend the river, there have been no important +works of improvement. From Braila to Sulina, a distance of about 100 m., +the river falls under the jurisdiction of the European commission of the +Danube, an institution of such importance as to merit lengthened notice. +It was called into existence under Art. XVI. of the treaty of Paris +(1856), and in November of that year a commission was constituted in +which Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, Sardinia and +Turkey were each represented by one delegate "to designate and cause to +be executed the works necessary below Isaktcha[1] to clear the mouths of +the Danube as well as the neighbouring parts of the sea, from the sands +and other impediments which obstructed them, in order to put that part +of the river and the said parts of the sea in the best possible state +for navigation." + +In Art. XVIII. of the same treaty it was anticipated that the European +commission would have finished the works described within the period of +two years, when it was to be dissolved and its powers taken over by a +Riverain commission to be established under the same treaty; but this +commission has never come into existence. Extended by short periods up +to 1871, the powers of the European commission were then prolonged under +the treaty of London for twelve years. At the congress of Berlin in 1878 +its jurisdiction was extended from Isakcea to Galatz (26 m.), and it was +decided that the commission, in which Rumania was henceforward to be +represented by a delegate, should exercise its powers in complete +independence of the territorial authority. By the treaty of London of +1883 the jurisdiction of the commission was extended from Galatz to +Braila and its powers were prolonged for twenty-one years (i.e. till the +24th of April 1904), after which its existence was to continue by tacit +prolongation for successive terms of three years unless one of the high +contracting powers should propose any modification in its constitution +or attributes. It was also decided that the European commission should +no longer exercise any effective control over that portion of the Kilia +branch of which the two banks belonged to one of the riverain powers +(Russia and Rumania), while as regards that portion of it which +separated the two countries, control was to be exercised by the Russian +and Rumanian delegates on the European commission. Russia was also +authorized to levy tolls intended to cover the expenses of any works of +improvement that might be undertaken by her. Art. VII. of the same +treaty declared that the regulations for navigation, river police, and +superintendence drawn up on the 2nd of June 1882 by the European +commission, assisted by the delegates of Servia and Bulgaria, should be +made applicable to that part of the Danube situated between the Iron +Gates and Braila. In consequence of Rumania's opposition, the proposed +_Commission Mixte_ was never formed, and these regulations have never +been put in force. As regards the extension of the powers of the +European commission to Braila, 11 m. above Galatz, and at the head of +the maritime navigation, a tacit understanding has been arrived at, +under which questions concerning navigation proper come under the +jurisdiction of the commission, while the police of the ports remains in +the hands of the Rumanian authorities. + +Sir Charles Hartley, who was chief engineer of the commission from 1856 +to 1907,[2] in a paper contributed to the Institution of Civil Engineers +in 1873 (vol. xxxvi.), gave the following graphic description of the +state of the Sulina mouth when the commission entered on its labours in +1856:-- + + "The entrance to the Sulina branch was a wild open seaboard strewn + with wrecks, the hulls and masts of which, sticking out of the + submerged sandbanks, gave to mariners the only guide where the deepest + channel was to be found. The depth of the channel varied from 7 to 11 + ft., and was rarely more than 9 ft. + + "The site now occupied by wide quays extending several miles in length + was then entirely covered with water when the sea rose a few inches + above ordinary level, and that even in a perfect calm; the banks of + the river near the mouth were only indicated by clusters of wretched + hovels built on piles and by narrow patches of sand skirted by tall + weeds, the only vegetable product of the vast swamps beyond. + + "For some years before the improvements, an average of 2000 vessels of + an aggregate capacity of 400,000 tons visited the Danube, and of this + number more than three-fourths loaded either the whole or part of + their cargoes from lighters in the Sulina roadstead, where, lying off + a lee shore, they were frequently exposed to the greatest danger. + Shipwrecks were of common occurrence, and occasionally the number of + disasters was appalling. One dark winter night in 1855, during a + terrific gale, 24 sailing ships and 60 lighters went ashore off the + mouth and upwards of 300 persons perished." + +The state of affairs in the river was not much better than at the Sulina +mouth. Of the three arms of the Danube, the Kilia, the Sulina and the +St George, the central or Sulina branch, owing to its greater depth of +water over the bar, had from time immemorial been the principal waterway +for sea-going vessels; its average depth throughout its course, which +could not always be counted on, was 8 ft., but it contained numerous +shoals where vessels had to lighten, so that cargo had often to be +shifted several times in the voyage down the river. It also contained +numerous bends and sharp curves, sources of the greatest difficulty to +navigation. + +The commission fixed its seat at Galatz. Provisional works of +improvement were begun almost immediately at the mouth of the Sulina +branch of the Danube, but two years were spent in discussing the +relative claims to adoption of the Kilia, the Sulina and the St George's +mouths. Unable to agree, the delegates referred the question to their +respective governments, and a technical commission appointed by France, +England, Prussia and Sardinia met at Paris and decided unanimously in +favour of St George's; but recommended, instead of the embankment of the +natural channel, the formation of an artificial canal 17 ft. in depth +closed by sluices at its junction with the river, and reaching the sea +at some distance from the natural embouchure. The choice of St George's +made by this commission was adopted at Galatz in December 1858, and six +of the seven representatives voted for its canalization; but owing to +various political and financial considerations, it was ultimately +decided to do nothing more in the meantime than render permanent and +effective the provisional works already in progress at the Sulina mouth. +These consisted of two piers forming a seaward prolongation of the +fluvial channel, begun in 1858 and completed in 1861. The northern pier +had a length of 4631 ft., the southern of 3000, and the depth of the +water in which they were built varied from 6 to 20 ft. At the +commencement of the works the depth of the channel was only 9 ft. but by +their completion it had increased to 19 ft. The works designed and +constructed by Sir Charles Hartley had in fact proved so successful that +nothing more was ever heard of the St George's project. In 1865 a new +lighthouse was erected at the end of the north pier. The value of these +early works of the commission is shown by the fact that of 2928 vessels +navigating the lower Danube in 1855, 36 were wrecked, while of 2676 in +1865 only 7 were wrecked. In 1871 it was found expedient to lengthen the +piers seaward, and in 1876 the south jetty was prolonged, so as to bring +its end exactly opposite the lighthouse on the north pier. This resulted +in an increase of the depth to 20(1/2) ft., and for fifteen years, from +1879 to 1895, this depth remained constant without the aid of dredging. +In 1894, owing to the constantly increasing size of vessels frequenting +the Danube, it was found necessary to deepen the entrance still further, +and to construct two parallel piers between the main jetties, reducing +the breadth of the river to 500 ft., and thereby increasing the scour. +There is now a continuous channel 24 ft. in depth, 5200 ft. in length, +and 300 ft. in width between the piers, and 600 ft. outside the +extremities of the piers, until deep water is reached in the open sea. +This depth is only maintained by constant dredging. The engineers of the +commission have been equally successful in dealing with the Sulina +branch of the river. Its original length of 45 m. from St George's +Chatal to the sea was impeded at the commencement of the improvement +works by eleven bends, each with a radius of less than 1000 ft., besides +numerous others of somewhat larger radius, and its bed was encumbered by +ten shifting shoals, varying from 8 to 13 ft. in depth at low water. By +means of a series of training walls, by groynes thrown out from the +banks, by revetments of the banks, and by dredging, all done with the +view of narrowing the river, a minimum depth of 11 ft. was attained in +1865, and 13 ft. in 1871. In 1880 the needs of commerce and the +increased size of steamers frequenting the river necessitated the +construction of a new entrance from the St George's branch. This work, +designed in 1857, but unexecuted during a quarter of a century, owing to +insufficiency of funds, was completed in 1882; and in 1886, after other +comparatively short cuttings had been made to get rid of difficult bends +and further to deepen the channel without having to resort to dredgers, +the desired minimum depth of 15 ft. was attained. Since that date a +series of new cuttings has been made. These have shortened the length +of the Sulina canal by 11 nautical m., eliminated all the difficult +bends and shoals, and provided an almost straight waterway 34 m. in +length from Sulina to St George's Chatal, with a minimum depth of 20 ft. +when the river is at its lowest. + +In the early days of the commission, i.e. from 1857 to 1860, the money +spent on the works of improvement, amounting to about L150,000, was +advanced as a loan by the then territorial power, Turkey; but in 1860 +the commission began to levy taxes on vessels frequenting the river, and +since then has repaid its debt to the Turkish government, as well as +various loans for short periods, and a larger one of L120,000 guaranteed +by the powers, and raised in 1868, mainly through the energy of the +British commissioner, Sir John Stokes. This last loan was paid off in +1882 and the commission became free from debt in 1887. It has now an +average annual income of about L80,000 derived from taxes paid by ships +when[3] leaving the river. The normal annual expenditure amounts to +about L56,000, while L24,000 is generally allotted to extraordinary +works, such as new cuttings, &c. Between 1857 and 1905 a sum of about +one and three quarter millions sterling was spent on engineering works, +including the construction of quays, lighthouses, workshops and +buildings, &c. Sulina from being a collection of mud hovels has +developed into a town with 5000 inhabitants; a well-found hospital has +been established where all merchant sailors receive gratuitous +treatment; lighthouses, quays, floating elevators and an efficient pilot +service all combine to make it a first-class port. + +The result of all the combined works for the rectification of the Danube +is that from Sulina up to Braila the river is navigable for sea-going +vessels up to 4000 tons register, from Braila to Turnu Severin it is +open for sea-going vessels up to 600 tons, and for flat barges of from +1500 to 2000 tons capacity. From Turnu Severin to Orsova navigation is +confined to river steamers, tugs and barges drawing 6 ft. of water. +Thence to Vienna the draught is limited to 5 ft., and from Vienna to +Regensburg to a somewhat lower figure. Barges of 600 tons register can +be towed from the lower Danube to Regensburg. Here petroleum tanks have +been constructed for the storage of Rumanian petroleum, the first +consignment of which in 1898, conveyed in tank boats, took six weeks on +the voyage up from Giurgevo. The principal navigation company on the +upper Danube is the Societe Imperiale et Royale Autrichienne of Vienna, +which started operations in 1830. This company also owns the Funfkirchen +mines, producing annually 500,000 tons of coal. The society transports +goods and passengers between Galatz and Regensburg. A less important +society is the Rumanian State Navigation Company, possessing a large +flotilla of tugs and barges, which run to Budapest, where they have +established a combined service with the South Danube German Company for +the transport of goods from Pest to Regensburg. A Hungarian Navigation +Company, subsidized by the state, has also been formed, and the +Hungarian railways, the Servian government and private owners own a +large number of tugs and barges. + +But it is the trade of the lower Danube that has principally benefited. +Freights from Galatz and Braila to North Sea ports have fallen from 50s. +to about 12s. or even 10s. per ton. Sailing ships of 200 tons register +have given way to steamers up to 4000 tons register carrying a +deadweight of nearly 8000 tons; and good order has succeeded chaos. From +1847 to 1860 an average of 203 British ships entered the Danube +averaging 193 tons each; from 1861 to 1889, 486 ships averaging 796 +tons; in 1893, 905 vessels of 1,287,762 tons, or 68% of the total +traffic, and rather more than two and a half times the total amount of +British tonnage visiting the Danube in the fourteen years between 1847 +and 1860. The average amount of cereals (principally wheat) annually +exported from the Danube during the period 1901-1905 was 13,000,000 +quarters, i.e. about five times the average annual exportation during +the period 1861-1867. It has been calculated that between 1861 and 1902 +the total tonnage of ships frequenting the Danube increased five-fold, +while the mean size of individual ships increased ten-fold. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Marsiglius, _Danubius Pannonico-Mysicus_ (the Hague, + 1726); Schulte, _Donaufahrten_ (1819-1829); Planche, _Descent of the + Danube_ (1828); Szechenyi, _Uber die Donauschiffahrt_ (1836); A. + Muller, _Die Donau vom Ursprunge bis zu den Mundungen_ (1839-1841); J. + G. Kohl, _Die Donau_ (Trieste, 1853-1854); G. B. Rennie, _Suggestions + for the Improvement of the Danube_ (1856); Sir C. A. Hartley, + _Description of the Delta of the Danube_ (1862 and 1874); _Memoire sur + le regime administratif etabli aux embouchures du Danube_ (Galatz, + 1867); Desjardins, _Rhone et Danube_, a defence of the canalization + scheme (Paris, 1870); _Carte du Danube entre Braila et la mer_, + published by the European Commission (Leipzig, 1874); Peters, _Die + Donau und ihr Gebiet, eine geologische Studie_ (1876); A. F. Heksch, + _Guide illustre sur le Danube_ (Vienna, 1883); F. D. Millet, _The + Danube_ (New York, 1893); Schweiger-Lerchenfeld, _Die Donau als + Volkerweg, Schiffahrtsstrasse, und Reiseroute_ (Vienna, 1895); D. A. + Sturza, _La Question des Portes de Fer et des cataractes du Danube_ + (Berlin, 1899); A. de Saint Clair, _Le Danube: etude de droit + international_ (Paris, 1899); D. A. Sturdza, _Recueil de documents + relatifs a la liberte de navigation du Danube_, pp. 933 (Berlin, + 1904); A. Schroth-Ukmar, _Donausagen von Passau bis Wien_ (Vienna, + 1904). (H. Tr.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Isakcea was 66 nautical m. from the sea measured by the Sulina + arm of the Danube, 37 m. below Braila and 26 m. below Galatz. + + [2] Sir Charles Hartley became consulting engineer in 1872, when he + was succeeded as resident engineer by Mr Charles Kuhl, C.E., C.M.G. + To those two gentlemen is mainly due the conspicuous success of the + engineering works. + + [3] Ships pay no taxes to the commission on entering the river, but + on leaving it every ship of over 1500 tons register pays 1s. 5d. per + registered ton if loaded at Galatz or Braila, or 11d. per ton if + loaded at Sulina. This includes pilotage and light dues. Smaller + vessels pay less and ships of less than 300 tons are exempt. + + + + +DANVERS, a township of Essex county, on the coast of Massachusetts, +U.S.A., about 19 m. N. by E. of Boston. Pop. (1890) 7454; (1900) 8542, +of whom 1873 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 9407. Danvers includes an +area of 14 sq. m. of level country diversified by hills. There are +several villages or business centres, the largest of which, bearing the +same name as the township, is served by the Boston & Maine railway. In +the township are a state insane asylum, with accommodation for 1000 +patients; St John's Preparatory College (Roman Catholic), conducted by +the Xavierian Brothers; and, in Peabody Park, the Peabody Institute, +with a good public library and museum, the gift (1867) of George +Peabody. The Danvers historical society has a valuable collection. +Although chiefly a residential town, Danvers has various manufactures, +the most important of which are leather, boots and shoes, bricks, boxes +and electric lamps. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was +$2,017,908, of which more than one half was the value of leather. +Danvers owns its water-works and its electric lighting and power plant. +A part of what is now Danvers was included in the grant made by the +court of assistants to Governor John Endecott and the Rev. Samuel +Skelton of the Salem church in 1632. Danvers was set off from Salem as a +district in 1752 and was incorporated as a township in 1757, but the act +of incorporation was disallowed in 1759 by the privy council on the +recommendation of the board of trade, in view of George II.'s +disapproval of the incorporation of new townships at that time,--hence +the significance of the words on the seal of Danvers, "The King +Unwilling"; in 1775 the district was again incorporated. Salem Village, +a part of the present township, was the centre of the famous witchcraft +delusion in 1692. In 1885 South Danvers was set off as a separate +township, and in 1868 was named Peabody in honour of George Peabody, who +was born and is buried there. In 1857 part of Beverly was annexed to +Danvers. Among distinguished natives of Danvers are Samuel Holton +(1738-1816), a member (1778-1780 and 1782-1787) of the Continental +Congress and (1793-1795) of the Federal Congress; Israel Putnam; Moses +Porter (1755-1822), who served through the War of Independence and the +War of 1812; and Grenville Mellen Dodge (b. 1831), a prominent railway +engineer, who fought in the Union army in the Civil War, reaching the +rank of major-general of volunteers, was a Republican member of the +national House of Representatives in 1867-1869, and in 1898 president of +the commission which investigated the management of the war with Spain. + + See J. W. Hanson, _History of the Town of Danvers_ (Danvers, 1848); + Ezra D. Hines, _Historic Danvers_ (Danvers, 1894) and _Historical + Address_ (Boston, 1907), in celebration of the 150th anniversary of + the first incorporation; and A. P. White, "History of Danvers" in + _History of Essex County, Mass._ (Philadelphia, 1888). + + + + +DANVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Vermilion county, Illinois, +U.S.A., in the E. part of the state, near the Big Vermilion river, 120 +m. S. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 11,491; (1900) 16,354, of whom 1435 were +foreign-born; (1910) 27,871. Danville is served by the Chicago & Eastern +Illinois (whose shops are here), the Wabash, the Chicago, Indiana & +Southern, and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, +and by three interurban lines. There are three public parks (Lincoln, +Douglas and Ellsworth), a Carnegie library (1883), and a national home +for disabled volunteer soldiers (opened in 1898). Situated in the +vicinity of an extensive coalfield (the Grape Creek district), Danville +has a large trade in coal; it has also several manufacturing +establishments engaged principally in the construction and repair of +railway cars, and in the manufacture of bricks, foundry products, glass, +carriages, flour and hominy. The value of the factory products of the +city in 1905 was $3,304,120, an increase of 72.7% since 1900. Danville +was first settled about 1830 and was first incorporated in 1839; in 1874 +it was chartered as a city under the general state law of 1872 for the +incorporation of municipalities. It annexed Vermilion Heights in 1905, +South Danville (pop. in 1900, 898) in 1906, and Germantown (pop. in +1900, 1782) and Roselawn in 1907. + + + + +DANVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Boyle county, Kentucky, U.S.A., +113 m. S. by W. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890) 3766; (1900) 4285 (1913 +negroes) (1910) 5420. The city is served by the Southern and the +Cincinnati Southern railways, the latter connecting at Junction City (4 +m. S.) with the Louisville & Nashville railway. Danville is an +attractive city, situated in the S.E. part of the fertile "Blue Grass +region" of Kentucky. In McDowell Park there is a monument to the memory +of Dr Ephraim McDowell (1771-1830), who after 1795 lived in Danville, +and is famous for having performed in 1809 the first entirely successful +operation for the removal of an ovarian tumour. Danville is the seat of +several educational institutions, the most important of which is the +Central University of Kentucky (Presbyterian), founded in 1901 by the +consolidation of Centre College (opened at Danville in 1823), and the +Central University (opened at Richmond, Ky., in 1874). The law school +also is in Danville. The classical, scientific and literary department +of the present university is still known as Centre College; the medical +and dental departments are in Louisville, and the university maintains a +preparatory school, the Centre College academy, at Danville. In 1908 the +university had 87 instructors and 696 students. Other institutions at +Danville are Caldwell College for women (1860; Presbyterian), and the +Kentucky state institution for deaf mutes (1823). The Transylvania +seminary was opened here in 1785, but four years later was removed to +Lexington (q.v.), and a Presbyterian theological seminary was founded +here in 1853, but was merged with the Louisville theological seminary +(known after 1902 as the Presbyterian Theological Seminary of Kentucky) +in 1901. The municipality owns and operates its water-works and power +plant. From its first settlement in 1781 until the admission of Kentucky +into the Union in 1792 Danville was an important political centre. There +was an influential political club here from 1786 to 1790, and here, too, +sat the several conventions--nine in all--which asked for a separation +from Virginia, discussed the proposed conditions of separation from that +commonwealth, framed the first state constitution, and chose Frankfort +as the capital. Danville was incorporated in 1789. It was the birthplace +of James G. Birney and of Theodore O'Hara. + + + + +DANVILLE, a borough and the county-seat of Montour county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., on the N. branch of the Susquehanna river, about 65 m. N. by E. +of Harrisburg. Pop. (1890) 7998; (1900) 8042, of whom 771 were +foreign-born; (1910 census) 7517. It is served by the Delaware, +Lackawanna & Western, and the Philadelphia & Reading railways, and by +electric railway to Bloomsburg. The borough is built on an elevated bank +of the river at the base of Montour Ridge, where the narrow valley +appears to be shut in on every side by hills; the river is spanned by a +steel bridge, built in 1905. Iron, coal and limestone abound in the +vicinity, and the borough has large manufactories of stoves and +furnaces, and of iron and steel, in one of which in 1845 a "T"-rail, +probably the first in America, was rolled. It is the seat of a state +hospital for the insane (established in 1868). The water-works and +electric light plant are owned and operated by the municipality. A +settlement was founded here about 1776 by Captain William Montgomery and +his son Daniel; and a town was laid out in 1792 and called Dan's Town +until the present name was adopted a few years later. Growth was slow +until the discovery of iron ore on Montour Ridge, followed in 1832 by +the completion of the N. branch of the Pennsylvania Canal, which runs +through the centre of the borough. Danville was incorporated in 1849. + + + + +DANVILLE, a city in Pittsylvania county, Virginia, U.S.A., on the Dan +river about 140 m. (by rail) S.W. of Richmond. Pop. (1890) 10,305; +(1900) 16,520 (6515 negroes); (1910) 19,020. It is on the main line of +the Southern railway, and is the terminus of branches to Richmond and +Norfolk; it is also served by the Danville & Western railway, a road (75 +m. long) connecting with Stuart, Va., and controlled by the Southern, +though operated independently. The city is built on high ground above +the river. It has a city hall, a general hospital, a Masonic temple, and +a number of educational institutions, including the Roanoke College +(1860; Baptist), for young women; the Randolph-Macon Institute (1897; +Methodist Episcopal, South), for girls; and a commercial college. The +river furnishes valuable water-power, which is utilized by the city's +manufactories (value of product in 1900, third in rank in the state, +$8,103,484, of which only $3,693,792 was "factory" product; in 1905 the +"factory" product was valued at $4,774,818), including cotton mills--in +1905 Danville ranked first among the cities of the state in the value of +cotton goods produced--a number of tobacco factories, furniture and +overall factories, and flour and knitting mills. The city is a jobbing +centre and wholesale market for a considerable area in southern Virginia +and northern North Carolina, and is probably the largest loose-leaf +tobacco market in the country, selling about 40,000,000 lb. annually. In +the industrial suburb of Schoolfield, which in 1908 had a population of +about 3000, there is a large textile mill. The city owns and operates +its water-supply system (with an excellent filtration plant installed in +1904) and its gas and electric lighting plants. Danville was settled +about 1770, was first incorporated as a town in 1792, and became a city +in 1833; it is politically independent of Pittsylvania county. To +Danville, after the evacuation of Richmond on the 2nd of April 1865, the +archives of the Confederacy were carried, and here President Jefferson +Davis paused for a few days in his flight southward. + + + + +DANZIG, or DANTSIC (Polish _Gdansk_), a strong maritime fortress and +seaport of Germany, capital of the province of West Prussia, on the left +bank of the western arm of the Vistula, 4 m. S. of its entrance, at +Neufahrwasser, into the Baltic, 253 m. N.E. from Berlin by rail. Pop. +(1885) 114,805; (1905) 159,088. The city is traversed by two branches of +the Mottlau, a small tributary of the Vistula, dredged to a depth of 15 +ft., thus enabling large vessels to reach the wharves of the inner town. +The strong fortifications which, with ramparts, bastions and wet +ditches, formerly entirely surrounded the city, were removed on the +north and west sides in 1895-1896, the trenches filled in, and the area +thus freed laid out on a spacious plan. One portion, acquired by the +municipality, has been turned into promenades and gardens, the Steffens +Park, outside the Olivaer Tor, fifty acres in extent, occupying the +north-western corner. The remainder of the massive defences remain, with +twenty bastions, in the hands of the military authorities; the works for +laying the surrounding country under water on the eastern side have been +modernized, and the western side defended by a cordon of forts crowning +the hills and extending down to the port of Neufahrwasser. + +Danzig almost alone of larger German cities still preserves its +picturesque medieval aspect. The grand old patrician houses of the days +of its Hanseatic glory, with their lofty and often elaborately +ornamented gables and their balconied windows, are the delight of the +visitor to the town. Only one ancient feature is rapidly +disappearing--owing to the exigencies of street traffic--the stone +terraces close to the entrance doors and abutting on the street. Of its +old gates the Hohe Tor, modelled after a Roman triumphal arch, is a +remarkable monumental erection of the 16th century. From it runs the +Lange Gasse, the main street, to the Lange Markt. On this square stands +the Artus- or Junker-hof (the merchant princes of the middle ages were +in Germany styled _Junker_, squire), containing a hall richly decorated +with wood carving and pictures, once used as a banqueting-room and now +serving as the exchange. There are twelve Protestant and seven Roman +Catholic churches and two synagogues. Of these the most important is St +Mary's, begun in 1343 and completed in 1503, one of the largest +Protestant churches in existence. It possesses a famous painting of the +Last Judgment, formerly attributed to Jan van Eyck, but probably by +Memlinc. Among other ancient buildings of note are the beautiful Gothic +town hall, surmounted by a graceful spire, the armoury (Zeughaus) and +the Franciscan monastery, restored in 1871, and now housing the +municipal picture gallery and a collection of antiquities. Of modern +structures, the government offices, the house of the provincial diet, +the post office and the palace of the commander of the 17th army corps, +which has its headquarters in Danzig, are the most noteworthy. + +The manufacture of arms and artillery is carried on to a great extent, +and the imperial and private docks and shipbuilding establishments, +notably the Schichau yard, turn out ships of the largest size. The town +is famous for its amber, beer, brandy and liqueurs, and its transit +trade makes it one of the most important commercial cities of northern +Europe. Danzig originally owed its commercial importance to the fact +that it was the shipping port for the corn grown in Poland and the +adjacent regions of Russia and Prussia; but for some few years past this +trade has been slipping away from her. On the other hand, her trade in +timber and sugar has grown proportionally. Nevertheless energetic +efforts are being made to check any loss of importance--first, in 1898, +by a determined attempt to make Danzig an industrial centre, +manufacturing on a large scale; and secondly, by the construction and +opening in 1899 of a free harbour at Neufahrwasser at the mouth of the +Vistula. The industries which it has been the principal aim to foster +and further develop are shipbuilding (naval and marine), steel foundries +and rolling mills, sugar refineries, flour and oil mills, and +distilleries. + +_History._--The origin of Danzig is unknown, but it is mentioned in 997 +as an important town. At different times it was held by Pomerania, +Poland, Brandenburg and Denmark, and in 1308 it fell into the hands of +the Teutonic knights, under whose rule it long prospered. It was one of +the four chief towns of the Hanseatic League. In 1455, when the Teutonic +Order had become thoroughly corrupt, Danzig shook off its yoke and +submitted to the king of Poland, to whom it was formally ceded, along +with the whole of West Prussia, at the peace of Thorn. Although +nominally subject to Poland, and represented in the Polish diets and at +the election of Polish kings, it enjoyed the rights of a free city, and +governed a considerable territory with more than thirty villages. It +suffered severely through various wars of the 17th and 18th centuries, +and in 1734, having declared in favour of Stanislus Leszczynski, was +besieged and taken by the Russians and Saxons. At the first partition of +Poland, in 1772, Danzig was separated from that kingdom; and in 1793 it +came into the possession of Prussia. In 1807, during the war between +France and Prussia, it was bombarded and captured by Marshal Lefebvre, +who was rewarded with the title of duke of Danzig; and at the peace of +Tilsit Napoleon declared it a free town, under the protection of France, +Prussia and Saxony, restoring to it its ancient territory. A French +governor, however, remained in it, and by compelling it to submit to the +continental system almost ruined its trade. It was given back to Prussia +in 1814. + + See J. C. Schultz, _Danzig und seine Bauwerke_ (Berlin, 1873); + Wistulanus, _Geschichte der Stadt Danzig_ (Danzig, 1891); _Defense de + Dantzig en 1813; documents militaires du lieutenant-general + Campredon_, pub. by Auriel (Paris, 1888); Daniel, _Deutschland_ + (Leipzig, 1895). + + + + +DAPHLA (or DAFLA) HILLS, a tract of hilly country on the border of +Eastern Bengal and Assam, occupied by an independent tribe called +Daphla. It lies to the north of the Tezpur and North Lakhimpur +subdivisions, and is bounded on the west by the Aka Hills and on the +east by the Abor range. Colonel Dalton in _The Ethnology of Bengal_ +considers the Daphlas to be closely allied to the hill Miris, and they +are akin to and intermarry with the Abors. They have a reputation for +cowardice, and as politically they are disunited, they are at the mercy +of the Akas, their less numerous but more warlike neighbours on the +west. Their clothing is scanty, and its most distinguishing feature is a +cane cap with a fringe of bearskin or feathers, which gives them a very +curious appearance. The men wear their hair in a plait, which is coiled +into a ball on the forehead, to which they fasten their caps with a long +skewer. In 1872 a party of independent Daphlas suddenly attacked a +colony of their own tribesmen, who had settled at Amtola in British +territory, and carried away forty-four captives to the hills. This led +to the Daphla expedition of 1874, when a force of 1000 troops released +the prisoners and reduced the tribe to submission. According to the +census of 1901 the Daphlas in British territory numbered 954, the tribal +country not being enumerated. + + + + +DAPHNAE (Tahpanhes, Taphne; mod. _Defenneh_), an ancient fortress near +the Syrian frontier of Egypt, on the Pelusian arm of the Nile. Here King +Psammetichus established a garrison of foreign mercenaries, mostly +Carians and Ionian Greeks (Herodotus ii. 154). After the destruction of +Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar in 588 B.C., the Jewish fugitives, of whom +Jeremiah was one, came to Tahpanhes. When Naucratis was given by Amasis +II. the monopoly of Greek traffic, the Greeks were all removed from +Daphnae, and the place never recovered its prosperity; in Herodotus's +time the deserted remains of the docks and buildings were visible. The +site was discovered by Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie in 1886; the name +"Castle of the Jew's Daughter" seems to preserve the tradition of the +Jewish refugees. There is a massive fort and enclosure; the chief +discovery was a large number of fragments of pottery, which are of great +importance for the chronology of vase-painting, since they must belong +to the time between Psammetichus and Amasis, i.e. the end of the 7th or +the beginning of the 6th century B.C. They show the characteristics of +Ionian art, but their shapes and other details testify to their local +manufacture. + + See W. M. F. Petrie, _Tanis II., Nebesheh, and Defenneh_ (4th Memoir + of the Egypt Exploration Fund, 1888). (E. Gr.) + + + + +DAPHNE (Gr. for a laurel tree), in Greek mythology, the daughter of the +Arcadian river-god Ladon or the Thessalian Peneus, or of the Laconian +Amyclas. She was beloved by Apollo, and when pursued by him was changed +by her mother Gaea into a laurel tree sacred to the god (Ovid, _Metam._ +i. 452-567). In the Peloponnesian legends, another suitor of Daphne, +Leucippus, son of Oenomaus of Pisa, disguised himself as a girl and +joined her companions. His sex was discovered while bathing, and he was +slain by the nymphs (Pausanias viii. 20; Parthenius, _Erotica_, 15). + + + + +DAPHNE, in botany, a genus of shrubs, belonging to the natural order +Thymelaeaceae, and containing about forty species, natives of Europe and +temperate Asia. _D. Laureola_, spurge laurel, a small evergreen shrub +with green flowers in the leaf axils towards the ends of the branches +and ovoid black very poisonous berries, is found in England in copses +and on hedge-banks in stiff soils. _D. Mezereum_, mezereon, a rather +larger shrub, 2 to 4 ft. high, has deciduous leaves, and bears fragrant +pink flowers in clusters in the axils of last season's leaves, in early +spring before the foliage. The bright red ovoid berries are cathartic, +the whole plant is acrid and poisonous, and the bark is used +medicinally. It is a native of Europe and north Asia, and found +apparently wild in copses and woods in Britain. It is a well-known +garden plant, and several other species of the genus are cultivated in +the open air and as greenhouse plants. _D. Cneorum_ (Europe) is a hardy +evergreen trailing shrub, with bright pink sweet-scented flowers. _D. +pontica_ (Eastern Europe) is a hardy spreading evergreen with +greenish-yellow fragrant flowers. _D. indica_ (China) and _D. japonica_ +(Japan) are greenhouse evergreens with respectively red or white and +pinkish-purple flowers. + + + + +DAPHNEPHORIA, a festival held every ninth year at Thebes in Boeotia in +honour of Apollo Ismenius or Galaxius. It consisted of a procession in +which the chief figure was a boy of good family and noble appearance, +whose father and mother must be alive. Immediately in front of this +boy, who was called Daphnephoros (laurel bearer), walked one of his +nearest relatives, carrying an olive branch hung with laurel and flowers +and having on the upper end a bronze ball from which hung several +smaller balls. Another smaller ball was placed on the middle of the +branch or pole (called [Greek: kopo]), which was then twined round with +purple ribbons, and at the lower end with saffron ribbons. These balls +were said to indicate the sun, stars and moon, while the ribbons +referred to the days of the year, being 365 in number. The Daphnephoros, +wearing a golden crown, or a wreath of laurel, richly dressed and partly +holding the pole, was followed by a chorus of maidens carrying suppliant +branches and singing a hymn to the god. The Daphnephoros dedicated a +bronze tripod in the temple of Apollo, and Pausanias (ix. 10. 4) +mentions the tripod dedicated there by Amphitryon when his son Heracles +had been Daphnephoros. The festival is described by Proclus (in Photius +_cod._ 239). + + See also A. Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen_ (1898); C. O. Muller, + _Orchomenos_ (1844); article in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire + des antiquites_. + + + + +DAPHNIS, the legendary hero of the shepherds of Sicily, and reputed +inventor of bucolic poetry. The chief authorities for his story are +Diodorus Siculus, Aelian and Theocritus. According to his countryman +Diodorus (iv. 84), and Aelian (_Var. Hist._, x. 18), Daphnis was the son +of Hermes (in his character of the shepherd-god) and a Sicilian nymph, +and was born or exposed and found by shepherds in a grove of laurels +(whence his name.) He was brought up by the nymphs, or by shepherds, and +became the owner of flocks and herds, which he tended while playing on +the syrinx. When in the first bloom of youth, he won the affection of a +nymph, who made him promise to love none but her, threatening that, if +he proved unfaithful, he would lose his eyesight. He failed to keep his +promise and was smitten with blindness. Daphnis, who endeavoured to +console himself by playing the flute and singing shepherds' songs, soon +afterwards died. He fell from a cliff, or was changed into a rock, or +was taken up to heaven by his father Hermes, who caused a spring of +water to gush out from the spot where his son had been carried off. Ever +afterwards the Sicilians offered sacrifices at this spring as an +expiatory offering for the youth's early death. There is little doubt +that Aelian in his account follows Stesichorus (q.v.) of Himera, who in +like manner had been blinded by the vengeance of a woman (Helen) and +probably sang of the sufferings of Daphnis in his recantation. Nothing +is said of Daphnis's blindness by Theocritus, who dwells on his amour +with Nais; his victory over Menalcas in a poetical competition; his love +for Xenea brought about by the wrath of Aphrodite; his wanderings +through the woods while suffering the torments of unrequited love; his +death just at the moment when Aphrodite, moved by compassion, endeavours +(but too late) to save him; the deep sorrow, shared by nature and all +created things, for his untimely end (Theocritus i. vii. viii.). A later +form of the legend identifies Daphnis with a Phrygian hero, and makes +him the teacher of Marsyas. The legend of Daphnis and his early death +may be compared with those of Narcissus, Linus and Adonis--all beautiful +youths cut off in their prime, typical of the luxuriant growth of +vegetation in the spring, and its sudden withering away beneath the +scorching summer sun. + + See F. G. Welcker, _Kleine Schriften zur griechischen + Litteraturgeschichte_, i. (1844); C. F. Hermann, _De Daphnide + Theocriti_ (1853); R. H. Klausen, _Aeneas und die Penaten_, i. (1840); + R. Reitzenstein, _Epigramm und Skolion_ (1893); H. W. Prescott in + _Harvard Studies_, x. (1899); H. W. Stoll in Roscher's _Lexikon der + Mythologie_; and G. Knaack in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_. + + + + +DARAB (originally DARABGERD), a district of the province of Fars in +Persia. It has sixty-two villages, and possesses a hot climate, snow +being rarely seen there in winter. It produces a great quantity of dates +and much tobacco, which is considered the best in Persia. The town +Darab, the capital of the district, is situated in a very fertile plain, +140 m. S.E. of Shiraz. It has a population of about 5000, and extensive +orchards of orange and lemon trees and immense plantations of +date-palms. Legend ascribes the foundation of the city to Darius, hence +its name Darab-gerd (Darius-town). In the neighbourhood there are +various remains of antiquity, the most important of which 3(1/2) m. S., +is known as the Kalah i Darab, or citadel of Darius, and consists of a +series of earthworks arranged in a circle round an isolated rock. +Nothing, however, remains to fix the date or explain the history of the +fortification. Another monument in the vicinity is a gigantic +bas-relief, carved on the vertical face of a rock, representing the +victory of the Sassanian Shapur I. (Sapor) of Persia over the Roman +emperor Valerian, A.D. 260. + + + + +DARBHANGA, a town and district of British India, in the Patna division +of Bengal. The town is on the left bank of the Little Baghmati river, +and has a railway station. Pop. (1901) 66,244. The town is really a +collection of villages that have grown up round the residence of the +raja. This is a magnificent palace, with gardens, a menagerie and a good +library. There are a first-class hospital, with a Lady Dufferin hospital +attached; a handsome market-place, and an Anglo-vernacular school. The +district of Darbhanga extends from the Nepal frontier to the Ganges. It +was constituted in 1875 out of the unwieldy district of Tirhoot. Its +area is 3348 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 2,912,611, showing an +increase of 4% in the decade. The district consists entirely of an +alluvial plain, in which the principal rivers are the Ganges, Buri +Gandak, Baghmati and Little Baghmati, Balan and Little Balan, and +Tiljuga. The land is especially fertile in the more elevated part of the +district S.W. of the Buri Gandak; rice is the staple crop, and it may be +noted that the cultivator in Darbhanga is especially dependent on the +winter harvest. The chief exports are rice, indigo, linseed and other +seeds, saltpetre and tobacco. There are several indigo factories and +saltpetre refineries, and a tobacco factory. The district is traversed +by the main line of the Bengal & North-Western railway and by branch +lines, part of which were begun as a famine relief work in 1874. + +The maharaja bahadur of Darbhanga, a Rajput, whose ancestor Mahesh +Thakor received the Darbhanga raj (which includes large parts of the +modern districts of Darbhanga, Muzaffarpur, Monghyr, Purnea and +Bhagalpur) from the emperor Akbar early in the 16th century, is not only +the premier territorial noble of Behar but one of the greatest noblemen +of all India. Maharaja Lachhmeswar Singh Bahadur, who succeeded to the +raj in 1860 and died in 1898, was distinguished for his public services, +and especially as one of the most munificent of living philanthropists. +Under his supervision his raj came to be regarded as the model for good +and benevolent management; he constructed hundreds of miles of roads +planted with trees, bridged all the rivers, and constructed irrigation +works on a great scale. His charities were without limit; thus he +contributed L300,000 for the relief of the sufferers from the Bengal +famine of 1873-1874, and it is computed that during his possession of +the raj he expended at least L2,000,000 on charities, works of public +utility, and charitable remissions of rent. For many years he served as +a member of the legislative council of the viceroy with conspicuous +ability and moderation of view. As representative of the landowners of +Berar and Bengal he took an important part in the discussion on the +Bengal Tenancy Bill. He was succeeded by his brother, Maharaja Rameshwar +Singh Bahadur, who was born on the 16th of January 1860, and on +attaining his majority in 1878 was appointed to the Indian Civil +Service, serving as assistant magistrate successively at Darbhanga, +Chhapra and Bhagalpur. In 1886 he was created a raja bahadur, exempted +from attendance at the civil courts, and appointed a member of the +legislative council of Bengal. He was created a maharaja bahadur on his +succession to the raj in 1898. Like his brother, he was educated by an +English tutor, and his administration carried on the enlightened +traditions of his predecessor. + + See Sir Roper Lethbridge, _The Golden Book of India_. + + + + +D'ARBLAY, FRANCES (1752-1840), English novelist and diarist, better +known as FANNY BURNEY, daughter of Dr Charles Burney (q.v.), was born at +King's Lynn, Norfolk, on the 13th of June 1752. Her mother was Esther +Sleepe, granddaughter of a French refugee named Dubois. Fanny was the +fourth child in a family of six. Of her brothers, James (1750-1821) +became an admiral and sailed with Captain Cook on his second and third +voyages, and Charles Burney (1757-1817) was a well-known classical +scholar. In 1760 the family removed to London, and Dr Burney, who was +now a fashionable music master, took a house in Poland Street. Mrs +Burney died in 1761, when Fanny was only nine years old. Her sisters +Esther (Hetty), afterwards Mrs Charles Rousseau Burney, and Susanna, +afterwards Mrs Phillips, were sent to school in Paris, but Fanny was +left to educate herself. Early in 1766 she paid her first visit to Dr +Burney's friend Samuel Crisp at Chessington Hall, near Epsom. Dr Burney +had first made Samuel Crisp's acquaintance about 1745 at the house of +Fulke Greville, grandfather of the diarists, and the two studied music +while the rest of the guests hunted. Crisp wrote a play, _Virginia_, +which was staged by David Garrick in 1754 at the request of the +beautiful countess of Coventry (nee Maria Gunning). The play had no +great success, and in 1764 Crisp established himself in retirement at +Chessington Hall, where he frequently entertained his sister, Mrs Sophia +Gast, of Burford, Oxfordshire, and Dr Burney and his family, to whom he +was familiarly known as "daddy" Crisp.[1] It was to her "daddy" Crisp +and her sister Susan that Fanny Burney addressed large portions of her +diary and many of her letters. After his wife's death in 1767, Dr Burney +married Elizabeth Allen, widow of a King's Lynn wine-merchant. + +From her fifteenth year Fanny lived in the midst of an exceptionally +brilliant social circle, gathered round her father in Poland Street, and +later in his new home in St Martin's Street, Leicester Fields. Garrick +was a constant visitor, and would arrive before eight o'clock in the +morning. Of the various "lyons" they entertained she leaves a graphic +account, notably of Omai, the Otaheitan native, and of Alexis Orlov, the +favourite of Catherine II. of Russia. Dr Johnson she first met at her +father's home in March 1777. Her father's drawing-room, where she met +many of the chief musicians, actors and authors of the day, was in fact +Fanny's only school. Her reading, however, was by no means limited. +Macaulay stated that in the whole of Dr Burney's library there was but +one novel, Fielding's _Amelia_; but Austin Dobson points out that she +was acquainted with the abbe Prevost's _Doyen de Killerine_, and with +Marivaux's _Vie de Marianne_, besides _Clarissa Harlowe_ and the books +of Mrs Elizabeth Griffith and Mrs Frances Brooke. Her diary also +contains the record of much more strenuous reading. Her stepmother, a +woman of some cultivation, did not encourage habits of scribbling. +Fanny, therefore, made a bonfire of her MSS., among them a _History of +Caroline Evelyn_, a story containing an account of Evelina's mother. +Luckily her journal did not meet with the same fate. The first entry in +it was made on the 30th of May 1768, and it extended over seventy-two +years. The earlier portions of it underwent wholesale editing in later +days, and much of it was entirely obliterated. She planned out +_Evelina_, or _A Young Lady's Entrance into the World_, long before it +was written down. _Evelina_ was published by Thomas Lowndes in the end +of January 1778, but it was not until June that Dr Burney learned its +authorship, when the book had been reviewed and praised everywhere. +Fanny proudly told Mrs Thrale the secret. Mrs Thrale wrote to Dr Burney +on the 22nd of July: "Mr Johnson returned home full of the Prayes of the +_Book_ I had lent him, and protesting that there were passages in it +which might do _honour_ to Richardson: we talk of it for ever, and he +feels ardent after the denouement; he could not get _rid_ of the Rogue, +he said." Miss Burney soon visited the Thrales at Streatham, "the most +consequential day I have spent since my birth" she calls the occasion. +It was the prelude to much longer visits there. Dr Johnson's best +compliments were made for her benefit, and eagerly transcribed in her +diary. His affectionate friendship for "little Burney" only ceased with +his death. + +_Evelina_ was a continued success. Sir Joshua Reynolds sat up all night +to read it, as did Edmund Burke, who came next to Johnson in Miss +Burney's esteem. She was introduced to Elizabeth Montagu and the other +bluestocking ladies, to Richard Brinsley Sheridan, and to the gay Mrs +Mary Cholmondeley, the sister of Peg Woffington, whose manners, as +described in the diary, explain much of _Evelina_. At the suggestion of +Mrs Thrale, and with offers of help from Arthur Murphy, and +encouragement from Sheridan, Fanny began to write a comedy. Crisp, +realizing the limitations of her powers, tried to dissuade her, and the +piece, _The Witlings_, was suppressed in deference to what she called a +"hissing, groaning, catcalling epistle" from her two "daddies." +Meanwhile her intercourse with Mrs Thrale proved very exacting, and left +her little time for writing. She went with her to Bath in 1780, and was +at Streatham again in 1781. Her next book was written partly at +Chessington and after much discussion with Mr Crisp. _Cecilia; or, +Memoirs of an Heiress_, by the author of _Evelina_, was published in 5 +vols. in 1782 by Messrs Payne & Cadell (who paid the author L250--not +L2000 as stated by Macaulay). If _Cecilia_ has not quite the freshness +and charm of _Evelina_, it is more carefully constructed, and contains +many happy examples of what Johnson called Miss Burney's gift of +"character-mongering." Burke sent her a letter full of high praise. But +some of her friends found the writing too often modelled on Johnson's, +and Horace Walpole thought the personages spoke too uniformly in +character. + +On the 24th of April 1783, Fanny Burney's "most judicious adviser and +stimulating critic," "daddy" Crisp, died. He was her devoted friend, as +she was to him, "the dearest thing on earth." The next year she was to +lose two more friends. Mrs Thrale married Piozzi, and Johnson died. +Fanny had met the celebrated Mrs Delany in 1783, and she now attached +herself to her. Mrs Delany, who was living (1785) in a house near +Windsor Castle presented to her by George III., was on the friendliest +terms with both the king and queen, and Fanny was honoured with more +than one royal interview. Queen Charlotte, soon afterwards, offered Miss +Burney the post of second keeper of the robes, with a salary of L200 a +year, which after some hesitation was accepted. Much has been said +against Dr Burney for allowing the authoress of _Evelina_ and _Cecilia_ +to undertake an office which meant separation from all her friends and a +wearisome round of court ceremonial. On the other hand, it may be fairly +urged that Fanny's literary gifts were really limited. She had written +nothing for four years, and apparently felt she had used her best +material. "What my daddy Crisp says," she wrote as early as 1779, "'that +it would be the best policy, but for pecuniary advantages, for me to +write no more,' is exactly what I have always thought since _Evelina_ +was published" (_Diary_, i. 258). Her misgivings as to her unfitness for +court life were quite justified. From Queen Charlotte she received +unvarying kindness, though she was not very clever with her +waiting-maid's duties. She had to attend the queen's toilet, to take +care of her lap-dog and her snuff-box, and to help her senior, Mrs +Schwellenberg, in entertaining the king's equerries and visitors at tea. +The constant association with Mrs Schwellenberg, who has been described +as "a peevish old person of uncertain temper and impaired health, +swaddled in the buckram of backstairs etiquette," proved to be the worst +part of Fanny's duties. Her diary is full of amusing court gossip, and +sometimes deals with graver matters, notably in the account of Warren +Hastings' trial, and in the story of the beginning of George III.'s +madness, as seen by a member of his household. But the strain told on +her health, and after pressure both from Fanny and her numerous friends, +Dr Burney prepared with her a joint memorial asking the queen's leave to +resign. She left the royal service in July 1791 with a retiring pension +of L100 a year, granted from the queen's private purse, and returned to +her father's house at Chelsea. Dr Burney had been appointed organist at +Chelsea Hospital in 1783, through Burke's influence. + +In 1792 she became acquainted with a group of French exiles, who had +taken a house, Juniper Hall, near Mickleham, where Fanny's sister, Mrs +Phillips, lived. On the 31st of July 1793 she married one of the exiles, +Alexandre D'Arblay, an artillery officer, who had been adjutant-general +to La Fayette. They took a cottage at Bookham on the strength, it +appears, of Miss Burney's pension. In 1793 she produced her _Brief +Reflections relative to the Emigrant French Clergy_. Her son Alexandre +was born on the 18th of December 1794. In the following spring Sheridan +produced at Drury Lane her _Edwy and Elgiva_, a tragedy which was not +saved even by the acting of the Kembles and Mrs Siddons. The play was +never printed. Money was now a serious object, and Madame D'Arblay was +therefore persuaded to issue her next novel, _Camilla: or A Picture of +Youth_ (5 vols., 1796), by subscription. A month after publication Dr +Burney told Horace Walpole that his daughter had made L2000 by the book, +and this sum was almost certainly augmented later. It is interesting to +note that Jane Austen was among the subscribers. Unfortunately its +literary success was not as great. "How I like _Camilla_?" wrote Horace +Walpole to Miss Hannah More (August 29th, 1796), "I do not care to say +how little. Alas! she has reversed experience ... this author knew the +world and penetrated characters before she had stepped over the +threshold; and, now she has seen so much of it, she has little or no +insight at all: perhaps she apprehended having seen too much, and kept +the bags of foul air that she brought from the Cave of Tempests too +closely tied." Nevertheless _Camilla_ has found judicious persons to +admire it, notably Jane Austen in _Northanger Abbey_. A second play, +_Love and Fashion_, was actually put in rehearsal in 1799, but was +withdrawn in the next year. In 1801 Madame D'Arblay accompanied her +husband to Paris, where General D'Arblay eventually obtained a place in +the civil service. In 1812 she returned to England, bringing with her +her son Alexandre to escape the conscription. In 1814 she published _The +Wanderer; or Female Difficulties_. Possibly because readers expected to +find a description of her impressions of revolutionary France, it had a +large sale, from which the author realized L7000. Nobody, it has been +said, ever read _The Wanderer_. In the end of the year General D'Arblay +came to England and took his wife back to France. During the Hundred +Days of 1815 she was in Belgium, and the vivid account in her Diary of +Brussels during Waterloo may have been used by Thackeray in _Vanity +Fair_. General D'Arblay now received permission to settle in England. +After his death, which took place at Bath on the 3rd of May 1818, his +wife lived in Bolton Street, Piccadilly. There she was visited in 1826 +by Sir Walter Scott, who describes her (_Journal_, November 18th, 1826) +as an elderly lady with no remains of personal beauty, but with a gentle +manner and a pleasing countenance. The later years of her life were +occupied with the editing of the _Memoirs of Dr Burney, arranged from +his own Manuscripts, from family papers and from personal recollections_ +(3 vols., 1832). Her style had, as time went on, altered for the worse, +and this book is full of extraordinary affectations. Madame D'Arblay +died in London on the 6th of January 1840 and was buried at Walcot, +Bath, near her son and husband. + +Madame D'Arblay is still read in _Evelina_, but her best title to the +affections of modern readers is the _Diary and Letters_. The small +egotisms of the writer do not alienate other readers as they did John +Wilson Croker. Dr Johnson lives in its pages almost as vividly as in +those of Boswell, and King George and his wife in a friendlier light +than in most of their contemporary portraits. Croker, in _The Quarterly +Review_, April 1833 and June 1842, made two attacks on Madame D'Arblay. +The first is an unfriendly but largely justifiable criticism on the +_Memoirs of Dr Burney_. In the second, a review of the first three +volumes of the _Diary and Letters_, Croker abused the writer's innocent +vanity, and declared that, considering their bulk and pretensions, the +_Diary and Letters_ were "nearly the most worthless we have ever waded +through." These pronouncements drew forth the eloquent defence by Lord +Macaulay, first printed in _The Edinburgh Review_, January 1843, which, +in spite of some inaccuracies and considerable exaggeration, has perhaps +done more than anything else to maintain Madame D'Arblay's constant +popularity. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The _Diary and Letters of Madame D'Arblay_ was edited + by her niece, Charlotte Frances Barrett, in 7 vols. (1842-1846). The + text, covering the years 1778-1840, was edited with preface, notes and + reproductions of contemporary portraits and other illustrations, by Mr + Austin Dobson in 6 vols. (1904-1905). This _Diary_, which begins with + the publication of _Evelina_, was supplemented in 1889 by _The Early + Diary of Frances Burney_ (1768-1778), which was in the first instance + suppressed as being of purely private interest, edited by Mrs Annie + Raine Ellis, with an introduction giving many particulars of the + Burney family. Mrs Ellis also edited _Evelina_ for "Bohn's Novelist's + Library" in 1881, and _Cecilia_ in 1882. See also Austin Dobson's + _Fanny Burney_ (_Madame D'Arblay_) (1903), in the "English Men of + Letters Series." + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] His letters to Mrs Gast and another sister, Anne, were edited + with the title of _Burford Papers_ (1906), by W. H. Hutton. + + + + +DARBOY, GEORGES (1813-1871), archbishop of Paris, was born at +Fayl-Billot in Haute Marne on the 16th of January 1813. He studied with +distinction at the seminary at Langres, and was ordained priest in 1836. +Transferred to Paris as almoner of the college of Henry IV., and +honorary canon of Notre Dame, he became the close friend of Archbishop +Affre and of his successor Archbishop Sibour. He was appointed bishop of +Nancy in 1859, and in January 1863 was raised to the archbishopric of +Paris. The archbishop was a strenuous upholder of episcopal independence +in the Gallican sense, and involved himself in a controversy with Rome +by his endeavours to suppress the jurisdiction of the Jesuits and other +religious orders within his diocese. Pius IX. refused him the cardinal's +hat, and rebuked him for his liberalism in a letter which was probably +not intended for publication. At the Vatican council he vigorously +maintained the rights of the bishops, and strongly opposed the dogma of +papal infallibility, against which he voted as inopportune. When the +dogma had been finally adopted, however, he was one of the first to set +the example of submission. Immediately after his return to Paris the war +with Prussia broke out, and his conduct during the disastrous year that +followed was marked by a devoted heroism which has secured for him an +enduring fame. He was active in organizing relief for the wounded at the +commencement of the war, remained bravely at his post during the siege, +and refused to seek safety by flight during the brief triumph of the +Commune. On the 4th of April 1871 he was arrested by the communists as a +hostage, and confined in the prison at Mazas, from which he was +transferred to La Roquette on the advance of the army of Versailles. On +the 27th of May he was shot within the prison along with several other +distinguished hostages. He died in the attitude of blessing and uttering +words of forgiveness. His body was recovered with difficulty, and, +having been embalmed, was buried with imposing ceremony at the public +expense on the 7th of June. It is a noteworthy fact that Darboy was the +third archbishop of Paris who perished by violence in the period between +1848 and 1871. Darboy was the author of a number of works, of which the +most important are a _Vie de St Thomas Becket_ (1859), a translation of +the works of St Denis the Areopagite, and a translation of the +_Imitation of Christ_. + + See J. A. Foulon, _Histoire de la vie et des oeuvres de Mgr. Darboy_ + (Paris, 1889), and J. Guillermin, _Vie de Mgr. Darboy_ (Paris, 1888), + biographies written from the clerical standpoint, which have called + forth a number of pamphlets in reply. + + + + +DARCY, THOMAS DARCY, BARON (1467-1537), English soldier, was a son of +Sir William Darcy (d. 1488), and belonged to a family which was seated +at Templehurst in Yorkshire. In early life he served, both as a soldier +and a diplomatist, in Scotland and on the Scottish borders, where he was +captain of Berwick; and in 1505, having been created Baron Darcy, he was +made warden of the east marches towards Scotland. In 1511 Darcy led some +troops to Spain to help Ferdinand and Isabella against the Moors, but he +returned almost at once to England, and was with Henry VIII. on his +French campaign two years later. One of the most influential noblemen in +the north of England, where he held several important offices, Darcy was +also a member of the royal council, dividing his time between state +duties in London and a more active life in the north. He showed great +zeal in preparing accusations against his former friend, Cardinal +Wolsey; however, after the cardinal's fall his words and actions caused +him to be suspected by Henry VIII. Disliking the separation from Rome, +Darcy asserted that matrimonial cases were matters for the decision of +the spiritual power, and he was soon communicating with Eustace Chapuys, +the ambassador of the emperor Charles V., about an invasion of England +in the interests of the Roman Catholics. Detained in London against his +will by the king, he was not allowed to return to Yorkshire until late +in 1535, and about a year after his arrival in the north the rising +known as the Pilgrimage of Grace broke out. For a short time Darcy +defended Pontefract Castle against the rebels, but soon he surrendered +to them this stronghold, which he could certainly have held a little +longer, and was with them at Doncaster, being regarded as one of their +leaders. Upon the dispersal of the insurgents Darcy was pardoned, but he +pleaded illness when Henry requested him to proceed to London. He may +have assisted to suppress the rising which was renewed under Sir Francis +Bigod early in 1537, but the king believed, probably with good reason, +that he was guilty of fresh treasons, and he was seized and hurried to +London. During his imprisonment he uttered his famous remark about +Thomas Cromwell:--"Cromwell, it is thou that art the very original and +chief causer of all this rebellion and mischief, ... and I trust that or +thou die, though thou wouldst procure all the noblemen's heads within +the realm to be stricken off, yet shall there one head remain that shall +strike off thy head." Tried by his peers, Darcy was found guilty of +treason, and was beheaded on the 20th of June 1537. In 1548 his barony +was revived in favour of his son George (d. 1557), but it became extinct +on the death of George's descendant John in 1635. + + + + +DARDANELLES (Turk. _Bahr-Sefed Boghazi_), the strait, in ancient times +called the Hellespont (q.v.), uniting the Sea of Marmora with the +Aegean, so called from the two castles which protect the narrowest part +and preserve the name of the city of Dardanus in the Troad, famous for +the treaty between Sulla and Mithradates in 84 B.C. The shores of the +strait are formed by the peninsula of Gallipoli on the N.W. and by the +mainland of Asia Minor on the S.E.; it extends for a distance of about +47 m. with an average breadth of 3 or 4 m. At the Aegean extremity stand +the castles of Sedil Bahr and Kum Kaleh respectively in Europe and Asia; +and near the Marmora extremity are situated the important town of +Gallipoli (Callipolis) on the northern side, and the less important +though equally famous Lamsaki or Lapsaki (Lampsacus) on the southern. +The two castles of the Dardanelles _par excellence_ are Chanak-Kalehsi, +Sultanieh-Kalehsi, or the Old Castle of Anatolia, and Kilid-Bahr, or the +Old Castle of Rumelia, which were long but erroneously identified with +Sestos and Abydos now located farther to the north. The strait of the +Dardanelles is famous in history for the passage of Xerxes by means of a +bridge of boats, and for the similar exploit on the part of Alexander. +It is famous also from the story of Hero and Leander, and from Lord +Byron's successful attempt (repeated by others) to rival the ancient +swimmer. Strategically the Dardanelles is a point of great importance, +since it commands the approach to Constantinople from the Mediterranean. +The passage of the strait is easily defended, but in 1807 the English +admiral (Sir) J. T. Duckworth made his way past all the fortresses into +the Sea of Marmora. The treaty of July 1841, confirmed by the Paris +peace of 1856, prescribed that no foreign ship of war might enter the +strait except by Turkish permission, and even merchant vessels are only +allowed to pass the castle of Chanak-Kalehsi during the day. + + See Choiseul-Gouffier, _Voyage pittoresque_ (Paris, 1842); Murray's + _Handbook for Constantinople_ (London, 1900). + + + + +DARDANELLES (Turk. _Sultanieh Kalehsi_, or _Chanak Kalehsi_), the chief +town and seat of government of the lesser Turkish province of Bigha, +Asia Minor. It is situated at the mouth of the Rhodius, and at the +narrowest part of the strait of the Dardanelles, where its span is but a +mile across. Its recent growth has been rapid, and it possesses a +lyceum, a military hospital, a public garden, a theatre, quays and +water-works. Exclusive of the garrison, the population is estimated at +13,000, of whom one-half are Turkish, and the remainder Greek, Jewish, +Armenian and European. The town contains many mosques, Greek, Armenian +and Catholic churches, and a synagogue. There is a resident Greek +bishop. The civil governor, and the military commandants of the numerous +fortresses on each side of the strait, are stationed here. Many +important works have been added to the defences. The Ottoman fleet is +stationed at Nagara (anc. _Abydos_). The average annual number of +merchant vessels passing the strait is 12,000 and the regular commercial +vessels calling at the port of Dardanelles are represented by numerous +foreign agencies. Besides the Turkish telegraph service, the Eastern +Telegraph Company has a station at Dardanelles, and there are Turkish, +Austrian, French and Russian post offices. The import trade consists of +manufactures, sugar, flour, coffee, rice, leather and iron. The export +trade consists of valonia (largely produced in the province), wheat, +barley, beans, chickpeas, canary seed, liquorice root, pine and oak +timber, wine and pottery. Excepting in the items of wine and pottery, +the export trade shows steady increase. Every year sees a larger area of +land brought under cultivation by immigrants, and adds to the number of +mature (i.e. fruit-bearing) valonia trees. Vine-growers are discouraged +by heavy fiscal charges, and by the low price of wine; many have +uprooted their vineyards. The pottery trade is affected by change of +fashion, and the factories are losing their importance. The lower +quarters of the town were heavily damaged in the winter of 1900-1901 by +repeated inundations caused by the overflow of the Rhodius. + + See V. Cuinet, _Turquie d'Asie_ (Paris, 1890-1900). + + + + +DARDANUS, in Greek legend, son of Zeus and Electra, the mythical founder +of Dardanus on the Hellespont and ancestor of the Dardans of the Troad +and, through Aeneas, of the Romans. His original home was supposed to +have been Arcadia, where he married Chryse, who brought him as dowry the +Palladium or image of Pallas, presented to her by the goddess herself. +Having slain his brother Iasius or Iasion (according to others, Iasius +was struck by lightning), Dardanus fled across the sea. He first stopped +at Samothrace, and when the island was visited by a flood, crossed over +to the Troad. Being hospitably received by Teucer, he married his +daughter Batea and became the founder of the royal house of Troy. + + See Apollodorus iii. 12; Diod. Sic. v. 48-75; Virgil, _Aeneid_, iii. + 163 ff.; articles in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_ and Roscher's + _Lexikon der Mythologie_. + + + + +DARDISTAN, a purely conventional name given by scientists to a tract of +country on the north-west frontier of India. There is no modern race +called Dards, and no country so named by its inhabitants, but the +inhabitants of the right bank of the Indus, from the Kandia river to +Batera, apply it to the dwellers on the left bank. In the scientific use +of the appellation, Dardistan comprises the whole of Chitral, Yasin, +Panyal, the Gilgit valley, Hunza and Nagar, the Astor valley, the Indus +valley from Bunji to Batera, the Kohistan-Malazai, i.e. the upper +reaches of the Panjkora river, and the Kohistan of Swat. The so-called +Dard races are referred to by Pliny and Ptolemy, and are supposed to be +a people of Aryan origin who ascended the Indus valley from the plains +of the Punjab, reaching as far north as Chitral, where they dispossessed +the Khos. They have left their traces in the different dialects, +Khoswar, Burishki and Shina, spoken in the Gilgit agency. + + The question of Dardistan is debated at length in Leitner's + _Dardistan_ (1877); Drew's _Jummoo and Kashmir Territories_ (1875); + Biddulph's _Tribes of the Hindu-Kush_ (1880) and Durand's _The Making + of a Frontier_ (1899). For further details see GILGIT. + + + + +DARES PHRYGIUS, according to Homer (_Iliad_, v. 9) a Trojan priest of +Hephaestus. He was supposed to have been the author of an account of the +destruction of Troy, and to have lived before Homer (Aelian, _Var. +Hist._ xi. 2). A work in Latin, purporting to be a translation of this, +and entitled _Daretis Phrygii de excidio Trojae historia_, was much read +in the middle ages, and was then ascribed to Cornelius Nepos, who is +made to dedicate it to Sallust; but the language is extremely corrupt, +and the work belongs to a period much later than the time of Nepos +(probably the 5th century A.D.). It is doubtful whether the work as we +have it is an abridgment of a larger Latin work or an adaptation of a +Greek original. Together with the similar work of Dictys Cretensis (with +which it is generally printed) the _De excidio_ forms the chief source +for the numerous middle age accounts of the Trojan legend. (See DICTYS; +and O. S. von Fleschenberg, _Daresstudien_, 1908.) + + + + +DAR-ES-SALAAM ("The harbour of peace"), a seaport of East Africa, in 6 +deg. 50' S. 39 deg. 20' E., capital of German East Africa. Pop. (1909) +estimated at 24,000, including some 500 Europeans. The entrance to the +harbor, which is perfectly sheltered (hence its name), is through a +narrow opening in the palm-covered shore. The harbour is provided with a +floating dock, completed in 1902. The town is built on the northern +sweep of the harbour and is European in character. The streets are wide +and regularly laid out. The public buildings, which are large and +handsome, include the government and customs offices on the quay +opposite the spot where the mail boats anchor, the governor's house, +state hospital, post office, and the Boma or barracks. Adjoining the +governor's residence are the botanical gardens, where many European +plants are tested with a view to acclimatization. There are various +churches, and government and mission schools. In the town are the head +offices of the Deutsch-Ostafrikanische Gesellschaft, the largest trading +company in German East Africa. The mangrove swamps at the north-west end +of the harbour have been drained and partially built over. + +Until the German occupation nothing but an insignificant village existed +at Dar-es-Salaam. In 1862 Said Majid, sultan of Zanzibar, decided to +build a town on the shores of the bay, and began the erection of a +palace, which was never finished, and of which but scanty ruins remain. +In 1871 Said Majid died, and his scheme was abandoned. In 1876 Mr +(afterwards Sir) William McKinnon began the construction of a road from +Dar-es-Salaam to Victoria Nyanza, intending to make of Dar-es-Salaam an +important seaport. This project however failed. In 1887 Dr Carl Peters +occupied the bay in the name of the German East Africa Company. Fighting +with the Arabs followed, and in 1889 the company handed over their +settlement to the German imperial government. In 1891 the town was made +the administrative capital of the colony. It is the starting point of a +railway to Mrogoro, and is connected by overland telegraph via Ujiji +with South Africa. A submarine cable connects the town with Zanzibar. +Dar-es-Salaam was laid out by the Germans on an ambitious scale in the +expectation that it would prove an important centre of commerce, but +trade developed very slowly. Ivory, rubber and copal are the chief +exports. The trade returns are included in those of German East Africa +(q.v.). + + + + +DARESTE DE LA CHAVANNE, ANTOINE ELISABETH CLEOPHAS (1820-1882), French +historian, was born in Paris on the 28th of October 1820, of an old +Lyons family. Educated at the Ecole des Chartes, he became professor in +the faculty of letters at Grenoble in 1844, and in 1849 at Lyons, where +he remained nearly thirty years. He died on the 6th of August 1882. His +works comprise: _Histoire de l'administration en France depuis +Philippe-Auguste_ (2 vols., 1848); _Histoire des classes agricoles en +France depuis saint Louis jusqu'a Louis XVI_ (2 vols., 1853 and 1858), +now quite obsolete; and a _Histoire de France_ (8 vols., 1865-1873), +completed by a _Histoire de la Restauration_ (2 vols., 1880), a good +summary of the work of Veil-Castel, and by a _Histoire du Gouvernement +de Juillet_, a dry enumeration of dates and facts. Before the +publication of Lavisse's great work, Dareste's general history of France +was the best of its kind; it surpassed in accuracy the work of Henri +Martin, especially in the ancient periods, just as Martin's in its turn +was an improvement upon that of Sismondi. + + + + +DARESTE DE LA CHAVANNE, RODOLPHE MADELEINE CLEOPHAS (1824- ), French +jurist, was born in Paris on the 25th of December 1824. He studied at +the Ecole des Chartes and the Ecole de Droit, and starting early on a +legal career he rose to be counsellor to the court of cassation (1877 to +1900). His first publication was an _Essai sur Francois Hotman_ (1850), +completed later by his publication of Hotman's correspondence in the +_Revue historique_ (1876), and he devoted the whole of his leisure to +legal history. Of his writings may be mentioned _Les Anciennes Lois de +l'Islande_ (1881); _Memoire sur les anciens monuments du droit de la +Hongrie_ (1885), and _Etudes d'histoire du droit_ (1889). On Greek law +he wrote some notable works: _Du pret a la grosse chez les Atheniens_ +(1867); _Les Inscriptions hypothecaires en Grece_ (1885), _La Science du +droit en Grece: Platon, Aristote, Theophraste_ (1893), and _Etude sur la +loi de Gortyne_ (1885). He collaborated with Theodore Reinach and B. +Haussoullier in their _Recueil des inscriptions juridiques grecques_ +(1905), and his name is worthily associated with the edition of Philippe +de Beaumanoir's _Coutumes de Beauvaisis_, published by Salmon (2 vols., +1899, 1900). + + + + +DARFUR, a country of east central Africa, the westernmost state of the +Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It extends from about 10 deg. N. to 16 deg. N. and +from 21 deg. E. to 27 deg. 30' E., has an area of some 150,000 sq. m., +and an estimated population of 750,000. It is bounded N. by the Libyan +desert, W. by Wadai (French Congo), S. by the Bahr-el-Ghazal and E. by +Kordofan. The two last-named districts are _mudirias_ (provinces) of the +Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The greater part of the country is a plateau from +2000 to 3000 ft. above sea-level. A range of mountains of volcanic +origin, the Jebel Marra, runs N. and S. about the line of the 24 deg. E. +for a distance of over 100 m., its highest points attaining from 5000 to +6000 ft. East to west this chain extends about 80 m. Eastward the +mountains fall gradually into sandy, bush-covered steppes. North-east of +Jebel Marra lies the Jebel Medob (3500 ft. high), a range much distorted +by volcanic action, and Bir-el-Melh, an extinct volcano with a crater +150 ft. deep. South of Jebel Marra are the plains of Dar Dima and Dar +Uma; S.W. of the Marra the plain is 4000 ft. above the sea. The +watershed separating the basins of the Nile and Lake Chad runs north and +south through the centre of the country. The mountains are scored by +numerous _khors_, whose lower courses can be traced across the +tableland. The khors formerly contained large rivers which flowed N.E. +and E. to the Nile, W. and S.W. to Lake Chad, S. and S.E. to the +Bahr-el-Ghazal. The streams going N.E. drain to the Wadi Melh, a dry +river-bed which joins the Nile near Debba, but on reaching the plain the +waters sink into the sandy soil and disappear. The torrents flowing +directly east towards the Nile also disappear in the sandy deserts. The +khors in the W., S.W. and S.,--the most fertile part of Darfur--contain +turbulent torrents in the rainy season, when much of the southern +district is flooded. Not one of the streams is perennial, but in times +of heavy rainfall the waters of some khors reach the Bahr-el-Homr +tributary of the Bahr-el-Ghazal. (For some 200 m. the Bahr-el-Homr marks +the southern frontier of the country.) In the W. and S. water can always +be obtained in the dry season by digging 5 or 6 ft. below the surface of +the khors. + +The climate, except in the south, where the rains are heavy and the soil +is a damp clay, is healthy except after the rains. The rainy season +lasts for three months, from the middle of June to the middle of +September. In the neighbourhood of the khors the vegetation is fairly +rich. The chief trees are the acacias whence gum is obtained, and baobab +(_Adansonia digitata_); while the sycamore and, in the Marra mountains, +the _Euphorbia candelabrum_ are also found. In the S.W. are densely +forested regions. Cotton and tobacco are indigenous. The most fertile +land is found on the slopes of the mountains, where wheat, durra, +_dukhn_ (a kind of millet and the staple food of the people) and other +grains are grown. Other products are sesame, cotton, cucumbers, +water-melons and onions. + +Copper is obtained from Hofrat-el-Nahas in the S.E., iron is wrought in +the S.W.; and there are deposits of rock-salt in various places. The +copper mines (in 9 deg. 48' N. 24 deg. 5' E.) are across the Darfur +frontier in the Bahr-el-Ghazal province. The vein runs N.W. and S.E. and +in places rises in ridges 2 ft. above the general level of ground. There +is an immense quantity of ore, (silicate and carbonate) specimens +containing 14% of metal. Camels and cattle are both numerous and of +excellent breeds. Some of the Arab tribes, such as the Baggara, breed +only cattle, those in the north and east confine themselves to rearing +camels. Horses are comparatively rare; they are a small but sturdy +breed. Sheep and goats are numerous. The ostrich, common in the eastern +steppes, is bred by various Arab tribes, its feathers forming a valuable +article of trade. + +_Inhabitants._--The population of Darfur consists of negroes and Arabs. +The negro _For_, forming quite half the inhabitants, occupy the central +highlands and part of the Dar Dima and Dar Uma districts; they speak a +special language, and are subdivided into numerous tribes, of which the +most influential are the Masabat, the Kunjara and the Kera. They are of +middle height, and have rather irregular features. The _For_ are +described as clean and industrious, somewhat fanatical, but generally +amenable to civilization, and freedom-loving. The _Massalit_ are a +negro tribe which, breaking off from the For some centuries back, have +now much Arab blood, and speak Arabic; while the _Tunjur_ are an Arab +tribe which must have arrived in the Sudan at a very early date, as they +have incorporated a large For element, and no longer profess +Mahommedanism. The _Dago_ (_Tago_) formerly inhabited Jebel Marra, but +they have been driven to the south and west, where they maintain a +certain independence in Dar Sula, but are treated as inferiors by the +For. The Zaghawa, who inhabit the northern borders, are on the contrary +regarded by the For as their equals, and have all the prestige of a race +that at one time made its influence felt as far as Bornu. Among other +tribes may be mentioned the Berti and Takruri, the Birgirid, the +Beraunas, and immigrants from Wadai and Bagirmi, and Fula from west of +Lake Chad. Genuine Arab tribes, e.g. the Baggara and Homr, are numerous, +and they are partly nomadic and partly settled. The Arabs have not, +generally speaking, mixed with the negro tribes. They are great hunters, +making expeditions into the desert for five or six days at a time in +search of ostriches. + +Slaves, ostrich feathers, gum and ivory used to be the chief articles of +trade, a caravan going annually by the Arbain ("Forty Days") road to +Assiut in Egypt and taking back cloth, fire-arms and other articles. The +slave trade has ceased, but feathers, gum and ivory still constitute the +chief exports of the country. The principal imports are cotton goods, +sugar and tea. There is also an active trade in camels and cattle. + +The internal administration of the country is in the hands of the +sultan, who is officially recognized as the agent of the Sudan +government. The administrative system resembles that of other Mahommedan +countries. + +_Towns._--The capital is El-Fasher, pop. about 10,000, on the western +bank of the Wadi Tendelty in an angle formed by the junction of that +wadi with the Wadi-el-Kho, one of the streams which flow towards the +Bahr-el-Homr. Fasher is the residence of the sultan. There are a few +fine buildings, but the town consists mainly of tukls and box-shaped +straw sheds. It is 500 m. W.S.W. of Khartum. Dara, a small market town, +is 110 m. S. of El-Fasher. Shakka is in the S.E. of the country near the +Bahr-el-Homr, and was formerly the headquarters of the slave dealers. + +_History._--The Dago or Tago negroes, inhabitants of Jebel Marra, appear +to have been the dominant race in Darfur in the earliest period to which +the history of the country goes back. How long they ruled is uncertain, +little being known of them save a list of kings. According to tradition +the Tago dynasty was displaced, and Mahommedanism introduced, about the +14th century, by Tunjur Arabs, who reached Darfur by way of Bornu and +Wadai. The first Tunjur king was Ahmed-el-Makur, who married the +daughter of the last Tago monarch. Ahmed reduced many unruly chiefs to +submission, and under him the country prospered. His great-grandson, the +sultan Dali, a celebrated figure in Darfur histories, was on his +mother's side a For, and thus was effected a union between the negro and +Arab races. Dali divided the country into provinces, and established a +penal code, which, under the title of _Kitab Dali_ or Dali's Book, is +still preserved, and shows principles essentially different from those +of the Koran. His grandson Soleiman (usually distinguished by the Forian +epithet _Solon_, the Arab or the Red) reigned from 1596 to 1637, and was +a great warrior and a devoted Mahommedan. Soleiman's grandson, Ahmed +Bahr (1682-1722), made Islam the religion of the state, and increased +the prosperity of the country by encouraging immigration from Bornu and +Bagirmi. His rule extended east of the Nile as far as the banks of the +Atbara. Under succeeding monarchs the country, involved in wars with +Sennar and Wadai, declined in importance. Towards the end of the 18th +century a sultan named Mahommed Terab led an army against the Funj, but +got no further than Omdurman. Here he was stopped by the Nile, and found +no means of getting his army across the river. Unwilling to give up his +project, Terab remained at Omdurman for months. He was poisoned by his +wife at the instigation of disaffected chiefs, and the army returned to +Darfur. The next monarch was Abd-er-Rahman, surnamed el-Raschid or the +Just. It was during his reign that Napoleon Bonaparte was campaigning +in Egypt; and in 1799 Abd-er-Rahman wrote to congratulate the French +general on his defeat of the Mamelukes. To this Bonaparte replied by +asking the sultan to send him by the next caravan 2000 black slaves +upwards of sixteen years old, strong and vigorous. To Abd-er-Rahman +likewise is due the present situation of the _Fasher_, or royal +township. The capital had formerly been at a place called Kobbe. +Mahommed-el-Fadhl, his son, was for some time under the control of an +energetic eunuch, Mahommed Kurra, but he ultimately made himself +independent, and his reign lasted till 1839, when he died of leprosy. He +devoted himself largely to the subjection of the semi-independent Arab +tribes who lived in the country, notably the Rizighat, thousands of whom +he slew. In 1821 he lost the province of Kordofan, which in that year +was conquered by the Egyptians. Of his forty sons, the third, Mahommed +Hassin, was appointed his successor. Hassin is described as a religious +but avaricious man. In the later part of his reign he became involved in +trouble with the Arab slave raiders who had seized the Bahr-el-Ghazal, +looked upon by the Darfurians as their especial "slave preserve." The +negroes of Bahr-el-Ghazal paid tribute of ivory and slaves to Darfur, +and these were the chief articles of merchandise sold by the Darfurians +to the Egyptian traders along the Arbain road to Assiut. The loss of the +Bahr-el-Ghazal caused therefore much annoyance to the people of Darfur. +Hassin died in 1873, blind and advanced in years, and the succession +passed to his youngest son Ibrahim, who soon found himself engaged in a +conflict with Zobeir (q.v.), the chief of the Bahr-el-Ghazal slave +traders, and with an Egyptian force from Khartum. The war resulted in +the destruction of the kingdom. Ibrahim was slain in battle in the +autumn of 1874, and his uncle Hassab Alla, who sought to maintain the +independence of his country, was captured in 1875 by the troops of the +khedive, and removed to Cairo with his family. The Darfurians were +restive under Egyptian rule. Various revolts were suppressed, but in +1879 General Gordon (then governor-general of the Sudan) suggested the +reinstatement of the ancient royal family. This was not done, and in +1881 Slatin Bey (Sir Rudolf von Slatin) was made governor of the +province. Slatin defended the province against the forces of the Mahdi, +who were led by a Rizighat sheik named Madibbo, but was obliged to +surrender (December 1883), and Darfur was incorporated in the Mahdi's +dominions. The Darfurians found Dervish rule as irksome as that of the +Egyptians had been, and a state of almost constant warfare ended in the +gradual retirement of the Dervishes from Darfur. Following the overthrow +of the khalifa at Omdurman in 1898 the new (Anglo-Egyptian) Sudan +government recognized (1899) Ali Dinar, a grandson of Mahommed-el-Fadhl, +as sultan of Darfur, on the payment by that chief of an annual tribute +of L500. Under Ali Dinar, who during the _Mahdia_ had been kept a +prisoner in Omdurman, Darfur enjoyed a period of peace. + +The first European traveller known to have visited Darfur was William +George Browne (q.v.), who spent two years (1793-1795) at Kobbe. Sheik +Mahommed-el-Tounsi travelled in 1803 through various regions of Africa, +including Darfur, in search of Omar, his father, and afterwards gave to +the world an account of his wanderings, which was translated into French +in 1845 by M. Perron. Gustav Nachtigal in 1873 spent some months in +Darfur, and since that time the country has become well known through +the journeys of Gordon, Slatin and others. + + AUTHORITIES.--Browne's account of Darfur will be found in his _Travels + in Africa, Egypt and Syria_ (London, 1799); Nachtigal's _Sahara und + Sudan_ gives the results of that traveller's observations. The first + ten chapters of Slatin Pasha's book _Fire and Sword in the Sudan_ + (English edition, London, 1896) contain much information concerning + the country, its history, and a full account of the overthrow of + Egyptian authority by the Mahdi. See also _The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan_ + (London, 1905), edited by Count Gleichen, and the bibliography given + under SUDAN. + + + + +DARGAI, the name of a mountain peak and a frontier station in the +north-west Frontier Province of India. The mountain peak is situated on +the Samana Range, and the Kohat border, and is famous for the stand made +there by the Afridis and Orakzais in the Tirah Campaign. (See TIRAH +CAMPAIGN.) Dargai station is situated on the Peshawar border, and is the +terminus of the frontier railway running from Nowshera to the Malakand +Pass. + + + + +DARGOMIJSKY, ALEXANDER SERGEIVICH (1813-1869), Russian composer, was +born in 1813, and educated in St Petersburg. He was already known as a +talented musical amateur when in 1833 he met Glinka and was encouraged +to devote himself to composition. His light opera _Esmeralda_ was +written in 1839, and his _Roussalka_ was performed in 1856, but he had +but small success or recognition either at home or abroad, except in +Belgium, till the 'sixties, when he became one of Balakirev's circle. +His opera _The Stone Guest_ then became famous among the progressive +Russian school, though it was not performed till 1872. Dargomijsky died +in January 1869. His compositions include a number of songs, and some +orchestral pieces. + + + + +DARIAL, a gorge in the Caucasus, at the east foot of Mt. Kasbek, pierced +by the river Terek for a distance of 8 m. between vertical walls of rock +(5900 ft.). It is mentioned in the Georgian annals under the names of +Ralani, Dargani, Darialani; the Persians and Arabs knew it as the Gate +of the Alans; Strabo calls it _Porta Caucasica_ and _Porta Cumana_; +Ptolemy, _Porta Sarmatica_; it was sometimes known as _Portae Caspiae_ +(a name bestowed also on the "gate" or pass beside the Caspian at +Derbent); and the Tatars call it _Darioly_. Being the only available +passage across the Caucasus, it has been fortified since a remote +period--at least since 150 B.C. In Russian poetry it has been +immortalized by Lermontov. The present Russian fort, Darial, which +guards this section of the Georgian military road, is at the northern +issue of the gorge, at an altitude of 4746 ft. + + + + +DARIEN, a district covering the eastern part of the isthmus joining +Central and South America. It is mainly within the republic of Panama, +and gives its name to a gulf of the Carribbean Sea. Darien is of great +interest in the history of geographical discovery. It was reconnoitred +in the first year of the 16th century by Rodrigo Bastidas of Seville; +and the first settlement was Santa Maria la Antigua, situated on the +small Darien river, north-west of the mouth of the Atrato. In 1513 Vasco +Nunez de Balboa stood "silent upon a peak in Darien,"[1] and saw the +Pacific at his feet stretching inland in the Gulf of San Miguel; and for +long this narrow neck of land seemed alternately to proffer and refuse a +means of transit between the two oceans. The first serious attempt to +turn the isthmus to permanent account as a trade route dates from the +beginning of the 18th century, and forms an interesting chapter in +Scottish history. In 1695 an act was passed by the Scottish parliament +giving extensive powers to a company trading to Africa and the Indies; +and this company, under the advice of one of the most remarkable +economists of the period, William Paterson (q.v.), determined to +establish a colony on the isthmus of Darien as a general emporium for +the commerce of all the nations of the world. Regarded with disfavour +both in England and Holland, the project was taken up in Scotland with +the enthusiasm of national rivalry towards England, and the +"subscriptions sucked up all the money in the country." On the 26th of +July 1698 the pioneers set sail from Leith amid the cheers of an almost +envious multitude; and on the 4th of November, with the loss of only +fifteen out of 1200 men, they arrived at Darien, and took up their +quarters in a well-defended spot, with a good harbour and excellent +outlook. The country they named New Caledonia, and two sites selected +for future cities were designated respectively New Edinburgh and New St +Andrews. At first all seemed to go well; but by and by lack of +provisions, sickness and anarchy reduced the settlers to the most +miserable plight; and in June 1699 they re-embarked in three vessels, a +weak and hopeless company, to sail whithersoever Providence might +direct. Meanwhile a supplementary expedition had been prepared in +Scotland; two vessels were despatched in May, and four others followed +in August. But this venture proved even more unfortunate than the +former. The colonists arrived broken in health; their spirits were +crushed by the fate of their predecessors, and embittered by the harsh +fanaticism of the four ministers whom the general assembly of the Church +of Scotland had sent out to establish a regular presbyterial +organization. The last addition to the settlement was the company of +Captain Alexander Campbell of Fonab, who arrived only to learn that a +Spanish force of 1500 or 1600 men lay encamped at Tubacanti, on the +river Santa Maria, waiting for the appearance of a Spanish squadron in +order to make a combined attack on the fort. Captain Campbell, on the +second day after his arrival, marched with 200 men across the isthmus to +Tubacanti, stormed the camp in the night-time, and dispersed the Spanish +force. On his return to the fort on the fifth day he found it besieged +by the Spaniards from the men-of-war; and, after a vain attempt to +maintain its defence, he succeeded with a few companions in making his +escape in a small vessel. A capitulation followed, and the Darien colony +was no more. Of those who had taken part in the enterprise only a +miserable handful ever reached their native land. + + See J. H. Burton, _The Darien Papers_ (Bannatyne Club, 1849); + Macaulay, _History of England_ (London, 1866); and A. Lang, _History + of Scotland_, vol. iv. (Edinburgh, 1907). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Keats, in his famous sonnet beginning:--"Much have I travelled in + the realms of gold," of which this is the concluding line, + inaccurately substitutes Cortez for Balboa. + + + + +DARIUS (Pers. _Darayavaush_; Old Test. _Daryavesh_), the name of three +Persian kings. + +1. DARIUS THE GREAT, the son of Hystaspes (q.v.). The principal source +for his history is his own inscriptions, especially the great +inscription of Behistun (q.v.), in which he relates how he gained the +crown and put down the rebellions. In modern times his veracity has +often been doubted, but without any sufficient reason; the whole tenor +of his words shows that we can rely upon his account. The accounts given +by Herodotus and Ctesias of his accession are in many points evidently +dependent on this official version, with many legendary stories +interwoven, e.g. that Darius and his allies left the question as to +which of them should become king to the decision of their horses, and +that Darius won the crown by a trick of his groom. + +Darius belonged to a younger branch of the royal family of the +Achaemenidae. When, after the suicide of Cambyses (March 521), the +usurper Gaumata ruled undisturbed over the whole empire under the name +of Bardiya (Smerdis), son of Cyrus, and no one dared to gainsay him, +Darius, "with the help of Ahura-mazda," attempted to regain the kingdom +for the royal race. His father Hystaspes was still alive, but evidently +had not the courage to urge his claims. Assisted by six noble Persians, +whose names he proclaims at the end of the Behistun inscription, he +surprised and killed the usurper in a Median fortress (October 521; for +the chronology of these times cf. E. Meyer, _Forschungen zur alten +Geschichte_, ii. 472 ff.), and gained the crown. But this sudden change +was the signal for an attempt on the part of all the eastern provinces +to regain their independence. In Susiana, Babylon, Media, Sagartia, +Margiana, usurpers arose, pretending to be of the old royal race, and +gathered large armies around them; in Persia itself Vahyazdata imitated +the example of Gaumata and was acknowledged by the majority of the +people as the true Bardiya. Darius with only a small army of Persians +and Medes and some trustworthy generals overcame all difficulties, and +in 520 and 519 all the rebellions were put down (Babylon rebelled twice, +Susiana even three times), and the authority of Darius was established +throughout the empire. + +Darius in his inscriptions appears as a fervent believer in the true +religion of Zoroaster. But he was also a great statesman and organizer. +The time of conquests had come to an end; the wars which Darius +undertook, like those of Augustus, only served the purpose of gaining +strong natural frontiers for the empire and keeping down the barbarous +tribes on its borders. Thus Darius subjugated the wild nations of the +Pontic and Armenian mountains, and extended the Persian dominion to the +Caucasus; for the same reasons he fought against the Sacae and other +Turanian tribes. But by the organization which he gave to the empire he +became the true successor of the great Cyrus. His organization of the +provinces and the fixing of the tributes is described by Herodotus iii. +90 ff., evidently from good official sources. He fixed the coinage and +introduced the gold coinage of the Daric (which is not named after him, +as the Greeks believed, but derived from a Persian word meaning "gold"; +in Middle Persian it is called _zarig_). He tried to develop the +commerce of the empire, and sent an expedition down the Kabul and the +Indus, led by the Carian captain Scylax of Caryanda, who explored the +Indian Ocean from the mouth of the Indus to Suez. He dug a canal from +the Nile to Suez, and, as the fragments of a hieroglyphic inscription +found there show, his ships sailed from the Nile through the Red Sea by +Saba to Persia. He had connexions with Carthage (i.e. the _Karka_ of the +Nakshi Rustam inscr.), and explored the shores of Sicily and Italy. At +the same time he attempted to gain the good-will of the subject nations, +and for this purpose promoted the aims of their priests. He allowed the +Jews to build the Temple of Jerusalem. In Egypt his name appears on the +temples which he built in Memphis, Edfu and the Great Oasis. He called +the high-priest of Sais, Uzahor, to Susa (as we learn from his +inscription in the Vatican), and gave him full powers to reorganize the +"house of life," the great medical school of the temple of Sais. In the +Egyptian traditions he is considered as one of the great benefactors and +lawgivers of the country (Herod. ii. 110, Diod. i. 95). In similar +relations he stood to the Greek sanctuaries (cf. his rescript to "his +slave" Godatas, the inspector of a royal park near Magnesia, on the +Maeander, in which he grants freedom of taxes and forced labour to the +sacred territory of Apollo. See Cousin and Deschamps, _Bulletin de +corresp. hellen._, xiii. (1889), 529, and Dittenberger, _Sylloge inscr. +graec._, 2); all the Greek oracles in Asia Minor and Europe therefore +stood on the side of Persia in the Persian wars and admonished the +Greeks to attempt no resistance. + +About 512 Darius undertook a war against the Scythians. A great army +crossed the Bosporus, subjugated eastern Thrace, and crossed the Danube. +The purpose of this war can only have been to attack the nomadic +Turanian tribes in the rear and thus to secure peace on the northern +frontier of the empire. It was based upon a wrong geographical +conception; even Alexander and his Macedonians believed that on the +Hindu Kush (which they called Caucasus) and on the shores of the +Jaxartes (which they called Tanais, i.e. Don) they were quite near to +the Black Sea. Of course the expedition undertaken on these grounds +could not but prove a failure; having advanced for some weeks into the +Russian steppes, Darius was forced to return. The details given by +Herodotus (according to him Darius had reached the Volga!) are quite +fantastical; and the account which Darius himself had given on a tablet, +which was added to his great inscription in Behistun, is destroyed with +the exception of a few words. (See R. W. Macan, _Herodotus_, vol. ii. +appendix 3; G. B. Grundy, _Great Persian War_, pp. 48-64; J. B. Bury in +_Classical Review_, July 1897.) + +Although European Greece was intimately connected with the coasts of +Asia Minor, and the opposing parties in the Greek towns were continually +soliciting his intervention, Darius did not meddle with their affairs. +The Persian wars were begun by the Greeks themselves. The support which +Athens and Eretria gave to the rebellious Ionians and Carians made their +punishment inevitable as soon as the rebellion had been put down. But +the first expedition, that of Mardonius, failed on the cliffs of Mt. +Athos (492), and the army which was led into Attica by Datis in 490 was +beaten at Marathon. Before Darius had finished his preparations for a +third expedition an insurrection broke out in Egypt (486). In the next +year Darius died, probably in October 485, after a reign of thirty-six +years. He is one of the greatest rulers the east has produced. + +2. DARIUS II., OCHUS. Artaxerxes I., who died in the beginning of 424, +was followed by his son Xerxes II. But after a month and a half he was +murdered by his brother Secydianus, or Sogdianus (the form of the name +is uncertain). Against him rose a bastard brother, Ochus, satrap of +Hyrcania, and after a short fight killed him, and suppressed by +treachery the attempt of his own brother Arsites to imitate his example +(Ctesias _ap._ Phot. 44; Diod. xii. 71, 108; Pausan. vi. 5, 7). Ochus +adopted the name Darius (in the chronicles called _Nothos_, the +bastard). Neither Xerxes II. nor Secydianus occurs in the dates of the +numerous Babylonian tablets from Nippur; here the dates of Darius II. +follow immediately on those of Artaxerxes I. Of Darius II.'s reign we +know very little (a rebellion of the Medes in 409 is mentioned in +Xenophon, _Hellen._ i. 2. 19), except that he was quite dependent on his +wife Parysatis. In the excerpts from Ctesias some harem intrigues are +recorded, in which he played a disreputable part. As long as the power +of Athens remained intact he did not meddle in Greek affairs; even the +support which the Athenians in 413 gave to the rebel Amorges in Caria +would not have roused him (Andoc. iii. 29; Thuc. viii. 28, 54; Ctesias +wrongly names his father Pissuthnes in his stead; an account of these +wars is contained in the great Lycian stele from Xanthus in the British +Museum), had not the Athenian power broken down in the same year before +Syracuse. He gave orders to his satraps in Asia Minor, Tissaphernes and +Pharnabazus, to send in the overdue tribute of the Greek towns, and to +begin war with Athens; for this purpose they entered into an alliance +with Sparta. In 408 he sent his son Cyrus to Asia Minor, to carry on the +war with greater energy. In 404 he died after a reign of nineteen years, +and was followed by Artaxerxes II. + +3. DARIUS III., CODOMANNUS. The eunuch Bagoas (q.v.), having murdered +Artaxerxes III. in 338 and his son Arses in 336, raised to the throne a +distant relative of the royal house, whose name, according to Justin x. +3, was Codomannus, and who had excelled in a war against the Cadusians +(cf. Diod. xvii. 5 ff., where his father is called Arsames, son of +Ostanes, a brother of Artaxerxes). The new king, who adopted the name of +Darius, took warning by the fate of his predecessors, and saved himself +from it by forcing Bagoas to drink the cup himself. Already in 336 +Philip II. of Macedon had sent an army into Asia Minor, and in the +spring of 334 the campaign of Alexander began. In the following year +Darius himself took the field against the Macedonian king, but was +beaten at Issus and in 331 at Arbela. In his flight to the east he was +deposed and killed by Bessus (July 330). + + The name Darius was also borne by many later dynasts of Persian + origin, among them kings of Persis (q.v.), Darius of Media Atropatene + who was defeated by Pompeius, and Darius, king of Pontus in the time + of Antony. (Ed. M.) + + + + +DARJEELING, a hill station and district of British India, in the +Bhagalpur division of Bengal. The sanatorium is situated 367 m. by rail +north of Calcutta. In 1901 it had a population of 16,924. It is the +summer quarters of the Bengal government and has a most agreeable +climate, which neither exceeds 80 deg. F. in summer, nor falls below 30 +deg. in winter. The great attraction of Darjeeling is its scenery, which +is unspeakably grand. The view across the hills to Kinchinjunga +discloses a glittering white wall of perpetual snow, surrounded by +towering masses of granite. There are several schools of considerable +size for European boys and girls, and a government boarding school at +Kurseong. The buildings and the roads suffered severely from the +earthquake of the 12th of June 1897. But a more terrible disaster +occurred in October 1899, when a series of landslips carried away houses +and broke up the hill railway. The total value of the property destroyed +was returned at L160,000. + +The district of Darjeeling comprises an area of 1164 sq. m. It consists +of two well-defined tracts, _viz._ the lower Himalayas to the south of +Sikkim, and the _tarai_, or plains, which extend from the south of these +ranges as far as the northern borders of Purnea district. The plains +from which the hills take their rise are only 300 ft. above sea-level; +the mountains ascend abruptly in spurs of 6000 to 10,000 ft. in height. +The scenery throughout the hills is picturesque, and in many parts +magnificent. The two highest mountains in the world, Kinchinjunga in +Sikkim (28,156 ft.) and Everest in Nepal (29,002 ft.), are visible from +the town of Darjeeling. The principal peaks within the district +are--Phalut (11,811 ft.), Subargum (11,636), Tanglu (10,084), Situng and +Sinchal Pahai (8163). The chief rivers are the Tista, Great and Little +Ranjit, Ramman, Mahananda, Balasan and Jaldhaka. None of them is +navigable in the mountain valleys; but the Tista, after it debouches on +the plains, can be navigated by cargo boats of considerable burthen. +Bears, leopards and musk deer are found on the higher mountains, deer on +the lower ranges, and a few elephants and tigers on the slopes nearest +to the plains. In the lowlands, tigers, rhinoceroses, deer and wild hogs +are abundant. A few wolves are also found. Of small game, hares, jungle +fowl, peacocks, partridges, snipe, woodcock, wild ducks and geese, and +green pigeons are numerous in the _tarai_, and jungle fowl and pheasants +in the hills. The mahseer fish is found in the Tista. + +In 1901 the population was 249,117, showing an increase of 12% since +1891, compared with an increase of 43% in the previous decade. The +inhabitants of the hilly tract consist to a large extent of Nepali +immigrants and of aboriginal highland races; in the _tarai_ the people +are chiefly Hindus and Mahommedans. The Lepchas are considered to be the +aboriginal inhabitants of the hilly portion of the district. They are a +fine, frank race, naturally open-hearted and free-handed, fond of change +and given to an out-door life; but they do not seem to improve on being +brought into contact with civilization. It is thought that they are now +being gradually driven out of the district, owing to the increase of +regular cultivation, and to the government conservation of the forests. +They have no word for plough in their language, and they still follow +the nomadic form of tillage known as _jum_ cultivation. This consists in +selecting a spot of virgin soil, clearing it of forest and jungle by +burning, and scraping the surface with the rudest agricultural +implements. The productive powers of the land become exhausted in a few +years, when the clearing is abandoned, a new site is chosen, and the +same operations are carried on _de novo_. The Lepchas are also the +ordinary out-door labourers on the hills. They have no caste +distinctions but speak of themselves as belonging to one of nine septs +or clans, who all eat together and intermarry with each other. In the +upper or northern _tarai_, along the base of the hills, the Mechs form +the principal ethnical feature. This tribe inhabits the deadly jungle +with impunity, and cultivates cotton, rice and other ordinary crops, by +the _jum_ process described above. The cultivation of tea was introduced +in 1856, and is now a large industry. Cinchona cultivation was +introduced by the government in 1862, and has since been taken up by +private enterprise. There is a coal mine at Daling. The Darjeeling +Himalayan railway of 2 ft. gauge, opened in 1880, runs for 50 m. from +Siliguri in the plains on the Eastern Bengal line. + +The British connexion with Darjeeling dates from 1816, when, at the +close of the war with Nepali, the British made over to the Sikkim raja +the _tarai_ tract, which had been wrested from him and annexed by Nepal. +In 1835 the nucleus of the present district of British Sikkim or +Darjeeling was created by a cession of a portion of the hills by the +raja of Sikkim to the British as a sanatorium. A military expedition +against Sikkim, rendered necessary in 1850 by the imprisonment of Dr A. +Campbell, the superintendent of Darjeeling, and Sir Joseph Hooker, +resulted in the stoppage of the allowance granted to the raja for the +cession of the hill station of Darjeeling, and in the annexation of the +Sikkim _tarai_ at the foot of the hills and of a portion of the hills +beyond. In August 1866 the hill territory east of the Tista, acquired as +the result of the Bhutan campaign of 1864, was added to the jurisdiction +of Darjeeling. + + + + +DARLEY, GEORGE (1795-1846), Irish poet, was born in Dublin in 1795. His +parents, who were gentle folks of independent means, emigrated to +America, leaving the boy in charge of his grandfather at Springfield, +Co. Dublin. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, graduating in +1820; but an unfortunate stammer prevented him from going into the +church or to the bar, and he established himself in London, where he +published his first volume of poems, the _Errors of Ecstasie_, in 1822, +and became a regular contributor to _The London Magazine_. He was +intimate with Cary, the translator of Dante, and with Charles Lamb. In +1826 he published under the name of "Grey Penseval" a volume of prose +tales and sketches, _Labour in Idleness_ (1826), one of which, "The +Enchanted Lyre," is plainly autobiographical. _Sylvia, or the May Queen_ +(1827, reprint 1892), a fairy opera, met with no success, but about 1830 +he became dramatic and art critic to the _Athenaeum_. His other works +are: _Nepenthe_ (1835, reprint 1897), his most considerable poem; +introduction to the works of Beaumont and Fletcher (1840); with two +plays, _Thomas a Becket_ (1840), and _Ethelstan_ (1841). He died in +London on the 23rd of November 1846. + + _Selections from the Poems of George Darley_, with an introduction by + R. A. Streatfield, appeared in 1904. See also the edition by Ramsay + Colles in the "Muses' Library" (1906). + + + + +DARLING, GRACE HORSLEY (1815-1842), British heroine, was born at +Bamborough, Northumberland, on the 24th of November 1815. Her father, +William Darling, was the keeper of the Longstone (Farne Islands) +lighthouse. On the morning of the 7th of September 1838, the +"Forfarshire," bound from Hull to Dundee, with sixty-three persons on +board, struck on the Farne Islands, forty-three being drowned. The wreck +was observed from the lighthouse, and Darling and his daughter +determined to try and reach the survivors. They recognized that though +they might be able to get to the wreck, they would be unable to return +without the assistance of the shipwrecked crew, but they took this risk +without hesitation. By a combination of daring, strength and skill, the +father and daughter reached the wreck in their coble and brought back +four men and a woman to the lighthouse. Darling and two of the rescued +men then returned to the wreck and brought off the four remaining +survivors. This gallant exploit made Grace Darling and her father +famous. The Humane Society at once voted them its gold medal, the +treasury made a grant, and a public subscription was organized. Grace +Darling, who had always been delicate, died of consumption on the 20th +of October 1842. + + See _Grace Darling, her true story_ (London, 1880). + + + + +DARLING, a river of Australia. It rises in Queensland and flows into New +South Wales, forming for a considerable distance the boundary of the two +colonies; in its upper reaches it is known as the Barwon, but from +Bourke to its junction on the Victorian border with the river Murray, it +is called the Darling. Its length is 1160 m., and with its affluents it +drains an area of about 200,000 sq. m. During the dry season its course +is marked by a series of shallow pools, but during the winter, when it +is subject to sudden floods, it is navigable as far as Bourke for +steamers of light draft. Excepting a narrow strip on the banks of the +river, the country through which it passes is, for the most part, an +arid plain. + + + + +DARLINGTON, a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough of +Durham, England, 232 m. N. by W. of London, on the North-Eastern +railway. Pop. (1891) 38,060; (1901) 44,511. It lies in a slightly +undulating plain on the small river Skerne, a tributary of the Tees, not +far from the main river. Its appearance is almost wholly modern, but +there is a fine old parish church dedicated to St Cuthbert. It is +cruciform, and in style mainly transitional Norman. It has a central +tower surmounted by a spire of the 14th century, which necessitated the +building of a massive stone screen across the chancel arch to support +the piers. Traces of an earlier church were discovered in the course of +restoration. Educational establishments include an Elizabethan grammar +school, a training college for school-mistresses (British and Foreign +School Society), and a technical school. There is a park of forty-four +acres. The industries of Darlington are large and varied. They include +worsted spinning mills; collieries, ironstone mines, quarries and +brickworks; the manufacture of iron and steel, both in the rough and in +the form of finished articles, as locomotives, bridge castings, ships' +engines, gun castings and shells, &c. The parliamentary borough returns +one member. The town was incorporated in 1867, and the corporation +consists of a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area, 3956 +acres. + +Not long after the bishop and monks of Lindisfarne had settled at Durham +in 995, Styr the son of Ulf gave them the vill of Darlington +(Dearthington, Darnington), which by 1083 had grown into importance, +probably owing to its situation on the road from Watling Street to the +mouth of the Tees. Bishop William of St Carileph in that year changed +the church to a collegiate church, and placed there certain canons whom +he removed from Durham. Bishop Hugh de Puiset rebuilt the church and +built a manor house which was for many years the occasional residence of +the bishops of Durham. Boldon Book, dated 1183, contains the first +mention of Darlington as a borough, rated at L5, while half a mark was +due from the dyers of cloth. The next account of the town is in Bishop +Hatfield's Survey (c. 1380), which states that "Ingelram Gentill and his +partners hold the borough of Derlyngton with the profits of the mills +and dye houses and other profits pertaining to the borough rendering +yearly four score and thirteen pounds and six shillings." Darlington +possesses no early charter, but claimed its privileges as a borough by a +prescriptive right. Until the 19th century it was governed by a bailiff +appointed by the bishop. The mention of dyers in the Boldon Book and +Hatfield's Survey probably indicates the existence of woollen +manufacture. Before the 19th century Darlington was noted for the +manufacture of linen, worsted and flax, but it owes its modern +importance to the opening of the railway between Darlington and Stockton +on the 27th of September 1825. "Locomotive No. 1," the first that ever +ran on a public railway, stands in Bank Top station, a remarkable relic +of the enterprise. As part of the palatinate of Durham, Darlington sent +no members to parliament until 1862, when it was allowed to return one +member. The fairs and markets in Darlington were formerly held by the +bishop and were in existence as early as the 11th century. According to +Leland, Darlington was in his time the best market town in the bishopric +with the exception of Durham. In 1664 the bishop, finding that the +inhabitants of the town had set up a market "in the season of the year +unaccustomed," i.e. from the fortnight before Christmas to Whit Monday, +prohibited them from continuing it. The markets and fairs were finally +in 1854 purchased by the local authority, and now belong to the +corporation. + + + + +DARLINGTONIA (called after William Darlington, an American botanist), a +Californian pitcher-plant, belonging to the order Sarraceniaceae. There +is only one species, _D. californica_, which is found at 5000 ft. +altitude on the Sierra Nevadas of California, growing in sphagnum-bogs +along with sundews and rushes. The pitcher-like leaves form a cluster, +and are 1 to 2 ft. high, slender, erect, and end in a rounded hooded +top, from which hangs a blade shaped like a fish-tail which guards the +entrance to the pitcher. Insects are attracted to the leaves by the +bright colouring, especially of the upper part; entering they pass down +the narrow funnel guided by downward pointing hairs which also prevent +their ascent. They form a putrefying mass in the bottom of the pitcher, +and the products of their decomposition are presumably absorbed by the +leaf for food. + +[Illustration: _Darlingtonia californica._] + + + + +DARLY, MATTHIAS, 18th-century English caricaturist, designer and +engraver. This extremely versatile artist not only issued political +caricatures, but designed ceilings, chimney-pieces, mirror frames, +girandoles, decorative panels and other mobiliary accessories, made many +engravings for Thomas Chippendale, and sold his own productions over the +counter. He was apparently an architect by profession. The first +publication which can be attributed to him with certainty is a coloured +caricature, "The Cricket Players of Europe" (1741). In 1754 he issued _A +new Book of Chinese Designs_, which was intended to minister to the +passing craze for furniture and household decorations in the Chinese +style. It was in this year that he engraved many of the plates for the +_Director_ of Thomas Chippendale. He published from many addresses, most +of them in the Strand or its immediate neighbourhood, and his shop was +for a long period perhaps the most important of its kind in London. In +his book _Nollekens and his Times_, J. T. Smith, writing of Richard +Cosway, says:--"So ridiculously foppish did he become that Matth. Darly, +the famous caricature print seller, introduced an etching of him in his +window in the Strand as the 'Macaroni Miniature Painter.'" Darly was for +many years in partnership with a man named Edwards, and together they +published many political prints, which were originally issued separately +and collected annually into volumes under the title of _Political and +Satirical History_. Darly was a member both of the Incorporated Society +of Artists and the Free Society of Artists, forerunners of the Royal +Academy, and to their exhibitions he contributed many architectural +drawings, together with a profile etching of himself (1775). Upon one of +these etchings, published from 39 Strand, he is described as "Professor +of Ornament to the Academy of Great Britain." Darly's most important +publication was _The Ornamental Architect or Young Artists' Instructor_ +(1770-1771), a title which was changed in the edition of 1773 to _A +Compleat Body of Architecture, embellished with a great Variety of +Ornaments_. He also issued _Sixty Vases by English, French and Italian +Masters_ (1767). In addition to his immense mass of other productions +Darly executed many book plates, illustrated various books and +cabinet-makers' catalogues, and gave lessons in etching. His skill as a +caricaturist brought him into close personal relations with the +politicians of his time, and in 1763 he was instrumental in saving John +Wilkes, whose partisan he was, from death at the hands of James Dunn, +who had determined to kill him. Darly, who described himself as +"Liveryman and block maker," issued his last caricature in October 1780, +and as his shop, No. 39 Strand, was let to a new tenant in the following +year, it is to be presumed that he had by that time died, or become +incapable of further work. As a designer of furniture Darly travelled in +a dozen years or so from the extremes of pseudo-Chinese affectation to +classical severity of the type popularized by the brothers Adam. + + + + +DARMESTETER, JAMES (1849-1894), French author and antiquarian, was born +of Jewish parents on the 28th of March 1849 at Chateau Salins, in +Alsace. The family name had originated in their earlier home of +Darmstadt. He was educated in Paris, where, under the guidance of Michel +Breal and Abel Bergaigne, he imbibed a love for Oriental studies, to +which for a time he entirely devoted himself. He was a man of vast +intellectual range. In 1875 he published a thesis on the mythology of +the _Zend Avesta_, and in 1877 became teacher of Zend at the Ecole des +Hautes Etudes. He followed up his researches with his _Etudes +iraniennes_ (1883), and ten years later published a complete translation +of the _Zend Avesta_, with historical and philological commentary (3 +vols., 1892-1893), in the _Annales du musee Guimet_. He also edited the +Zend Avesta for Max Muller's _Sacred Books of the East_. Darmesteter +regarded the extant texts as far more recent than was commonly believed, +placing the earliest in the 1st century B.C., and the bulk in the 3rd +century A.D. In 1885 he was appointed professor in the College de +France, and was sent to India in 1886 on a mission to collect the +popular songs of the Afghans, a translation of which, with a valuable +essay on the Afghan language and literature, he published on his return. +His impressions of English dominion in India were conveyed in _Lettres +sur l'Inde_ (1888). England interested him deeply; and his attachment to +the gifted English writer, A. Mary F. Robinson, whom he shortly +afterwards married (and who in 1901 became the wife of Professor E. +Duclaux, director of the Pasteur Institute at Paris), led him to +translate her poems into French in 1888. Two years after his death a +collection of excellent essays on English subjects was published in +English. He also wrote _Le Mahdi depuis les origines de l'Islam jusqu'a +nos jours_ (1885); _Les Origines de la poesie persane_ (1888); +_Prophetes d'Israel_ (1892), and other books on topics connected with +the east, and from 1883 onwards drew up the annual reports of the +_Societe Asiatique_. He had just become connected with the _Revue de +Paris_, when his delicate constitution succumbed to a slight attack of +illness on the 19th of October 1894. + +His elder brother, ARSENE DARMESTETER (1846-1888), was a distinguished +philologist and man of letters. He studied under Gaston Paris at the +Ecole des Hautes Etudes, and became professor of Old French language and +literature at the Sorbonne. His _Life of Words_ appeared in English in +1888. He also collaborated with Adolphe Hatzfeld in a _Dictionnaire +general de la langue francaise_ (2 vols., 1895-1900). Among his most +important work was the elucidation of Old French by means of the many +glosses in the medieval writings of Rashi and other French Jews. His +scattered papers on romance and Jewish philology were collected by James +Darmesteter as _Arsene Darmesteter, reliques scientifiques_ (2 vols., +1890). His valuable _Cours de grammaire historique de la langue +francaise_ was edited after his death by E. Muret and L. Sudre +(1891-1895; English edition, 1902). + + There is an _eloge_ of James Darmesteter in the _Journal asiatique_ + (1894, vol. iv. pp. 519-534), and a notice by Henri Cordier, with a + list of his writings, in _The Royal Asiatic Society's Journal_ + (January 1895); see also Gaston Paris, "James Darmesteter," in + _Penseurs et poetes_ (1896, pp. 1-61). + + + + +DARMSTADT, a city of Germany, capital of the grand-duchy of +Hesse-Darmstadt, on a plain gently sloping from the Odenwald to the +Rhine, 21 m. by rail S.E. from Mainz and 17 m. S. from Frankfort-on-Main. +Pop. (1905) 83,000. It is the residence of the grand-duke and the seat of +government of the duchy. Darmstadt consists of an old and a new town, the +streets of the former being narrow and gloomy and presenting no +attractive features. The new town, however, which includes the greater +part of the city, contains broad streets and several fine squares. Among +the latter is the stately Luisenplatz, on which are the house of +parliament, the old palace and the post office, and in the centre of +which is a column surmounted by the statue of the grand-duke Louis I., +the founder of the new town. The square is crossed by the Rhein-strasse, +the most important thoroughfare in the city, leading directly from the +railway station to the ducal palace. This last, a complex of buildings, +dating from various centuries, but possessing few points of special +interest, is surrounded by grounds occupying the site of the old moat. +Opposite to it, on the north side, and adjoining the pretty palace +gardens, are the court theatre and the armoury, and a little farther west +the handsome buildings of the new museum, erected in 1905 and containing +the valuable scientific and art collections of the state, which were +formerly housed in the palace: a library of 600,000 volumes and 4000 +MSS., a museum of Egyptian and German antiquities, a picture gallery with +masterpieces of old German and Dutch schools, a natural history +collection and the state archives. To the right of the entrance to the +palace gardens is the tomb of the "great landgravine," Caroline +Henrietta, wife of the landgrave Louis IX., surmounted by a marble urn, +the gift of Frederick the Great of Prussia, bearing the inscription +_femina sexu, ingenio vir_. To the south of the castle lies the old town, +with the market square, the town hall (lately restored and enlarged) and +the town church. Of the eight churches (seven Evangelical) only the Roman +Catholic is in any way imposing. There are two synagogues. The town +possesses a technical high school, having (since 1900) power to confer +the degree of doctor of engineering, and attended by about 2000 students, +two gymnasia, a school of agriculture, an artisans' school and a +botanical garden. The chemist, Justus von Liebig, was born in Darmstadt +in 1803. Among the chief manufactures are the production of machinery, +carpets, playing cards, chemicals, tobacco, hats, wine and beer. + +The surroundings of Darmstadt are attractive and contain many features +of interest. To the east of the town lies the Mathildenhohe, formerly a +park and now converted into villa residences. Here are the Alice +hospital and the pretty Russian church, built (1898-1899) by the emperor +Nicholas II. of Russia in memory of the empress Maria, wife of Alexander +II. In the vicinity is the Rosenhohe, with the mausoleum of the ducal +house, with the tomb of the grand-duchess Alice, daughter of Queen +Victoria of England. + +Darmstadt is mentioned in the 11th century, but in the 14th century it +was still a village, held by the counts of Katzenelnbogen. It came by +marriage into the possession of the house of Hesse in 1479, the male +line of the house of Katzenelnbogen having in that year become extinct. +The imperial army took it in the Schmalkaldic War, and destroyed the old +castle. In 1567, after the death of Philip the Magnanimous, his youngest +son George received Darmstadt and chose it as his residence. He was the +founder of the line of Hesse-Darmstadt. Its most brilliant days were +those of the reign of Louis X. (1790-1830), the first grand-duke, under +whom the new town was built. + + See Walther, _Darmstadt wie es war und wie es geworden_ (Darms. 1865); + and Zernin und Worner, _Darmstadt und seine Umgebung_ (Zurich, 1890). + + + + +DARNLEY, HENRY STEWART or STUART, LORD (1545-1567), earl of Ross and +duke of Albany, second husband of Mary, queen of Scots, was the eldest +son of Matthew Stewart, earl of Lennox (1516-1571), and through his +mother Lady Margaret Douglas (1515-1578) was a great-grandson of the +English king Henry VII. Born at Temple Newsam in Yorkshire on the 7th of +December 1545, he was educated in England, and his lack of intellectual +ability was compensated for by exceptional skill in military exercises. +After the death of Francis II. of France in 1560 Darnley was sent into +that country by his mother, who hoped that he would become king of +England on Elizabeth's death, and who already entertained the idea of +his marriage with Mary, queen of Scots, the widow of Francis, as a means +to this end. Consequently in 1561 both Lady Margaret and her son, who +were English subjects, were imprisoned by Elizabeth; but they were soon +released, and Darnley spent some time at the English court before +proceeding to Scotland in February 1565. The marriage of Mary and +Darnley was now a question of practical politics, and the queen, having +nursed her new suitor through an attack of measles, soon made up her +mind to wed him, saying he "was the properest and best proportioned long +man that ever she had seen." The attitude of Elizabeth towards this +marriage is difficult to understand. She had permitted Darnley to +journey to Scotland, and it has been asserted that she entangled Mary +into this union; but on the other hand she and her council declared +their dislike of the proposed marriage, and ordered Darnley and his +father to repair to London, a command which was disobeyed. In March 1565 +there were rumours that the marriage had already taken place, but it was +actually celebrated at Holyrood on the 29th of July 1565. + +Although Mary had doubtless a short infatuation for Darnley, the union +was mainly due to political motives, and in view of the characters of +bride and bridegroom it is not surprising that trouble soon arose +between them. Contrary to his expectations Darnley did not receive the +crown matrimonial, and his foolish and haughty behaviour, his vicious +habits, and his boisterous companions did not improve matters. He was on +bad terms with the regent Murray and other powerful nobles, who disliked +the marriage and were intriguing with Elizabeth. Scotland was filled +with rumours of plot and assassination, and civil war was only narrowly +avoided. Unable to take any serious part in affairs of state, Darnley +soon became estranged from his wife. He believed that Mary's relations +with David Rizzio injured him as a husband, and was easily persuaded to +assent to the murder of the Italian, a crime in which he took part. +Immediately afterwards, however, flattered and cajoled by the queen, he +betrayed his associates to her, and assisted her to escape from +Holyrood to Dunbar. Owing to these revelations he was deserted and +distrusted by his companions in the murder, and soon lost the queen's +favour. In these circumstances he decided to leave Scotland, but a +variety of causes prevented his departure; and meanwhile at Craigmillar +a band of nobles undertook to free Mary from her husband, who refused to +be present at the baptism of his son, James, at Stirling in December +1566. The details of the conspiracy at Craigmillar are not clear, nor is +it certain what part, if any, Mary took in these proceedings. The first +intention may have been to obtain a divorce for the queen, but it was +soon decided that Darnley must be killed. Rumours of the plot came to +his ears, and he fled from Stirling to Glasgow, where he fell ill, +possibly by poisoning, and where Mary came to visit him. Another +reconciliation took place between husband and wife, and Darnley was +persuaded to journey with Mary by easy stages to Edinburgh. Apartments +were prepared for the pair at Kirk o' Field, a house just inside the +city walls, and here they remained for a few days. On the evening of the +9th of February 1567 Mary took an affectionate farewell of her husband, +and went to attend some gaieties in Edinburgh. A few hours later, on the +morning of the 10th, Kirk o' Field was blown up with gunpowder. +Darnley's body was found at some distance from the house, and it is +supposed that he was strangled whilst making his escape. The remains +were afterwards buried in the chapel at Holyrood. + +Much discussion has taken place about this crime, and the guilt or +innocence of Mary is still a question of doubt and debate. It seems +highly probable, however, that the queen was accessory to the murder, +which was organized by her lover and third husband, Bothwell (q.v.). As +the father of King James I., Darnley is the direct ancestor of all the +sovereigns of England since 1603. Personally he was a very insignificant +character and his sole title to fame is his connexion with Mary, queen +of Scots. + + For further information, and also for a list of the works bearing on + his life, see the article MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS. + + + + +DARRANG, a district of British India, in the province of Eastern Bengal +and Assam. It lies between the Bhutan and Daphla Hills and the +Brahmaputra, including many islands in the river. The administrative +headquarters are at Tezpur. Its area is 3418 sq. m. It is for the most +part a level plain watered by many tributaries of the Brahmaputra. The +two subdivisions of Tezpur Mangaldai differ greatly in character. Tezpur +is part of Upper Assam and shares in the prosperity which tea +cultivation has brought to that part of the valley. In this portion of +the district there are still large areas of excellent land awaiting +settlement, and the cultivator finds a market for his produce in the +flourishing tea-gardens, to which large quantities of coolies are +imported every year. In Mangaldai, on the other hand, most of the good +rice land was settled about 1880-1890 when the subdivision had a +population of 146 to the square mile, as against 42 for Tezpur; the soil +is not favourable for tea, and the population is stationary or receding. +In 1901 the population of the whole district was 337,313, showing an +increase of 10% in the decade. The principal grain-crop is rice. The +principal means of communication is by river. A steam tramway of 2(1/2) +ft. gauge has been opened from Tezpur to Balipara, a distance of 20 m. + + Darrang originally formed, according to tradition, part of the + dominions of Bana Raja, who was defeated by Krishna in a battle near + Tezpur ("the town of blood"). The massive granite ruins found near by + prove that the place must have been the seat of powerful and civilized + rulers. In the 16th century Darrang was subject to the Koch king of + Kamarupa, Nar Narayan, and on the division of his dominions among his + heirs passed to an independent line of rajas. Early in the 17th + century the raja Bali Narayan invoked the aid of the Ahoms of Upper + Assam against the Mussulman invaders; after his defeat and death in + 1637 the Ahoms dominated the whole district, and the Darrang rajas + sank into petty feudatories. About 1785 they took advantage of the + decay of the Ahom kingdom to try and re-establish their independence, + but they were defeated by a British expedition in 1792, and in 1826 + Darrang, with the rest of Assam, passed under British control. + + + + +DARTFORD, a market town in the Dartford parliamentary division of Kent, +England, on the Darent, 17 m. E.S.E. of London by the South-Eastern & +Chatham railway. Pop. of urban district (1891), 11,962; (1901) 18,644. +The town lies low, flanked by two chalky eminences, called East and West +Hills. It possesses a town hall, a grammar school (1576), and a Martyr's +Memorial Hall. The most noteworthy building, however, is the parish +church, restored in 1863, which contains a curious old fresco and +several interesting brasses, and has a Norman tower. The prosperity of +the town depends on the important works in its vicinity, including +powder works, paper mills, and engineering, iron, chemical and cement +works. One of the first attempts at the manufacture of paper in England +was made here by Sir John Spielman (d. 1607), jeweller to Queen +Elizabeth. Dartford was the scene, in 1235, of the marriage, celebrated +by proxy, between Isabella, sister of Henry III., and the Emperor +Frederick II.; and in 1331 a famous tournament was held in the place by +Edward III. The same monarch established an Augustinian nunnery on West +Hill in 1355, of which, however, few remains exist. After the +Dissolution it was used as a private residence by Henry VIII., Anne of +Cleves and Elizabeth. The chantry of St Edmund the Martyr which stood on +the opposite side of the town was a part of Edward III.'s endowment to +the priory, and became so famous as a place of pilgrimage, especially +for those on their way to Canterbury, that the part of Watling Street +which crossed there towards London was sometimes called "St Edmund's +Way." It was here also that Wat Tyler's insurrection began in 1377, and +the house in which he resided is shown. On Dartford Heath is a lunatic +asylum of the London County Council, and, at Long Reach, the infectious +diseases hospital of the Metropolitan Asylums Board. Stone church, 2 m. +E. of Dartford, mainly late Early English (1251-1274), and carefully +restored by G. E. Street in 1860, is remarkable; the richness of the +work within increases from west to east, culminating in a choir arcade +decorated with work among the finest of its period extant; the period is +that of the choir of Westminster Abbey, and from a comparison of +building materials, choir arcades and sculpture of foliage, a common +architect has been suggested. Greenhithe, on the banks of the Thames, +has large chalk quarries in its neighbourhood, from which lime and +cement are manufactured. + + + + +DARTMOOR, a high plateau in the south-west of Devonshire, England. Its +length is about 23 m. from N. to S. and its extreme breadth 20 m., the +mean altitude being about 1500 ft. The area exceeding 1000 ft. in +elevation is about 200 sq. m. It is the highest and easternmost in a +broken chain of granitic elevations which extends through Cornwall to +the Scilly Isles. The higher parts are open, bleak and wild, strongly +contrasting with the more gentle scenery of the well-wooded lowlands +surrounding it. Sloping heights rise from the main tableland in all +directions, crested with broken masses of granite, locally named _tors_, +and often singularly fantastic in outline. The highest of these are Yes +Tor and High Willhays in the north-west, reaching altitudes of 2028 and +2039 ft. Large parts of the moor, especially in the centre, are covered +with morasses; and head-waters of all the principal streams of +Devonshire (q.v.) are found here. Two main roads cross the moor, one +between Exeter and Plymouth, and the other between Ashburton and +Tavistock, intersecting at Two Bridges. Both avoid the higher part of +the moor, which, for the rest, is traversed only in part by a few rough +tracks. The central part of Dartmoor was a royal forest from a date +unknown, but apparently anterior to the Conquest. Its woods were +formerly more extensive than now, but a few small tracts in which dwarf +oaks are characteristic remain in the lower parts. Previous to 1337, the +forest had been granted to Richard, earl of Cornwall, by Henry III., and +from that time onward it has belonged to the duchy of Cornwall. The +districts immediately surrounding the moor are called the Venville or +Fenfield districts. The origin of this name is not clear. The holders of +land by Venville tenure under the duchy have rights of pasture, fishing, +&c. in the forest, and their main duty is to "drive" the moor at certain +times in order to ascertain what head of cattle are pastured thereon, +and to prevent trespassing. The antiquarian remains of Dartmoor are +considered among those of Devonshire. + +Dartmoor convict prison, near Princetown, was adapted to its present +purpose in 1850; but the original buildings were erected in 1809 for +the accommodation of French prisoners. A tract of moorland adjacent to +the prison has been brought under cultivation by the inmates. + + See S. Rowe, _Perambulation of the ... forest of Dartmoor_ (Plymouth, + 1848); J. L. W. Page, _Exploration of Dartmoor_ (London, 1889); S. + Baring-Gould, _Book of Dartmoor_ (London, 1900). + + + + +DARTMOUTH, a town in Halifax county, Nova Scotia, Canada, on the +north-eastern side of Halifax harbour, connected by a steam ferry with +Halifax, of which it is practically a suburb. Pop. (1901) 4806. It +contains a large sugar refinery, foundries, machine shops, saw mills, +skate, rope, nail, soap and sash factories. + + + + +DARTMOUTH, a seaport, market town, and municipal borough in the Torquay +parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, 27 m. E. of Plymouth. +Pop. (1901) 6579. It is beautifully situated on the west bank and near +the mouth of the river Dart, which here forms an almost land-locked +estuary. The town is connected by a steam ferry with Kingswear on the +opposite bank, which is served by a branch of the Great Western railway. +The houses of Dartmouth, many of which are ancient, rise in tiers from +the shore, beneath a range of steep hills. An embankment planted with +trees fronts the river. The cruciform church of St Saviour is of the +14th and 15th centuries, and contains a graceful rood-screen of the 16th +century, an ancient stone pulpit and interesting monuments. Dartmouth +Castle, in part of Tudor date, commands the river a little below the +town. Portions of the cottage of Thomas Newcomen, one of the inventors +of the steam-engine, are preserved. Dartmouth is a favourite yachting +centre, and shipbuilding, brewing, engineering and paint-making are +carried on. Coal is imported, and resold to ships calling at the +harbour. The borough is under a mayor, four aldermen and twelve +councillors. Area, 1924 acres. + +_History._--Probably owing its origin to Saxon invaders, Dartmouth +(_Darentamuthan_, _Dertemue_) was a seaport of importance when Earl +Beorn was buried in its church in 1049. From its sheltered harbour +William II. embarked for the relief of Mans, and the crusading squadron +set sail in 1190, while John landed here in 1214. The borough, first +claimed as such in the reign of Henry I., was in existence by the middle +of the 13th century, since a deed of Gilbert Fitz-Stephen, lord of the +manor, mentions the services due from "his burgesses of Dertemue," and a +borough seal of 1280 is extant. The king in 1224 required the bailiffs +and good men of Dartmouth to keep all ships in readiness for his +service, and in 1302 they were to furnish two ships for the Scottish +expedition, an obligation maintained throughout the century. The men of +the vill were made quit of toll in 1337, and in 1342 the town was +incorporated by a charter frequently confirmed by later sovereigns. +Edward III. in 1372 granted that the burgesses should be sued only +before the mayor and bailiffs, and Richard II. in 1393 granted extended +jurisdiction and a coroner; further charters were obtained in 1604 and +1684. A French attack on the town was repulsed in 1404, and in 1485 the +burgesses received a royal grant of L40 for walling the town and +stretching a chain across the river mouth. Dartmouth fitted out two +ships against the Armada, and was captured by both the royalists and +parliamentarians in the Civil War. It returned two representatives to +parliament in 1298, and from 1350 to 1832. In the latter year the +representation was reduced to one, and was merged in that of the county +in 1868. Manorial markets were granted for Dartmouth in 1231 and 1301. +These were important since as early as 1225 the fleet resorted there for +provisions. During the 14th and 15th centuries there was a regular trade +with Bordeaux and Brittany, and complaints of piracies by Dartmouth men +were frequent. + + + + +DARTMOUTH COLLEGE, an American institution of higher education, in +Hanover, New Hampshire. It is Congregational in its affiliations, but is +actually non-sectarian. The college is open only to men except during +the summer session, when women also are admitted. Dartmouth embraces, in +addition to the original college, incorporated in 1769, a medical +school, dating from the establishment of a professorship of medicine in +the college in 1798; the Thayer school of civil engineering, established +in 1867 by the bequest of Gen. Sylvanus Thayer; and the Amos Tuck +school of administration and finance, established in 1900 by Edward +Tuck--a remarkable feature, as it was the first, and, until the +establishment at Harvard of a similar graduate school, the only +commercial school in the country whose work is largely post-graduate. +The Chandler school of science and the arts was founded by Abiel +Chandler in 1851, in connexion with Dartmouth, and was incorporated into +the collegiate department in 1893 as the Chandler scientific course in +the college. From 1866 to 1893 the New Hampshire college of agriculture +and the mechanic arts, now at Durham, was connected with Dartmouth. The +medical school offers a four years' course, and each of the other two +professional schools a two years' course, the first year of which may, +under certain conditions, be counted as the senior year of the +undergraduate department. The college has a beautiful campus or "yard"; +a library of more than 100,000 volumes, housed in Wilson Hall (1885); +instruction halls, residence halls--Thornton and Wentworth (1828), +Hallgarten (1874), Richardson (1897), and Fayerweather (1900); a +gymnasium (Bissell Hall, built in 1867); an athletic field, known as +Alumni Oval; Bartlett Hall (1890-1891), the house of the College Young +Men's Christian Association; Rollins Chapel (1885); College Hall (1901), +a social headquarters; an astronomical and meteorological observatory +(Shattuck Observatory, 1854); the Mary Hitchcock hospital (1893), +associated with the medical college; museums (especially the Butterfield +Museum); Culver Hall (1871), the chemical laboratory; and Wilder Hall +(1899), the physical laboratory. The college in 1908 had 100 officers of +administration and instruction and 1219 students. It is maintained +chiefly by the proceeds of a productive endowment fund amounting to +$2,700,000 and by tuition fees ($125 a year for each student). The +government is entrusted to a board of twelve trustees, five of whom are +elected upon the nomination of the alumni. + +Dartmouth is the outgrowth of Moor's Indian charity school, founded by +Eleazer Wheelock (1711-1779) about 1750 at Lebanon, Connecticut; this +school was named in 1755 in honour of Joshua Moor, who in this year gave +to it lands and buildings. In 1765 Samson Occom (c. 1723-1792), an +Indian preacher and former student of the school, visited England and +Scotland in its behalf and raised L10,000, whereupon plans were made for +enlargement and for a change of site to Hanover. In 1769 the school was +incorporated by a charter granted by George III. as Dartmouth College, +being named after the earl of Dartmouth, president of the trustees of +the funds raised in Great Britain. The first college building, Dartmouth +Hall (closely resembling Nassau Hall at Princetown and the University +Hall of Brown University), was built in 1784-1791 and is still standing, +as are the typical college church, built in 1796 and enlarged in 1877 +and 1889, and Moor Hall, the second building for Moor's charity school, +since 1852 called the Chandler building. During the War of Independence +the support from Great Britain was mostly withdrawn. In 1815 President +John Wheelock (1754-1817), who had succeeded his father in 1779, and was +a Presbyterian and a Republican, was removed by the majority of the +board of trustees, who were Congregationalists and Federalists, and +Francis Brown was chosen in his place. Wheelock, upon his appeal to the +legislature, was reinstated at the head of a new corporation, called +Dartmouth University. The state courts upheld the legislature and the +"University," but in 1819 after the famous argument of Daniel Webster +(q.v.) in behalf of the "College" board of trustees as against the +"University" board before the United States Supreme Court, that body +decided that the private trust created by the charter of 1769 was +inviolable, and Dr Francis Brown and the old "College" board took +possession of the institution's property. This was one of the most +important decisions ever made by the United States Supreme Court. + + See Frederick Chase, _A History of Dartmouth College and the Town of + Hanover_ (Cambridge, 1891). For the Dartmouth College Case see + Shirley, _The Dartmouth College Causes_ (St Louis, Missouri, 1879); + Kent, _Commentaries on American Law_ (vol. i. Boston, 1884); and + Joseph Story, _Commentaries on the Constitution_ (vol. ii., Boston, + 1891). + + + + +DARTMOUTH, EARL OF, an English title borne by the family of Legge from +1710 to the present day. + +WILLIAM LEGGE (c. 1609-1670), the eldest son of Edward Legge (d. 1616), +vice-president of Munster, gained some military experience on the +continent of Europe and then returning to England assisted Charles I. in +his war against the Scots in 1638. He was also very useful to the king +during the months which preceded the outbreak of the Civil War, although +his attempt to seize Hull in January 1642 failed. During the war Legge +distinguished himself at Chalgrove and at the first battle of Newbury, +and in 1645 he became governor of Oxford. However, he only held this +position for a few months, as he shared the disgrace of Prince Rupert, +to whom he was very devoted; but he was largely instrumental in putting +an end to the quarrel between the king and the prince. Legge helped +Charles to escape from Hampton Court in 1647, and after attending upon +him he was arrested in May 1648. He was soon released, but was again +captured in the following year while proceeding to Ireland in the +interests of Charles II. Regaining his freedom in 1653, he spent some +years abroad, but in 1659 he was once more in England inciting the +royalists to rise. Legge enjoyed the favour of Charles II., who offered +to make him an earl. The old royalist died on the 13th of October 1670. + +Legge's eldest son, GEORGE, BARON DARTMOUTH (1647-1691), served as a +volunteer in the navy during the Dutch war of 1665-1667, and quickly won +his way to high rank. He was also a member of the household of the duke +of York, afterwards James II.; was governor of Portsmouth and +master-general of the army; in 1678 he commanded as colonel the troop at +Nieuport, and in 1682 he was created Baron Dartmouth. In 1683 as +"admiral of a fleet" he sailed to Tangiers, dismantled the +fortifications and brought back the English troops, a duty which he +discharged very satisfactorily. Under James II. Dartmouth was master of +the horse and governor of the Tower of London; and in 1688, when William +of Orange was expected, James II. made him commander-in-chief of his +fleet. Although himself loyal to James, the same cannot be said of many +of his officers, and an engagement with the Dutch fleet was purposely +avoided. Dartmouth, however, refused to assist in getting James Edward, +prince of Wales, out of the country, and even reproved the king for +attempting this proceeding. He then left the fleet and took the oath of +allegiance to William and Mary, but in July 1691 he was arrested for +treason, and was charged with offering to hand over Portsmouth to France +and to command a French fleet. Macaulay believed that this accusation +was true, but there are those who hold that Dartmouth spoke the truth +when he protested his innocence. Further proceedings against him were +prevented by his death, which took place in the Tower of London on the +25th of October 1691. + +Lord Dartmouth's only son, WILLIAM, 1st EARL OF DARTMOUTH (1672-1750), +succeeded to his father's barony in 1691. In 1702 he was appointed a +member of the board of trade and foreign plantations, and eight years +later he became secretary of state for the southern department and joint +keeper of the signet for Scotland. In 1711 he was created viscount +Lewisham and earl of Dartmouth; in 1713 he exchanged his offices for +that of keeper of the privy seal, which he held until the end of 1714. +After a long period of retirement from public life he died on the 15th +of December 1750. Dartmouth's eldest son George, viscount Lewisham (c. +1703-1732), predeceased his father. Other sons were: Heneage Legge +(1704-1759), judge of the court of exchequer; Henry Legge (q.v.), +afterwards Bilson-Legge; and Edward Legge (1710-1747), who served for +some time in the navy and died on the 19th of September 1747. + +WILLIAM, 2nd EARL OF DARTMOUTH (1731-1801), was a son of George, +viscount Lewisham, and a grandson of the 1st earl, whom he succeeded in +1750. For a few months in 1765 and 1766 he was president of the board of +trade and foreign plantations; in 1772 he returned to the same office +holding also that of secretary for the colonies; and in 1775 he became +lord privy seal. With regard to the American colonies Dartmouth advised +them in 1777 to accept the conciliatory proposals put forward by Lord +North, but in 1776 he opposed similar proposals and advocated the +employment of force. In March 1782 he resigned his office as lord privy +seal and in 1783 he was lord steward of the household; he died on the +15th of July 1801. Dartmouth was a friend of Selina, countess of +Huntingdon, and his piety and his intimacy with the early Methodists won +for him the epithet of the _Psalm-singer_. Dartmouth College was named +after him, and among his papers preserved at Patshull House, +Wolverhampton, are many letters from America relating to the struggle +for independence. His sixth son, Sir Arthur Kaye Legge (d. 1835), was an +admiral of the blue, and his seventh son, Edward Legge (d. 1827), was +bishop of Oxford. + +GEORGE, 3rd EARL OF DARTMOUTH (1755-1810), the eldest son of the 2nd +earl, was lord warden of the stannaries and president of the board of +control; later he was lord steward and then lord chamberlain of the +royal household. He died on the 1st of November 1810, when his eldest +son, William (1784-1853), became 4th earl. William's son, William Walter +(1823-1891), became 5th earl in 1853 and was succeeded in 1891 by his +son William Heneage Legge (b. 1851) as 6th earl of Dartmouth. As Lord +Lewisham this nobleman was a member of parliament from 1878 to 1891, and +was vice-chamberlain of the household in 1885-1886, and again from 1886 +to 1892. + + + + +DARU, PIERRE ANTOINE NOEL BRUNO, COUNT (1767-1829), French soldier and +statesman, was born at Montpellier on the 12th of January 1767. He was +educated at the military school of Tournon, conducted by the Oratorians, +and entered the artillery at an early age. His fondness for literature, +however, soon made itself felt, and he published several slight pieces, +until the outbreak of the French Revolution called him to a sterner +occupation. In 1793 he became commissary to the army, protecting the +coasts of Brittany from projected descents of the British, or of French +royalists. Thrown into prison on a frivolous charge of friendliness to +the royalists and England, he was released after the fall of Robespierre +in the summer of 1794, and rose in the service until, in 1799, he became +chief commissary to the French army serving under Massena in the north +of Switzerland. In that position he won repute for his organizing +capacity, great power of work and unswerving probity--the last of which +qualities was none too common in the French armies at that time. These +exacting tasks did not absorb all his energies. He found time, even +during the campaign, to translate part of Horace and to compose two +poems, the _Poeme des Alpes_ and the _Chant de guerre_. The latter +celebrated in indignant strains the murder of the French envoys to the +congress of Rastadt. + +The accession of Napoleon Bonaparte to power in November 1799 led to the +employment of Daru as chief commissary to the Army of Reserve intended +for North Italy, and commanded nominally by Berthier, but really by the +First Consul. Conjointly with Berthier and Dejean, he signed the +armistice with the Austrians which closed the campaign in North Italy in +June 1800. Daru now returned, for a time, mainly to civil life, and +entered the tribunate, where he ably maintained the principles of +democratic liberty. On the renewal of war with England, in May 1803, he +again resumed his duties as chief commissary for the army on the +northern coasts. It was afterwards asserted that, on Napoleon's resolve +to turn the army of England against Austria, Daru had set down at the +emperor's dictation all the details of the campaign which culminated at +Ulm. The story is apocryphal; but Napoleon's confidence in him was +evinced by his being appointed to similar duties in the Grand Army, +which in the autumn of 1805 overthrew the armies of Austria and Russia. +After the battle of Austerlitz, he took part in the drafting of the +treaty of Presburg. At this time, too, he became intendant-general of +the military household of Napoleon. In the campaigns of 1806-1807 he +served, in his usual capacity, in the army which overthrew the forces of +Russia and Prussia; and he had a share in drawing up the treaty of +Tilsit (7th of July 1807). After this he supervised the administrative +and financial duties in connexion with the French army which occupied +the principal fortresses of Prussia, and was one of the chief agents +through whom Napoleon pressed hard on that land. At the congress of +Erfurt, Daru had the privilege of being present at the interview +between Goethe and Napoleon, and interposed tactful references to the +works of the great poet. Daru fulfilled his usual duties in the campaign +of 1809 against Austria. Afterwards, when the subject of the divorce of +Josephine and the choice of a Russian or of an Austrian princess came to +be discussed, Daru, on being consulted by Napoleon, is said boldly to +have counselled his marriage with a French lady; and Napoleon, who +admired his frankness and honesty, took the reply in good part. + +In 1811 he became secretary of state in succession to Maret, duc de +Bassano, and showed his usual ability in the administration of the vast +and complex affairs of the French empire, including the arrangements +connected with the civil list and the imperial domains. But neither his +devotion to civic duty nor to the administration of the affairs of the +Grand Army could ward off disaster. Late in the year 1813 he took up the +portfolio of military affairs. After the first abdication of Napoleon in +1814, Daru retired into private life, but aided Napoleon during the +Hundred Days. After the second Restoration he became a member of the +Chamber of Peers, in which he ably defended the cause of popular liberty +against the attacks of the ultra-royalists. He died at Meulan on the 5th +of September 1829. + +Few men of the Napoleonic empire have been more generally admired and +respected than Daru. On one occasion when he expressed a fear that he +lacked all the gifts of a courtier, Napoleon replied, "Courtiers! They +are common enough about me; I shall never be in want of them. What I +want is an enlightened, firm and vigilant administrator; and that is why +I have chosen you." At another time Napoleon said, "Daru is good on all +sides; he has good judgment, a good intellect, a great power for work, +and a body and mind of iron." The only occasion on which he is known to +have sunk beneath the weight of his duties was in the course of writing +letters at the emperor's dictation for the third night in succession. + +Of Daru's literary works may be mentioned his _Histoire de Venise_, +published at Paris in 7 vols. in 1819; the _Histoire de Bretagne_, in 3 +vols. (Paris, 1826); a poetical translation of Horace (of which Le Brun +remarked: "Je ne lis point Daru, j'aime trop mon Horace"); _Discours en +vers sur les facultes de l'homme_ (Paris, 1825), and _Astronomie_, a +didactic poem in six cantos (Paris, 1820). + + See the "Notice" by Viennet prefixed to the fourth edition of Daru's + _Histoire de la republique de Venise_ (9 vols., 1853), and three + articles by Sainte-Beuve in _Causeries du lundi_, vol. ix. For the + many letters of Napoleon to Daru see the _Correspondance de Napoleon + I^er_ (32 vols., Paris, 1858-1870). (J. Hl. R.) + + + + +DARWEN, a municipal borough in the Darwen parliamentary division of +Lancashire, England, 20 m. N.W. from Manchester by the Lancashire & +Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1891) 34,192; (1901) 38,212. It lies on the +river Darwen, which traverses a densely populated manufacturing +district, and is surrounded by high-lying moors. Darwen is a centre of +the cotton trade and has also blast furnaces, and paper-making, +paper-staining and fire-clay works. In the neighbourhood are collieries +and stone quarries. The market hall is the chief public building; there +are technical schools, a free library, and two public parks. Darwen was +incorporated in 1788. The corporation consists of a mayor, six aldermen +and eighteen councillors. + + + + +DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1809-1882), English naturalist, author of the +_Origin of Species_, was born at Shrewsbury on the 12th of February +1809. He was the younger of the two sons and the fourth child of Dr +Robert Waring Darwin, son of Dr Erasmus Darwin (q.v.). His mother, a +daughter of Josiah Wedgwood (1730-1795), died when Charles Darwin was +eight years old. Charles Darwin's elder brother, Erasmus Alvey +(1804-1881), was interested in literature and art rather than science: +on the subject of the wide difference between the brothers Charles wrote +that he was "inclined to agree with Francis Galton in believing that +education and environment produce only a small effect on the mind of +anyone, and that most of our qualities are innate" (_Life and Letters_, +London, 1887, p. 22). Darwin considered that his own success was chiefly +due to "the love of science, unbounded patience in long reflecting over +any subject, industry in observing and collecting facts, and a fair +share of invention as well as of common sense" (_l.c._ p. 107). He also +says: "I have steadily endeavoured to keep my mind free so as to give up +any hypothesis, however much beloved (and I cannot resist forming one on +every subject), as soon as facts are shown to be opposed to it" (_l.c._ +p. 103). The essential causes of his success are to be found in this +latter sentence, the creative genius ever inspired by existing knowledge +to build hypotheses by whose aid further knowledge could be won, the +calm unbiassed mind, the transparent honesty and love of truth which +enabled him to abandon or to modify his own creations when they ceased +to be supported by observation. The even balance between these powers +was as important as their remarkable development. The great naturalist +appeared in the ripeness of time, when the world was ready for his +splendid generalizations. Indeed naturalists were already everywhere +considering and discussing the problem of evolution, although Alfred +Russel Wallace was the only one who, independently of Darwin, saw his +way clearly to the solution. It is true that hypotheses essentially the +same as natural selection were suggested much earlier by W. C. Wells +(_Phil. Trans._, 1813), and Patrick Matthew (_Naval Timber and +Arboriculture_, 1831), but their views were lost sight of and produced +no effect upon the great body of naturalists. In the preparation for +Darwin Sir Charles Lyell's _Principles of Geology_ played an important +part, accustoming men's minds to the vast changes brought about by +natural processes, and leading them, by its lucid and temperate +discussion of Lamarck's and other views, to reflect upon evolution. + +Darwin's early education was conducted at Shrewsbury, first for a year +at a day-school, then for seven years at Shrewsbury School under Dr +Samuel Butler (1774-1839). He gained but little from the narrow system +which was then universal. In 1825 he went to Edinburgh to prepare for +the medical profession, for which he was unfitted by nature. After two +sessions his father realized this, and in 1828 sent him to Cambridge +with the idea that he should become a clergyman. He matriculated at +Christ's College, and took his degree in 1831, tenth in the list of +those who do not seek honours. Up to this time he had been keenly +interested in sport, and in entomology, especially the collecting of +beetles. Both at Edinburgh, where in 1826 he read his first scientific +paper, and at Cambridge he gained the friendship of much older +scientific men--Robert Edmond Grant and William Macgillivray at the +former, John Stevens Henslow and Adam Sedgwick at the latter. He had two +terms' residence to keep after passing his last examination, and studied +geology with Sedgwick. Returning from their geological excursion +together in North Wales (August 1831), he found a letter from Henslow +urging him to apply for the position of naturalist on the "Beagle," +about to start on a surveying expedition. His father at first disliked +the idea, but his uncle, the second Josiah Wedgwood, pleaded with +success, and Darwin started on the 27th of December 1831, the voyage +lasting until the 2nd of October 1836. It is practically certain that he +never left Great Britain after this latter date. After visiting the Cape +de Verde and other islands of the Atlantic, the expedition surveyed on +the South American coasts and adjacent islands (including the +Galapagos), afterwards visiting Tahiti, New Zealand, Australia, +Tasmania, Keeling Island, Maldives, Mauritius, St Helena, Ascension; and +Brazil, de Verdes and Azores on the way home. His work on the geology of +the countries visited, and that on coral islands, became the subject of +volumes which he published after his return, as well as his _Journal of +a Naturalist_, and his other contributions to the official narrative. +The voyage must be regarded as the real preparation for his life-work. +His observations on the relation between animals in islands and those of +the nearest continental areas, near akin and yet not the same, and +between living animals and those most recently extinct and found fossil +in the same country, here again related but not the same, led him even +then to reflect deeply upon the modification of species. He had also +been much impressed by "the manner in which closely allied animals +replace one another in proceeding southwards" in South America. On his +return home Darwin worked at his collections, first at Cambridge for +three months and then in London. His pocket-book for 1837 contains the +words: "In July opened first note-book on Transmutation of Species. Had +been greatly struck from about the month of previous March [while still +on the voyage and just over twenty-eight years old] on character of +South American fossils, and species on Galapagos Archipelago. These +facts (especially latter) origin of all my views." From 1838 to 1841 he +was secretary of the Geological Society, and saw a great deal of Sir +Charles Lyell, to whom he dedicated the second edition of his _Journal_. +On the 29th of January 1839 he married his cousin, Emma Wedgwood, the +daughter of Josiah Wedgwood of Maer. They lived in London until +September 1842, when they moved to Down, which was Darwin's home for the +rest of his life. His health broke down many times in London, and +remained precarious during the whole of his life. The immense amount of +work which he got through was only made possible by the loving care of +his wife. For eight years (1846 to 1854) he was chiefly engaged upon +four monographs on the recent and fossil Cirripede Crustacea (_Roy. +Soc._, 1851 and 1854; _Palaeontograph. Soc._, 1851 and 1854). Towards +the close of this work Darwin became very wearied of it, especially of +the synonymy. For a time he hoped to start a movement which should +discourage the habit of appending the name of the describer to the name +of the species, a custom which he thought led to bad and superficial +work. From this time he was engaged upon the numerous lines of inquiry +which led to the great work of his life, the _Origin of Species_, +published in November 1859. + +Soon after opening his note-book in July 1837 he began to collect facts +bearing upon the formation of the breeds of domestic animals and plants, +and quickly saw "that selection was the keystone of man's success. But +how selection could be applied to organisms living in a state of nature +remained for some time a mystery to me." Various ideas as to the causes +of evolution occurred to him, only to be successively abandoned. He had +the idea of "laws of change" which affected species and finally led to +their extinction, to some extent analogous to the causes which bring +about the development, maturity and finally death of an individual. He +also had the conception that species must give rise to other species or +else die out, just as an individual dies unrepresented if it bears no +offspring. These and other ideas, of which traces exist in his Diary, +arose in his mind, together with perhaps some general conception of +natural selection, during the fifteen months after the opening of his +note-book. In October 1838 he read _Malthus on Population_, and his +observations having long since convinced him of the struggle for +existence, it at once struck him "that under these circumstances +favourable variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones +to be destroyed. The result of this would be the formation of new +species. Here, then, I had a theory by which to work." In June 1842 he +wrote out a sketch, which two years later he expanded to an essay +occupying 231 pages folio. The idea of progressive divergence as an +advantage in itself, because the competition is most severe between +organisms most closely related, did not occur to him until long after he +had come to Down. During the growth of the _Origin_ Sir Joseph Hooker +was his most intimate friend, and on the 11th of January 1844 he wrote: +"At last gleams of light have come, and I am almost convinced (quite +contrary to the opinion I started with) that species are not (it is like +confessing a murder) immutable" (_l.c._ ii. 13). In 1855 he began a +correspondence with the great American botanist Asa Gray, and in 1857 +explained his views in a letter which afterwards became classical. In +1856, urged by Lyell, he began the preparation of a third and far more +expanded treatise, and had completed about half of it when, on the 18th +of June 1858, he received a manuscript essay from A. R. Wallace, who was +then at Ternate in the Moluccas. Wallace wanted Darwin's opinion on the +essay, which he asked should be forwarded to Lyell. Darwin was much +startled to find in the essay a complete abstract of his own theory of +natural selection. He forwarded it the same day, writing to Lyell, "your +words have come true with a vengeance--that I should be forestalled." He +placed himself in the hands of Lyell and Hooker, who decided to send +Wallace's essay to the Linnean Society, together with an abstract of +Darwin's work, which they asked him to prepare, the joint essay being +accompanied by a preface in the form of an explanatory letter written by +them to the secretary. The title of the joint communication was "On the +Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of +Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection." It was read on the +1st of July 1858, and appears in the _Linn. Soc. Journal_ (Zoology) for +that year. In this statement of the theory of natural selection, +Darwin's part consisted of two sections, the first being extracts from +his 1844 essay, including a brief account of sexual selection, and the +second an abstract of his letter to Asa Gray dated the 5th of September +1857. This latter, probably his first attempt to expound natural +selection, cannot be surpassed as a clear statement of the theory. +Darwin explained at the outset, what he insisted on elsewhere, that the +facts of adaptation or contrivance in nature are the real difficulty to +be explained by a theory of evolution, the stumbling-block of every +previous suggestion. Until he could explain "the mistletoe, with its +pollen carried by insects, and seed by birds--the woodpecker, with its +feet and tail, beak and tongue, to climb the tree and secure insects," +he was "scientifically orthodox." Nevertheless he was led to believe in +evolution, apart from any possible motive-cause, by "general facts in +the affinities, embryology, rudimentary organs, geological history, and +geographical distribution of organic beings." He then proceeds to +describe the manner in which he met the difficulty of adaptation by "his +notions on the means by which Nature makes her species." The essentials +of the statement are as follows:--I. Man has made his domestic breeds of +animals and plants by selection, conscious or unconscious, of very +slight or greater variations. II. The material for selection exists in +nature, namely, slight variations of all parts of the organism. III. The +"unerring power" which sifts these variations is "_natural selection_ +... which selects exclusively for the good of each organic being." The +rate of increase is such that only a few in each generation can live: +hence the never sufficiently appreciated struggle for life. "What a +trifling difference must often determine which shall survive and which +perish!" The remaining heads explain the complex nature of the struggle, +the reasons for deficient direct evidence, the advantage of divergence, +&c. In the joint essay the phrases "natural selection" and "sexual +selection" were first made public by Darwin, the "struggle for +existence" by Wallace. Darwin and Wallace had met only once before the +departure of the latter for the East. Their rivalry in the discovery of +the great principle of natural selection was the beginning of a lifelong +friendship. Wallace was lying ill with intermittent fever at Ternate in +February 1858 when he began to think of Malthus's _Essay on Population_, +read several years before: suddenly the idea of the survival of the +fittest flashed upon him. In two hours he had "thought out almost the +whole of the theory," and in three evenings had finished his essay. +Darwin, also inspired after reading Malthus, in October 1838, did not +publish until nearly twenty years had elapsed, and then only when +Wallace sent him his essay. Canon H. B. Tristram was the first to apply +the new theory, explaining by its aid the colours of desert birds, &c. +(_Ibis_, October 1859). + +Acting under the advice of Lyell and Hooker, Darwin then began to prepare +what was to become the great work of his life. It appeared on the 24th of +November 1859, with the full title, _On the Origin of Species by Means of +Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle +for Life_. The whole edition of 1250 copies was exhausted on the day of +issue. The first four chapters explain the operation of artificial +selection by man and of natural selection in consequence of the struggle +for existence. The fifth chapter deals with the laws of variation and +causes of modification other than natural selection. The five succeeding +chapters consider difficulties in the way of a belief in evolution +generally as well as in natural selection. The three remaining chapters +(omitting the recapitulation which occupies the last) deal with the +evidence for evolution. The theory which suggested a cause of evolution +is thus given the foremost place, and the evidence for the existence of +evolution considered last of all. This method of presentation was no +doubt adopted because it was just the want of a reasonable motive-cause +which more than anything else prevented the acceptance of evolution. But +the other side of the book must not be eclipsed by the brilliant theory +of Darwin and Wallace. The evidence for evolution itself had never before +been thought out and marshalled in a manner which bears any comparison +with that of Darwin in the _Origin_, and the work would have been in the +highest degree epoch-making had it consisted of the later chapters alone. +In the fifth chapter Darwin incorporated a certain proportion of the +doctrines of Buffon,--modifications due to the direct influence of +environment; and of Lamarck,--the hereditary effects of use and disuse. +Lyell for a long time hesitated to accept the new teaching, and Darwin +carried on a long correspondence with him. His public confession of faith +was made at the anniversary dinner of the Royal Society in 1864. A storm +of controversy arose over the book, reaching its height at the meeting of +the British Association at Oxford in 1860, when the celebrated duel +between T. H. Huxley and Bishop Wilberforce of Oxford took place. +Throughout these struggles Huxley was the foremost champion for evolution +and for fair play to natural selection, although he never entirely +accepted the latter theory, holding that until man by his selection had +made his domestic breed sterile _inter se_, there was no sufficient +evidence that selection accounts for natural species which are thus +separated by the barrier of sterility. The theory of natural selection +was at first greatly misunderstood. Thus some writers thought it implied +conscious choice in the animals themselves, others that it was the +personification of some active power. By many it was thought to be +practically the same idea as Lamarck's. Herbert Spencer's alternative +phrase, "the survival of the fittest," probably helped to spread a clear +appreciation of Darwin's meaning. + +The history of opinion since 1859 may be summed up as follows. Evolution +soon gained general acceptance, except among a certain number of those +of middle or more advanced age at the time when the _Origin_ appeared. +Although natural selection had been an essential force in producing this +conviction, there gradually grew up a tendency to minimize its +importance in relation to the causes originally suggested by Buffon and +Lamarck, which were ably presented and further elaborated by Herbert +Spencer. In America a school of Neo-Lamarckians appeared, and for a time +flourished under the inspiration of the vigorous personality of E. D. +Cope. The writings of August Weismann next raised a controversy over the +scope of heredity, assailing the very foundation of the hypotheses of +Buffon, Lamarck and Herbert Spencer by demanding evidence that the +"acquired characters" upon which they rest are capable of hereditary +transmission. The quantitative determination of heredity has been the +subject of much patient investigation under the leadership of Francis +Galton. The question of isolation as a factor in species-formation has +been greatly discussed, G. J. Romanes proposing, in his hypothesis of +"Physiological Selection," that the barrier of sterility may arise +spontaneously by variation between two sets of individuals as the +beginning instead of the climax of specific distinction. Others have +fixed their attention upon the variations, which provided the material +for natural selection, and have advocated the view that evolution +proceeds by immense strides instead of the minute steps in which Darwin +and Wallace believed. Others, again, have found significance in the +artificial production of "monstrosities" or huge modifications during +individual development. All through the period a varying proportion of +naturalists, probably larger now than at any other time, has followed +the founders of the theory, and has sought the motive-cause of evolution +in "the accumulative power of natural selection," which Darwin, as his +first public statement indicates, looked upon "as by far the most +important element in the production of new forms." They hold, with +Darwin and Wallace, that although variation provides the essential +material, natural selection, from its accumulative power, is of such +paramount importance that it may be said to create new species as truly +as a man may be said to make a building out of the material provided by +stones of various shapes, a metaphor suggested and elaborated by Darwin, +and forming the concluding sentences of _The Variation of Animals and +Plants under Domestication_. This, probably the second in importance of +all his works, was published in 1868, and may be looked upon as a +complete account of the material of which he had given a very condensed +abstract in the first chapter of the _Origin_, together with the +conclusions suggested by it. He finally brought together an immense +number of apparently disconnected sets of observations under his +"provisional hypothesis of pangenesis," which assumes that every cell in +the body, at every stage of growth and in maturity, is represented in +each germ-cell by a gemmule. The germ-cell is only the meeting-place of +gemmules, and the true reproductive power lies in the whole of the +body-cells which despatch their representatives, hence "pangenesis." +There are reasons for believing that this infinitely complex conception, +in which, as his letters show, he had great confidence, was forced upon +Darwin in order to explain the hereditary transmission of acquired +characters involved in the small proportion of Lamarckian doctrine which +he incorporated. If such transmission does not occur, a far simpler +hypothesis based on the lines of Weismann's "continuity of the +germ-plasm" is sufficient to account for the facts. + +The _Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex_, was published in +1871; as the title implies, it really consists of two distinct works. +The first, and by far the shorter, was the full justification of his +statement in the Origin that "light would be thrown on the origin of man +and his history." In the second part he brought together a large mass of +evidence in support of his hypothesis of sexual selection which he had +briefly described in the 1858 essay. This hypothesis explains the +development of colours and structures peculiar to one sex and displayed +by it in courtship, by the preferences of the other sex. The majority of +naturalists probably agree with Darwin in believing that the explanation +is real, but relatively unimportant. It is interesting to note that only +in this subject and those treated of in the _Variation under +Domestication_ had Darwin exhausted the whole of the material which he +had collected. The _Expression of the Emotions_, published in 1872, +offered a natural explanation of phenomena which appeared to be a +difficulty in the way of the acceptance of evolution. In 1876 Darwin +brought out his two previously published geological works on _Volcanic +Islands_ and _South America_ as a single volume. The widely read +_Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms_ appeared in +1881. He also published various volumes on botanical subjects. The +_Fertilization of Orchids_ appeared in 1862. The subject of +cross-fertilization of flowers was in Darwin's mind, as shown by his +note-book in 1837. In 1841 Robert Brown directed his attention to +Christian Conrad Sprengel's work (Berlin, 1793), which confirmed his +determination to pursue this line of research. _The Effects of Cross- +and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom_ (1876) contained the +direct evidence that the offspring of cross-fertilized individuals are +more vigorous, as well as more numerous, than those produced by a +self-fertilized parent. _Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the +Same Species_ appeared in 1877. It is here shown that each different +form, although possessing both kinds of sexual organs, is specially +adapted to be fertilized by the pollen of another form, and that when +artificially fertilized by its own pollen less vigorous offspring, +bearing some resemblance to hybrids, are produced. He says, "no little +discovery of mine ever gave me so much pleasure as the making out the +meaning of heterostyled flowers" (_Autobiography_). _Climbing Plants_ +was published in 1875, although it had, in large part, been communicated +to the Linnean Society, in whose publications much of the material of +several of his other works appeared. This inquiry into the nature of the +movements of twining plants was suggested to him in a paper by Asa Gray. +_The Power of Movement in Plants_ (1880) was produced by him in +conjunction with his son Francis. It was an inquiry into the minute +power of movement possessed, he believed, by plants generally, out of +which the larger movements of climbing plants of many different groups +had been evolved. The work included an investigation of other kinds of +plant movement due to light, gravity, &c., all of which he regarded as +modifications of the one fundamental movement (circumnutation) which +exists in a highly specialized form in climbing plants. _Insectivorous +Plants_ (1875) is principally concerned with the description of +experiments on the Sun-dew (_Drosera_), although other insect-catching +plants, such as _Dionaea_, are also investigated. + +Charles Darwin's long life of patient, continuous work, the most +fruitful, the most inspiring, in the annals of modern science, came to +an end on the 19th of April 1882. He was buried in Westminster Abbey on +the 26th. It is of much interest to attempt to set forth some of the +main characteristics of the man who did so much for modern science, and +in so large a measure moulded the form of modern thought. Although his +ill-health prevented Darwin, except on rare occasions, from attending +scientific and social meetings, and thus from meeting and knowing the +great body of scientific and intellectual workers of his time, probably +no man has ever inspired a wider and deeper personal interest and +affection. This was in part due to the intimate personal friends who +represented him in the circles he was unable frequently to enter, but +chiefly to the kindly, generous, and courteous nature which was revealed +in his large correspondence and published writings, and especially in +his treatment of opponents. + +In a deeply interesting chapter of the _Life and Letters_ Francis Darwin +has given us his reminiscences of his father's everyday life. Rising +early, he took a short walk before breakfasting alone at 7.45, and then +at once set to work, "considering the 1(1/2) hours between 8.0 and 9.30 +one of his best working times." He then read his letters and listened to +reading aloud, returning to work at about 10.30. At 12 or 12.15 "he +considered his day's work over," and went for a walk, whether wet or +fine. For a time he rode, but after accidents had occurred twice, was +advised to give it up. After lunch he read the newspaper and wrote his +letters or the MS. of his books. At about 3.0 he rested and smoked for +an hour while being read to, often going to sleep. He then went for a +short walk, and returning about 4.30, worked for an hour. After this he +rested and smoked, and listened to reading until tea at 7.30, a meal +which he came to prefer to late dinner. He then played two games of +backgammon, read to himself, and listened to music and to reading aloud. +He went to bed, generally very much tired, at 10.30, and was often much +troubled by wakefulness and the activity of his thoughts. It is thus +apparent that the number of hours devoted to work in each day was +comparatively few. The immense amount he achieved was due to +concentration during these hours, also to the unfailing and, because of +his health, the necessary regularity of his life. + +The appearance of Charles Darwin has been made well known in numerous +portraits and statues. He was tall and thin, being about six feet high, +but looked less because of a stoop, which increased towards the end of +his life. As a young man he had been active, with considerable powers of +endurance, and possessed in a marked degree those qualities of eye and +hand which make the successful sportsman. + +Charles Darwin was, as a young man, a believer in Christianity, and was +sent to Cambridge with the idea that he would take orders. It is +probable, however, that he had merely yielded to the influences of his +home, without thinking much on the subject of religion. He first began +to reflect deeply on the subject during the two years and a quarter +which intervened between his return from the "Beagle" (October 2nd, +1836) and his marriage (January 29th, 1839). His own words are, +"disbelief crept over me at a very slow rate, but was at last complete. +The rate was so slow that I felt no distress." His attitude was that of +the tolerant unaggressive agnostic, sympathizing with and helping in the +social and charitable influences of the English Church in his parish. He +was evidently most unwilling that his opinions on religious matters +should influence others, holding, as his son, Francis Darwin, says, +"that a man ought not to publish on a subject to which he has not given +special and continuous thought" (_l.c._ i. p. 305). + +In addition to the personal qualities and powers of Charles Darwin, +there were other contributing causes without which the world could never +have reaped the benefit of his genius. It is evident that Darwin's +health could barely have endured the strain of working for a living, and +that nothing would have been left over for his researches. A deep debt +of gratitude is owing to his father for placing him in a position in +which all his energy could be devoted to scientific work and thought. +But his ill-health was such that this important and essential condition +would have been insufficient without another even more essential. +Francis Darwin, in the _Life and Letters_ (i. pp. 159-160), writes these +eloquent and pathetic words:--"No one indeed, except my mother, knows +the full amount of suffering he endured, or the full amount of his +wonderful patience. For all the latter years of his life she never left +him for a night; and her days were so planned that all his resting hours +might be shared with her. She shielded him from every avoidable +annoyance, and omitted nothing that might save him trouble, or prevent +him becoming over-tired, or that might alleviate the many discomforts of +his ill-health. I hesitate to speak thus freely of a thing so sacred as +the lifelong devotion which prompted all this constant and tender care. +But it is, I repeat, a principal feature of his life, that for nearly +forty years he never knew one day of the health of ordinary men, and +that thus his life was one long struggle against the weariness and the +strain of sickness. And this cannot be told without speaking of the one +condition which enabled him to bear the strain and fight out the +struggle to the end." + +Charles Darwin was honoured by the chief societies of the civilized +world. He was made a knight of the Prussian order, "Pour le Merite," in +1867, a corresponding member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences in 1863, +a fellow in 1878, and later in the same year a corresponding member of +the French Institute in the botanical section. He received the Bressa +prize of the Royal Academy of Turin, and the Baly medal of the Royal +College of Physicians in 1879, the Wollaston medal of the Geological +Society in 1859, a Royal medal of the Royal Society in 1853, and the +Copley medal in 1864. His health prevented him from accepting the +honorary degree which Oxford University wished to confer on him, but his +own university had stronger claims, and he received its honorary LL.D. +in 1877. + +Two daughters and five sons survived him, four of the latter becoming +prominent in the scientific world,--Sir George Howard (b. 1845), who +became professor of astronomy and experimental philosophy at Cambridge +in 1883; Francis (b. 1848), the distinguished botanist; Leonard (b. +1850), a major in the royal engineers, and afterwards well known as an +economist; and Horace (b. 1851), civil engineer. + + See _The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin, including an + autobiographical chapter_, edited by his son Francis Darwin (3 vols., + London, 1887); _Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection_, + by E. B. Poulton (London, 1896); _Life and Letters of Thomas Henry + Huxley_, by Leonard Huxley (2 vols., London, 1900); A. R. Wallace, + _Darwinism_ (1889); G. J. Romanes, _Darwin and after Darwin_ (1895). + Also the article on T. H. HUXLEY. (E. B. P.) + + + + +DARWIN, ERASMUS (1731-1802), English man of science and poet, was born +at Elton, in Nottinghamshire, on the 12th of December 1731. After +studying at St John's College, Cambridge, and at Edinburgh, he settled +in 1756 as a physician at Nottingham, but meeting with little success he +moved in the following year to Lichfield. There he gained a large +practice, and did much, both by example and by more direct effort, to +diminish drunkenness among the lower classes. In 1781 he removed to +Derby, where he died suddenly on the 18th of April 1802. The fame of +Erasmus Darwin as a poet rests upon his _Botanic Garden_, though he also +wrote _The Temple of Nature, or the Origin of Society, a Poem, with +Philosophical Notes_ (1803), and _The Shrine of Nature_ (posthumously +published). The _Botanic Garden_ (the second part of which--_The Loves +of the Plants_--was published anonymously in 1789, and the whole of +which appeared in 1791) is a long poem in the decasyllabic rhymed +couplet. Its merit lies in the genuine scientific enthusiasm and +interest in nature which pervade it; and of any other poetic +quality--except a certain, sometimes felicitous but oftener ill-placed, +elaborated pomp of words--it may without injustice be said to be almost +destitute. It was for the most part written laboriously, and polished +with unsparing care, line by line, often as he rode from one patient to +another, and it occupied the leisure hours of many years. The artificial +character of the diction renders it in emotional passages stilted and +even absurd, and makes Canning's clever caricature--_The Loves of the +Triangles_--often remarkably like the poem it satirizes: in some +passages, however, it is not without a stately appropriateness. Gnomes, +sylphs and nereids are introduced on almost every page, and +personification is carried to an extraordinary excess. Thus he describes +the _Loves of the Plants_ according to the Linnaean system by means of a +most ingenious but misplaced and amusing personification of each plant, +and often even of the parts of the plant. It is significant that +botanical notes are added to the poem, and that its eulogies of +scientific men are frequent. Erasmus Darwin's mind was in fact rather +that of a man of science than that of a poet. His most important +scientific work is his _Zoonomia_ (1794-1796), which contains a system +of pathology, and a treatise on generation, in which he, in the words of +his famous grandson, Charles Robert Darwin, "anticipated the views and +erroneous grounds of opinions of Lamarck." The essence of his views is +contained in the following passage, which he follows up with the +conclusion "that one and the same kind of living filaments is and has +been the cause of all organic life":-- + + "Would it be too bold to imagine that, in the great length of time + since the earth began to exist, perhaps millions of ages before the + commencement of the history of mankind,--would it be too bold to + imagine that all warm-blooded animals have arisen from one living + filament, which the great First Cause endued with animality, with the + power of acquiring new parts, attended with new propensities, directed + by irritations, sensations, volitions and associations, and thus + possessing the faculty of continuing to improve by its own inherent + activity, and of delivering down these improvements by generation to + its posterity, world without end!" + +In 1799 Darwin published his _Phytologia, or the Philosophy of +Agriculture and Gardening_ (1799), in which he states his opinion that +plants have sensation and volition. A paper on _Female Education in +Boarding Schools_ (1797) completes the list of his works. + +Robert Waring Darwin (1766-1848), his third son by his first marriage, a +doctor at Shrewsbury, was the father of the famous Charles Darwin; and +Violetta, his eldest daughter by his second marriage, was the mother of +Francis Galton. + + See Anna Seward, _Memoirs of the Life of Dr Darwin_ (1804); and + Charles Darwin, _Life of Erasmus Darwin, an introduction to an essay + on his works by Ernst Krause_ (1879). + + + + +DASENT, SIR GEORGE WEBBE (1817-1896), English writer, was born in St +Vincent, West Indies, on the 22nd of May 1817, the son of the +attorney-general of that island. He was educated at Westminster school, +King's College, and Oxford, where he was a contemporary of J. T. Delane +(q.v.), whose friend he had become at King's College. On leaving the +university in 1840 he was appointed to a diplomatic post in Stockholm. +Here he met Jacob Grimm, and at his suggestion first interested himself +in Scandinavian literature and mythology. In 1842 he published the +results of his studies, a version of _The Prose or Younger Edda_, and in +the following year he issued a _Grammar of the Icelandic or Old-Norse +Tongue_, taken from the Swedish. Returning to England in 1845, he became +assistant editor of _The Times_ under Delane, whose sister he married; +but he still continued his Scandinavian studies, publishing translations +of various Norse stories. In 1853 he was appointed professor of English +literature and modern history at King's College, London. In 1861-1862 he +visited Iceland, and subsequently published _Gisli the Outlaw_ and other +translations from the Icelandic. In 1870 he was appointed a civil +service commissioner and consequently resigned his post on _The Times_. +In 1876 he was knighted. He retired from the public service in 1892, and +died at Ascot on the 11th of June 1896. In addition to the works +mentioned above, he published _The Story of Burnt Njal_, from the +Icelandic of the _Njals Saga_ (1861). + + See the _Life of Delane_ (1908), by Arthur Irwin Dasent. + + + + +DASHKOV, CATHERINA ROMANOVNA VORONTSOV, PRINCESS (1744-1810), Russian +_litterateur_, was the third daughter of Count Roman Vorontsov, a member +of the Russian senate, distinguished for his intellectual gifts. (For +the family see VORONTSOV.) She received an exceptionally good +education, having displayed from a very early age the masculine ability +and masculine tastes which made her whole career so singular. She was +well versed in mathematics, which she studied at the university of +Moscow, and in general literature her favourite authors were Bayle, +Montesquieu, Boileau, Voltaire and Helvetius. While still a girl she was +connected with the Russian court, and became one of the leaders of the +party that attached itself to the grand duchess (afterwards empress) +Catherine. Before she was sixteen she married Prince Mikhail Dashkov, a +prominent Russian nobleman, and went to reside with him at Moscow. In +1762 she was at St Petersburg and took a leading part, according to her +own account _the_ leading part, in the _coup d'etat_ by which Catherine +was raised to the throne. (See CATHERINE II.) Another course of events +would probably have resulted in the elevation of the Princess Dashkov's +elder sister, Elizabeth, who was the emperor's mistress, and in whose +favour he made no secret of his intention to depose Catherine. Her +relations with the new empress were not of a cordial nature, though she +continued devotedly loyal. Her blunt manners, her unconcealed scorn of +the male favourites that disgraced the court, and perhaps also her sense +of unrequited merit, produced an estrangement between her and the +empress, which ended in her asking permission to travel abroad. The +cause of the final breach was said to have been the refusal of her +request to be appointed colonel of the imperial guards. Her husband +having meanwhile died, she set out in 1768 on an extended tour through +Europe. She was received with great consideration at foreign courts, and +her literary and scientific reputation procured her the _entree_ to the +society of the learned in most of the capitals of Europe. In Paris she +secured the warm friendship and admiration of Diderot and Voltaire. She +showed in various ways a strong liking for England and the English. She +corresponded with Garrick, Dr Blair and Principal Robertson; and when in +Edinburgh, where she was very well received, she arranged to entrust the +education of her son to Principal Robertson. In 1782 she returned to the +Russian capital, and was at once taken into favour by the empress, who +strongly sympathized with her in her literary tastes, and specially in +her desire to elevate Russ to a place among the literary languages of +Europe. Immediately after her return the princess was appointed +"directeur" of the St Petersburg Academy of Arts and Sciences; and in +1784 she was named the first president of the Russian Academy, which had +been founded at her suggestion. In both positions she acquitted herself +with marked ability. She projected the Russian dictionary of the +Academy, arranged its plan, and executed a part of the work herself. She +edited a monthly magazine; and wrote at least two dramatic works, _The +Marriage of Fabian_, and a comedy entitled _Toissiokoff_. Shortly before +Catherine's death the friends quarrelled over a tragedy which the +princess had allowed to find a place in the publications of the Academy, +though it contained revolutionary principles, according to the empress. +A partial reconciliation was effected, but the princess soon afterwards +retired from court. On the accession of the emperor Paul in 1796 she was +deprived of all her offices, and ordered to retire to a miserable +village in the government of Novgorod, "to meditate on the events of +1762." After a time the sentence was partially recalled on the petition +of her friends, and she was permitted to pass the closing years of her +life on her own estate near Moscow, where she died on the 4th of January +1810. + +Her son, the last of the Dashkov family, died in 1807 and bequeathed his +fortune to his cousin Illarion Vorontsov, who thereupon by imperial +licence assumed the name Vorontsov-Dashkov; and Illarion's son, Illarion +Ivanovich Vorontsov-Dashkov (b. 1837), held an appointment in the tsar's +household from 1881 to 1897. + + The _Memoirs of the Princess Dashkoff written by herself_ were + published in 1840 in London in two volumes. They were edited by Mrs W. + Bradford, who, as Miss Wilmot, had resided with the princess between + 1803 and 1808, and had suggested their preparation. + + + + +DASS, PETTER (1647-1708), the "father" of modern Norwegian poetry, was +the son of Peter Dundas, a Scottish merchant of Dundee, who, leaving his +country about 1630 to escape the troubles of the Presbyterian church, +settled in Bergen, and in 1646 married a Norse girl of good family. +Petter Dass was born in 1647 on the island of Nord Hero; on the north +coast of Norway. Seven years later his father died, and his mother +placed him with his aunt, the wife of the priest of another little +island-parish. In 1660 he was sent to school at Bergen, in 1665 to the +university of Copenhagen, and in 1667 he began to earn his daily bread +as a private tutor. In 1672 he was ordained priest, and remained till +1681 as under-chaplain at Nesne, a little parish near his birthplace; +for eight years more he was resident chaplain at Nesne; and at last in +1689 he received the living of Alstahoug, the most important in the +north of Norway. The rule of Alstahoug extended over all the +neighbouring districts, including Dass's native island of Hero, and its +privileges were accompanied by great perils, for it was necessary to be +constantly crossing stormy firths of sea. Dass lived here in quietude, +with something of the honours and responsibilities of a bishop, brought +up his family in a God-fearing way, and wrote endless reams of verses. +In 1700 he asked leave to resign his living in favour of his son Anders +Dass, but this was not permitted; in 1704, however, Anders became his +father's chaplain. About this time Petter went to Bergen, where he +visited Dorothea Engelbrechtsdatter, with whom he had been for many +years in correspondence. He continued to write till 1707, and died in +August 1708. The materials for his biography are very numerous; he was +regarded with universal curiosity and admiration in his lifetime; and, +besides, he left a garrulous autobiography in verse. A portrait, painted +in middle age, now in the church of Melhus, near Trondhjem, represents +him in canonicals, with deep red beard and hair, the latter waved and +silky, and a head of massive proportions. The face is full of fire and +vigour. His writings passed in MS. from hand to hand, and few of them +were printed in his lifetime. _Nordlands Trompet_ (The Trumpet of +Nordland), his greatest and most famous poem, was not published till +1739; _Den norska Dale-Vise_ (The Norwegian Song of the Valley) appeared +in 1696; the _Aandelig Tidsfordriv_ (Spiritual Pastime), a volume of +sacred poetry, was published in 1711. _The Trumpet of Nordland_ remains +as fresh as ever in the memories of the inhabitants of the north of +Norway; boatmen, peasants, priests will alike repeat long extracts from +it at the slightest notice, and its popularity is unbounded. It is a +rhyming description of the province of Nordland, its natural features, +its trades, its advantages and its drawbacks, given in dancing verse of +the most breathless kind, and full of humour, fancy, wit and quaint +learning. The other poems of Petter Dass are less universally read; they +abound, however, in queer turns of thought, and fine homely fancies. + + The collected writings of Dass were edited (3 vols., Christiania, + 1873-1877) by Dr A. E. Eriksen. + + + + +DASYURE, a bookname for any member of the zoological family +_Dasyuridae_. (See MARSUPIALIA.) The name is better restricted to +animals of the typical genus _Dasyurus_, sometimes called true Dasyures. +These are mostly inhabitants of the Australian continent and Tasmania, +where in the economy of nature they take the place of the smaller +predaceous Carnivora, the cats, civets and weasels of other parts of the +world. They hide themselves in the daytime in holes among rocks or in +hollow trees, but prowl about at night in search of the small living +mammals and birds which constitute their prey, and are to some extent +arboreal in habit. The spot-tailed dasyure (_D. maculatus_), about the +size of a cat, inhabiting Tasmania and Southern Australia, has +transversely striated pads on the soles of the feet. These organs are +also present in the North Australian dasyure (_D. hallucatus_) and the +Papuan _D. albopunctatus_, and are regarded by Oldfield Thomas as +indication of arboreal habits; in the common dasyure (_D. viverrinus_) +from Tasmania and Victoria, and the black-tailed dasyure (_D. +geoffroyi_) from South Australia, these feet-pads are absent, whence +these species are believed to seek their prey on the ground. The ursine +dasyure (_Sarcophilus ursinus_), often called the "Tasmanian Devil," +constitutes a distinct genus. In size it may be compared to an English +badger; the general colour of the fur is black tinged with brown, with +white patches on the neck, shoulders, rump and chest. It is a burrowing +animal, of nocturnal habits, intensely carnivorous, and commits great +depredations on the sheepyards and poultry-lofts of the settlers. In +writing of this species Krefft says that one--by no means a large +one--escaped from confinement and killed in two nights fifty-four fowls, +six geese, an albatross and a cat. It was recaptured in what was +considered a stout trap, with a door constructed of iron bars as thick +as a lead pencil, but escaped by twisting this solid obstacle aside. + + + + +DATE PALM. The dates[1] of commerce are the fruit of a species of palm, +_Phoenix dactylifera_, a tree which ranges from the Canary Islands +through Northern Africa and the south-east of Asia to India. It has been +cultivated and much prized throughout most of these regions from the +remotest antiquity. Its cultivation and use are described on the mural +tablets of the ancient Assyrians. In Arabia it is the chief source of +national wealth, and its fruit forms the staple article of food in that +country. The tree has also been introduced along the Mediterranean +shores of Europe; but as its fruit does not ripen so far north, the +European plants are only used to supply leaves for the festival of Palm +Sunday among Christians, and for the celebration of the Passover by +Jews. It was introduced into the new world by early Spanish +missionaries, and is now cultivated in the dry districts of the +south-western United States and in Mexico. The date palm is a beautiful +tree, growing to a height of from 60 to 80 ft., and its stem, which is +strongly marked with old leaf-scars, terminates in a crown of graceful +shining pinnate leaves. The flowers spring in branching spadices from +the axils of the leaves, and as the trees are unisexual it is necessary +in cultivation to fertilize the female flowers by artificial means. The +fruit is oblong, fleshy and contains one very hard seed which is deeply +furrowed on the inside. The fruit varies much in size, colour and +quality under cultivation. Regarding this fruit, W. G. Palgrave +(_Central and Eastern Arabia_) remarked: "Those who, like most Europeans +at home, only know the date from the dried specimens of that fruit shown +beneath a label in shop-windows, can hardly imagine how delicious it is +when eaten fresh and in Central Arabia. Nor is it, when newly gathered, +heating,--a defect inherent to the preserved fruit everywhere; nor does +its richness, however great, bring satiety; in short it is an article of +food alike pleasant and healthy." In the oases of Sahara, and in other +parts of Northern Africa, dates are pounded and pressed into a cake for +food. The dried fruit used for dessert in European countries contains +more than half its weight of sugar, about 6% of albumen, and 12% of +gummy matter. All parts of the date palm yield valuable economic +products. Its trunk furnishes timber for house-building and furniture; +the leaves supply thatch; their footstalks are used as fuel, and also +yield a fibre from which cordage is spun. + +_Date sugar_ is a valuable commercial product of the East Indies, +obtained from the sap or toddy of _Phoenix sylvestris_, the toddy palm, +a tree so closely allied to the date palm that it has been supposed to +be the parent stock of all the cultivated varieties. The juice, when not +boiled down to form sugar, is either drunk fresh, or fermented and +distilled to form arrack. The uses of the other parts and products of +this tree are the same as those of the date palm products. _Date palm +meal_ is obtained from the stem of a small species, _Phoenix +farinifera_, growing in the hill country of southern India. + + For further details see Sir G. Watt, _Dictionary of the Economic + Products of India_ (1892); and _The Date Palm_, U.S. Department of + Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin No. 53 (W. T. + Swingle), 1904. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Lat. _dactylus_, finger, hence fruit of the date palm, gave O. + Fr. _date_, mod. _datte_; distinguish "date," in chronology, from + Lat. _datum_, _data_, given, used at the beginning of a letter, &c., + to show time and place of writing, e.g. _Datum Romae_. + + + + +DATIA, a native state of Central India, in the Bundelkhand agency. It +lies in the extreme north-west of Bundelkhand, near Gwalior, and is +surrounded on all sides by other states of Central India, except on the +east where it meets the United Provinces. The state came under the +British government after the treaty of Bassein in 1802. Area, 911 sq. m. +Pop. (1901) 173,759. Estimated revenue, L70,000; tribute to Sindhia paid +through the British Government, L1000. The chief, whose title is +maharaja, is a Rajput of the Bundela clan, being descended from a +younger son of a former chief of Orchha. The state suffered from famine +in 1896-1897, and again to a less extent in 1899-1900. It is traversed +by the branch of the Indian Midland railway from Jhansi to Gwalior. The +town of Datia has a railway station, 16 m. from Jhansi. Pop. (1901) +24,071. It is surrounded by a stone wall, enclosing handsome palaces, +with gardens; the palace of Bir Singh Deo, of the 17th century, is "one +of the finest examples of Hindu domestic architecture in India" +(_Imperial Gazetteer of India_, 1908). + + + + +DATIVE (Lat. _dativus_, giving or given, from _dare_, to give), the +name, in grammar, of the case of the "indirect object," the person or +thing to or for whom or which anything is given or done. In law, the +word signifies something, such as an office, which may be disposed of at +will or pleasure, and is opposed to perpetual. In Scots law the term is +applied to persons, duties or powers, appointed or granted by a court of +law; thus an "executor-dative" is an executor appointed by the court and +not by a testator. It answers, therefore, to the English administrator +(q.v.). In Roman law, a _tutor_ was either _dativus_, if expressly +nominated in a testament, or _optivus_, if a power of selection was +given. + + + + +DATOLITE, a mineral species consisting of basic calcium and boron +orthosilicate, Ca(BOH)SiO4. It was first observed by J. Esmark in 1806, +and named by him from [Greek: dateisthai], "to divide," and [Greek: +lithos], "stone," in allusion to the granular structure of the massive +mineral. It usually occurs as well-developed glassy crystals bounded by +numerous bright faces, many of which often have a more or less +pentagonal outline. The crystals were for a long time considered to be +orthorhombic, and indeed they approach closely to this system in habit, +interfacial angles and optical orientation; humboldtite was the name +given by A. Levy in 1823 to monoclinic crystals supposed to be distinct +from datolite, but the two were afterwards proved to be identical. The +mineral also occurs as masses with a granular to compact texture; when +compact the fractured surfaces have the appearance of porcelain. A +fibrous variety with a botryoidal or globular surface is known as +botryolite. Datolite is white or colourless, often with a greenish +tinge; it is transparent or opaque. Hardness 5-5(1/2); specific gravity +3.0. + +Datolite is a mineral of secondary origin, and in its mode of occurrence +it resembles the zeolites, being found with them in the amygdaloidal +cavities of basic igneous rocks such as basalt; it is also found in +gneiss and serpentine, and in metalliferous veins and in beds of iron +ore. At Arendal in Norway, the original locality for both the +crystallized and botryoidal varieties, it is found in a bed of +magnetite. In amygdaloidal basaltic rocks it is found at Bishopton in +Renfrewshire and near Edinburgh; and as excellent crystallized specimens +at several localities in the United States, e.g. at Westfield in +Massachusetts, Bergen and Paterson in New Jersey, and in the +copper-mining region of Lake Superior. At St Andreasberg in the Harz it +occurs both in diabase and in the veins of silver ore. Fine specimens +have recently been obtained from Tasmania. + +Large crystals of datolite completely altered to chalcedony were +formerly found with magnetite in the Haytor iron mine on Dartmoor in +Devonshire; to these pseudomorphs the name haytorite has been applied. + (L. J. S.) + + + + +DAUB, KARL (1765-1836), German Protestant theologian, was born at Cassel +on the 20th of March 1765. He studied philosophy, philology and theology +at Marburg in 1786, and eventually (1795) became professor ordinarius of +theology at Heidelberg, where he died on the 22nd of November 1836. Daub +was one of the leaders of a school which sought to reconcile theology +and philosophy, and to bring about a speculative reconstruction of +orthodox dogma. In the course of his intellectual development, he came +successively under the influence of Kant, Schelling and Hegel, and on +account of the different phases through which he passed he was called +the Talleyrand of German thought. There was one great defect in his +speculative theology: he ignored historical criticism. His purpose was, +as Otto Pfleiderer says, "to connect the metaphysical ideas, which had +been arrived at by means of philosophical dialectic, directly with the +persons and events of the Gospel narratives, thus raising these above +the region of ordinary experience into that of the supernatural, and +regarding the most absurd assertions as philosophically justified. Daub +had become so hopelessly addicted to this perverse principle that he +deduced not only Jesus as the embodiment of the philosophical idea of +the union of God and man, but also Judas Iscariot as the embodiment of +the idea of a rival god, or Satan." The three stages in Daub's +development are clearly marked in his writings. His _Lehrbuch der +Katechetik_ (1801) was written under the spell of Kant. His +_Theologumena_ (1806), his _Einleitung in das Studium der christl. +Dogmatik_ (1810), and his _Judas Ischarioth_ (2 vols., 1816, 2nd ed., +1818), were all written in the spirit of Schelling, the last of them +reflecting a change in Schelling himself from theosophy to positive +philosophy. Daub's _Die dogmatische Theologie jetziger Zeit oder die +Selbstsucht in der Wissenschaft des Glaubens_ (1833), and _Vorlesungen +uber die Prolegomena zur Dogmatik_ (1839), are Hegelian in principle and +obscure in language. + + See Rosenkranz, _Erinnerungen an Karl Daub_ (1837); D. Fr. Strauss, + _Charakteristiken und Kritiken_ (2nd ed., 1844); and cf. F. + Lichtenberger, _History of German Theology_ (1889); Otto Pfleiderer, + _Development of Theology_ (1890). (M. A. C.) + + + + +DAUBENTON, LOUIS-JEAN-MARIE (1716-1800), French naturalist, was born at +Montbar (Cote d'Or) on the 29th of May 1716. His father, Jean Daubenton, +a notary, destined him for the church, and sent him to Paris to learn +theology, but the study of medicine was more to his taste. The death of +his father in 1736 set him free to follow his own inclinations, and +accordingly in 1741 he graduated in medicine at Reims, and returned to +his native town with the intention of practising as a physician. But +about this time Buffon, also a native of Montbar, had formed the plan of +bringing out a grand treatise on natural history, and in 1742 he invited +Daubenton to assist him by providing the anatomical descriptions for +that work. The characters of the two men were opposed in almost every +respect. Buffon was violent and impatient; Daubenton, gentle and +patient; Buffon was rash in his judgments, and imaginative, seeking +rather to divine than to discover truths; Daubenton was cautious, and +believed nothing he had not himself been able to see or ascertain. From +nature each appeared to have received the qualities requisite to temper +those of the other; and a more suitable coadjutor than Daubenton it +would have been difficult for Buffon to obtain. In the first section of +the natural history Daubenton gave descriptions and details of the +dissection of 182 species of quadrupeds, thus procuring for himself a +high reputation, and exciting the envy of Reaumur, who considered +himself as at the head of the learned in natural history in France. A +feeling of jealousy induced Buffon to dispense with the services of +Daubenton in the preparation of the subsequent parts of his work, which, +as a consequence, lost much in precision and scientific value. Buffon +afterwards perceived and acknowledged his error, and renewed his +intimacy with his former associate. The number of dissertations on +natural history which Daubenton published in the memoirs of the French +Academy is very great. Zoological descriptions and dissections, the +comparative anatomy of recent and fossil animals, vegetable physiology, +mineralogy, experiments in agriculture, and the introduction of the +merino sheep into France gave active occupation to his energies; and the +cabinet of natural history in Paris, of which in 1744 he was appointed +keeper and demonstrator, was arranged and considerably enriched by him. +From 1775 Daubenton lectured on natural history in the college of +medicine, and in 1783 on rural economy at the Alfort school. He was also +professor of mineralogy at the Jardin du Roi. As a lecturer he was in +high repute, and to the last retained his popularity. In December 1799 +he was appointed a member of the senate, but at the first meeting which +he attended he fell from his seat in an apoplectic fit, and after a +short illness died at Paris on the 1st of January 1800. + + + + +DAUBENY, CHARLES GILES BRIDLE (1795-1867), English chemist, botanist and +geologist, was the third son of the Rev. James Daubeny, and was born at +Stratton in Gloucestershire on the 11th of February 1795. In 1808 he +went to Winchester, and in 1810 he was elected to a demyship at Magdalen +College, Oxford, where the lectures of Dr Kidd first awakened in him a +desire for the cultivation of natural science. In 1814 he graduated with +second-class honours, and in the next year he obtained the prize for the +Latin essay. From 1815 to 1818 he studied medicine in London and +Edinburgh. He took his M.D. degree at Oxford, and was a fellow of the +College of Physicians. In 1819, in the course of a tour through France, +he made the volcanic district of Auvergne a special study, and his +_Letters on the Volcanos of Auvergne_ were published in _The Edinburgh +Journal_, 1820-21. He was elected F.R.S. in 1822. By subsequent journeys +in Hungary, Transylvania, Italy, Sicily, France and Germany he extended +his knowledge of volcanic phenomena; and in 1826 the results of his +observations were given in a work entitled _A Description of Active and +Extinct Volcanos_ (2nd ed., 1848). In common with Gay Lussac and Davy, +he held subterraneous thermic disturbances to be probably due to the +contact of water with metals of the alkalis and alkaline earths. In +November 1822 Daubeny succeeded Dr Kidd as professor of chemistry at +Oxford, and retained this post until 1855; and in 1834 he was appointed +to the chair of botany, to which was subsequently attached that of rural +economy. At the Oxford botanic garden he conducted numerous experiments +upon the effect of changes in soil, light and the composition of the +atmosphere upon vegetation. In 1830 he published in the _Philosophical +Transactions_ a paper on the iodine and bromine of mineral waters. In +the following year appeared his _Introduction to the Atomic Theory_, +which was succeeded by a supplement in 1840, and in 1850 by a second +edition. In 1831 Daubeny represented the universities of England at the +first meeting of the British Association, which at his request held +their next session at Oxford. In 1836 he communicated to the Association +a report on the subject of mineral and thermal waters. In 1837 he +visited the United States, and acquired there the materials for papers +on the thermal springs and the geology of North America, read in 1838 +before the Ashmolean Society and the British Association. In 1856 he +became president of the latter body at its meeting at Cheltenham. In +1841 Daubeny published his _Lectures on Agriculture_; in 1857 his +_Lectures on Roman Husbandry_; in 1863 _Climate: an inquiry into the +causes of its differences and into its influence on Vegetable Life_; and +in 1865 an _Essay on the Trees and Shrubs of the Ancients_, and a +_Catalogue of the Trees and Shrubs indigenous to Greece and Italy_. His +last literary work was the collection of his _Miscellanies_, published +in two volumes, in 1867. In all his undertakings Daubeny was actuated by +a practical spirit and a desire for the advancement of knowledge; and +his personal influence on his contemporaries was in keeping with the +high character of his various literary productions. He died in Oxford on +the 12th of December 1867. + + See Obituary by John Phillips in _Proceedings of Ashmolean Soc._, + 1868. + + + + +DAUBIGNY, CHARLES FRANCOIS (1817-1878), French landscape painter, allied +in several ways with the Barbizon School, was born in Paris, on the 15th +of February 1817, but spent much time as a child at Valmondois, a +village on the Oise to the north-west of Paris. Daubigny was the son of +an artist, and most of his family were painters. He began to paint very +early in life, and at the age of seventeen he took a studio of his own. +Within twelve months he had saved enough to go to Italy, where he +studied and painted for nearly two years; he then returned to Paris, not +to leave it again until, in 1860, he took a house at Auvers on the Oise. +By 1837 Daubigny had become famous as a river and landscape painter, +although he had been devoting himself as well to drawing in +black-and-white, to etching, wood engraving, and lithography. In 1855 +his picture, "Lock at Optevoz," now in the Louvre, was purchased by the +state; four years later Daubigny was created knight of the Legion of +Honour, and in 1874 he was promoted to be an officer. In 1866, at the +invitation of Lord, then Mr Leighton and others, he visited London, +where, however, he was hurt by his now famous "Moonlight" being badly +hung in the Old Royal Academy. But the personal encouragement of his +admirers in England made up for the disappointment, and the sale of his +picture to a Royal Academician greatly pleased him. In 1870-1871 he +again visited London, and subsequently Holland, where he painted a +number of river scenes with windmills. In 1874, having returned to +Paris, he fell ill, and from that time until he died (on the 19th of +February 1878) his work won less distinction than before. In 1904 the +municipality of Auvers-sur-Oise decided to erect a bronze monument to +Daubigny's memory. + +Daubigny's finest pictures were painted between 1864 and 1874, and these +for the most part consist of carefully completed landscapes with trees, +river and a few ducks. It has curiously been said, yet with some +appearance of truth, that when Daubigny liked his pictures himself he +added another duck or two, so that the number of ducks often indicates +greater or less artistic quality in his pictures. One of his sayings +was, "The best pictures do not sell," as he frequently found his finest +achievements little understood. Yet although during the latter part of +his life he was considered a highly successful painter, the money value +of his pictures since his death has increased nearly tenfold. Daubigny +is chiefly preferred in his riverside pictures, of which he painted a +great number, but although there are two large landscapes by Daubigny in +the Louvre, neither is a river view. They are for that reason not so +typical as many of his smaller Oise and Seine pictures. + +The works of Daubigny are, like Corot's, to be found in many modern +collections. His most ambitious canvases are: "Springtime" (1857), in +the Louvre; "Borde de la Cure, Morvan" (1864); "Villerville sur Mer" +(1864); "Moonlight" (1865); "Andresy sur Oise" (1868); and "Return of +the Flock--Moonlight" (1878). + +His followers and pupils were his son Karl (who sometimes painted so +well that his works are occasionally mistaken for those of his father, +though in few cases do they equal his father's mastery), Oudinot, Delpy +and Damoye. + + See Fred Henriet, _C. Daubigny et son oeuvre_ (Paris, 1878); D. Croal + Thomson, _The Barbizon School of Painters_ (London, 1890); J. W. + Mollett, _Daubigny_ (London, 1890); J. Claretie, _Peintres et + sculpteurs contemporains: Daubigny_ (Paris, 1882); Albert Wolff, _La + Capitale de l'art: Ch. Francois Daubigny_ (Paris, 1881). (D. C. T.) + + + + +DAUBREE, GABRIEL AUGUSTE (1814-1896), French geologist, was born at +Metz, on the 25th of June 1814, and educated at the Ecole Polytechnique +in Paris. At the age of twenty he had qualified as a mining engineer, +and in 1838 he was appointed to take charge of the mines in the Bas-Rhin +(Alsace), and subsequently to be professor of mineralogy and geology at +the Faculty of Sciences, Strassburg. In 1859 he became engineer in chief +of mines, and in 1861 he was appointed professor of geology at the +museum of natural history in Paris and was also elected member of the +Academy of Sciences. In the following year he became professor of +mineralogy at the Ecole des Mines, and in 1872 director of that school. +In 1880 the Geological Society of London awarded to him the Wollaston +medal. His published researches date from 1841, when the origin of +certain tin minerals attracted his attention; he subsequently discussed +the formation of bog-iron ore, and worked out in detail the geology of +the Bas-Rhin (1852). From 1857 to 1861, while engaged in engineering +works connected with the springs of Plombieres, he made a series of +interesting observations on thermal waters and their influence on the +Roman masonry through which they made their exit. He was, however, +especially distinguished for his long-continued and often dangerous +experiments on the artificial production of minerals and rocks. He +likewise discussed the permeability of rocks by water, and the effects +of such infiltration in producing volcanic phenomena; he dealt with the +subject of metamorphism, with the deformations of the earth's crust, +with earthquakes, and with the composition and classification of +meteorites. He died in Paris on the 29th of May 1896. + +His publications were: _Etudes et experiences synthetiques sur le +metamorphisme et sur la formation des roches cristallines_ (1860); +_Etudes synthetiques de geologie experimentale_ (1879); _Les Eaux +souterraines a l'epoque actuelle_ (2 vols., 1887); _Le Eaux souterraines +aux epoques anciennes_ (1887). + + + + +DAUDET, ALPHONSE (1840-1897), French novelist, was born at Nimes on the +13th of May 1840. His family, on both sides, belonged to the +_bourgeoisie_. The father, Vincent Daudet, was a silk manufacturer--a +man dogged through life by misfortune and failure. The lad, amid much +truancy, had but a depressing boyhood. In 1856 he left Lyons, where his +schooldays had been mainly spent, and began life as an usher at Alais, +in the south. The position proved to be intolerable. As Dickens declared +that all through his prosperous career he was haunted in dreams by the +miseries of his apprenticeship to the blacking business, so Daudet says +that for months after leaving Alais he would wake with horror thinking +he was still among his unruly pupils. On the 1st of November 1857 he +abandoned teaching, and took refuge with his brother Ernest, only some +three years his senior, who was trying, "and thereto soberly," to make a +living as a journalist in Paris. Alphonse betook himself to his pen +likewise,--wrote poems, shortly collected into a small volume _Les +Amoureuses_ (1858), which met with a fair reception,--obtained +employment on the _Figaro_, then under Cartier de Villemessant's +energetic editorship, wrote two or three plays, and began to be +recognized, among those interested in literature, as possessing +individuality and promise. Morny, the emperor's all-powerful minister, +appointed him to be one of his secretaries,--a post which he held till +Morny's death in 1865,--and showed him no small kindness. He had put his +foot on the road to fortune. + +In 1866 appeared _Lettres de mon moulin_, which won the attention of +many readers. The first of his longer books, _Le petit chose_ (1868), +did not, however, produce any very popular sensation. It is, in its main +feature, the story of his own earlier years told with much grace and +pathos. The year 1872 produced the famous _Aventures prodigieuses de +Tartarin de Tarascon_, and the three-act piece _L'Arlesienne_. But +_Fromont jeune et Risler aine_ (1874) at once took the world by storm. +It struck a note, not new certainly in English literature, but +comparatively new in French. Here was a writer who possessed the gift of +laughter and tears, a writer not only sensible to pathos and sorrow, but +also to moral beauty. He could create too. His characters were real and +also typical; the _rates_, the men who in life's battle had flashed in +the pan, were touched with a master hand. The book was alive. It gave +the illusion of a real world. _Jack_, the story of an illegitimate +child, a martyr to his mother's selfishness, which followed in 1876, +served only to deepen the same impression. Henceforward his career was +that of a very successful man of letters,--publishing novel on novel, +_Le Nabab_ (1877), _Les Rois en exil_ (1879), _Numa Roumestan_ (1881), +_Sapho_ (1884), _L'Immortel_ (1888),--and writing for the stage at +frequent intervals,--giving to the world his reminiscences in _Trente +ans de Paris_ (1887), and _Souvenirs d'un homme de lettres_ (1888). +These, with the three _Tartarins_,--Tartarin the mighty hunter, Tartarin +the mountaineer, Tartarin the colonist,--and the admirable short +stories, written for the most part before he had acquired fame and +fortune, constitute his life work. + +Though Daudet defended himself from the charge of imitating Dickens, it +is difficult altogether to believe that so many similarities of spirit +and manner were quite unsought. What, however, was purely his own was +his style. It is a style that may rightly be called "_impressionist_," +full of light and colour, not descriptive after the old fashion, but +flashing its intended effect by a masterly juxtaposition of words that +are like pigments. Nor does it convey, like the style of the Goncourts, +for example, a constant feeling of effort. It is full of felicity and +charm,--_un charmeur_ Zola has called him. An intimate friend of Edmond +de Goncourt (who died in his house), of Flaubert, of Zola, Daudet +belonged essentially to the naturalist school of fiction. His own +experiences, his surroundings, the men with whom he had been brought +into contact, various persons who had played a part, more or less +public, in Paris life--all passed into his art. But he vivified the +material supplied by his memory. His world has the great gift of life. +_L'Immortel_ is a bitter attack on the French Academy, to which august +body Daudet never belonged. + +Daudet wrote some charming stories for children, among which may be +mentioned _La Belle Nivernaise_, the story of an old boat and her crew. +His married life--he married in 1867 Julia Allard--seems to have been +singularly happy. There was perfect intellectual harmony, and Madame +Daudet herself possessed much of his literary gift; she is known by her +_Impressions de nature et d'art_ (1879), _L'Enfance d'une Parisienne_ +(1883), and by some literary studies written under the pseudonym of Karl +Steen. In his later years Daudet suffered from insomnia, failure of +health and consequent use of chloral. He died in Paris on the 17th of +December 1897. + + The story of Daudet's earlier years is told in his brother Ernest + Daudet's _Mon frere et moi_. There is a good deal of autobiographical + detail in Daudet's _Trente ans de Paris_ and _Souvenirs d'un homme de + lettres_, and also scattered in his other books. The references to him + in the _Journal des Goncourt_ are numerous. See also L. A. Daudet, + _Alphonse Daudet_ (1898), and biographical and critical essays by R. + H. Sherard (1894); by A. Gerstmann (1883); by B. Diederich (1900); by + A. Hermant (1903), and a bibliography by J. Brivois (1895); also _The + Works of Alphonse Daudet_, translated by L. Ensor, H. Frith, E. Bartow + (1902, etc.). Criticism of Daudet is also to be found in F. + Brunetiere, _Le Roman naturaliste_ (new ed., 1897); J. Lemaitre, _Les + Contemporains_ (vols. ii. and iv.); G. Pellissier, _Le Mouvement + litteraire au XIX^e siecle_ (1890); A. Symons, _Studies in Prose and + Verse_ (1904). (F. T. M.) + + + + +DAULATABAD, a hill-fortress in Hyderabad state, India, about 10 m. N.W. +of the city of Aurangabad. The former city of Daulatabad (Deogiri) has +shrunk into a mere village, though to its earlier greatness witness is +still borne by its magnificent fortress, and by remains of public +buildings noble even in their decay. The fortress stands on a conical +rock crowning a hill that rises almost perpendicularly from the plain to +a height of some 600 ft. The outer wall, 2(3/4) m. in circumference, once +enclosed the ancient city of Deogiri (Devagiri), and between this and +the base of the upper fort are three lines of defences. The fort is a +place of extraordinary strength. The only means of access to the summit +is afforded by a narrow bridge, with passage for not more than two men +abreast, and a long gallery, excavated in the rock, which has for the +most part a very gradual upward slope, but about midway is intercepted +by a steep stair, the top of which is covered by a grating destined in +time of war to form the hearth of a huge fire kept burning by the +garrison above. Besides the fortifications Daulatabad contains several +notable monuments, of which the chief are the Chand Minar and the Chini +Mahal. The Chand Minar, considered one of the most remarkable specimens +of Mahommedan architecture in southern India, is a tower 210 ft. high +and 70 ft. in circumference at the base, and was originally covered with +beautiful Persian glazed tiles. It was erected in 1445 by Ala-ud-din +Bahmani to commemorate his capture of the fort. The Chini Mahal, or +China Palace, is the ruin of a building once of great beauty. In it Abul +Hasan, the last of the Kutb Shahi kings of Golconda, was imprisoned by +Aurangzeb in 1687. + +Deogiri is said to have been founded c. A.D. 1187 by Bhillama I. the +prince who renounced his allegiance to the Chalukyas and established the +power of the Yadava dynasty in the west. In 1294 the fort was captured +by Ala-ud-din Khilji, and the rajas, so powerful that they were held by +the Mussulmans at Delhi to be the rulers of all the Deccan, were reduced +to pay tribute. The tribute falling into arrear, Deogiri was again +occupied by the Mahommedans under Malik Kafur, in 1307 and 1310, and in +1318 the last raja, Harpal, was flayed alive. Deogiri now became an +important base for the operations of the Mussulman conquering +expeditions southwards, and in 1339 Mahommed ben Tughlak Shah determined +to make it his capital, changed its name to Daulatabad ("Abode of +Prosperity"), and made arrangements for transferring to it the whole +population of Delhi. The project was interrupted by troubles which +summoned him to the north; during his absence the Mussulman governors of +the Deccan revolted; and Daulatabad itself fell into the hands of Zafar +Khan, the governor of Gulbarga. It remained in the hands of the Bahmanis +till 1526, when it was taken by the Nizam Shahis. It was captured by the +emperor Akbar, but in 1595 it again surrendered to Ahmad Nizam Shah of +Ahmednagar, on the fall of whose dynasty in 1607 it passed into the +hands of the usurper, the Nizam Shahi minister Malik Amber, originally +an Abyssinian slave, who was the founder of Kharki (the present +Aurangabad). His successors held it until their overthrow by Shah +Jahan, the Mogul emperor, in 1633; after which it remained in the +possession of the Delhi emperors until, after the death of Aurangzeb, it +fell to the first nizam of Hyderabad. Its glory, however, had already +decayed owing to the removal of the seat of government by the emperors +to Aurangabad. + + + + +DAUMIER, HONORE (1808-1879), French caricaturist and painter, was born +at Marseilles. He showed in his earliest youth an irresistible +inclination towards the artistic profession, which his father vainly +tried to check by placing him first with a _huissier_, and subsequently +with a bookseller. Having mastered the technique of lithography, Daumier +started his artistic career by producing plates for music publishers, +and illustrations for advertisements; these were followed by anonymous +work for publishers, in which he followed the style of Charlet and +displayed considerable enthusiasm for the Napoleonic legend. When, in +the reign of Louis Philippe, Philipon launched the comic journal, _La +Caricature_, Daumier joined its staff, which included such powerful +artists as Deveria, Raffet and Grandville, and started upon his +pictorial campaign of scathing satire upon the foibles of the +bourgeoisie, the corruption of the law and the incompetence of a +blundering government. His caricature of the king as "Gargantua" led to +Daumier's imprisonment for six months at Ste Pelagie in 1832. The +publication of _La Caricature_ was discontinued soon after, but Philipon +provided a new field for Daumier's activity when he founded the +_Charivari_. For this journal Daumier produced his famous social +caricatures, in which bourgeois society is held up to ridicule in the +figure of Robert Macaire, the hero of a then popular melodrama. Another +series, "_L'histoire ancienne_," was directed against the +pseudo-classicism which held the art of the period in fetters. In 1848 +Daumier embarked again on his political campaign, still in the service +of _Charivari_, which he left in 1860 and rejoined in 1864. In spite of +his prodigious activity in the field of caricature--the list of +Daumier's lithographed plates compiled in 1904 numbers no fewer than +3958--he found time for flight in the higher sphere of painting. Except +for the searching truthfulness of his vision and the powerful directness +of his brushwork, it would be difficult to recognize the creator of +_Robert Macaire_, of _Les Bas bleus_, _Les Bohemiens de Paris_, and the +_Masques_, in the paintings of "Christ and His Apostles" at the Ryks +Museum in Amsterdam, or in his "Good Samaritan," "Don Quixote and Sancho +Panza," "Christ Mocked," or even in the sketches in the Ionides +Collection at South Kensington. But as a painter, Daumier, one of the +pioneers of naturalism, was before his time, and did not meet with +success until in 1878, a year before his death, when M. Durand-Ruel +collected his works for exhibition at his galleries and demonstrated the +full range of the genius of the man who has been well called the +Michelangelo of caricature. At the time of this exhibition Daumier, +totally blind, was living in a cottage at Valmondois, which was placed +at his disposal by Corot, and where he breathed his last in 1879. An +important exhibition of his works was held at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts +in 1900. + + His life and art were made the subject of an important volume by + Arsene Alexandre in 1888; see also Gustave Geffroy, _Daumier_ (Paris, + Libraire de l'Art), and Henri Frantz and Octave Uzanne, _Daumier and + Gavarni_ (London, _The Studio_, 1904), with a large selection of the + artist's work. + + + + +DAUN (DHAUN), LEOPOLD JOSEF, COUNT VON (1705-1766), prince of Thiano, +Austrian field marshal, was born at Vienna on the 24th of September +1705. He was intended for the church, but his natural inclination for +the army, in which his father and grandfather had been distinguished +generals, proved irresistible. In 1718 he served in the campaign in +Sicily, in his father's regiment. He had already risen to the rank of +colonel when he saw further active service in Italy and on the Rhine in +the War of the Polish Succession (1734-35). He continued to add to his +distinctions in the war against the Turks (1737-39), in which he +attained the rank of a general officer. In the War of the Austrian +Succession (1740-42), Daun, already a lieutenant field marshal in rank, +distinguished himself by the careful leadership which was afterwards his +greatest military quality. He was present at Chotusitz and Prague, and +led the advanced guard of Khevenhuller's army in the victorious Danube +campaign of 1743. Field Marshal Traun, who succeeded Khevenhuller in +1744, thought equally highly of Daun, and entrusted him with the +rearguard of the Austrian army when it escaped from the French to attack +Frederick the Great. He held important commands in the battles of +Hohenfriedberg and Soor, and in the same year (1745) was promoted to the +rank of _Feldzeugmeister_. After this he served in the Low Countries, +and was present at the battle of Val. He was highly valued by Maria +Theresa, who made him commandant of Vienna and a knight of the Golden +Fleece, and in 1754 he was elevated to the rank of field marshal. + +During the interval of peace that preceded the Seven Years' War he was +engaged in carrying out an elaborate scheme for the reorganization of +the Austrian army; and it was chiefly through his instrumentality that +the military academy was established at Wiener-Neustadt in 1751. He was +not actively employed in the first campaigns of the war, but in 1757 he +was placed at the head of the army which was raised to relieve Prague. +On the 18th of June 1757 Daun defeated Frederick for the first time in +his career in the desperately fought battle of Kolin (q.v.). In +commemoration of this brilliant exploit the queen immediately instituted +a military order bearing her name, of which Daun was nominated first +grand cross. The union of the relieving army with the forces of Prince +Charles at Prague reduced Daun to the position of second in command, and +as such he took part in the pursuit of the Prussians and the victory of +Breslau. Frederick now reappeared and won the most brilliant victory of +the age at Leuthen. Daun was present on that field, but was not held +accountable for the disaster, and when Prince Charles resigned his +command, Daun was appointed in his place. With the campaign of 1758 +began the war of manoeuvre in which Daun, if he missed, through +over-caution, many opportunities of crushing the Prussians, at least +maintained a steady and cool resistance to the fiery strategy of +Frederick. In 1758 Major-General Loudon, acting under Daun's +instructions, forced the king to raise the siege of Olmutz, and later in +the same year Daun himself surprised Frederick at Hochkirch and +inflicted a severe defeat upon him (October 14th). In the following year +the war of manoeuvre continued, and on the 20th and 21st of November he +surrounded the entire corps of General Finck at Maxen, forcing the +Prussians to surrender. These successes were counterbalanced in the +following year by the defeat of Loudon at Liegnitz, which was attributed +to the dilatoriness of Daun, and Daun's own defeat in the great battle +of Torgau (q.v.). In this engagement Daun was so severely wounded that +he had to return to Vienna to recruit. + +He continued to command until the end of the war, and afterwards worked +with the greatest energy at the reorganization of the imperial forces. +In 1762 he had been appointed president of the _Hofkriegsrath_. He died +on the 5th of February 1766. By the order of Maria Theresa a monument to +his memory was erected in the church of the Augustinians, with an +inscription styling him the "saviour of her states." In 1888 the 56th +regiment of Austrian infantry was named after him. As a general Daun has +been reproached for the dilatoriness of his operations, but wariness was +not misplaced in opposing a general like Frederick, who was quick and +unexpected in his movements beyond all precedent. Less defence perhaps +may be made for him on the score of inability to profit by a victory. + + See _Der deutsche Fabius Cunctator, oder Leben u. Thaten S. E. des H. + Leopold Reichsgrafen v. Dhaun K.K.F.M._ (Frankfort and Leipzig, + 1759-1760), and works dealing with the wars of the period. + + + + +DAUNOU, PIERRE CLAUDE FRANCOIS (1761-1840), French statesman and +historian, was born at Boulogne-sur-Mer, and after a brilliant career in +the school of the Oratorians there, joined the order in Paris in 1777. +He was professor in various seminaries from 1780 till 1787, when he was +ordained priest. He was already known in literary circles by several +essays and poems, when the revolution opened a wider career. He threw +himself with ardour into the struggle for liberty, and refused to be +silenced in his advocacy of the civil constitution of the clergy by the +offer of high office in the church. Elected to the Convention by +Pas-le-Calais, he associated himself with the Girondists, but strongly +opposed the death sentence on the king. He took little part in the +struggle against the Mountain, but was involved in the overthrow of his +friends, and was imprisoned for a year. In December 1794 he returned to +the Convention, and was the principal author of the constitution of the +year III. It seems to have been due to his Girondist ideas that the +Ancients were given the right of convoking the _corps legislatif_ +outside Paris, an expedient which made possible Napoleon's _coup d'etat_ +of the 18th and 19th Brumaire. The creation of the Institute was also +due to Daunou, who drew up the plan for its organization. His energy was +largely responsible for the suppression of the royalist insurrection of +the 13th Vendemiaire, and the important place he occupied at the +beginning of the Directory is indicated by the fact that he was elected +by twenty-seven departments as member of the Council of Five Hundred, +and became its first president. He had himself set the age qualification +of the directors at forty, and thus debarred himself as candidate, as he +was only thirty-four. The direction of affairs having passed into the +hands of Talleyrand and his associates, Daunou turned once more to +literature, but in 1798 he was sent to Rome to organize the republic +there, and again, almost against his will, he lent his aid to Napoleon +in the preparation of the constitution of the year VIII. His attitude +towards Napoleon was not lacking in independence, but in this +controversy with the pope, the emperor was able again to secure from him +the learned treatise _Sur la puissance temporelle du Pape_ (1809). Still +he took little part in the new regime, with which at heart he had no +sympathy, and turned more and more to literature. At the Restoration he +was deprived of the post of archivist of the empire, which he had held +from 1807, but from 1819 to 1830 (when he again became archivist of the +kingdom) he held the chair of history and ethics at the College de +France, and his courses were among the most famous of that age of public +lectures. During the reign of Louis Philippe he received many honours. +In 1839 he was made a peer. He died in 1840. + +In politics Daunou was a Girondist without combativeness; a confirmed +republican, who lent himself always to the policy of conciliation, but +whose probity remained unchallenged. He belonged essentially to the +centre, and lacked both the genius and the temperament which would +secure for him a commanding place in a revolutionary era. As an +historian his breadth of view is remarkable for his time; for although +thoroughly imbued with the classical spirit of the 18th century, he was +able to do justice to the middle ages. His _Discours sur l'etat des +lettres au XIII^e siecle_, in the sixteenth volume of the _Histoire +litteraire de France_, is a remarkable contribution to that vast +collection, especially as coming from an author so profoundly learned in +the ancient classics. Daunou's lectures at the College de France, +collected and published after his death, fill twenty volumes (_Cours +d'etudes historiques_, 1842-1846). They treat principally of the +criticism of sources and the proper method of writing history, and +occupy an important place in the evolution of the scientific study of +history in France. All his works were written in the most elegant style +and chaste diction; but apart from his share in the editing of the +_Historiens de la France_, they were mostly in the form of separate +articles on literary and historical subjects. Personally Daunou was +reserved and somewhat austere, preserving in his habits a strange +mixture of bourgeois and monk. His indefatigable work as archivist in +the time when Napoleon was transferring so many treasures to Paris is +not his least claim to the gratitude of scholars. + + See Mignet, _Notice historique sur la vie et les travaux de Daunou_ + (Paris, 1843); Taillandier, _Documents bibliographiques sur Daunou_ + (Paris, 1847), including a full list of his works; Sainte-Beuve, + _Daunou_ in his _Portraits Contemporains_, t. iii. (unfavourable and + somewhat unfair). + + + + +DAUPHIN (Lat. _Delphinus_), an ancient feudal title in France, borne +only by the counts and dauphins of Vienne, the dauphins of Auvergne, and +from 1364 by the eldest sons of the kings of France. The origin of this +curious title is obscure and has been the subject of much ingenious +controversy; but it now seems clear that it was in the first instance a +proper name. Among the Norsemen, and in the countries colonized by them, +the name Dolphin or Dolfin (_dolfr_, "a wound") was fairly common, e.g. +in the north of England; thus a Dolfin is mentioned among the +tenants-in-chief in Domesday Book, and there was a Dolphin, lord of +Carlisle, towards the end of the 11th century. It has thus been +conjectured by some that the dauphins of Vienne derived their title from +Teutonic sources through Germany. But in the south, too, the name--not +necessarily derived from the same root--was not unknown, though +exceedingly rare, and was moreover illustrated by two conspicuous +figures in the Catholic martyrology: St Delphinus, bishop of Bordeaux +from 380 to 404, and St Annemundus, surnamed Dalfinus, bishop of Lyons +from c. 650 to 657. Whatever its origin, this name was borne by Guigo, +or Guigue IV. (d. 1142), count of Albon and Grenoble, as an additional +name, during the lifetime of his father, and was also adopted by his son +Guigue V. Beatrice, daughter and heiress of Guigue V., whose second +husband was Hugh III., duke of Burgundy, bestowed the name on their son +Andre, to recall his descent from the ancient house of the counts of +Albon, and in the charters he is called sometimes Andreas Dalphinus, +sometimes Dalphinus simply, but his style is still "count of Albon and +Vienne." His successors Guigue VI. (d. 1270) and John I. (d. 1282) call +themselves sometimes Delphinus, sometimes Delphini, the name being +obviously treated as a patronymic, and in the latter form it was borne +by the sons of the reigning "dauphin." But even under Guigue VI. +foreigners had begun to confuse the name with a title of dignity, an +imperial diploma of 1248 describing Guigue as "Guigo Dalphinus +Viennensis." + +It was not until the third dynasty, founded by the marriage of Anne, +heiress of John I., with Humbert, lord of La Tour du Pin, that "dauphin" +became definitely established as a title. Humbert not only assumed the +name of Delphinus, but styled himself regularly Dauphin of the Viennois +(Dalphinus Viennensis), and in a treaty concluded in 1285 between +Humbert and Robert, duke of Burgundy, the word _delphinatus_ (Dauphine) +appears for the first time, as a synonym for _comitatus_ (county). In +1349 Humbert II., the last of his race, sold Dauphine to Charles of +Valois, who, when he became king of France in 1364, transferred it to +his eldest son. From that time the eldest sons of the kings of France +were always either actual or titular dauphins of the Viennois. The +"canting arms" of a dolphin, which they quartered with the royal _fleurs +de lys_, were originally assumed by Dauphin, count of Clermont, instead +of the arms of Auvergne (the earliest extant example is appended to a +deed of 1199), and from him they were borrowed by the counts of the +Viennois. Guigue VI. used this device on his secret seal from his +accession, the earliest extant example dating from 1237, but, though no +specimens have survived, M. Prudhomme thinks it probable that the +dolphin was also borne by Andre Dauphin. It was also assumed by Guigue +V., count of Forez (1203-1241), a descendant of Guigue Raymond of the +Viennois, count of Forez, in right of his wife Ida Raymonde. It is thus +abundantly clear that the name of Dauphin was not assumed from the +armorial device, but vice versa. + +The eldest son of the French king was sometimes called "the king +dauphin" (_le roy daulphin_), to distinguish him from the dauphin of +Auvergne, who was known, since Auvergne became an appanage of the royal +house, as "the prince dauphin." The dauphinate of Auvergne, which is to +be distinguished from the county, dates from 1155, when William VII., +count of Auvergne, was deposed by his uncle William VIII. "the Old." +William VII. had married a daughter of Guigue IV. Dauphin, after whom +their son was named Dauphin (Delphinus). The name continued, as in +Viennois, as a patronymic, and was not used as a title until 1281, when +Robert II., count of Clermont, in his will, styles himself for the first +time Dauphin of Auvergne (_Alvernie delphinus_) for the portion of the +county of Auvergne left to his house. In 1428 Jeanne, heiress of the +dauphin Beraud III., married Louis de Bourbon, count of Montpensier (d. +1486), thus bringing the dauphinate into the royal house of France. It +was annexed to the crown in 1693. + + See A. Prudhomme, "De l'origine et du sens des mots dauphin et + dauphine" in _Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Chartes_, liv. an. 1893 + (Paris, 1893). + + + + +DAUPHINE, one of the old provinces (the name being still in current use +in the country) of pre-Revolutionary France, in the south-east portion +of France, between Provence and Savoy; since 1790 it forms the +departments of the Isere, the Drome and the Hautes Alpes. + +After the death of the last king of Burgundy, Rudolf III., in 1032, the +territories known later as Dauphine (as part of his realm) reverted to +the far-distant emperor. Much confusion followed, out of which the +counts of Albon (between Valence and Vienne) gradually came to the +front. The first dynasty ended in 1162 with Guigue V., whose daughter +and heiress, Beatrice, carried the possessions of her house to her +husband, Hugh III., duke of Burgundy. Their son, Andre, continued the +race, this second dynasty making many territorial acquisitions, among +them (by marriage) the Embrunais and the Gapencais in 1232. In 1282 the +second dynasty ended in another heiress, Anna, who carried all to her +husband, Humbert, lord of La Tour du Pin (between Lyons and Grenoble). +The title of the chief of the house was Count (later Dauphin) of the +Viennois, _not_ of Dauphine. (For the origin of the terms Dauphin and +Dauphine see DAUPHIN.) Humbert II. (1333-1349), grandson of the heiress +Anna, was the last independent Dauphin, selling his dominions in 1349 to +Charles of Valois, who on his accession to the throne of France as +Charles V. bestowed Dauphine on his eldest son, and the title was borne +by all succeeding eldest sons of the kings of France. In 1422 the Diois +and the Valentinois, by the will of the last count, passed to the eldest +son of Charles VI., and in 1424 were annexed to the Dauphine. Louis +(1440-1461), later Louis XI. of France, was the last Dauphin who +occupied a semi-independent position, Dauphine being annexed to the +crown in 1456. The suzerainty of the emperor (who in 1378 had named the +Dauphin "Imperial Vicar" within Dauphine and Provence) gradually died +out. In the 16th century the names of the reformer Guillaume Farel +(1489-1565) and of the duke of Lesdiguieres (1543-1626) are prominent in +Dauphine history. The "States" of Dauphine (dating from about the middle +of the 14th century) were suspended by Louis XIII. in 1628, but their +unauthorized meeting (on the 21st of July 1788) in the tennis court +(_Salle du Jeu de Paume_) of the castle of Vizille, near Grenoble, was +one of the earliest premonitory signs of the great French Revolution of +1789. It was at Laffrey, near Grenoble, that Napoleon (March 7th, 1815) +was first acclaimed by his old soldiers sent to arrest him. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. Brun-Durand, _Dictionnaire topographique du + departement de la Drome_ (Paris, 1891); Jules Chevalier, _Essai + historique sur l'eglise et la ville de Die_, Montelimar and Valence (2 + vols., 1888 and 1896); W. A. B. Coolidge, H. Duhamel and Felix Perrin, + _Climbers' Guide to the Central Alps of the Dauphiny_ (a revision of a + French work by the same, issued at Grenoble in 1887), London, 1892 + (new ed. 1905); J. J. Guiffrey, _Histoire de la reunion du Dauphine a + la France_ (Paris, 1868); Joanne, _Dauphine_ (Paris, 1905); A. + Prudhomme, _Histoire de Grenoble_ (Grenoble, 1888); Ib., "De l'origine + des mots 'Dauphin' et Dauphine" (article in vol. liv. (1893) of the + _Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Chartes_); A. Rochas, _Biographie du + Dauphine_ (2 vols., Paris, 1856); J. Roman, _Dictionnaire + topographique_ (Paris, 1884); _Tableau historique_ (Paris, 2 vols., + 1887 and 1890); and _Repertoire archeologique du departement des + Hautes-Alpes_ (Paris, 1888); J. Roman, _Histoire de la ville de Gap_ + (Gap, 1892); A. De Terrebasse, _Notice sur les Dauphins de Viennois_ + (Vienne, 1875); J. M. De Valbonnais, _Histoire de Dauphine_ (2 vols., + Geneva, 1722); J. A. Felix Faure, _Les Assemblees de Vizille et de + Romans_, 1788 (Paris, 1887); O. Chenavas, _La Revolution de 1788 en + Dauphine_ (Grenoble, 1888); C. Lory, _Description geologique du + Dauphine_ (Paris, 1860). (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +DAURAT (or DORAT), JEAN (in Lat. AURATUS), (1508-1588), French poet and +scholar, and member of the Pleiade, was born at Limoges in 1508. His +name was originally Dinemandy. He belonged to a noble family, and, after +studying at the college of Limoges, came up to Paris to be presented to +Francis I., who made him tutor to his pages. He rapidly gained an +immense reputation as a classical scholar. As a private tutor in the +house of Lazare de Baif, he had J. A. de Baif for his pupil. His son, +Louis, showed great precocity, and at the age of ten translated into +French verse one of his father's Latin pieces; his poems were published +with his father's. Jean Daurat became the director of the College de +Coqueret, where he had among his pupils, besides Baif, Ronsard, Remy, +Belleau and Pontus de Tyard. Joachim du Bellay was added by Ronsard to +this group; and these five young poets, under the direction of Daurat, +formed a society for the reformation of the French language and +literature. They increased their number to seven by the initiation of +the dramatist Etienne Jodelle, and thereupon they named themselves La +Pleiade, in emulation of the seven Greek poets of Alexandria. The +election of Daurat as their president proved the weight of his personal +influence, and the value his pupils set on the learning to which he +introduced them, but as a writer of French verse he is the least +important of the seven. Meanwhile he collected around him a sort of +Academy, and stimulated the students on all sides to a passionate study +of Greek and Latin poetry. He himself wrote incessantly in both those +languages, and was styled the Modern Pindar. His influence extended +beyond the bounds of his own country, and he was famous as a scholar in +England, Italy and Germany. In 1556 he was appointed professor of Greek +at the College Royale, a post which he continued to hold until, in 1567, +he resigned it in favour of his nephew, Nicolas Goulu. Charles IX. gave +him the title of _poeta regius_. His flow of language was the wonder of +his time; he is said to have composed more than 15,000 Greek and Latin +verses. The best of these he published at Paris in 1586 as _J. Aurati +Lemovicis poetae et interpretis regii poemata_. He died at Paris on the +1st of November 1588, having survived all his illustrious pupils of the +Pleiade, except Pontus de Tyard. He was a little, restless man, of +untiring energy, rustic in manner and appearance. His unequalled +personal influence over the most graceful minds of his age gives him an +importance in the history of literature for which his own somewhat vapid +writings do not fully account. + + The _Oeuvres poetiques_ in the vernacular of Jean Daurat were edited + (1875) with biographical notice and bibliography by Ch. Marty-Laveaux + in his _Pleiade francaise_. + + + + +DAVENANT, CHARLES (1656-1714), English economist, eldest son of Sir +William Davenant, the poet, was born in London, and educated at Cheam +grammar school and Balliol College, Oxford, but left the university +without taking a degree. At the age of nineteen he had composed a +tragedy, _Circe_, which met with some success, but he soon turned his +attention to law, and having taken the degree of LL.D., he became a +member of Doctors' Commons. He was member of parliament successively for +St Ives, Cornwall, and for Great Bedwyn. He held the post of +commissioner of excise from 1683 to 1689, and that of inspector-general +of exports and imports from 1705 till his death in 1714. He was also +secretary to the commission appointed to treat for the union with +Scotland. As an economist, he must be classed as a strong supporter of +the mercantile theory, and in his economic pamphlets--as distinct from +his political writings--he takes up an eclectic position, recommending +governmental restrictions on colonial commerce as strongly as he +advocates freedom of exchange at home. Of his writings, a complete +edition of which was published in London in 1771, the following are the +more important:--_An Essay on the East India Trade_ (1697); _Two +Discourses on the Public Revenues and Trade of England_ (1698); _An +Essay on the probable means of making the people gainers in the balance +of Trade_ (1699); _A Discourse on Grants and Resumptions and Essays on +the Balance of Power_ (1701). + + + + +DAVENANT (or D'AVENANT), SIR WILLIAM (1606-1668), English poet and +dramatist, was baptized on the 3rd of March 1606; he was born at the +Crown Inn, Oxford, of which his father, a wealthy vintner, was +proprietor. It was stated that Shakespeare always stopped at this house +in passing through the city of Oxford, and out of his known or rumoured +admiration of the hostess, a very fine woman, there sprang a scandalous +story which attributed Davenant's paternity to Shakespeare, a legend +which there is reason to believe Davenant himself encouraged, but which +later criticism has cast aside as spurious. In 1621 the vintner was made +mayor of Oxford, and in the same year his son left the grammar school of +All Saints, where his master had been Edward Sylvester, and was entered +an undergraduate of Lincoln College, Oxford. He did not stay at the +university, however, long enough to take a degree, but was hurried away +to appear at court as a page, in the retinue of the gorgeous duchess of +Richmond. From her service he passed into that of Fulke Greville, Lord +Brooke, in whose house he remained until the murder of that eminent man +in 1628. This blow threw him upon the world, not altogether without +private means, but greatly in need of a profitable employment. + +He turned to the stage for subsistence, and in 1629 produced his first +play, the tragedy of _Albovine_. It was not a very brilliant +performance, but it pleased the town, and decided the poet to pursue a +dramatic career. The next year saw the production at Blackfriars of _The +Cruel Brother_, a tragedy, and _The Just Italian_, a tragi-comedy. Inigo +Jones, the court architect, for whom Ben Jonson had long supplied the +words of masques and complimentary pieces, quarrelled with his great +colleague in the year 1634, and applied to William Davenant for verses. +The result was _The Temple of Love_, performed by the queen and her +ladies at Whitehall on Shrove Tuesday, 1634, and printed in that year. +Another masque, _The Triumphs of the Prince D'Amour_, followed in 1636. +The poet returned to the legitimate drama by the publication of the +tragi-comedy of _The Platonic Lovers_, and the famous comedy of _The +Wits_, in 1636, the latter of which, however, had been licensed in 1633. +The masque of _Britannica Triumphans_ (1637) brought him into some +trouble, for it was suppressed as a punishment for its first performance +having been arranged for a Sunday. By this time Davenant had, however, +thoroughly ingratiated himself with the court; and on the death of Ben +Jonson in 1637 he was rewarded with the office of poet-laureate, to the +exclusion of Thomas May, who considered himself entitled to the honour. +It was shortly after this event that Davenant collected his minor +lyrical pieces in a volume entitled _Madagascar and other Poems_ (1638); +and in 1639 he became manager of the new theatre in Drury Lane. The +civil war, however, put a check upon this prosperous career; and he was +among the most active partisans of royalty through the whole of that +struggle for supremacy. + +As early as May 1642, Davenant was accused before the Long Parliament of +being mainly concerned in a scheme to seduce the army to overthrow the +Commons. He was accordingly apprehended at Faversham, and imprisoned for +two months in London; he then attempted to escape to France, and +succeeded in reaching Canterbury, where he was recaptured. Escaping a +second time, he made good his way to the queen, with whom he remained in +France until he volunteered to carry over to England some military +stores for the army of his old friend the earl of Newcastle, by whom he +was induced to enter the service as lieutenant-general of ordnance. He +acquitted himself with so much bravery and skill that, after the siege +of Gloucester, in 1643, he was knighted by the king. After the battle of +Naseby he retired to Paris, where he became a Roman Catholic, and spent +some months in the composition of his epic poem of _Gondibert_. In 1646 +he was sent by the queen on a mission to Charles I., then at Newcastle, +to advise him to "part with the church for his peace and security." The +king dismissed him with some sharpness, and Davenant returned to Paris, +where he was the guest of Lord Jermyn. In 1650 he took the command of a +colonizing expedition that set sail from France to Virginia, but was +captured in the Channel by a parliamentary man-of-war, which took him +back to the Isle of Wight. Imprisoned in Cowes castle until 1651, he +tempered the discomfort and suspense of his condition by continuing the +composition of _Gondibert_. He was sent up to the Tower to await his +trial for high treason, but just as the storm was about to break over +his head, all cleared away. It is believed that the personal +intercession of Milton led to this result. Another account is that he +was released by the desire of two aldermen of York, once his prisoners, +whom he had allowed to escape. Davenant, released from prison, +immediately published _Gondibert_, the work on which his fame mainly +rests, a chivalric epic in the four-line stanza which Sir John Davies +had made popular by his _Nosce teipsum_, the influence of which is +strongly marked in the philosophical passages of _Gondibert_. It is a +cumbrous, dull production, but is relieved with a multitude of fine and +felicitous passages, and lends itself most happily to quotation. + +During the civil war one of his plays had been printed, the tragedy of +_The Unfortunate Lovers_, in 1643. One of his best plays, _Love and +Honour_, was published in 1649, but appears to have been acted long +before. He found that there were many who desired him to recommence his +theatrical career. Such a step, however, was absolutely forbidden by +Puritan law. Davenant, therefore, by the help of some influential +friends, obtained permission to open a sort of theatre at Rutland House, +in Charterhouse Yard, where, on the 21st of May 1656, he began a series +of representations, which he called _operas_, as an inoffensive term. +This word was then first introduced into the English language. The +opening piece was a kind of dialogue defending the drama in the +abstract. This was followed by his own _Siege of Rhodes_, printed the +same year, which was performed with stage decorations and machinery of a +kind hitherto quite unthought of in England. Two other innovations in +its production were the introduction of recitative and the appearance of +a woman, Mrs Coleman, on the stage. He continued until the Restoration +to produce ephemeral works of this kind, only one of which, _The Cruelty +of the Spaniards in Peru_, in 1658, was of sufficient literary merit to +survive. In 1660 he had the infinite satisfaction of being able to +preserve the life of that glorious poet who had, nine years before, +saved his own from a not less imminent danger. The mutual relations of +Milton and Davenant do honour to the generosity of two men who, +sincerely opposed in politics, knew how to forget their personal anger +in their common love of letters. In 1659 Davenant suffered a short +imprisonment for complicity in Sir George Booth's revolt. Under Charles +II. Davenant flourished in the dramatic world; he opened a new theatre +in Lincoln's Inn Fields, which he called the Duke's; and he introduced a +luxury and polish into the theatrical life which it had never before +known in England. Under his management, the great actors of the +Restoration, Betterton and his coevals, took their peculiar French style +and appearance; and the ancient simplicity of the English stage was +completely buried under the tinsel of decoration and splendid scenery. +Davenant brought out six new plays in the Duke's Theatre, _The Rivals_ +(1668), an adaptation of _The Two Noble Kinsmen_, which Davenant never +owned, _The Man's the Master_ (1669), comedies translated from Scarron, +_News from Plymouth_, _The Distresses_, _The Siege_, _The Fair +Favourite_, tragi-comedies, all of which were printed after his death, +and only one of which survived their author on the stage. He died at his +house in Lincoln's Inn Fields on the night of the 7th of April 1668, and +two days afterwards was buried in Poets' Corner, Westminster Abbey, with +the inscription "O rare Sir William Davenant!" In 1672 his writings were +collected in folio. His last work had been to travesty Shakespeare's +_Tempest_ in company with Dryden. + +The personal character, adventures and fame of Davenant, and more +especially his position as a leading reformer, or rather debaser, of the +stage, have always given him a prominence in the history of literature +which his writings hardly justify. His plays are utterly unreadable, and +his poems are usually stilted and unnatural. With Cowley he marks the +process of transition from the poetry of the imagination to the poetry +of the intelligence; but he had far less genius than Cowley, and his +influence on English drama must be condemned as wholly deplorable. + (E. G.) + + + + +DAVENPORT, EDWARD LOOMIS (1816-1877), American actor, born in Boston, +made his first appearance on the stage in Providence in support of +Junius Brutus Booth. Afterwards he went to England, where he supported +Mrs Anna Cora Mowatt (Ritchie) (1819-1870), Macready and others. In 1854 +he was again in the United States, appearing in Shakespearian plays and +in dramatizations of Dickens's novels. As Bill Sykes he was especially +successful, and his Sir Giles Overreach and Brutus were also greatly +admired. He died at Canton, Pennsylvania, on the 1st of September 1877. +In 1849 he had married Fanny Vining (Mrs Charles Gill) (d. 1891), an +English actress also in Mrs Mowatt's company. Their daughter FANNY (LILY +GIPSY) DAVENPORT (1850-1898) appeared in America at the age of twelve as +the king of Spain in _Faint Heart Never Won Fair Lady_. Later (1869) she +was a member of Daly's company; and afterwards, with a company of her +own, acted with especial success in Sardou's _Fedora_ (1883), +_Cleopatra_ (1890), and similar plays. Her last appearance was on the +25th of March 1898, shortly before her death. + + + + +DAVENPORT, ROBERT (fl. 1623-1639), English dramatist, is mentioned as +the author of a play licensed in 1624 under the title of _Henry I._ In +1653 _Henry I. and Henry II._ was entered at Stationers' Hall by +Humphrey Moseley with a second part said to be the work of Davenport and +Shakespeare. Of this play or plays nothing has been discovered, but +_King John and Matilda_ (printed 1655), which probably dates from about +the same time, has survived. Throughout the play, as in its closing +scene quoted by Charles Lamb in his _Dramatic Specimens_, there is much +"passion and poetry" which saves the piece from being classed as pure +melodrama. _The City-Night-Cap_ was licensed in 1624, but not printed +until 1661. The underplot of this unsavoury play was borrowed from +Cervantes and Boccaccio, and Mrs Aphra Behn's _Amorous Prince_ (1671) is +an adaptation from it. _A New Tricke to Cheat the Divell_ (printed 1639) +is a farcical comedy, which contains among other things the idea of the +popular supper story which reappears in Hans Andersen's _Little Claus +and Big Claus_. As told by Davenport the story closely resembles the +_Scottish Freires of Berwick_, which was printed in 1603. Three other +plays entered in the Stationers' Register as Davenport's are lost, and +he collaborated in two plays with Thomas Drue. + + Davenport's plays were reprinted by A. H. Bullen in _Old English + Plays_ (new series, 1890). The volume includes two didactic poems, + which first saw the light in 1623. + + + + +DAVENPORT, a city and the county seat of Scott county, Iowa, U.S.A., on +the Mississippi river, opposite Rock Island, Illinois, with which it is +connected by two fine bridges and by a ferry. It is the third largest +city in the state. Pop. (1890) 26,872; (1900) 35,254, including 8479 +foreign-born (6111 German), and 19,230 of foreign parentage (13,294 +German); (1905, state census) 39,797; (1910) 43,028. Davenport is served +by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, +the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Iowa & Illinois (interurban), +and the Davenport, Rock Island & North Western railways; opposite the +city is the western terminus of the Illinois and Mississippi, or +Hennepin, Canal (which connects the Mississippi and Illinois rivers). +Davenport lies on the slope of a bluff affording extensive views of +landscape and river scenery. In the city are an excellent public +library, an Academy of Sciences, several turn-halls and other German +social organizations, the Iowa soldiers' orphans' home, Brown business +college, and several minor Roman Catholic institutions. Davenport is an +episcopal see of the Roman Catholic and the Protestant Episcopal +churches. The city has a large commerce and trade by water and rail in +coal and grain, which are produced in the vicinity, is of special +importance. With Rock Island and Moline it forms one great commercial +unit. Among Davenport's manufactures are the products of foundries and +machine shops, and of flouring, grist and planing mills; glucose syrup +and products; locomotives, steel cars and car parts, washing machines, +waggons, carriages, agricultural implements, buttons, macaroni, crackers +and brooms. The value of the total factory product for 1905 was +$13,695,978, an increase of 38.7% over that of 1900. Davenport was +founded in 1835, under the leadership of Colonel George Davenport; it +was incorporated as a town in 1838, and was chartered as a city in 1851. + + + + +DAVENTRY, a market town and municipal borough in the Southern +parliamentary division of Northamptonshire, England, 74 m. N.W. from +London by the London & North Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3780. It is +picturesquely situated on a sloping site in a rich undulating country. +On the adjacent Borough Hill are extensive earthworks, and the discovery +of remains here and at Burnt Walls, immediately south, proves the +existence of a considerable Roman station. The chief industry of the +town is the manufacture of boots and shoes. The borough is under a +mayor, four aldermen and twelve councillors. Area, 3633 acres. + +In spite of the Roman remains on Borough Hill, nothing is known of the +town itself until the time of the Domesday Survey, when the manor +consisting of eight hides belonged to the countess Judith, the +Conqueror's niece. According to tradition, Daventry was created a +borough by King John, but there is no extant charter before that of +Elizabeth in 1576, by which the town was incorporated under the name of +the bailiff, burgesses and commonalty of the borough of Daventry. The +bailiff was to be chosen every year in the Moot Hall and to be assisted +by fourteen principal burgesses and a recorder. James I. confirmed this +charter in 1605-1606, and Charles II. in 1674-1675 granted a new +charter. The "quo warranto" rolls show that a market every Wednesday and +a fair on St Augustine's day were granted to Simon son of Walter by King +John. The charter of 1576 confirms this market and fair to the +burgesses, and grants them two new fairs each continuing for two days, +on Tuesday after Easter and on the feast of St Matthew the Apostle. +Wednesday is still the market day. The town was an important coaching +centre, and there was a large local industry in the manufacture of +whips. During the civil wars Daventry was the headquarters of Charles I. +in the summer of 1645, immediately before the battle of Naseby, at which +he was defeated. A Cluniac priory founded here shortly after the +Conquest has left no remains. + + + + +DAVEY OF FERNHURST, HORACE DAVEY, BARON (1833-1907), English judge, son +of Peter Davey, of Horton, Bucks, was born on the 30th of August 1833, +and educated at Rugby and University College, Oxford. He took a double +first-class in classics and mathematics, was senior mathematical scholar +and Eldon law scholar, and was elected a fellow of his college. In 1861 +he was called to the Bar at Lincoln's Inn, and read in the chambers of +Mr (afterwards Vice-Chancellor) Wickens. Devoting himself to the +Chancery side, he soon acquired a large practice, and in 1875 became a +Q.C. In 1880 he was returned to parliament as a Liberal for +Christchurch, Hants, but lost his seat in 1885. On Gladstone's return to +power in 1886 he was appointed solicitor-general and was knighted, but +had no seat in the House, being defeated at both Ipswich and Stockport +in 1886; in 1888 he found a seat at Stockton-on-Tees, but was rejected +by that constituency in 1892. As an equity lawyer Sir Horace Davey +ranked among the finest intellects and the most subtle pleaders ever +known at the English bar. He was standing counsel to the university of +Oxford, and senior counsel to the Charity Commissioners, and was engaged +in all the important Chancery suits of his time. Among the chief leading +cases in which he took a prominent part were those of _The Mogul +Steamship Company_ v. _M'Gregor_, 1892, _Boswell_ v. _Coaks_, 1884, +_Erlanger_ v. _New Sombrero Company_, 1878, and the _Ooregum Gold Mines +Company_ v. _Roper_, 1892; he was counsel for the promoters in the trial +of the bishop of Lincoln, and leading counsel in the Berkeley peerage +case. In 1862 he married Miss Louisa Donkin, who, with two sons and four +daughters, survived him. In 1893 he was raised to the bench as a lord +justice of appeal, and in the next year was made a lord of appeal in +ordinary and a life peer. He died in London on the 20th of February +1907. Lord Davey's great legal knowledge was displayed in his judgments +no less than at the bar. In legislation he took no conspicuous part, but +he was a keen promoter of the act passed in 1906 for the checking of +gambling. + + + + +DAVID (a Hebrew name meaning probably _beloved_[1]), + + + Source. + +in the Bible, the son of Jesse, king of Judah and Israel, and founder of +the royal Judaean dynasty at Jerusalem. The chronology of his period is +uncertain: the usual date, 1055-1015 B.C., is probably thirty years to +half a century too early. The books of Samuel (strictly, 1 Sam. xvi.-1 +Kings ii.), which are our principal source for the history of David, +show how deep an impression the personality of the king, his character, +his genius and the romantic story of his early years had left on the +mind of the nation. Of no hero of antiquity do we possess so life-like a +portrait. Minute details and traits of character are portrayed with a +vividness which bears all the marks of contemporary narrative. But the +record is by no means all of one piece or of one date. This history, as +we now have it, is extracted from various sources of unequal value, +which are fitted together in a way which offers considerable +difficulties to the critic. In the history of David's early adventures, +for example, the narrative is not seldom disordered, and sometimes seems +to repeat itself with puzzling variations of detail, which have led +critics to the unanimous conclusion that the First Book of Samuel is +drawn from at least two sources. It is indeed easy to understand that +the romantic incidents of this period were much in the mouths of the +people--to whom David was a popular hero--and in course of time were +written down in various forms which were not combined into perfect +harmony by later editors, who gave excerpts from several sources rather +than a new and independent history. These excerpts, however, have been +so pieced together, that it is often impossible to separate them with +precision, and to distinguish accurately between earlier and later +elements. It even appears from a study of the Greek text that some +copies of the books of Samuel incorporated narratives which other copies +did not acknowledge. For the literary problems of these books, see also +SAMUEL (BOOKS). + +The parallel history of David in 1 Chron. xi.-xxix. contains a great +deal of additional matter, which can rarely be treated as of equal +historical value with the preceding. Where it follows the chapters in +Samuel it is important for textual and other critical problems, but it +omits narratives in which it is not interested (David's youth, +persecution by Saul, Absalom's revolt, &c.), and adds long passages +(David's arrangements for the temple, &c.) which reflect the views of a +much later age than David's. The lists of officers, &c., are fuller than +those in Samuel, and here and there contain notices of value. A +comparison of the two records, however, is especially important for its +illustration of the later tendency to idealize the figure of David, and +the historical critic has to bear in mind the possibility that this +tendency had begun long before the Chronicler's time, and that it may be +found in the relatively older records preserved in Samuel. + + + Introduction to Saul. + +David's father, Jesse, was a citizen of Bethlehem in Judah, 5 m. south +of Jerusalem; the polite deprecation in 1 Sam. xviii. 18 means little +(cf. Saul in ix. 21). Tradition made him a descendant of the ancient +nobles of Judah through Boaz and the Moabitess Ruth, but the tendency to +furnish a noble ancestry for a noble figure--especially one of obscure +birth--is widespread (cf. GENEALOGY). He was the youngest of eight +sons,[2] and spent his youth in an occupation which the Hebrews as well +as the Arabs seem to have held in low esteem. He kept his father's sheep +in the desert steppes of Judah, and there developed the strength, +agility, endurance and courage which distinguished him throughout life +(cf. 1 Sam. xvii. 34, xxiv. 2; 2 Sam. xvii. 9). There, too, he acquired +that skill in music which led to his first introduction to Saul (1 Sam. +xvi. 14-23, and the apocryphal Psalm of David, Ps. cli. in the +Septuagint). He found favour in the king's eye, and became his +armour-bearer.[3] But traditions varied. In 1 Sam. xvii. he does not +follow his master to the field against the Philistines; he is an obscure +untried shepherd lad sent by his father with supplies for his brothers +in the Israelite camp. He does not even present himself before the king, +and his brothers treat him with a petulance hardly conceivable if he +stood well at court, and it appears from the close that neither Saul +nor his captain Abner had heard of him before (vv. 55-58). There is, +indeed, a flat contradiction between the two accounts, but a family of +Greek MSS. represented by the Vatican text omit xvii. 12-31, xvii. +55-xviii. 5, and thus the difficulty is greatly lessened. Characteristic +of the omitted portions are the friendship which sprang up between +Jonathan and David and the latter's appointment to a command in the +army. A further difficulty is caused by 2 Sam. xxi. 19, which makes +Elhanan the slayer of Goliath. David's exploit is not referred to in 1 +Sam. xxi. 10-15, xxix., and on this and other grounds the simpler +tradition in 2 Sam. is usually preferred. (See GOLIATH.) But it must +have been by some valiant deed that Saul was led to notice him (cf. xiv. +52), and David soon became both a popular hero and an object of jealousy +to Saul. According to the Hebrew text of 1 Sam. xviii., Saul's jealousy +leaped at once to the conclusion that David's ambition would not stop +short of the kingship. Such a suspicion would be intelligible if we +could suppose that the king had heard something of the significant act +of Samuel, which now stands at the head of the history of David in +witness of that divine election and unction with the spirit of Yahweh on +which his whole career hung (xvi. 1-13). But this passage is the sequel +to the rejection of Saul in xv., and Samuel's position agrees with that +of the late writer in vii., viii. and xii.[4] + + + Conflicts with Saul. + +The shorter text, represented by the Septuagint, gives an account of +Saul's jealousy which is psychologically more intelligible.[5] According +to this text Saul was simply possessed with such a personal dislike and +dread of David as might easily occupy his disordered brain. To be quit +of his hateful presence he gave him a military command. In this charge +David increased his reputation as a soldier and became a general +favourite. Saul's daughter Michal loved him; and her father, whose +jealousy continued to increase, resolved to put the young captain on a +perilous enterprise, promising him the hand of Michal as a reward of +success, but secretly hoping that he would perish in the attempt. +David's good fortune did not desert him; he won his wife, and in this +new advancement continued to grow in the popular favour, and to gain +fresh laurels in the field. At this point it is necessary to look back +on the proposed marriage of David with Saul's eldest daughter Merab +(xviii. 17-19; cf. xvii. 2-5). When the time came for Saul to fulfil his +promise, Merab was given to Adriel of Abel-Meholah (perhaps an +Aramaean). What is said of this affair interrupts the original context +of chap. xviii., to which the insertion has been clumsily fitted by an +interpolation in the second half of ver. 21 (LXX omits). We have here, +therefore, a notice drawn from a distinct source which connects itself +with the other omitted passage, xvii. 12-31, where Saul had promised his +daughter to the one who should overthrow Goliath (ver. 25). Since Merab +and Michal are confounded in 2 Sam. xxi. 8, the whole episode of Merab +and David perhaps rests on a similar confusion of names. + +As the king's son-in-law, David was necessarily again at court. He +became chief of the bodyguard, as Ewald rightly interprets 1 Sam. xxii. +14, and ranked next to Abner (xx. 25), so that Saul's insane fears were +constantly exasperated by personal contact with him. On at least one +occasion the king's frenzy broke out in an attempt to murder David with +his own hand.[6] At another time Saul actually gave commands to +assassinate his son-in-law, but the breach was made up by Jonathan, +whose chivalrous spirit had united him to David in a covenant of closest +friendship (xix. 1-7). The circumstances of the final outburst of Saul's +hatred, which drove David into exile, are not easily disentangled. The +narrative of 1 Sam. xx., which is the principal account of the matter, +cannot originally have been preceded by xix. 11-24; in chap. xx. David +appears to be still at court, and Jonathan is even unaware that he is in +any danger, whereas the preceding verses represent him as already a +fugitive. It may also be doubted whether the narrative of David's escape +from his own house by the aid of his wife Michal (xix. 11-17) has any +close connexion with ver. 10, and does not rather belong to a later +period.[7] David's daring spirit might very well lead him to visit his +wife even after his first flight. The danger of such an enterprise was +diminished by the reluctance to violate the apartments of women and +attack a sleeping foe, which appears also in Judges xvi. 2, and among +the Arabs.[8] + +According to chap. xx. David was still at court in his usual position +when he became certain that the king was aiming at his life. He betook +himself to Jonathan, who thought his suspicions groundless, but +undertook to test them. A plan was arranged by which Jonathan should +draw from the king an expression of his feelings, and a tremendous +explosion revealed that Saul regarded David as the rival of his dynasty, +and Jonathan as little better than a fellow-conspirator. After a final +interview (xx. 40-42), which must be regarded as a later expansion, they +parted and David fled. He sought the sanctuary at Nob, where he had been +wont to consult the priestly oracle (xxii. 15), and here, concealing his +disgrace by a fictitious story, he also obtained bread from the +consecrated table and the sword of Goliath (chap. xxi. i-9).[9] His +hasty flight--without food and weapon--suggests that the narrative +should follow upon xix. 17. + + + Outlaw life. + +It was perhaps after this that David made a last attempt to find a place +of refuge in the prophetic circle of Samuel at Ramah (xix. 18-24). The +episode now stands in another connexion, where it is certainly out of +place. It might, however, fit into the break that plainly exists in the +history at xxi. 10 after the affair at Nob. Deprived of the protection +of religion as well as of justice, David tried his fortune among the +Philistines at Gath. Recognized and suspected as a redoubtable foe, he +made his escape by feigning madness, which in the East has inviolable +privileges (xxi. 11-16).[10] The passage anticipates chap. xxvii., and +it is hardly probable that the slayer of Goliath or of any other +Philistine giant fled to the Philistines with their dead hero's sword. +He returned to the wilds of Judah, and was joined at Adullam[11] by his +father's house and by a small band of outlaws, of which he became the +head. Placing his parents under the charge of the king of Moab, he took +up the life of a guerilla captain, cultivating friendly relations with +the townships of Judah (xxx. 26), which were glad to have on their +frontiers a protector so valiant as David, even at the expense of the +blackmail which he levied in return. A clear conception of his life at +this time, and of the respect which he inspired by the discipline in +which he held his men, and of the generosity which tempered his fiery +nature, is given in chap. xxv. His force gradually swelled, and he was +joined by the prophet Gad (note his message xxii. 5) and by the priest +Abiathar, the only survivor of a terrible massacre by which Saul took +revenge for the favours which David had received at the sanctuary of +Nob. He was even able to strike at the Philistines, and to rescue Keilah +(south of Adullam and to the east of Beit Jibrin) from their attack +(xxiii. 1-13). Forced to flee by the treachery of the very men whom he +had succoured, he lived for a time in constant fear of being captured by +Saul, and at length took refuge with Achish king of Gath and established +himself in Ziklag. Popular tradition, as though unwilling to let David +escape from Saul, told of that king's continual pursuit of the outlaw, +of the attempt of the men of Ziph (S.E. of Hebron) to betray him, of +David's magnanimity displayed on two occasions, and of Jonathan's visit +to console his bosom friend (xxiv.-xxvi.).[12] The situation was one +which lent itself to the imagination. + +The site of Ziklag is unknown. It hardly lay near Gath (probably Tell +es-Safi, 12 m. E. of Ashdod), but rather to the south of Judah (Josh. +xix. 5). Here he occupied himself in chastening the Amalekites and other +robber tribes who made raids on Judah and the Philistines without +distinction (xxvii.). The details of the text are obscure, and seem to +imply that David systematically attacked populations friendly to Achish +whilst pretending that he had been making forays against Judah. If this +were an attempt to steer a middle course his true actions could not have +been kept secret long, and as it is implied that the Philistines +subsequently acquiesced in David's sovereignty in Hebron, it is not easy +to see what interest they had in embroiling him with the men of Judah. +At length, in the second year, he was called to join his master in a +great campaign against Saul. The Philistines for once directed their +forces towards the plain of Jezreel (Esdraelon) in the north; and Saul, +forsaken by Yahweh, already gave himself up for lost. David accompanied +the army as a matter of course. But his presence was not observed until +they reached their destination, when the jealousy of the Philistines +overrode his protestations of fidelity and he was ordered to return. He +reached Ziklag only to find the town pillaged by the Amalekites. +Pursuing the foes, he inflicted upon them a signal chastisement and took +a great booty, part of which he spent in politic gifts to the leading +men of the towns in the south country.[13] + + + King at Hebron. + +Meantime Saul had fallen in battle, and northern Israel was in a state +of chaos. The Philistines took possession of the fertile lowlands of +Jezreel and the Jordan, and the shattered forces of Israel were slowly +rallied by Abner in the remote city of Mahanaim in Gilead, under the +nominal sovereignty of Saul's son Ishbaal. David now took the first +great step to the throne. He was no longer an outlaw with a band of +wandering companions, but a petty chieftain, head of a small colony of +men, allied with families of Caleb and Jezreel (in Judah), and on +friendly footing with the sheikhs south of Hebron. In response to an +oracle he was bidden to move northwards to Judah and successfully +occupied it with Hebron as his capital. Here he was anointed king, the +first ruler of the southern kingdom. If the chronological notice may be +trusted, he was then thirty years of age, and he reigned there for seven +and a half years (2. Sam. ii. 1-4a, 11, v. 4 sq.). The noble elegy on +the death of Saul and Jonathan, quoted from the Book of Jashar (2 Sam. +i.), is marked by the absence both of religious feeling and of allusions +to his earlier experiences with Saul which David might have been +expected to make. It was deemed only natural that he should sympathize +deeply with the disasters of the northern kingdom. His vengeance on the +Amalekite who slew Saul--the account is a doublet of 1 Sam. xxxi.--is +consistent with his generous treatment of his late adversary in his +outlaw life, and with this agrees his embassy of thanks to the men of +Jabesh-Gilead for their chivalrous rescue of the bodies of the fallen +heroes (2 Sam. ii. 4b-7). The embassy threw out a hint,--their lord was +dead and David himself had been anointed king over Judah; but the +relation between Jabesh-Gilead and Saul had been a close one, and it was +not to be expected that its eyes would be turned upon the king of Judah +when Saul's son was installed at the not distant Mahanaim. The interest +of the narratives is now directed away from the Philistines to the +decaying fortunes of Saul's house. (See ABNER and SAUL.) Abner had taken +Saul's son Ishbaal and his authority was gradually consolidated in the +north. War broke out between the two parties at Gibeon a few miles north +of Jerusalem. A sham contest was changed into a fatal fray by the +treachery of Ishbaal's men; and in the battle which ensued Abner was not +only defeated, but, by slaying Asahel, drew upon himself a blood-feud +with Joab. The war continued. Ishbaal's party became weaker and weaker; +and at length Abner quarrelled with his nominal master and offered the +kingdom to David. The king seized the opportunity to demand the return +of Michal, his wife. The passage (iii. 12-16) is not free from +difficulties, but it is intelligible that David should desire to ally +himself as closely as possible with Saul's family (cf. xii. 8). The base +murder of Abner by Joab did not long defer the inevitable issue of +events. Ishbaal lost hope, and after he had been foully assassinated by +two of his own followers, all Israel sought David as king. + +The biblical narrative is admittedly not so constructed as to enable us +to describe in chronological order the thirty-three years of David's +reign over all Israel. It is possible that some of the incidents +ascribed to this period properly belong to an earlier part of his life, +and that tradition has idealized the life of David the king even as it +has not failed to colour the history of David the outlaw and king of +Hebron. + + + Critical considerations. + + In the preceding account the biblical narratives have been followed as + closely as possible in the light of the critical results generally + accepted. That they have been affected by the growth of popular + tradition is patent from the traces of duplicate narratives, from the + difficulty caused, for example, by the story of Goliath (q.v.), and + from a closer study of the chapters. The later views of the history of + this period are represented in the book of Chronicles, where + immediately after Saul's death David is anointed at Hebron king over + all Israel (1 Chron. xi.). It is quite in harmony with this that the + same source speaks of the Israelites who joined David at Ziklag (1 + Chron. xii. 1-22), and of the host which came to him at Hebron to turn + over to him Saul's kingdom (xii. 23-40). This treatment of history can + be at once corrected by the books of Samuel, but it is only from a + deeper study of the internal evidence that these, too, appear to give + expression to doubtful and conflicting views. It is questionable + whether David could have become king over all Israel immediately after + the death of Ishbaal. The chronological notices in ii. 10 sqq. allow + an interval of no less than five and a half years, and nowhere do the + events of these years appear to be recorded. But David's position in + the south of Judah is clear. He is related by marriage with south + Judaean clans of Caleb, Jezreel, and probably Geshur. (See ABSALOM.) + He was at the head of a small colony (1 Sam. xxvii. 3), and on + friendly terms with the sheikhs south of Hebron (xxx. 26-31).[14] His + step forward to Hebron is in every way intelligible and is the natural + outcome of his policy. It is less easy to trace his previous moves. + There are gaps in the narratives, and the further back we proceed the + more serious do their difficulties become. These chapters bring him + farther north, and they commence by depicting David as a man of + Bethlehem, high in the court of Saul, the king's son-in-law, and a + popular favourite with the people. But notwithstanding this, the + relation is broken off, and years elapse before David gains hold upon + the Hebrews of north Israel, the weakness of the union being proved by + the ease with which it was subsequently broken after Solomon's death. + Much of the life of Saul is obscure, and this too, it would seem, + because tradition loved rather to speak of the founder of the ideal + monarchy than of his less successful rival. (See SAUL.) It is not + impossible that some traditions did not bring them together. If + Jerusalem and its immediate neighbourhood were first conquered by + David (2 Sam. v.), it is probable that Beeroth and Gibeon (2 Sam. iv. + 2, xxi. 2), Shaalbim, Har-heres and Aijalon (Judg. i. 35), Gezer (ib. + i. 29), Chephirah and Kirjath-jearim (Josh. ix. 17) had remained + Canaanite. The evidence has obviously some bearing upon the history of + Saul, as also upon the intercourse between Judah and Benjamin which + David's early history implies. It has been conjectured, therefore, + that David's original home lay in the south. Since the early + historical narrative (1 Sam. xxv. 2) finds him in Maon, Winckler has + suggested that he was a Calebite chief, while a criticism of the + details relating to David's family has induced Marquart[15] to + conjecture that he was born at Arad (Tell 'Arad) about 17 m. S.E. of + Hebron. Once indeed we find him in the wilderness of Paran 1 (Sam. + xxv. 1, LXX reads Maon), and a more southerly origin has been thought + of (Winckler). This is involved with other views of the early history + of the Israelites; see further below. + + + Capture of Jerusalem. + +David owed his success to his troop of freebooters (1 Sam. xxii. 2), now +an organized force, and absolutely attached to his person. The valour of +these "mighty men" (_gibborim_) was topical. The names of the most +honoured are preserved, and we have some interesting accounts of their +exploits in the days of the giants (2 Sam. xxi., xxiii.). We hear of two +great battles with the "Philistines" in the valley of Rephaim, near +Jerusalem, at a time when David's base was Adullam (v. 17-25). In one +conflict a giant thought to slay him, but he was saved by Abishai, the +brother of Joab, and the men took an oath that David should no more go +to battle lest he "quench the light of Israel." On another occasion, +Elhanan of Bethlehem slew the giant Goliath of Gath, and David's own +brother Shimei (or Shammah) overthrew a monster who could boast of +twenty-four fingers and toes. In yet another incident the Philistines +maintained a garrison in Bethlehem, and David expressed a wish for a +drink from its well. The wish was gratified at the risk of the lives of +three brave men, and he recognized the solemnity of the occasion by +pouring out the water as an offering unto Yahweh. + +From a later summary (viii. 1) it seems that the Philistines were at +length vanquished, and the unknown Metheg-Ammah taken out of their +hands.[16] Not until the district was cleared could Jerusalem be taken, +and the capture of the almost impregnable Jebusite fortress furnished a +centre for future action. Here, in the midst of a region which had been +held by aliens, he fortified the "city of David" and garrisoned it with +his men. Meanwhile the ark of Yahweh, the only sanctuary of national +significance, had remained in obscurity since its return from the +Philistines in the early youth of Samuel. (See ARK.) David brought it up +from Baalah of Judah with great pomp, and pitched a tent for it in Zion, +amidst national rejoicings. The narrative (2 Sam. vi.) represents the +act as that of a loyal and God-fearing heart which knew that the true +principle of Israel's unity and strength lay in national adherence to +Yahweh; but the event was far from having the significance which later +times ascribed to it (1 Chron. xiii., xv. sqq.); even Solomon visited +the sanctuary at Gibeon, and Absalom vowed his vow unto Yahweh at +Hebron. It was not unnatural that the king who had his palace built by +Tyrian artists should have proposed to erect a permanent temple to +Yahweh. Such, at least, was the thought of later writers, who have given +effect to the belief in chap. viii. It was said that the prophet Nathan +commanded the execution of this plan to be delayed for a generation; but +David received at the same time a prophetic assurance that his house and +kingdom should be established for ever before Yahweh. + + + Internal policy. + +What remains to be said of his internal policy may be briefly detailed. +In civil matters the king looked heedfully to the execution of justice +(viii. 15), and was always accessible to the people (xiv. 4). But he +does not appear to have made any change in the old local administration +of justice, or to have appointed a central tribunal (xv. 2, where, +however, Absalom's complaint that the king was inaccessible is merely +factious). A few great officers of state were appointed at the court of +Jerusalem (viii. 16-18, xx. 23-26), which was not without a splendour +hitherto unknown in Israel. Royal pensioners, of whom Jonathan's son +Mephibosheth was one, were gathered round a princely table. The art of +music was not neglected (xix. 35). A more dangerous piece of +magnificence was the harem. Another innovation was the census; it was +undertaken despite the protests of Joab, and was checked by the rebukes +of the prophet Gad and the visitation of a pestilence (xxiv.). Striking, +too, is the conception of the national God who incites the king to do an +act for which he was to be punished.[17] To us, the proposal to number +the people seems innocent and laudable, and the latest sources of the +Pentateuch contain several such lists. This new procedure, we may +imagine, was resented by the northern Hebrews as an encroachment upon +their liberties. We learn that the destroying angel was stayed at the +threshing-floor of Araunah the Jebusite,[18] and the spot thus +sanctified was made a sanctuary, and commemorated by an altar. It was +the very place upon which Solomon's temple was supposed to be founded. +The census-taking may have been a preliminary to the great wars, but the +latter, on the other hand, are obviously presupposed by the extent of +his kingdom. For his wars a larger force than his early bodyguard was +required, and the Chronicler gives an account of the way in which an +army of nearly 300,000 was raised and held by David's thirty heroes (1 +Chron. xxvii.). It is certain at all events that no small body of +soldiers would be needed, and this alone would imply that all Israel was +by this time under his entire control. + + + Wars and conquests. + +Apart from the Ammonite war, our sources are confined to a mere summary +(viii.), which includes even the Amalekites (viii. 12, cf. i Sam. xxx.). +After the defeat of the Philistines came the turn of Moab. It was under +the care of the king of Moab that David placed his parents when he fled +from Saul (1 Sam. xxii. 3 sqq.), and what led to the war is unknown. The +severity with which the land was treated may pass for a gentle reprisal +if the Moabites of that day were not more humane than their descendants +in the days of King Mesha.[19] A deadly conflict with the Ammonites was +provoked by a gross insult to friendly ambassadors of Israel;[20] and +this war, of which we have pretty full details in 2 Sam. x. i-xi. 1, +xii. 26-31, assumed unexpected dimensions when the Ammonites procured +the aid of their Aramean neighbours. The defeat of Hadadezer brought +about the submission of other lesser kings. The glory of this victory +was increased by the complete subjugation of Edom in a war conducted by +Joab with characteristic severity (2 Sam. viii. 13; 1 Kings xi. 15-17; +Ps. lx., title). The fall of Rabbah concludes David's war-like exploits; +he carried off the jewelled crown of their god (Milcom), and subjected +the people, not to torture (1 Chron. xx. 3), but to severe menial labour +(xii. 26-31). + + The Aramean states, Beth-rehob, Maacah, Tob, &c., lay partly to the + north of Gilead and partly in the region which was the scene of the + fight with Jabin (Josh. xi. 1-9, Judg. iv.; see DEBORAH). Apparently + it was here, too, that the Danites found a settlement (Judg. xviii. + 28); the migration has perhaps been ante-dated. (See DAN, TRIBE.) The + account of David's wars is remarkable for the inclusion of the Syrians + of Damascus and beyond the Euphrates; some exaggeration has been + suspected (cf. 2 Sam. viii. 5 with x. 16). Some misunderstanding has + been caused by the confusion of Edom ([Hebrew: Edom]) and Aram + ([Hebrew: Aram]) in viii. 13. A more moderate idea of David's power + has been found in Ps. lx. 6-12, or, preferably, in the description of + the boundaries (2 Sam. xxiv. 5 sqq.). To the east of the Jordan he + held rule from Aroer to Gad and Gilead; on its west his power extended + from Beersheba in the south to Dan and Ijon at the foot of Hermon. + Moab, Ammon and Edom would appear to have been merely tributary, + whilst in the north among his allies David could number the king of + Hamath. To the north-west Israel bordered upon Tyre, with whom its + relations were friendly. The king of Tyre, who recognized David's + newly won position (v. 11 seq.), is called Hiram; possibly--unless the + notice is an anticipation of 1 Kings v.--his father Abibaal is + meant.[21] + + + Internal troubles. + +As the birth of Solomon is placed before the capture of Rabbah of Ammon +(xii.), it would appear that David's wars were ended within the first +half of his reign at Jerusalem, and the tributary nations thus do not +seem to have attempted any revolt during his lifetime (see 1 Kings xi. +14 sqq. and 25). It was only when the nation was no longer knit +together by the fear of danger from without that the internal +difficulties of the new kingdom became more manifest. Such at least is +the impression which the narratives convey.[22] So, after David had +completed a series of conquests which made Palestine the greatest of the +petty states of the age, troubles arose with the Israelites, who in +times past had sought for him to be king (iii. 17, v. 1-3), with his old +subjects the men of Judah, and with the members of his own household. +The northern tribes, who appear to have submitted willingly to his rule, +were not all of one mind. There were men of stronger build than the weak +Ishbaal and the crippled son of Jonathan, the survivors of Saul's house, +and it is only to be expected that David's first care must have been to +cement the union of the north and south. The choice of Jerusalem, +standing on neutral ground, may be regarded as a stroke of genius, and +there is nothing to show that the king exercised that rigour which was +to be the cause of his grandson's undoing. (See REHOBOAM.) On the other +hand, when Sheba, probably one of Saul's clan, headed a rising and was +promptly pursued by Joab to Abel-beth-maacah on the west of Dan, honour +was satisfied by the death of the rebel, and no further steps were taken +(xx.).[23] This policy of leniency towards Israel is characteristic of +David, and may well have become a popular theme in the tales of +succeeding generations. This same magnanimity towards the survivors of +Saul's house has left its mark upon many of the narratives, and helps to +a truer understanding of the stories of his early life. Thus it was +quite in keeping with the romantic attachment between David and Saul's +son Jonathan that when he became king of Israel he took Jonathan's son +Meribbaal under his care (ix.).[24] The deed was not merely generous, it +was politic to have Saul's grandson under his eyes. The hope of +restoring the lost kingdom had not died out (cf. xvi. 3). But from +another source we gain quite a different idea of the relations. A +disastrous famine ravaged the land for three long years, and when Yahweh +was consulted the reply came that there was "blood upon Saul and upon +his house because he put the Gibeonites to death." The unavenged blood +was the cause of divine anger, and retribution must be made. This David +recognized, and, summoning the injured clan, inquired what expiation +could be made. Bloodshed could only be atoned by blood-money or by +shedding the blood of the offender or of his family. The Gibeonites +demanded the latter, and five sons of Merab (the text by a mistake reads +Michal) and two sons of Saul's concubine were sacrificed. The awful deed +took place at the beginning of harvest (April-May), and the bodies +remained suspended until, with the advent of the autumn rains, Yahweh +was once more reconciled to his land (xxi. 1-14). The incident is a +valuable picture of crude ideas of Yahweh, and, if nothing else were +needed, it was sufficient to involve David in a feud with the +Benjamites.[25] Here, too, we learn of the tardy burial of the bones of +Saul and Jonathan which had remained in Jabesh-Gilead since the battle +of Gilboa;--the history of David's dealings with the family of Saul has +been obscured. That he took over his harem is only in accordance with +the Eastern policy (cf. xii. 8). + + + Absalom's revolt. + +The harem, an indispensable part of Eastern state, was responsible for +many fatal disorders, although it is clear from 2 Sam. xvi. 21 that the +nation at large was not very sensitive to the enormities which flow from +this system. David's deep fall in the matter of Bathsheba (xi.) was too +great an iniquity to be passed over lightly, and the base murder of her +husband Uriah the Hittite could not go unavenged. Bathsheba's influence +added a new element of danger to the usual jealousies of the harem, and +two of David's sons perished in vain attempts to claim the throne, which +she appears to have viewed as the rightful inheritance of her own child. +This, at least, is certain in the revolt of Adonijah (see SOLOMON), and +it was probably believed that the action of the impulsive Absalom arose +from the suspicion that the birth of Solomon was the death-blow to his +succession. + +As a piece of writing the vivid narratives are without an equal. David's +sons were estranged from one another, and acquired all the vices of +Oriental princes. The severe impartiality of the sacred historian has +concealed no feature in this dark picture,--the brutal passion of Amnon, +the shameless counsel of the wily Jonadab, the "black scowl"[26] that +rested on the face of Absalom through two long years of meditated +revenge, the panic of the court when the blow was struck and Amnon was +assassinated in the midst of his brethren. Not until five years had +elapsed was Absalom fully reconciled with his father. Then he meditated +revolt. As heir-apparent he collected a bodyguard, and studiously +courting personal popularity by a pretended interest in the +administration of kingly justice, ingratiated himself with the mass. +Four years later (so read in xv. 7) he ventured to raise the standard of +revolt in Hebron, with the malcontent Judaeans as his first supporters, +and the crafty Ahithophel as his chief adviser. Arrangements had been +made for the simultaneous proclamation of Absalom in all parts of the +land. The surprise was complete, and David was compelled to evacuate +Jerusalem, where he might have been crushed before he had time to rally +his faithful subjects. He was warmly received by the Gileadites, and the +first battle destroyed the party of Absalom, who was himself captured +and slain by Joab. Then all the people repented except the men of Judah, +who were not to be conciliated without a virtual admission of +prerogative of kinship to the king. This concession involved important +consequences. The precedence claimed by Judah was challenged by the +northern tribes even on the day of David's victorious return to his +capital, and a rupture ensued, headed by Sheba, which but for the energy +of Joab might have led to a second and more dangerous rebellion. + + Several indications suggest that the revolt was one in which the men + of Judah originally took the leading if not the only part. The unruly + clans which David knew how to control when he was at Ziklag or Hebron + were doubtless ready to support the rebellious son. The removal of the + court to Jerusalem provided a suitable opportunity, and an element of + jealousy even may not have been wanting. If Geshur be the district in + Josh. xiii. 2, 1 Sam. xxvii. 8, it is significant that the scene of + Absalom's exile lay to the south, that Ahithophel was a south Judaean, + and that Amasa probably belonged to the Jezreel[27] with which David + was connected through his wife Ahinoam. The eleven years which elapsed + between the murder of Amnon and the revolt would seem to disprove any + connexion between the two; the chronology may rest upon the tradition + that Solomon was twelve years old when he came to the throne. David's + hurried flight, attended only by his bodyguard, indicates that his + position was not a very strong one, and it is difficult to connect + this with the fact that he had already waged the wars mentioned in 2 + Sam. viii. and x. If his reason for taking refuge in Ishbaal's capital + Mahanaim is not obvious, it is even more remarkable that he should + have been received kindly by the Ammonites whom he had previously + decimated. On the theory that the revolt of Absalom chronologically + should precede the great wars, a slight correction of the already + corrupt text in xvii. 27 makes Nahash himself David's ally, and + accounts for David's eagerness to repay to Hanun, the son of Nahash, + the kindness which he had received from the father (x. 2). That the + revolt of Sheba is in an impossible position is obvious. Tradition has + probably confused Benjamite risings with Absalom's misguided + enterprise; the parts played by Shimei and Meribbaal, at all events, + are extremely suggestive. See ABSALOM, AHITHOPHEL. + + + David's life-work. + +The Appendix ascribes to David a song of triumph and some exceedingly +obscure "last words" (xxii.-xxiii. 7) which cannot be used as historical +material. The history of his life is immediately continued in 1 Kings +i., where his old age and weakness are for the first time vividly +emphasized. The events of the remaining years after 2 Sam. xx. are left +untold, but the Chronicler omits the revolt of Absalom and represents +the king as busily occupied with schemes concerning the future temple. +The last spark of his old energy was called forth to secure the +succession of Solomon against the ambition of Adonijah. It is noteworthy +that, as in the case of Absalom, the pretender, though supported by Joab +and Abiathar, found his chief stay among the men of Judah (1 Kings i. +9). (See SOLOMON.) + +To estimate the work of David it is necessary to take into account the +situation before and after his period. According to the prevailing +traditions, Saul at his death had left North Israel disunited and +humiliated. From this condition David raised the land to the highest +state of prosperity and glory, and by his conquests made the united +kingdom the most powerful state of the age. To do this other qualities +than mere military capacity were required. David was not only a great +captain, he was a national hero in whom all the noblest elements of the +Hebrew genius were combined. His talent enabled him to weld together the +mixed southern clans which became incorporated under Judah, and to build +up a monarchy which represented the highest conception of national life +possible under the circumstances. The structure, it is true, was not +permanent. Under his successor it began to decay, and in the next +generation it fell asunder and lived only in the hearts of the people as +the proudest memory of past history and the prophetic ideal of future +glory.[28] Opinion will differ, however, as to the extent to which later +ideals have influenced the narratives upon which the student of Hebrew +history and religion is dependent, and how far the reigns of David and +Solomon altered the face of Hebrew history. The foundation of the united +monarchy was the greatest advance in the whole course of the history of +the Israelites, and around it have been collected the hopes and fears +which a varied experience of monarchical government aroused. Many of the +narratives furnish a vivid picture of the life of David with a +minuteness of personal detail which has suggested to some that their +author was intimately acquainted with the events, and, if not a +contemporary, belonged to the succeeding generation, while to others it +has seemed more probable that these reflect rather "the plastic mould of +popular tradition." It cannot be doubted that the three types of David, +represented by the books of Samuel, of Chronicles, and the +superscriptions of the Psalms, are irreconcilable, and that they +represent successive developments of the original traditions. That the +oldest of these three does not contain earlier attempts to idealize him +is unlikely. "Political circumstances naturally led to an +ever-increasing appreciation of his person and his work as the unifier +of Israel. In the eyes of posterity he became more and more completely +the model of an Israelitish king and the natural consequence was that he +was idealized. The hope of the regeneration of his dynasty, and, at a +later period, of its restoration to the throne--the Messianic +expectation--must have worked powerfully in the same direction. And +meanwhile the religious convictions of the highest minds in Israel were +undergoing a marked change. The conceptions of Yahweh and of the +religion which was acceptable to him were constantly being elevated and +purified. This could not but have an influence on the current ideas +concerning David. He, too, must be remodelled as the conceptions of God +were changed."[29] But what is lost as regards historical material is a +distinct gain to the study of the development of Hebrew thought and +philosophy of history. + +David's character must be judged partly in the light of the times in +which he lived and partly in connexion with the great truths which he +represents, truths whose value is not impaired should they prove to be +the convictions of later ages. Accordingly, David is not to be condemned +for failing to subdue the sensuality which is the chief stain on his +character, but should rather be judged by his habitual recognition of a +generous standard of conduct, by the undoubted purity and lofty justice +of an administration which was never stained by selfish considerations +or motives of personal rancour,[30] and finally by the calm courage +which enabled him to hold an even and noble course in the face of +dangers and treachery. His great sin in the matter of Uriah would have +been forgotten but for his repentance: the things at which modern ideas +are most offended are not always those that would have given umbrage to +early writers. That he did not reform at a stroke all ancient abuses +appears particularly in relation to the practice of blood revenge; to +put an end to this deep-rooted custom would have been an impossibility. +But it is clear from 2 Sam. iii. 28 sqq., xiv. 1-10, that his sympathies +were against the barbarous usage. Nor is it just to accuse him of +cruelty in his treatment of enemies. As it was impossible to establish a +military cordon along the borders of Canaan, it was necessary absolutely +to cripple the adjoining tribes. From the lust of conquest for its own +sake David appears to have been wholly free. + +The generous elevation of David's character is seen most clearly in +those parts of his life where an inferior nature would have been most at +fault,--in his conduct towards Saul, in the blameless reputation of +himself and his band of outlaws in the wilderness of Judah, in his +repentance under the rebuke of Nathan and in his noble bearing on the +revolt of Absalom. His touching love for his worthless son is one of the +most beautiful descriptions of paternal affection. His unfailing insight +into character, and his power of winning men's hearts and touching their +better impulses, appear in innumerable traits (e.g. 2 Sam. xiv. 18-20, +iii. 31-37, xxiii. 15-17), and here, as elsewhere, the charm which the +life of David has upon its readers is entirely unaffected by technical +questions of literary and historical criticism. + + + Growth of tradition. + +To the later generations David was pre-eminently the Psalmist and the +founder of the Temple service. The Hebrew titles ascribe to him +seventy-three psalms; the Septuagint adds some fifteen more; and later +opinion, both Jewish and Christian, claimed for him the authorship of +the whole Psalter (so the Talmud, Augustine and others). That the +tradition of the titles requires careful sifting is no longer doubted, +and the results of recent criticism have been to confirm the view that +"it is no longer possible to treat the psalms as a record of David's +spiritual life through all the steps of his chequered career" (W. R. +Smith, _Old Test. in Jew. Church_^2, p. 224). Nor can it be maintained +that the elaborate ritual ascribed to David by the chronicler has any +historical value. See further CHRONICLES, PSALMS. + + On the other hand, these traditions, however unhistorical in their + present form, cannot be pure imagination. The male and female singers + (if the reading be correct) whom Sennacherib carried off from + Jerusalem in Hezekiah's time, may well have belonged to an old + foundation (A. Jeremias, _Alte Test. im Lichte d. Alten Orients_^2, p. + 527), and though David's skill referred to in Amos vi. 5 may be due to + a gloss, it is a Judaean narrative which tells of the invention of + music, ascribing it possibly to a Judaean legendary hero (Gen. iv. + 21). And although the Levitical organization, as ascribed to David, is + manifestly post-exilic, it is at least certain that many of the + Levitical families were of southern origin. It is in David's history + that the clans of the south first attained prominence, and some of + them are known to have been staunch upholders of a purer worship of + Yahweh, or to have been associated with the introduction of religious + institutions among the Israelites. (See LEVITES.) + + The difficulty of the historical problems increases when the + narratives of David are more closely studied: (_a_) 2 Sam. iii. 18, + xix. 9 show that according to one view David delivered _Israel_ (not + Judah) from the Philistines. This is in contradiction to ii. 8 sqq. + (from another source), where Saul's son recovers Israelite territory, + but is supported by ix., where Mephibosheth is found at Lo-debar. This + historical view has probably left its trace upon the present + traditions of Saul, whose defeat by the "Philistines" (here found in + the north and not as usual in the south) left Israel in much the same + position as when he was anointed king (cf. 1 Sam. xxxi. 7 with xiii. + 7). Again (_b_) the primitive stories of conflicts with "Philistine" + giants between Hebron and Jerusalem (2 Sam. v. 17 sqq., xxi. 15 sqq. + and xxiii.) find their analogy in Caleb's overthrow of the sons of + Anak (Judg. i. 10; Josh. xv. 14), and in the allusion to the same + prehistoric folk in the account of the spies (Num. xiii. 28). From a + number of points of evidence there appears to have been a group of + traditions of a movement from the south (probably Kadesh, Num. xiii. + 26) associated with Caleb, David and the Levites. If the clans of + Moses' kin which moved into Judah bore the ark (Num. x. 29 sqq.; see + Kenites), and if Abiathar carried it before David (1 Kings ii. 26), + there were traditions of the ark distinct from those which associate + it with Joshua and Shiloh (cf. 2 Sam. vii. 6). But the stories of + conflicts in a much larger area than the few cities in the immediate + neighbourhood of Jerusalem (see above) can scarcely be read with the + numerous narratives which recount or imply relations between the young + David of Bethlehem and Saul or the Israelites. It is possible, + therefore, that one early account of David was that of an entrance + into the land of Judah, and that round him have gathered traditions + partly individual and partly tribal or national. See further S. A. + Cook, _Critical Notes on O.T. History_, pp. 122 sqq., and art. JEWS + (_History_), SS 6-8. + + LITERATURE.--Robertson Smith's later views subsequent to 1877 (when he + wrote the article on David for this _Encyclopaedia_) were expressed + partly in the _Old Test. in Jewish Church_ (1881 and 1892), _passim_, + and partly in the article on the Books of Samuel in the _Ency. Brit._ + (9th ed.); on David's character see especially his criticism of Renan, + _Eng. Hist. Rev._, 1888, pp. 134 sqq. Mention may be made of + Stahelin's _Leben Davids_ (Basel, 1866), still valuable for the + numerous parallels adduced from oriental history; Cheyne's _Aids to + Devout Study of Criticism_ (1892), a criticism of David's history in + its bearing upon religion; Marcel Dieulafoy, _David the King_ (1902), + full, but not critical; H. A. White, Hastings' _Dict._ art. "David"; + Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._ art. "David"; and (on the romantic element in the + narratives) Luther in Ed. Meyer, _Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme_ + (1906), pp. 181 sqq. (W. R. S.; S. A. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See further the third edition of Schrader's _Keilinschr. u. das + Alte Test._ pp. 225, 483. + + [2] But four in xvii. 13 sqq., and seven in 1 Chron. ii. 13-15. + + [3] An armour-bearer was not a full warrior but a sort of page or + apprentice-in-arms, whose most warlike function is to kill outright + those whom his master has struck down--an office which among the + Arabs was often performed by women. + + [4] See SAMUEL. The older history repeatedly indicates that David's + kingship was predicted by a divine oracle, but would hardly lead us + to place the prediction so early (1 Sam. xxv. 30; 2 Sam. iii. 9, v. + 2). + + [5] The LXX omits xviii. 1-6 (to "Philistine"), the first and last + clauses of 8, 10-11, the reason given for Saul's fear in 12, 17-19, + the second half of 21. It also modifies 28, and omits the second half + of 29 and the whole of 30. + + [6] 1 Sam. xix. 9. The parallel narrative, xviii. 10 sqq., is wanting + in the Greek, and in the light of subsequent events is improbable. + Its aim is to paint Saul's character as black as possible. + + [7] The close of ver. 10 in the Hebrew is corrupt, and the words + "(and it came to pass) that night" seem to belong to the next verse + (so the Greek). H. P. Smith suggests that the passage originally + followed upon xviii. 27. + + [8] Wellhausen cites a closely parallel case from Sprenger's _Leben + Muhammad_, vol. ii. p. 543. + + [9] On the meaning of this difficult passage, see the discussions by + W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_(^2), p. 455 sqq., and Schwally + _Semit. Kriegsalterthumer_, p. 60 sqq. + + [10] Interesting parallels in Barhebraeus _Chron._, ed. Brun and + Kirsch, p. 222, and Ewald, _Hist. Israel_, iii. p. 84. + + [11] The cave of Adullam has been traditionally placed (since the + 12th century) at Khareitun, two hours' journey south of Bethlehem. + But the town of Adullam, which has not been identified with any + certainty, lay in the low country of Judah (Josh. xv. 35). The "cave" + is also spoken of as a "hold" or fortress, and this is everywhere the + true reading. The name has been identified with '_Id-el-ma_ (or + -_miye_) about 12 m. S.W. of Bethlehem. + + [12] According to a late Rabbinical story, David, like Bruce of + Scotland, was once saved by a spider which spun its web over the cave + wherein he was concealed. + + [13] The law of the distribution of booty after war enacted by David + (xxx. 24 sqq.) is given as a Mosaic precedent in the post-exilic + priestly legislation (Num. xxxi. 27). On the importance of this + explicit statement, see W. R. Smith, _Old Test. in Jewish Church_(^2), + 386 sq. + + [14] Bethel (ver. 27) is probably the Bethuel near Ziklag (1 Chron. + iv. 30). David's friendly relations with the Philistines find a + parallel in Isaac's covenant with Abimelech (q.v.). In Ps. xxxiv. the + latter name actually appears in place of Achish. + + [15] _Fundamente Israel. u. jud. Gesch._ (1896), pp. 23 sqq.; see + also Winckler, _Gesch. Isr._ i. 24; _Keilinschr. u. d. Alte + Test._(^3), p. 228 sqq. + + [16] 1 Chron. xviii. 1 reads "Gath and her dependent villages"; the + original reading is a matter for conjecture. + + [17] Cf. the idea in 1 Kings xxii. 19-23; Ezek. xiv. 9; contrast 1 + Chron. xxi. 1. + + [18] This un-Hebraic name, which is not unlike _aron_, "ark," should + possibly be corrected to Adonijah (Cheyne, _Ency. Bib. s.v._). + + [19] David destroyed two-thirds of the Moabites--presumably of their + fighting men (2 Sam. viii. 2); Mesha destroys the inhabitants of the + captured cities in honour of his god Chemosh. + + [20] It finds a parallel in the fate of the heralds of Orchomenus + (Frazer, _Pausan_. v. 135) and in an Arabian story (Ibn Athir, viii. + 360; Noldeke in Budde, _Hand-Commentar, ad loc._); cf. also Ewald, + iii. 152. + + [21] On the questions raised see the commentaries upon 2 Sam. viii. + and x. and the _Ency. Biblica, s.vv._ "David," "Merom," "Zobah." The + main problem is whether the account of David's rule has been + exaggerated, or whether the attempt has been made to throw back to + the time of the first king of all Israel later political conditions. + + [22] Viz. the present position of 2 Sam. ix.-xx. after the + miscellaneous collection of details in v.-viii. See, on the other + hand, the view of 1 Kings v. 3, 4. + + [23] The present position of this incident, immediately after + Absalom's rebellion was quelled, is almost inconceivable (Winckler, + H. P. Smith, B. Luther, Ed. Meyer). See next page. + + [24] He was five years of age at the battle of Gilboa (iv. 4), and is + now grown up and with a young child (ix. 12). But the narrative loses + its point unless David's kindness "for Jonathan's sake" comes at an + early date soon after he became king, and although the youth is found + at Lo-debar (east of the Jordan) under the protection of Machir, the + independent fragment in ii. 8 sqq. implies that the Israelites had + recovered the position they had lost at the battle of Gilboa. + + [25] There is an unmistakable reference to the occurrence in the + episode of Shimei, who hovers in the background of Absalom's revolt + with a large body of men at his command (xvi. 7 sqq.). + + [26] If Ewald's brilliant interpretation of an obscure word in 2 Sam. + xiii. 32 be correct. + + [27] "Israelite" (2 Sam. xvii. 25) is a very unnecessary designation; + 1 Chron. ii. 17 would make him an Ishmaelite. + + [28] See HEBREW RELIGION, MESSIAH, PROPHET. + + [29] Kuenen, "The Critical Method," _Modern Review_, 1880, p. 701 + (_Gesammelte Abhandlungen_, Germ. ed. by Budde, p. 33). + + [30] His charges to Solomon in 1 Kings ii. 5-9 do not arise + necessarily from motives of revenge; a young and untried sovereign + could not afford to continue the clemency which his father was strong + enough to extend to dangerous enemies. Apart from this, it is + possible that the words have been written to shift from Solomon's + shoulders the bloodshed incurred in establishing his throne. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 7, Slice 9, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 38799.txt or 38799.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/7/9/38799/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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