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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 7, Slice 9 + "Dagupan" to "David" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 9, 2012 [EBook #38799] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME VII SLICE IX<br /><br /> +Dagupan to David</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">DAGUPAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">DANDY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">DAHABEAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">DANEGELD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">DAHL, HANS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">DANELAGH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">DAHL, JOHANN CHRISTIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">DANGERFIELD, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">DAHL, MICHAEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">DANIEL</a> (biblical figure)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">DAHL, VLADIMIR IVANOVICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">DANIEL</a> (Russian travel-writer)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">DAHLBERG, ERIK JOHANSEN, COUNT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">DANIEL, GABRIEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">DAHLGREN, JOHN ADOLF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">DANIEL, SAMUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">DAHLGREN, KARL FREDRIK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">DANIELL, JOHN FREDERIC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">DAHLIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">DANIELL, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">DAHLMANN, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">DANNAT, WILLIAM T.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">DAHLSTJERNA, GUNNO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">DANNECKER, JOHANN HEINRICH VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">DAHN, JULIUS SOPHUS FELIX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">DANNEWERK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">DAHOMEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">DANSVILLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">DAILLÉ, JEAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">DANTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">DAIRY and DAIRY-FARMING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">DANTON, GEORGE JACQUES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">DAIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">DANUBE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">DAISY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">DANVERS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">DAKAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">DANVILLE</a> (Illinois, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">DALAGUETE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">DANVILLE</a> (Kentucky, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">DALBEATTIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">DANVILLE</a> (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">DALBERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">DANVILLE</a> (Virginia, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">DALE, ROBERT WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">DANZIG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">DALE, SIR THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">DAPHLA HILLS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">DALECARLIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">DAPHNAE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">DALGAIRNS, JOHN DOBREE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">DAPHNE</a> (Greek mythology)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">DALGARNO, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">DAPHNE</a> (genus of shrubs)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">DALHOUSIE, JAMES ANDREW BROUN RAMSAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">DAPHNEPHORIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">DALHOUSIE, FOX MAULE RAMSAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">DAPHNIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">DALIN, OLOF VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">DARÁB</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">DALKEITH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">DARBHANGA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">DALKEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">D’ARBLAY, FRANCES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">DALLAS, ALEXANDER JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">DARBOY, GEORGES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">DALLAS, GEORGE MIFFLIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">DARCY, THOMAS DARCY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">DALLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">DARDANELLES</a> (strait)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">DALLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">DARDANELLES</a> (town)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">DALLIN, CYRUS EDWIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">DARDANUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">DALLING AND BULWER, WILLIAM HENRY LYTTON EARLE BULWER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">DARDISTAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">DALLMEYER, JOHN HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">DARES PHRYGIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">DALL’ ONGARO, FRANCESCO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">DAR-ES-SALAAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">DALMATIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">DARESTE DE LA CHAVANNE, ANTOINE ELISABETH CLÉOPHAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">DALMATIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">DARESTE DE LA CHAVANNE, RODOLPHE MADELEINE CLÉOPHAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">DALMELLINGTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">DARFUR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">DALOU, JULES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">DARGAI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">DALRADIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">DARGOMIJSKY, ALEXANDER SERGEIVICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">DALRIADA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">DARIAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">DALRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">DARIEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">DALTON, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">DARIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">DALTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">DARJEELING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">DALTON-IN-FURNESS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">DARLEY, GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">DALY, AUGUSTIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">DARLING, GRACE HORSLEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">DALYELL, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">DARLING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">DAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">DARLINGTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">DAMAGES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">DARLINGTONIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">DAMANHŪR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">DARLY, MATTHIAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">DAMARALAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">DARMESTETER, JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">DAMASCENING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">DARMSTADT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">DAMASCIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">DARNLEY, HENRY STEWART</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">DAMASCUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">DARRANG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">DAMASK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">DARTFORD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">DAMASK STEEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">DARTMOOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">DAMASUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">DARTMOUTH</a> (town of Canada)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">DAMAUN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">DARTMOUTH</a> (town of England)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">DAME</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">DARTMOUTH COLLEGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">DAME’S VIOLET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">DARTMOUTH, EARL OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">DAMGHAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">DARU, PIERRE ANTOINE NOËL BRUNO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">DAMIANI, PIETRO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">DARWEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">DAMIEN, FATHER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">DAMIENS, ROBERT FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">DARWIN, ERASMUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">DAMIETTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">DASENT, SIR GEORGE WEBBE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">DAMIRI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">DASHKOV, CATHERINA ROMANOVNA VORONTSOV</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">DAMIRON, JEAN PHILIBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">DASS, PETTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">DAMJANICH, JÁNOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">DASYURE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">DAMMAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">DATE PALM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">DAMMARTIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">DATIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">DAMME</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">DATIVE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">DAMOCLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">DATOLITE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">DAMOH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">DAUB, KARL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">DAMON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">DAUBENTON, LOUIS-JEAN-MARIE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">DAMOPHON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">DAUBENY, CHARLES GILES BRIDLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">DAMP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">DAUBIGNY, CHARLES FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">DAMPIER, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">DAUBRÉE, GABRIEL AUGUSTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">DAN</a> (tribe of Israel)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">DAUDET, ALPHONSE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">DAN</a> (town of ancient Israel)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">DAULATABAD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">DANA, CHARLES ANDERSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">DAUMIER, HONORÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">DANA, FRANCIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">DAUN (DHAUN), LEOPOLD JOSEF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">DANA, JAMES DWIGHT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">DAUNOU, PIERRE CLAUDE FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">DANAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">DAUPHIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">DANAO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">DAUPHINÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">DANAUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">DAURAT, JEAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">DANBURITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">DAVENANT, CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">DANBURY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">DAVENANT, SIR WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">DANBY, FRANCIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">DAVENPORT, EDWARD LOOMIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">DANCE</a> (English family)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">DAVENPORT, ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">DANCE</a> (dancing)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">DAVENPORT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">DANCOURT, FLORENT CARTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">DAVENTRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">DANDELION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">DAVEY OF FERNHURST, HORACE DAVEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">DANDOLO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">DAVID</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">DANDOLO, VINCENZO</a></td> <td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page731" id="page731"></a>731</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">DAGUPAN,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> a town and the most important commercial centre +of the province of Pangasinán, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on a +branch of the Agno river near its entrance into the Gulf of +Lingayen, 120 m. by rail N.N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903), 20,357. +It is served by the Manila & Dagupan railway. Dagupan has a +healthy climate. It is the chief point of exportation for a very +rich province, which produces sugar, indigo, Indian corn, copra, +and especially rice. There are several rice mills here. Salt is an +important export, being manufactured in salt water swamps and +marshes throughout the province of Pangasinán (whose name, +from <i>asin</i>, “salt,” means “the place where salt is produced”). +In these, marshes grows the nipa palm, from which a liquor is +distilled—there are a number of small distilleries here. Dagupan +has a small shipyard in which sailing vessels and steam launches +are constructed. The principal language is Pangasinán.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAHABEAH<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (also spelt dahabīya, dahabīyeh, dahabeeyah, +&c.), an Arabic word (variously derived from <i>dahab</i>, gold, and +<i>dahab</i>, one of the forms of the verb to go) for a native passenger +boat used on the Nile. The typical form is that of a barge-like +house-boat provided with sails, resembling the painted galleys +represented on the tombs of the Pharaohs. Similar state barges +were used by the Mahommedan rulers of Egypt, and from the +circumstance that these vessels were ornamented with gilding is +attributed the usual derivation of the name from gold. Before +the introduction of steamers dahabeahs were generally used by +travellers ascending the Nile, and they are still the favourite +means of travelling for the leisured and wealthy classes. The +modern dahabeah is often made of iron, draws about 2 ft. of +water, and is provided with one very large and one small sail. +According to size it provides accommodation for from two to a +dozen passengers. Steam dahabeahs are also built to meet the +requirements of tourists.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAHL, HANS<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1840-  ), Norwegian painter, was born at +Hardanger. After being in the Swedish army he studied art at +Karlsruhe and at Düsseldorf, being a notable painter of landscape +and <i>genre</i>. His work has considerable humour, but his colouring +is hard and rather crude. In 1889 he settled in Berlin. His +pictures are very popular in Norway.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAHL, JOHANN CHRISTIAN<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1778-1857), Norwegian landscape +painter, was born in Bergen. He formed his style without +much tuition, remaining at Bergen till he was twenty-four, +when he left for the better field of Copenhagen, and ultimately +settled in Dresden in 1818. He is usually included in the German +school, although he was thus close on forty years of age when he +finally took up his abode in Dresden, where he was quickly +received into the Academy and became professor. German +landscape-painting was not greatly advanced at that time, and +Dahl contributed to improve it. He continued to reside in +Dresden, though he travelled into Tirol and in Italy, painting +many pictures, one of his best being that of the “Outbreak of +Vesuvius, 1820.” He was fond of extraordinary effects, as seen +in his “Winter at Munich,” and his “Dresden by Moonlight;” +also the “Haven of Copenhagen,” and the “Schloss of Friedrichsburg,” +under the same condition. At Dresden may be seen +many of his works, notably a large picture called “Norway,” +and a “Storm at Sea.” He was received into several academic +bodies, and had the orders of Wasa and St Olaf sent him by the +king of Norway and Sweden.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAHL, MICHAEL<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1656-1743), Swedish portrait painter, was +born at Stockholm. He received his first professional education +from Ernst Klocke, who had a respectable position in that +northern town, which, however, Dahl left in his twenty-second +year. His first destination was England, where he did not long +remain, but crossed over to Paris, and made his way at last to +Rome, there taking up his abode for a considerable time, painting +the portraits of Queen Christina and other celebrities. In 1688 +he returned to England, and became for some years a dangerous +rival to Kneller. He died in London. His portraits still exist +in many houses, but his name is not always preserved with them. +Nagler (<i>Künstler-Lexicon</i>) says those at Hampton Court and at +Petworth contest the palm with those of the better known and +vastly more employed painter.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAHL<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (or <b>DALE</b>), <b>VLADIMIR IVANOVICH</b> (1802-1872), +Russian author and philologist, was born of Scandinavian parentage +in 1802, and received his education at the naval cadets’ institution +at St Petersburg. He joined the Black Sea fleet in 1819; +but at a later date he entered the military service, and was thus +engaged in the Polish campaign of 1831, and in the expedition +against Khiva. He was afterwards appointed to a medical post +in one of the government hospitals at St Petersburg, and was +ultimately transferred to a situation in the civil service. The +latter years of his life were spent at Moscow, and he died there on +November 3 (October 22), 1872. Under the name of Kossack +Lugansky he obtained considerable fame by his stories of Russian +life:—<i>The Dream and the Waking</i>, <i>A Story of Misery</i>, <i>Happiness, +and Truth</i>, <i>The Door-Keeper</i> (Dvernik), <i>The Officer’s Valet</i> +(Denshchik). His greatest work, however, was a <i>Dictionary of +the Living Russian Tongue</i> (Tolkovyi Slovar Zhivago Velikorusskago +Yasika), which appeared in four volumes between 1861 +and 1866, and is of the most essential service to the student of +the popular literature and folk-lore of Russia. It was based on +the results of his own investigations throughout the various +provinces of Russia,—investigations which had furnished him +with no fewer than 4000 popular tales and upwards of 30,000 +proverbs. Among his other publications may be mentioned +<i>Bemerkungen zu Zimmermann’s Entwurf des Kriegstheaters +Russlands gegen Khiwa</i>, published in German at Orenburg, and a +<i>Handbook of Botany</i> (Moscow, 1849).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A collected edition of his works appeared at St Petersburg in +8 volumes, 1860-1861.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAHLBERG<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Dahlbergh</span>), <b>ERIK JOHANSEN, COUNT</b> (1625-1703), +Swedish soldier and engineer, was born at Stockholm. +His early studies took the direction of the science of fortification, +and as an engineer officer he saw service in the latter years of the +Thirty Years’ War, and in Poland. As adjutant-general and +engineer adviser to Charles X. (Gustavus), he had a great share +in the famous crossing of the frozen Belts, and at the sieges of +Copenhagen and Kronborg he directed the engineers. In spite +of these distinguished services, Dahlberg remained an obscure +lieutenant-colonel for many years. His patriotism, however, +proved superior to the tempting offers Charles II. of England +made to induce him to enter the British service, though, in that +age of professional soldiering, there was nothing in the offer that +a man of honour could not accept. At last his talents were +recognized, and in 1676 he became director-general of fortifications. +In the wars of the next twenty-five years Dahlberg again +rendered distinguished service, alike in attack (as at Helsingborg +in 1677, and Dünamünde in 1700) and defence (as in the two +sieges of Riga in 1700): and his work in repairing the fortresses +of his own country, not less important, earned for him the title +of the “Vauban of Sweden.” He was also the founder of the +Swedish engineer corps. He retired as field-marshal in 1702, and +died the following year.</p> + +<p>Erik Dahlberg was responsible for the fine collection of +drawings called <i>Suecia antiqua et hodierna</i> (Stockholm, 1660-1716; +2nd edition, 1856; 3rd edition, 1864-1865), and assisted +Pufendorf in his <i>Histoire de Charles X Gustave</i>. He wrote a +memoir of his life (to be found in Svenska Bibliotek, 1757) and an +account of the campaigns of Charles X. (ed. Lundblad, Stockholm, +1823).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAHLGREN, JOHN ADOLF<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1809-1870), admiral in the U.S. +navy, was the son of the Swedish consul at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page732" id="page732"></a>732</span> +and was born in that city on the 13th of November 1809. +He entered the United States navy in 1826, and saw some service +in the Civil War in command of the South Atlantic blockading +squadron. But he was chiefly notable as a scientific officer. +His knowledge of mathematics caused him to be employed on +the coast survey in 1834. In 1837 his eyesight threatened to +fail, he retired in 1838-1842, and in 1847 he was transferred +to the ordnance department. In this post he applied himself +to the improvement of the guns of the U.S. navy. He was the +inventor of the smooth bore gun which bore his name, but was +from its shape familiarly known as “the soda water bottle.” +It was used in the Civil War, and for several years afterwards in +the United States navy. Dahlgren’s guns were first mounted +in a vessel named the “Experiment,” which cruised under his +command from 1857 till 1859. They were “the first practical +application of results obtained by experimental determinations +of pressure at different points along the bore, by Colonel Bomford’s +tests—that is by boring holes in the walls of the gun, +through which the pressure acts upon other bodies, such as +pistol balls, pistons, &c.” (Cf. article by J. M. Brooke in +Hamersley’s <i>Naval Encyclopaedia</i>.) When the Civil War broke +out, he was on ordnance duty in the Washington navy yard, +and he was one of the three officers who did not resign from +confederate sympathies. His rank at the time was commander, +and the command could only by held by a captain. President +Lincoln insisted on retaining Commander Dahlgren, and he was +qualified to keep the post by special act of Congress. He became +post-captain in 1862 and rear-admiral in 1863. He commanded +the Washington navy yard when he died on the 12th of July 1870.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A memoir of Admiral Dahlgren by his widow was published at +Boston in 1882.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAHLGREN, KARL FREDRIK<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1791-1844), Swedish poet, +was born at Stensbruk in Östergötland on the 20th of June 1791. +At a time when literary partisanship ran high in Sweden, and the +writers divided themselves into “Goths” and “Phosphorists,” +Dahlgren made himself indispensable to the Phosphorists by his +polemical activity. In the mock-heroic poem of <i>Markalls +sömnlösa nätter</i> (Markall’s Sleepless Nights), in which the Phosphorists +ridiculed the academician Per Adam Wallmark and +others, Dahlgren, who was a genuine humorist, took a prominent +part. In 1825 he published <i>Babels Torn</i> (The Tower of Babel), a +satire, and a comedy, <i>Argus in Olympen</i>; and in 1828 two +volumes of poems. In 1829 he was appointed to an ecclesiastical +post in Stockholm, which he held until his death. In a series of +odes and dithyrambic pieces, entitled <i>Mollbergs Epistlar</i> (1819, +1820), he strove to emulate the wonderful lyric genius of K. M. +Bellman, of whom he was a student and follower. From 1825 to +1827 he edited a critical journal entitled <i>Kometen</i> (The Comet), +and in company with Almqvist he founded the <i>Manhemsförbund</i>, +a short-lived society of agricultural socialists. In 1834 +he collected his poems in one volume; and in 1837 appeared his +last book, <i>Angbåts-Sånger</i> (Steamboat Songs). On the 1st of +May 1844 he died at Stockholm. Dahlgren is one of the best +humorous writers that Sweden has produced; but he was perhaps +at his best in realistic and idyllic description. His little poem of +<i>Zephyr and the Girl</i>, which is to be found in every selection from +Swedish poetry, is a good example of his sensuous and ornamented +style.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His works were collected and published after his death by A. J. +Arwidsson (5 vols., Stockholm, 1847-1852).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAHLIA,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> a genus of herbaceous plants of the natural order +Compositae, so called after Dr Dahl, a pupil of Linnaeus. The +genus contains about nine species indigenous in the high sandy +plains of Mexico. The dahlia was first introduced into Britain +from Spain in 1789 by the marchioness of Bute. The species was +probably <i>D. variabilis</i>, whence by far the majority of the forms +now common have originated. The flowers, at the time of the +first introduction of the plant, were single, with a yellow disk +and dull scarlet rays; under cultivation since the beginning of +the 19th century in France and England, flowers of numerous +brilliant hues have been produced. The flower has been modified +also from a flat to a globular shape, and the arrangement of the +florets has been rendered quite distinct in the ranunculus and +anemone-like kinds. The ordinary natural height of the dahlia +is about 7 or 8 ft., but one of the dwarf races grows to only 18 in. +With changes in the flower, changes in the shape of the seed +have been brought about by cultivation; varieties of the plant +have been produced which require more moisture than others; +and the period of flowering has been made considerably earlier. +In 1808 dahlias were described as flowering from September to +November, but some of the dwarf varieties at present grown are +in full blossom in the middle of June.</p> + +<p>The large number of varieties may be classed as under the +following heads: (1) <i>Single dahlias</i>. These have been derived +from <i>D. coccinea</i>; they have a disk of tubular florets surrounded +by the large showy ray florets. (2) <i>Show dahlias</i>, large and double +with flowers self-coloured or pale-coloured and edged or tipped +with a darker colour. (3) <i>Fancy dahlias</i>, resembling the show +but having the florets striped or tipped with a second tint. (4) +<i>Bouquet</i> or <i>Pompon dahlias</i>, with much smaller double flowers +of various colours. (5) <i>Cactus dahlias</i>, derived from D. Juarezi, a +form which has given rise to a beautiful race with pointed starry +flowers. (6) <i>Paeony-flowered dahlias</i>, a new but not pretty race, +with large floppy heads, broad florets and several disk florets in +centre.</p> + +<p>New varieties are procured from seed, which should be sown in +pots or pans towards the end of March, and placed in a hotbed or +propagating pit, the young plants being pricked off into pots or +boxes, and gradually hardened off for planting out in June; they +will flower the same season if the summer is a genial one. The +older varieties are propagated by dividing the large tuberous +roots, in doing which care must be taken to leave an eye to each +portion of tuber, otherwise it will not grow. Rare varieties are +sometimes grafted on the roots of others. The best and most +general mode of propagation is by cuttings, to obtain which, the +old tubers are placed in heat in February, and as the young +shoots, which rise freely from them, attain the height of 3 in., +they are taken off with a heel, and planted singly in small pots +filled with fine sandy soil, and plunged in a moderate heat. They +root speedily, and are then transferred to larger pots in light rich +soil, and their growth encouraged until the planting-out season +arrives, about the middle of June north of the Thames.</p> + +<p>Dahlias succeed best in an open situation, and in rich deep +loam, but there is scarcely any garden soil in which they will not +thrive, if it is manured. For the production of fine show flowers +the ground must be deeply trenched, and well manured annually. +The branches as well as the blossoms require a considerable but +judicious amount of thinning; they also need shading in some +cases. The plants should be protected from cold winds, and +when watered the whole of the foliage should be wetted. They +may stand singly like common border flowers, but have the most +imposing appearance when seen in masses arranged according to +their height. Florists usually devote a plot of ground to them, +and plant them in lines 5 to 10 ft. apart. This is done about the +beginning of June, sheltering them if necessary from late frosts +by inverted pots or in some other convenient way. Old roots +often throw up a multitude of stems, which render thinning +necessary. As the plants increase in height, they are furnished +with strong stakes, to secure them from high winds. Dahlias +flower on till they are interrupted by frost in autumn. The roots +are then taken up, dried, and stored in a cellar, or some other +place where they may be secure from frost and moisture. Earwigs +are very destructive, eating out the young buds and florets. +Small flower-pots half filled with dry moss and inverted on stakes +placed among the branches, form a useful trap.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAHLMANN, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1785-1860), German +historian and politician, was born on the 13th of May 1785; +he came of an old Hanseatic family of Wismar, which then +belonged to Sweden. His father, who was the burgomaster of +the town, intended him to study theology, but his bent was +towards classical philology, and this he studied from 1802 to +1806 at the universities of Copenhagen and Halle, and again at +Copenhagen. After finishing his studies, he translated some of +the Greek tragic poets, and the <i>Clouds</i> of Aristophanes. But he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page733" id="page733"></a>733</span> +was also interested in modern literature and philosophy; and +the troubles of the times, of which he had personal experience, +aroused in him, as in so many of his contemporaries, a strong +feeling of German patriotism, though throughout his life he was +always proud of his connexion with Scandinavia, and Gustavus +Adolphus was his particular hero. In 1809, on the news of the +outbreak of war in Austria, Dahlmann, together with the poet +Heinrich von Kleist, whom he had met in Dresden, went to +Bohemia, and was afterwards with the Imperial army, up till +the battle of Aspern, with the somewhat vague object of trying +to convert the Austrian war into a German one. This hope was +shattered by the defeat of Wagram. He now decided to try his +fortunes in Denmark, where he had influential relations. After +taking his doctor’s degree at Wittenberg (1810) he qualified at +Copenhagen in 1811, with an essay on the origins of the ancient +theatre, as a lecturer on ancient literature and history, on which +he delivered lectures in Latin. His influential friends soon +brought him further advancement. As early as 1812 he was +summoned to Kiel, as successor to the historian Dietrich Hermann +Hegewisch (1746-1812). This appointment was in two +respects a decisive moment in his career; on the one hand it +made him give his whole attention to a subject for which he +was admirably suited, but to which he had so far given only a +secondary interest; and on the other hand, it threw him into +politics.</p> + +<p>In 1815 he obtained, in addition to his professorate, the +position of secretary to the perpetual deputation of the estates of +Schleswig-Holstein. In this capacity he began, by means of +memoirs or of articles in the <i>Kieler Blätter</i>, which he founded +himself, to appear as an able and zealous champion of the +half-forgotten rights of the Elbe duchies, as against Denmark, +and of their close connexion with Germany. It was he upon +whom the Danes afterwards threw the blame of having invented +the Schleswig-Holstein question; certainly his <span class="correction" title="amended from activites">activities</span> form +an important link in the chain of events which eventually led +to the solution of 1864. So far as this interest affected himself, +the chief profit lay in the fact that it deepened his conception +of the state, and directed it to more practical ends. Whereas +at that time mere speculation dominated both the French +Liberalism of the school of Rotteck, and Karl Ludwig von +Haller’s Romanticist doctrine of the Christian state, Dahlmann +took as his premisses the circumstances as he found them, +and evolved the new out of the old by a quiet process of development. +Moreover, in the inevitable conflict with the Danish +crown his upright point of view and his German patriotism were +further confirmed. After his transference to Göttingen in 1829 +he had the opportunity of working in the same spirit. As +confidant of the duke of Cambridge, he was allowed to take a +share in framing the Hanoverian constitution of 1833, which +remodelled the old aristocratic government in a direction which +had become inevitable since the July revolution in Paris; and +when in 1837 the new king Ernest Augustus declared the constitution +invalid, it was Dahlmann who inspired the famous +protest of the seven professors of Göttingen. He was deprived +of his position and banished, but he had the satisfaction of +knowing that German national feeling received a mighty impulse +from his courageous action, while public subscriptions prevented +him from material cares.</p> + +<p>After he had lived for several years in Leipzig and Jena, King +Frederick William IV. appointed him in October 1842 to a +professorship at Bonn. The years that followed were those of +his highest celebrity. His <i>Politik</i> (1835) had already made him +a great name as a writer; he now published his <i>Dänische +Geschichte</i> (1840-1843), a historical work of the first rank; and +this was soon followed by histories of the English and French +revolutions, which, though of less scientific value, exercised a +decisive influence upon public opinion by their open advocacy +of the system of constitutional monarchy. As a teacher too he +was much beloved. Though no orator, and in spite of a personality +not particularly amiable or winning, he produced a profound +impression upon young men by the pregnancy of his expression, +a consistent logical method of thought based on Kant and by +the manliness of his character. When the revolution of 1848 +broke out, the “father of German nationality,” as the provisional +government at Milan called him, found himself the centre +of universal interest. Both Mecklenburg and Prussia offered +him in vain the post of envoy to the diet of the confederation. +Naturally, too, he was elected to the national assembly at +Frankfort, and took a leading part in the constitutional committees +appointed first by the diet, then by the parliament. His +object was to make Germany as far as possible a united constitutional +monarchy, with the exclusion of the whole of Austria, or +at least, of its non-German parts. Prussia was to provide the +emperor, but at the same time—and in this lay the doctrinaire +weakness of the system—was to give up its separate existence, +consecrated by history, in the same way as the other states. +When, therefore, Frederick William IV., without showing any +anxiety to bind himself by the conditions laid down at Frankfort, +concluded with Denmark the seven months’ truce of Malmö +(26th August 1848), Dahlmann proposed that the national +parliament should refuse to recognize the truce, with the express +intention of clearing up once for all the relations of the parliament +with the court of Berlin. The motion was passed by a +small majority (September 5th); but the members of Dahlmann’s +party were just those who voted against it, and it was +they who on the 17th of September reversed the previous vote +and passed a resolution accepting the truce, after Dahlmann had +failed to form a ministry on the basis of the resolution of the 5th, +owing to his objection to the Radicals. Dahlmann afterwards +described this as the decisive turning-point in the fate of the +parliament. He did not, however, at once give up all hope. +Though he took but little active part in parliamentary debates, +he was very active on commissions and in party conferences, +and it was largely owing to him that a German constitution was +at last evolved, and that Frederick William IV. was elected +hereditary emperor (28th of March 1849). He was accordingly +one of the deputation which offered the crown to the king in +Berlin. The king’s refusal was less of a surprise to him than to +most of his colleagues. He counted on being able to compel +recognition of the constitution by the moral pressure of the +consent of the people. It was only when the attitude of the +Radicals made it clear to him that this course would lead to a +revolution, that he decided, after a long struggle, to retire from +the national parliament (21st May). He was still, however, one +of the chief promoters of the well-known conference of the +imperial party at Gotha, the proceedings of which were not, +however, satisfactory to him; and he took part in the sessions +of the first Prussian chamber (1849-1850) and of the parliament +of Erfurt (1850). But finally, convinced that for the moment +all efforts towards the unity of Germany were unavailing, he +retired from political life, though often pressed to stand for +election, and again took up his work of teaching at Bonn. His +last years were, however, saddened by illness, bereavement and +continual friction with his colleagues. His death took place on +the 5th of December 1860, following on an apoplectic fit. He was +a man whose personality had contributed to the progress of the +world, and whose teaching was to continue to exercise a far-reaching +influence on the development of German affairs.</p> + +<p>His chief works were:—<i>Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte +nach der Folge der Begebenheiten geordnet</i> (1830, 7th edition of +Dahlmann-Waitz, <i>Quellenkunde</i>, Leipzig, 1906); <i>Politik, auf +den Grund und das Mass der gegebenen Zustände zurückgeführt</i> +(1 vol., 1835); <i>Geschichte Dänemarks</i> (3 vols., 1840-1843); +<i>Geschichte der englischen Revolution</i> (1844); <i>Geschichte der +französischen Revolution</i> (1845).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Springer, <i>Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann</i> (2 vols., 1870-1872); +and H. v. Treitschke, <i>Histor. und polit. Aufsätze</i>, i. 365 +et seq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. Lu.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAHLSTJERNA, GUNNO<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1661-1709), Swedish poet, whose +original surname was Eurelius, was born on the 7th of September +1661 in the parish of Öhr in Dalsland, where his father was +rector. He entered the university of Upsala in 1677, and after +gaining his degree entered the government office of land-surveying. +He was sent in 1681 on professional business to Livonia, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page734" id="page734"></a>734</span> +then under Swedish rule. A dissertation read at Leipzig in 1687 +brought him the offer of a professorial chair in the university, +which he refused. Returning to Sweden he executed commissions +in land-surveying directed by King Charles XI., and in +1699 he became head of the whole department. In 1702 he was +ennobled under the name of Dahlstjerna. He wandered over +the whole of the coast of the Baltic, Livonia, Rügen and +Pomerania, preparing maps which still exist in the office of +public land-surveying in Stockholm. His death, which took +place in Pomerania on his forty-eighth birthday, 7th of September +1709, is said to have been hastened by the disastrous news of +the battle of Poltava. Dahlstjerna’s patriotism was touching +in its pathos and intensity, and during his long periods of professional +exile he comforted himself by the composition of songs +to his beloved Sweden. His genius was most irregular, but at +his best he easily surpasses all the Swedish poets of his time. +His best-known original work is <i>Kungaskald</i> (Stettin, 1697), an +elegy on the death of Charles XI. It is written in alexandrines, +arranged in <i>ottava rima</i>. The poem is pompous and allegorical, +but there are passages full of melody and high thoughts. +Dahlstjerna was a reformer in language, and it has been well +said by Atterbom that in this poem “he treats the Swedish +speech just as dictatorially as Charles XI. and Charles XII. +treated the Swedish nation.” In 1690 was printed at Stettin +his paraphrase of the <i>Pastor Fido</i> of Guarini. His most popular +work is his <i>Götha kämpavisa om Konungen och Herr Peder</i> (The +Goth’s Battle Song, concerning the King and Master Peter; +Stockholm, 1701). The King is Charles XII. and Master Peter +is the tsar of Russia. This spirited ballad lived almost until our +own days on the lips of the people as a folk-song.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The works of Dahlstjerna have been collected by P. Hanselli, in +the <i>Samlade Vitterhetsarbeten af svenska Författare från Stjernhjelm +till Dalin</i> (Upsala, 1856, &c.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAHN, JULIUS SOPHUS FELIX<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1834-  ), German historian, +jurist and poet, was born on the 9th of February 1834 in +Hamburg, where his father, Friedrich Dahn (1811-1889), was a +leading actor at the city theatre. His mother, Constance Dahn, +née Le Gay, was a noted actress. In 1834 the family moved to +Munich, where the parents took leading rôles in the classical +German drama, until they retired from the stage: the mother +in 1865 and the father in 1878. Felix Dahn studied law and +philosophy in Munich and Berlin from 1849 to 1853. His first +works were in jurisprudence, <i>Über die Wirkung der Klagverjährung +bei Obligationen</i> (Munich, 1855), and <i>Studien zur Geschichte +der germanischen Gottesurteile</i> (Munich, 1857). In 1857 he +became docent in German law at Munich university, and in 1862 +professor-extraordinary, but in 1863 was called to Würzburg to +a full professorship. In 1872 he removed to the university of +Königsberg, and in 1888 settled at Breslau, becoming rector of +the university in 1895. Meanwhile in addition to many legal +works of high standing, he had begun the publication of that +long series of histories and historical romances which has made +his name a household word in Germany. The great history of +the German migrations, <i>Die Könige der Germanen</i>, Bände i.-vi. +(Munich and Würzburg, 1861-1870), Bände vii.-xi. (Leipzig, +1894-1908), was a masterly study in constitutional history as +well as a literary work of high merit, which carries the narrative +down to the dissolution of the Carolingian empire. In his +<i>Urgeschichte der germanischen und romanischen Völker</i> (Berlin, +1881-1890), Dahn went a step farther back still, but here as in +his <i>Geschichte der deutschen Urzeit</i> (Gotha, 1883-1888), a wealth of +picturesque detail has been worked over and resolved into history +with such imaginative insight and critical skill as to make real +and present the indistinct beginnings of German society. Together +with these larger works Dahn wrote many monographs +and studies upon primitive German society. Many of his essays +were collected in a series of six volumes entitled <i>Bausteine</i> +(Berlin, 1879-1884). Not less important than his histories are +the historical romances, the best-known of which, <i>Ein Kampf +um Rom</i>, in four volumes (Leipzig, 1876), which has gone through +many later editions, was also the first of the series. Others are +<i>Odhins Trost</i> (Leipzig, 1880); <i>Die Kreuzfahrer</i> (Leipzig, 1884); +<i>Odhins Rache</i> (Leipzig, 1891); <i>Julian der Abtrünnige</i> (Leipzig, +1894), and one of the most popular, <i>Bis zum Tode getreu</i> (Leipzig, +1887). The list is too long to be given in full, yet almost all are +well-known. Parallel with this great production of learned and +imaginative works, Dahn published some twenty small volumes +of poetry. The most notable of these are the epics of the early +German period. His wife Therese, <i>née</i> Freiin von Droste-Hülshoff, +was joint-author with him of <i>Walhall, Germanische +Götter und Heldensagen</i> (Leipzig, 1898).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A collected edition of his works of fiction, both in prose and verse, +has reached twenty-one volumes (Leipzig, 1898), and a new edition +was published in 1901. Dahn also published four volumes of +memoirs, <i>Erinnerungen</i> (Leipzig, 1890-1895).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAHOMEY<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Dahomé</i>), a country of West Africa, formerly +an independent kingdom, now a French colony. Dahomey is +bounded S. by the Gulf of Guinea, E. by Nigeria (British), N. +and N.W. by the French possessions on the middle Niger, and W. +by the German colony of Togoland. The French colony extends +far north of the limits of the ancient kingdom of the same name. +With a coast-line of only 75 m. (1° 38′ E. to 2° 46′ 55″ E.), the +area of the colony is about 40,000 sq. m., and the population over +1,000,000. As far as 9° N. the width of the colony is no greater +than the coast-line. From this point, the colony broadens out both +eastward and westward, attaining a maximum width of 200 m. +It includes the western part of Borgu (q.v.), and reaches the Niger +at a spot a little above Illo. Its greatest length N. to S. is 430 m.</p> + +<p><i>Physical Features.</i>—The littoral, part of the old Slave Coast +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guinea,</a></span>), is very low, sandy and obstructed by a bar. +Behind the seashore is a line of lagoons, where small steamers +can ply; east to west they are those of Porto Novo (or Lake +Nokue), Whydah and Grand Popo. The Weme (300 m. long), +known in its upper course as the Ofe, the most important river +running south, drains the colony from the Bariba country to +Porto Novo, entering the lagoon so named. The Zu is a western +affluent of the Weme. Farther west is the Kuffu (150 m. long), +which, before entering the Whydah lagoon, broadens out into a +lake or lagoon called Ahémé, 20 m. long by 5 m. broad. The Makru +and Kergigoto, each of which has various affluents, flow north-east +to the Niger, which in the part of its course forming the +north-east frontier of the colony is only navigable for small +vessels and that with great difficulty (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Niger</a></span>).</p> + +<p>For some 50 m. inland the country is flat, and, after the first +mile or two of sandy waste is passed, covered with dense vegetation. +At this distance (50 m.) from the coast is a great swamp +known as the Lama Marsh. It extends east to west some 25 m. +and north to south 6 to 9 m. North of the swamp the land rises +by regular stages to about 1650 ft., the high plateau falling again +to the basin of the Niger. In the north-west a range of hills +known as the Atacora forms a watershed between the basins +of the Weme, the Niger and the Volta. A large part of the interior +consists of undulating country, rather barren, with occasional +patches of forest. The forests contain the baobab, the coco-nut +palm and the oil palm. The fauna resembles that of other +parts of the West Coast, but the larger wild animals, such as the +elephant and hippopotamus, are rare. The lion is found in the +regions bordering the Niger. Some kinds of antelopes are +common; the buffalo has disappeared.</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—The climate of the coast regions is very hot and +moist. Four seasons are well marked: the harmattan or long +dry season, from the 1st December to the 15th March; the +season of the great rains, from the 15th March to the 15th +July; the short dry season, from the 15th July to the 15th +September; and the “little rains,” from the 15th September +to the 1st December. Near the sea the average temperature is +about 80° F. The harmattan prevails for several days in succession, +and alternates with winds from the south and south-west. +During its continuance the thermometer falls about 10°, +there is not the slightest moisture in the atmosphere, vegetation +dries up or droops, the skin parches and peels, and all woodwork +is liable to warp and crack with a loud report. Tornadoes occur +occasionally. During nine months of the year the climate is +tempered by a sea-breeze, which is felt as far inland as Abomey +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page735" id="page735"></a>735</span> +(60 m.). It generally begins in the morning, and in the summer +it often increases to a stiff gale at sundown. In the interior +there are but two seasons: the dry season (November to May) +and the rainy season (June to October). The rains are more +scanty and diminish considerably in the northern regions.</p> + +<p><i>Inhabitants.</i>—The inhabitants of the coast region are of pure +negro stock. The Dahomeyans (Dahomi), who inhabit the +central part of the colony, form one of eighteen closely-allied +clans occupying the country between the Volta and Porto Novo, +and from their common tongue known as the Ewe-speaking +tribes. In their own tongue Dahomeyans are called Fon or +Fawin. They are tall and well-formed, proud, reserved in +demeanour, polite in their intercourse with strangers, war-like +and keen traders. The Mina, who occupy the district of the +Popos, are noted for their skill as surf-men, which has gained for +them the title of the Krumen of Dahomey. Porto Novo is inhabited +by a tribe called Nago, which has an admixture of +Yoruba blood and speaks a Yoruba dialect. The Nago are a +peaceful tribe and even keener traders than the Dahomi. In +Whydah and other coast towns are many mulattos, speaking +Portuguese and bearing high-sounding Portuguese names. In +the north the inhabitants—Mahi, Bariba, Gurmai,—are also of +Negro stock, but scarcely so civilized as the coast tribes. Settled +among them are communities of Fula and Hausas. There are +many converts to Islam in the northern districts, but the Mahi +and Dahomeyans proper are nearly all fetish worshippers.</p> + +<p><i>Chief Towns.</i>—The chief port and the seat of government is +Kotonu, the starting-point of a railway to the Niger. An iron +pier, which extends well beyond the surf, affords facilities for +shipping. Kotonu was originally a small village which served as +the seaport of Porto Novo and was burnt to the ground in 1890. +It has consequently the advantage of being a town laid out by +Europeans on a definite plan. Situated on the beach between +the sea and the lagoon of Porto Novo, the soil consists of heavy +sand. Good hard roads have been made. Owing to an almost +continuous, cool, westerly sea-breeze, Kotonu is, in comparison +with the other coast towns, decidedly healthy for white men. +Porto Novo (pop. about 50,000), the former French headquarters +and chief business centre, is on the northern side of the lagoon +of the same name and 20 m. north-east of Kotonu by water. +The town has had many names, and that by which it is known +to Europeans was given by the Portuguese in the 17th century. +It contains numerous churches and mosques, public buildings +and merchants’ residences. Whydah, 23 m. west of Kotonu, +is an old and formerly thickly-populated town. Its population +is now about 15,000. It is built on the north bank of the coast +lagoon about 2 m. from the sea. There is no harbour at the +beach, and landing is effected in boats made expressly to pass +through the surf, here particularly heavy. Whydah, during the +period of the slave-trade, was divided into five quarters: the +English, French, Portuguese, Brazilian and native. The three +first quarters once had formidable forts, of which the French +fort alone survives. In consequence of the thousands of orange +and citron trees which adorn it, Whydah is called “the garden +of Dahomey.” West of Whydah, on the coast and near the +frontier of Togoland, is the trading town of Grand Popo. Inland +in Dahomey proper are Abomey (q.v.), the ancient capital, Allada, +Kana (formerly the country residence and burial-place of the +kings of Dahomey) and Dogba. In the hinterland are Carnotville +(a town of French creation), Nikki and Paraku, Borgu +towns, and Garu, on the right bank of the Niger near the British +frontier, the terminus of the railway from the coast.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture and Trade.</i>—The agriculture, trade and commerce +of Dahomey proper are essentially different from that of the +hinterland (<i>Haut Dahomé</i>). The soil of Dahomey proper is +naturally fertile and is capable of being highly cultivated. It +consists of a rich clay of a deep red colour. Finely-powdered +quartz and yellow mica are met with, denoting the deposit of +disintegrated granite from the interior. The principal product +is palm-oil, which is made in large quantities throughout the +country. The district of Toffo is particularly noted for its oil-palm +orchards. Palm-wine is also made, but the manufacture +is discouraged as the process destroys the tree. Next to palm-oil +the principal vegetable products are maize, guinea-corn, cassava, +yams, sweet potatoes, plantains, coco-nuts, oranges, limes and +the African apple, which grows almost wild. The country also +produces ground-nuts, kola-nuts, pine-apples, guavas, spices of +all kinds, ginger, okros (<i>Hibiscus</i>), sugar-cane, onions, tomatoes +and papaws. Plantations of rubber trees and vines have been +made. Cattle, sheep, goats and fowls are scarce. There is a +large fishing industry in the lagoons. Round the villages, and +here and there in the forest, clearings are met with, cultivated +in places, but agriculture is in a backward condition. In the +grassy uplands of the interior cattle and horses thrive, and +cotton of a fairly good quality is grown by the inhabitants +for their own use. The prosperity of the country depends chiefly +on the export of palm-oil and palm-kernels. Copra, kola-nuts, +rubber and dried fish are also exported, the fish going to Lagos. +The adulteration of the palm-kernels by the natives, which +became a serious menace to trade, was partially checked (1900-1903) +by measures taken to ensure the inspection of the kernels +before shipment. Trade is mainly with Germany and Great +Britain, a large proportion of the cargo passing through the +British port of Lagos. Only some 25% of the commerce is +with France. Cotton goods (chiefly from Great Britain), +machinery and metals, alcohol (from Germany) and tobacco are +the chief imports. The volume of trade, which had increased +from £701,000 in 1898 to £1,230,000 in 1902, declined in 1903 to +£826,000 in consequence of the failure of rain, this causing a +decrease in the production of palm-oil and kernels. In 1904 the +total rose to £873,399. In 1905 the figure was £734,667, and in +1907 £853,051. By the Anglo-French Convention of 1898 the +imposition of differential duties on goods of British origin was +forbidden for a period of thirty years from that date.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—The Dahomey railway from Kotonu to the +Niger is of metre gauge (3.28 ft.). Work was begun in 1900, and +in 1902 the main line was completed to Toffo, a distance of 55 m. +Some difficulty was then encountered in crossing the Lama +Marsh, but by the end of 1905 the railway had been carried +through Abomey to Pauignan, 120 m. from Kotonu. In 1907 +the rails had reached Paraku, 150 m. farther north. A branch +railway from the main line serves the western part of the colony. +It goes via Whydah to Segborué on Lake Ahémé. Besides the +railways, tramway lines exist in various parts of Dahomey. One, +28 m. long, runs from Porto Novo through the market-town of +Adjara to Sakete, close to the British frontier in the direction +of Lagos. This line serves a belt of country rich in oil-palms. +Kotonu is a regular port of call for steamers from Europe to the +West Coast, and there is also regular steamship communication +along the lagoons between Porto Novo and Lagos. There is a +steamboat service between Porto Novo and Kotonu. A telegraph +line connects Kotonu with Abomey, the Niger and Senegal.</p> + +<p><i>Administration.</i>—The colony is administered by a lieutenant-governor, +assisted by a council composed of official and unofficial +members. The colony is divided into territories annexed, +territories protected, and “territories of political action,” but +for administrative purposes the division is into “circles” or +provinces. Over each circle is an administrator with extensive +powers. Except in the annexed territories the native states are +maintained under French supervision, and native laws and +customs, as far as possible, retained. Natives, however, may +place themselves under the jurisdiction of the French law. Such +natives are known as “Assimilés.” In general the administrative +system is the same as that for all the colonies of French +West Africa (q.v.). The chief source of revenue is the customs, +while the capitation tax contributes most to the local budget.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The kingdom of Dahomey, like those of Benin and +Ashanti, is an instance of a purely negro and pagan state, +endowed with a highly organized government, and possessing +a certain amount of indigenous civilization and culture. Its +history begins about the commencement of the 17th century. +At that period the country now known as Dahomey was included +in the extensive kingdom of Allada or Ardrah, of which the +capital was the present town of Allada, on the road from Whydah +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page736" id="page736"></a>736</span> +to Abomey. Allada became dismembered on the death of a +reigning sovereign, and three separate kingdoms were constituted +under his three sons. One state was formed by one brother +round the old capital of Allada, and retained the name of Allada +or Ardrah; another brother migrated to the east and formed +a state known under the name of Porto Novo; while the third +brother, Takudonu, travelled northwards, and after some +vicissitudes established the kingdom of Dahomey. The word +Dahomey means “in Danh’s belly,” and is explained by the +following legend which, says Sir Richard Burton, “is known +(1864) to everybody in the kingdom.” Takudonu having settled +in a town called Uhwawe encroached on the land of a neighbouring +chief named Danh (the snake). Takudonu wearied Danh by +perpetual demands for land, and the chief one day exclaimed in +anger “soon thou wilt build in my belly.” So it came to pass. +Takudonu slew Danh and over his grave built himself a palace +which was called Dahomey, a name thenceforth adopted by +the new king’s followers. About 1724-1728 Dahomey, having +become a powerful state, invaded and conquered successively +Allada and Whydah. The Whydahs made several attempts to +recover their freedom, but without success; while on the other +hand the Dahomeyans failed in all their expeditions against +Grand Popo, a town founded by refugee Whydahs on a lagoon +to the west. It is related that the repulses they met with in that +quarter led to the order that no Dahomeyan warrior was to enter +a canoe. Porto Novo at the beginning of the 19th century +became tributary to Dahomey.</p> + +<p>Such was the state of affairs at the accession of King Gezo +about the year 1818. This monarch, who reigned forty years, +raised the power of Dahomey to its highest pitch, extending +greatly the border of his kingdom to the north. He boasted of +having first organized the Amazons, a force of women to whom +he attributed his successes. The Amazons, however, were state +soldiery long before Gezo’s reign, and what that monarch really +did was to reorganize and strengthen the force.</p> + +<p>In 1851 Gezo attacked Abeokuta in the Yoruba country and +the centre of the Egba power, but was beaten back. In the +same year the king signed a commercial treaty with France, in +which Gezo also undertook to preserve “the integrity of the +territory belonging to the French fort” at Whydah. The fort +referred to was one built in the 17th century, and in 1842 made +over to a French mercantile house. England, Portugal and +Brazil also had “forts” at Whydah—all in a ruinous condition +and ungarrisoned. But when in 1852 England, to prevent the +slave-trade, blockaded the Dahomeyan coast, energetic protests +were made by Portugal and France, based on the existence of +these “forts.” In 1858 Gezo died. He had greatly reduced +the custom of human sacrifice, and left instructions that after +his death there was to be no general sacrifice of the palace +women.</p> + +<p>Gezo was succeeded by his son Gléglé (or Gélélé), whose attacks +on neighbouring states, persecution of native Christians, and +encouragement of the slave-trade involved him in difficulties +with Great Britain and with France. It was, said Earl Russell, +foreign secretary, to check “the aggressive spirit of the king of +Dahomey” that England in 1861 annexed the island of Lagos. +Nevertheless in the following year Gléglé captured Ishagga and +in 1864 unsuccessfully attacked Abeokuta, both towns in the +Lagos hinterland. In 1863 Commander Wilmot, R.N., and in +1864 Sir Richard Burton (the explorer and orientalist) were +sent on missions to the king, but their efforts to induce the +Dahomeyans to give up human sacrifices, slave-trading, &c. +met with no success. In 1863, however, a step was taken by +France which was the counterpart of the British annexation of +Lagos. In that year the kingdom of Porto Novo accepted a +French protectorate, and an Anglo-French agreement of 1864 +fixed its boundaries. This protectorate was soon afterwards +abandoned by Napoleon III., but was re-established in 1882. +At this period the rivalry of European powers for possessions in +Africa was becoming acute, and German agents appeared on +the Dahomeyan coast. However, by an arrangement concluded +in 1885, the German protectorate in Guinea was confined to +Togo, save for the town of Little Popo at the western end of the +lagoon of Grand Popo. In January 1886 Portugal—in virtue +of her ancient rights at Whydah—announced that she had +assumed a protectorate over the Dahomeyan coast, but she was +induced by France to withdraw her protectorate in December +1887. Finally, the last international difficulty in the way of +France was removed by the Anglo-French agreement of 1889, +whereby Kotonu was surrendered by Great Britain. France +claimed rights at Kotonu in virtue of treaties concluded with +Gléglé in 1868 and 1878, but the chiefs of the town had placed +themselves under the protection of the British at Lagos.</p> + +<p>With the arrangements between the European powers the +Dahomeyans had little to do, and in 1889, the year in which the +Anglo-French agreement was signed, trouble arose between +Gléglé and the French. The Dahomeyans were the more confident, +as through German and other merchants at Whydah they +were well supplied with modern arms and ammunition. Gléglé +claimed the right to collect the customs at Kotonu, and to depose +the king of Porto Novo, and proceeded to raid the territory of +that potentate (his brother). A French mission sent to Abomey +failed to come to an agreement with the Dahomeyans, who +attributed the misunderstandings to the fact that there was no +longer a king in France! Gléglé died on the 28th of December +1889, two days after the French mission had left his capital. +He was succeeded by his son Behanzin. A French force was +landed at Kotonu, and severe fighting followed in which the +Amazons played a conspicuous part. In October 1890 a treaty +was signed which secured to France Porto Novo and Kotonu, +and to the king of Dahomey an annual pension of £800. It was +unlikely that peace on such terms would prove lasting, and +Behanzin’s slave-raiding expeditions led in 1892 to a new war +with France. General A. A. Dodds was placed in command of a +strong force of Europeans and Senegalese, and after a sharp +campaign during September and October completely defeated +the Dahomeyan troops. Behanzin set fire to Abomey (entered +by the French troops on the 17th of November) and fled north. +Pursued by the enemy, abandoned by his people, he surrendered +unconditionally on the 25th of January 1894, and was deported +to Martinique, being transferred in 1906 to Algeria, where he +died on the 10th of December of the same year.</p> + +<p>Thus ended the independent existence of Dahomey. The +French divided the kingdom in two—Abomey and Allada—placing +on the throne of Abomey a brother of the exiled monarch. +Chief among the causes which led to the collapse of the +Dahomeyan kingdom was the system which devoted the flower +of its womanhood to the profession of arms.</p> + +<p>Whydah and the adjacent territory was annexed to France by +General Dodds on the 3rd of December 1892, and the rest of +Dahomey placed under a French protectorate at the same time. +The prince who had been made king of Abomey was found +intriguing against the French, and in 1900 was exiled by them +to the Congo, and with him disappeared the last vestige of +Dahomeyan sovereignty.</p> + +<p>Dahomey conquered, the French at once set to work to secure +as much of the hinterland as possible. On the north they penetrated +to the Niger, on the east they entered Borgu (a country +claimed by the Royal Niger Company for Great Britain), on the +west they overlapped the territory claimed by Germany as the +hinterland of Togo. The struggle with Great Britain and Germany +for supremacy in this region forms one of the most interesting +chapters in the story of the partition of Africa. In the +result France succeeded in securing a junction between Dahomey +and her other possessions in West Africa, but failed to secure any +part of the Niger navigable from the sea (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Africa</a></span>: <i>History</i>, +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nigeria</a></span>). A Franco-German convention of 1897 settled +the boundary on the west, and the Anglo-French convention of +the 14th of June 1898 defined the frontier on the east. In 1899, +on the disintegration of the French Sudan, the districts of Fada +N’Gurma and Say, lying north of Borgu, were added to Dahomey, +but in 1907 they were transferred to Upper Senegal-Niger, with +which colony they are closely connected both geographically and +ethnographically. From 1894 onward the French devoted great +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page737" id="page737"></a>737</span> +attention to the development of the material resources of the +country.</p> + +<p><i>The “Customs.”</i>—Reference has already been made to the +Dahomey “Customs,” which gave the country an infamous +notoriety. The “Customs” appear to date from the middle of +the 17th century, and were of two kinds: the grand Customs +performed on the death of a king; and the minor Customs, +held twice a year. The horrors of these saturnalia of bloodshed +were attributable not to a love of cruelty but to filial piety. +Upon the death of a king human victims were sacrificed at his +grave to supply him with wives, attendants, &c. in the spirit +world. The grand Customs surpassed the annual rites in splendour +and bloodshed. At those held in 1791 during January, +February and March, it is stated that no fewer than 500 men, +women and children were put to death. The minor Customs +were first heard of in Europe in the early years of the 18th +century. They formed continuations of the grand Customs, +and “periodically supplied the departed monarch with fresh +attendants in the shadowy world.” The actual slaughter was +preluded by dancing, feasting, speechmaking and elaborate +ceremonial. The victims, chiefly prisoners of war, were dressed +in calico shirts decorated round the neck and down the sleeves +with red bindings, and with a crimson patch on the left breast, +and wore long white night-caps with spirals of blue ribbon sewn +on. Some of them, tied in baskets, were at one stage of the +proceedings taken to the top of a high platform, together with +an alligator, a cat and a hawk in similar baskets, and paraded on +the heads of the Amazons. The king then made a speech explaining +that the victims were sent to testify to his greatness in +spirit-land, the men and the animals each to their kind. They +were then hurled down into the middle of a surging crowd of +natives, and butchered. At another stage of the festival human +sacrifices were offered at the shrine of the king’s ancestors, and +the blood was sprinkled on their graves. This was known as +<i>Zan Nyanyana</i> or “evil night,” the king going in procession with +his wives and officials and himself executing the doomed. These +semi-public massacres formed only a part of the slaughter, for +many women, eunuchs and others within the palace were done +to death privately. The skulls were used to adorn the palace +walls, and the king’s sleeping-chamber was paved with the heads +of his enemies. The skulls of the conquered kings were turned +into royal drinking cups, their conversion to this use being +esteemed an honour. Sir Richard Burton insists (<i>A Mission to +Gelele, King of Dahome</i>) that the horrors of these rites were +greatly exaggerated. For instance, the story that the king +floated a canoe in a tank of human blood was, he writes, quite +untrue. He denies, too, that the victims were tortured, and +affirms that on the contrary they were treated humanely, and, +in many cases, even acquiesced in their fate. It seems that +cannibalism was a sequel of the Customs, the bodies of the +slaughtered being roasted and devoured smoking hot. On the +death of the king the wives, after the most extravagant demonstrations +of grief, broke and destroyed everything within +their reach, and attacked and murdered each other, the uproar +continuing until order was restored by the new sovereign.</p> + +<p><i>Amazonian Army.</i>—The training of women as soldiers was +the most singular Dahomeyan institution. About one-fourth of +the whole female population were said to be “married to the +fetich,” many even before their birth, and the remainder were +entirely at the disposal of the king. The most favoured were +selected as his own wives or enlisted into the regiments of +Amazons, and then the chief men were liberally supplied. Of +the female captives the most promising were drafted into the +ranks as soldiers, and the rest became Amazonian camp followers +and slaves in the royal households. These female levies formed +the flower of the Dahomeyan army. They were marshalled in +regiments, each with its distinctive uniform and badges, and they +took the post of honour in all battles. Their number has been +variously stated. Sir R. F. Burton, in 1862, who saw the army +marching out of Kana on an expedition, computed the whole +force of female troops at 2500, of whom one-third were unarmed +or only half-armed. Their weapons were blunderbusses, flint +muskets, and bows and arrows. A later writer estimated the +number of Amazons at 1000, and the male soldiers at 10,000. +The system of warfare was one of surprise. The army marched +out, and, when within a few days’ journey of the town to be +attacked, silence was enjoined and no fires permitted. The +regular highways were avoided, and the advance was by a road +specially cut through the bush. The town was surrounded at +night, and just before daybreak a rush was made and every soul +captured if possible; none were killed except in self-defence, as +the first object was to capture, not to kill. The season usually +selected for expeditions was from January to March, or immediately +after the annual “Customs.” The Amazons were carefully +trained, and the king was in the habit of holding “autumn +manœuvres” for the benefit of foreigners. Many Europeans +have witnessed a mimic assault, and agree in ascribing a marvellous +power of endurance to the women. Lines of thorny acacia +were piled up one behind the other to represent defences, and at +a given signal the Amazons, barefooted and without any special +protection, charged and disappeared from sight. Presently they +emerged within the lines torn and bleeding, but apparently +insensible to pain, and the parade closed with a march past, each +warrior leading a pretended captive bound with a rope.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—<i>Notre Colonie de Dahomey</i>, by G. François +(Paris, 1906), and <i>Le Dahomey</i> (1909), an official publication, deal +with topography, ethnography and economics; L. Brunet and L. +Giethlen, <i><span class="correction" title="amended from Dohomey">Dahomey</span> et dépendances</i> (Paris, 1900); Édouard Foà, <i>Le +Dahomey</i> (Paris, 1895). Religion, laws and language are specially +dealt with in <i>Ewe-Speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast</i>, by A. B. +Ellis (London, 1890), and in <i>La Côte des Esclaves et le Dahomey</i>, by +P. Bouche (Paris, 1885). Much historical matter, with particular +notices of the Amazons and the “Customs,” is contained in <i>A Mission +to Gelele</i>, by Sir R. Burton (London, 1864). The story of the French +conquest is told in <i>Campagne du Dahomey</i>, by Jules Poirier (Paris, +1895). The standard authority on the early history is <i>The History +of Dahomey</i>, by Archibald Dalzel (sometime governor of the English +fort at Whydah) (London, 1793). The annual <i>Reports</i> issued by the +British, Foreign, and French Colonial Offices may be consulted, and +the <i>Bibliographie raisonnée des ouvrages concernant le Dahomey</i>, +by A. Pawlowski (Paris, 1895), is a useful guide to the literature of +the country to that date. A <i>Carte du Dahomey</i>, by A. Meunier, +(3 sheets, scale 1:500,000), was published in Paris, 1907.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAILLÉ<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Dallaeus</span>), <b>JEAN</b> (1594-1670), French Protestant +divine, was born at Châtellerault and educated at Poitiers and +Saumur. From 1612 to 1621 he was tutor to two of the grandsons +of Philippe de Mornay, seigneur du Plessis Marly. Ordained +to the ministry in 1623, he was for some time private chaplain +to Du Plessis Mornay, whose memoirs he subsequently wrote. +In 1625 Daillé was appointed minister of the church of Saumur, +and in 1626 was chosen by the Paris consistory to be minister +of the church of Charenton. Of his works, which are principally +controversial, the best known is the treatise <i>Du vrai emploi des +Pères</i> (1631), translated into English by Thomas Smith under +the title <i>A Treatise concerning the right use of the Fathers</i> (1651). +The work attacks those who made the authority of the Fathers +conclusive on matters of faith and practice. Daillé contends +that the text of the Fathers is often corrupt, and that even +when it is correct their reasoning is often illogical. In his +<i>Sermons</i> on the Philippians and Colossians, Daillé vindicated +his claim to rank as a great preacher as well as an able controversialist. +He was president of the last national synod held +in France, which met at Loudun in 1659 (H. M. Baird, <i>The +Huguenots and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes</i>, 1895, i. +pp. 412 ff.), when, as in the <i>Apologie des Synodes d’Alençon +et de Charenton</i> (1655), he defended the universalism of Moses +Amyraut. He wrote also <i>Apologie pour les Églises Réformées</i> +and <i>La Foy fondée sur les Saintes Écritures</i>. His life was written +by his son Adrien, who retired to Zürich at the revocation of the +edict of Nantes.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAIRY<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> and <b>DAIRY-FARMING</b> (from the Mid. Eng. <i>deieris</i>, +from <i>dey</i>, a maid-servant, particularly one about a farm; cf. +Norw. <i>deia</i>, as in <i>bu-deia</i>, a maid in charge of live-stock, and in +other compounds; thus “dairy” means that part of the farm +buildings where the “dey” works). Milk, either in its natural +state, or in the form of butter and cheese, is an article of diet so +useful, wholesome and palatable, that dairy management, which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page738" id="page738"></a>738</span> +includes all that concerns its production and treatment, constitutes +a most important branch of husbandry. The physical +conditions of the different countries of the world have determined +in each case the most suitable animal for dairy purposes. The +Laplander obtains his supplies of milk from his rein-deer, the +roving Tatar from his mares, and the Bedouin of the desert +from his camels. In the temperate regions of the earth many +pastoral tribes subsist mainly upon the milk of the sheep. In +some rocky regions the goat is invaluable as a milk-yielder; and +the buffalo is equally so amid the swamps and jungles of tropical +climates. The milking of ewes was once a common practice in +Great Britain; but it has fallen into disuse because of its hurtful +effects upon the flock. A few milch asses and goats are here +and there kept for the benefit of infants or invalids; but with +these exceptions the cow is the only animal now used for dairy +purposes.</p> + +<p>No branch of agriculture underwent greater changes during +the closing quarter of the 19th century than dairy-farming; +within the period named, indeed, the dairying industry may be +said to have been revolutionized. The two great factors in this +modification were the introduction about the year 1880 of the +centrifugal cream-separator, whereby the old slow system of +raising cream in pans was dispensed with, and the invention +some ten years later of a quick and easy method of ascertaining +the fat content of samples of milk without having to resort to +the tedious processes of chemical analysis. About the year 1875 +the agriculturists of the United Kingdom, influenced by various +economic causes, began to turn their thoughts more intently in +the direction of dairy-farming, and to the increased production +of milk and cream, butter and cheese. On the 24th of October +1876 was held the first London dairy show, under the auspices +of a committee of agriculturists, and it has been followed by a +similar show in every subsequent year. The official report of the +pioneer show stated that “there was a much larger attendance +and a greater amount of enthusiasm in the movement than even +the most sanguine of its promoters anticipated.” On the day +named Professor J. Prince Sheldon read at the show a paper on +the dairying industry, and proposed the formation of a society +to be called the British Dairy Farmers’ Association. This was +unanimously agreed to, and thus was founded an organization +which has since been closely identified with the development of +the dairying industry of the United Kingdom. In its earlier +publications the Association was wont to reproduce from <i>Household +Words</i> the following tribute to the cow:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“If civilized people were ever to lapse into the worship of animals, +the Cow would certainly be their chief goddess. What a fountain +of blessings is the Cow! She is the mother of beef, the source of +butter, the original cause of cheese, to say nothing of shoe-horns, +hair-combs and upper leather. A gentle, amiable, ever-yielding +creature, who has no joy in her family affairs which she does not +share with man. We rob her of her children that we may rob her +of her milk, and we only care for her when the robbing may be +perpetrated.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The association has, directly or indirectly, brought about +many valuable reforms and improvements in dairying. Its +London shows have provided, year after year, a variety of +object-lessons in cheese, in butter and in dairy equipment. In +order to demonstrate to producers what is the ideal to aim at, +there is nothing more effective than a competitive exhibition of +products, and the approach to uniform excellence of character +in cheese and butter of whatever kinds is most obvious to those +who remember what these products were like at the first two or +three dairy shows. Simultaneously there has been a no less +marked advance in the mechanical aids to dairying, including, +in particular, the centrifugal cream-separator, the crude germ +of which was first brought before the public at the international +dairy show held at Hamburg in the spring of 1877. The association +in good time set the example, now beneficially followed in +many parts of Great Britain, of providing means for technical +instruction in the making of cheese and butter, by the establishment +of a dairy school in the Vale of Aylesbury, subsequently +removing it to new and excellent premises at Reading, where +it is known as the British Dairy Institute. The initiation of +butter-making contests at the annual dairy shows stimulated +the competitive instinct of dairy workers, and afforded the +public useful object-lessons; in more recent years milking +competitions have been added. Milking trials and butter tests +of cows conducted at the dairy shows have afforded results of +much practical value. Many of the larger agricultural societies +have found it expedient to include in their annual shows a working +dairy, wherein butter-making contests are held and public +demonstrations are given.</p> + +<p>What are regarded as the dairy breeds of cattle is illustrated +by the prize schedule of the annual London dairy show, in which +sections are provided for cows and heifers of the Shorthorn, +Jersey, Guernsey, Red Polled, Ayrshire, Kerry and Dexter +breeds (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cattle</a></span>). A miscellaneous class is also provided, +the entries in which are mostly cross-breds. There are likewise +classes for Shorthorn bulls, Jersey bulls, and bulls of any other +pure breed, but it is stipulated that all bulls must be of proved +descent from dams that have won prizes in the milking trials or +butter tests of the British Dairy Farmers’ Association or other +high-class agricultural society. The importance of securing +dairy characters in the sire is thus recognized, and it is notified +that, as the object of the bull classes is to encourage the breeding +of bulls for dairy purposes, the prizes are to be given solely to +animals exhibited in good stock-getting condition.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Milk and Butter Tests</p> + +<p>The award of prizes in connexion with milking trials cannot +be determined simply by the quantity of milk yielded in a given +period, say twenty-four hours. Other matters must obviously +be taken into consideration, such as the quality of the milk and +the time that has elapsed since the birth cf the last calf. With +regard to the former point, for example, it is quite possible for +one cow to give more milk than another, but for the milk of the +second cow to include the larger quantity of butter-fat. The +awards are therefore determined by the total number of points +obtained according to the following scheme:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>One point for every ten days since calving (deducting the first +forty days), with a maximum of fourteen points.</p> + +<p>One point for every pound of milk, taking the average of two +days’ yield.</p> + +<p>Twenty points for every pound of butter-fat produced.</p> + +<p>Four points for every pound of “solids other than fat.”</p> + +<p><i>Deductions.</i>—Ten points each time the fat is below 3%.</p> + +<p>   Ten points each time the solids other than fat fall below 8.5%.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table I.</span>—<i>Prize Shorthorn and Jersey Cows in the Milking Trials, + London Dairy Show, 1900.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Cow.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Age.</td> <td class="tccm allb">In<br />Milk.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Milk<br />per<br />Day.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Fat.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Other<br />Solids.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Points.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Years.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Days.</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">%</td> <td class="tcc rb">%</td> <td class="tcc rb">No.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>Shorthorns eligible for Herd-Book</i>—</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Heroine III.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">61</td> <td class="tcc rb">52.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">91.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Musical</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcc rb">45.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">90.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Lady Rosedale</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">48</td> <td class="tcc rb">47.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">88.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>Shorthorns not eligible for Herd-Book</i>—</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Granny</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">33</td> <td class="tcc rb">70.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">144.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Cherry</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">103</td> <td class="tcc rb">55.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">127.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Chance</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td> <td class="tcc rb">60.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">124.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>Jerseys</i>—</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Sultane 14th</td> <td class="tcc rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">256</td> <td class="tcc rb">41.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">112 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Queen Bess</td> <td class="tcc rb">7½</td> <td class="tcr rb">136</td> <td class="tcc rb">39.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">101 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">  Gloaming IV.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">156</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">30.5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6.7</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">9.5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">94.9</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">This method of award is at present the best that can be devised, +but it is possible that, as experience accumulates, some rearrangement +of the points may be found to be desirable. Omitting +many of the details, Table I. shows some of the results in the +case of Shorthorn and Jersey prize cows. The days “in milk” +denote in each case the number of days that have elapsed since +calving; and if the one day’s yield of milk is desired in gallons, +it can be obtained approximately<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> by dividing the weight in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page739" id="page739"></a>739</span> +pounds by 10: thus, the Shorthorn cow Heroine III. gave 52.4 ℔, +or 5.24 gallons, of milk per day. The table is incidentally of +interest as showing how superior as milch kine are the unregistered +or non-pedigree Shorthorns—which are typical of +the great majority of dairy cows in the United Kingdom—as +compared with the pedigree animals entered, or eligible for entry, +in Coates’s Herd-Book. The evening’s milk, it should be added, +is nearly always richer in fat than the morning’s, but the percentages +in the table relate to the entire day’s milk.</p> + +<p>The milking trials are based upon a chemical test, as it is +necessary to determine the percentage of fat and of solids other +than fat in each sample of milk. The butter test, on the other +hand, is a churn test, as the cream has to be separated from +the milk and churned. The following is the scale of points +used at the London dairy show in making awards in butter +tests:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>One point for every ounce of butter; one point for every completed +ten days since calving, deducting the first forty days. Maximum +allowance for period of lactation, 12 points.</p> + +<p>Fractions of ounces of butter, and incomplete periods of less than +ten days, to be worked out in decimals and added to the total +points.</p> + +<p>In the case of cows obtaining the same number of points, the +prize to be awarded to the cow that has been the longest time in +milk.</p> + +<p>No prize or certificate to be given in the case of:—</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Cows under five years old failing to obtain 28 points.</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Cows five years old and over failing to obtain 32 points.</p> +</div></div> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table II.</span>—<i>Prize Shorthorn and Jersey Cows in the Butter Tests, London Dairy Show, 1900.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Cows.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Age.</td> <td class="tccm allb">In<br />Milk.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Milk<br />per<br />Day.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Butter.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Milk to<br />1 ℔<br />Butter.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Points<br />for<br />Butter.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Points<br />for <br />Lactation.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Points.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Years.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Days.</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔   oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔   oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">No.</td> <td class="tcc rb">No.</td> <td class="tcc rb">No.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Shorthorns—</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  1st</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcc rb">55   2</td> <td class="tcl rb">2   5¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">23.67</td> <td class="tcc rb">37.25</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.40</td> <td class="tcc rb">43.65</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  2nd</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">34</td> <td class="tcc rb">72   7</td> <td class="tcl rb">2   10¾</td> <td class="tcc rb">27.11</td> <td class="tcc rb">42.75</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">42.75</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  3rd</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">33</td> <td class="tcc rb">58   5</td> <td class="tcl rb">2   7¾</td> <td class="tcc rb">23.47</td> <td class="tcc rb">39.75</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">39.75</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Jerseys—</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  1st</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">157</td> <td class="tcc rb">29   10</td> <td class="tcl rb">2   2¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.83</td> <td class="tcc rb">34.25</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.70</td> <td class="tcc rb">45.95</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  2nd</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">103</td> <td class="tcc rb">33   10</td> <td class="tcl rb">2   3</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.37</td> <td class="tcc rb">35.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.30</td> <td class="tcc rb">41.30</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">  3rd</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">257</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">40   13</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">1   12</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">23.32</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">28.00</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12.00</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">40.00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The manner in which butter tests are decided will be rendered +clear by a study of Table II. It is seen that whilst the much +larger Shorthorn cows—having a bigger frame to maintain +and consuming more food—gave both more milk and more +butter in the day of twenty-four hours, the Jersey milk was +much the richer in fat. In the case of the first-prize Jersey +the “butter ratio,” as it is termed, was excellent, as only 13.83 ℔ +of milk were required to yield 1 ℔ of butter; in the case of the +second-prize Shorthorn, practically twice this quantity (or +27.11 lb) was needed. Moreover, if the days in milk are taken +into account, the difference in favour of the Jersey is seen to +be 123 days.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table III.</span>—<i>Summary of the English Jersey Cattle Society’s +Butter Tests, Fourteen Years, 1886-1899.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Cows’ Ages.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cows<br />Tested.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Average<br />Time in<br />Milk.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Average<br />Milk<br />Yield.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Average<br />Butter<br />Yield.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Quantity<br />Milk to<br />1 ℔<br />Butter</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Years.</td> <td class="tcc rb">No.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Days</td> <td class="tcl rb">℔   oz.</td> <td class="tcl rb">℔   oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">1 to  2</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">34</td> <td class="tcl rb">15   2</td> <td class="tcl rb">0   13</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.43</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">2  ”  3</td> <td class="tcr rb">57</td> <td class="tcc rb">73</td> <td class="tcl rb">24   15¼</td> <td class="tcl rb">1   5¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.74</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">3  ”  4</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcc rb">77</td> <td class="tcl rb">29   14¾</td> <td class="tcl rb">1   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.42</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">4  ”  5</td> <td class="tcr rb">165</td> <td class="tcc rb">72</td> <td class="tcl rb">32   5½</td> <td class="tcl rb">1   11¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.01</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">5  ”  6 </td> <td class="tcr rb">188</td> <td class="tcc rb">80</td> <td class="tcl rb">32   15¼</td> <td class="tcl rb">1   12</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.76</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">6  ”  7</td> <td class="tcr rb">189</td> <td class="tcc rb">89</td> <td class="tcl rb">34   7¾</td> <td class="tcl rb">1   13</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.92</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">7  ”  8</td> <td class="tcr rb">139</td> <td class="tcc rb">84</td> <td class="tcl rb">33   11¼</td> <td class="tcl rb">1   13¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.40</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">8  ”  9</td> <td class="tcr rb">71</td> <td class="tcc rb">82</td> <td class="tcl rb">33   6½</td> <td class="tcl rb">1   12</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.03</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">9  ” 10</td> <td class="tcr rb">42</td> <td class="tcc rb">92</td> <td class="tcl rb">32   6½</td> <td class="tcl rb">1   11¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.95</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">10  ” 11</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td> <td class="tcc rb">88</td> <td class="tcl rb">35   4</td> <td class="tcl rb">1   14¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.60</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">11  ” 12</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcc rb">89</td> <td class="tcl rb">37   1</td> <td class="tcl rb">1   13¾</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.96</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">12  ” 13</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcc rb">95</td> <td class="tcl rb">34   1¼</td> <td class="tcl rb">1   10½</td> <td class="tcc rb">20.56</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb bb">13  ” 14</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">54</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">42   1¼</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">2   1¾</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">19.85</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The butter-yielding capacity of the choicest class of butter +cows, the Jerseys, is amply illustrated in the results of the butter +tests conducted by the English Jersey Cattle Society over the +period of fourteen years 1886 to 1899 inclusive. These tests +were carried out year after year at half a dozen different shows, +and the results are classified in Table III. according to the age +of the animals. The average time in milk is measured by the +number of days since calving, and the milk and butter yields +are those for the day of twenty-four hours. The last column +shows the “butter ratio.” This number is lower in the case +of the Jerseys than in that of the general run of dairy cows. +The average results from the total of 1023 cows of the various +ages are:—One day’s milk, 32 ℔ 2¼ oz., equal to about 3 gallons +or 12 quarts; one day’s butter, 1 ℔ 10¾ oz.; butter ratio, +19.13 or about 16 pints of milk to 1 ℔ of butter. Individual +yields are sometimes extraordinarily high. Thus at the Tring +show in 1899 the three leading Jersey cows gave the following +results:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Cow.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Age.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Live-<br />Weight.</td> <td class="tccm allb">In Milk.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Butter.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Butter<br />Ratio.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Years.</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">Days.</td> <td class="tcl rb">℔   oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sundew 4th</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">929</td> <td class="tcr rb">77</td> <td class="tcl rb">3   6¾</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Madeira 5th</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">1060</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcl rb">2   15½</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.14</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Em</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">864</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">44</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">3   4¾</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">13.32</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The eight prize-winning Jerseys on this occasion, with an +average weight of 916 ℔ and an average of 117 days in milk, +yielded an average of 2 ℔ 9 oz. of butter per cow in the twenty-four +hours, the butter ratio working out at 16.69. At the Tring +show of 1900 a Shorthorn cow Cherry gave as much as 4 ℔ 4½ oz. +of butter in twenty-four hours; she had been in milk 41 days, +and her butter ratio worked out at 15.79, +which is unusually good for a big cow.</p> + +<p>In the six years 1895 to 1900 inclusive +285 cows of the Shorthorn, Jersey, Guernsey +and Red Polled breeds were subjected to +butter tests at the London dairy show, and +the general results are summarized in +Table IV.</p> + +<p>Although cows in the showyard may +perhaps be somewhat upset by their +unusual surroundings, and thus not yield +so well as at home, yet the average results +of these butter-test trials over a number of +years are borne out by the private trials that +have taken place in various herds. The trials have, moreover, +brought into prominence the peculiarities of different breeds, +such as: (<i>a</i>) that the Shorthorns, Red Polls and Kerries, being +cattle whose milk contains small fat globules, are better for +milk than the Jerseys and Guernseys, whose milk is richer, +containing larger-sized fat globules, and is therefore more +profitable for converting into butter; (<i>b</i>) that the weights of +the animals, and consequently the proportionate food, must +be taken into account in estimating the cost of the dairy +produce; (<i>c</i>) that the influence of the stage reached in the +period of lactation is much more marked in some breeds than in +others.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table IV.</span>—<i>Average Butter Yields and Butter Ratios at the London + Dairy Show, Six Years, 1895-1900.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Breed.</td> <td class="tccm allb">No. of<br />Cows.</td> <td class="tccm allb">In<br />Milk.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Butter.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Milk to 1 ℔<br />Butter.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Days.</td> <td class="tcl rb">℔   oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Shorthorn</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcc rb">50</td> <td class="tcl rb">1   11</td> <td class="tcc rb">28.81</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Jersey</td> <td class="tcr rb">126</td> <td class="tcc rb">99</td> <td class="tcl rb">1   10¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.15</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Guernsey</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td> <td class="tcc rb">72</td> <td class="tcl rb">1   9½</td> <td class="tcc rb">21.86</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Red Polled</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">30</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">60</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">1   4¾</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">30.29</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>An instructive example of the milk-yielding capacity of Jersey +cows is afforded in the carefully kept records of Lord Rothschild’s +herd at Tring Park, Herts. Overleaf are given the figures for +four years, the gallons being calculated at the rate of 10 lb of +milk to the gallon.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page740" id="page740"></a>740</span></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">In 1897, 30 cows averaged </td> <td class="tcl">6396 ℔, or</td> <td class="tcl">640 gallons per cow.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">In 1898, 29  ”    ” </td> <td class="tcl">6209   ” </td> <td class="tcl">621    ”    ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">In 1899, 37  ”    ” </td> <td class="tcl">6430   ” </td> <td class="tcl">643    ”    ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">In 1900, 39  ”    ” </td> <td class="tcl">6136   ” </td> <td class="tcl">614    ”    ”</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The average over the four years works out at about 630 gallons +per cow per annum.</p> + +<p>Cows of larger type will give more milk than the Jerseys, +but it is less rich in fat. The milk record for the year 1900 +of the herd of Red Polled cattle belonging to Mr Garrett Taylor, +Whitlingham, Norfolk, affords a good example. The cows in +the herd, which had before 1900 produced one or more calves, +and in 1900 added another to the list, being in full profit the +greater part of the year, numbered 82. Their total yield was +521,950 ℔ of milk, or an average of 6365 ℔—equivalent to +about 636 gallons—per cow. In 1899 the average yield of 96 +cows was 6283 ℔ or 628 gallons; in 1898 the average yield of +75 cows was 6473 ℔ or 647 gallons. Of cows which dropped +a first calf in the autumn of 1899, one of them—Lemon—milked +continuously for 462 days, yielding a total of 7166 ℔ of milk, +being still in milk when the herd year closed on the 27th of +December. Similar cases were those of Nora, which gave 9066 ℔ +of milk in 455 days; Doris, 8138 ℔ in 462 days; Brisk, 9248 ℔ +in 469 days; Della, 8806 ℔ in 434 days, drying 28 days before +the year ended; and Lottie, 6327 ℔ in 394 days, also drying +28 days before the year ended; these were all cows with their +first calf. Eight cows in the herd gave milk on every day of +the 52 weeks, and 30 others had their milk recorded on 300 days +or more. Three heifers which produced a first calf before the +11th of April 1900, averaged in the year 4569 ℔ of milk, or +about 456 gallons. In 1900 three cows, Eyke Jessie, Kathleen +and Doss, each gave over 10,000 ℔, or 1000 gallons of milk; +four cows gave from 9000 ℔ to 10,000 ℔, two from 8000 ℔ to +9000 ℔, 17 from 7000 ℔ to 8000 ℔, 19 from 6000 ℔ to 7000 ℔, +30 from 5000 ℔ to 6000 ℔, and 16 from 4000 ℔ to 5000 ℔. +The practice, long followed at Whitlingham, of developing +the milk-yielding habit by milking a young cow so long as she +gives even a small quantity of milk daily, is well supported by +the figures denoting the results.</p> + +<p>Though milking trials and butter tests are not usually available +to the ordinary dairy farmer in the management of his herd, +it is, on the other hand, a simple matter for him to keep what +is known as a milk register. By a milk register is meant a record +of the quantity of milk yielded by a cow. In other words, it +is a quantitative estimation of the milk the cow gives. It affords +no information as to the quality of the milk or as to its butter-yielding +or cheese-yielding capacity. Nevertheless, by its aid +the milk-producing capacity of a cow can be ascertained exactly, +and her character in this respect can be expressed by means of +figures about which there need be no equivocation. A greater +or less degree of exactness can be secured, according to the +greater or less frequency with which the register is taken. Even +a weekly register would give a fair idea as to the milk yields of a +cow, and would be extremely valuable as compared with no +register at all.</p> + +<p>The practice of taking the milk register, as followed in a well-known +dairy, may be briefly described. The cows are always +milked in the stalls, and during summer they are brought in +twice a day for this purpose. After each cow is milked, the +pail containing the whole of her milk is hung on a spring balance +suspended in a convenient position, and from the gross weight +indicated there is deducted the already known weight of the +pail.<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The difference, which represents the weight of milk, is +recorded in a book suitably ruled. This book when open presents +a view of one week’s records. In the left-hand column are the +names of the cows; on the right of this are fourteen columns, +two of which receive the morning and evening record of each +cow. In a final column on the right appears the week’s total +yield for each cow; and space is also allowed for any remarks. +Fractions of a pound are not entered, but 18 ℔ 12 oz. would +be recorded as 19 ℔, whereas 21 ℔ 5 oz. would appear as 21 ℔, +so that a fraction of over half a pound is considered as a whole +pound, and a fraction of under half a pound is ignored. By +dividing the pounds by 10 the yield in gallons is readily ascertained.</p> + +<p>Every dairy farmer has some idea, as to each of his cows, +whether she is a good, a bad or an indifferent milker, but such +knowledge is at best only vague. By the simple means indicated +the character of each cow as a milk-producer is slowly but surely +recorded in a manner which is at once exact and definite. Such +a record is particularly valuable to the farmer, in that it shows +to him the relative milk-yielding capacities of his cows, and thus +enables him gradually to weed out the naturally poor milkers +and replace them by better ones. It also guides him in regulating +the supply of food according to the yield of milk. The register +will, in fact, indicate unerringly which are the best milk-yielding +cows in the dairy, and which therefore are, with the milking +capacity in view, the best to breed from.</p> + +<p>The simplicity and inexpensiveness of the milk register must +not be overlooked. These are features which should commend +it especially to the notice of small dairy farmers, for with a +moderate number of cows it is particularly easy to introduce +the register. But even with a large dairy it will be found that, +as soon as the system has got fairly established, the additional +time and trouble involved will sink into insignificance when +compared with the benefits which accrue.</p> + +<p>The importance of ascertaining not only the quantity, but also +the quality of milk is aptly illustrated in the case of two cows at +the Tring show, 1900. The one cow gave in 24 hours 4½ gallons +of milk, which at 7d. per gallon would work out at about 2s. 7d.; +she made 2 ℔ 12 oz. of butter, which at 1s. 4d. per ℔ would +bring in 3s. 8d.; consequently by selling the milk the owner +lost about 1s. 1d. per day. The second cow gave 5<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> gallons of +milk, which would work out at 3s. 1d.; she made 1 ℔ 12 oz. +of butter, which would only be worth 2s. 4d., so that by converting +the milk into butter the owner lost 9d. per day.</p> + +<p>The colour of milk is to some extent an indication of its quality—the +deeper the colour the better the quality. The colour depends +upon the size of the fat globules, a deep yellowish colour +indicating large globules of fat. When the globules are of large +size the milk will churn more readily, and the butter is better +both in quality and in colour.</p> + +<p>The following fifty dairy rules relating to the milking and +general management of cows, and to the care of milk and dairy +utensils, were drawn up on behalf of, and published by, the +United States department of agriculture at Washington. They +are given here with a few merely verbal alterations:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">The Owner and his Helpers</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>1. Read current dairy literature and keep posted on new ideas.</p> +<p>2. Observe and enforce the utmost cleanliness about the cattle, + their attendants, the cow-house, the dairy and all + utensils.</p> +<p>3. A person suffering from any disease, or who has been exposed + to a contagious disease, must remain away from the cows + and the milk.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">The Cow-House</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>4. Keep dairy cattle in a shed or building by themselves. It is + preferable to have no cellar below and no storage loft + above.</p> +<p>5. Cow-houses should be well ventilated, lighted and drained; + should have tight floors and walls, and be plainly constructed.</p> +<p>6. Never use musty or dirty litter.</p> +<p>7. Allow no strong-smelling material in the cow-house for any + length of time. Store the manure under cover outside the + cow-house, and remove it to a distance as often as practicable.</p> +<p>8. Whitewash the cow-house once or twice a year; use gypsum in + the manure gutters daily.</p> +<p>9. Use no dry, dusty feed just previous to milking; if fodder is + dusty, sprinkle it before it is fed.</p> +<p>10. Clean and thoroughly air the cow-house before milking; in hot + weather sprinkle the floor.</p> +<p>11. Keep the cow-house and dairy room in good condition, and then + insist that the dairy, factory or place where the milk goes + be kept equally well.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page741" id="page741"></a>741</span></p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">The Cows</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>12. Have the herd examined at least twice a year by a skilled + veterinarian.</p> +<p>13. Promptly remove from the herd any animal suspected of being + in bad health, and reject her milk. Never add an animal to + the herd until it is ascertained to be free from disease, especially + tuberculosis.</p> +<p>14. Do not move cows faster than a comfortable walk while on the + way to the place of milking or feeding.</p> +<p>15. Never allow the cows to be excited by hard driving, abuse, loud + talking or unnecessary disturbance; do not expose them to + cold or storms.</p> +<p>16. Do not change the feed suddenly.</p> +<p>17. Feed liberally, and use only fresh, palatable feed-stuffs; in no + case should decomposed or mouldy material be used.</p> +<p>18. Provide water in abundance, easy of access, and always pure; + fresh, but not too cold.</p> +<p>19. Salt should always be accessible to the cows.</p> +<p>20. Do not allow any strong-flavoured food, like garlic, cabbages + and turnips, to be eaten, except immediately after milking.</p> +<p>21. Clean the entire skin of the cow daily. If hair in the region of + the udder is not easily kept clean, it should be clipped.</p> +<p>22. Do not use the milk within twenty days before calving, nor for + three to five days afterwards.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">Milking</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>23. The milker should be clean in all respects; he should not use + tobacco while milking; he should wash and dry his hands + just before milking.</p> +<p>24. The milker should wear a clean outer garment, used only when + milking and kept in a clean place at other times.</p> +<p>25. Brush the udder and surrounding parts just before milking + and wipe them with a clean damp cloth or sponge.</p> +<p>26. Milk quietly, quickly, cleanly and thoroughly. Cows do not like + unnecessary noise or delay. Commence milking at exactly the + same hour every morning and evening, and milk the cows in + the same order.</p> +<p>27. Throw away (but not on the floor—better in the gutter) the + first two or three streams from each teat; this milk is very + watery and of little value, but it may injure the rest.</p> +<p>28. If in any milking a part of the milk is bloody or stringy or + unnatural in appearance, the whole should be rejected.</p> +<p>29. Milk with dry hands; never let the hands come in contact with + the milk.</p> +<p>30. Do not allow dogs, cats or loafers to be around at milking time.</p> +<p>31. If any accident occurs by which a pail, full or partly full, of milk + becomes dirty, do not try to remedy this by straining, but + reject all this milk and rinse the pail.</p> +<p>32. Weigh and record the milk given by each cow, and take a sample + morning and night, at least once a week, for testing by the + fat test.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">Care of Milk</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>33. Remove the milk of every cow at once from the cow-house to a + clean dry room, where the air is pure and sweet. Do not + allow cans to remain in the cow-house while they are being + filled with milk.</p> +<p>34. Strain the milk through a metal gauze and a flannel cloth or + layer of cotton as soon as it is drawn.</p> +<p>35. Cool the milk as soon as strained—to 45° F. if the milk is for + shipment, or to 60° if for home use or delivery to a factory.</p> +<p>36. Never close a can containing warm milk.</p> +<p>37. If the cover is left off the can, a piece of cloth or mosquito + netting should be used to keep out insects.</p> +<p>38. If milk is stored, it should be kept in tanks of fresh cold water + (renewed as often as the temperature increases to any material + extent), in a clean, dry, cold room. Unless it is desired to + remove cream, it should be stirred with a tin stirrer often + enough to prevent the forming of a thick cream layer.</p> +<p>39. Keep the night milk under shelter so that rain cannot get into + the cans. In warm weather keep it in a tank of fresh cold + water.</p> +<p>40. Never mix fresh warm milk with that which has been cooled.</p> +<p>41. Do not allow the milk to freeze.</p> +<p>42. In no circumstances should anything be added to milk to prevent + its souring. Cleanliness and cold are the only preventives + needed.</p> +<p>43. All milk should be in good condition when delivered at a creamery + or a cheesery. This may make it necessary to deliver twice + a day during the hottest weather.</p> +<p>44. When cans are hauled far they should be full, and carried in a + spring waggon.</p> +<p>45. In hot weather cover the cans, when moved in a waggon, with +a clean wet blanket or canvas.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">The Utensils</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>46. Milk utensils for farm use should be made of metal and have all + joints smoothly soldered. Never allow them to become rusty + or rough inside.</p> +<p>47. Do not haul waste products back to the farm in the cans used + for delivering milk. When this is unavoidable, insist that + the skim milk or whey tank be kept clean.</p> +<p>48. Cans used for the return of skim milk or whey should be emptied, + scalded and cleaned as soon as they arrive at the farm.</p> +<p>49. Clean all dairy utensils by first thoroughly rinsing them in + warm water; next clean inside and out with a brush and + hot water in which a cleaning material is dissolved; then + rinse and, lastly, sterilize by boiling water or steam. Use + pure water only.</p> +<p>50. After cleaning, keep utensils inverted in pure air, and sun if + possible, until wanted for use.</p> +</div></div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Food and Milk Production</p> + +<p>In their comprehensive paper relating to the feeding of animals +published in 1895, Lawes and Gilbert discussed amongst other +questions that of milk production, and directed attention to +the great difference in the demands made on the food—on the +one hand for the production of meat (that is, of animal increase), +and on the other for the production of milk. Not only, however, +do cows of different breeds yield different quantities of milk, +and milk of characteristically different composition, but individual +animals of the same breed have very different milk-yielding +capacity; and whatever the capacity of a cow may +be, she has a maximum yield at one period of her lactation, +which is followed by a gradual decline. Hence, in comparing +the amounts of constituents stored up in the fattening increase +of an ox with the amounts of the same constituents removed +in the milk of a cow, it is necessary to assume a wide range of +difference in the yield of milk. Accordingly, Table V. shows the +amounts of nitrogenous substance, of fat, of non-nitrogenous +substance not fat, of mineral matter, and of total solid matter, +carried off in the weekly yield of milk of a cow, on the alternative +assumptions of a production of 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 or 20 +quarts per head per day. For comparison, there are given at the +foot of the table the amounts of nitrogenous substance, of fat, +of mineral matter, and of total solid matter, in the weekly +increase in live-weight of a fattening ox of an average weight +of 1000 ℔—on the assumption of a weekly increase, first, of +10 ℔, and, secondly, of 15 ℔. The estimates of the amounts +of constituents in the milk are based on the assumption that +it will contain 12.5% of total solids—consisting of 3.65 albuminoids, +3.50 butter-fat, 4.60 sugar and 0.75 of mineral matter. +The estimates of the constituents in the fattening increase of +oxen are founded on determinations made at Rothamsted.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table V.</span>—<i>Comparison of the Constituents of Food carried off in + Milk, and in the Fattening Increase of Oxen.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">[1 Gallon = 10.33 ℔]</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Nitrogenous<br />Substance.</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Fat.</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Non-<br />Nitrogenous<br />Substance<br />not Fat<br />(Sugar).</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Mineral<br />Matter.</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Solid<br />Matter.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb ptb1" colspan="6"><i>In Milk per Week.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">If:—</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> 4 quarts per head per day</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.64</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.53</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.54</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 9.04</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> 6  ”    ”    ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.96</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.80</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.99</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.81</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.56</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> 8  ”    ”    ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.28</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.06</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.66</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.08</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.08</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">10  ”    ”    ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.60</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.33</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.32</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.35</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.60</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">12  ”    ”    ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.92</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.59</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.99</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.62</td> <td class="tcc rb">27.12</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">14  ”    ”    ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.24</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.86</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.65</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.89</td> <td class="tcc rb">31.64</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">16  ”    ”    ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.56</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.12</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.32</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.16</td> <td class="tcc rb">36.16</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">18  ”    ”    ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.88</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.39</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.98</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.43</td> <td class="tcc rb">40.68</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">20  ”    ”    ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.20</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.65</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.65</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.70</td> <td class="tcc rb">45.20</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb ptb1" colspan="6"><i>In Increase in Live-Weight per Week.—Oxen.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">If 10 ℔ increase</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.75</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.35</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.15</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 7.25</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">If 15 ℔ increase</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1.13</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9.53</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.22</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10.88</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>With regard to the very wide range of yield of milk per head +per day which the figures in the following table assume, it may +be remarked that it is by no means impossible that the same +animal might yield the largest amount, namely, 20 quarts, or +5 gallons, per day near the beginning, and only 4 quarts, or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page742" id="page742"></a>742</span> +1 gallon, or even less, towards the end of her period of lactation. +At the same time, an entire herd of, for example, Shorthorns +or Ayrshires, of fairly average quality, well fed, and including +animals at various periods of lactation, should not yield an +average of less than 8 quarts, or 2 gallons, and would seldom +exceed 10 quarts, or 2½ gallons, per head per day the year round.</p> + +<p>For the sake of illustration, an average yield of milk of 10 +quarts, equal 2½ gallons, or between 25 and 26 ℔ per head per +day, may be assumed, and the amount of constituents in the +weekly yield at this rate may be compared with that in the +weekly increase of the fattening ox at the higher rate assumed +in the table, namely, 15 ℔ per 1000 ℔ live-weight, or 1.5% +per week. It is seen that whilst of the nitrogenous substance +of the food the amount stored up in the fattening increase of +an ox would be only 1.13 ℔, the amount carried off as such in +the milk would be 6.6 ℔, or nearly six times as much. Of +mineral matter, again, whilst the fattening increase would only +require about 0.22 ℔, the milk would Carry off 1.35 ℔, or again +about six times as much. Of fat, however, whilst the fattening +increase would contain 9.53 ℔, the milk would contain only +6.33 ℔, or only about two-thirds as much. On the other hand, +whilst the fattening increase contains no other non-nitrogenous +substance than fat, the milk would carry off 8.32 ℔ in the form +of milk-sugar. This amount of milk-sugar, reckoned as fat, +would correspond approximately to the difference between the +fat in the milk and that in the fattening increase.</p> + +<p>It is evident, then, that the drain upon the food is very much +greater for the production of milk than for that of meat. This +is especially the case in the important item of nitrogenous +substance; and if, as is frequently assumed, the butter-fat +of the milk is at any rate largely derived from the nitrogenous +substance of the food, so far as it is so at least about two parts of +such substance would be required to produce one of fat. On +such an assumption, therefore, the drain upon the nitrogenous +substance of the food would be very much greater than that +indicated in the table as existing as nitrogenous substance in +the milk. To this point further reference will be made presently.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table VI.</span>—<i>Constituents consumed per 1000℔ Live-Weight per Day, + for Sustenance and for Milk-Production. The Rothamsted Herd + of 30 Cows, Spring 1884.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2"> </td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Total<br />Dry<br />Substance.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Digestible.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Nitrogenous<br />Substance.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Non-<br />Nitrogenous<br />Substance<br />(as Starch).</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Nitrogenous<br />and Non-<br />Nitrogenous<br />Substance.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">3.1 ℔ Cotton cake</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.76</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.07</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.50</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.57</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">2.7 ℔ Bran</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.09</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.42</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">2.8 ℔ Hay-chaff</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.34</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.15</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.18</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.33</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">5.6 ℔ Oat-straw-chaff</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.64</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.08</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.21</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.29</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">62.8 ℔ Mangel</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">7.85</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.01</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5.73</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6.74</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Total</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.92</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.64*</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.71*</td> <td class="tcc rb">14.35</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Required for sustenance</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.57</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">7.40</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">7.97</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Available for milk</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">2.07</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.31</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.38</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">In 23.3 ℔ milk</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">0.85</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.02</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.87</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Excess in food</td> <td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">1.22</td> <td class="tcc allb">1.29</td> <td class="tcc allb">2.51</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb ptb1" colspan="5"><i>Per 1000 ℔ Live-Weight.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Wolff</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">24</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">12.5**</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15.4</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="5">* Albuminoid ratio, 1-4.4.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="5">** Exclusive of 0.4 fat; albuminoid ratio, 1-5.4.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Attention may next be directed to the amounts of food, and +of certain of its constituents, consumed for the production of +a given amount of milk. This point is illustrated in Table VI., +which shows the constituents consumed per 1000 ℔ live-weight +per day in the case of the Rothamsted herd of 30 cows in the +spring of 1884. On the left hand are shown the actual amounts +of the different foods consumed per 1000 ℔ live-weight per day; +and in the respective columns are recorded—first the amounts of +total dry substance which the foods contained, and then the +amounts of digestible nitrogenous, digestible non-nitrogenous +(reckoned as starch), and digestible total organic substance +which the different foods would supply; these being calculated +according to Lawes and Gilbert’s own estimates of the percentage +composition of the foods, and to Wolff’s estimates of the proportion +of the several constituents which would be digestible.</p> + +<p>The first column shows that the amount of total dry substance +of food actually consumed by the herd, per 1000 ℔ live-weight +per day, was scarcely 20 ℔ whilst Wolff’s<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> estimated requirement, +as stated at the foot of the table, is 24 ℔. But his ration +would doubtless consist to a greater extent of hay and straw-chaff, +containing a larger proportion of indigestible and effete +woody fibre. The figures show, indeed that the Rothamsted +ration supplied, though nearly the same, even a somewhat less +amount of total digestible constituents than Wolff’s.</p> + +<p>Of digestible nitrogen substance the food supplied 2.64 ℔ +per day, whilst the amount estimated to be required for sustenance +merely is 0.57 ℔; leaving, therefore, 2.07 ℔ available +for milk production. The 23.3 ℔ of milk yielded per 1000 ℔ +live-weight per day would, however, contain only 0.85 ℔; and +there would thus remain an apparent excess of 1.22 ℔ of digestible +nitrogenous substance in the food supplied. But against the +amount of 2.64 ℔ actually consumed, Wolff’s estimate of the +amount required for sustenance and for milk-production is +2.5 ℔, or but little less than the amount actually consumed at +Rothamsted. On the assumption that the expenditure of +nitrogenous substance in the production of milk is only in the +formation of the nitrogenous substances of the milk, there would +appear to have been a considerable excess given in the food. +But Wolff’s estimate assumes no excess of supply, and that the +whole is utilized; the fact being that he supposes the butter-fat +of the milk to have been derived largely, if not wholly, from the +albuminoids of the food.</p> + +<p>It has been shown that although it is possible that some of +the fat of a fattening animal may be produced from the albuminoids +of the food, certainly the greater part of it, if not the +whole, is derived from the carbohydrates. But the physiological +conditions of the production of milk are so different from those +for the production of fattening increase, that it is not admissible +to judge of the sources of the fat of the one from what may +be established in regard to the other. It has been assumed, +however, by those who maintain that the fat of the fattening +animal is formed from albuminoids, that the fat of milk must +be formed in the same way. Disallowing the legitimacy of such +a deduction, there do, nevertheless, seem to be reasons for supposing +that the fat of milk may, at any rate in large proportion, +be derived from albuminoids.</p> + +<p>Thus, as compared with fattening increase, which may in +a sense be said to be little more than an accumulation of reserve +material from excess of food, milk is a special product, of a +special gland, for a special normal exigency of the animal. +Further, whilst common experience shows that the herbivorous +animal becomes the more fat the more, within certain limits, its +food is rich in carbohydrates, it points to the conclusion that both +the yield of milk and its richness in butter are more connected +with a liberal supply of the nitrogenous constituents in the food. +Obviously, so far as this is the case, it may be only that thereby +more active change in the system, and therefore greater activity +of the special function, is maintained. The evidence at command +is, at any rate, not inconsistent with the supposition that a good +deal of the fat of milk may have its source in the breaking up +of albuminoids, but direct evidence on the point is still wanting; +and supposing such breaking up to take place in the gland, the +question arises—What becomes of the by-products? Assuming, +however, that such change does take place, the amount of nitrogenous +substance supplied to the Rothamsted cows would be less +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page743" id="page743"></a>743</span> +in excess of the direct requirement for milk-production than the +figures in the table would indicate, if, indeed, in excess at all.</p> + +<p>The figures in the column of Table VI. relating to the estimated +amount of digestible non-nitrogenous substance reckoned as +starch show that the quantity actually consumed was 11.71 ℔, +whilst the amount estimated by Wolff to be required was 12.5 ℔, +besides 0.4 ℔ of fat. The figures further show that, deducting +7.4 ℔ for sustenance from the quantity actually consumed, there +would remain 4.31 ℔ available for milk-production, whilst only +about 3.02 ℔ would be required supposing that both the fat +of the milk and the sugar had been derived from the carbohydrates +of the food; and, according to this calculation, there +would still be an excess in the daily food of 1.29 ℔. It is to be +borne in mind, however, that estimates of the requirement for +mere sustenance are mainly founded on the results of experiments +in which the animals are allowed only such a limited amount +of food as will maintain them without either loss or gain when at +rest. But physiological considerations point to the conclusion +that the expenditure, independently of loss or gain, will be the +greater the more liberal the ration, and hence it is probable +that the real excess, if any, over that required for sustenance +and milk-production would be less than that indicated in the +table, which is calculated on the assumption of a fixed requirement +for sustenance for a given live-weight of the animal. +Supposing that there really was any material excess of either +the nitrogenous or the non-nitrogenous constituents supplied +over the requirement for sustenance and milk-production, +the question arises—Whether, or to what extent, it conduced +to increase in live-weight of the animals, or whether it was in +part, or wholly, voided, and so wasted.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center">Table VII.—Percentage Composition of Milk each Month of the Year; also Average Yield of +Milk, and of Constituents, per Head per Day each Month, according to Rothamsted Dairy +Records.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="3"> </td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2" colspan="4">Average Composition of Milk each<br />Month, 1884.<br />(Dr Vieth—14,235 analyses.)</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="4">Rothamsted Diary.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Average<br />Yield<br />of Milk<br />per Head<br />per Day,<br />6 Years.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Estimated Quantity<br />of Constituents in<br />Milk per Head per<br />Day each Month.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Specific<br />Gravity.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Butter-<br />Fat.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Solids<br />not<br />Fat.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Solids.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Butter-<br />Fat.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Solids<br />not<br />Fat.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Solids.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">%</td> <td class="tcc rb">%</td> <td class="tcc rb">%</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">January</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0325</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.55</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.34</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.89</td> <td class="tcc rb">20.31*</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.72</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.90</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.62</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">February</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0325</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.53</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.24</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.77</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.81</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.80</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.11</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.91</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">March</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0323</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.50</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.22</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.72</td> <td class="tcc rb">24.19</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.85</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.23</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.08</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">April</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0323</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.43</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.22</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.65</td> <td class="tcc rb">26.50</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.91</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.44</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.35</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">May</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0324</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.34</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.30</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.64</td> <td class="tcc rb">31.31</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.05</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.91</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.96</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">June</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0323</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.31</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.19</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.50</td> <td class="tcc rb">30.81</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.02</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.83</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.85</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">July</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0319</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.47</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.13</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.60</td> <td class="tcc rb">28.00</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.97</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.56</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.53</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">August</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0318</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.87</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.08</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.95</td> <td class="tcc rb">25.00</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.97</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.27</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.24</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">September</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0321</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.11</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.17</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.28</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.94</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.94</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.11</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.05</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">October</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0324</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.26</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.27</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.53</td> <td class="tcc rb">21.00</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.89</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.95</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.84</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">November</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0324</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.36</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.29</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.65</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.19</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.84</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.78</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.62</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">December</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0326</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.10</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.29</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.39</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.31</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.79</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.79</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.58</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Mean</td> <td class="tcc allb">1.0323</td> <td class="tcc allb">3.74</td> <td class="tcc allb">9.22</td> <td class="tcc allb">12.96</td> <td class="tcc allb">24.28</td> <td class="tcc allb">0.90</td> <td class="tcc allb">2.24</td> <td class="tcc allb">3.14</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="9">* Average over five years only, as the records did not commence until February 1884.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>As regards the influence of the period of the year, with its +characteristic changes of food, on the quantity and composition +of the milk, the first column of the second division of Table VII. +shows the average yield of milk per head per day of the Rothamsted +herd, averaging about 42 cows, almost exclusively Shorthorns, +in each month of the year, over six years, 1884 to 1889 +inclusive; and the succeeding columns show that amounts of +butter-fat, of solids not fat, and of total solids in the average +yield per head per day in each month of the year, calculated, +not according to direct analytical determinations made at +Rothamsted, but according to the results of more than 14,000 +analyses made, under the superintendence of Dr Vieth, in the +laboratory of the Aylesbury Dairy Company in 1884;<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> the +samples analysed representing the milk from a great many +different farms in each month.</p> + +<p>It should be stated that the Rothamsted cows had cake +throughout the year; at first 4 ℔ per head per day, but afterwards +graduated according to the yield of milk, on the basis +of 4 ℔ for a yield of 28 ℔ of milk, the result being that then +the amount given averaged more per head per day during the +grazing period, but less earlier and later in the year. Bran, +hay and straw-chaff, and roots (generally mangel), were also +given when the animals were not turned out to grass. The +general plan was, therefore, to give cake alone in addition when +the cows were turned out to grass, but some other dry food, +and roots, when entirely in the shed during the winter and early +spring months.</p> + +<p>Referring to the column showing the average yield of milk +per head per day each month over the six years, it will be seen +that during the six months January, February, September, +October, November and December the average yield was +sometimes below 20 ℔ and on the average only about 21 ℔ +of milk per head per day; whilst over the other six months +it averaged 27.63 ℔, and over May and June more than 31 ℔ +per head per day. That is to say, the quantity of milk yielded +was considerably greater during the grazing period than when +the animals had more dry food, and roots instead of grass.</p> + +<p>Next, referring to the particulars of composition, according +to Dr Vieth’s results, which may well be considered as typical +for the different periods of the year, it is seen that the specific +gravity of the milk was only average, or lower than average, +during the grazing period, but rather higher in the earlier and +later months of the year. The percentage of total solids was +rather lower than the average at the beginning of the year, +lowest during the chief grazing months, but considerably higher +in the later months of the year, when the animals were kept in +the shed and received more dry food. The percentage of butter-fat +follows very closely that of the total solids, being the lowest +during the best grazing months, but considerably higher than +the average during the last four or five months of the year, when +more dry food was given. The percentage of solids not fat was +considerably the lowest during the later +months of the grazing period, but average, +or higher than average, during the earlier +and later months of the year. It may be +observed that, according to the average +percentages given in the table, a gallon +of milk will contain more of both +total solids and of butter-fat in the later +months of the year; that is, when there +is less grass and more dry food given.</p> + +<p>Turning to the last three columns of the +table, it is seen that although, as has +been shown, the percentage of the several +constituents in the milk is lower during +the grazing months, the actual amounts +contained in the quantity of milk yielded +per head are distinctly greater during +those months. Thus, the amount of butter-fat +yielded <i>per head per day</i> is above the +average of the year from April to September +inclusive; the amounts of solids +not fat are over average from April to +August inclusive; and the amounts of +total solids yielded are average, or over +average, from April to August inclusive.</p> + +<p>From the foregoing results it is evident +that the quantity of milk yielded per head is very much the +greater during the grazing months of the year, but that the +percentage composition of the milk is lower during that period +of higher yield, and considerably higher during the months of +more exclusively dry-food feeding. Nevertheless, owing to the +much greater quantity of milk yielded during the grazing +months, the actual quantity of constituents yielded per Cow is +greater during those months than during the months of higher +percentage composition but lower yield of milk per head. It +may be added that a careful consideration of the number of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page744" id="page744"></a>744</span> +newly-calved cows brought into the herd each month shows +that the results as above stated were perfectly distinct, +independently of any influence of the period of lactation of the +different individuals of the herd.</p> + +<p>The few results which have been brought forward in relation +to <i>milk-production</i> are admittedly quite insufficient adequately +to illustrate the influence of variation in the quantity and composition +of the food on the quantity and composition of the +milk yielded. Indeed, owing to the intrinsic difficulties of +experimenting on such a subject, involving so many elements of +variation, any results obtained have to be interpreted with much +care and reservation. Nevertheless, it may be taken as clearly +indicated that, within certain limits, high feeding, and especially +high nitrogenous feeding, does increase both the yield and the +richness of the milk.<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> But it is evident that when high feeding +is pushed beyond a comparatively limited range, the tendency +is to increase the weight of the animal—that is, to favour the +development of the individual, rather than to enhance the +activity of the functions connected with the reproductive system. +This is, of course, a disadvantage when the object is to maintain +the milk-yielding condition of the animal; but when a cow is +to be fattened off it will be otherwise.</p> + +<p>It has been stated that, early in the period of six years in which +the Rothamsted results that have been quoted were obtained, +the amount of oil-cake given was graduated according to the +yield of milk of each individual cow; as it seemed unreasonable +that an animal yielding, say, only 4 quarts per day, should +receive, beside the home foods, as much cake as one yielding +several times the quantity. The obvious inference is, that any +excess of food beyond that required for sustenance and milk-production +would tend to increase the weight of the animal, +which, according to the circumstances, may or may not be +desirable.</p> + +<p>It may be observed that direct experiments at Rothamsted +confirm the view, arrived at by common experience, that roots, +and especially mangel, have a favourable effect on the flow of +milk. Further, the Rothamsted experiments have shown that +a higher percentage of butter-fat, of other solids, and of total +solids, was obtained with mangel than with silage as the succulent +food. The yield of milk was, however, in a much greater +degree increased by grazing than by any other change in the +food; and at Rothamsted the influence of roots comes next +in order to that of grass, though far behind it, in this respect. +But with grazing, as has been shown, the percentage composition +of the milk is considerably reduced; though, owing to the greatly +increased quantity yielded, the amount of soil-constituents +removed in the milk when cows are grazing may nevertheless +be greater per head per day than under any other conditions. +Lastly, it has been clearly illustrated how very much greater +is the demand upon the food, especially for nitrogenous and for +mineral constituents, in the production of milk than in that of +fattening increase.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Manurial Value of Food consumed in the +Production of Milk</p> + +<p>In any attempt to estimate the average value of the manure +derived from the consumption of food for the production of +milk, the difficulty arising from the very wide variation in the +amount of milk yielded by different cows, or by the same cow +at different periods of her lactation, is increased by the inadequate +character of information concerning the difference in the amount +of the food actually consumed by the animal coincidently +with the production of such different amounts of milk. But +although information is lacking for correlating, with numerical +accuracy, the great difference in milk-yield of individual cows +with the coincident differences in consumption to produce it, +it may be considered as satisfactorily established that more food +is consumed by a herd of cows to produce a fair yield of milk, +of say 10 or 12 quarts per head per day, than by an equal live-weight +of oxen fed to produce fattening increase. In the cases +supposed it may, for practical purposes, be assumed that the +cows would consume about one-fourth more food than the +oxen. Accordingly, in the Rothamsted estimates of the value +of the manure obtained on the consumption of food for the +production of milk, it is assumed that one-fourth more will be consumed +by 1000 ℔ live-weight of cows than by the same weight +of oxen; but the estimates of the amounts of the constituents of +the food removed in the milk, or remaining for manure, are nevertheless +reckoned per ton of each kind of food consumed, as in the +case of those relating to feeding for the production of fattening +increase. It may be added that the calculations of the amounts of +the constituents in the milk are based on the same average composition +of milk as is adopted in the construction of Table V. Thus +the nitrogen is taken at 0.579 (= 3.65 nitrogenous substance)%, +the phosphoric acid at 0.2175%, and the potash at 0.1875% +in the milk.</p> + +<p>Table VIII. shows in detail the estimate of the amount of +nitrogen in one ton of each food, and in the milk produced from +its consumption, on the assumption of an average yield of 10 +quarts per head per day; also the amount remaining for manure, +the amount of ammonia corresponding to the nitrogen, and the +value of the ammonia at 4d. per ℔. Similar particulars are also +given in relation to the phosphoric acid and the potash consumed +in the food, removed in the milk, and remaining for manure, &c. +This table will serve as a sufficient illustration of the mode of +estimating the <i>total or original</i> value of the manure, derived +from the consumption of the different foods for the production +of milk in the case supposed; that is, assuming an average +yield of a herd of 10 quarts per head per day.</p> + +<p>In Table IX. are given the results of similar detailed calculations +of the <i>total or original</i> manure-value (as in Table VIII. +for 10 quarts), on the alternative assumptions of a yield of 6, 8, +12 or 14 quarts per head per day. For comparison there is +also given, in the first column, the estimate of the <i>total or original</i> +manure-value when the foods are consumed for the production +of fattening increase.</p> + +<p>So much for the plan and results of the estimations of <i>total +or original</i> manure-value of the different foods, that is, deducting +only the constituents removed in the milk, and reckoning the +remainder at the prices at which they can be purchased in +artificial manures. With a view to direct application to practice, +however, it is necessary to estimate the <i>unexhausted manure-value</i> +of the different foods, or what may be called their <i>compensation-value</i>, +after they have been used for a series of years by the +outgoing tenant and he has realized a certain portion of the +manure-value in his increased crops. In the calculations for this +purpose the rule is to deduct one-half of the <i>original manure-value</i> +of the food used the last year, and one-third of the remainder +each year to the eighth, in the case of all the more concentrated +foods and of the roots—in fact, of all the foods in the list excepting +the hays and the straws. For these, which contain +larger amounts of indigestible matter, and the constituents of +which will be more slowly available to crops, two-thirds of the +<i>original manure-value</i> is deducted for the last year, and only +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page745" id="page745"></a>745</span> +one-fifth from year to year to the eighth year back. The results +of the estimates of <i>compensation-value</i> so made are given for the +five yields of 6, 8, 10, 12 and 14 quarts of milk per head per day +respectively in Lawes and Gilbert’s paper<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a> on the valuation +of the manures obtained by the consumption of foods for the +production of milk, which may be consulted for fuller details. +It must, however, be borne in mind that when cows are fed in +sheds or yards the manure is generally liable to greater losses +than is the case with fattening oxen. The manure of the cow +contains much more water in proportion to solid matter than +that of the ox. Water will, besides, frequently be used for +washing, and it may be that a good deal of the manure is washed +into drains and lost. In the event, therefore, of a claim for +compensation, the management and disposal of the manure +requires the attention of the valuer. Indeed, the varying +circumstances that will arise in practice must be carefully +considered. Bearing these in mind, the estimates may be +accepted as at any rate the best approximation to the truth +that existing knowledge provides; and they should be found +sufficient for the requirements of practical use. Obviously they +will be more directly applicable in the case of cows feeding entirely +on the foods enumerated in the list, and not depending +largely on grass; but, even when the animals are partially +grass-fed, the value of the manure derived from the additional +dry food or roots may be estimated according to the scale given.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table VIII.</span>—<i>Estimates of the Total or Original Manure-Value of Cattle Foods after Consumption by Cows for the Production of Milk. +Valuation on the assumption of an average production by a herd of 10 quarts of milk per head per day.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="3">Nos.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="3">Description<br />of Food.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="7">Nitrogen.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="5">Phosphoric Acid.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="5">Potash.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="3" colspan="3">Total or<br />Original<br />Manure-<br />Value<br />per Ton<br />of Food<br />consumed.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">In<br />1 Ton<br />of<br />Food.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">In<br />Milk<br />from<br />1 Ton<br />of<br />Food.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="5">In Manure.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">In<br />1 Ton<br />of<br />Food.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">In<br />Milk<br />from<br />1 Ton<br />of<br />Food.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">In Manure.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">In<br />1 Ton<br />of<br />Food.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">In<br />Milk<br />from<br />1 Ton<br />of<br />Food.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">In Manure.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Total<br />remaining<br />for<br />Manure.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Nitrogen<br />equal<br />Ammonia.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Value of<br />Ammonia<br />at 4 d.<br />per ℔.</td> + + <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />remaining<br />for<br />Manure.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Value<br />at 2 d.<br />per ℔.</td> + + <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />remaining<br />for<br />Manure.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Value<br />at 1½ d.<br />per ℔.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcr">£</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcr">£</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Linseed</td> <td class="tcr rb">80.64</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.04</td> <td class="tcr rb">55.60</td> <td class="tcr rb">67.52</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">34.50</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.34</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.16</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.69</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.02</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.67</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Linseed cake</td> <td class="tcr rb">106.40</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.86</td> <td class="tcr rb">85.54</td> <td class="tcr rb">103.87</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">44.80</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.79</td> <td class="tcr rb">37.01</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">31.36</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.71</td> <td class="tcr rb">24.65</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Decorticated<br />cotton cake</td> <td class="tcr rb">147.84</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.27</td> <td class="tcr rb">128.57</td> <td class="tcr rb">156.13</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">69.44</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.18</td> <td class="tcr rb">62.26</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">44.80</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.22</td> <td class="tcr rb">38.58</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Palm-nut cake</td> <td class="tcr rb">56.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.86</td> <td class="tcr rb">38.14</td> <td class="tcr rb">46.31</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">26.88</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.68</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.20</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.20</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.73</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.47</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Undecorticated<br />cotton cake</td> <td class="tcr rb">84.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.66</td> <td class="tcr rb">68.34</td> <td class="tcr rb">82.99</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">44.80</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.85</td> <td class="tcr rb">38.95</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">44.80</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.07</td> <td class="tcr rb">39.73</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Cocoanut cake</td> <td class="tcr rb">76.16</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.66</td> <td class="tcr rb">60.50</td> <td class="tcr rb">73.47</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">31.36</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.85</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.51</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">44.80</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.07</td> <td class="tcr rb">39.73</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Rape cake</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">109.76</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12.50</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">97.26</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">118.11</td> <td class="tcr bb">1</td> <td class="tcr bb">19</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">56.00</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4.69</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">51.31</td> <td class="tcr bb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">33.60</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4.09</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">29.51</td> <td class="tcr bb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8</td> <td class="tcr bb">2</td> <td class="tcr bb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Peas</td> <td class="tcr rb">80.64</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.86</td> <td class="tcr rb">62.78</td> <td class="tcr rb">76.24</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.04</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.68</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.36</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">21.50</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.73</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.77</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Beans</td> <td class="tcr rb">89.60</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.86</td> <td class="tcr rb">71.74</td> <td class="tcr rb">87.12</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">24.64|</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.68</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.96</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">29.12</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.73</td> <td class="tcr rb">23.39</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">10</td> <td class="tcl rb">Lentils</td> <td class="tcr rb">94.08</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.86</td> <td class="tcr rb">76.22</td> <td class="tcr rb">92.56</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.80</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.68</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.12</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.68</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.73</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.95</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">11</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tares (seed)</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">94.08</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">17.86</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">76.22</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">92.56</td> <td class="tcr bb">1</td> <td class="tcr bb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">17.92</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6.68</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11.24</td> <td class="tcr bb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">17.92</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5.73</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12.19</td> <td class="tcr bb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6</td> <td class="tcr bb">1</td> <td class="tcr bb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">12</td> <td class="tcl rb">Maize</td> <td class="tcr rb">38.08</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.38</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.70</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.14</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.44</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.50</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.94</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.29</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.56</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.73</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">13</td> <td class="tcl rb">Wheat</td> <td class="tcr rb">40.32</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.38</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.94</td> <td class="tcr rb">27.86</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.04</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.50</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.54</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.87</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.56</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.31</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">14</td> <td class="tcl rb">Malt</td> <td class="tcr rb">38.08</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.86</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.22</td> <td class="tcr rb">24.55</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.92</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.68</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.24</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.20</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.73</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.47</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">15</td> <td class="tcl rb">Barley</td> <td class="tcr rb">36.96</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.38</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.58</td> <td class="tcr rb">23.78</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.80</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.50</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.30</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.32</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.56</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.76</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">16</td> <td class="tcl rb">Oats</td> <td class="tcr rb">44.80</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.68</td> <td class="tcr rb">28.12</td> <td class="tcr rb">34.15</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.44</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.24</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.20</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.20</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.40</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.80</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">17</td> <td class="tcl rb">Rice meal</td> <td class="tcr rb">42.56</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.68</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.88</td> <td class="tcr rb">31.43</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">(13.44)</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.24</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.20</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">(8.29)</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.40</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.89</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">18</td> <td class="tcl rb">Locust beans</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">26.88</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">13.90</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12.98</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">15.76</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr bb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5.19</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4.42</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb" colspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb" colspan="3">..</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">19</td> <td class="tcl rb">Malt coombs</td> <td class="tcr rb">87.36</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.66</td> <td class="tcr rb">71.70</td> <td class="tcr rb">87.07</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">44.80</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.85</td> <td class="tcr rb">38.95</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">44.80</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.07</td> <td class="tcr rb">39.73</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">20</td> <td class="tcl rb">Fine pollard</td> <td class="tcr rb">54.88</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.68</td> <td class="tcr rb">38.20</td> <td class="tcr rb">46.39</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">64.96</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.24</td> <td class="tcr rb">58.72</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">32.70</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.40</td> <td class="tcr rb">27.30</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">21</td> <td class="tcl rb">Coarse pollard</td> <td class="tcr rb">56.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.66</td> <td class="tcr rb">40.34</td> <td class="tcr rb">48.99</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">78.40</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.85</td> <td class="tcr rb">72.55</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">33.60</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.07</td> <td class="tcr rb">28.53</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">22</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bran</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">56.00</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">13.90</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">42.10</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">51.12</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr bb">17</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">80.64</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5.19</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">75.45</td> <td class="tcr bb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">32.48</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4.42</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">28.06</td> <td class="tcr bb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6</td> <td class="tcr bb">1</td> <td class="tcr bb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">23</td> <td class="tcl rb">Clover hay</td> <td class="tcr rb">53.76</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.94</td> <td class="tcr rb">44.82</td> <td class="tcr rb">54.43</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.77</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.35</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.42</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">33.60</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.94</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.66</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">24</td> <td class="tcl rb">Meadow hay</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">33.60</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8.36</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">25.24</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">30.65</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr bb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8.96</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.10</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5.86</td> <td class="tcr bb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">35.84</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.62</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">33.22</td> <td class="tcr bb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr bb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">25</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pea straw</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.40</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.83</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.57</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.69</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.84</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.91</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.93</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.40</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.46</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.94</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">26</td> <td class="tcl rb">Oat straw</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.20</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.95</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.25</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.16</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.38</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.60</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.78</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.40</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.29</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.11</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">27</td> <td class="tcl rb">Wheat straw</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.08</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.98</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.10</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.98</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.38</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.23</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.15</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.92</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.96</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.96</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">28</td> <td class="tcl rb">Barley straw</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.96</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.46</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.50</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.25</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.03</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.04</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.99</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.40</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.80</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.60</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">29</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bean straw</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">20.16</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5.68</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">14.48</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">17.58</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr bb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6.72</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.14</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4.58</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">22.40</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.80</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">20.60</td> <td class="tcr bb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr bb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">30</td> <td class="tcl rb">Potatoes</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.60</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.07</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.53</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.29</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.36</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.78</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.58</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.32</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.66</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.66</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">31</td> <td class="tcl rb">Carrots</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.48</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.46</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.02</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.67</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.02</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.54</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.48</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.27</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.49</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.78</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">32</td> <td class="tcl rb">Parsnips</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.93</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.67</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.26</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.96</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.26</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.63</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.63</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.06</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.49</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.57</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">33</td> <td class="tcl rb">Mangel wurzels</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.93</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.32</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.61</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.38</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.57</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.49</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.08</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.96</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.49</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.47</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">34</td> <td class="tcl rb">Swedish turnips</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.60</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.14</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.46</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.42</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.34</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.44</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.90</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.93</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.33</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.60</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">35</td> <td class="tcl rb">Yellow turnips</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.48</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.93</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.55</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.31</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.34</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.34</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.00</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.93</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.33</td> <td class="tcr rb">(4.60)</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb bb">36</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">White turnips</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4.03</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0.84</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3.19</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3.87</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr bb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1.12</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.31</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0.81</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6.72</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.33</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6.39</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">10</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr bb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Cheese and Cheese-Making</p> + +<p>For generations, perhaps for centuries, the question has been +discussed as to why there should be so large a proportion of bad +and inferior cheese and so small a proportion of really good cheese +made in farmhouses throughout the land. That the result is +not wholly due to skill and care or to the absence of these qualities +on the part of the dairymaid may now be taken for granted. +Instances might be quoted in which the most painstaking of +dairymaids, in the cleanest of dairies, have failed to produce +cheese of even second-rate quality and character, and yet others +in which excellent cheese has been made under commonplace +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746"></a>746</span> +conditions as to skill and equipment, and with not much regard +to cleanliness in the dairy. The explanation of what was so +long a mystery has been found in the domain of ferments. It +is now known that whilst various micro-organisms, which in +many dairies have free access to the milk, have ruined an incalculable +quantity of cheese—and of butter also—neither cheese +nor butter of first-rate quality can be made without the aid +of lactic acid bacilli. As an illustrative case, mention may be +made of that of two most painstaking dairymaids who had tried +in vain to make good cheese from the freshest of milk in the +cleanest of dairies in North Lancashire. Advice to resort to +the use of the ferment was acted upon, and the result was a +revelation and a transformation, excellent prize-winning cheese +being made from that time forward. By the addition of a +“starter,” in the form of a small quantity of sour milk, whey +or buttermilk, in an advanced stage of fermentation, the development +of acidity in the main body of milk is accelerated. It +has been ascertained that the starter is practically a culture +of bacteria, which, if desired, may be obtained as a pure culture. +Professor J. R. Campbell, as the result of experiments on pure +cultures for Cheddar cheese-making, states<a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a> that (1) first-class +Cheddar cheese can be made by using pure cultures of a lactic +organism; (2) this organism abounds in all samples of sour +milk and sour whey; (3) the use of a whey starter is attended +with results equal in every respect to those obtained from a +milk-starter. It is well within the power of any dairyman to +prepare what is practically a pure culture of the same bacterium +as is supplied from the laboratory. Moreover, the sour-whey +starter used by some of the successful cheese-makers before the +introduction of the American system is in effect a pure culture, +from which it follows that these men had, by empirical methods, +attained the same end as that to which bacteriological research +subsequently led. Wherever a starter is +necessary, the use of a culture practically +pure is imperative, whether such culture +be obtained from the laboratory or prepared +by what may be called the “home-made +starter.” Pure cultures may be +bought for a few shillings in the open +market.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table IX.</span>—<i>Comparison of the Estimates of Total or Original +Manure-Value when Foods are +consumed for the Production of Fattening Increase, with those when the Food is consumed +by Cows giving different Yields of Milk.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="3">Nos.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="3">Description<br />of Food.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="18">Total or Original Manure-Value per Ton of Food<br /> + consumed—that is, only deducting the Constituents<br /> + in Fattening Increase or in Milk.<br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="3" rowspan="2">For the<br />Production<br />of<br />Fattening<br />Increase.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="15">For the Production of Milk, supposing<br /> + the Yield per Head per Day to be as under—</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">6 qts.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">8 qts.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">10 qts.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">12 qts.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">14 qts.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr">£</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcr">£</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcr">£</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcr">£</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcr">£</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcr">£</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Linseed</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Linseed cake</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Decorticated cotton cake</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Palm-nut cake</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Undecorticated cotton cake</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Cocoa-nut cake</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Rape cake</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Peas</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Beans</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">10</td> <td class="tcl rb">Lentils</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">11</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tares (seed)</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">12</td> <td class="tcl rb">Maize</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">13</td> <td class="tcl rb">Wheat</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">14</td> <td class="tcl rb">Malt</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">15</td> <td class="tcl rb">Barley</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">16</td> <td class="tcl rb">Oats</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">17</td> <td class="tcl rb">Rice meal</td> <td class="tcr">(0</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">6)</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">18</td> <td class="tcl rb">Locust beans</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="3">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="3">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="3">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="3">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="3">..</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="3">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">19</td> <td class="tcl rb">Malt coombs</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">20</td> <td class="tcl rb">Fine pollard</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">21</td> <td class="tcl rb">Coarse pollard</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">22</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bran</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">23</td> <td class="tcl rb">Clover hay</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">24</td> <td class="tcl rb">Meadow hay</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">25</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pea straw</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">26</td> <td class="tcl rb">Oat straw</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">27</td> <td class="tcl rb">Wheat straw</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">28</td> <td class="tcl rb">Barley straw</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">29</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bean straw</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">30</td> <td class="tcl rb">Potatoes</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">31</td> <td class="tcl rb">Carrots</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">32</td> <td class="tcl rb">Parsnips</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">33</td> <td class="tcl rb">Mangel wurzels</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">34</td> <td class="tcl rb">Swedish turnips</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">35</td> <td class="tcl rb">Yellow turnips</td> <td class="tcr">(0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">6)</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb bb">36</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">White turnips</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr bb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr bb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr bb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr bb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr bb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr bb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The factory-made cheese of Canada, +the United States and Australasia, which +is so largely imported into the United +Kingdom, is all of the Cheddar type. The +factory system has made no headway in +the original home of the Cheddar cheese +in the west of England. The system was +thus described in the <i>Journal</i> of the +British Dairy Farmers’ Association in +1889 by Mr R. J. Drummond:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“In the year 1885 I was engaged as cheese +instructor by the Ayrshire Dairy Association, +to teach the Canadian system of +Cheddar cheese-making. I commenced +operations under many difficulties, being a +total stranger to both the people and the +country, and with this, the quantities of +milk were very much less than I had been +in the habit of handling. Instead of having +the milk from 500 to 1000 cows, we had to +operate with the milk from 25 to not over +60 cows.</p> + +<p>“The system of cheese-making commonly +practised in the county of Ayr at that time +was what is commonly known as the Joseph +Harding or English Cheddar system, which +differs from the Canadian system in many +details, and in one particular is essentially +different, namely, the manner in which the +necessary acidity in the milk is produced. +In the old method a certain quantity of +sour whey was added to the milk each day +before adding the rennet, and I have no +doubt in my own mind that this whey was +often added when the milk was already acid +enough, and the consequence was a spoiled +cheese.</p> + +<p>“Another objection to this system of +adding sour whey was, should the stuff be +out of condition one day, the same trouble +was inoculated with the milk from day to +day, and the result was sure to be great +unevenness in the quality of the cheese. +The utensils commonly in use were very +different to anything I had ever seen before; +instead of the oblong cheese vat with double +casings, as is used by the best makers at +the present time, a tub, sometimes of tin +and sometimes of wood, from 4 to 7 ft. in diameter by about +30 in. deep, was universally in use. Instead of being able to heat +the milk with warm water or steam, as is commonly done now, a +large can of a capacity of from 20 to 30 gallons was filled with cold +milk and placed in a common hot-water boiler, and heated sufficiently +to bring the whole body of the milk in the tub to the desired temperature +for adding the rennet. I found that many mistakes were +made in the quantity of rennet used, as scarcely any two makers +used the same quantity to a given quantity of milk. Instead of +having a graduated measure for measuring the rennet, a common +tea-cup was used for this purpose, and I have found in some dairies +as low as 3 oz. of rennet was used to 100 gallons of milk, where in +others as high as 6½ oz. was used to the same quantity. This of itself +would cause a difference in the quality of the cheese.</p> + +<p>“Coagulation and breaking completed, the second heating was +effected by dipping the whey from the curd into the can already +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page747" id="page747"></a>747</span> +mentioned, and heated to a temperature of 140° F., and returned +to the curd, and thus the process was carried on till the desired +temperature was reached. This mode of heating I considered +very laborious and at the same time very unsatisfactory, as it is +impossible to distribute the heat as evenly through the curd in this +way as by heating either with hot water or steam. The other general +features of the method do not differ from our own very materially, +with the exception that in the old method the curd was allowed to +mature in the bottom of the tub, where at the same stage we remove +the curd from the vat to what we call a curd-cooler, made with a +sparred bottom, so as to allow the whey to separate from the curd +during the maturing or ripening process. In regard to the quality +of cheese on the one method compared with the other, I think that +there was some cheese just as fine made in the old way as anything +we can possibly make in the new, with one exception, and that is, +that the cheese made according to the old method will not toast—instead +of the casein melting down with the butter-fat, the two +become separated, which is very much objected to by the consumer—and, +with this, want of uniformity through the whole dairy. This +is a very short and imperfect description of how the cheese was made +at the time I came into Ayrshire; and I will now give a short description +of the system that has been taught by myself for the past +four years, and has been the means of bringing this county so +prominently to the front as one of the best cheese-making counties +in Britain.</p> + +<p>“Our duty in this system of cheese-making begins the night +before, in having the milk properly set and cooled according to the +temperature of the atmosphere, so as to arrive at a given heat the +next morning. Our object in this is to secure, at the time we wish +to begin work in the morning, that degree of acidity or ripeness +essential to the success of the whole operation. We cannot give any +definite guide to makers how, or in what quantities, to set their milk, +as the whole thing depends on the good judgment of the operator. +If he finds that his milk works best at a temperature of 68° F. in +the morning, his study the night before should tend toward such a +result, and he will soon learn by experience how best to manage +the milk in his own individual dairy. I have found in some dairies +that the milk worked quite fast enough at a temperature of 64° in +the morning, where in others the milk set in the same way would be +very much out of condition by being too sweet, causing hours of +delay before matured enough to add the rennet. Great care should +be taken at this point, making sure that the milk is properly matured +before the rennet is added, as impatience at this stage often causes +hours of delay in the making of a cheese. I advise taking about +six hours from the time the rennet is added till the curd is ready for +salting, which means a six-hours’ process; if much longer than this, +I have found by experience that it is impossible to obtain the best +results. The cream should always be removed from the night’s milk +in the morning and heated to a temperature of about 84° before +returning it to the vat. To do this properly and with safety, the +cream should be heated by adding about two-thirds of warm milk +as it comes from the cow to one-third of cream, and passed through +the ordinary milk-strainers. If colouring matter is used, it should be +added fifteen to twenty minutes before the rennet, so as to become +thoroughly mingled with the milk before coagulation takes place.</p> + +<p>“We use from 4 to 4½ oz. of Hansen’s rennet extract to each +100 gallons of milk, at a temperature of 86° in spring and 84° in +summer, or sufficient to coagulate milk firm enough to cut in about +forty minutes when in a proper condition. In cutting, great care +should be taken not to bruise the curd. I cut lengthwise, then +across with perpendicular knife, then with horizontal knife the +same way of the perpendicular, leaving the curd in small cubes +about the size of ordinary peas. Stirring with the hands should +begin immediately after cutting, and continue for ten to fifteen +minutes prior to the application of heat. At this stage we use a +rake instead of the hands for stirring the curd during the heating +process, which lasts about one hour from the time of beginning until +the desired temperature of 100° or 102° is reached. After heating, +the curd should be stirred another twenty minutes, so as to become +properly firm before allowing it to settle. We like the curd to lie +in the whey fully one hour after allowing it to settle before it is +ready for drawing the whey, which is regulated altogether by the +condition of the milk at the time the rennet is added. At the first +indication of acid, the whey should be removed as quickly as possible. +I think at this point lies the greatest secret of cheese-making—to +know when to draw the whey.</p> + +<p>“I depend entirely on the hot-iron test at this stage, as I consider +it the most accurate and reliable guide known to determine when +the proper acidity has been developed. To apply this test, take a +piece of steel bar about 18 in. long by 1 in. wide and ¼ in. thick, and +heat to a black heat; if the iron is too hot, it will burn the curd; +if too cold, it will not stick; consequently it is a very simple matter +to determine the proper heat. Take a small quantity of the curd +from the vat and compress it tightly in the hand, so as to expel all +the whey; press the curd against the iron, and when acid enough +it will draw fine silky threads ¼ in. long. At this stage the curd +should be removed to the curd-cooler as quickly as possible, and +stirred till dry enough to allow it to mat, which generally takes from +five to eight minutes. The curd is now allowed to stand in one end +of the cooler for thirty minutes, when it is cut into pieces from 6 to +8 in. square and turned, and so on every half-hour until it is fit for +milling. After removing the whey, a new acid makes its appearance +in the body of the curd, which seems to depend for its development +upon the action of the air, and the presence of which experience has +shown to be an essential element in the making of a cheese. This +acid should be allowed to develop properly before the addition of +salt. To determine when the curd is ready for salting, the hot-iron +test is again resorted to; and when the curd will draw fine silky +threads 1½ in. long, and at the same time have a soft velvety feel +when pressed in the hand, the butter-fat will not separate with the +whey from the curd. I generally advise using 1 ℔ of salt to 50 ℔ of +curd, more or less, according to the condition of the curd. After +salting, we let the curd lie fifteen minutes, so as to allow the salt to +be thoroughly dissolved before pressing.</p> + +<p>“In the pressing, care should be taken not to press the curd too +severely at first, as you are apt to lose some of the butter-fat, and +with this I do not think that the whey will come away so freely by +heavy pressing at first. We advise three days’ pressing before +cheese is taken to the curing-room. All cheese should have a bath +in water at a temperature of 120° next morning after being made, +so as to form a good skin to prevent cracking or chipping. The +temperature of the curing-room should be kept as near 60° as +possible at all seasons of the year, and I think it a good plan to +ventilate while heating.”</p> +</div> + +<p>With regard to the hot-iron test for acidity, Mr F. J. Lloyd, +in describing his investigations on behalf of the Bath and West +of England Society, states that cheese-makers have long known +that in both the manufacture and the ripening of cheese the +acidity produced—known to the chemist as “lactic acid”—materially +influences the results obtained, and that amongst +other drawbacks to the test referred to is the uncertainty of the +temperature of the iron itself. He gives an account,<a name="fa8a" id="fa8a" href="#ft8a"><span class="sp">8</span></a> however, +of a chemical method involving the use of a standard solution +of an alkali (soda), and of a substance termed an “indicator” +(phenolphthalein), which changes colour according to whether +a solution is acid or alkaline. The apparatus used with these +reagents is called the acidimeter. The two stages in the manufacture +of a Cheddar cheese most difficult to determine empirically +are—(1) when to stop stirring and to draw the whey, and +(2) when to grind the curd. The introduction of the acidimeter +has done away with these difficulties; and though the use of +this apparatus is not actually a condition essential to the manufacture +of a good cheese, it is to many makers a necessity and to +all an advantage. By its use the cheese-maker can determine +the acidity of the whey, and so decide when to draw the latter +off, and will thus secure not only the proper development of +acidity in the subsequent changes of cheese-making, but also +materially diminish the time which the cheese takes to make. +Furthermore, it has been proved that the acidity of the whey +which drains from the curd when in the cooler is a sufficiently +accurate guide to the condition of the curd before grinding; +and by securing uniformity in this acidity the maker will also +ensure uniformity in the quality and ripening properties of the +cheese. Speaking generally, the acidity of the liquid from +the press should never fall below 0.80% nor rise above 1.20%, +and, the nearer it can be kept to 1.00% the better. Simultaneously, +of course, strict attention must be paid to temperature, +time and every other factor which can be accurately determined. +Analyses of large numbers of Cheddar cheeses manufactured +in every month of the cheese-making season show the average +composition of ripe specimens to be—water, 35.58%; fat, +31.33; casein, 29.12; mineral matter or ash, 3.97. It has been +maintained that in the ripening of Cheddar cheese fat is formed +out of the curd, but a comparison of analyses of ripe cheeses +with analyses of the curd from which the cheeses were made +affords no evidence that this is the case.</p> + +<p>The quantity of milk required to make 1 ℔ of Cheddar cheese +may be learnt from Table X., which shows the results obtained +at the cheese school of the Bath and West of England Society +in the two seasons of 1899 and 1900. The cheese was sold at an +average age of ten to twelve weeks. In 1899 a total of 21,220 +gallons of milk yielded 20,537 ℔ of saleable cheese, and in 1900, +31,808 gallons yielded 29,631 ℔. In the two years together +53,028 gallons yielded 50,168 ℔, which is equivalent to 1.05 +gallon of milk to 1 ℔ of cheese. For practical purposes it may +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page748" id="page748"></a>748</span> +be taken that one gallon, or slightly over 10 ℔ of milk, yields +1 ℔ of pressed cheese. The prices obtained are added as a matter +of interest.</p> + +<p>Cheshire cheese is largely made in the county from which it +takes its name, and in adjoining districts. It is extensively +consumed in Manchester and Liverpool, and other parts of the +densely populated county of Lancaster.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table X.</span>—<i>Quantities of Milk employed and of Cheese produced in the Manufacture +of Cheddar Cheese.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">When Made.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Milk.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Green<br />Cheese.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Saleable<br />Cheese.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Shrinkage.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Price.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">galls.</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">per cwt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">April 1899</td> <td class="tcc rb">3077</td> <td class="tcc rb">3100</td> <td class="tcc rb">2924</td> <td class="tcl rb">6 per cent.</td> <td class="tcc rb">60s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">May</td> <td class="tcc rb">4462</td> <td class="tcc rb">4502</td> <td class="tcc rb">4257</td> <td class="tcl rb">6½ ℔ per cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">63s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">June</td> <td class="tcc rb">4316</td> <td class="tcc rb">4434</td> <td class="tcc rb">4141</td> <td class="tcl rb">7 ℔ 6 oz. per cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">70s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">July</td> <td class="tcc rb">3699</td> <td class="tcc rb">3785</td> <td class="tcc rb">3545</td> <td class="tcl rb">7 ℔ 2 oz. per cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">74s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">August</td> <td class="tcc rb">2495</td> <td class="tcc rb">2539</td> <td class="tcc rb">2353</td> <td class="tcl rb">8 ℔ 3 oz. per cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">74s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sept. and Oct.</td> <td class="tcc rb">3171</td> <td class="tcc rb">3583</td> <td class="tcc rb">3317</td> <td class="tcl rb">8 ℔ 5 oz. per cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">74s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">April 1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">3651</td> <td class="tcc rb">3505</td> <td class="tcc rb">3292</td> <td class="tcl rb">6 per cent.</td> <td class="tcc rb">63s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">May</td> <td class="tcc rb">6027</td> <td class="tcc rb">6048</td> <td class="tcc rb">5577</td> <td class="tcl rb">7¾ per cent.</td> <td class="tcc rb">64s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">June</td> <td class="tcc rb">5960</td> <td class="tcc rb">5889</td> <td class="tcc rb">5466</td> <td class="tcl rb">7¼ per cent.</td> <td class="tcc rb">68s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">July and Aug.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7227</td> <td class="tcc rb">7177</td> <td class="tcc rb">6630</td> <td class="tcl rb">7½ per cent.</td> <td class="tcc rb">66s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Sept. and Oct.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">8943</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">9635</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">8666</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">10 per cent.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">66s.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The following is a description of the making of Cheshire +cheese:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The evening’s milk is set apart until the following morning, when +the cream is skimmed off. The latter is poured into a pan which +has been heated by being placed in the boiling water of a boiler. +The new milk obtained early in the morning is poured into the vessel +containing the previous evening’s milk with the warmed cream, +and the temperature of the mixture is brought to about 75° F. +Into the vessel is introduced a piece of rennet, which has been kept +in warm water since the preceding evening, and in which a little +Spanish annatto (¼ oz. is enough for a cheese of 60 ℔) is dissolved. +(Marigolds, boiled in milk, are occasionally used for colouring cheese, +to which they likewise impart a pleasant flavour. In winter, carrots +scraped and boiled in milk, and afterwards strained, will produce +a richer colour; but they should be used with moderation, on +account of their taste.) The whole is now stirred together, and +covered up warm for about an hour, or until it becomes curdled; +it is then turned over with a bowl and broken very small. After +standing a little time, the whey is drawn from it, and as soon as +the curd becomes somewhat more solid it is cut into slices and turned +over repeatedly, the better to press out the whey.</p> + +<p>The curd is then removed from the tub, broken by hand or cut +by a curd-breaker into small pieces, and put into a cheese vat, +where it is strongly pressed both by hand and with weights, in order +to extract the remaining whey. After this it is transferred to +another vat, or into the same if it has in the meantime been well +scalded, where a similar process of breaking and expressing is +repeated, until all the whey is forced from it. The cheese is now +turned into a third vat, previously warmed, with a cloth beneath +it, and a thin loop of binder put round the upper edge of the cheese +and within the sides of the vat, the cheese itself being previously +enclosed in a clean cloth, and its edges placed within the vat, before +transfer to the cheese-oven. These various processes occupy about +six hours, and eight more are requisite for pressing the cheese, under +a weight of 14 or 15 cwt. The cheese during that time should be +twice turned in the vat. Holes are bored in the vat which contains +the cheese, and also in the cover of it, to facilitate the extraction of +every drop of whey. The pressure being continued, the cheese is +at length taken from the vat as a firm and solid mass.</p> + +<p>On the following morning and evening it must be again turned +and pressed; and also on the third day, about the middle of which +it should be removed to the salting-chamber, where the outside is +well rubbed with salt, and a cloth binder passed round it which is +not turned over the upper surface. The cheese is then placed in +brine extending half-way up in a salting-tub, and the upper surface +is thickly covered with salt. Here it remains for nearly a week, +being turned twice in the day. It is then left to dry for two or three +days, during which period it is turned once—being well salted at +each turning—and cleaned every day. When taken from the brine +it is put on the salting benches, with a wooden girth round it of +nearly the thickness of the cheese, where it stands a few days, during +which time it is again salted and turned every day. It is next +washed and dried; and after remaining on the drying benches +about seven days, it is once more washed in warm water with a brush, +and wiped dry. In a couple of hours after this it is rubbed all over +with sweet whey butter, which operation is afterwards frequently +repeated; and, lastly, it is deposited in the cheese- or store-room—which +should be moderately warm and sheltered from the access of +air, lest the cheese should crack—and turned every day, until it has +become sufficiently hard and firm. These cheeses require to be kept +a considerable time.</p> + +<p>As a matter of fact, there are three different modes of cheese-making +followed in Cheshire, known as the <i>early</i> ripening, the <i>medium</i> +ripening and the <i>late</i> ripening processes. There is also a method +which produces a cheese that is permeated with “green mould” +when ripe, called “Stilton Cheshire”; this, however, is confined to +limited districts in the county. The early ripening method is generally +followed in the spring of the year, until the middle or end of April; +the medium process, from that time till late autumn, or until early in +June, when the late ripening process is adopted and followed until the +end of September, changing again to the medium process +as the season advances. The late ripening process is not +found to be suitable for spring or late autumn make. +There is a decided difference between these several +methods of making. In the early ripening system a +larger quantity of rennet is used, more acidity is developed, +and less pressure employed than in the other +processes. In the medium ripening process a moderate +amount of acidity is developed, to cause the natural +drainage of the whey from the curd when under press. +In the late ripening system, on the other hand, the +development of acidity is prevented as far as possible, +and the whey is got out of the curd by breaking down +finer, using more heat, and skewering when under press. +In the Stilton Cheshire process a larger quantity of +rennet is used, and less pressure is employed, than in the +medium or late ripening systems.</p> +</div> + +<p>It is hardly possible to enunciate any general rules for +the making of Stilton cheese, which differs from Cheddar +and Cheshire in that it is not subjected to pressure. Mr J. Marshall +Dugdale, in 1899, made a visit of inspection to the chief Leicestershire +dairies where this cheese is produced, but in his report<a name="fa9a" id="fa9a" href="#ft9a"><span class="sp">9</span></a> he +stated that every Stilton cheese-maker worked on his own lines, +and that at no two dairies did he find the details all carried out +in the same manner. There is a fair degree of uniformity up to +the point when the curd is ladled into the straining-cloths, but +at this stage, and in the treatment of the curd before salting, +diversity sets in, several different methods being in successful +use. Most of the cheese is made from two curds, the highly acid +curd from the morning’s milk <span class="correction" title="duplicate word being removed">being</span> mixed with the comparatively +sweet curd from the evening’s milk. Opinion varies widely +as to the degree of tightening of the straining-cloths. No test for +acidity appears to be used, the amount of acidity being judged +by the taste, feel and smell of the curd. When the desired degree +of acidity has developed, the curd is broken by hand to pieces +the size of small walnuts, and salt is added at the rate of about +1 oz. to 4 ℔ of dry curd, or 1 oz. to 3½ ℔ of wet curd, care being +taken not to get the curd pasty. If a maker has learnt how to +rennet the milk properly, and how to secure the right amount of +acidity at the time of hooping—that is, when the broken and +salted curd is put into the wooden hoops which give the cheese +its shape—he has acquired probably two of the most important +details necessary to success. It was formerly the custom to add +cream to the milk used for making Stilton cheese, but the more +general practice now is to employ new milk alone, which yields a +product apparently as excellent and mellow as that from enriched +milk.</p> + +<p>As a cheese matures or becomes fit for consumption, not only +is there produced the characteristic flavour peculiar to the type +of cheese concerned, but with all varieties, independently of the +quality of flavours developed, a profound physical transformation +of the casein occurs. In the course of this change the firm +elastic curd “breaks down”—that is, becomes plastic, whilst +chemically the insoluble casein is converted into various soluble +decomposition products. These ripening phenomena—the production +of flavour and the breaking down of the casein (that is, +the formation of proper texture)—used to be regarded as different +phases of the same process. As subsequently shown, however, +these changes are not necessarily so closely correlated. The +theories formerly advanced as explanatory of the ripening +changes in cheese were suggestive rather than based upon experimental +data, and it is only since 1896 that careful scientific +studies of the problem have been made. Of the two existing +theories, the one, which is essentially European, ascribes the +ripening changes wholly to the action of living organisms—the +bacteria present in the cheese. The other, which had its origin +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page749" id="page749"></a>749</span> +in the United States, asserts that there are digestive enzymes—that +is, unorganized or soluble ferments—inherent in the milk +itself that render the casein soluble. The supporters of the +bacterial theory are ranged in two classes. The one, led by +Duclaux, regards the breaking down of the casein as due to the +action of liquefying bacteria (Tyrothrix forms). On the other +hand, von Freudenreich has ascribed these changes to the lactic-acid +type of bacteria, which develop so luxuriantly in hard cheese +like Cheddar.</p> + +<p>With regard to the American theory, and in view of the +important practical results obtained by Babcock and Russell at +the Wisconsin experiment station, the following account<a name="fa10a" id="fa10a" href="#ft10a"><span class="sp">10</span></a> of +their work is of interest, especially as the subject is of high +practical importance. In 1897 they announced the discovery of +an inherent enzyme in milk, which they named <i>galactase</i>, and +which has the power of digesting the casein of milk, and producing +chemical decomposition products similar to those that normally +occur in ripened cheese. The theory has been advanced by them +that this enzyme is an important factor in the ripening changes; +and as in their experiments bacterial action was excluded by the +use of anaesthetic agents, they conclude that, so far as the +breaking down of the casein is concerned, bacteria are not +essential to this process. In formulating a theory of cheese-ripening, +they have further pointed out the necessity of considering +the action of rennet extract as a factor concerned in +the curing changes. They have shown that the addition of +increased quantities of rennet extract materially hastens the +rate of ripening, and that this is due to the pepsin which is +present in all commercial rennet extracts. They find it easily +possible to differentiate between the proteolytic action—that is, +the decomposing of proteids—of pepsin and galactase, in that +the first-named enzyme is incapable of producing decomposition +products lower than the peptones precipitated by tannin. They +have shown that the increased solubility—the ripening changes—of +the casein in cheese made with rennet is attributable solely +to the products peculiar to peptic digestion. The addition of +rennet extract or pepsin to fresh milk does not produce this +change, unless the acidity of the milk is allowed to develop to a +point which experience has shown to be the best adapted to the +making of Cheddar cheese. The <i>rationale</i> of the empirical process +of ripening the milk before the addition of the rennet is thus +explained. In studying the properties of galactase it was further +found that this enzyme, as well as those present in rennet extract, +is operative at very low temperatures, even below freezing-point. +When cheese made in the normal manner was kept at temperatures +ranging from 25° to 45° F. for periods averaging from eight +to eighteen months, it was found that the texture of the product +simulated that of a perfectly ripened cheese, but that such cheese +developed a very mild flavour in comparison with the normally-cured +product. Subsequent storage at somewhat higher temperatures +gives to such cheese a flavour the intensity of which is +determined by the duration of storage. This indicates that the +breaking down of the casein and the production of the flavour +peculiar to cheese are in a way independent of each other, and +may be independently controlled—a point of great economic +importance in commercial practice. Although it is generally +believed that cheese ripened at low temperatures is apt to develop +a more or less bitter flavour, the flavours in the cases described +were found to be practically perfect. Under these conditions of +curing, bacterial activity is inoperative, and these experiments +are held to furnish an independent proof of the enzyme theory.</p> + +<p>Not only are these investigations of interest from the scientific +standpoint, as throwing light on the obscure processes of cheese-curing, +but from a practical point of view they open up a new +field for commercial exploitation. The inability to control the +temperature in the ordinary factory curing-room results in serious +losses, on account of the poor and uneven quality of the product, +and the consumption of cheese has been greatly lessened thereby. +These conditions may all be avoided by this low-temperature +curing process, and it is not improbable that the cheese industry +may undergo important changes in methods of treatment. With +the introduction of cold-storage curing, and the necessity of +constructing centralized plant for this purpose, the cheese +industry may perhaps come to be differentiated into the manufacture +of the product in factories of relatively cheap construction, +and the curing or ripening of the cheese in central curing +stations. In this way not only would the losses which occur +under present practices be obviated, but the improvement in +the quality of the cured product would be more than sufficient +to cover the cost of cold-storage curing.</p> + +<p>The characteristics of typical specimens of the different kinds +of English cheese may be briefly described. Cheddar cheese +possesses the aroma and flavour of a nut—the so-called “nutty” +flavour. It should melt in the mouth, and taste neither sweet +nor acid. It is of flaky texture, neither hard nor crumbly, and is +firm to the touch. It is early-ripening and, if not too much acid +is developed in the making, long-keeping. Before all others it +is a cosmopolitan cheese. Some cheeses are “plain,” that is, +they possess the natural paleness of the curd, but many are +coloured with annatto—a practice that might be dispensed with. +The average weight of a Cheddar cheese is about 70 ℔. Stilton +cheese is popularly but erroneously supposed to be commonly +made from morning’s whole milk with evening’s cream added, +and to be a “double-cream” cheese. The texture is waxy, and +a blue-green mould permeates the mass if well ripened; the +flavour is suggestive of decay. The average weight of a Stilton +is 15 ℔. Cheshire cheese has a fairly firm and uniform texture, +neither flaky on the one hand nor waxy on the other; is of +somewhat sharp and piquant flavour when fully ripe; and is +often—at eighteen months old, when a well-made Cheshire +cheese is at its best—permeated with a blue-green mould, which, +as in the case of Stilton cheese, contributes a characteristic +flavour which is much appreciated. Cheshire cheese is, like +Cheddar, sometimes highly-coloured, but the practice is quite +unnecessary; the weight is about 55 ℔. Gloucester cheese has +a firm, somewhat soapy, texture and sweet flavour. Double +Gloucester differs from single Gloucester only in size, the former +usually weighing 26 to 30 ℔, and the latter 13 to 15 ℔. Leicester +cheese is somewhat loose in texture, and mellow and moist when +nicely ripened. Its flavour is “clean,” sweet and mild, and its +aroma pleasant. To those who prefer a mild flavour in cheese, a +perfect Leicester is perhaps the most attractive of all the so-called +“hard” cheese; the average weight of such a cheese is +about 35 ℔. Derby cheese in its best forms is much like Leicester, +being “clean” in flavour and mellow. It is sometimes rather +flaky in texture, and is slow-ripening and long-keeping if made +on the old lines; the average weight is 25 ℔. Lancashire cheese, +when well made and ripe, is loose in texture and is mellow; it +has a piquant flavour. As a rule it ripens early and does not +keep long. Dorset cheese—sometimes called “blue vinny” (or +veiny)—is of firm texture, blue-moulded, and rather sharp-flavoured +when fully ripe; it has local popularity and the best +makes are rather like Stilton. Wensleydale cheese, a local product +in North Yorkshire, is of fairly firm texture and mild flavour, +and may almost be spread with a knife when ripe; the finest +makes are equal to the best Stilton. Cotherstone cheese, also a +Yorkshire product, is very much like Stilton and commonly +preferable to it. The blue-green mould develops, and the cheese +is fairly mellow and moist, whereas many Stiltons are hard and +dry. Wiltshire cheese, in the form of “Wilts truckles,” may be +described as small Cheddars, the weight being usually about +16 ℔. Caerphilly cheese is a thin, flat product, having the appearance +of an undersized single Gloucester and weighing about +8 ℔; it has no very marked characteristics, but enters largely +into local consumption amongst the mining population of +Glamorganshire and Monmouthshire. Soft cheese of various +kinds is made in many localities, beyond which its reputation +scarcely extends. One of the oldest and best, somewhat resembling +Camembert when well ripened, is the little “Slipcote,” +made on a small scale in the county of Rutland; it is a soft, +mellow, moist cheese, its coat slipping off readily when the cheese +is at its best for eating—hence the name. Cream cheese is likewise +made in many districts, but nowhere to a great extent. A +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page750" id="page750"></a>750</span> +good cream cheese is fairly firm but mellow, with a slightly acid +yet very attractive flavour. It is the simplest of all cheese to +make—cream poured into a perforated box lined with loose +muslin practically makes itself into cheese in a few days’ time, +and is usually ripe in a week.</p> + +<p>In France the pressed varieties of cheese with hard rinds +include Gruyère, Cantal, Roquefort and Port Salut. The first-named, +a pale-yellow cheese full of holes of varying size, is made +in Switzerland and in the Jura Mountains district in the east of +France; whilst Cantal cheese, which is of lower quality, is a +product of the midland districts and is made barrel-shape. +Roquefort cheese is made from the milk of ewes, which are kept +chiefly as dairy animals in the department of Aveyron, and the +cheese is cured in the natural mountain caves at the village of +Roquefort. It is a small, rather soft, white cheese, abundantly +veined with a greenish-blue mould and weighs between 4 and +5 ℔. The Port Salut is quite a modern cheese, which originated +in the abbey of that name in Mayenne; it is a thin, flat cheese +of characteristic, and not unattractive odour and flavour. The +best known of the soft unpressed cheeses are Brie, Camembert +and Coulommiers, whilst Pont l’Evêque, Livarot and other +varieties are also made. After being shaped in moulds of various +forms, these cheeses are laid on straw mats to cure, and when +fit to eat they possess about the same consistency as butter. +The Neufchâtel, Gervais and Bondon cheeses are soft varieties +intended to be eaten quite fresh, like cream cheese.</p> + +<p>Of the varieties of cheese made in Switzerland, the best known +is the Emmenthaler, which is about the size of a cart-wheel, and +has a weight varying from 150 to 300 ℔. It is full of small +holes of almost uniform size and very regularly distributed. In +colour and flavour it is the same as Gruyère. The Edam and +Gouda are the common cheeses of Holland. The Edam is +spherical in shape, weighs from 3 to 4 ℔, and is usually dyed +crimson on the outside. The Gouda is a flat cheese with convex +edges and is of any weight up to 20 ℔. Of the two, the Edam +has the finer flavour. Limburger is the leading German cheese, +whilst other varieties are the Backstein and Munster; all are +strong-smelling. Parmesan cheese is an Italian product, round +and flat, about 5 in. thick, weighing from 60 to 80 ℔ and +possessed of fine flavour. Gorgonzola cheese, so called from the +Italian town of that name near Milan, is made in the Cheddar +shape and weighs from 20 to 40 ℔. When ripe it is permeated +by a blue mould, and resembles in flavour, appearance and +consistency a rich old Stilton.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For descriptions of all the named varieties of cheese, see <i>Bulletin +105 of the Bureau of Animal Industry</i> (U.S. Department of Agriculture, +Washington), issued 27th of June 1908, compiled by C. F. Doane +and H. W. Lawson.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Butter and Butter-Making</p> + +<p>As with cheese, so with butter, large quantities of the latter +have been inferior not because the cream was poor in quality, +but because the wrong kinds of bacteria had taken possession of +the atmosphere in hundreds of dairies. The greatest if not the +latest novelty in dairying in the last decade of the 19th century +was the isolation of lactic acid bacilli, their cultivation in a +suitable medium, and their employment in cream preparatory +to churning. Used thus in butter-making, an excellent product +results, provided cleanliness be scrupulously maintained. The +culture repeats itself in the buttermilk, which in turn may be +used again with marked success. Much fine butter, indeed, was +made long before the bearing of bacteriological science upon the +practice of dairying was recognized—made by using acid buttermilk +from a previous churning.</p> + +<p>In Denmark, which is, for its size, the greatest butter-producing +country in the world, most of the butter is made with the aid +of “starters,” or artificial cultures which are employed in +ripening the cream. Though the butter made by such cultures +shows little if any superiority over a good sample made from +cream ripened in the ordinary way—that is, by keeping the +cream at a fairly high temperature until it is ready for churning, +when it must be cooled—it is claimed that the use of these +cultures enables the butter-makers of Denmark to secure a much +greater uniformity in the quality of their produce than would be +possible if they depended upon the ripening of the cream through +the influence of bacteria taken up in the usual way from the air.</p> + +<p>Butter-making is an altogether simpler process than cheese-making, +but success demands strict attention to sound principles, +the observance of thorough cleanliness in every stage of the +work, and the intelligent use of the thermometer. The following +rules for butter-making, issued by the Royal Agricultural Society +sufficiently indicate the nature of the operation:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Prepare churn, butter-worker, wooden-hands and sieve as +follows:—(1) Rinse with cold water. (2) Scald with boiling water. +(3) Rub thoroughly with salt. (4) Rinse with cold water.</p> + +<p><i>Always use a correct thermometer.</i></p> + +<p>The cream, when in the churn, to be at a temperature of 56° to +58° F. in summer and 60° to 62° F. in winter. The churn should never +be more than half full. Churn at number of revolutions suggested +by maker of churn. If none are given, <i>churn at 40 to 45 revolutions +per minute</i>. Always churn slowly at first.</p> + +<p><i>Ventilate</i> the churn <i>freely</i> and frequently during churning, until +no air rushes out when the vent is opened.</p> + +<p><i>Stop churning immediately</i> the butter comes. This can be ascertained +by the sound; if in doubt, <i>look</i>.</p> + +<p>The butter should now be like grains of mustard seed. Pour in +a small quantity of cold water (1 pint of water to 2 quarts of cream) +to harden the grains, and give a few more turns to the churn gently.</p> + +<p>Draw off the buttermilk, giving plenty of time for draining. Use +a straining-cloth placed over the hair-sieve, so as to prevent any +loss, and wash the butter in the churn with plenty of cold water: +then draw off the water, and repeat the process until the water +comes off quite clear.</p> + +<p><i>To brine butter</i>, make a strong brine, 2 to 3 ℔ of salt to 1 gallon +of water. Place straining-cloth over mouth of churn, pour in brine, +put lid on churn, turn sharply half a dozen times, and leave for 10 +to 15 minutes. Then lift the butter out of the churn into sieve, turn +butter out on worker, leave it a few minutes to drain, and work +gently till all superfluous moisture is pressed out.</p> + +<p><i>To drysalt butter</i>, place butter on worker, let it drain 10 to 15 +minutes, then work gently till all the butter comes together. Place +it on the scales and weigh; then <span class="correction" title="amended from weight">weigh</span> salt, for slight salting, ¼ oz.; +medium, ½ oz.; heavy salting, ¾ oz. to the ℔ of butter. Roll butter +out on worker and carefully sprinkle salt over the surface, a little +at a time; roll up and repeat till all the salt is used.</p> + +<p><i>Never touch the butter with your hands.</i></p> +</div> + +<p>Well-made butter is firm and not greasy. It possesses a +characteristic texture or “grain,” in virtue of which it cuts +clean with a knife and breaks with a granular fracture, like that +of cast-iron. Theoretically, butter should consist of little else +than fat, but in practice this degree of perfection is never attained. +Usually the fat ranges from 83 to 88%, whilst water is present +to the extent of from 10 to 15%.<a name="fa11a" id="fa11a" href="#ft11a"><span class="sp">11</span></a> There will also be from 0.2 +to 0.8% of milk-sugar, and from 0.5 to 0.8% of casein. It is +the casein which is the objectionable ingredient, and the presence +of which is usually the cause of rancidity. In badly-washed +or badly-worked butter, from which the buttermilk has not +been properly removed, the proportion of casein or curd left +in the product may be considerable, and such butter has only +inferior keeping qualities. At the same time, the mistake may +be made of overworking or of overwashing the butter, thereby +depriving it of the delicacy of flavour which is one of its chief +attractions as an article of consumption if eaten fresh. The +object of washing with brine is that the small quantity of salt +thus introduced shall act as a preservative and develop the +flavour. Streaky butter may be due either to curd left in by +imperfect washing, or to an uneven distribution of the salt.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Equipment of the Dairy</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:519px; height:232px" src="images/img751a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Milking-Pail.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Milk Sieve.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:456px; height:211px" src="images/img751b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Rectangular Cheese-Vat.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:377px; height:279px" src="images/img751c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Cheese-Tub.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 357px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:307px; height:225px" src="images/img751d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Curd-Knives.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The improved form of milking-pail shown in fig. 1 has rests +or brackets, which the milker when seated on his stool places +on his knees; he thus bears the weight on his thighs, and is +entirely relieved of the strain involved in gripping the can +between the knees. The milk sieve or strainer (fig. 2) is used +to remove cow-hairs and any other mechanical impurity that +may have fallen into the milk. A double straining surface +is provided, the second being of very fine gauze placed vertically, +so that the pressure of the milk does not force the dirt through; +the strainer is easily washed. The cheese tub or vat receives +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page751" id="page751"></a>751</span> +the milk for cheese-making. The rectangular form shown +in fig. 3 is a Cheshire cheese-vat, for steam. The inner vat is +of tinned steel, and the outer is of iron and is fitted with pipes +for steam supply. Round cheese-tubs (fig. 4) are made of strong +sheets of steel, double tinned to render them lasting. They +are fitted with a strong bottom hoop and bands round the sides, +and can be double-jacketed for steam-heating if required. Curd-knives +(fig. 5) are used for cutting the coagulated mass into +cubes in order to liberate +the whey. They are +made of fine steel, with +sharp edges; there are +also wire curd-breakers. +The object of the curd-mill +(fig. 6) is to grind +consolidated curd into +small pieces, preparatory +to salting and vatting; +two spiked rollers +work up to spiked +breasts. Hoops, into +which the curd is +placed in order to acquire the shape of the cheese, are of +wood or steel, the former being made of well-seasoned oak +with iron bands (fig. 7), the latter of tinned steel. The cheese +is more easily removed from the steel hoops and they are readily +cleaned. The cheese-press (fig. 8) is used only for hard or +“pressed” cheese, such as Cheddar. The arrangement is such +that the pressure is continuous; in the case of soft cheese the +curd is merely placed in moulds (figs. 9 and 10) of the required +shape, and then taken cut to ripen, no pressure being applied. +The cheese-room is fitted +with easily-turned shelves, +on which newly-made +“pressed” cheeses are laid +to ripen.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:288px; height:353px" src="images/img751e.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:230px; height:130px" src="images/img751f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Curd-Mill.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—Hoop for Flat Cheese.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td> +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:234px; height:429px" src="images/img751g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—Cheese-Press.</td></tr></table></td> + +<td><table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:231px; height:121px" src="images/img751h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—Cheese-Mould (Gervais).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:153px; height:104px" src="images/img751i.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>—Cheese-Mould<br /> +(Pont l’Évêque).</td></tr></table> + +</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:311px; height:133px" src="images/img751j.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>—Milk-Pan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:310px; height:141px" src="images/img751k.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>—Skimmer.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the butter dairy, when +the centrifugal separator is +not used, milk is “set” for +cream-raising in the milk-pan +(fig. 11), a shallow +vessel of white porcelain, +tinned steel or enamelled iron. The skimming-dish or skimmer +(fig 12), made of tin, is for collecting the cream from the surface of +the milk, whence it is transferred to the cream-crock (fig. 13), in +which vessel the cream remains from one to three days, till it +is required for churning. +Many different kinds of +churns are in use, and +vary much in size, shape +and fittings; the one +illustrated in fig. 14 +is a very good type of +diaphragm churn. The +butter-scoop (fig. 15) is +of wood and is sometimes +perforated; it is +used for taking the butter +out of the churn. The +butter-worker (fig. 16) +is employed for consolidating +newly-churned +butter, pressing out +superfluous water and +mixing in salt. More extended use, however, is now being made +of the “Délaiteuse” butter dryer, a centrifugal machine that +rapidly extracts the moisture from the butter, and renders the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page752" id="page752"></a>752</span> +butter-worker unnecessary, whilst the butter produced has a +better grain. Scotch hands (fig. 17), made of boxwood, are used +for the lifting, moulding and pressing of butter.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:237px; height:241px" src="images/img752a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>—Cream-Crock.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:470px; height:510px" src="images/img752b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>—Churn.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:299px; height:66px" src="images/img752c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>—Butter-Scoop.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the centrifugal cream-separator the new milk is allowed +to flow into a bowl, which is caused to rotate on its own axis +several thousand times per +minute. The heavier portion +which makes up the watery part +of the milk flies to the outer circumference +of the bowl, whilst +the lighter particles of butter-fat +are forced to travel in an inner +zone. By a simple mechanical +arrangement the separated milk +is forced out at one tube and +the cream at another, and they +are collected in distinct vessels. +Separators are made of all sizes, +from small machines dealing +with 10 or 20 up to 100 gallons +an hour, and worked by hand (fig. 18), to large machines +separating 150 to 440 gallons an hour, and worked by horse, +steam or other power (fig. 19). Separation is found to be +most effective at temperatures ranging in different machines +from 80° to 98° F., though as high a temperature as 150° is +sometimes employed. The most efficient separators remove +nearly the whole of the butter-fat, the quantity of fat left in +the separated milk falling in some cases to as low as 0.1. +When cream is raised by the deep-setting method, from 0.2 +to 0.4% of fat is left in +the skim-milk; by the +shallow-setting method +from 0.3 to 0.5% of +the fat is left behind. +As a rule, therefore, +“separated” milk is much poorer in fat than ordinary “skim” +milk left by the cream-raising method in deep or shallow vessels.</p> + +<p>The first continuous working separator was the invention of +Dr de Laval. The more recent invention by Baron von Bechtolsheim +of what are known as the Alfa discs, which are placed along +the centre of the bowl of the separator, has much increased the +separating capacity of the machines without adding to the +power required. This has been of great assistance to dairy +farmers by lessening the cost of the manufacture of butter, and +thus enabling a large additional number of factories to be +established in different parts of the world, particularly in Ireland, +where these disc machines are very extensively used.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:464px; height:365px" src="images/img752d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>—Butter-Worker.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:163px; height:232px" src="images/img752e.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:221px; height:425px" src="images/img752f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>—Scotch +Hands.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>—Hand-Separator.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The pasteurizer—so named after the French chemist Pasteur—affords +a means whereby at the outset the milk is maintained +at a temperature of 170° to 180° F. for a period of eight or ten +minutes. The object of this is to destroy +the tubercle bacillus, if it should happen +to exist in the milk, whilst incidentally +the bacilli associated with several other +diseases communicable through the +medium of milk would also be killed if +they were present. Discordant results +have been recorded by experimenters +who have attempted to kill tubercle +bacilli in milk by heating the latter in +open vessels, thereby permitting the +formation of a scum or “scalded layer” +capable of protecting the tubercle bacilli, +and enabling them to resist a higher +temperature than otherwise would be +fatal to them. At a temperature not much above 150° F. +milk begins to acquire the cooked flavour which is objectionable +to many palates, whilst its +“body” is so modified as to lessen +its suitability for creaming purposes. +Three factors really enter +into effective pasteurization of milk, +namely (1) the temperature to which +the milk is raised, (2) the length of +time it is kept at that temperature, +(3) the maintenance of a condition +of mechanical agitation to prevent +the formation of “scalded layer.” +Within limits, what a higher temperature +will accomplish if maintained +for a very short time may +be effected by a lower temperature +continued over a longer period. +The investigation of the problem +forms the subject of a paper<a name="fa12a" id="fa12a" href="#ft12a"><span class="sp">12</span></a> in +the 17th <i>Annual Report of the +Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment +Station</i>, 1900. The following are +the results of the experiments:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. An exposure of tuberculous milk +in a tightly closed commercial pasteurizer +for a period of ten minutes +destroyed in every case the tubercle bacillus, as determined by the inoculation +of such heated milk into susceptible animals like guinea-pigs.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page753" id="page753"></a>753</span></p> + +<p>2. Where milk is exposed under conditions that would enable a +pellicle or membrane to form on the surface, the tubercle organism +is able to resist the action of heat at 140° F. (60° C.) for considerably +longer periods of time.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:394px; height:744px" src="images/img753a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>—Power Separator.</td></tr></table> + +<p>3. Efficient pasteurization can be more readily accomplished in a +closed receptacle such as is most frequently used in the commercial +treatment of milk, than where the milk is heated in open bottles or +open vats.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:453px; height:376px" src="images/img753b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>—Refrigerator and Can.</td></tr></table> + +<p>4. It is recommended, in order thoroughly to pasteurize milk so +as to destroy any tubercle bacilli which it may contain, without in any +way injuring its creaming properties or consistency, to heat the same +in closed pasteurizers for a period of not less than twenty minutes +at 140° F.</p> + +<p>Under these conditions one may be certain that disease bacteria +such as the tubercle bacillus will be destroyed without the milk or +cream being injured in any way. For over a year this new standard +has been in constant use in the Wisconsin University Creamery, +and the results, from a purely practical point of view, reported a +year earlier by Farrington and Russell,<a name="fa13a" id="fa13a" href="#ft13a"><span class="sp">13</span></a> have been abundantly +confirmed.</p> +</div> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:304px; height:295px" src="images/img753c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>—Cyclindrical Cooler or +Refrigerator.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:303px; height:355px" src="images/img753d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>—Butyrometer.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Dairy engineers have solved the problem as to how large +bodies of milk may be pasteurized, the difficulty of raising many +hundreds or thousands of +gallons of milk up to the +required temperature, and +maintaining it at that heat +for a period of twenty +minutes, having been successfully +dealt with. The +plant usually employed +provides for the thorough +filtration of the milk as it +comes in from the farms, +its rapid heating in a +closed receiver and under +mechanical agitation up to +the desired temperature, +its maintenance thereat +for the requisite time, and +finally its sudden reduction +to the temperature of cold water through the agency of a +refrigerator, to be next noticed.</p> + +<p>Refrigerators are used for reducing the temperature of milk +to that of cold water, whereby its keeping properties are enhanced. +The milk flows down the outside of the metal refrigerator +(fig. 20), which is corrugated in order to provide a larger cooling +surface, whilst cold water circulates through the interior of the +refrigerator. The conical vessel into which the milk is represented +as flowing from the refrigerator in fig. 20 is absurdly called a +“milk-churn,” whereas milk-can is a much more appropriate +name. For very large quantities of milk, such as flow from +a pasteurizing plant, cylindrical refrigerators (fig. 21), made +of tinned copper, are available; the cold water circulates inside, +and the milk, flowing down the outside in a very thin sheet, +is rapidly cooled from a temperature of 140° F. or higher to 1° +above the temperature of the water.</p> + +<p>The fat test for milk was originally devised by Dr S. M. +Babcock, of the Wisconsin, U.S.A., experiment station. It +combines the principle of centrifugal force with simple chemical +action. Besides the machine itself and its graduated glass +vessels, the only requirements +are sulphuric acid +of standard strength and +warm water. The +machines—often termed +butyrometers—are commonly +made to hold from +two up to two dozen +testers. After the tubes +or testers have been +charged, they are put in +the apparatus, which is +rapidly rotated as shown +(fig. 22); in a few minutes +the test is complete, and +with properly graduated +vessels the percentage of +fat can be read off at a +glance. The butyrometer +is extremely useful, alike +for measuring periodically +the fat-producing capacity of individual cows in a herd, +for rapidly ascertaining the percentage of fat in milk delivered +to factories and paying for such milk on the basis of quality, +and for determining the richness in fat of milk supplied for the +urban milk trade. Any intelligent person can soon learn to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page754" id="page754"></a>754</span> +work the apparatus, but its efficiency is of course dependent +upon the accuracy of the measuring vessels. To ensure this the +board of agriculture have made arrangements with the National +Physical Laboratory, Old Deer Park, Richmond, Surrey, to +verify at a small fee the pipettes, measuring-glasses, and test-bottles +used in connexion with the centrifugal butyrometer, +which in recent years has been improved by Dr N. Gerber of +Zürich.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc" style="clear: both;">Dairy Factories</p> + +<p>In connexion with co-operative cheese-making the merit of +having founded the first “cheesery” or cheese factory is generally +credited to Jesse Williams, who lived near Rome, Oneida county, +N.Y. The system, therefore, was of American origin. Williams +was a skilled cheese-maker, and the produce of his dairy sold +so freely, at prices over the average, that he increased his output +of cheese by adding to his own supply of milk other quantities +which he obtained from his neighbours. His example was +so widely followed that by the year 1866 there had been established +close upon 500 cheese factories in New York state alone. +In 1870 two co-operative cheeseries were at work in England, +one in the town of Derby and one at Longford in the same +county. There are now thousands of cheeseries in the United +States and Canada, and also many “creameries,” or butter +factories, for the making of high-class butter.</p> + +<p>The first creamery was that of Alanson Slaughter, and it was +built near Wallkill, Orange county, N.Y., in 1861, or ten years +later than the first cheese factory; it dealt daily with the milk +of 375 cows. Cheeseries and creameries would almost certainly +have become more numerous than they are in England but for +the rapidly expanding urban trade in country milk. The development +of each, indeed, has been contemporaneous since 1871, +and they are found to work well in conjunction one with the other—that +is to say, a factory is useful for converting surplus milk +into cheese or butter when the milk trade is overstocked, whilst +the trade affords a convenient avenue for the sale of milk whenever +this may happen to be preferable to the making of cheese or +butter. Extensive dealers in milk arrange for its conversion into +cheese or butter, as the case may be, at such times as the milk +market needs relief, and in this way a cheesery serves as a sort of +economic safety-valve to the milk trade. The same cannot +always be said of creameries, because the machine-skimmed +milk of some of these establishments has been far too much +used to the prejudice of the legitimate milk trade in urban +districts. Be this as it may, the operations of cheeseries and +creameries in conjunction with the milk trade have led to the +diminution of home dairying. A rapidly increasing population +has maintained, and probably increased, its consumption of milk, +which has obviously diminished the farmhouse production of +cheese, and also of butter. The foreign competitor has been less +successful with cheese than with butter, for he is unable to +produce an article qualified to compete with the best that is +made in Great Britain. In the case of butter, on the other hand, +the imported article, though not ever surpassing the best home-made, +is on the average much better, especially as regards +uniformity of quality. Colonial and foreign producers, however, +send into the British markets as a rule only the best of their +butter, as they are aware that their inferior grades would but +injure the reputation their products have acquired.</p> + +<p>There are no official statistics concerning dairy factories in +Great Britain, and such figures relating to Ireland were issued +for the first time in 1901. The number of dairy factories in +Ireland in 1900 was returned at 506, comprising 333 in Munster, +92 in Ulster, 52 in Leinster and 29 in Connaught. Of the total +number of factories, 495 received milk only, 9 milk and cream +and 2 cream only. As to ownership, 219 were joint-stock concerns, +190 were maintained by co-operative farmers and 97 were +proprietary. In the year ended 30th September 1900 these +factories used up nearly 121 million gallons of milk, namely, 94 +in Munster, 14 in Ulster, 7 in Leinster and 6 in Connaught. +The number of centrifugal cream-separators in the factories was +985, of which 889 were worked by steam, 79 by water, 9 by +horse-power and 8 by hand-power. The number of hands +permanently employed was 3653, made up of 976 in Munster, +279 in Leinster, 278 in Ulster and 120 in Connaught. The year’s +output was returned at 401,490 cwt. of butter, 439 cwt. of cheese +(made from whole milk) and 46,253 gallons of cream. In most +cases the skim-milk is returned to the farmers. A return of the +number of separators used in private establishments gave a total +of 899, comprising 693 in Munster, 157 in Leinster, 39 in Ulster +and 10 in Connaught. In factories and private establishments +together as many as 1884 separators were thus accounted for. +Much of the factory butter would be sent into the markets of +Great Britain, though some would no doubt be retained for local +consumption. A great improvement in the quality of Irish +butter has recently been noticeable in the exhibits entered at the +London dairy show.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Adulteration of Dairy Produce<a name="fa14a" id="fa14a" href="#ft14a"><span class="sp">14</span></a></p> + +<p>The Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899, which came into operation +on the 1st of January 1900, contains several sections relating +to the trade in dairy produce in the United Kingdom. Section 1 +imposes penalties in the case of the importation of produce insufficiently +marked, such as (<i>a</i>) margarine or margarine-cheese, +except in passages conspicuously marked “Margarine” or +“Margarine-cheese”; (<i>b</i>) adulterated or impoverished butter +(other than margarine) or adulterated or impoverished milk or +cream, except in packages or cans conspicuously marked with +a name or description indicating that the butter or milk or +cream has been so treated; (<i>c</i>) condensed separated or skimmed +milk, except in tins or other receptacles which bear a label +whereon the words “machine-skimmed milk” or “skimmed +milk” are printed in large and legible type. For the purposes +of this section an article of food is deemed to be adulterated or +impoverished if it has been mixed with any other substance, or +if any part of it has been abstracted, so as in either case to affect +injuriously its quality, substance, or nature; provided that an +article of food shall not be deemed to be adulterated by reason +only of the addition of any preservative or colouring matter of +such a nature and in such quantity as not to render the article +injurious to health. Section 7 provides that every occupier of +a manufactory of margarine or margarine-cheese, and every +wholesale dealer in such substances, shall keep a register showing +the quantity and destination of each consignment of such substances +sent out from his manufactory or place of business, and +this register shall be open to the inspection of any officer of the +board of agriculture. Any such officer shall have power to enter +at all reasonable times any such manufactory, and to inspect any +process of manufacture therein, and to take samples for analysis. +Section 8 is of much practical importance, as it limits the quantity +of butter-fat which may be contained in margarine; it states +that it shall be unlawful to manufacture, sell, expose for sale +or import any margarine the fat of which contains more than +10% of butter-fat, and every person who manufactures, sells, +exposes for sale or imports any margarine which contains more +than that percentage shall be guilty of an offence under the +Margarine Act 1887. For the purposes of the act <i>margarine-cheese</i> +is defined as “any substance, whether compound or +otherwise, which is prepared in imitation of cheese, and which +contains fat not derived from milk”; whilst <i>cheese</i> is defined as +“the substance usually known as cheese, containing no fat +derived otherwise than from milk.” The so-called “filled” +cheese of American origin, in which the butter-fat of the milk is +partially or wholly replaced by some other fat, would come under +the head of “margarine-cheese.” In making such cheese a cheap +form of fat, usually of animal origin, but sometimes vegetable, +is added to and incorporated with the skim-milk, and thus takes +the place previously occupied by the genuine butter-fat. The +act is regarded by some as defective in that it does not prohibit +the artificial colouring of margarine to imitate butter.</p> + +<p>In connexion with this act a departmental committee was +appointed in 1900 “to inquire and report as to what regulations, +if any, may with advantage be made by the board of agriculture +under section 4 of the Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899, for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page755" id="page755"></a>755</span> +determining what deficiency in any of the normal constituents +of genuine milk or cream, or what addition of extraneous matter +or proportion of water, in any sample of milk (including condensed +milk) or cream, shall for the purposes of the Sale of Food +and Drugs Acts 1875 to 1899, raise a presumption, until the +contrary is proved, that the milk or cream is not genuine.” +Much evidence of the highest interest to dairy-farmers was taken, +and subsequently published as a Blue-Book (Cd. 484). The +report of the committee (Cd. 491) included the following “recommendations,” +which were signed by all the members excepting +one:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<div class="list"> + <p>I. That regulations under section 4 of the Food and Drugs Act + 1899 be made by the board of agriculture with respect + to milk (including condensed milk) and cream.</p> + <p>II.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list1"> + <p>(<i>a</i>) That in the case of any milk (other than skimmed, separated + or condensed milk) the total milk-solids in which on + being dried at 100° C. do not amount to 12% a presumption + shall be raised, until the contrary is proved, that the + milk is deficient in the normal constituents of genuine milk.</p> + <p>(<i>b</i>) That any milk (other than skimmed, separated or condensed + milk) the total milk-solids in which are less than + 12%, and in which the amount of milk-fat is less than + 3.25%, shall be deemed to be deficient in milk-fat as to + raise a presumption, until the contrary is proved, that it + has been mixed with separated milk or water, or that some + portion of its normal content of milk-fat has been removed. + In calculating the percentage amount of deficiency of fat + the analyst shall have regard to the above-named limit + of 3.25% of milk-fat.</p> + <p>(<i>c</i>) That any milk (other than skimmed, separated or condensed + milk) the total milk-solids in which are less than + 12%, and in which the amount of non-fatty milk-solids + is less than 8.5%, shall be deemed to be so deficient in + normal constituents as to raise a presumption, until the + contrary is proved, that it has been mixed with water. + In calculating the percentage amount of admixed water + the analyst shall have regard to the above-named limit + of 8.5% of non-fatty milk-solids, and shall further take + into account the extent to which the milk-fat may exceed + 3.25%.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list"> + <p>III. That the artificial thickening of cream by any addition of + gelatin or other substance shall raise a presumption that + the cream is not genuine.</p> + <p>IV. That any skimmed or separated milk in which the total milk-solids + are less than 9% shall be deemed to be so deficient + in normal constituents as to raise a presumption, until + the contrary is proved, that it has been mixed with water.</p> + <p>V. That any condensed milk (other than that labelled “machine-skimmed + milk” or “skimmed milk,” in conformity with + section 11 of the Food and Drugs Act 1899) in which + either the amount of milk-fat is less than 10%, or the + amount of non-fatty milk-solids is less than 25%, shall + be deemed to be so deficient in some of the normal constituents + of milk as to raise a presumption, until the contrary + is proved, that it is not genuine.</p> +</div></div> + +<p>The committee further submitted the following expressions of +opinion on points raised before them in evidence:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<div class="list"> + <p>(<i>a</i>) That it is desirable to call the attention of those engaged + in the administration of the Food and Drugs Acts to the + necessity of adopting effective measures to prevent any + addition of water, separated or condensed milk, or other + extraneous matter, for the purpose of reducing the quality + of genuine milk to any limits fixed by regulation of the + board of agriculture.</p> + <p>(<i>b</i>) That it is desirable that steps should be taken with the view + of identifying or “ear-marking” separated milk by the + addition of some suitable and innocuous substance, and by + the adoption of procedure similar to that provided by + section 7 of the Food and Drugs Act 1899, in regard to + margarine.</p> + <p>(<i>c</i>) That it is desirable that, so far as may be found practicable, + the procedure adopted in collecting, forwarding, and retaining + pending examination, samples of milk (including condensed + milk) and cream under the Food and Drugs Acts + should be uniform.</p> + <p>(<i>d</i>) That it is desirable that, so far as may be found practicable, + the methods of analysis used in the examination of samples + of milk (including condensed milk) or cream taken under + the Food and Drugs Acts should be uniform.</p> + <p>(<i>e</i>) That it is desirable in the case of condensed milk (other than + that labelled “machine-skimmed milk” or “skimmed milk,” + in conformity with section 11 of the Food and Drugs Act + 1899) that the label should state the amount of dilution + required to make the proportion of milk-fat equal to that + found in uncondensed milk containing not less than 3.25% + of milk-fat.</p> +<p>(<i>f</i>) That it is desirable in the case of condensed whole milk to +limit, and in the case of condensed machine-skimmed milk +to exclude, the addition of sugar.</p> + +<p>(<i>g</i>) That the official standardizing of the measuring vessels commercially +used in the testing of milk is desirable.</p> +</div></div> + +<p>In the minority report, signed by Mr Geo. Barham, the most +important clauses are the following:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) That in the case of any milk (other than skimmed, separated +or condensed milk) the total milk-solids in which are less than +11.75%, and in which, during the months of July to February +inclusive, the amount of milk-fat is less than 3%, and in the case +of any milk which during the months of March to June inclusive +shall fall below the above-named limit for total solids, and at the +same time shall contain less than 2.75% of fat, it shall be deemed +that such milk is so deficient in its normal constituent of fat as to +raise a presumption, for the purposes of the Sale of Food and Drugs +Acts 1875 to 1899, until the contrary is proved, that the milk is not +genuine.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) That any milk (other than skimmed, separated or condensed +milk) the total milk-solids in which are less than 11.75%, and in +which the amount of non-fatty solids is less than 8.5%, shall be +deemed to be so deficient in its normal constituents as to raise a +presumption, for the purposes of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts +1875 to 1899, until the contrary is proved, that the milk is not +genuine. In calculating the amount of the deficiency the analyst +shall take into account the extent to which the milk-fat exceeds the +limits above named.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) That any skimmed or separated milk in which the total milk-solids +are less than 8.75% shall be deemed to be so deficient in its +normal constituents as to raise a presumption, for the purpose of +the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts 1875 to 1899, until the contrary +is proved, that the milk is not genuine.</p> +</div> + +<p>Much controversy arose out of the publication of these reports, +the opinion most freely expressed being that the standard recommended +in the majority report was too high. The difficulty of +the problem is illustrated by, for example, the diverse legal +standards for milk that prevail in the United States, where the +prescribed percentage of fat in fresh cows’ milk ranges from 2.5 +in Rhode Island to 3.5 in Georgia and Minnesota, and 3.7 (in the +winter months) in Massachusetts, and the prescribed total solids +range from 12 in several states (11.5 in Ohio during May and +June) up to 13 in others. Standards are recognized in twenty-one +of the states, but the remaining states have no laws +prescribing standards for dairy products. That the public discussion +of the reports of the committee was effective is shown by +the following regulations which appeared in the <i>London Gazette</i> +on the 6th of August 1901, and fixed the limit of fat at 3%:—</p> + +<p>The board of agriculture, in exercise of the powers conferred +on them by section 4 of the Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899, do +hereby make the following regulations:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. Where a sample of milk (not being milk sold as skimmed, +or separated or condensed milk) contains less than 3% of milk-fat, +it shall be presumed for the purposes of the Sale of Food and Drugs +Acts 1875 to 1899, until the contrary is proved, that the milk is not +genuine, by reason of the abstraction therefrom of milk-fat, or the +addition thereto of water.</p> + +<p>2. Where a sample of milk (not being milk sold as skimmed, or +separated or condensed milk) contains less than 8.5% of milk-solids +other than milk-fat, it shall be presumed for the purposes of the Sale +of Food and Drugs Acts 1875 to 1899, until the contrary is proved, +that the milk is not genuine, by reason of the abstraction therefrom +of milk-solids other than milk-fat, or the addition thereto of +water.</p> + +<p>3. Where a sample of skimmed or separated milk (not being +condensed milk) contains less than 9% of milk-solids, it shall be +presumed for the purposes of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts 1875 +to 1899, until the contrary is proved, that the milk is not genuine, +by reason of the abstraction therefrom of milk-solids other than +milk-fat, or the addition thereto of water.</p> + +<p>4. These regulations shall extend to Great Britain.</p> + +<p>5. These regulations shall come into operation on the 1st of +September 1901.</p> + +<p>6. These regulations may be cited as the Sale of Milk Regulations +1901.</p> +</div> + +<p>In July 1901 another departmental committee was appointed +by the board of agriculture to inquire and report as to what +regulations, if any, might with advantage be made under section +4 of the Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899, for determining what +deficiency in any of the normal constituents of butter, or what +addition of extraneous matter, or proportion of water in any +sample of butter should, for the purpose of the Sale of Food and +Drugs Acts, raise a presumption, until the contrary is proved, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page756" id="page756"></a>756</span> +that the butter is not genuine. As bearing upon this point +reference may be made to a report of the dairy division of the +United States department of agriculture on experimental exports +of butter, in the appendix to which are recorded the results of the +analyses of many samples of butter of varied origin. First, as to +American butters, 19 samples were analysed in Wisconsin, 17 in +Iowa, 5 in Minnesota and 2 in Vermont, at the respective experiment +stations of the states named. The amount of moisture +throughout was low, and the quantity of fat correspondingly +high. In no case was there more than 15% of water, and only 4 +samples contained more than 14%. On the other hand, 11 +samples had less than 10%, the lowest being a pasteurized butter +from Ames, Iowa, with only 6.72% of water. The average +amount of water in the total 43 samples was 11.24%. The fat +varies almost inversely as the water, small quantities of curd and +ash having to be allowed for. The largest quantity of fat was +91.23% in the sample containing only 6.72% of water. The +lowest proportion of fat was 80.18%, whilst the average of all +the samples shows 85.9%, which is regarded as a good market +standard. The curd varied from 0.55 to 1.7%, with an average +of 0.98. This small amount indicates superior keeping qualities. +Theoretically there should be no curd present, but this degree of +perfection is never attained in practice. It was desired to have +the butter contain about 2½% of salt, but the quantity of ash +in the 43 samples ranged from 0.83 to 4.79%, the average being +1.88. Analyses made at Washington of butters other than +American showed a general average of 13.22% of water over +28 samples representing 14 countries. The lowest were 10.25% +in a Canadian butter and 10.38 in an Australian sample. The +highest was 19.1% in an Irish butter, which also contained the +remarkably large quantity of 8.28% of salt. Three samples of +Danish butter contained 12.65, 14.27 and 15.14% respectively +of water. French and Italian unsalted butter included, the +former 15.46 and the latter 14.41% of water, and yet appeared +to be unusually dry. In 7 samples of Irish butters the percentages +of water ranged from 11.48 to 19.1. Of the 28 foreign +butters 15 were found to contain preservatives. All 5 samples +from Australia, the 2 from France, the single ones from Italy, +New Zealand, Argentina, and England, and 4 out of the 7 from +Ireland, contained boric acid.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">The Milk Trade</p> + +<p>The term “milk trade” has come to signify the great traffic in +country milk for the supply of dwellers in urban districts. Prior +to 1860 this traffic was comparatively small or in its infancy. +Thirty years earlier it could not have been brought into existence, +for it is an outcome of the great network of railways which was +spread over the face of the country in the latter half of the 19th +century. It affords an instructive illustration of the process of +commercial evolution which has been fostered by the vast +increase of urban population within the period indicated. It +is a tribute to the spirit of sanitary reform which—as an example +in one special direction—has brought about the disestablishment +of urban cow-sheds and the consequent demand for milk produced +in the shires. London, in fact, is now being regularly +supplied with fresh milk from places anywhere within 150 m., +and the milk traffic on the railways, not only to London but to +other great centres, is an important item. A factor in the +development of the milk trade must no doubt be sought in the +outbreak of cattle plague in 1865, for it was then that the dairymen +of the metropolis were compelled to seek milk all over +England, and the capillary refrigerator being invented soon +after, the production of milk has remained ever since in the hands +of dairymen living mainly at a distance from the towns supplied.</p> + +<p>This great change in country dairying, involving the continuous +export of enormous quantities of milk from the farms, has been +accompanied by subsidiary changes in the management of dairy-farms, +and has necessitated the extensive purchase of feeding-stuffs +for the production of milk, especially in winter-time. It +is probable that, in this way, a gradual improvement of the soil +on such farms has been effected, and the corn-growing soils of +distant countries are adding to the store of fertility of soils in the +British Isles. Country roads, exposed to the wear and +tear of a comparatively new traffic, are lively at morn and +eve with the rattle of vehicles conveying fresh milk from the +farms to the railway stations. Most of these changes were +brought about within the limits of the last third of the 19th +century.</p> + +<p>In the case of London the daily supply of a perishable article +such as milk, which must be delivered to the consumer within a +few hours of its production, to a population of five millions, is an +undertaking of very great magnitude, especially when it is considered +that only a comparatively minute proportion of the +supply is produced in the metropolitan area itself. To meet the +demand of the London consumer some 5000 dairies proper exist, +as well as a large number of businesses where milk is sold in +conjunction with other commodities. It has been computed +that some 12,000 traders are engaged in the business of milk-selling +in the metropolis, and the number of persons employed in +its distribution, &c., cannot be fewer than 25,000. The amount +of capital involved is very great, and it may be mentioned that +the paid-up capital of six of the principal distributing and retail +dairy companies amounts to upwards of one million sterling. +The most significant feature in connexion with the milk-supply of +the metropolis at the beginning of the 20th century is the gradual +extinction of the town “cowkeeper”—the retailer who produces +the milk he sells. The facilities afforded by the railway companies, +the favourable rates which have been secured for the +transport of milk, and the more enlightened methods of its treatment +after production, have made it possible for milk produced +under more favourable conditions to be brought from considerable +distances and delivered to the retailer at a price lower than +that at which it has been possible to produce it in the metropolis +itself. As a result, the number of milk cows in the county of +London diminished from 10,000 in 1889 to 5144 in 1900, the +latter, on an estimated production of 700 gallons per cow—the +average production of stall-fed town cows—representing a yearly +milk yield of 3,600,000 gallons. How small a proportion this is of +the total supply will be gathered from the fact that the annual +quantity of milk delivered in London on the Great Western line +amounts to some 11,000,000 gallons, whilst the London & North-Western +railway delivers 9,000,000, and the Midland railway at +St Pancras 5,000,000, and at others of its London stations +about 1,000,000, making 6,000,000 in all. The London & South-Western +railway brings upwards of 8,000,000 gallons to London, +a quantity of 7,500,000 gallons is carried by the Great Northern +railway, and the Great Eastern railway is responsible for +7,000,000. The London, Brighton & South Coast railway delivers +1,000,000 gallons, and the South-Eastern & Chatham and +the London & Tilbury railways carry approximately 1,000,000 +gallons between them. A large quantity of milk is also carried +in by local lines from farms in the vicinity of London and +delivered at the local stations, and a quantity is also brought +by the Great Central railway. In addition to this, milk is taken +into London by carts from farms in the neighbourhood of the +metropolis. A computation of the total milk-supply of the +metropolis reveals a quantity approximating to 60,000,000 +gallons per annum, or rather more than a million gallons per +week, which, taking 500 gallons as the average yearly production +of the cows contributing to this supply, represents the yield of at +least 120,000 cows. The growth of the supply of country milk to +London may be judged from the figures given by Mr George +Barham, chairman of the Express Dairy Co. Ltd., in an article on +“The Milk Trade” contributed to Professor Sheldon’s work on +<i>The Farm and Dairy</i>. The quantities carried by the respective +railways in 1889 are therein stated in gallons as:—Great Western, +9,000,000; London & North-Western, 7,000,000; Midland, +7,000,000; London & South-Western, 6,000,000; Great +Northern, 3,000,000; Great Eastern, 3,000,000; the southern +lines, 2,000,000. The increase, therefore, on these lines amounted +to no less than 13,500,000 gallons per annum, or 36%. The +diminished production in the metropolis itself amounted approximately +only to 3,000,000 gallons, and it follows, therefore, that +the consumption largely increased.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page757" id="page757"></a>757</span></p> + +<p>Previously to 1864 it was only possible to bring milk into +London from short distances, but the introduction of the refrigerator +has enabled milk to be brought from places as far +removed from the metropolis as North Staffordshire, and it has +even been received from Scotland. Practically the whole of +the milk supplied to the metropolis is produced in England. +Attempts have been made to introduce foreign milk, and in +1898 a company was formed to promote the sale of fresh milk +from Normandy, but the enterprise did not succeed. The trade +subsequently showed signs of reviving, owing probably to the +increased cost of the home produced article, and during the +winter season of 1900-1901 the largest quantity received into +the kingdom in one week amounted to 10,000 gallons. Of recent +years a large demand has sprung up for sterilized milk in bottles, +and a considerable trade is also done in humanized milk, which +is a milk preparation approximating in its chemical composition +to human milk.</p> + +<p>Estimating the average yield of milk of each country cow at +500 gallons per annum, and assuming an average of 28 cows to +each farm, as many as 4300 farmers are engaged in supplying +London with milk; allotting ten cows to each milker, it needs +12 battalions of 1000 men each for this work alone. Some 3500 +horses are required to convey the milk from the farms to the +country railway stations. The chief sources of supply are in the +counties of Derby, Stafford, Leicester, Northampton, Notts, +Warwick, Bucks, Oxford, Gloucester, Berks, Wilts, Hants, +Dorset, Essex, and Cambridge. It is not entirely owing to the +railways that London’s enormous supply of milk has been +rendered possible, for the milk must still have been produced in +the immediate neighbourhood of the metropolis had not the +method of reducing the temperature of the product by means of +the refrigerator been devised. There are probably 5700 horses +engaged in the delivery of milk in London, and more people are +employed in this work than in milking the cows. One of the +great difficulties the London dairyman has to contend with, and +a cause of frequent anxiety to him, is associated with the rise +and fall of the thermometer, for a movement to the extent of ten +degrees one way or the other may diminish or increase the supply +in an inverse ratio to the demand. Thus, at periods of extreme +cold, the cows shrink in their yield of milk, while from the same +cause the Londoner is demanding more, in an extra cup of coffee, +&c. Again, at periods of extreme heat, which has the same effect +on the cow’s production as extreme cold, the customer also +demands an increased quantity of milk. Ten degrees fall of +temperature in the summer will result in a lessened demand and +an enlarged supply—to such an extent, indeed, that a single +firm has been known to have had returned by its carriers some +600 gallons in one day. In such cases the cream separator is +capable of rendering invaluable assistance. To make cheese in +London in large quantities and at uncertain intervals has been +found to be impracticable, while to set for cream a great bulk of +milk is almost equally so. But now a considerable portion of +what would otherwise be lost is saved by passing the milk +through separators, and churning the cream into butter.</p> + +<p>Previously to the enormous development of the urban trade in +country milk, dairy farms were in the main self-sustaining in the +matter of manures and feeding-stuffs, and the cropping of arable +land was governed by routine. To-day, on the contrary, many +dairy farms are run at high pressure by the help of purchased +materials,—corn, cake, and manure,—and the land is cropped +regardless of routine and independent of courses. Such crops, +moreover, are grown—white straw crops, green crops, root crops—as +are deemed likely to be most needed at the time when they +are ready. Green crops,—“soiling” crops, as they are termed +in North America,—consisting largely of vetches or tares (held +up by stalks of oat plants grown amongst them), cabbages, and +in some districts green maize, are used to supplement the failing +grass-lands at the fall of the year, and root crops, especially +mangel, are advantageously grown for the same purpose. For +winter feeding the farm is made to yield what it will in the shape +of meadow and clover hay, and of course root crops of the several +kinds. This provision is supplemented by the purchase of, for +example, brewers’ grains as a bulky food, and of oilcake and corn +of many sorts as concentrated food.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table XI.</span>—<i>Estimated Annual Production of Milk, Butter and Cheese in the United Kingdom for the Ten Years ended +31st December 1899.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year<br />ended<br />December<br />31.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Cows and Heifers<br />in Milk or in<br />Calf on 4th June.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Cows<br />per 1000<br />of<br />Popu-<br />lation.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Cows and<br />Heifers giving<br />Milk all the<br />year round;<br />say 75% of<br />Total.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Influence of<br />Season.<br />Percentage<br />above or<br />below the<br />Average of<br />previous<br />10 Years.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Estimated Total<br />Quantity of<br />Milk produced<br />in the 52<br />Weeks, by 75%<br />of the Total<br />Herd, at 49<br />cwt. or 531<br />gallons per<br />Cow.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Estimated Total<br />Quantity of<br />Butter produced<br />in the 52<br />Weeks, taking 32%<br />of the Total<br />Milk to yield<br />80 ℔ of Butter<br />per Ton of<br />Milk.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Estimated Total<br />Quantity of<br />Cheese produced<br />in the 52<br />Weeks, taking 20%<br />of the Total<br />Milk to yield<br />220 ℔ of Cheese<br />per Ton of<br />Milk.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">No.</td> <td class="tcc rb">No.</td> <td class="tcc rb">No.</td> <td class="tcc rb">%.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Tons.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Tons.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,956,220</td> <td class="tcc rb">105.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,967,165</td> <td class="tcc rb">+3.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,487,640</td> <td class="tcc rb">85,572</td> <td class="tcc rb">147,078</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">4,117,707</td> <td class="tcc rb">108.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,088,281</td> <td class="tcc rb">Average.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,566,288</td> <td class="tcc rb">86,472</td> <td class="tcc rb">148,624</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1892</td> <td class="tcc rb">4,120,451</td> <td class="tcc rb">108.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,090,339</td> <td class="tcc rb">−5.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,147,337</td> <td class="tcc rb">81,684</td> <td class="tcc rb">140,394</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1893</td> <td class="tcc rb">4,014,055</td> <td class="tcc rb">104.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,010,542</td> <td class="tcc rb">−9.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">6,712,004</td> <td class="tcc rb">76,709</td> <td class="tcc rb">131,843</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1894</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,925,486</td> <td class="tcc rb">101.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,944,115</td> <td class="tcc rb">+6.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,667,505</td> <td class="tcc rb">87,628</td> <td class="tcc rb">150,611</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,937,590</td> <td class="tcc rb">100.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,953,193</td> <td class="tcc rb">−3.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">6,982,087</td> <td class="tcc rb">79,652</td> <td class="tcc rb">137,148</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,958,762</td> <td class="tcc rb">100.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,969,387</td> <td class="tcc rb">−4.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">6,983,999</td> <td class="tcc rb">79,817</td> <td class="tcc rb">130,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1897</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,984,167</td> <td class="tcc rb">99.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,988,126</td> <td class="tcc rb">+3.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,547,856</td> <td class="tcc rb">86,261</td> <td class="tcc rb">148,260</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb">4,035,501</td> <td class="tcc rb">100.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,025,526</td> <td class="tcc rb">+3.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,645,105</td> <td class="tcc rb">87,372</td> <td class="tcc rb">150,171</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcc rb">4,133,249</td> <td class="tcc rb">101.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,099,937</td> <td class="tcc rb">−3.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">7,329,027</td> <td class="tcc rb">83,760</td> <td class="tcc rb">130,020</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">10 <i>Years</i>’<br /><i>Average</i></td> <td class="tccm allb">4,018,318</td> <td class="tccm allb">103.0</td> <td class="tccm allb">3,013,660</td> <td class="tccm allb">−0.7</td> <td class="tccm allb">7,906,874</td> <td class="tccm allb">83,992</td> <td class="tccm allb">141,412</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">British Output, Imports and Exports of Dairy +Produce</p> + +<p>Whilst the quantity of imported butter and cheese consumed +in the United Kingdom from year to year can be arrived at +with a tolerable degree of accuracy, it is more difficult to form +an estimate of the amounts of these articles annually produced +at home. Various attempts have, however, from time to time +been made by competent authorities to arrive approximately +at the annual output of milk, butter and cheese in the United +Kingdom, and the results are given by Messrs W. Weddel & Co. +in their annual <i>Dairy Produce Review</i>. Table XI. shows the +estimates for each of the ten years 1890 to 1899, the numbers +in the second column of “cows and heifers in milk or in calf” +being identical with those officially recorded in the agricultural +returns. In thus estimating the quantity of milk, butter and +cheese produced within the United Kingdom, the “average +milking life” of a cow is taken to be four years, from which it +follows that on the average one-fourth of the total herd has to +be renewed every year by heifers with their first calf. This +leaves 75% of the total herd giving milk throughout the year. +Each cow of this 75% is estimated as yielding 49 cwt., or +531 gallons of milk annually. It is assumed that 15% of the +total milk yield is used for the calf, 32% utilized for butter-making, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page758" id="page758"></a>758</span> +20% for cheese-making, and the remaining 33% +consumed in the household as fresh milk. A ton of milk is +estimated to produce 80 ℔ of butter or 220 ℔ of cheese. A +gallon of milk weighs 10.33 ℔ (10<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> ℔). The probable effects +of each season upon the production have been taken into consideration +in making these estimates, and it will be noticed that +owing to the terrible drought of 1893 a reduction of 9% is +made from the average. Accepting these estimates with due +reservation,<a name="fa15a" id="fa15a" href="#ft15a"><span class="sp">15</span></a> it is seen that the annual production of milk varied +in the decade to the extent of nearly a million tons, the exact +difference between the maximum of 7,667,505 tons in 1894 +and the minimum of 6,712,004 tons in 1893 being 955,501 tons. +The decennial averages are 7,906,874 tons of milk, 83,992 tons +of butter, and 141,412 tons of cheese.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Table XII. furnishes an estimate of the total consumption of +butter in the United Kingdom in each of the years 1891 to 1900. +Whilst the estimated home production did not vary greatly from +year to year, the imports from colonial and foreign sources underwent +almost continuous increase. The ten years’ average indicates +37.6% home-made, 7.3% imported colonial, and 55.1% imported +foreign butter. But whereas at the beginning of the decade the +proportions were 45.4% home-made, 1.5% colonial, and 53.2% +foreign, at the end of the percentages were 32.8, 14.7 and 52.5 +respectively. It thus appears that whilst the United Kingdom was +able in 1891 to furnish nearly half of its requirements (45.4%), by +1900 it was unable to supply more than one-third (32.8%).</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table XII.</span>—<i>Estimated Home Production and Imports of Butter +into the United Kingdom for the Ten Years ended 30th June +1900.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year ended<br />30th June.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Home<br />Production,<br /><i>estimated</i>.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Imported<br />Colonial.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Imported<br />Foreign.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Tons.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Tons.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Tons.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">84,961</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 2,883</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 99,598</td> <td class="tcc rb">187,442</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1892</td> <td class="tcc rb">86,022</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 6,323</td> <td class="tcc rb">101,796</td> <td class="tcc rb">194,141</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1893</td> <td class="tcc rb">84,078</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 9,408</td> <td class="tcc rb">105,712</td> <td class="tcc rb">199,198</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1894</td> <td class="tcc rb">79,196</td> <td class="tcc rb">15,550</td> <td class="tcc rb">107,534</td> <td class="tcc rb">202,280</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">82,168</td> <td class="tcc rb">17,807</td> <td class="tcc rb">116,730</td> <td class="tcc rb">216,705</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">83,640</td> <td class="tcc rb">12,949</td> <td class="tcc rb">133,249</td> <td class="tcc rb">229,838</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1897</td> <td class="tcc rb">79,734</td> <td class="tcc rb">18,111</td> <td class="tcc rb">138,800</td> <td class="tcc rb">236,645</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb">83,039</td> <td class="tcc rb">17,732</td> <td class="tcc rb">141,426</td> <td class="tcc rb">242,197</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcc rb">87,326</td> <td class="tcc rb">22,443</td> <td class="tcc rb">142,193</td> <td class="tcc rb">251,962 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">83,760</td> <td class="tcc rb">37,534</td> <td class="tcc rb">133,957</td> <td class="tcc rb">255,251</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb bb">10 <i>Years</i>’<br /><i>Average</i></td> <td class="tccm allb">83,392</td> <td class="tccm allb">16,074</td> <td class="tccm allb">122,099</td> <td class="tccm allb">221,565</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The rapid headway which colonial butter has made in British +markets is shown by the fact that for the five years ended 30th of +June 1900 the import had grown from 12,949 tons to 37,534 tons +per annum, or an increase of 24,585 tons. It is during the mid-winter +months that the colonial butter from Australasia arrives on the +British markets, while that from Canada begins to arrive in July, +and virtually ceases in the following January. The bulk of the +Canadian butter reaches British markets during August, September +and October; the bulk of the Australasian in December, January +and February.</p> + +<p>It appears to be demonstrated by the experience of the last decade +of the 19th century that the United Kingdom is quite unable to turn +out sufficient dairy produce to supply its own population. In the +year ended 30th of June 1891 the total import of butter was 102,500 +tons, and for the year ended 30th of June 1900 it was 170,700 tons, +which shows an annual average increase in the decade of 6800 tons. +This growth was on the whole very uniform, any disturbance in its +regularity being attributable more to the deficient seasons in the +colonies and foreign countries than to the bountiful seasons at home. +Twice in the decade the import of butter from colonial sources fell +off slightly from the previous year, namely, in 1896 and 1898, while +only once was there any decrease in the foreign supply, and this +occurred in 1900. In 1896 the colonial supply fell off by 5000 tons, +principally owing to drought in Australia, but from foreign countries +this deficiency was more than made good, as the increased import +from these sources exceeded 16,500 tons. In 1900 the position was +reversed, for while the foreign import fell away to the extent of over +8000 tons, the supply from the colonies exceeded that of 1899 by +15,000 tons, thus leaving a gain in the quantity of imported butter +of nearly 7000 tons on the year. Table XII. shows that over the +ten years, 1891-1900, the import of colonial butter was augmented +by 34,600 tons, and that of foreign by 33,600 tons, so that the increased +import is fairly divided between colonial and foreign sources. +If, however, the last five years of the period be taken, it will be seen +that the increases in the arrivals of colonial butter have far exceeded +those from foreign countries. Between 1891 and 1900 the Australasian +colonies increased their quota by 13,400 tons, and Canada by +11,100 tons. Of foreign countries, Denmark showed the greatest +development in the supply of imported butter, which increased in +the ten years by 28,678 tons. Next came Russia and Holland, with +increases respectively of 7207 tons and 6589 tons. Sweden, which +made steady progress from 1891 to 1896, subsequently declined, +and in 1900 sent 1400 tons less than in 1891. France and Germany +are rapidly falling away, and the latter country will soon cease its +supply altogether. Up to 1896 it was 6000 tons annually; by 1900 +it had fallen to 1850 tons. France, which in 1892 sent to the United +Kingdom 29,000 tons, regularly declined, and in 1900 sent only +16,800. Among the countries sending the smaller quantities, Argentina, +Belgium and Norway are all gradually increasing their supplies; +but their totals are comparatively insignificant, as they together +contributed in 1900 only 6400 tons out of a total foreign supply of +134,000 tons. The United States was erratic in its supplies during +the decade, and up to 1900 had not made butter specially for export +to the United Kingdom, as all the other foreign countries had done. +Consequently it is only when supplies from elsewhere fail that +American butter is sought for by British buyers. The large amount +of salt in this butter, although suitable for the American palate, +prevents its becoming popular in the United Kingdom.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table XIII.</span>—<i>Annual Imports of Butter into the United Kingdom, +1897-1900.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">From</td> <td class="tcc allb">1897.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1898.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1899.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Denmark</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,334,726</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,465,030</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,430,052</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,486,342</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Australasia</td> <td class="tcr rb">269,432</td> <td class="tcr rb">228,563</td> <td class="tcr rb">366,944</td> <td class="tcr rb">509,910</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">448,128</td> <td class="tcr rb">416,821</td> <td class="tcr rb">353,942</td> <td class="tcr rb">322,048</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Holland</td> <td class="tcr rb">278,631</td> <td class="tcr rb">269,631</td> <td class="tcr rb">284,810</td> <td class="tcr rb">282,805</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Russia*</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">209,738</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sweden</td> <td class="tcr rb">299,214</td> <td class="tcr rb">294,962</td> <td class="tcr rb">245,599</td> <td class="tcr rb">196,041</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Canada</td> <td class="tcr rb">109,402</td> <td class="tcr rb">156,865</td> <td class="tcr rb">250,083</td> <td class="tcr rb">138,313</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">154,196</td> <td class="tcr rb">66,712</td> <td class="tcr rb">159,137</td> <td class="tcr rb">56,046</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcr rb">51,761</td> <td class="tcr rb">41,231</td> <td class="tcr rb">36,953</td> <td class="tcr rb">36,042</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Other countries</td> <td class="tcr rb">272,312</td> <td class="tcr rb">269,645</td> <td class="tcr rb">262,331</td> <td class="tcr rb">141,231</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">3,217,802</td> <td class="tcr allb">3,209,153</td> <td class="tcr allb">3,389,851</td> <td class="tcr allb">3,378,516</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">%</td> <td class="tcc rb">%</td> <td class="tcc rb">%</td> <td class="tcc rb">%</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Denmark</td> <td class="tcr rb">41.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">45.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">42.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">44.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Australasia</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Holland</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Russia*</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sweden</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Canada</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Other countries</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8.4</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8.4</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7.7</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4.2</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">100.0</td> <td class="tcr allb">100.0</td> <td class="tcr allb">100.0</td> <td class="tcr allb">100.0</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="5">* Not shown separately in the Trade and Navigation Returns +prior to 1900.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The sources whence the United Kingdom receives butter from +abroad are sufficiently indicated in Table XIII., which shows the +absolute quantities and the relative proportions sent by the chief +contributory countries in each of the four years 1897 to 1900, the +order of precedence of the several countries being in accord with +the figures for 1900. Denmark, as a result of the efforts made by +that little kingdom to supply a sound product of uniform quality, +possesses over 40% of the trade, and in the year 1900 received from +the United Kingdom upwards of £8,000,000 for butter and over +£3,000,000 for bacon, the raising of pigs for the consumption of +separated milk being an important adjunct of the dairying industry +in Denmark, where butter factories are extensively maintained on +the co-operative principle. It is worthy of note that some at least +of the butter received in the United Kingdom from Russia is made +in Siberia, whence it is sent at the outset on a long land journey in +refrigerated railway cars for shipment at a Baltic port, usually Riga. +The countries not specially enumerated in Table XIII. from which +butter is sent to the United Kingdom are Argentina, Belgium, +Norway and Spain—these are included in “other countries.”</p> + +<p>In Table XIV., relating to the estimated home production of +cheese and the imports of that article, the ten years’ average indicates +a home-made supply of 555.3%, imports of colonial cheese 24.2%, +and imports of foreign cheese 20.5%. Comparing, however, the first +with the last year of the period 1891-1900, it appears that in 1891 +the proportions were 58.6% home-made, 17.2% colonial and +24.2% foreign, whereas in 1900 the percentages were 50.3, 28.9 +and 20.8 respectively. Hence the colonial contribution (chiefly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page759" id="page759"></a>759</span> +Canadian) has gained ground at the expense both of the home-made +and of the foreign. Again, comparing 1891 with 1900, the import +of cheese into the United Kingdom increased to the extent of only +24,500 tons, so that it shows no expansion comparable with that +of butter, which increased by about 70,000 tons. Simultaneously +the estimated home production diminished by 17,000 tons.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table XIV.</span>—<i>Estimated Home Production and Imports of Cheese +into the United Kingdom for the Ten Years ended 30th June +1900.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year ended<br />30th June.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Home<br />Production,<br /><i>estimated.</i></td> <td class="tccm allb">Imported<br />Colonial.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Imported<br />Foreign.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Tons.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Tons.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Tons.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">147,078</td> <td class="tcc rb">43,228</td> <td class="tcc rb">60,816</td> <td class="tcc rb">251,122</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1892</td> <td class="tcc rb">148,624</td> <td class="tcc rb">45,781</td> <td class="tcc rb">59,452</td> <td class="tcc rb">253,857</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1893</td> <td class="tcc rb">140,394</td> <td class="tcc rb">55,549</td> <td class="tcc rb">56,767</td> <td class="tcc rb">252,710</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1894</td> <td class="tcc rb">131,843</td> <td class="tcc rb">57,322</td> <td class="tcc rb">52,498</td> <td class="tcc rb">241,663</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">150,611</td> <td class="tcc rb">61,622</td> <td class="tcc rb">52,570</td> <td class="tcc rb">264,803</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">137,148</td> <td class="tcc rb">62,478</td> <td class="tcc rb">44,569</td> <td class="tcc rb">244,195</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1897</td> <td class="tcc rb">130,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">67,028</td> <td class="tcc rb">46,317</td> <td class="tcc rb">243,345</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb">148,260</td> <td class="tcc rb">77,620</td> <td class="tcc rb">49,114</td> <td class="tcc rb">274,994</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcc rb">150,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">73,752</td> <td class="tcc rb">46,985</td> <td class="tcc rb">270,737</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">130,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">74,702</td> <td class="tcc rb">53,903</td> <td class="tcc rb">258,605</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb"><i>10 Years</i>’<br /><i>Average</i></td> <td class="tccm allb">141,396</td> <td class="tccm allb">61,908</td> <td class="tccm allb">52,299</td> <td class="tccm allb">255,603</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In imported colonial cheese Canada virtually has the field to itself, +for the only other colonial cheese which finds its way into the United +Kingdom is from New Zealand, but the amount of this kind is comparatively +insignificant, having been in 1900 only 4000 tons out of +a total import of 128,600 tons. Australia, in several seasons since +1891, sent small quantities, but they are not worth quoting.</p> + +<p>From foreign countries the decline in the export of cheese is mainly +in the case of the United States, which shipped to British ports +10,000 tons less in 1900 than in 1891. France also is losing its cheese +trade in British markets, and is being supplanted by Belgium. In +1891 France supplied over 3000 tons, in 1900 the import was below +2000 tons. Belgium in 1891 supplied less than 1000 tons, but in +1900 contributed 2600 tons. The import trade in Dutch cheese +remains almost stationary. In 1891 it amounted to 15,300 tons, in +1899 it was 15,600 tons, whilst in 1900, owing to exceptionally high +prices, which stimulated the manufacture, it reached 17,000 tons.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table XV.</span>—<i>Annual Imports of Cheese into the United Kingdom, +1897-1900.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">From</td> <td class="tcc allb">1897.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1898.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1899.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Canada</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,526,664</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,432,181</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,337,198</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,511,872</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">631,616</td> <td class="tcr rb">485,995</td> <td class="tcr rb">590,737</td> <td class="tcr rb">680,583</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Holland</td> <td class="tcr rb">297,604</td> <td class="tcr rb">292,925</td> <td class="tcr rb">328,541</td> <td class="tcr rb">327,817</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Australasia</td> <td class="tcr rb">68,615</td> <td class="tcr rb">44,608</td> <td class="tcr rb">32,294</td> <td class="tcr rb">86,513</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">36,358</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,086</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,307</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,110</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Other countries</td> <td class="tcr rb">42,321</td> <td class="tcr rb">50,657</td> <td class="tcr rb">60,992</td> <td class="tcr rb">69,910</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">2,603,178</td> <td class="tcr allb">2,339,452</td> <td class="tcr allb">2,384,069</td> <td class="tcr allb">2,711,805</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">%</td> <td class="tcc rb">%</td> <td class="tcc rb">%</td> <td class="tcc rb">%</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Canada</td> <td class="tcr rb">58.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">61.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">56.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">55.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">24.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">24.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Holland</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Australasia</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Other countries</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.6</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">100.0</td> <td class="tcr allb">100.0</td> <td class="tcr allb">100.0</td> <td class="tcr allb">100.0</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Over 80% of the cheese imported into the United Kingdom is +derived from North America, but the bulk of the trade belongs to +Canada, which supplies nearly 60% of the entire import. The value +of the cheese exported from Canada to the United Kingdom in the +calendar year 1900 was close upon £3,800,000. As is shown in +Table XV. below, Holland, Australasia and France participate in +this trade, whilst amongst the “other countries” are Germany, +Italy and Russia. The cheese sent from North America and Australasia +is mostly of the substantial Cheddar type, whereas soft or +“fancy” cheese is the dominant feature of the French shipments. +Thus, in the calendar year 1900 the average price of the cheese +imported into the United Kingdom from France was 61s. per cwt., +whilst the average value of the cheese from all other sources was +50s. per cwt., there being a difference of 11s. in favour of the “soft” +cheese of France.</p> + +<p>The imports of butter and margarine into the United Kingdom +were not separately distinguished before the year 1886. Previous to +that date they amounted, at five-year intervals, to the following +aggregate quantities:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">1870.</td> <td class="tcc">1875.</td> <td class="tcc">1880.</td> <td class="tcc">1885.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc">1,159,210</td> <td class="tcc">1,467,870</td> <td class="tcc">2,326,305</td> <td class="tcc">2,401,373</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>For the same years the imports of cheese registered the subjoined +totals:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">1870.</td> <td class="tcc">1875.</td> <td class="tcc">1880.</td> <td class="tcc">1885.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc">1,041,281</td> <td class="tcc">1,627,748</td> <td class="tcc">1,775,997</td> <td class="tcc">1,833,832</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The imports of butter and margarine, both separately and together, +and also the imports of cheese in each year from 1886 to 1900 +inclusive, are set out in Table XVI., the most significant feature of +which is the rapid expansion it shows in the imports of butter. In +the space of nine years, between 1887 and 1896, the quantity was +doubled. On the other hand, the general tendency of the imports +of margarine, which have been much more uniform than those of +butter, has been in the direction of decline since 1892. It is necessary, +however, to point out that there has been an increase in the +number of margarine factories in the United Kingdom, and in the +quantity of margarine manufactured in them, during the last few +years. Taking the imports of butter and margarine together, the +aggregate in 1889 and also in 1900 was practically three times as +large as a quarter of a century earlier, in 1875. The imports of +cheese have increased at a less rapid rate than those of butter, and +the quantity imported in 1900, which was a maximum, fell considerably +short of twice the quantity in 1875. In 1886, 1887, 1888, +1890 and 1892 the imports of cheese exceeded those of butter, but since +the last-named year those of butter have always been the larger, and +1899 were fully a million cwt. more than the cheese imports. The +cheapness of imported fresh meat has probably had the effect of +checking the growth of the demand for cheese amongst the industrial +classes.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table XVI.</span>—<i>Imports of Butter, Margarine and Cheese into the +United Kingdom, 1886-1900.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Butter.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Margarine.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total Butter<br />and<br />Margarine.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cheese.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1886</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,543,566</td> <td class="tcr rb">887,974</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,431,540</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,734,890</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1887</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,513,134</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,276,140</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,789,274</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,836,789</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1888</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,671,433</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,139,743</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,811,176</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,917,616</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,927,842</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,241,690</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,169,532</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,907,999</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,027,717</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,079,856</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,107,573</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,144,074</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,135,607</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,235,430</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,371,037</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,041,325</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1892</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,183,009</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,305,350</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,488,359</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,232,817</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1893</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,327,474</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,299,970</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,627,444</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,077,462</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1894</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,574,835</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,109,325</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,684,160</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,266,145</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,825,662</td> <td class="tcr rb">940,168</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,765,830</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,133,819</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,037,718</td> <td class="tcr rb">925,934</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,963,652</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,244,525</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1897</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,217,802</td> <td class="tcr rb">936,543</td> <td class="tcc rb">4,154,345</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,603,178</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,209,153</td> <td class="tcr rb">900,615</td> <td class="tcc rb">4,343,026</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,384,069</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1999</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,389,851</td> <td class="tcr rb">953,175</td> <td class="tcc rb">4,343,026</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,384,069</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3,378,516</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">920,416</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4,298,932</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2,711,805</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The imports of condensed milk into the United Kingdom were +not separately distinguished before 1888. In that year they +amounted to 352,332 cwt. The quantities imported in subsequent +years were the following:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Year.</td> <td class="tcc tb bb rb2">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc tcc tb bb rb">Year.</td> <td class="tcc tcc tb bb rb2">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc tb bb rb">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Cwt.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1889</td> <td class="tcc rb2">389,892</td> <td class="tcc rb">1893</td> <td class="tcc rb2">501,005</td> <td class="tcc rb">1897</td> <td class="tcc rb">756,243</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb2">407,426</td> <td class="tcc rb">1894</td> <td class="tcc rb2">529,465</td> <td class="tcc rb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb">817,274</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb2">444,666</td> <td class="tcc rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb2">545,394</td> <td class="tcc rb">1899</td> <td class="tcc rb">824,599</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1892</td> <td class="tcc rb2 bb">481,374</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1896</td> <td class="tcc rb2 bb">611,335</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">986,741</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The quantity thus increased continuously in each year after 1889, +with the result that in 1900 the imports had grown to nearly three +times the amount of those in 1889. Simultaneously, over the period +1889-1900 the annual value of the imports steadily advanced from +£704,849 to £1,405,033. Thus, while the imports of condensed milk +trebled in quantity, they doubled in value. A fair proportion is, +however, exported, as is shown in the following statement of exports +of imported condensed milk for the four years 1897 to 1900:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">1897.</td> <td class="tcc">1898.</td> <td class="tcc">1899.</td> <td class="tcc">1900.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Quantity, cwt.</td> <td class="tcc">143,932</td> <td class="tcc">133,596</td> <td class="tcc">118,394</td> <td class="tcc">164,602</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Value</td> <td class="tcc">£274,578</td> <td class="tcc">£256,525</td> <td class="tcc">£228,446</td> <td class="tcc">£309,460</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>There is also an export trade in condensed milk made in the +United Kingdom. Thus, in 1892 the exports of home-made condensed +milk amounted to 61,442 cwt., valued at £133,556. By 1896 +the quantity had almost doubled, and reached 111,959 cwt., of the +value of £224,831. In subsequent years the exports were:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">1897.</td> <td class="tcc">1898.</td> <td class="tcc">1899.</td> <td class="tcc">1900.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Quantity, cwt.</td> <td class="tcc">154,901</td> <td class="tcc">178,055</td> <td class="tcc">185,749</td> <td class="tcc">209,447</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Value</td> <td class="tcc">£302,748</td> <td class="tcc">£343,070</td> <td class="tcc">£353,819</td> <td class="tcc">£390,559</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page760" id="page760"></a>760</span></p> + +<p>Milk and cream (fresh or preserved other than condensed) received +no separate classification in the imports until 1894, in which year +the quantity imported was 161,633 gallons, followed by 126,995 +gallons in 1895, and 22,776 gallons in 1896. The quantities have +since been returned by weight—10,006 cwt. in 1897, 10,691 cwt. in +1898, 7859 cwt. in 1899, and 15,638 cwt. in 1900. The values of +these imports in the successive years 1894 to 1900 were £21,371, +£19,991, £5489, £9848, £11,293, £16,068 and £26,837.</p> + +<p>The total values of the imports of dairy produce of all kinds—butter, +margarine, cheese, &c.—into the United Kingdom were, at +five-year intervals between 1875 and 1890, the following:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">1875.</td> <td class="tcc">1880.</td> <td class="tcc">1885.</td> <td class="tcc">1890.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Value</td> <td class="tcc">£13,211,592</td> <td class="tcc">£17,232,548</td> <td class="tcc">£15,632,852</td> <td class="tcc">£19,505,798</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table XVII.</span>—<i>Values of Dairy Products imported into the United +Kingdom from 1891 to 1900, in Thousands of Pounds Sterling.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Butter.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Margarine.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cheese.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Condensed<br />Milk.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">£1000.</td> <td class="tcc rb">£1000.</td> <td class="tcc rb">£1000.</td> <td class="tcc rb">£1000.</td> <td class="tcc rb">£1000.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">11,591</td> <td class="tcc rb">3558</td> <td class="tcc rb">4813</td> <td class="tcc rb">900</td> <td class="tcc rb">20,863</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1892</td> <td class="tcc rb">11,965</td> <td class="tcc rb">3713</td> <td class="tcc rb">5417</td> <td class="tcc rb">930</td> <td class="tcc rb">22,025</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1893</td> <td class="tcc rb">12,754</td> <td class="tcc rb">3655</td> <td class="tcc rb">5161</td> <td class="tcc rb">1010</td> <td class="tcc rb">22,580</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1894</td> <td class="tcc rb">13,457</td> <td class="tcc rb">3045</td> <td class="tcc rb">5475</td> <td class="tcc rb">1079</td> <td class="tcc rb">23,077</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,245</td> <td class="tcc rb">2557</td> <td class="tcc rb">4675</td> <td class="tcc rb">1084</td> <td class="tcc rb">22,581</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">15,344</td> <td class="tcc rb">2498</td> <td class="tcc rb">4900</td> <td class="tcc rb">1170</td> <td class="tcc rb">23,920</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1897</td> <td class="tcc rb">15,917</td> <td class="tcc rb">2485</td> <td class="tcc rb">5886</td> <td class="tcc rb">1398</td> <td class="tcc rb">25,715</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb">15,962</td> <td class="tcc rb">2384</td> <td class="tcc rb">4970</td> <td class="tcc rb">1436</td> <td class="tcc rb">24,779</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcc rb">17,214</td> <td class="tcc rb">2549</td> <td class="tcc rb">5503</td> <td class="tcc rb">1455</td> <td class="tcc rb">26,747</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">17,450</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2465</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6838</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1743</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">28,544</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The values in each year of the closing decade of the 19th century +are set forth in Table XVII., where the totals in the last column +include small sums for margarine-cheese and, since 1893, for fresh +milk and cream. The aggregate value more than doubled during +the last quarter of the century. The earliest year for which the value +of imported butter is separately available is 1886, when it amounted +to £8,141,438. Thirteen years later this sum had more than doubled, +and it is an impressive fact that in the closing year of the century +the United Kingdom should have expended on imported butter alone +a sum closely approximating to 17½ million pounds sterling, equivalent +to about three-fourths of the total amount disbursed on imported +wheat grain.<a name="fa16a" id="fa16a" href="#ft16a"><span class="sp">16</span></a></p> + +<p>The imports of margarine—that is, of margarine specifically +declared to be such—into the United Kingdom are derived almost +entirely from Holland. Out of a total of 920,416 cwt. imported in +1900 Holland supplied 862,154 cwt., and out of £2,464,839 expended +on imported margarine in the same year Holland received £2,295,174. +To the imports in the year named Holland contributed 93.7%; +France, 2.9; Norway, 0.9; all other countries, 2.5; so that Holland +possesses almost a monopoly of this trade. The quantities of imported +butter, margarine and cheese that are again exported from +the United Kingdom are trivial when compared with the imports, +as will be seen from the following quantities and values in the three +years 1898 to 1900:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">1898.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1899.</td> <td class="tcc lb tb bb rb2">1900.</td> <td class="tcc tb bb rb">1898.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1899.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb2">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Butter</td> <td class="tcc rb">63,491</td> <td class="tcc rb">50,453</td> <td class="tcc rb2">51,583</td> <td class="tcr rb">319,806</td> <td class="tcr rb">257,999</td> <td class="tcr rb">258,931</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Margarine</td> <td class="tcc rb">10,023</td> <td class="tcc rb">13,139</td> <td class="tcc rb2">11,326</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,721</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,319</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,882</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Cheese</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">56,694</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">56,390</td> <td class="tcc rb2 bb">55,982</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">159,210</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">163,991</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">168,369</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>There is also a very small export trade in butter and cheese made +in the United Kingdom, but its insignificant character is evident +from the subjoined details as to quantities and values for the years +named:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">1898.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1899.</td> <td class="tcc lb tb bb rb2">1900.</td> <td class="tcc tb bb rb">1898.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1899.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb2">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Butter</td> <td class="tcc rb">11,359</td> <td class="tcc rb">9,936</td> <td class="tcc rb2">10,127</td> <td class="tcc rb">59,731</td> <td class="tcc rb">53,195</td> <td class="tcc rb">53,701</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Cheese</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10,126</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">9,758</td> <td class="tcc rb2 bb">9,356</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">36,803</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">35,890</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">36,691</td></tr> +</table> + +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">American Dairying</p> + +<p>The development of the dairying industry in the vast region +of the United States of America has been described in the +official <i>Year-Book</i> by Major Henry E. Alvord, chief of the dairy +division of the bureau of animal industry in the department +of agriculture at Washington. The beginning of the 20th century +found the industry upon an altogether higher level than seemed +possible a few decades earlier. The milch cow herself, upon which +the whole business rests, has become almost as much a machine +as a natural product, and a very different creature from the +average animal of bygone days. The few homely and inconvenient +implements for use in the laborious duties of the dairy +have been replaced by perfected appliances, skilfully devised +to accomplish their object and to lighten labour. Long rows +of shining metal pans no longer adorn rural dooryards. The +factory system of co-operative or concentrated manufacture +has so far taken the place of home dairying that in entire states +the cheese vat or press is as rare as the handloom, and in many +counties it is as difficult to find a farm churn as a spinning-wheel. +An illustration of the nature of the changes is afforded in the +butter-making district of northern Vermont, at St Albans, the +business centre of Franklin county. In 1880 the first creamery +was built in this county; ten years later there were 15. Now +a creamery company at St Albans has upwards of 50 skimming +or separating stations distributed through Franklin and adjoining +counties. To these is carried the milk from more than 30,000 +cows. Farmers who possess separators at home may deliver +cream which, after being inspected and tested, is accepted and +credited at its actual butter value, just as other raw material is +sold to mills and factories. The separated cream is conveyed +by rail and waggon to the central factory, where in one room +from 10 to 12 tons of butter are made every working day—a +single churning place for a whole county! The butter is all of +standard quality, “extra creamery,” and is sold on its reputation +upon orders received in advance of its manufacture. The price +is relatively higher than the average for the product of the same +farms fifty years earlier. This is mainly due to better average +quality and greater uniformity—two important advantages +of the creamery system.</p> + +<p>In one important detail dairy labour is the same as a century +ago. Cows still have to be milked by hand. Although many +attempts have been made, and patent after patent has been +issued, no mechanical contrivance has yet proved a practical +success as a substitute for the human hand in milking. Consequently, +twice (or thrice) daily every day in the year, the dairy +cows must be milked by manual labour. This is one of the main +items of labour in dairying, and is a delicate and important duty. +Assuming 10 cows per hour to a milker, which implies quick +work, it requires the continuous service of an army of 300,000 +men, working 10 or 12 hours a day throughout the year, to +milk the cows kept in the United States.</p> + +<p>The business of producing milk for urban consumption, with +the accompanying agencies for transportation and distribution, +has grown to immense proportions. In many places the milk +trade is regulated and supervised by excellent municipal ordinances, +which have done much to prevent adulteration and to +improve the average quality of the supply. Quite as much is, +however, being done by private enterprise through large milk +companies, well organized and equipped, and establishments +which make a speciality of serving milk and cream of fixed +quality and exceptional purity. Such efforts to furnish “certified” +and “guaranteed” milk, together with general competition +for the best class of trade, are doing more to raise the +standard of quality and improve the service than all the legal +measures. The buildings and equipment of some of these modern +dairies are beyond precedent. This branch of dairying is +advancing fast, upon the safe basis of care, cleanliness and +better sanitary conditions.</p> + +<p>Cheese-making has been transferred bodily from the domain of +domestic arts to that of manufactures. In the middle of the 19th +century about 100,000,000 ℔ of cheese was made yearly in the +United States, and all of it in farm dairies. At the beginning of +the 20th century the annual production was about 300,000,000 ℔, +and 96 or 97% of this was made in factories. Of these there +are nearly 3000, but they vary greatly in capacity, and some are +very small. New York and Wisconsin possess a thousand each, +but the former state makes nearly twice as much cheese as the +latter, whilst the two together produce three-fourths of the entire +output of the country. A change is taking place in the direction +of bringing a number of factories previously independent into a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page761" id="page761"></a>761</span> +“combination” or under the same management. This tends to +improve the quality and secure greater uniformity in the product, +and often reduces cost of manufacture. More than nine-tenths of +all the cheese made is of the familiar standard type, copied after +the English Cheddar, but new kinds and imitations of foreign +varieties are increasing. The annual export of +cheese from the United States ranges between +30,000,000 and 50,000,000 ℔. The consumption +<i>per capita</i> does not exceed 3½ ℔ per annum, which +is much less than in most European countries.</p> + +<p>Butter differs from cheese in that it is still +made much more largely on farms in the United +States than in creameries. Creamery butter controls +all the large markets, but this represents +little more than one-third of the entire business. +Estimating the annual butter product of the entire +country at 1,400,000,000 ℔ not much over 500,000,000 ℔ of +this is made at the 7500 or 8000 creameries in operation. +Iowa is the greatest butter-producing state, and the one +in which the greater proportion is made on the factory +plan. The total output of butter in this state is one-tenth +of all made in the Union. The average quality of butter +has materially improved since the introduction of the creamery +system and the use of modern appliances. Nevertheless, a +vast quantity of poor butter is made—enough to afford a +large and profitable business in collecting it at country stores at +grease prices or a little more, and then rendering or renovating it +by patent processes. This renovated butter has been fraudulently +sold to a considerable extent as the true creamery article, +of which it is a fair imitation while fresh, and several states have +made laws for the identification of the product and to prevent +buyers from being imposed upon. No butter is imported, and the +quantity exported is insignificant, although there is beginning to +be a foreign demand for American butter. The home consumption +is estimated at the yearly rate of 20 ℔ per person, which, if +correct, would indicate Americans to be the greatest butter-eating +people in the world. The people of the United States also consume +millions of pounds every year of butter substitutes and +imitations, such as oleomargarine and butterine. Most of this is +believed to be butter by those who use it, and the state dairy +commissioners are busily employed in carrying out the laws +intended to protect purchasers from these butter frauds.</p> + +<p>The by-products of dairying have, within recent years, been put +to economical uses, in an increasing degree. For every pound of +butter made there are 15 to 20 ℔ of skim-milk and about 3 ℔ of +butter-milk, and for every pound of cheese nearly 9 ℔ of whey. +Up to 1889 or 1890 enormous quantities of skim-milk and butter-milk +from the creameries and of whey from the cheese factories +were entirely wasted. At farm dairies these by-products are +generally used to advantage in feeding animals, but at the +factories—especially at the seasons of greatest milk supply—this +most desirable method of utilization is to a great extent impracticable. +In many places new branches have been instituted +for the making of sugar-of-milk and other commercial products +from whey, and for the utilization of skim-milk in various ways. +The albumin of the latter is extracted for use with food products +and in the arts. The casein is desiccated and prepared as a +substitute for eggs in baking, as the basis of an enamel paint, and +as a substitute for glue in paper-sizing. It has also been proposed +to solidify it to make buttons, combs, brush-backs, electrical +insulators and similar articles.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>No census of cows in the United States was taken until the year +1840, but they have been enumerated in each subsequent decennial +census. From 23 to 27 cows to every 100 of the population were +required to keep the country supplied with milk, butter and cheese, +and provide for the export of dairy products. The export trade, +though it has fluctuated considerably, has never exceeded the +produce of 500,000 cows. At the close of the 19th century it was +estimated that there was one milch cow in the United States for +every four persons, making the number of cows about 17,500,000. +They are, however, very unevenly distributed, being largely concentrated +in the great dairy states, Iowa leading with 1,500,000 cows, +and being followed closely by New York. In the middle and eastern +states the milk product goes very largely to the supply of the numerous +large towns and cities. In the central, west and north-west +butter is the leading dairy product.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table XVIII.</span>—<i>Estimated Number of Cows and Quantity and Value of Dairy +Products in the United States in 1899.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Cows.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Product.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Rate of<br />Product<br />per Cow.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total Product.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Rate of<br />Value.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total Value.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Cents.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Dollars.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">11,000,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Butter</td> <td class="tcl rb">130 ℔</td> <td class="tcl rb">1,430,000,000 ℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">257,400,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">1,000,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Cheese</td> <td class="tcl rb">300 ℔</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 300,000,000 ℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb bb">5,500,000</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Milk</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">380 gals.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">2,090,000,000 gals.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">167,200,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Table XVIII. shows approximately the quantity and value of the +dairy products of the United States for a typical year, the grand total +representing a value of $451,600,000. Adding to this the skim-milk, +butter-milk and whey, at their proper feeding value, and the calves +dropped yearly, the annual aggregate value of the produce of the +dairy cows exceeds $500,000,000, or is more than one hundred +million pounds sterling. Accepting these estimates as conservative, +they show that the commercial importance of the dairy industry +of the United States is such as to justify all reasonable provisions +for guarding its interests.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. Fr.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A gallon of milk weighs 10.3 ℔, so that very little error is involved +in converting pounds to gallons by dividing the number of +pounds by 10.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> A portable milk-weighing appliance is made in which the weight +of the pail is included, and an indicator shows on a dial the exact +weight in pounds and ounces, and likewise the volume in gallons and +pints, of the milk in the pail. When the pail is empty the indicator +of course points to zero.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Landw. Futterungslehre</i>, 5te Aufl., 1888, p. 249.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The Analyst, April 1885, vol. x. p. 67.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The evidence on this point taken by the Committee on Milk and +Cream Regulations in 1900 is somewhat conflicting. The report +states that an impression commonly prevails that the quality of milk +is more or less determined by the nature and composition of the food +which the cow receives. One witness said that farmers who produce +milk for sale feed differently from what they do if they are producing +for butter. Another stated that most of the statistics which go to +show that food has no effect on milk fail, because the experiments are +not carried far enough to counterbalance that peculiarity of the +animal first to utilize the food for itself before utilizing it for the +milk. A witness who kept a herd of 100 milking cows expressed the +opinion that improvement in the quality of milk can be effected by +feeding, though not to any large extent. On the other hand, it was +maintained that the fat percentage in the milk of a cow cannot be +raised by any manner or method of feeding. It is possible that in the +case of cows very poorly fed the addition of rich food would alter the +composition of their milk, but if the cows are well-fed to begin with, +this would not be so. The proprietor of a herd of 500 milking cows +did not think that feeding affected the quality of milk from ordinarily +well-kept animals. An experimenter found that the result of resorting +to rather poor feeding was that the first effect was produced upon +the weight of the cow and not upon the milk; the animal began to +get thin, losing its weight, though there was not very much effect +upon the quality of the milk.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Journ. Roy. Agric. Soc.</i>, 1898.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Trans. Highl. and Agric. Soc. Scot., 1899.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8a" id="ft8a" href="#fa8a"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>Report on Cheddar Cheese-Making</i>, London, 1899.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9a" id="ft9a" href="#fa9a"><span class="fn">9</span></a> “The Practice of Stilton Cheese-Making,” <i>Journ. Roy. Agric. +Soc.</i>, 1899.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10a" id="ft10a" href="#fa10a"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>Experiment Station Record</i>, xii. 9 (Washington, 1901).</p> + +<p><a name="ft11a" id="ft11a" href="#fa11a"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Market butter is sometimes deliberately over-weighted with +water, and a fraudulent profit is obtained by selling this extra +moisture at the price of butter.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12a" id="ft12a" href="#fa12a"><span class="fn">12</span></a> “Thermal Death-Point of Tubercle Bacilli, and Relation of same +to Commercial Pasteurization of Milk,” by H. L. Russell and E. G. +Hastings.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13a" id="ft13a" href="#fa13a"><span class="fn">13</span></a> <i>16th Rept. Wis. Agric. Expt. Station</i>, 1899, p. 129.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14a" id="ft14a" href="#fa14a"><span class="fn">14</span></a> See also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adulteration</a></span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15a" id="ft15a" href="#fa15a"><span class="fn">15</span></a> A special committee appointed by the council of the Royal +Statistical Society commenced in 1901 an inquiry into the home production +of milk and meat in the United Kingdom.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16a" id="ft16a" href="#fa16a"><span class="fn">16</span></a> In 1901 the United Kingdom imported 3,702,810 cwt. of butter, +valued at £19,297,005, both totals being the largest on record.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAIS<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (Fr. <i>dais</i>, <i>estrade</i>, Ital. <i>predella</i>), originally a part of the +floor at the end of a medieval hall, raised a step above the rest of +the building. On this the lord of the mansion dined with his +friends at the high table, apart from the retainers and servants. +In medieval halls there was generally a deep recessed bay window +at one or at each end of the dais, supposed to be for retirement, +or greater privacy than the open hall could afford. In France the +word is understood as a canopy or hanging over a seat; probably +the name was given from the fact that the seats of great men were +then surmounted by such a feature. In ordinary use, the term +means any raised platform in a room, for dignified occupancy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAISY<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (A.S. <i>daeges eage</i>, day’s eye), the name applied to the +plants constituting the genus <i>Bellis</i>, of the natural order Compositae. +The genus contains ten species found in Europe and the +Mediterranean region. The common daisy, <i>B. perennis</i>, is the +only representative of the genus in the British Isles. It is a +perennial, abundant everywhere in pastures and on banks in +Europe, except in the most northerly regions, and in Asia Minor, +and occurs as an introduced plant in North America. The stem +of the daisy is short; the leaves, which are numerous and form +a rosette, are slightly hairy, obovate-spathulate in shape, with +rounded teeth on the margin in the upper part; and the root-stock +is creeping, and of a brownish colour. The flowers are to be +found from March to November, and occasionally in the winter +months. The heads of flowers are solitary, the outer or ray-florets +pink or white, the disk-florets bright yellow. The size and +luxuriance of the plant are much affected by the nature of the +soil in which it grows. The cultivated varieties, which are +numerous, bear finely-coloured flowers, and make very effective +borders for walks. What is known as the “hen-and-chicken” +daisy has the main head surrounded by a brood of sometimes as +many as ten or twelve small heads, formed in the axils of the +scales of the involucre. The ray-florets curve inwards and +“close” the flower-head in dull weather and towards evening.</p> + +<p>Chaucer writes—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“The daisie, or els the eye of the daie,</p> +<p class="i05">The emprise, and the floure of flouris alle”;</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">and again—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“To seen this floure agenst the sunne sprede</p> +<p class="i05">Whan it riseth early by the morrow,</p> +<p class="i05">That blissful sight softeneth all my sorrow”;</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">and the flower is often alluded to with admiration by the other +poets of nature. To the farmer, however, the daisy is a weed, +and a most wasteful one, as it exhausts the soil and is not eaten +by any kind of stock.</p> + +<p>In French the daisy is termed <i>la marguerite</i> (<span class="grk" title="margaritês">μαργαρίτης</span>, a +pearl), and “herb margaret” is stated to be an old English +appellation for it. In Scotland it is popularly called the gowan, +and in Yorkshire it is the bairn wort, or flower beloved by children. +The Christmas and Michaelmas daisies are species of <i>Aster</i>; +the ox-eye daisy is <i>Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum</i>, a common +weed in meadows and waste places. <i>B. perennis flore-pleno</i>, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page762" id="page762"></a>762</span> +double daisy, consists of dwarf, showy, 3 to 4 in. plants, flowering +freely in spring if grown in rich light soil, and frequently divided +and transplanted. The white and pink forms, with the white and +red quilled, and the variegated-leaved <i>aucubaefolia</i>, are some of +the best.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAKAR,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> a seaport of Senegal, and capital of French West +Africa, in 14° 40′ N., 17° 24′ W. The town, which is strongly +fortified, holds a commanding strategic position on the route +between western Europe and Brazil and South Africa, being +situated in the Gulf of Goree on the eastern side of the peninsula +of Cape Verde, the most westerly point of Africa. It is the only +port of Senegal affording safe anchorage for the largest ships. +Pop. (1904), within the municipal limits, 18,447; including +suburbs, 23,452.</p> + +<p>The town consists for the most part of broad and regular +streets and possesses several fine public buildings, notably the +palace of the governor-general. It is plentifully supplied with +good water and is fairly healthy. It is the starting point of the +railway to St Louis, and is within five days steam of Lisbon. +The harbour, built in 1904-1908, is formed by two jetties, one +of 6840 ft., the other of 1968 ft., the entrance being 720 ft. +wide. There are three commercial docks, with over 7000 ft. +of quayage, ships drawing 26 ft. being able to moor alongside. +Cargo is transferred directly to the railway trucks. There is +also a naval dock and arsenal with a torpedo-boat basin 755 ft. +by 410 ft. and a dry dock 656 ft. long and 92 ft. broad. The +Messageries Maritimes Company use the port as a coaling +station and provisioning depot for their South American trade. +Dakar is a regular port of call for other French lines and for +the Elder Dempster boats sailing between Liverpool and the +West Coast of Africa. It shares with Rufisque and St Louis +the external trade of Senegal and the adjacent regions. For +trade statistics see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Senegal</a></span>.</p> + +<p>Dakar was originally a dependency of Goree and was founded +in 1862, a year after the declaration of a French protectorate over +the mainland. The port was opened for commerce in 1867, +and in 1885 its importance was greatly increased by the completion +of the railway (163 m. long) to St Louis. Dakar thus +came into direct communication with the countries of Upper +Senegal and the middle Niger. In 1887 the town was made +a commune on the French model, all citizens irrespective of +colour being granted the franchise. In 1903 the offices of the +governor-general and of the court of appeal of French West +Africa were transferred from St Louis to Dakar, which is also +the seat of a bishop. In February 1905 a submarine cable +was laid between Brest and Dakar, affording direct telegraphic +communication between France and her West African colonies +by an all French route.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALAGUETE,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a town of the province of Cebú, island of +Cebú, Philippine Islands, at the mouth of the Tapón river on +the E. coast, 50 m. S.S.W. of Cebú, the capital. The town has +a healthy climate, cool during November, December, January +and February, and hot during the rest of the year. The inhabitants +grow hemp, Indian corn, coffee, sibucao, cacao, cocoanuts +(for copra) and sugar, weave rough fabrics and manufacture +tuba (a kind of wine used as a stimulant), clay pots and jars, +salt and soap. There is some fishing here. The language is +Cebú-Visayan.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALBEATTIE,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> a police burgh of Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland. +Pop. (1901) 3469. It lies on Dalbeattie Burn, 14½ m. S.W. +of Dumfries by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. The +town dates from 1780 and owes its rise to the granite quarries +at Craignair and elsewhere in the vicinity, from which were +derived the supplies used in the construction of the Thames +Embankment, the docks at Odessa and Liverpool and other +works. Besides quarrying, the industries include granite-polishing, +concrete (crushed granite) works, dye-works, paper-mills +and artificial manures. The estuary of the Urr, known +as Rough Firth, is navigable by ships of from 80 to 100 tons, +and small vessels can ascend as far as the mouth of Dalbeattie +Burn, within a mile of the town. A mile to the north-west stand +the ruins of the castle of Buittle or Botel, where lived John de +Baliol, founder of Baliol college, who had married Dervorguila, +daughter of Alan (d. 1234), the last “king” of Galloway.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALBERG,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> the name of an ancient and distinguished German +noble family, derived from the hamlet and castle (now in ruins) +of Dalberg or Dalburg near Kreuznach in the Rhine Province. +In the 14th century the original house of Dalberg became +extinct in the male line, the fiefs passing to Johann Gerhard, +chamberlain of the see of Worms, who married the heiress of +his cousin, Anton of Dalberg, about 1330. His own family +was of great antiquity, his ancestors having been hereditary +ministerials of the bishop of Worms since the time of Ekbert +the chamberlain, who founded in 1119 the Augustinian monastery +of Frankenthal and died in 1132. By the close of the 15th +century the Dalberg family had grown to be of such importance +that, in 1494, the German King Maximilian I. granted them the +honour of being the first to receive knighthood at the coronation; +this part of the ceremonies being opened by the herald asking +in a loud voice “Is no Dalberg present?” (<i>Ist kein Dalberg da?</i>). +This picturesque privilege the family enjoyed till the end of the +Holy Roman Empire. The elder line of the family of Dalberg-Dalberg +became extinct in 1848, the younger, that of Dalberg-Herrnsheim, +in 1833. The male line of the Dalbergs is now +represented only by the family of Hessloch, descended from +Gerhard of Dalberg (<i>c.</i> 1239), which in 1809 succeeded to the +title and estates in Moravia and Bohemia of the extinct counts of +Ostein.</p> + +<p>The following are the most noteworthy members of the family:</p> + +<p>1. <span class="sc">Johann von Dalberg</span> (1445-1503), chamberlain and +afterwards bishop of Worms, son of Wolfgang von Dalberg. +He studied at Erfurt and in Italy, where he took his degree +of doctor <i>utriusque juris</i> at Ferrara and devoted himself more +especially to the study of Greek. Returning to Germany, he +became privy councillor to the elector palatine Philip, whom +he assisted in bringing the university of Heidelberg to the height +of its fame. He was instrumental in founding the first chair +of Greek, which was filled by his friend Rudolph Agricola, and +he also established the university library and a college for +students of civil law. He was an ardent humanist, was president +of the <i>Sodalitas Celtica</i> founded by the poet Konrad Celtes (q.v.), +and corresponded with many of the leading scholars of his day, +to whom he showed himself a veritable Maecenas. He was +employed also on various diplomatic missions by the emperor +and the elector.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See K. Morneweg, <i>Johann von Dalberg, ein deutscher Humanist und +Bischof</i> (Heidelberg, 1887).</p> +</div> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg</span> (1744-1817), +archbishop-elector of Mainz, arch-chancellor of the Holy Roman +Empire, and afterwards primate of the Confederation of the +Rhine and grand-duke of Frankfort. He was the son of Franz +Heinrich, administrator of Worms, one of the chief counsellors of +the elector of Mainz. Karl had devoted himself to the study of +canon law, and entered the church; and, having been appointed +in 1772 governor of Erfurt, he won further advancement by his +successful administration; in 1787 he was elected coadjutor of +Mainz and of Worms, and in 1788 of Constance; in 1802 he +became archbishop-elector of Mainz and arch-chancellor of the +Empire. As statesman Dalberg was distinguished by his +“patriotic” attitude, whether in ecclesiastical matters, in which +he leaned to the Febronian view of a German national church, or +in his efforts to galvanize the atrophied machinery of the Empire +into some sort of effective central government of Germany. +Failing in this, he turned to the rising star of Napoleon, believing +that he had found in “the truly great man, the mighty genius +which governs the fate of the world,” the only force strong +enough to save Germany from dissolution. By the peace of +Lunéville, accordingly, though he had to surrender Worms and +Constance, he received Regensburg, Aschaffenburg and Wetzlar. +On the dissolution of the Empire in 1806 he formally resigned the +office of arch-chancellor in a letter to the emperor Francis, and +was appointed by Napoleon prince primate of the Confederation +of the Rhine. In 1810, after the peace of Vienna (Schönbrunn), +the grand-duchy of Frankfort was created for his benefit out of his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page763" id="page763"></a>763</span> +territories, which, in spite of the cession of Regensburg to +Bavaria, were greatly augmented. Dalberg’s subservience, as a +prince of the Confederation, to Napoleon was specially resented +since, as a priest, he had no excuse of necessity on the ground +of saving family or dynastic interests; his fortunes therefore +fell with those of Napoleon, and, when he died on the 10th of +February 1817, of all his dignities he was in possession only of +the archbishopric of Regensburg. Weak and shortsighted as a +statesman, as a man and prelate Dalberg was amiable, conscientious +and large-hearted. Himself a scholar and author, he +was a notable patron of letters, and was the friend of Goethe, +Schiller and Wieland.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Karl v. Beaulieu-Marconnay, <i>Karl von Dalberg und seine +Zeit</i> (Weimar, 1879).</p> +</div> + +<p>3. <span class="sc">Wolfgang Heribert von Dalberg</span> (1750-1806), brother +of the above. He was intendant of the theatre at Mannheim, +which he brought to a high state of excellence. His chief claim to +remembrance is that it was he who first put Schiller’s earlier +dramas on the stage, and it is to him that the poet’s <i>Briefe an den +Freiherrn von Dalberg</i> (Karlsruhe, 1819) are addressed. He +himself wrote several plays, including adaptations of Shakespeare. +His brother, Johann Friedrich Hugo von Dalberg (1752-1812), +canon of Trier, Worms and Spires, had some vogue as a +composer and writer on musical subjects.</p> + +<p>4. <span class="sc">Emmerich Joseph, Duc de Dalberg</span> (1773-1833), son of +Baron Wolfgang Heribert. He was born at Mainz on the 30th of +May 1773. In 1803 he entered the service of Baden, which he +represented as envoy in Paris. After the peace of Schönbrunn +(1809) he entered the service of Napoleon, who, in 1810, created +him a duke and councillor of state. He had from the first been +on intimate terms with Talleyrand, and retired from the public +service when the latter fell out of the emperor’s favour. In 1814 +he was a member of the provisional government by whom the +Bourbons were recalled, and he attended the congress of Vienna, +with Talleyrand, as minister plenipotentiary. He appended his +signature to the decree of outlawry launched in 1815 by the +European powers against Napoleon. For this his property in +France was confiscated, but was given back after the second +Restoration, when he became a minister of state and a peer of +France. In 1816 he was sent as ambassador to Turin. The +latter years of his life he spent on his estates at Herrnsheim, +where he died on the 27th of April 1833.</p> + +<p>The due de Dalberg had inherited the family property of +Herrnsheim from his uncle the arch-chancellor Karl von Dalberg, +and this estate passed, through his daughter and heiress, Marie +Louise Pelline de Dalberg, by her marriage with Sir (Ferdinand) +Richard Edward Acton, 7th baronet (who assumed the additional +name of Dalberg), to her son the historian, John Emerich +Edward Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton (q.v.).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALE, ROBERT WILLIAM<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1829-1895), English Nonconformist +divine, was born in London on the 1st of December +1829, and was educated at Spring Hill College, Birmingham, +for the Congregational ministry. In 1853 he was invited to +Carr’s Lane Chapel, Birmingham, as co-pastor with John Angell +James (q.v.), on whose death in 1859 he became sole pastor for +the rest of his life. In the London University M.A. examination +(1853) Dale stood first in philosophy and won the gold medal. +The degree of LL.D. was conferred upon him by the university +of Glasgow during the lord rectorship of John Bright. Yale +University gave him its D.D. degree, but he never used it, “not +because it came from America, but because I have a sentimental +objection—perhaps it is something more—to divinity degrees.” +Dale displayed a keen interest in Liberal politics and in the +municipal affairs of Birmingham; and his high moral ideal +made him a great force on the progressive side. In 1886 he +adhered to Mr Chamberlain in opposition to Irish Home Rule, +but this difference did not diminish his influence even among +those Liberals and Nonconformists who adopted the Gladstonian +standpoint. In the education controversy of 1870 he +took an important part, ably championing the Nonconformist +position. When Mr Foster’s bill appeared, Dale attacked it on +the grounds that the schools would in many cases be purely +denominational institutions, that the conscience clause gave +inadequate protection, and that school boards were empowered +by it to make grants out of the rates to maintain sectarian +schools. He was himself in favour of secular education, claiming +that it was the only logical solution and the only legitimate +outcome of Nonconformist principles. In Birmingham the controversy +was terminated in 1879 by a compromise, from which, +however, Dale stood aloof. His interest in educational affairs +had led him to accept a seat on the Birmingham school board. +He was appointed a governor of the grammar school, served on +the royal commission of education, and was also chairman of the +council of Mansfield College, Oxford, with the foundation of +which he had much to do. He was a strong advocate of disestablishment, +holding that the church was essentially a spiritual +brotherhood, and that any vestige of political authority impaired +its spiritual work. In church polity he held that congregationalism +constituted the most fitting environment in which +religion could achieve her work. Perhaps the most effective +contributions he made to ecclesiastical literature were those +dealing with the history and principles of the congregational +system. At his death on the 13th of March 1895 he left an unfinished +MS. of the history of congregationalism, since edited +and completed (1907) by his son, A. W. W. Dale, principal of +Liverpool University.</p> + +<p>Dale’s powers were fully appreciated by his colleagues in the +congregational ministry, and at the early age of thirty-nine he +was elected chairman of the Congregational union of England +and Wales. His addresses from the chair on “Christ and the +Controversies of Christendom,” and the “Holy Spirit and the +Christian Ministry” were remarkable for a keen insight into the +conditions and demands of the age. For some years he edited +the <i>Congregationalist</i>, a monthly magazine connected with the +denomination. In 1877 he was appointed Lyman Beecher +lecturer at Yale University, and visited America to deliver his +“Lectures on Preaching.” At the International Council of +Congregationalists, meeting in London in 1891, the first gathering +of the kind, Dale was nominated for the presidency. He accepted +the honour and delivered an address on “The Divine Life in +Man.”</p> + +<p>As a theologian Dale occupied an influential position amongst +the religious thinkers of the 19th century. He ably interpreted +the Evangelical thought of his age, but his Evangelicalism was +of a broad and progressive type. His chief contribution to constructive +theological thought is his work <i>On The Atonement</i>, in +which he contends that the death of Christ is the objective +ground on which the sins of man were remitted. Among his +other theological books are: <i>The Epistle to the Ephesians</i> (a +series of expositions), <i>Christian Doctrine</i>, <i>The Living Christ and +the Four Gospels</i>, <i>Fellowship with Christ</i>, <i>The Epistle to James</i>, +and <i>The Ten Commandments</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALE, SIR THOMAS<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (d. 1619), British naval commander and +colonial deputy-governor of Virginia. From about 1588 to 1609 +he was in the service of the Low Countries with the English army +originally under Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester; in 1606, while +visiting in England, he was knighted by King James; from 1611 +to 1616 he was actually though not always nominally in chief +control of the province of Virginia either as deputy-governor or +as “high marshall,” and he is best remembered for the energy +and the extreme rigour of his administration there, which established +order and in various ways seems to have benefited the +colony; he himself declared that he left it “in great prosperity +and peace.” Under him began the first real expansion of the +colony with the establishment of the settlement of Henrico on +and about what was later known as Farrar’s Island; it was he +who, about 1614, took the first step toward abolishing the communal +system by the introduction of private holdings, and it was +during his administration that the first code of laws of Virginia, +nominally in force from 1610 to 1619, was effectively tested. +This code, entitled “Articles, Lawes, and Orders—Divine, +Politique, and Martiall,” but popularly known as Dale’s Code, +was notable for its pitiless severity, and seems to have been +prepared in large part by Dale himself. He left Virginia in 1616 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page764" id="page764"></a>764</span> +with the intention probably of returning to the service of the +Low Countries, but instead was given command of an English +fleet sent against the Dutch, defeated the enemy near Batavia +in the East Indies late in the year 1618, arrived at Masulipatam +in July 1619, and died there on the 9th of the following month.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An account of Dale’s career in Virginia is given in Alexander +Brown’s <i>The First Republic in America</i> (Boston, 1898); a scholarly +discussion of “Dale’s Code” by Walter F. Prince may be found in +vol. i. of the <i>Annual Report of the American Historical Association</i> for +1899 (Washington, D.C., 1900), and the code itself is reprinted in +Peter Force’s <i>Historical Tracts</i>, vol. iii., No. 11.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALECARLIA<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (<i>Dalarne</i>, “the Dales”), a west midland region +of Sweden, virtually coincident with the district (<i>län</i>) of Kopparberg, +which extends from the mountains of the Norwegian +frontier to within 25 m. of Gefle on the Baltic coast. It is a +region full of historical associations, and possesses strong local +characteristics in respect of its products, and especially of its +people. The Dalecarlians or Dalesmen speak their own peculiar +dialect, wear their own peculiar costumes, and are famed for +their brave spirit and sturdy love of independence. In 1434, +led by Engelbrecht, the miner, they rose against the oppressive +tyranny of the officers of Eric XIV. of Denmark, and in 1519-1523 +it was among them that Gustavus Vasa found his staunchest +supporters in his patriotic task of freeing Sweden from the yoke +of the Danes. The districts around Lakes Runn and Siljan (“the +Eye of the Dales”), the principal sheets of water in the valleys +of the Dal rivers, are consequently classic ground. By the banks +of Lake Runn, for example, is seen the barn in which Vasa +threshed corn in disguise, when still a fugitive from the Danes. +The people are for the most part small peasant proprietors. +They eke out their scanty returns from tilling the soil by a +variety of home industries, such as making scythes, saws, bells, +wooden wares, hair goods, and so forth. About three quarters +of the whole district is covered with forest. Besides the wealth +of the forests, the Dales contain some of the largest and most +prolific iron mines in Sweden, notably those of Grängesberg. +Copper is mined at Falun (q.v.), the chief town of Kopparberg, +and some silver and lead, zinc and sulphur is found. In consequence +of this the district has numerous smelting furnaces, +blasting and rolling mills, iron and metallurgical works, as well +as saw-mills, wood-pulp factories, and chemical works.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. H. Mellin, <i>Skildringar af den Skandinaviska Nordens +Folklif og Natur</i>, vol. iii. (1865); and Frederika Bremer, <i>I Dalarne</i> +(1845), of which there is an English translation by William and Mary +Howitt (1852). For the dialect, see a paper by A. Noreen, in <i>De +Svenska Landsmålen</i>, vol. iv. (1881).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALGAIRNS, JOHN DOBREE<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1818-1876), English Roman +Catholic priest, was born in Guernsey on the 21st of October +1818. About the age of seventeen he entered Exeter College, +Oxford, and soon after taking his degree he contributed a letter +to Louis Veuillot’s ultramontane organ <i>L’Univers</i>, on “Anglican +Church Parties,” which gave him considerable repute. Together +with Mark Pattison and others, he translated the <i>Catena aurea</i> +of St Thomas Aquinas, a commentary on the Gospels, taken +from the works of the Fathers. He was a contributor to Newman’s +<i>Lives of the English Saints</i>, for which he wrote the beautiful +studies on the Cistercian Saints. <i>The Life of St Stephen Harding</i> +has been translated into several languages. Dalgairns became a +Roman Catholic in 1845, and was ordained priest in the following +year. He joined his friend John Henry Newman in Rome, and, +together with him, entered the Congregation of the Oratory. +On his return to England in 1848, he was attached to the London +Oratory, where he laboured successfully as a priest, with the +exception of three years spent in Birmingham. Dalgairns was a +prominent member of the well-known “Metaphysical Society.” +He died at Burgess Hill, near Brighton, on the 6th of April 1876. +During the Catholic period of his life, Dalgairns wrote <i>The +Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, with an Introduction on the +History of Jansenism</i> (London 1853); <i>The German Mystics of +the Fourteenth Century</i> (London, 1858); <i>The Holy Communion, +its Philosophy, Theology and Practice</i> (Dublin, 1861).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A list of his contributions on religious and philosophical subjects, +to the reviews and periodicals, is given in J. Gillow’s <i>Bibliographical +Dictionary of English Catholics</i>, vol. ii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALGARNO, GEORGE<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1626-1687), English writer, was +born at Old Aberdeen about 1626. He appears to have studied +at Marischal College; but he finally settled in Oxford, where, +according to Wood, “he taught a private grammar-school with +good success for about thirty years,” and where he died on the +28th of August 1687. He was master of Elizabeth school, +Guernsey, for some ten years, but resigned in 1672. In his work +entitled <i>Didascalocophus, or the Deaf and Dumb Man’s Tutor</i> +(Oxford, 1680), he explained, for the first time, the hand alphabet +for the deaf and dumb, though he does not claim to have invented +this method of communication. Twenty years before the publication +of his <i>Didascalocophus</i>, Dalgarno had given to the world +a very ingenious piece entitled <i>Ars Signorum</i> (1661), dividing +ideas into seventeen classes, to be represented by the letters +of the Latin alphabet with the addition of two Greek characters. +Among the Sloane manuscripts are several tracts by Dalgarno, +further elucidating his system of universal shorthand. Leibnitz +on various occasions alluded to the <i>Ars signorum</i> in commendatory +terms.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief works of Dalgarno were reprinted (1834) for the Maitland +Club.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALHOUSIE, JAMES ANDREW BROUN RAMSAY,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st +Marquess</span> and <span class="sc">10th Earl of</span> (1812-1860), British statesman and +Indian administrator, was born at Dalhousie Castle, Scotland, on +the 22nd of April 1812. He crowded into his short life conspicuous +public services in England, and established an unrivalled position +among the master-builders of the Indian empire. Denounced +on the eve of his death as the chief offender who failed to notice +the signs of the mutiny of 1857, and even aggravated the crisis +by his overbearing self-consciousness, centralizing activity and +reckless annexations, he stands out in the clear light of history +as the far-sighted governor-general who consolidated British +rule in India, laid truly the foundations of its later administration, +and by his sound policy enabled his successors to stem +the tide of rebellion.</p> + +<p>He was the third son of George Ramsay, 9th earl of Dalhousie +(1770-1838), one of Wellington’s generals, who, after holding +the highest offices in Canada, became commander-in-chief in +India, and of his wife Christina Broun of Coalstoun, a lady of +noble lineage and distinguished gifts. From his father he inherited +a vigorous self-reliance and a family pride which urged +him to prove worthy of the Ramsays who had “not crawled +through seven centuries of their country’s history,” while to his +mother he owed his high-bred courtesy and his deeply seated +reverence for religion. The Ramsays of Dalhousie (or Dalwolsie) +in Midlothian were a branch of the main line of Scottish Ramsays, +of whom the earliest known is Simon de Ramsay, of Huntingdon, +England, mentioned in 1140 as the grantee of lands in West +Lothian at the hands of David I. A Sir William de Ramsay +of Dalhousie swore fealty to Edward I. in 1296, but is famous for +having in 1320 signed the letter to the pope asserting the independence +of Scotland; and his supposed son, Sir Alexander +Ramsay (d. 1342), was the Scottish patriot and capturer of +Roxburgh Castle (1342), who, having been made warder of the +castle and sheriff of Teviotdale by David II., was soon afterwards +carried off and starved to death by his predecessor, the Douglas, +in revenge. Sir John Ramsay of Dalhousie (1580-1626), +James VI.’s favourite, is famous for rescuing the king in the +Gowrie conspiracy, and was created (1606) Viscount Haddington +and Lord Ramsay of Barns (subsequently baron of Kingston +and earl of Holderness in England). The barony of Ramsay of +Melrose was granted in 1618 to his brother George Ramsay of +Dalhousie (d. 1629), whose son William Ramsay (d. 1674) was +made 1st earl of Dalhousie in 1633.</p> + +<p>The 9th earl was in 1815 created Baron Dalhousie in the +peerage of the United Kingdom, and had three sons, the two +elder of whom died early. His youngest son, the subject of this +article, was small in stature, but his firm chiselled mouth, high +forehead and masterful manner intimated a dignity that none +could overlook. Yet his early life gave little promise of the +dominating force of his character or of his ability to rise to the +full height of his splendid opportunities. Nor did those brought +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page765" id="page765"></a>765</span> +into closest intimacy with him, whether at school or at Oxford, +suspect the higher qualities of statesmanship which afterwards +established his fame on so firm a foundation.</p> + +<p>Several years of his early boyhood were spent with his father +and mother in Canada, reminiscences of which were still vivid +with him when governor-general of India. Returning to Scotland +he was prepared for Harrow, where he entered in 1825. Two +years later he was removed from school, his entire education +being entrusted to the Rev. Mr Temple, incumbent of a quiet +parish in Staffordshire. To this gentleman he referred in later +days as having taught him all he knew, and to his training he +must have owed those habits of regularity and that indomitable +industry which marked his adult life. In October 1829 he passed +on to Christ Church, Oxford, where he worked fairly hard, won +some distinction, and made many lifelong friends. His studies, +however, were so greatly interrupted by the protracted illness +and death in 1832 of his only surviving brother, that Lord +Ramsay, as he then became, had to content himself with entering +for a “pass” degree, though the examiners marked their +appreciation of his work by placing him in the fourth class of +honours for Michaelmas 1833. He then travelled in Italy and +Switzerland, enriching with copious entries the diary which +he religiously kept up through life, and storing his mind with +valuable observations.</p> + +<p>An unsuccessful but courageous contest at the general election +in 1835 for one of the seats in parliament for Edinburgh, +fought against such veterans as the future speaker, James +Abercrombie, afterwards Lord Dunfermline, and John Campbell, +future lord chancellor, was followed in 1837 by Ramsay’s +return to the House of Commons as member for East Lothian. +In the previous year he had married Lady Susan Hay, daughter +of the marquess of Tweeddale, whose companionship was his +chief support in India, and whose death in 1853 left him a +heartbroken man. In 1838 his father had died after a long +illness, while less than a year later he lost his mother.</p> + +<p>Succeeding to the peerage, the new earl soon made his mark +in a speech delivered on the 16th of June 1840 in support of Lord +Aberdeen’s Church of Scotland Benefices Bill, a controversy +arising out of the Auchterarder case, in which he had already +taken part in the “general assembly” in opposition to Dr +Chalmers. In May 1843 he became vice-president of the board +of trade, Gladstone being president, and was sworn in as a +member of the privy council. Succeeding Gladstone as president +in 1845, he threw himself into the work during the crisis of the +railway mania with such energy that his health partially broke +down under the strain. In the struggle over the corn laws +he ranged himself on the side of Sir Robert Peel, and after the +failure of Lord John Russell to form a ministry he resumed +his post at the board of trade, entering the cabinet on the retirement +of Lord Stanley. When Peel resigned office in June 1846, +Lord John offered Dalhousie a seat in the cabinet, an offer +which he declined from a fear that acceptance might “involve +the loss of public character.” Another attempt to secure his +services in the appointment of president of the railway board +was equally unsuccessful; but in 1847 he accepted the post of +governor-general of India in succession to Lord Hardinge, on +the understanding that he was to be left in “entire and unquestioned +possession” of his own “personal independence +with reference to party politics.”</p> + +<p>Dalhousie assumed charge of his dual duties as governor-general +of India and governor of Bengal on the 12th of January +1848, and shortly afterwards he was honoured with the green +ribbon of the Order of the Thistle. In writing to the president +of the board of control, Sir John Hobhouse, he was able to assure +him that everything was quiet. This statement, however, was +to be falsified by events almost before it could reach England. +For on the 19th of April Vans Agnew of the civil service and +Lieutenant Anderson of the Bombay European regiment, having +been sent to take charge of Multan from Diwan Mulraj, were +murdered there, and within a short time the Sikh troops and +sardars joined in open rebellion. Dalhousie agreed with Sir +Hugh Gough, the commander-in-chief, that the Company’s +military forces were neither adequately equipped with transport +and supplies, nor otherwise prepared to take the field immediately. +He also foresaw the spread of the rebellion, and the +necessity that must arise, not merely for the capture of Multan, +but also for the entire subjugation of the Punjab. He therefore +resolutely delayed to strike, organized a strong army for operations +in November, and himself proceeded to the Punjab. Despite +the brilliant successes gained by Herbert Edwardes in conflict +with Mulraj, and Goagh’s indecisive victories at Ramnagar +in November, at Sadulapur in December, and at Chillianwalla +in the following month, the stubborn resistance at Multan +showed that the task required the utmost resources of the +government. At length, on the 22nd of January 1849, the +Multan fortress was taken by General Whish, who was thus set +at liberty to join Gough at Gujrat. Here a complete victory +was won on the 21st of February, the Sikh army surrendered +at Rawal Pindi, and their Afghan allies were chased out of India. +For his services the earl of Dalhousie received the thanks of +parliament and a step in the peerage, as marquess.</p> + +<p>The war being now over, Dalhousie, without waiting for +instructions from home, annexed the Punjab, and made provision +for the custody and education of the infant maharaja. For the +present the province was administered by a triumvirate under +the personal supervision of the governor-general, and later, a +place having been found for Henry Lawrence in Rajputana, by +John Lawrence as sole commissioner. Twice did Dalhousie tour +through its length and breadth, settling on the spot all matters +of importance, and when he left India no province could show a +better record of progress.</p> + +<p>One further addition to the empire was made by conquest. +The arrogant Burmese court at Ava was bound by the treaty of +Yandabo, 1826, to protect British ships in Burmese waters, but +the outrageous conduct of the governor of Rangoon towards the +masters of the “Monarch” and “Champion” met with no +redress from the king. Dalhousie adopted the maxim of Lord +Wellesley “that an insult offered to the British flag at the +mouth of the Ganges should be resented as promptly and fully +as an insult offered at the mouth of the Thames”; but, anxious +to save the cost of war, he tried to settle the dispute by diplomacy. +When that failed he made vigorous preparation for the campaign +to be undertaken in the autumn, giving his attention to the +adequate provision of rations, boat transport, and medical +supplies, composing differences between the military contingents +from Bengal and Madras, and between the military and naval +forces employed, and conferring with General Godwin whom he +had chosen to command the expedition. Martaban was taken on +the 5th of April 1852, and Rangoon and Bassein shortly afterwards. +Since, however, the court of Ava showed no sign of +submission, the second campaign opened in October, and after +the capture of Prome and Pegu the annexation of the province +of Pegu was declared by a proclamation dated the 20th of +December 1853. To any further invasion of the Burmese empire +Dalhousie was firmly opposed, being content to “consolidate” +the Company’s possessions by uniting Arakan to Tenasserim. +By his wise policy he pacified the new province, placing Colonel +Arthur Phayre in sole charge of it, personally visiting it, and +establishing a complete system of telegraphs and communications.</p> + +<p>These military operations added force to the conviction which +Dalhousie had formed of the need of consolidating the Company’s +ill-knit possessions, and as a step in that direction he decided to +apply the doctrine of “lapse,” and annex any Hindu native +states, created or revived by the grants of the British government, +in which there was a failure of male lineal descendants, reserving +for consideration the policy of permitting adoptions in other +Hindu chiefships tributary and subordinate to the British government +as paramount. Under the first head he recommended the +annexation of Satara in January 1849, of Jaitpur and Sambalpur +in the same year, and of Jhansi and Nagpur in 1853. In these +cases his action was approved by the home authorities, but his +proposal to annex Karauli in 1849 was disallowed, while Baghat +and the petty estate of Udaipur, which he had annexed in 1851 +and 1852 respectively, were afterwards restored to native rule.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page766" id="page766"></a>766</span></p> + +<p>Other measures with the same object were carried out in the +Company’s own territories. Bengal, too long ruled by the +governor-general or his delegate, was placed under a separate +lieutenant-governor in May 1854; a department of public works +was established in each presidency, and engineering colleges +were provided. An imperial system of telegraphs followed; +the first link of railway communication was completed in 1855; +well-considered plans mapped out the course of other lines and +their method of administration; the Ganges canal, which then +exceeded “all the irrigation lines of Lombardy and Egypt +together,” was completed; and despite the cost of wars in the +Punjab and Burma, liberal provision was made for metalled +roads and bridges. The useless military boards were swept +away; selection took the place of seniority in the higher commands; +an army clothing and a stud department were +created, and the medical service underwent complete reorganization.</p> + +<p>“Unity of authority coupled with direct responsibility” was +the keynote of his policy. In nine masterly minutes he suggested +means for strengthening the Company’s European forces, calling +attention to the dangers that threatened the English community, +“a handful of scattered strangers”; but beyond the additional +powers of recruitment which at his entreaty were granted in the +last charter act of 1853, his proposals were shelved by the home +authorities, who scented no danger and wished to avoid expense. +In his administration Dalhousie vigorously asserted the control +of the civil government over military affairs, and when Sir +Charles Napier ordered certain allowances, given as compensation +for the dearness of provisions, to be granted to the sepoys on a +system which had not been sanctioned from headquarters, and +threatened to repeat the offence, the governor-general found it +necessary to administer such a rebuke that the hot-headed soldier +resigned his command.</p> + +<p>Dalhousie’s reforms were not confined to the departments of +public works and military affairs. He created an imperial +system of post-offices, reducing the rates of carrying letters and +introducing postage stamps. To him India owes the first +department of public instruction; it was he who placed the +gaols under proper inspection, abolishing the practice of branding +convicts; put down the crime of <i>meriahs</i> or human sacrifices; +freed converts to other religions from the loss of their civil +rights; inaugurated the system of administrative reports; and +enlarged and dignified the legislative council of India. His wide +interest in everything that concerned the welfare of the country +was shown in the encouragement he gave to the culture of tea, +in his protection of forests, in the preservation of ancient and +historic monuments. With the object of improving civil administration, +he closed the useless college in Calcutta for the +education of young civilians, establishing in its place a proper +system of training them in <i>mufasal</i> stations, and subjecting +them to departmental examinations. He was equally careful of +the well-being of the European soldier, providing him with +healthy recreations and public gardens. To the civil service he +gave improved leave and pension rules, while he purified its <i>moral</i> +by forbidding all share in trading concerns, by vigorously +punishing insolvents, and by his personal example of careful +selection in the matter of patronage. As a comprehensive view +of the constitution of the Indian government, dealing with the +functions of its various members and the different parts of the +official machinery, nothing could be more masterly than his +minute of the 13th of October 1852. Indeed no governor-general +ever penned a larger number of weighty papers dealing with +public affairs in India. Even after laying down office and while +on his way home, he forced himself, ill as he was, to review his +own administration in a document of such importance that the +House of Commons gave orders for its being printed (Blue Book +245 of 1856).</p> + +<p>His foreign policy was guided by a desire to recognize the +“independence” of the larger native states, and to avoid +extending the political relations of his government with foreign +powers outside India. Pressed to intervene in Hyderabad, he +refused to do so, laying down the doctrine that interference was +only justified “if the administration of native princes tends +unquestionably to the injury of the subjects or of the allies of +the British government.” Protection in his view carried no +right of interference in the affairs of what he called “independent” +states. In this spirit he negotiated in 1853 a treaty with +the nizam, which provided funds for the maintenance of the +contingent kept up by the British in support of that prince’s +authority, by the assignment of the Berars in lieu of annual +payments of the cost and large outstanding arrears. “The +Berar treaty,” he told Sir Charles Wood, “is more likely to keep +the nizam on his throne than anything that has happened for +fifty years to him,” while at the same time the control thus +acquired over a strip of territory intervening between Bombay +and Nagpur promoted his policy of consolidation and his schemes +of railway extension. The same spirit induced him to tolerate a +war of succession in Bahawalpur, so long as the contending +candidates did not violate British territory. This reluctance to +increase his responsibilities further caused him to refrain from +punishing Dost Mahommed for the part he had taken in the Sikh +War, and resolutely to refuse to enter upon any negotiations until +the amir himself came forward. Then he steered a middle course +between the proposals of his own agent, Herbert Edwardes, +who advocated an offensive alliance, and those of John Lawrence, +who would have avoided any sort of engagement. He himself +drafted the short treaty of peace and friendship which Lawrence +signed in 1855, that officer receiving in 1856 the order of K.C.B, +in acknowledgment of his services in the matter. While, however, +Dalhousie was content with a mutual engagement with the +Afghan chief, binding each party to respect the territories of the +other, he saw that a larger measure of interference was needed +in Baluchistan, and with the khan of Kalat he authorized Major +Jacob to negotiate a treaty of subordinate co-operation on the +14th of May 1854. The khan was guaranteed an annual subsidy +of Rs. 50,000, in return for the treaty which “bound him to us +wholly and exclusively.” To this the home authorities demurred, +but the engagement was duly ratified, and the subsidy was +largely increased by Dalhousie’s successors. On the other hand, +he insisted on leaving all matters concerning Persia and Central +Asia to the decision of the queen’s advisers. The frontier tribesmen +it was obviously necessary to coerce into good behaviour +after the annexation of the Punjab. “The hillmen,” he wrote, +“regard the plains as their food and prey,” and the Afridis, +Mohmands, Black Mountain tribes, Waziris and others had to +be taught that their new neighbours would not tolerate outrages. +But he proclaimed to one and all his desire for peace, and urged +upon them the duty of tribal responsibility.</p> + +<p>The settlement of the Oudh question was reserved to the last. +The home authorities had begged Dalhousie to prolong his tenure +of office during the Crimean War, but the difficulties of the +problem no less than complications elsewhere had induced him +to delay operations. In 1854 he appointed Outram as resident +at the court of Lucknow, directing him to submit a report on +the condition of the province. This was furnished in March +1855. But though the state of disorder and misrule revealed +by it called for prompt remedy, Dalhousie, looking at the treaty +of 1801, considered that he was bound to proceed in the matter +of reform with the king’s consent. He proposed, therefore, to +demand a transfer to the Company of the entire administration, +the king merely retaining his royal rank, certain privileges in +the courts, and a liberal allowance. If he should refuse this +arrangement, a general rising was almost certain to follow, and +then the British government would of necessity intervene on its +own terms. On the 21st of November 1855 the court of directors +instructed Dalhousie to assume the powers essential to the +permanence of good government in Oudh, and to give the king +no option unless he was sure that his majesty would surrender +the administration rather than risk a revolution. Dalhousie +was in wretched health and on the eve of retirement when the +belated orders reached him; but he at once laid down instructions +for Outram in every detail, moved up troops, and elaborated +a scheme of government with particular orders as to conciliating +local opinion. The king refused to sign the treaty put before +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page767" id="page767"></a>767</span> +him, and a proclamation annexing the province was therefore +issued on the 13th of February 1856.</p> + +<p>Only one important matter now remained to him before +quitting office. The insurrection of the half-civilized Kolarian +Santals of Bengal against the extortions of landlords and money-lenders +had been severely repressed, but the causes of the insurrection +had still to be reviewed and a remedy provided. By +removing the tract of country from the ordinary regulations, +enforcing the residence of British officers there, and employing +the Santal headmen in a local police, he ensured a system of +administration which afterwards proved eminently successful.</p> + +<p>At length, after seven years of strenuous labour, Dalhousie, +on the 6th of March 1856, set sail for England on board the +Company’s “Firoze,” an object of general sympathy and not +less general respect. At Alexandria he was carried by H.M.S. +“Caradoc” to Malta, and thence by the “Tribune” to Spithead, +which he reached on the 13th of May. His return had been +eagerly looked for by statesmen who hoped that he would +resume his public career, by the Company which voted him an +annual pension of £5000, by public bodies which showered upon +him every mark of respect, and by the queen who earnestly +prayed for the “blessing of restored health and strength.” +That blessing was not to be his. He lingered on, seeking sunshine +in Malta and medical treatment at Malvern, Edinburgh and other +places in vain obedience to his doctors. The outbreak of the +mutiny led to bitter attacks at home upon his policy, and to +strange misrepresentation of his public acts, while on the other +hand John Lawrence invoked his counsel and influence, and +those who really knew his work in India cried out, “Oh, for a +dictator,” and his return “for one hour!” To all these cries +he turned a deaf ear, refusing to embarrass those who were +responsible by any expressions of opinion, declining to undertake +his own defence or to assist in his vindication through the public +press, and by his last directions sealing up his private journal +and papers of personal interest against publication until fifty +years after his death. On the 9th of August 1859 his youngest +daughter, Edith, was married at Dalhousie Castle to Sir James +Fergusson, Bart. In the same castle Dalhousie died on the 19th +of December 1860; he was buried in the old churchyard of +Cockpen.</p> + +<p>Dalhousie’s family consisted of two daughters, and the +marquessate became extinct at his death.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The detailed events of the period will be found in Sir William +Lee-Warner’s <i>Life of the Marquis of Dalhousie, K.T.</i>; Sir E. Arnold’s +<i>Dalhousie’s Administration of British India</i>; Sir C. Jackson’s <i>Vindication +of Dalhousie’s Indian Administration</i>; Sir W. W. Hunter’s +<i>Dalhousie</i>; Capt. L. J. Trotter’s <i>Life of the Marquis of Dalhousie</i>; +the duke of Argyll’s <i>India under Dalhousie and Canning</i>; Broughton +MSS. (British Museum); and parliamentary papers.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. L.-W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALHOUSIE, FOX MAULE RAMSAY,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> 11th <span class="sc">Earl ot</span> (1801-1874), +was the eldest son of William Ramsay Maule, 1st Baron +Panmure (1771-1852), and a grandson of George, 8th earl of +Dalhousie. Born on the 22nd of April 1801 and christened Fox +as a compliment to the great Whig, he served for a term in the +army, and then in 1835 entered the House of Commons as member +for Perthshire. In Lord Melbourne’s ministry (1835-1841) +Maule was under-secretary for home affairs, and under Lord +John Russell he was secretary-at-war from July 1846 to January +1852, when for two or three weeks he was president of the board +of control. In April 1852 he became the 2nd Baron Panmure, +and early in 1855 he joined Lord Palmerston’s cabinet, filling +the new office of secretary of state for war. Panmure held this +office until February 1858, being at the war office during the +concluding period of the Crimean War and having to meet a +good deal of criticism, some of which was justified and some of +which was not. In December 1860 he succeeded his kinsman, +the marquess of Dalhousie, as 11th earl of Dalhousie, and he died +childless on the 6th of July 1874. Always interested in church +matters, Dalhousie was a prominent supporter of the Free Church +of Scotland after the disruption of 1843. On his death the barony +became extinct, but his earldom passed to his cousin, George +Ramsay (1806-1880), an admiral who, in 1875, was created a +peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Ramsay. George’s +grandson, Arthur George Maule Ramsay (b. 1878), became the +14th earl in 1887.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Panmure Papers</i>, a selection from Panmure’s correspondence, +edited in two volumes (1908), by Sir G. Douglas, Bart., and +Sir G. D. Ramsay. These numerous letters throw much light on +the concluding stage of the Crimean War.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALIN, OLOF VON<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1708-1763), Swedish poet, was born on +the 29th of August 1708 in the parish of Vinberg in Halland, +where his father was the minister. He was nearly related to +Rydelius, the philosophical bishop of Lund, and he was sent at +a very early age to be instructed by him, Linnaeus being one of +his fellow-pupils. While studying at Lund, Dalin had visited +Stockholm in the year 1723, and in 1726 entered one of the public +offices there. Under the patronage of Baron Rålamb he rapidly +rose to preferment, and his skill and intelligence won him golden +opinions. In 1733 he started the weekly <i>Svenska Argus</i>, on the +model of Addison’s <i>Spectator</i>, writing anonymously till 1736. +His next work was <i>Tankar öfver Critiquer</i> (Thoughts about +Critics, 1736). With the avowed purpose of enlarging the horizon +of his cultivation and tastes, Dalin set off, in company with his +pupil, Baron Rålamb’s son, on a tour through Germany and +France, in 1739-1740. On his return the shifting of political +life at home caused him to write his famous satiric allegories of +<i>The Story of the Horse</i> and <i>Aprilverk</i> (1738), which were very +popular and provoked countless imitations. His didactic epos +of <i>Svenska Friheten</i> (Swedish Liberty) appeared in 1742. +Hitherto Addison and Pope had been his models; in this work +he draws his inspiration from Thomson, whose poem of <i>Liberty</i> +it emulated. On the accession of Adolphus Freduck in 1751 +Dalin received the post of tutor to the crown prince, afterwards +Gustavus III. He had enjoyed the confidence of Queen Louisa +Ulrika, sister of Frederick the Great of Germany, while she was +crown princess, and she now made him secretary of the Swedish +academy of literature, founded by her in 1753. His position +at court involved him in the queen’s political intrigues, and +separated him to a vexatious degree from the studies in which +he had hitherto been absorbed. He held the post of tutor to +the crown prince until 1756, when he was arrested on suspicion +of having taken part in the attempted <i>coup d’état</i> of that year, +and was tried for his life before the diet. He was acquitted, but +was forbidden on any pretence to show himself at court. This +period of exile, which lasted until 1761, Dalin spent in the +preparation of the third volume of his great historical work, the +<i>Svea Rikes historia</i> (History of the Swedish Kingdom), which +came down to the death of Charles IX. in 1611. The first two +volumes appeared in 1746-1750; the third, in two parts, in +1760-1762. Dalin had been ennobled in 1751, and made privy +councillor in 1753; and now, in 1761, he once more took his +place at court. During his exile, however, his spirit and his +health had been broken; in a fit of panic he had destroyed some +packets of his best unpublished works and this he constantly +brooded over. On the 12th of August 1763 he died at his house +in Drottningholm. In the year 1767 his writings in <i>belles lettres</i> +were issued in six volumes, edited by J. C. Bökman, his half-brother. +Amid an enormous mass of occasional verses, anagrams, +epigrams, impromptus and the like, his satires and +serious poems were almost buried. But some of these former, +even, are found to be songs of remarkable grace and delicacy, +and many display a love of natural scenery and a knowledge of +its forms truly remarkable in that artificial age. His dramas +also are of interest, particularly his admirable comedy of <i>Den +afvundsjuke</i> (The Envious Man, 1738); he also wrote a tragedy, +<i>Brynilda</i> (1739), and a pastoral in three scenes on King Adolphus +Frederick’s return from Finland. During the early part of his +life he was universally admitted to be <i>facile princeps</i> among the +Swedish poets of his time.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also K. Warburg, “Olof von Dalin,” in the <i>Handlingar</i> (vol. +lix., 1884) of the Swedish Academy. A selection of his works was +edited by E. V. Lindblad (Örebro, 1872).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALKEITH,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> a municipal and police burgh of Edinburghshire, +Scotland, lying between the North and South Esk, 7½ m. S.E. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page768" id="page768"></a>768</span> +of Edinburgh, by the North British railway. Pop. (1891) 7035; +(1901) 6812. It is an important agricultural centre, and has +every week one of the largest grain-markets in Scotland. Besides +milling, brewing and tanning, the chief industries are the making +of carpets, brushes and bricks, and iron and brass founding. +Near Eskbank, a handsome residential quarter with a railway +station, coal-mining is carried on. Market-gardening, owing to +the proximity of the capital, flourishes. The parish church—an +old Gothic edifice, which was originally the Castle chapel, and +was restored in 1852—the municipal buildings, corn exchange, +Foresters’ hall and Newmills hospital are among the principal +public buildings. Dalkeith was the birthplace of Professor +Peter Guthrie Tait, the mathematician (1831-1901). Dalkeith +Palace, a seat of the duke of Buccleuch, was designed by Sir +John Vanbrugh in 1700 for the widow of the duke of Monmouth, +countess of Buccleuch in her own right. It occupies the site of +a castle which belonged first to the Grahams and afterwards to +the Douglases, and was sold in 1642 by William, seventh or +eighth earl of Morton, to Francis, second earl of Buccleuch, +for the purpose of raising money to assist Charles I. in the Civil +War. The palace has been the residence of several sovereigns +during their visits to Edinburgh, among them George IV. +in 1822, Queen Victoria in 1842, and Edward VII. in 1903. +The picture gallery possesses important examples of the Old +Masters; the gardens are renowned for their fruit and flowers; +and the beautiful park of over 1000 acres—containing a remnant +of the Caledonian Forest, with oaks, beeches and ashes of great +girth and height—is watered by the North and South Esk, +which unite before they leave the policy. About 1 m. south is +Newbattle Abbey, the seat of the marquess of Lothian, delightfully +situated on the South Esk. It is built on the site of an +abbey founded by David I., the ancient crypt being incorporated +in the mansion. The library contains many valuable books and +illuminated MSS., and excellent pictures and carvings. In the +park are several remarkable trees, among them one of the +largest beeches in the United Kingdom. Two miles still farther +south lies Cockpen, immortalized by the Baroness Nairne’s +humorous song “The Laird of Cockpen,” and Dalhousie Castle, +partly ancient and partly modern, which gives a title to the +earls of Dalhousie. About 6 m. south-east of Dalkeith are +Borthwick and Crichton castles, 1 m. apart, both now in ruins. +Queen Mary spent three weeks in Borthwick Castle, as in durance +vile, after her marriage with Bothwell, and fled from it to Dunbar +in the guise of a page. The castle, which is a double tower, +was besieged by Cromwell, and the marks of his cannon-balls +are still visible. In the manse of the parish of Borthwick, William +Robertson, the historian, was born in 1721. About 4 m. west of +Dalkeith is the village of Burdiehouse, the limestone quarries +of which are famous for fossils. The name is said to be a corruption +of Bordeaux House, which was bestowed on it by Queen +Mary’s French servants, who lived here when their mistress +resided at Craigmillar.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALKEY,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> a small port and watering-place of Co. Dublin, +Ireland, in the south parliamentary division; 9 m. S.E. of +Dublin by the Dublin & South-Eastern railway. Pop. of urban +district (1901), 3398. It is pleasantly situated on and about +Sorrento Point, the southern horn of Dublin Bay. Dalkey +Island, lying off the town, has an ancient ruined chapel, of the +history of which nothing is certainly known, and a disused +battery, which protected the harbour, a landing-place of some +former importance. A castle in the town, of the 15th century, +is restored to use as offices for the urban district council. There +are also ruins of an old church, the dedication of which, like +the island chapel, is ascribed to one St Begnet, perhaps a diminutive +form of Bega, but the identity is not clear. Until the close +of the 18th century Dalkey was notorious for the burlesque +election of a “king,” a mock ceremony which became invested +with a certain political importance.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALLAS, ALEXANDER JAMES<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1759-1817), American +statesman and financier, was born on the island of Jamaica, +West Indies, on the 21st of June 1759, the son of Dr Robert C. +Dallas (d. 1774), a Scottish physician then practising there. +Dr Dallas soon returned to England with his family, and +Alexander was educated at Edinburgh and Westminster. He +studied law for a time in the Inner Temple, and in 1780 returned +to Jamaica. There he met the younger Lewis Hallam (1738-1808), +a pioneer American theatrical manager and actor, who +induced him to remove to the United States, and in 1783 he +settled in Philadelphia, where he at once took the oath of +allegiance to the United States, was admitted to practise law +in 1785, and rapidly attained a prominent position at the bar. +He was interested in the theatrical projects of Hallam, for whom +he wrote several dramatic compositions, and from 1787 to 1789 +he edited <i>The Columbian Magazine</i>. From 1791 to 1801 he +was secretary of the commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Partly +owing to his publication of an able pamphlet against the Jay +treaty in 1795, he soon acquired a position of much influence +in the Democratic-Republican party in the state. During the +Whisky Insurrection he was paymaster-general of the state +militia. His official position as secretary did not entirely +prevent him from continuing his private law practice, and, with +Jared Ingersoll, he was the counsel of Senator William Blount +in his impeachment trial. Dallas was United States attorney +for the eastern district of Pennsylvania from 1801 until 1814, +a period marked by bitter struggles between the Democratic-Republican +factions in the state, in which he took a leading +part in alliance with Governor Thomas M’Kean and Albert +Gallatin, and in opposition to the radical factions led by Michael +Leib (1759-1822) and William Duane (1760-1835), of the <i>Aurora</i>. +The quarrel led in 1805 to the M’Kean party seeking Federalist +support. By such an alliance, largely due to the political +ingenuity of Dallas, M’Kean was re-elected. In October 1814 +President Madison appointed Dallas secretary of the treasury, +to succeed George W. Campbell (1768-1848), whose brief and +disastrous term had been marked by wholesale bank suspensions, +and an enormous depreciation of state and national bank notes. +The appointment itself inspired confidence, and Dallas’s prompt +measures still further relieved the situation. He first issued +new interest-bearing treasury notes of small denominations, +and in addition proposed the re-establishment of a national +bank, by which means he expected to increase the stability +and uniformity of the circulating medium, and furnish the government +with a powerful engine in the upholding of its credit. +In spite of his already onerous duties, Dallas, with characteristic +energy, served also as secretary of war <i>ad interim</i> from March +to August 1815, and in this capacity successfully reorganized +the army on a peace footing. Although peace brought a more +favourable condition of the money market, Dallas’s attempt to +fund the treasury notes on a satisfactory basis was unsuccessful, +but a bill, reported by Calhoun, as chairman of the committee +on national currency, for the establishment of a national bank, +became law on the 10th of April 1816. Meanwhile (12th of +February 1816) Dallas, in a notable report, recommended a +protective tariff, which was enacted late in April, largely in +accordance with his recommendation. Although Dallas left +the cabinet in October 1816, it was through his efforts that the +new bank began its operations in the following January, and +specie payments were resumed in February. Dallas, who +belonged to the financial school of Albert Gallatin, deserves +to rank among America’s greatest financiers. He found the +government bankrupt, and after two years at the head of the +treasury he left it with a surplus of $20,000,000; moreover, as +Henry Adams points out, his measures had “fixed the financial +system in a firm groove for twenty years.” He retired from +office to resume his practice of the law, but the burden of his +official duties had undermined his health, and he died suddenly +at Philadelphia on the 16th of June 1817. He was the author +of several notable political pamphlets and state papers, and in +addition edited <i>The Laws of Pennsylvania, 1700-1801</i> (1801), +and <i>Reports of Cases ruled and adjudged by the Courts of the +United States and of Pennsylvania before and since the Revolution</i> +(4 vols., 1790-1807; new edition with notes by Thomas J. +Wharton, 1830). He wrote <i>An Exposition of the Causes and +Character of the War of 1812-15</i> (1815), which was republished +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page769" id="page769"></a>769</span> +by government authority in New York and London and widely +circulated. He left in MS. an unfinished <i>History of Pennsylvania</i>.</p> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Robert Charles Dallas</span> (1754-1824), was born +in Jamaica, and lived at various times in the West Indies, the +United States, England and France. He was an intimate +friend of Lord Byron. He wrote <i>Recollections of Lord Byron</i> +(1824), and several novels, plays and miscellaneous works.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. M. Dallas, <i>Life and Writings of Alexander James Dallas</i> +(Philadelphia, 1871).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALLAS, GEORGE MIFFLIN<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (1792-1864), American statesman +and diplomat, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on +the 10th of July 1792. He graduated at Princeton in 1810 at +the head of his class; then studied law in the office of his father, +Alexander J. Dallas, the financier, and was admitted to the bar +in 1813. In the same year he accompanied Albert Gallatin, as +his secretary, to Russia, and in 1814 returned to the United +States as the bearer of important dispatches from the American +peace commissioners at Ghent. He practised law in New York +and Philadelphia, was chosen mayor of Philadelphia in 1828, +and in 1829 was appointed by President Jackson, whom he had +twice warmly supported for the presidency, United States +attorney for the eastern district of Pennsylvania, a position long +held by his father. From 1831 to 1833 he was a Democratic +member of the United States Senate, in which he advocated a +compromise tariff and strongly supported Jackson’s position in +regard to nullification. On the bank question he was at first at +variance with the president; in January 1832 he presented in +the Senate a memorial from the bank’s president, Nicholas +Biddle, and its managers, praying for a recharter, and subsequently +he was chairman of a committee which reported a bill +re-chartering the institution for a fifteen-year period. Afterwards, +however, his views changed and he opposed the bank. +From 1833 to 1835 Dallas was attorney-general of Pennsylvania, +and from 1835 to 1839 was minister to Russia. During the +following years he was engaged in a long struggle with James +Buchanan for party leadership in Pennsylvania. He was vice-president +of the United States from 1845 to 1849, but the +appointment of Buchanan as secretary of state at once shut him +off from all hope of party patronage or influence in the Polk +administration, and he came to be looked upon as the leader of +that body of conservative Democrats of the North, who, while +they themselves chafed at the domination of Southern leaders, +were disposed to disparage all anti-slavery agitation. By his +casting vote at a critical period during the debate in the Senate +on the tariff bill of 1846, he irretrievably lost his influence with +the protectionist element of his native state, to whom he had +given assurances of his support of the Tyler tariff of 1842. For +several years after his retirement from office, he devoted himself +to his law practice, and in 1856 succeeded James Buchanan as +United States minister to England, where he remained until +relieved by Charles Francis Adams in May 1861. During this +trying period he represented his country with ability and tact, +making every endeavour to strengthen the Union cause in Great +Britain. He died at Philadelphia on the 1st of December 1864. +He wrote a biographical memoir for an edition of his father’s +writings, which was published in 1871.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Diary</i> of his residence in St Petersburg and London was +published in Philadelphia in 1892.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALLAS,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Dallas county, Texas, +U.S.A., about 220 m. N.W. of Houston, on the E. bank of the +Trinity river. Pop. (1880) 10,358; (1890) 38,067; (1900) +42,638, of whom 9035 were negroes and 3381 were foreign-born; +(1910) 92,104. Area, about 15 sq. m. Dallas is served +by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Gulf, Colorado & +Santa Fé, the Houston & Texas Central, the Missouri, Kansas +& Texas, the St Louis South-western, the Texas & New Orleans, +the Trinity & Brazos Valley, and the Texas & Pacific railways, +and by interurban electric railways to Fort Worth and Sherman. +The lower channel of the Trinity river has been greatly improved +by the Federal government; but in 1908 the river was not +navigable as far as Dallas. Among public buildings are +the Carnegie library (1901), Dallas county court house, the +city hall, the U.S. government building, St Matthew’s cathedral +(Prot. Episc.), the cathedral of the Sacred Heart (Rom. Cath.), +the city hospital, St Paul’s sanitarium (Rom. Cath.), and the +Baptist Memorial sanitarium. Educational institutions include +Dallas medical college (1901), the colleges of medicine and pharmacy +of Baylor University, the medical college of South-western +University (at Georgetown, Texas), Oak Cliff female academy, +Patton seminary, St Mary’s female college (Prot. Episc.), and +Holy Trinity college (Rom. Cath.). The city had in 1908 three +parks—Bachman’s Reservoir (500 acres); Fair (525 acres)—the +Texas state fair grounds, in which an annual exhibition is held—and +City park (17 acres). Lake Cliff, Cycle and Oak Lawn parks +are amusement grounds. A Confederate soldiers’ monument, +a granite shaft 50 ft. high, was erected in 1897, with statues of +R. E. Lee, Jefferson Davis, “Stonewall” Jackson and A. S. +Johnston. Dallas was in 1900 the third city in population and +the most important railway centre in Texas. It is a shipping +centre for a large wheat, fruit and cotton-raising region, and +the principal jobbing market for northern Texas, Oklahoma and +part of Louisiana, and the biggest distributing point for agricultural +machinery in the South-west. It is a livestock market, +and one of the chief centres in the United States for the manufacture +of saddlery and leather goods, and of cotton-gin +machinery. It has flour and grist mills (the products of which +ranked first in value among the city’s manufactures in 1905), +wholesale slaughtering and meat-packing establishments, cooperage +works, railway repair shops, cotton compresses, lumber yards, +salt works, and manufactories of cotton-seed oil and cake, boots +and shoes and cotton and agricultural machinery. In 1900 +and 1905 it was the principal manufacturing centre in the state, +the value of its factory product in 1905 being $15,627,668, an +increase of 64.7% over that in 1900. The water-works are +owned and operated by the city, and the water is taken from +the Elm fork of Trinity river. There are several artesian wells. +Dallas, named in honour of G. M. Dallas, was settled in 1841, and +first chartered as a city in 1856. The city is governed, under a +charter of 1907, by a mayor and four commissioners, who +together pass ordinances, appoint nearly all city officers, and +generally are responsible for administering the government. +In addition a school board is elected by the people. The charter +contains initiative and referendum provisions, provides for the +recall of any elective city official, and prohibits the granting +of any franchise for a longer term than twenty years.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALLE<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (pronounced “dal,” Fr. for a flag-stone or flat tile), +a rapid falling over flat smooth rock surfaces in a river bed, +especially in rivers flowing between basaltic rocks. The name is +common in America, and came into use through the French +employés of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Well-known “dalles” are +on the St Louis, St Croix and Wisconsin rivers. The “dalles” of +the Columbia river are very beautiful, and have given its name to +Dalles (1910 pop. 4880), county-seat of Wasco county, Oregon.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALLIN, CYRUS EDWIN<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1861-  ), American sculptor, +was born at Springville, Utah, on the 22nd of November 1861. +He was a pupil of Truman H. Bartlett in Boston, of the École +des Beaux Arts, the Académie Julien and the sculptors Henri M. +Chapu and Jean Dampt (born 1858), in Paris, and on his return +to America became instructor in modelling in the state normal art +school in Boston. He is best known for his plastic representations +of the North American Indian—especially for “The Signal +of Peace” in Lincoln Park, Chicago, and “The Medicine Man,” +in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia. As a boy he had lived among +the Indians in the Far West, and had learned their language. His +later works include “Pioneer Monument,” Salt Lake City; +“Sir Isaac Newton,” Congressional Library, Washington; and +“Don Quixote.” He won a silver medal at the Paris Exposition, +1900, and a gold medal at the St Louis Exposition, 1904.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALLING AND BULWER, WILLIAM HENRY LYTTON +EARLE BULWER,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1801-1872), better known as Sir +<span class="sc">Henry Bulwer</span>, English diplomatist and author, was born in +London on the 13th of February 1801. His father, General +William Earle Bulwer, when colonel of the 106th regiment, +had married Elizabeth Barbara Lytton, who—as the only child +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page770" id="page770"></a>770</span> +of Richard Warburton Lytton, of Knebworth Park, in Hertfordshire—was +sole heiress of the family of Norreys-Robinson-Lytton +of Monacdhu in the island of Anglesea and of Guersylt +in Denbighshire. Three sons were the fruit of this marriage. +The second, afterwards Lord Dalling, was amply provided for +by his selection as heir to his maternal grandmother; the +paternal estates in Norfolk went to his elder brother William, +and the maternal property in Herts to the youngest, Edward, +known first as Bulwer the novelist and dramatist, and afterwards +as the first Baron Lytton (q.v.) of Knebworth.</p> + +<p>General Bulwer, as brigadier-general of volunteers, was one +of the four commanding officers to whom was entrusted the +defence of England in 1804, when threatened with invasion by +Napoleon. Three years afterwards, on the 7th of July 1807, +he died prematurely at fifty-two at Heyden Hall. His young +widow had then devolved upon her not only the double charge +of caring for the estates in Herts and Norfolk, but the far +weightier responsibility of superintending the education of her +three sons, then in their earliest boyhood. Henry Bulwer was +educated at Harrow, under Dr George Butler, and at Trinity +College and Downing College, Cambridge. In 1822 he published +a small volume of verse, beginning with an ode on the +death of Napoleon. It is chiefly interesting now for its fraternal +dedication to Edward Lytton Bulwer, then a youth of nineteen.</p> + +<p>On leaving Cambridge in the autumn of 1824, Henry Bulwer +went, as emissary of the Greek committee then sitting in London, +to the Morea, carrying with him £80,000 sterling, which he handed +over to Prince Mavrocordato and his colleagues, as the responsible +leaders of the War of Independence. He was accompanied +on this expedition by Hamilton Browne, who, a year before, +had been despatched by Lord Byron to Cephalonia to treat +with the insurgent government. Shortly after his return to +England in 1826, Bulwer published a record of this excursion, +under the title of <i>An Autumn in Greece</i>. Meanwhile, bent for +the moment upon following in his father’s footsteps, he had, on +the 19th of October 1825, been gazetted as a cornet in the +2nd Life Guards. Within less than eight months, however, he +had exchanged from cavalry to infantry, being enrolled on the +2nd of June 1826 as an ensign in the 58th regiment. That +ensigncy he retained for little more than a month, obtaining +another unattached, which he held until the 1st of January 1829, +when he finally abandoned the army. The court, not the camp, +was to be the scene of his successes; and for thirty-eight years +altogether—from August 1827 to August 1865—he contrived, +while maturing from a young attaché to an astute and veteran +ambassador, to hold his own with ease, and in the end was +ranked amongst the subtlest intellects of his time as a master +of diplomacy. His first appointment in his new profession +was as an attaché at Berlin. In April 1830 he obtained his next +step through his nomination as an attaché at Vienna. Thence, +exactly a year afterwards, he was employed nearer home in the +same capacity at the Hague.</p> + +<p>As yet ostensibly no more than a careless lounger in the +<i>salons</i> of the continent, the young ex-cavalry officer veiled the +keenest observation under an air of indifference. His constitutional +energy, which throughout life was exceptionally +intense and tenacious, wore from the first a mask of languor. +When in reality most cautious he was seemingly most negligent. +No matter what he happened at the moment to take in hand, +the art he applied to it was always that highest art of all, the +<i>ars celare artem</i>. His mastery of the lightest but most essential +weapon in the armoury of the diplomatist, tact, came to him +as it seemed intuitively, and from the outset was consummate. +Talleyrand himself would have had no reason, even in Henry +Bulwer’s earliest years as an attaché, to write entreatingly, “<i>pas +de zèle</i>,” to one who concealed so felicitously, even at starting, +a lynx-like vigilance under an aspect the most phlegmatic. +He had hardly reached his new post at the Hague when he found +and seized his opportunity. The revolutionary explosion of +July at Paris had been echoed on the 25th of August 1830 by +an outburst of insurrection at Brussels. During the whole of +September a succession of stormy events swept over Belgium, +until the popular rising reached its climax on the 4th of October in +the declaration of Belgian independence by the provisional +government. At the beginning of the revolution, the young +attaché was despatched by the then foreign secretary at Whitehall, +Lord Aberdeen, to watch events as they arose and report +their character. In the execution of his special mission he +traversed the country in all directions amidst civil war, the issue +of which was to the last degree problematic. Under those +apparently bewildering circumstances, he was enabled by his +sagacity and penetration to win his spurs as a diplomatist. +Writing almost haphazard in the midst of the conflict, he sent +home from day to day a series of despatches which threw a +flood of light upon incidents that would otherwise have appeared +almost inexplicable. Scarcely a week had elapsed, during which +his predictions had been wonderfully verified, when he was +summoned to London to receive the congratulations of the +cabinet. He returned to Brussels no longer in a merely temporary +or informal capacity. As secretary of legation, and afterwards +as chargé d’affaires, he assisted in furthering the negotiations +out of which Belgium rose into a kingdom. Scarcely had this +been accomplished when he wrote what may be called the first +chapter of the history of the newly created Belgian kingdom. +It appeared in 1831 as a brief but luminous paper in the January +number of the <i>Westminster Review</i>. And as the events it recorded +had helped to inaugurate its writer’s career as a diplomatist, so +did his narrative of those occurrences in the pages of the Radical +quarterly signalize in a remarkable way the commencement of +his long and consistent career as a Liberal politician. Shortly +before his appearance as a reviewer, and immediately prior to +the carrying of the first Reform Bill, Bulwer had won a seat in the +House of Commons as member for Wilton, afterwards in 1831 +and 1832 sitting there as M.P. for Coventry. Nearly two years +having elapsed, during which he was absent from parliament, +he was in 1834 returned to Westminster as member for Marylebone. +That position he retained during four sessions, winning +considerable distinction as a debater. Within the very year +in which he was chosen by the Marylebone electors, he brought +out in two volumes, entitled <i>France—Literary, Social and +Political</i>, the first half of a work which was only completed +upon the publication, two years afterwards, of a second series, +also in two volumes, under the title of <i>The Monarchy of the +Middle Classes</i>. Through its pages he made good his claim to be +regarded not merely as a keen-witted observer, but as one of the +most sagacious and genial delineators of the generic Frenchman, +above all of that supreme type of the race, with whom all through +his life he especially delighted to hold familiar intercourse, the +true Parisian. Between the issuing from the press of these two +series, Henry Bulwer had prefixed an intensely sympathetic +<i>Life of Lord Byron</i> to the Paris edition of the poet’s works published +by Galignani,—a memoir republished sixteen years afterwards. +A political argument of a curiously daring and outspoken +character, entitled <i>The Lords, the Government, and the Country</i>, +was given to the public in 1836 by Bulwer, in the form of an +elaborate letter to a constituent. At this point his literary +labours, which throughout life were with him purely labours +by-the-way, ceased for a time, and he disappeared during three +decades from authorship and from the legislature.</p> + +<p>During the period of his holding the position of chargé d’affaires +at Brussels, Bulwer had seized every opportunity of making +lengthened sojourns at Paris, always for him the choicest place of +residence. It was in the midst of one of these <i>dolce far niente</i> +loiterings on the boulevards that, on the 14th of August 1837, he +received his nomination as secretary of embassy at Constantinople. +Recognizing his exceptional ability Lord Ponsonby, the +British ambassador at Constantinople, at once entrusted to him +the difficult task of negotiating a commercial treaty, which had +the double object of removing the intolerable conditions which +hampered British trade with Turkey and of dealing a blow at the +threatening power of Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, by shattering +the system of monopolies on which it was largely based. In this +difficult task Bulwer was helped by the hatred of Sultan Mahmed +II. for Mehemet Ali, but the treaty was none the less a remarkable +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page771" id="page771"></a>771</span> +proof of his diplomatic skill, and the compliment was well +deserved when Palmerston, in writing his congratulations to him +from Windsor Castle, on the 13th of September 1838, pronounced +the treaty a <i>capo d’opera</i>, adding that without reserve it would +be at once ratified. Shortly after this achievement Bulwer was +nominated secretary of embassy at St Petersburg. Illness, +however, compelled him to delay his northern journey—almost +opportunely, as it happened, for in June 1839 he was despatched, +in the same capacity, to the more congenial atmosphere of Paris. +At that juncture the developments of the feud between Mehemet +Ali and the Porte were threatening to bring England and France +into armed collision (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mehemet Ali</a></span>). In 1839 and 1840, +during the temporary absence of his chief, Lord Granville, the +secretary of embassy was gazetted <i>ad interim</i> chargé d’affaires at +the court of France, and thus during this critical time he had +fresh opportunities of winning distinction as a diplomatist.</p> + +<p>On the 14th of November 1843 he was appointed ambassador +at the court of the young Spanish queen Isabella II. Upon his +arrival at Madrid signal evidence was afforded of the estimation +in which he was then held as a diplomatist. He was chosen +arbitrator between Spain and Morocco, then confronting each +other in deadly hostility, and, as the result of his mediation, a +treaty of peace was signed between the two powers in 1844. In +1846 a much more formidable difficulty arose,—one which, after +threatening war between France and England, led at last to a +diplomatic rupture between the British and Spanish governments. +The dynastic intrigues of Louis Philippe were the +immediate cause of this estrangement, and those intrigues found +their climax in what has ever since been known in European +annals as the Spanish Marriages. The storm sown in the Spanish +marriages was reaped in the whirlwind of the February revolution. +And the explosion which took place at Paris was answered +a month afterwards at Madrid by a similar outbreak. Marshal +Narvaez thereupon assumed the dictatorship, and wreaked upon +the insurgents a series of reprisals of the most pitiless character. +These excessive severities of the marshal-dictator the British +ambassador did his utmost to mitigate. When at last, however, +Narvaez carried his rigour to the length of summarily suppressing +the constitutional guarantees, Bulwer sent in a formal protest in +the name of England against an act so entirely ruthless and unjustifiable. +This courageous proceeding at once drew down upon +the British envoy a counter-stroke as ill-judged as it was unprecedented. +Narvaez, with matchless effrontery, denounced the +ambassador from England as an accomplice in the conspiracies +of the Progressistas; and despite his position as an envoy, and in +insolent defiance of the Palmerstonian boast, <i>Civis Britannicus</i>, +Bulwer, on the 12th of June, was summarily required to quit +Madrid within twenty-four hours. Two days afterwards M. +Isturitz, the Spanish ambassador at the court of St James’s, +took his departure from London. Diplomatic relations were not +restored between the two countries until years had elapsed, nor +even then until after a formal apology, dictated by Lord Palmerston, +had been signed by the prime minister of Queen +Isabella. Before his return the ambassador was gazetted a +K.C.B., being promoted to the grand cross some three years +afterwards. In addition to this mark of honour he received the +formal approbation of the ministry, and with it the thanks of +both Houses of Parliament.</p> + +<p>Before the year of his return from the peninsula had run out +Sir Henry Bulwer was married to the Hon. Georgiana Charlotte +Mary Wellesley, youngest daughter of the 1st Baron Cowley, +and niece to the duke of Wellington. Early in the following year, +on the 27th of April 1849, he was nominated ambassador at +Washington. There he acquired immense popularity. His +principal success was the compact known as the Clayton-Bulwer +Treaty (q.v.), ratified in May 1850, pledging the contracting +governments to respect the neutrality of the meditated ship canal +through Central America, bringing the waters of the Atlantic +and Pacific into direct communication. After having been +accredited as ambassador to the United States for three years, +Sir Henry Bulwer, early in 1852, was despatched as minister +plenipotentiary at the court of the grand duke of Tuscany at +Florence. Shortly after his retirement from that post in the +January of 1855, he was entrusted with various diplomatic +missions, in one of which he was empowered as commissioner +under the 23rd article of the treaty of Paris, 1856, to investigate +the state of things in the Danubian principalities, with a view to +their definite reorganization. Finally he was installed, from +May 1858 to August 1865, as the immediate successor, after the +close of the Crimean war, of the “Great Elchi,” Viscount Stratford +de Redcliffe, as ambassador extraordinary to the Ottoman +Porte at Constantinople.</p> + +<p>In the winter of 1865 Bulwer returned home from the Bosporus, +and retired with a pension. He was elected member for Tamworth +on the 17th of November 1868, and retained his seat until +gazetted as a peer of the realm on the 21st of March 1871, under +the title of Baron Dalling and Bulwer of Wood Dalling in the +county of Norfolk. Upon the eve of his return to his old haunts +as a debater and a politician he had asserted his claim to literary +distinction by giving to the world in two volumes his four +masterly sketches of typical men, entitled <i>Historical Characters</i>. +This work, dedicated to his brother Edward, in testimony of +the writer’s fraternal affection and friendship, portrayed in +luminous outline Talleyrand the Politic Man, Cobbett the Contentious +Man, Canning the Brilliant Man, and Mackintosh the +Man of Promise. Two other kindred sketches, those of Sir +Robert Peel and Viscount Melbourne, having been selected from +among their author’s papers, were afterwards published posthumously. +Another work of ampler outline and larger pretension +was begun and partially issued from the press during Lord +Dalling’s lifetime, but not completed. This was the <i>Life of +Viscount Palmerston</i>, the first two volumes of which were published +in 1870. A third volume appeared four years afterwards. +Even then it left the story of the English statesman broken +off so abruptly that the work remained at the last the merest +fragment. It was completed by Evelyn Ashley.</p> + +<p>Lord Dalling died unexpectedly on the 23rd of May 1872 at +Naples. He had no issue, and the title became extinct. In his +public career he enjoyed a three-fold success—as ambassador, as +politician and as man of letters. His popularity in society was +at all times remarkable, mainly no doubt from his mastery of all +the subtler arts of a skilled conversationalist. The apparent +languor with which he related an anecdote, flung off a <i>bon mot</i>, +or indulged in a momentary stroke of irony imparted interest to +the narrative, wings to the wit and point to the sarcasm in a +manner peculiarly his own.</p> +<div class="author">(C. K.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALLMEYER, JOHN HENRY<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1830-1883), Anglo-German +optician, was born on the 6th of September 1830 at Loxten, +Westphalia, the son of a landowner. On leaving school at the +age of sixteen he was apprenticed to an Osnabrück optician, and +in 1851 he came to London, where he obtained work with an +optician, W. Hewitt, who shortly afterwards, with his workmen, +entered the employment of Andrew Ross, a lens and telescope +manufacturer. Dallmeyer’s position in this workshop appears +to have been an unpleasant one, and led him to take, for a time, +employment as French and German <span class="correction" title="amended from corrrespondent">correspondent</span> for a commercial +firm. After a year he was, however, re-engaged by Ross +as scientific adviser, and was entrusted with the testing and +finishing of the highest class of optical apparatus. This appointment +led to his marriage with Ross’s second daughter, Hannah, +and to the inheritance, at Ross’s death (1859), of a third of his +employer’s large fortune and the telescope manufacturing portion +of the business. Turning from astronomical work to the making +of photographic lenses (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Photography</a></span>), he introduced +improvements in both portrait and landscape lenses, in object-glasses +for the microscope and in condensers for the optical +lantern. In connexion with celestial photography he constructed +photo-heliographs for the Wilna observatory in 1863, for the +Harvard College observatory in 1864, and, in 1873, several for +the British government. Dallmeyer’s instruments achieved a +wide success in Europe and America, taking the highest awards +at various international exhibitions. The Russian government +gave him the order of St Stanislaus, and the French government +made him chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He was for many +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page772" id="page772"></a>772</span> +years upon the councils of both the Royal Astronomical and +Royal Photographic societies. About 1880 he was advised to +give up the personal supervision of his workshops, and to travel +for his health, but he died on board ship, off the coast of New +Zealand, on the 30th of December 1883.</p> + +<p>His second son, <span class="sc">Thomas Rudolphus Dallmeyer</span> (1859-1906), +who assumed control of the business on the failure of his father’s +health, was principally known as the first to introduce telephotographic +lenses into ordinary practice (patented 1891), and +he was the author of a standard book on the subject (<i>Telephotography</i>, +1899). He served as president of the Royal Photographic +Society in 1900-1903.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALL’ ONGARO, FRANCESCO<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (1808-1873), Italian writer, +born in Friuli, was educated for the priesthood, but abandoned +his orders, and taking to political journalism founded the <i>Favilla</i> +at Trieste in the Liberal interest. In 1848 he enlisted under +Garibaldi, and next year was a member of the assembly which +proclaimed the republic in Rome, being given by Mazzini the +direction of the <i>Monitor officiale</i>. On the downfall of the republic +he fled to Switzerland, then to Belgium and later to France, +taking a prominent part in revolutionary journalism; it was not +till 1860 that he returned to Italy, where he was appointed +professor of dramatic literature at Florence. Subsequently he +was transferred to Naples, where he died on the 10th of January +1873. His patriotic poems, <i>Stornelli</i>, composed in early life, +had a great popular success; and he produced a number of plays, +notably <i>Fornaretto</i>, <i>Bianca Capello</i>, <i>Fasma</i> and <i>Il Tesoro</i>. His +collected <i>Fantasie drammatiche e liriche</i> were published in his +lifetime.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALMATIA<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Dalmatien</i>; Ital. <i>Dalmazia</i>; Serbo-Croatian, +<i>Dalmacija</i>), a kingdom and crownland of the Austro-Hungarian +empire, in the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula, +and on the Adriatic Sea. Dalmatia is bounded, on the landward +side, by Croatia and Bosnia, in the N. and N.E.; and by Herzegovina +and Montenegro, in the S.E. and S. Its area amounts to +4923 sq. m.; its greatest length, from north-west to south-east, +is 210 m.; its breadth reaches 35 m. between Point Planca and +the Bosnian frontier, diminishing to less than 1 m. at Cattaro. +Near the ports of Klek and Castelnuovo the Herzegovinian frontier +comes down to the sea,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> but only for a total distance of 14½ m.</p> + +<p><i>Physical Features.</i>—No part of the Mediterranean shore, except +the coast of Greece, is so deeply indented as the Dalmatian +littoral, with its multitude of rock-bound bays and inlets. It is +sheltered from the open sea by a rampart of islands which vary +greatly in size; a few being large enough to support several +thousand inhabitants, while others are mere reefs, swept bare by +the sea, or tenanted only by rabbits and seabirds. This Dalmatian +archipelago, separated from the Istrian by the Gulf of +Quarnerolo, forms two island groups, the northern or Liburnian, +and the southern; with open water intervening, off Point Planca. +In calm weather the channels between the islands and the mainland +resemble a chain of landlocked lakes, brilliantly clear to a +depth of several fathoms. As a rule, the surrounding hills are +rugged, bleached almost white or pale russet, and destitute of +verdure; but their monotony is relieved by the half-ruined +castles and monasteries clinging to the rocks, or by the beauty +of such cities as Ragusa, or Arbe, with its fantastic row of +steeples overlooking the beach. The principal islands, Arbe, +Brazza, Curzola, Lacroma, Lesina, Lissa and Meleda, are described +under separate headings. The promontory of Sabbioncello, +or Punta di Stagno, which juts out for 41 m. into the sea, +between Curzola and Lesina, is almost another island; for its +breadth, which nowhere exceeds 5 m., dwindles to about 1 m. +at the narrow isthmus which unites it with the shore. There are +two small ports on this isthmus—on the south, Stagno Grande +(Serbo-Croatian, <i>Ston Veliki</i>), once celebrated for its salt and +shipbuilding industries, and, on the north, Stagno Piccolo (<i>Ston +Mali</i>). Dalmatia possesses a magnificent anchorage in the +Bocche di Cattaro, and there are numerous lesser havens, at +Sebenico, Traù, Zara and elsewhere along the coast and among +the islands.</p> + +<p>The country is almost everywhere hilly or mountainous. On +the Croatian border rises the lofty barrier of the Velebit, which +culminates in Sveto Brdo (5751 ft.), and Vakanski Vrh (5768 ft.). +The Dinaric Alps form the frontier between Dalmatia and +Bosnia; Dinara (6007 ft.), which gives its name to the whole +chain, and Troglav (6276 ft.), being the highest Dalmatian +summits. North-west of Sinj rise the Svilaja and Moseć +Planinas; the ridges of Mosor and Biokovo, with Sveto Juraj +(5781 ft.), follow the windings of the coast from Spalato to +Macarsca; Orjen marks the meeting-place of the Herzegovinian, +Montenegrin and Dalmatian frontiers, and the Sutorman range +appears in the extreme south. The barren dry limestone of the +Dalmatian highlands has been aptly compared with a petrified +sponge; for it is honeycombed with underground caverns and +water-courses, into which the rainfall is at once filtered. Thus +arises a complete system of subterranean rivers, with waterfalls, +lakes and regular seasons of flood. Even the few surface rivers +vanish and emerge again at intervals. The Trebinjčica, for instance, +disappearing in Herzegovina, supplies both the broad +and swift estuary of Ombla, near Ragusa, and the fresh-water +spring of Doli, which issues from the bottom of the sea. Apart +from the Ombla, and the Narenta (Serbo-Croatian, <i>Neretva</i>; +Roman, <i>Naro</i>), which creates a broad marshy delta between +Metković and the sea, Dalmatia has only three rivers more than +25 m. long; the Zermagna (<i>Zrmanja</i>, <i>Tedanium</i>), Kerka, (<i>Krka</i>, +<i>Titius</i>), and Cetina (<i>Cetina</i>; <i>Narona</i> or <i>Tilurus</i>). The Zermagna +skirts the southern foothills of the Velebit and falls into the +harbour of Novigrad. Better known is the Kerka, which rises +in the Dinaric Alps and flows south-westward to the Adriatic. +Near Scardona (<i>Skradin</i>) it spreads into a broad lake, and forms +several fine waterfalls, after receiving its tributary the Cikola +(<i>Čikola</i>), from the east. South of Spalato, the Cetina, which also +springs from the Dinaric Alps, descends to the sea at Almissa +(<i>Omiš</i>), after passing between the Mosor and Biokovo ranges. +There are a few small lakes near Zara, Zaravecchia and the +Narenta estuary; while the fertile, but unhealthy, hollows +among the mountains fill with water after heavy rain, and sometimes +cause disastrous floods. But most parts of the country +suffer from drought.</p> + +<p>For an account of the chief geological formations see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Balkan +Peninsula</a></span>. Small quantities of iron, lignite, asphalt and bay +salt are the only minerals of commercial importance.</p> + +<p>The climate is warm and healthy, the mean temperature at +Zara being 57° F., at Lesina 62°, and at Ragusa 63°. The prevailing +wind is the sirocco, or S.E.; but the terrible Bora, or +N.N.E., may blow at any season of the year. The average annual +rainfall is about 28 in., but a dry and a wet year usually alternate.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna.</i>—Bears, badgers and wild cats, with a larger number +of wolves and foxes, find shelter in the Dinaric Alps and on the +heights of Svilaja, Mosor and Biokovo; while jackals exist +on Curzola and Sabbioncello, almost their last refuges in Europe. +Roedeer are uncommon, and the wild boar, chamois, red-deer and +beaver are extinct; but hares and rabbits abound. The game-laws +are not strict, and are often evaded by the Morlachs; +but moderate sport may be obtained in the fens formed by the +Cetina about Sinj, and the lagoons of the Narenta estuary; +both regions being frequented by wild swans, geese, duck, snipe +and other aquatic birds. Among land-birds, the commonest +are quails, woodcock, partridges, and especially the so-called +“stone-fowl” (<i>Steinhuhn</i>, <i>Perdix Graeca</i>). Tortoises are +numerous; snakes, lizards, scorpions and innumerable sand-flies +infest the dry hillsides; and the limestone caverns are +peopled by sightless bats, reptiles, fish, flies, beetles, spiders, +crustacea and molluscs.</p> + +<p><i>Fisheries.</i>—No region of Europe is richer in its marine fauna +and flora. Sponge and coral fisheries afford a valuable source of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page773" id="page773"></a>773</span> +income to the peasantry, many of whom also go northward for the +sardine and tunny fisheries of the Istrian coast, while salmon, +trout and eels are caught in the Dalmatian rivers.</p> + +<p><i>Flora.</i>—The olive, almond, fig, orange, palm, aloe, myrtle, +locust-tree and other characteristic members of the Mediterranean +flora thrive in the sheltered valleys of the Dalmatian littoral, +where almond-blossoms appear in mid-winter, and the palm +occasionally bears ripe fruit. The <i>marasca</i>, or wild cherry, is +abundant, and yields the celebrated liqueur called <i>maraschino</i>. +But at a little distance from the rivers and on the more exposed +parts of the coast the aspect of the country changes entirely. +Patches of thin grass, heather, juniper, thyme, tamarisks and +mountain roses hardly relieve the bareness and aridity of the +seaward slopes.</p> + +<p><i>Forests.</i>—Oaks, pines and beeches still, in a few parts, clothe +the landward slopes, but, as a rule, the forests for which Dalmatia +was once famous were cut down for the Venetian shipyards +or burned by pirates; while every attempt at replanting is +frustrated by the shallowness of the soil, the drought and the +multitude of goats that browse on the young trees.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—Little more than one-tenth of the whole surface +is under the plough; the rest, where it is not altogether sterile, +being chiefly mountain pasture, vineyards and garden land. +Asses are the favourite beasts of burden; goats are strikingly +numerous; and sheep are kept for the sake of their mutton, +which is almost the only animal food freely consumed by the +peasantry. Cattle-breeding, bee-keeping, and the cultivation +of fruit and vegetables, especially potatoes and beetroot, are +among the principal resources of the people, while wheat, rye, +barley, oats, Indian corn, hemp and millet are also grown. +Viticulture is carried on with great and increasing success (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wine</a></span>).</p> + +<p><i>Land-tenure.</i>—Individual proprietorship of the soil is rare, +for, despite the decadence of the <i>zadruga</i> or household community, +the tenure of land and the privilege of using the communal +domain still appertain to the family as a whole. There +are a few large estates, but most of the land is parcelled out in +small holdings.</p> + +<p><i>Industries.</i>—Besides fishing, farming and such allied trades as +shipbuilding, wine and oil pressing, and the distillation of +spirits, notably <i>maraschino</i>, a few other industries are practised, +such as tile-burning and the manufacture of soap; but these are +of minor importance. Certain crafts are also carried on by the +country-folk, in their own homes; thus the peasant is sometimes +his own mason, carpenter, weaver and miller. Manufactured +goods and foodstuffs are imported, in return for asphalt, lignite, +bay salt, wine, spirits, oil, honey, wax and hides; and there is +a lucrative transit trade with Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, +Turkey and various Adriatic and Mediterranean ports.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—Communications are defective, some parts +of the interior being only accessible by the roughest of mountain +roads. The principal railway, in point of size, traverses the +central districts, linking together Knin, Spalato, Sebenico and +Sinj; but the southern lines, which unite Dalmatia with Herzegovina +and terminate at Ragusa, Metković and Castlenuovo +on the Bocche di Cattaro, are almost of equal importance, +Cattaro being one of the chief outlets for Montenegrin commerce, +while the vessels which steam up the Narenta to Metković carry +the bulk of the sea-borne trade of Herzegovina. In 1897 +Dalmatia possessed 151 post and 98 telegraph offices.</p> + +<p><i>Chief Towns.</i>—The chief towns are Zara, the capital, with +32,506<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> inhabitants in 1900, Spalato (27,198), Sebenico (24,751), +Traù (17,064), Ragusa (13,174), Macarsca (11,016), and +Cattaro (5418). All these are described under separate headings.</p> + +<p><i>Population and National Characteristics.</i>—With a constant +excess of male over female children, the population increased +steadily from 1869 to 1900, when it reached 591,597. Of this +total 1% are foreigners and about 3% Italians, whose numbers +tend slowly to diminish. The Morlachs, who constitute the +remaining 96%, belong to the Serbo-Croatian branch of the +Slavonic race, having absorbed the Latinized Illyrians, Albanians +and other alien elements with which they have been associated. +The name of <i>Morlachs</i>, <i>Morlaks</i> or <i>Morlacks</i> commonly bestowed +by English writers on the Dalmatian Slavs, though sometimes +restricted to the peasantry of the hills, is an abbreviated form +of <i>Mavrovlachi</i>, meaning either “Black Vlachs,” or, less probably, +“Sea Vlachs.” It was originally applied to the scattered +remnants of the Latin or Latinized inhabitants of central Illyria, +who were driven from their homes by the barbarian invaders +during the 7th century, and took refuge among the mountains. +Throughout the middle ages the Mavrovlachi were usually +nomadic shepherds, cattle-drovers or muleteers. In the 14th +century they emigrated from central Illyria into northern +Dalmatia and maritime Croatia; and these regions were thenceforward +known as <i>Morlacchia</i>, until the 18th century. Gradually, +however, the Mavrovlachi became identified with the Slavs, +whose language and manners they adopted, and to whom they +gave their own name. In northern Dalmatia the Slavs of the +interior are still called <i>Morlacchi</i>; in the south this name expresses +contempt. Of the Vlachs, properly so called, very few +are left in the country; although the name Vlachs (q.v.) is +frequently used by the Slavs to designate the Italians and the +town-dwellers generally. The literary languages of Dalmatia +are Italian and Serbo-Croatian; the spoken language is, in +each case, modified by the introduction of various dialect forms.</p> + +<p>The Morlachs wear a picturesque and brightly-coloured +costume, resembling that of the Serbs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Servia</a></span>). In appearance +they are sometimes blond, with blue or grey eyes, like +the Shumadian peasantry of Servia; more often, olive-skinned, +with dark hair and eyes, like the Montenegrins, whom they rival +in stature, strength and courage; while their conservative +spirit, their devotion to national traditions, poetry and music, +their pride, indolence and superstition, are typically Servian. +Dalmatian public life is deeply affected by the jealousies which +subsist between the Slavs and the Italians, whose influence, +though everywhere waning, remains predominant in some of the +towns; and between Orthodox “Serbs,” who use the Cyrillic +alphabet, and Roman Catholic “Croats,” who prefer the Latin.</p> + +<p><i>Government.</i>—Dalmatia occupies a somewhat anomalous +position in the Austro-Hungarian state system. Itself a crownland +of Austria, returning eleven members to the Austrian +parliament, it is severed geographically from the other Austrian +lands by the Hungarian kingdom of Croatia. Ethnologically +it is one with Croatia, and it is included in the official title of +the Croatian king, i.e. the emperor. The political system is +based on a law of the 26th of February 1861. The provincial +diet is composed of 43 members, comprising the Roman Catholic +archbishop, the Orthodox bishop of Zara and representatives +of the chief taxpayers, the towns and the communes. Benkovac, +on the main road from Zara to Spalato, Cattaro, Curzola, Imotski, +21 m. N. by E. of Macarsca, Knin, Lesina, Macarsca, Ragusa, +Sebenico, Sinj, Spalato and Zara, give names to the twelve +administrative districts, of which they are the capitals.</p> + +<p><i>Defence.</i>—Conscription is in force, as elsewhere in Austria, +and the Dalmatian coast furnishes the Austrian—as formerly +the Venetian—navy with many of its best recruits.</p> + +<p><i>Religion.</i>—Roman Catholicism is the religion of more than +80% of the population, the remainder belonging chiefly to the +Orthodox Church. The Roman Catholic archbishop has his seat +in Zara, while Cattaro, Lesina, Ragusa, Sebenico and Spalato are +bishoprics. At the head of the Orthodox community stands +the bishop of Zara.</p> + +<p>The use of Slavonic liturgies written in the Glagolitic alphabet, +a very ancient privilege of the Roman Catholics in Dalmatia +and Croatia, caused much controversy during the first years of +the 20th century. There was considerable danger that the Latin +liturgies would be altogether superseded by the Glagolitic, +especially among the northern islands and in rural communes, +where the Slavonic element is all-powerful. In 1904 the Vatican +forbade the use of Glagolitic at the festival of SS. Cyril and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page774" id="page774"></a>774</span> +Methodius, as likely to impair the unity of Catholicism. A +few years previously the Slavonic archbishop Rajčević of Zara, +in discussing the “Glagolitic controversy,” had denounced the +movement as “an innovation introduced by Panslavism to +make it easy for the Catholic clergy, after any great revolution +in the Balkan States, to break with Latin Rome.” This view +is shared by very many, perhaps by the majority, of the Roman +Catholics in Dalmatia.</p> + +<p><i>Education.</i>—Education progressed slowly between 1860 and +1900, attendance at school being often a hardship in the poor and +widely scattered hamlets of the interior. In 1890 more than +80% of the population could neither read nor write, although +schools are maintained by every commune. In 1893 the country +possessed 5 intermediate and 337 elementary schools, 6 theological +seminaries, 6 gymnasia, and about 40 continuation and +technical schools.</p> + +<p><i>Antiquities.</i>—To the foreign visitor Dalmatia is chiefly +interesting as a treasury of art and antiquities. The grave-mounds +of Curzola, Lesina and Sabbioncello have yielded a few +relics of prehistoric man, and the memory of the early Celtic +conquerors and Greek settlers is preserved only in a few place-names; +but the monuments left by the Romans are numerous +and precious. They are chiefly confined to the cities; for the +civilization of the country was always urban, just as its history +is a record of isolated city-states rather than of a united nation. +Beyond the walls of its larger towns, little was spared by the +barbarian Goths, Avars and Slavs; and the battered fragments +of Roman work which mark the sites of Salona, near Spalato, +and of many other ancient cities, are of slight antiquarian interest +and slighter artistic value. Among the monuments of the Roman +period, by far the most noteworthy in Dalmatia, and, indeed, +in the whole Balkan Peninsula, is the Palace of Diocletian at +Spalato (q.v.). Dalmatian architecture was Byzantine in its +general character from the 6th century until the close of the 10th. +The oldest memorials of this period are the vestiges of three +basilicas, excavated in Salona, and dating from the first half of +the 7th century at latest. Byzantine art, in the latter half of +this period and the two succeeding centuries, continued to +flourish in those cities which, like Zara, gave their allegiance to +Venice; just as, in the architecture of Traù and other cities +dominated by Hungary, there are distinct traces of German +influence. The belfry of S. Maria, at Zara, erected in 1105, is +first in a long list of Romanesque buildings. At Arbe there is +a beautiful Romanesque campanile which also belongs to the +12th century; but the finest example in this style is the cathedral +of Traù. The 14th century Dominican and Franciscan convents +in Ragusa are also noteworthy. Romanesque lingered on in +Dalmatia until it was displaced by Venetian Gothic in the early +years of the 15th century. The influence of Venice was then +at its height. Even in the hostile republic of Ragusa the +Romanesque of the custom-house and Rectors’ palace is combined +with Venetian Gothic, while the graceful balconies and +ogee windows of the Prijeki closely follow their Venetian models. +Gothic, however, which had been adopted very late, was abandoned +very early; for in 1441 Giorgio Orsini of Zara, summoned +from Venice to design the cathedral of Sebenico, brought with +him the influence of the Italian Renaissance. The new forms +which he introduced were eagerly imitated and developed by +other architects, until the period of decadence—which virtually +concludes the history of Dalmatian art—set in during the latter +half of the 17th century. Special mention must be made of the +carved woodwork, embroideries and plate preserved in many +churches. The silver statuette and the reliquary of St Biagio at +Ragusa, and the silver ark of St Simeon at Zara, are fine specimens +of Byzantine and Italian jewellers’ work, ranging in date +from the 11th or 12th to the 17th century.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">History</p> + +<p><i>Dalmatia under Roman Rule</i>, A.D. 9-1102.—The history of +Dalmatia may be said to begin with the year 180 B.C., when the +tribe from which the country derives its name declared itself +independent of Gentius, the Illyrian king, and established a +republic. Its capital was Delminium<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a>; its territory stretched +northwards from the Narenta to the Cetina, and later to the +Kerka, where it met the confines of Liburnia. In 156 B.C. the +Dalmatians were for the first time attacked by a Roman army +and compelled to pay tribute; but only in the time of Augustus +(31 B.C.-A.D. 14) was their land finally annexed, after the last +of many formidable revolts had been crushed by Tiberius in +A.D. 9. This event was followed by total submission and a +ready acceptance of the Latin civilization which overspread +Illyria (q.v.). The downfall of the Western Empire left this +region subject to Gothic rulers, Odoacer and Theodoric, from +476 to 535, when it was added by Justinian to the Eastern Empire. +The great Slavonic migration into Illyria, which wrought a +complete change in the fortunes of Dalmatia, took place in the +first half of the 7th century. In other parts of the Balkan +Peninsula these invaders—Serbs, Croats or Bulgars—found little +difficulty in expelling or absorbing the native population. But +here they were baffled when confronted by the powerful maritime +city-states, highly civilized, and able to rely on the moral if not +the material support of their kinsfolk in Italy. Consequently, +while the country districts were settled by the Slavs, the Latin or +Italian population flocked for safety to Ragusa, Zara and other +large towns, and the whole country was thus divided between +two frequently hostile communities. This opposition was intensified +by the schism between Eastern and Western Christianity +(1054), the Slavs as a rule preferring the Orthodox or +sometimes the Bogomil creed, while the Italians were firmly +attached to the Papacy. Not until the 15th century did the +rival races contribute to a common civilization in the literature +of Ragusa. To such a division of population may be attributed +the two dominant characteristics of local history—the total +absence of national as distinguished from civic life, and the +remarkable development of art, science and literature. Bosnia, +Servia and Bulgaria had each its period of national greatness, +but remained intellectually backward; Dalmatia failed ever to +attain political or racial unity, but the Dalmatian city-states, +isolated and compelled to look to Italy for support, shared +perforce in the march of Italian civilization. Their geographical +position suffices to explain the relatively small influence exercised +by Byzantine culture throughout the six centuries (535-1102) +during which Dalmatia was part of the Eastern empire. Towards +the close of this period Byzantine rule tended more and more to +become merely nominal. In 806 Dalmatia was added to the +Holy Roman empire, but was soon restored; in 829 the coast was +ravaged by Saracens. A strange republic of Servian pirates arose +at the mouth of the Narenta. In the 10th century description of +Dalmatia by Constantine Porphyrogenitus (<i>De Administrando +Imperio</i>, 29-37), this region is called <i>Pagania</i>, from the fact that +its inhabitants had only accepted Christianity about 890, or 250 +years later than the other Slavs. These <i>Pagani</i>, or <i>Arentani</i> +(Narentines), utterly defeated a Venetian fleet despatched against +them in 887, and for more than a century exacted tribute from +Venice itself. In 998 they were finally crushed by the doge +Pietro Orseolo II., who assumed the title duke of Dalmatia, +though without prejudice to Byzantine suzerainty. Meanwhile +the Croatian kings had extended their rule over northern and +central Dalmatia, exacting tribute from the Italian cities, Traù, +Zara and others, and consolidating their own power in the purely +Slavonic towns, such as Nona or Belgrad (Zaravecchia). The +Church was involved in the general confusion; for the synod of +Spalato, in 1059, had forbidden the use of any but Greek or Latin +liturgies, and so had accentuated the differences between Latin +and Slav. A raid of Norman corsairs in 1073 was hardly defeated +with the help of a Venetian fleet.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page775" id="page775"></a>775</span></p> + +<p><i>Rivalry of Venice and Hungary in Dalmatia</i>, 1102-1420.—Unable +amid such dissensions to stand alone, unprotected by the +Eastern empire and hindered by their internal dissensions from +uniting in a defensive league, the city-states turned to Venice +and Hungary for support. The Venetians, to whom they were +already bound by race, language and culture, could afford to +concede liberal terms because their own principal aims was not +the territorial aggrandizement sought by Hungary, but only such +a supremacy as might prevent the development of any dangerous +political or commercial competitor on the eastern Adriatic. +Hungary had also its partisans; for in the Dalmatian city-states, +like those of Greece and Italy, there were almost invariably +two jealous political factions, each ready to oppose any measure +advocated by its antagonist. The origin of this division seems +here to have been economic. The farmers and the merchants +who traded in the interior naturally favoured Hungary, their +most powerful neighbour on land; while the seafaring community +looked to Venice as mistress of the Adriatic. In return +for protection, the cities often furnished a contingent to the +army or navy of their suzerain, and sometimes paid tribute +either in money or in kind. Arbe, for example, annually paid +ten pounds of silk or five pounds of gold to Venice. The citizens +clung to their municipal privileges, which were reaffirmed after +the conquest of Dalmatia in 1102-1105 by Coloman of Hungary. +Subject to the royal assent they might elect their own chief +magistrate, bishop and judges. Their Roman law remained +valid. They were even permitted to conclude separate alliances. +No alien, not even a Hungarian, could reside in a city where he +was unwelcome; and the man who disliked Hungarian dominion +could emigrate with all his household and property. In lieu of +tribute, the revenue from customs was in some cases shared +equally by the king, chief magistrate, bishop and municipality. +These rights and the analogous privileges granted by Venice +were, however, too frequently infringed, Hungarian garrisons +being quartered on unwilling towns, while Venice interfered +with trade, with the appointment of bishops, or with the tenure +of communal domains. Consequently the Dalmatians remained +loyal only while it suited their interests, and insurrections +frequently occurred. Even in Zara four outbreaks are recorded +between 1180 and 1345, although Zara was treated with special +consideration by its Venetian masters, who regarded its possession +as essential to their maritime ascendancy. The doubtful +allegiance of the Dalmatians tended to protract the struggle +between Venice and Hungary, which was further complicated by +internal discord due largely to the spread of the Bogomil heresy; +and by many outside influences, such as the vague suzerainty +still enjoyed by the Eastern emperors during the 12th century; +the assistance rendered to Venice by the armies of the Fourth +Crusade in 1202; and the Tartar invasion of Dalmatia forty years +later (see Traù). The Slavs were no longer regarded as a +hostile race, but the power of certain Croatian magnates, notably +the counts of Bribir, was from time to time supreme in the +northern districts (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Croatia-Slavonia</a></span>); and Stephen +Tvrtko, the founder of the Bosnian kingdom, was able in 1389 +to annex the whole Adriatic littoral between Cattaro and Fiume, +except Venetian Zara and his own independent ally, Ragusa (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></span>). Finally, the rapid decline of Bosnia, +and of Hungary itself when assailed by the Turks, rendered easy +the success of Venice; and in 1420 the whole of Dalmatia, except +Almissa, which yielded in 1444, and Ragusa, which preserved +its freedom, either submitted or was conquered. Many cities +welcomed the change with its promise of tranquillity.</p> + +<p><i>Venetian and Turkish Rule</i>, 1420-1797.—An interval of peace +ensued, but meanwhile the Turkish advance continued. Constantinople +fell in 1453, Servia in 1459, Bosnia in 1463 and +Herzegovina in 1483. Thus the Venetian and Ottoman frontiers +met; border wars were incessant; Ragusa sought safety in +friendship with the invaders. In 1508 the hostile league of +Cambrai compelled Venice to withdraw its garrison for home +service, and after the overthrow of Hungary at Mohács in 1526 +the Turks were able easily to conquer the greater part of Dalmatia. +The peace of 1540 left only the maritime cities to +Venice, the interior forming a Turkish province, governed from +the fortress of Clissa by a <i>Sanjakbeg</i>, or administrator with +military powers. Christian Slavs from the neighbouring lands +now thronged to the towns, outnumbering the Italian population +and introducing their own language, but falling under the +influence of the Roman Catholic Church. The pirate community +of the Uskoks (q.v.) had originally been a band of these fugitives; +its exploits contributed to a renewal of war between Venice and +Turkey (1571-1573). An extremely curious picture of contemporary +manners is presented by the Venetian agents,<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a> whose +reports on this war resemble some knightly chronicle of the +middle ages, full of single combats, tournaments and other +chivalrous adventures. They also show clearly that the Dalmatian +levies far surpassed the Italian mercenaries in skill and +courage. Many of these troops served abroad; at Lepanto, for +example, in 1571, a Dalmatian squadron assisted the allied fleets +of Spain, Venice, Austria and the Papal States to crush the +Turkish navy. A fresh war broke out in 1645, lasting intermittently +until 1699, when the peace of Carlowitz gave the +whole of Dalmatia to Venice, including the coast of Herzegovina, +but excluding the domains of Ragusa and the protecting band of +Ottoman territory which surrounded them. After further fighting +this delimitation was confirmed in 1718 by the treaty of +Passarowitz; and it remains valid, though modified by the +destruction of Ragusan liberty and the substitution of Austria-Hungary +for Venice and Turkey.</p> + +<p>The intellectual life of Dalmatia during the 15th, 16th and +17th centuries reached a higher level than any attained by the +purely Slavonic peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. Its chief +monuments are described elsewhere,—the work of the Ragusan +poets and historians as a part of Servian literature, the scientific +achievements of R. G. Boscovich and Marcantonio de Dominis +in separate biographies. Architecture and art generally have +been discussed above. But this intellectual development was +the work of a small and opulent minority in all the cities except +Ragusa. Popular education was neglected; Zara had no +printing-press until 1796; Venetian Dalmatia possessed only +one public school, and that an ecclesiastical seminary; and +even the sons of the rich, though free to visit the universities +of Italy, France, Holland and England, ran the risk of exile or +worse punishment if they brought home too liberal a culture. +Poorer students learned what they could from the clergy, and the +peasantry were wholly illiterate. Although the secular power of +the Church was strictly limited, the country was overrun by +ecclesiastics. When Fortis visited the island of Arbe in the +18th century, he found a population of 3000, mostly fishermen, +contributing to the stipends of sixty priests. There were also +three monasteries and three nunneries. Heavy taxes, the salt +monopoly, reckless destruction of timber, and a deliberate +attempt to ruin the oil and silk industries, were among the means +by which Venice prevented competition with its own trade. +Although justice was fairly well administered and some show +of municipal autonomy conceded, the right of electing a chief +magistrate had been withheld after 1420; and the Grand Council +or Senate of each city, losing its original democratic character, +had degenerated into a mere tool of the resident Venetian agents +(<i>provveditori</i>), officials who held their post for thirty-two months +and were subject to little effective control. Nevertheless, 150 +years of war against the common Turkish enemy had drawn the +Venetians and their subjects closely together, and the loyalty of +the Dalmatian soldiers and sailors abroad, if not of their fellow-citizens +at home, rests beyond doubt.</p> + +<p><i>Dalmatia after</i> 1797.—After the fall of the Venetian republic +in 1797, the treaty of Campo Formio gave Dalmatia to Austria. +The republics of Ragusa and Poglizza retained their independence, +and Ragusa grew rich by its neutrality during the earlier +Napoleonic wars. By the peace of Pressburg in 1805 the country +was handed over to France, but its occupation was ineffectually +contested by a Russian force which seized the Bocche di Cattaro +and induced the Montenegrins to render aid. Poglizza was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page776" id="page776"></a>776</span> +deprived of its independence by Napoleon in 1807, Ragusa +in 1808. In 1809 the French troops were withdrawn, but in +the same year Dalmatia was restored to France and united to +the Illyrian kingdom by the treaty of Vienna. A British naval +force under Captain Hoste, after a successful engagement with +a small French squadron off Lissa, occupied the islands of +Curzola, Lesina and Lagosta from 1812 to 1815, and established +a considerable overland trade through Dalmatia, Austria and +Germany. The allied British and Austrian forces drove out +the last French garrison in 1814, and in 1815 Dalmatia was +finally incorporated in the Austro-Hungarian empire, with which +its history has since been identified. Its subsequent tranquillity +has only been disturbed by the ineffectual risings of +1869 and 1881-1882, which took place near Cattaro (q.v.). For +an account of the development of Croatian nationalism among +the Dalmatians, during the 19th and 20th centuries, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Croatia-Slavonia</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—A minute and accurate account of Dalmatian +history, art (especially architecture), antiquities and topography, is +given by T. G. Jackson, in <i>Dalmatia, the Quarnero and Istria</i> (Oxford, +1887), (3 vols. illustrated). E. A. Freeman, <i>Subject and Neighbour +Lands of Venice</i> (London, 1881), and G. Modrich, <i>La Dalmazia</i> +(Turin, 1892), describe the chief towns, their history and antiquities. +Much miscellaneous information is contained in the following mainly +topographical works:—P. Bauron, <i>Les Rives illyriennes</i> (Paris, +1888); Sir A. A. Paton, <i>Highlands and Islands of the Adriatic</i> +(London, 1849); Sir J. G. Wilkinson, <i>Dalmatia and Montenegro</i> +(London, 1840); A. Fortis, <i>Travels into Dalmatia</i> (London, 1778); +and the periodicals, <i>Rivista Dalmatica</i> (Zara, 1899, &c.), and <i>Annuario +Dalmatico</i> (Zara, 1884, &c.). The best maps are those of the +Austrian General Staff and Vincenzo de Haardt’s <i>Zemljovid Kraljevine +Dalmacije</i> (Zara, 1892). See also for trade, the Annual British +Consular Reports; for sport, “Snaffle,” <i>In the Land of the Bora</i> +(London, 1897); for Roman and pre-Roman antiquities, R. Munro, +<i>Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia</i> (Edinburgh, 1904). Besides the +works mentioned above, and those by Farlatus, Makushev, Miklosich, +Theiner, Shafarik, Orbini and du Cange, which are quoted under +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></span>, the chief authority for Dalmatian +history is G. Lucio (Lucius of Traù), <i>De regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae, +a gentis origine ad annum 1480</i> (Amsterdam, 1666). To this edition +are appended the works of the Presbyter Diocleas, Thomas of +Spalato and other native chroniclers from the 12th century onwards. +An Italian translation, omitting the appendix, was published at +Trieste in 1892, entitled <i>Storia del Regno di Dalmatia e di Croazia</i>, +and edited by Luigi Cesare. Lucio’s work is singularly trustworthy +and scientific. See also P. Pisani, <i>La Dalmatie de 1797 à 1815</i> (Paris, +1893).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(K. G. J.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This arrangement is based on the terms of the peace of Carlowitz +1699 (articles IX. and XI. of the Turco-Venetian Treaty). It is due +to the commercial and maritime rivalry between Venice and Ragusa. +The Ragusans bribed the Turkish envoys at Carlowitz to stipulate +for a double extension of the Ottoman dominions down to the +Adriatic; and thus the Ragusan lands, which otherwise would have +bordered upon the Dalmatian possessions of Venice, were surrounded +by neutral territory.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> These figures, taken from the Austrian official returns, include +the population of the entire commune, not merely the urban residents. +Only in Zara, Spalato, Sebenico and Ragusa, do the actual +townsfolk number more than 1000.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Also written <i>Dalminium</i>, <i>Deminium</i>, and <i>Delmis</i>. Thomas of +Spalato (<i>c.</i> 1200-1250) mentions that the site of Delminium had been +forgotten in his time, although certain ancient walls among the +mountains were believed to be its ruins. It has been variously +identified, by modern archaeologists, with Almissa, on the coast, +Dalen, in the Herzegovina, Duvno, near Sinj, and Gardun, in the +same locality. It was evidently a stronghold of considerable size +and importance, and Appian (<i>De bellis Illyricis</i>) alludes to its almost +impregnable fortifications.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Long extracts from these reports or diaries are published by +Wilkinson, <i>Dalmatia and Montenegro</i> (London, 1840), ii. 297-350.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALMATIC<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (Lat. <i>dalmatica</i>, <i>tunica dalmatica</i>), a liturgical +vestment of the Western Church, proper to deacons, as the +tunicle (<i>tunicella</i>) is to subdeacons. Dalmatic and tunicle are +now, however, practically identical in shape and size; though, +strictly, the latter should be somewhat smaller and with narrower +arms. In most countries, e.g. England, France, Spain and +Germany, dalmatic and tunicle are now no longer tunics, but +scapular-like cloaks, with an opening for the head to pass through +and square lappets falling from the shoulder over the upper +part of the arm; in Italy, on the other hand, though open up +the side, they still have regular sleeves and are essentially tunics. +The most characteristic ornament of the dalmatic and tunicle +is the vertical stripes running from the shoulder to the lower +hem, these being connected by a cross-band, the position of +which differs in various countries (see figs. 3, 4). Less essential +are the orphreys on the hem of the arms and the fringes along +the slits at the sides and the lower hem. The tassels hanging +from either shoulder at the back (see fig. 6), formerly very +much favoured, have now largely gone out of use.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:146px; height:413px" src="images/img776.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Deacon in dalmatic, apparelled amice and alb.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>dalmatica</i>, which originated—as its name implies—in +Dalmatia, came into fashion in the Roman world in the 2nd +century A.D. It was a loose tunic with very wide sleeves, and +was worn over the <i>tunica alba</i> by the better class of citizens +(see. fig. 2). According to the <i>Liber pontificalis</i> (ed. Duchesne, +l. 171) the dalmatic was first introduced as a vestment in public +worship by Pope Silvester I. (314-335), who ordered it to be +worn by the deacons; but Braun (<i>Liturg. Gewandung</i>, p. 250) +thinks that it was probably in use by the popes themselves so +early as the 3rd century, since St Cyprian (d. 258) is mentioned +as wearing it when he went to his death. If this be so, it was +probably given to the Roman deacons to distinguish them +from the other clergy and to mark their special relations to +the pope. However this may be, the dalmatic remained for +centuries the vestment distinctive of the pope and his deacons, +and—according at least to the view held at Rome—could be +worn by other clergy only by special concession of the pope. +Thus Pope Symmachus (498-514) granted the right to wear it +to the deacons of Bishop Caesarius of Arles; and so late as +757 Pope Stephen II. gave permission to Fulrad, abbot of St +Denis, to be assisted by six deacons at mass, and these are +empowered to wear “the robe of honour of the dalmatic.” +How far, however, this rule was strictly observed, and what was +the relation of the Roman dalmatic to the diaconal alba and +subdiaconal tunica, which were in liturgical use in Gaul and +Spain so early as the 6th century, are moot points (see Braun, +p. 252). The dalmatic was in general use at the beginning of the +9th century, partly as a result of the Carolingian reforms, which +established the Roman model in western Europe; but it continued +to be granted by the popes to distinguished ecclesiastics +not otherwise entitled to wear it, e.g. to abbots or to the cardinal +priests of important cathedrals. So far as the records show, Pope +John XIII. (965-972) was the first to bestow the right to wear +the dalmatic on an abbot, and Pope Benedict VII. the first to +grant it to a cardinal priest of a foreign +cathedral (975). The present rule was +firmly established by the 11th century. +According to the actual use of the Roman +Catholic Church dalmatic and tunicle are +worn by deacon and subdeacon when +assisting at High Mass, and at solemn +processions and benedictions. They are, +however, traditionally vestments symbolical +of joy (the bishop in placing the +dalmatic on the newly ordained deacon +says:—“May the Lord clothe thee in the +tunic of joy and the garment of rejoicing”), +and they are therefore not worn +during seasons of fasting and penitence or +functions connected with these, the folded +chasuble (<i>paenula plicata</i>) being substituted +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chasuble</a></span>). Dalmatic and tunicle +are never worn by priests, as priests, but +both are worn by bishops under the +chasuble (never under the cope) and also +by those prelates, not being bishops, to +whom the pope has conceded the right to +wear the episcopal vestments.</p> + +<p>In England at the Reformation the +dalmatic ultimately shared the fate of the chasuble and other +mass vestments. It was, however, certainly one of the “ornaments +of the minister” in the second year of Edward VI., the +rubric in the office for Holy Communion directing the priest’s +“helpers” to wear “albes with tunacles.” In many Anglican +churches it has therefore been restored, as a result of the +ritual revival of the 19th century, it being claimed that its use +is obligatory under the “ornaments rubric” of the Book of +Common Prayer (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vestments</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In the Eastern churches the only vestment that has any true +analogy with the dalmatic or liturgical upper tunic is the +<i>sakkos</i>, the tunic worn by deacons and subdeacons over their +everyday clothes being the equivalent of the Western alb (q.v.). +The sakkos, which, as a liturgical vestment, first appears in the +12th century as peculiar to patriarchs, is now a scapular-like +robe very similar to the modern dalmatic (see fig. 5). Its origin +is almost certainly the richly embroidered dalmatic that formed +part of the consular insignia, which under the name of sakkos +became a robe of state special to the emperors. It is clear, then, +that this vestment can only have been assumed with the emperor’s +permission; and Braun suggests (p. 305) that its use was granted +to the patriarchs, after the completion of the schism of East and +West, in order “in some sort to give them the character, in +outward appearance as well, of popes of the East.” Its use is +confined to the Greek rite. In the Greek and Greek-Melchite +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page777" id="page777"></a>777</span> +churches it is confined to the patriarchs and metropolitans; +in the Russian, Ruthenian and Bulgarian churches it is worn by +all bishops. Unlike the practice of the Latin church, it is not +worn under, but has replaced the phelonion (chasuble).</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate I.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:753px; height:555px" src="images/img776a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—TUNIC OF LINEN, WOVEN WITH BANDS OF PURPLE WOOL EMBROIDERED WITH WHITE FLAX.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From the tombs at Akhmim. Egypto-Roman; 1st to 4th century. (In the Victoria and Albert Museum.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:626px; height:554px" src="images/img776b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—BACK OF A DALMATIC OF STAMPED GREEN WOOLLEN VELVET: THE ORPHREYS AND APPARELS +ARE OF EMBROIDERED SILK VELVET.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">The two figures on the cross-band or apparel represent St. Gregory the Great and St. Augustine. The shields of arms are for the +dukes of Jülich and Berg, counts of Ravensberg, and for the electors of Bavaria. Said to have come from the church of St. Severin, +Cologne. German (Cologne); second half of 15th century. (In the Victoria and Albert Museum.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate II.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:851px; height:659px" src="images/img776c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—DALMATIC OF WHITE SATIN EMRROIDERED WITH COLOURED SILKS AND SILVER-GILT AND SILVER THREAD.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">Spanish; early 17th century. (In the Victoria and Albert Museum.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:342px; height:432px" src="images/img776d.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:473px; height:442px" src="images/img776e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—GREEK SAKKOS, OF RED SATIN EMBROIDERED +WITH SILVER-GILT AND +SILVER THREAD WITH SILK.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—DALMATIC OF POPE PIUS V.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">It has the names and arms of two archbishops. 18th +century. (In the Victoria and Albert Museum.)</td> +<td class="tcl f80">An early example of the modern Roman type. Roman; 16th century. +Preserved at Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome. From a photograph taken by +Father J. Braun (in <i>Die liturgische Gewandung</i>), by permission of B. Herder.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">A silk dalmatic forms one (the undermost) of the English +coronation robes. Its use would seem to have been borrowed, +not from the robes of the Eastern emperors, but from the +church, and to symbolize with the other robes the quasi-sacerdotal +character of the kingship (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coronation</a></span>). The +magnificent so-called dalmatic of Charlemagne, preserved at +Rome (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Embroidery</a></span>), is really a Greek sakkos.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Joseph Braun, S.J., <i>Die liturgische Gewandung</i> (Freiburg im +Breisgau, 1907), pp. 247-305. For further references and illustrations +see the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vestments</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALMELLINGTON,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> a village of Ayrshire, Scotland, 15 m. S.E. +of Ayr by a branch line, of which it is the terminus, of the +Glasgow & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1448. The +district is rich in minerals—coal, ironstone, sandstone and +limestone. Though the place is of great antiquity, the Roman +road running near it, few remains of any interest exist. It was, +however, a centre of activity in the Covenanting times.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALOU, JULES<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1838-1902), French sculptor, was the pupil +of Carpeaux and Duret, and combined the vivacity and richness +of the one with the academic purity and scholarship of the other. +He is one of the most brilliant virtuosos of the French school, +admirable alike in taste, execution and arrangement. He first +exhibited at the Salon in 1867, but when in 1871 the troubles of +the Commune broke out in Paris, he took refuge in England, +where he rapidly made a name through his appointment at +South Kensington. Here he laid the foundation of that great +improvement which resulted in the development of the modern +British school of sculpture, and at the same time executed a +remarkable series of terra-cotta statuettes and groups, such as +“A French Peasant Woman” (of which a bronze version under +the title of “Maternity” is erected outside the Royal Exchange), +the group of two Boulogne women called “The Reader” and +“A Woman of Boulogne telling her Beads.” He returned to +France in 1879 and produced a number of masterpieces. His +great relief of “Mirabeau replying to M. de Dreux-Brézé,” +exhibited in 1883 and now at the Palais Bourbon, and the highly +decorative panel, “Triumph of the Republic,” were followed in +1885 by “The Procession of Silenus.” For the city of Paris +he executed his most elaborate and splendid achievement, the +vast monument, “The Triumph of the Republic,” erected, after +twenty years’ work, in the Place de la Nation, showing a symbolical +figure of the Republic, aloft on her car, drawn by lions +led by Liberty, attended by Labour and Justice, and followed by +Peace. It is somewhat in the taste of the Louis XIV. period, +ornate, but exquisite in every detail. Within a few days there +was also inaugurated his great “Monument to Alphand” (1899), +which almost equalled in the success achieved the monument to +Delacroix in the Luxembourg Gardens. Dalou, who gained the +<i>Grand Prix</i> of the International exhibition of 1889, and was an +officer of the Legion of Honour, was one of the founders of the +New Salon (<i>Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts</i>), and was the first +president of the sculpture section. In portraiture, whether +statues or busts, his work is not less remarkable.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALRADIAN,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> in geology, a series of metamorphic rocks, +typically developed in the high ground which lies E. and S. +of the Great Glen of Scotland. This was the old Celtic region of +Dalradia, and in 1891 Sir A. Geikie proposed the name Dalradian +as a convenient provisional designation for the complicated set +of rocks to which it is difficult to assign a definite position in +the stratigraphical sequence (<i>Q.J.G.S.</i> 47, p. 75). In Sir A. +Geikie’s words, “they consist in large proportion of altered +sedimentary strata, now found in the form of mica-schist, +graphite-schist, andalusite-schist, phyllite, schistose grit, greywacke +and conglomerate, quartzite, limestone and other +rocks, together with epidiorites, chlorite-schists, hornblende +schists and other allied varieties, which probably mark sills, +lava-sheets or beds of tuff, intercalated among the sediments. +The total thickness of this assemblage of rocks must be many +thousand feet.” The Dalradian series includes the “Eastern or +Younger schists” of eastern Sutherland, Ross-shire and Inverness-shire—the +Moine gneiss, &c.—as well as the metamorphosed +sedimentary and eruptive rocks of the central, eastern and +south-western Highlands. The series has been traced into the +north-western counties of Ireland. The whole of the Dalradian +complex has suffered intense crushing and thrusting.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pre-Cambrian</a></span>; also J. B. Hill, <i>Q.J.G.S.</i>, 1899, 55, and G. +Barrow, <i>loc. cit.</i>, 1901, 57, and the <i>Annual Reports and Summaries +of Progress of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom</i> from 1893 +onwards.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALRIADA,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> the name of two ancient Gaelic kingdoms, one +in Ireland and the other in Scotland. The name means the +home of the descendants of Riada. Irish Dalriada was the +district which now forms the northern part of county Antrim, +and from which about A.D. 500 some emigrants crossed over to +Scotland, and founded in Argyllshire the Scottish kingdom of +Dalriada. For a time Scottish Dalriada appears to have been +dependent upon Irish Dalriada, but about 575 King Aidan +secured its independence. One of Aidan’s successors, Kenneth, +became king of the Picts about 843, and gradually the name +Dalriada both in Ireland and Scotland fell into disuse.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. F. Skene, <i>Celtic Scotland</i> (Edinburgh, 1876-1880).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALRY<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (Gaelic, “the field of the king”), a mining and +manufacturing town of Ayrshire, Scotland, on the Garnock, +23¼ m. S.W. of Glasgow, by the Glasgow & South-Western +railway. Pop. (1901) 5316. The public buildings include the +library and reading-room, the assembly rooms, Davidshill +hospital, Temperance hall and night asylum. There is a public +park. The industries consist of woollen factories, worsted +spinning, box-, cabinet-, coke- and brick-making, machine-knitting, +currying and the manufacture of aerated waters. +Coal and iron are found, but mining is not extensively pursued. +In the vicinity are the iron works of Blair and Glengarnock, +and a curious stalactite cave, known as Elf House, 30 ft. high +and about 200 ft. long, offering some resemblance to a pointed +aisle. Rye Water flows into the Garnock close to the town. +Captain Thomas Crawford of Jordanhill (1530-1603), the captor +of Dumbarton Castle, spent the closing years of his life at Dalry, +where a considerable estate had been granted to him.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALTON, JOHN<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1766-1844), English chemist and physicist, +was born about the 6th of September 1766 at Eaglesfield, near +Cockermouth in Cumberland. His father, Joseph Dalton, was +a weaver in poor circumstances, who, with his wife (Deborah +Greenup), belonged to the Society of Friends; they had three +children—Jonathan, John and Mary. John received his early +education from his father and from John Fletcher, teacher of +the Quakers’ school at Eaglesfield, on whose retirement in 1778 +he himself started teaching. This youthful venture was not +successful, the amount he received in fees being only about +five shillings a week, and after two years he took to farm work. +But he had received some instruction in mathematics from +a distant relative, Elihu Robinson, and in 1781 he left his native +village to become assistant to his cousin George Bewley who +kept a school at Kendal. There he passed the next twelve years, +becoming in 1785, through the retirement of his cousin, joint +manager of the school with his elder brother Jonathan. About +1790 he seems to have thought of taking up law or medicine, +but his projects met with no encouragement from his relatives and +he remained at Kendal till, in the spring of 1793, he moved to +Manchester, where he spent the rest of his life. Mainly through +John Gough (1757-1825), a blind philosopher to whose aid he +owed much of his scientific knowledge, he was appointed teacher +of mathematics and natural philosophy at the New College in +Moseley Street (in 1880 transferred to Manchester College, +Oxford), and that position he retained until the removal of the +college to York in 1799, when he became a “public and private +teacher of mathematics and chemistry.”</p> + +<p>During his residence in Kendal, Dalton had contributed solutions +of problems and questions on various subjects to the +<i>Gentlemen’s</i> and <i>Ladies’ Diaries</i>, and in 1787 he began to keep +a meteorological diary in which during the succeeding fifty-seven +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page778" id="page778"></a>778</span> +years he entered more than 200,000 observations. His first +separate publication was <i>Meteorological Observations and Essays</i> +(1793), which contained the germs of several of his later discoveries; +but in spite of the originality of its matter, the book +met with only a limited sale. Another work by him, <i>Elements +of English Grammar</i>, was published in 1801. In 1794 he was +elected a member of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical +Society, and a few weeks after election he communicated his +first paper on “Extraordinary facts relating to the vision of +colours,” in which he gave the earliest account of the optical +peculiarity known as Daltonism or colour-blindness, and summed +up its characteristics as observed in himself and others. Besides +the blue and purple of the spectrum he was able to recognize +only one colour, yellow, or, as he says in his paper, “that part +of the image which others call red appears to me little more +than a shade or defect of light; after that the orange, yellow +and green seem one colour which descends pretty uniformly +from an intense to a rare yellow, making what I should call +different shades of yellow.” This paper was followed by many +others on diverse topics—on rain and dew and the origin of +springs, on heat, the colour of the sky, steam, the auxiliary +verbs and participles of the English language and the reflection +and refraction of light. In 1800 he became a secretary of the +society, and in the following year he presented the important +paper or series of papers, entitled “Experimental Essays on the +constitution of mixed gases; on the force of steam or vapour +of water and other liquids in different temperatures, both in +Torricellian vacuum and in air; on evaporation; and on the +expansion of gases by heat.” The second of these essays opens +with the striking remark, “There can scarcely be a doubt entertained +respecting the reducibility of all elastic fluids of whatever +kind, into liquids; and we ought not to despair of effecting +it in low temperatures and by strong pressures exerted upon +the unmixed gases”; further, after describing experiments +to ascertain the tension of aqueous vapour at different points +between 32° and 212° F., he concludes, from observations on +the vapour of six different liquids, “that the variation of the +force of vapour from all liquids is the same for the same variation +of temperature, reckoning from vapour of any given force.” +In the fourth essay he remarks, “I see no sufficient reason why +we may not conclude that all elastic fluids under the same +pressure expand equally by heat and that for any given expansion +of mercury, the corresponding expansion of air is proportionally +something less, the higher the temperature.... It seems, +therefore, that general laws respecting the absolute quantity +and the nature of heat are more likely to be derived from elastic +fluids than from other substances.” He thus enunciated the +law of the expansion of gases, stated some months later by +Gay-Lussac. In the two or three years following the reading +of these essays, he published several papers on similar topics, +that on the “Absorption of gases by water and other liquids” +(1803), containing his “Law of partial pressures.”</p> + +<p>But the most important of all Dalton’s investigations are +those concerned with the Atomic Theory in chemistry, with +which his name is inseparably associated. It has been supposed +that this theory was suggested to him either by researches on +olefiant gas and carburetted hydrogen or by analysis of “protoxide +and deutoxide of azote,” both views resting on the +authority of Dr Thomas Thomson (1773-1852), professor of +chemistry in Glasgow university. But from a study of Dalton’s +own MS. laboratory notebooks, discovered in the rooms of the +Manchester society, Roscoe and Harden (<i>A New View of the +Origin of Dalton’s Atomic Theory</i>, 1896) conclude that so far +from Dalton being led to the idea that chemical combination +consists in the approximation of atoms of definite and characteristic +weight by his search for an explanation of the law of combination +in multiple proportions, the idea of atomic structure +arose in his mind as a purely physical conception, forced upon +him by study of the physical properties of the atmosphere and +other gases. The first published indications of this idea are to +be found at the end of his paper on the “Absorption of gases” +already mentioned, which was read on the 21st of October 1803 +though not published till 1805. Here he says: “Why does not +water admit its bulk of every kind of gas alike? This question +I have duly considered, and though I am not able to satisfy +myself completely I am nearly persuaded that the circumstance +depends on the weight and number of the ultimate particles of +the several gases.” He proceeds to give what has been quoted +as his first table of atomic weights, but on p. 248 of his laboratory +notebooks for 1802-1804, under the date 6th of September 1803, +there is an earlier one in which he sets forth the relative weights +of the ultimate atoms of a number of substances, derived from +analysis of water, ammonia, carbon-dioxide, &c. by chemists of +the time. It appears, then, that, confronted with the “problem +of ascertaining the relative diameter of the particles of which, +he was convinced, all gases were made up, he had recourse to +the results of chemical analysis. Assisted by the assumption +that combination always takes place in the simplest possible +way, he thus arrived at the idea that chemical combination takes +place between particles of different weights, and this it was +which differentiated his theory from the historic speculations +of the Greeks. The extension of this idea to substances in general +necessarily led him to the law of combination in multiple +proportions, and the comparison with experiment brilliantly +confirmed the truth of his deduction” (<i>A New View, &c.</i>, +pp. 50, 51). It may be noted that in a paper on the “Proportion +of the gases or elastic fluids constituting the atmosphere,” read +by him in November 1802, the law of multiple proportions +appears to be anticipated in the words—“The elements of +oxygen may combine with a certain portion of nitrous gas or +with twice that portion, but with no intermediate quantity,” +but there is reason to suspect that this sentence was added +some time after the reading of the paper, which was not published +till 1805.</p> + +<p>Dalton communicated his atomic theory to Dr Thomson, who +by consent included an outline of it in the third edition of his +<i>System of Chemistry</i> (1807), and Dalton gave a further account of +it in the first part of the first volume of his <i>New System of Chemical +Philosophy</i> (1808). The second part of this volume appeared +in 1810, but the first part of the second volume was not issued +till 1827, though the printing of it began in 1817. This delay +is not explained by any excess of care in preparation, for much +of the matter was out of date and the appendix giving the author’s +latest views is the only portion of special interest. The second +part of vol. ii. never appeared.</p> + +<p>Altogether Dalton contributed 116 memoirs to the Manchester +Literary and Philosophical Society, of which from 1817 till his +death he was the president. Of these the earlier are the most +important. In one of them, read in 1814, he explains the +principles of volumetric analysis, in which he was one of the +earliest workers. In 1840 a paper on the phosphates and +arsenates, which was clearly unworthy of him, was refused by +the Royal Society, and he was so incensed that he published it +himself. He took the same course soon afterwards with four +other papers, two of which—“On the quantity of acids, bases +and salts in different varieties of salts” and “On a new and easy +method of analysing sugar,” contain his discovery, regarded +by him as second in importance only to the atomic theory, that +certain anhydrous salts when dissolved in water cause no increase +in its volume, his inference being that the “salt enters into the +pores of the water.”</p> + +<p>As an investigator, Dalton was content with rough and inaccurate +instruments, though better ones were readily attainable. +Sir Humphry Davy described him as a “very coarse experimenter,” +who “almost always found the results he required, +trusting to his head rather than his hands.” In the preface to +the second part of vol. i. of his <i>New System</i> he says he had so +often been misled by taking for granted the results of others +that he “determined to write as little as possible but what I can +attest by my own experience,” but this independence he carried +so far that it sometimes resembled lack of receptivity. Thus +he distrusted, and probably never fully accepted, Gay-Lussac’s +conclusions as to the combining volumes of gases; he held +peculiar and quite unfounded views about chlorine, even after +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page779" id="page779"></a>779</span> +its elementary character had been settled by Davy; he persisted +in using the atomic weights he himself had adopted, even when +they had been superseded by the more accurate determinations +of other chemists; and he always objected to the chemical +notation devised by J. J. Berzelius, although by common consent +it was much simpler and more convenient than his cumbersome +system of circular symbols. His library, he was once heard to +declare, he could carry on his back, yet he had not read half the +books it contained.</p> + +<p>Before he had propounded the atomic theory he had already +attained a considerable scientific reputation. In 1804 he was +chosen to give a course of lectures on natural philosophy at the +Royal Institution in London, where he delivered another course +in 1809-1810. But he was deficient, it would seem, in the +qualities that make an attractive lecturer, being harsh and +indistinct in voice, ineffective in the treatment of his subject, +and “singularly wanting in the language and power of illustration.” +In 1810 he was asked by Davy to offer himself as a +candidate for the fellowship of the Royal Society, but declined, +possibly for pecuniary reasons; but in 1822 he was proposed +without his knowledge, and on election paid the usual fee. Six +years previously he had been made a corresponding member of +the French Academy of Sciences, and in 1830 he was elected as +one of its eight foreign associates in place of Davy. In 1833 Lord +Grey’s government conferred on him a pension of £150, raised in +1836 to £300. Never married, though there is evidence that he +delighted in the society of women of education and refinement, +he lived for more than a quarter of a century with his friend +the Rev. W. Johns (1771-1845), in George Street, Manchester, +where his daily round of laboratory work and tuition was broken +only by annual excursions to the Lake district and occasional +visits to London, “a surprising place and well worth one’s while +to see once, but the most disagreeable place on earth for one of a +contemplative turn to reside in constantly.” In 1822 he paid a +short visit to Paris, where he met many of the distinguished men +of science then living in the French capital, and he attended +several of the earlier meetings of the British Association at York, +Oxford, Dublin and Bristol. Into society he rarely went, and +his only amusement was a game of bowls on Thursday afternoons. +He died in Manchester in 1844 of paralysis. The first attack he +suffered in 1837, and a second in 1838 left him much enfeebled, +both physically and mentally, though he remained able to make +experiments. In May 1844 he had another stroke; on the 26th +of July he recorded with trembling hand his last meteorological +observation, and on the 27th he fell from his bed and was found +lifeless by his attendant. A bust of him, by Chantrey, was +publicly subscribed for in 1833 and placed in the entrance hall of +the Manchester Royal Institution.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Henry, <i>Life of Dalton</i>, Cavendish Society (1854); Angus +Smith, <i>Memoir of John Dalton and History of the Atomic Theory</i> +(1856), which on pp. 253-263 gives a list of Dalton’s publications; +and Roscoe and Harden, <i>A New View of the Origin of Dalton’s Atomic +Theory</i> (1896); also Atom.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALTON,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Whitfield county, +Georgia, U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the state, 100 m. N.N.W. of +Atlanta. Pop. (1890) 3046; (1900) 4315 (957 negroes); (1910) 5324. +Dalton is served by the Southern, the Nashville, Chattanooga & +St Louis, and the Western & Atlanta (operated by the Nashville, +Chattanooga & St Louis) railways. The city is in a rich agricultural +region; ships cotton, grain, fruit and ore; and has various +manufactures, including canned fruit and vegetables, flour and +foundry and machine shop products. It is the seat of Dalton +Female College. Dalton was founded by Duff Green and others +in 1848, and was incorporated in 1874. Hither General Braxton +Bragg retreated after his defeat at Chattanooga in the last week +of November 1863. Three weeks afterwards Bragg, in command +of the army in northern Georgia in winter quarters here, was +replaced by General Joseph E. Johnston, who, with his force of +54,400, adopted defensive tactics to meet Sherman’s invasion of +Georgia, with his 99,000 or 100,000 men in the Army of the +Cumberland (60,000) under General G. H. Thomas, the Army of +the Tennessee (25,000) under General J. B. M‘Pherson, and the +Army of the Ohio (14,000) under General J. M. Schofield. The +Federal forces stretched for 20 m. in a position south of Ringgold +and between Ringgold and Dalton. Johnston’s line of defences +included Rocky Face Ridge, a wall of rock through which the +railway passes about 5 m. north-west of the city, Mill Creek (1 m. +north-north-west of Dalton), which he dammed so that it could +not be forded, and earthworks north and east of the city. On +the 7th of May General M’Pherson started for Resaca, 18 m. +south of Dalton, to occupy the railway there in Johnston’s rear, +but he did not attack Resaca, thinking it too strongly protected; +Thomas, with Schofield on his left, on the 7th forced the Confederates +through Buzzard’s Roost Gap (the pass at Mill Creek) +north-west of Dalton; at Dug Gap, 4 m. south-west of Dalton, +on the 8th a fierce Federal assault under Brigadier-General John +W. Geary failed to dislodge the Confederates from a quite impregnable +position. On the 11th the main body of Sherman’s +army followed M’Pherson toward Resaca, and Johnston, having +evacuated Dalton on the night of the 12th, was thus forced, after +five days’ manœuvring and skirmishing, to march to Resaca and +to meet Sherman there.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. D. Cox, <i>The Atlanta Campaign</i> (New York, 1882); Johnson +and Buel, <i>Battles and Leaders of the Civil War</i> (4 vols., New York, +1887); and <i>Official Records of the War of the Rebellion</i>, series 1, vols. +32, 38, 39, 45, 49; series ii., vol. 8.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALTON-IN-FURNESS,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> a market town in the North Lonsdale +parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 4 m. N.E. by N. +of Barrow-in-Furness by the Furness railway. Pop. of urban +district (1901) 13,020. The church of St Mary is in the main a +modern reconstruction, but retains ancient fragments and a font +believed to have belonged to Furness Abbey. This fine ruin lies +3 m. south of Dalton (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Furness</a></span>). St Mary’s churchyard +contains the tomb of the painter George Romney, a native of +the town. Of Dalton Castle there remains a square tower, +showing decorated windows. Here was held the manorial court +of Furness Abbey. There are numerous iron-ore mines in the +parish, and ironworks at Askam-in-Furness, in the northern part +of the district.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALY, AUGUSTIN<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (1838-1899), American theatrical manager +and playwright, was born in Plymouth, North Carolina, on the +20th of July 1838. He was dramatic critic for several New York +papers from 1859, and he adapted or wrote a number of plays, +<i>Under the Gaslight</i> (1867) being his first success. In 1869 he was +the manager of the Fifth Avenue theatre, and in 1879 he built +and opened Daly’s theatre in New York, and, in 1893, Daly’s +theatre in London. At the former he gathered a company of +players, headed by Miss Ada Rehan, which made for it a high +reputation, and for them he adapted plays from foreign sources, +and revived Shakespearean comedies in a manner before unknown +in America. He took his entire company on tour, visiting +England, Germany and France, and some of the best actors on +the American stage have owed their training and first successes +to him. Among these were Clara Morris, Sara Jewett, John +Drew, Fanny Davenport, Maude Adams, Mrs Gilbert and many +others. Daly was a great book-lover, and his valuable library +was dispersed by auction after his death, which occurred in +Paris on the 7th of June 1899. Besides plays, original and +adapted, he wrote <i>Woffington: a Tribute to the Actress and the +Woman</i> (1888).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DALYELL<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Dalziell</span> or <span class="sc">Dalzell</span>), <b>THOMAS</b> (d. 1685), +British soldier, was the son of Thomas Dalyell of Binns, Linlithgowshire, +a cadet of the family of the earls of Carnwath, and +of Janet, daughter of the 1st Lord Bruce of Kinloss, master of +the rolls in England. He appears to have accompanied the +Rochelle expedition in 1628, and afterwards, becoming colonel, +served under Robert Munro, the general in Ireland. He was +taken prisoner at the capitulation of Carrickfergus in August +1650, but was given a free pass, and having been banished from +Scotland remained in Ireland. He was present at the battle of +Worcester (3rd of September 1651), where his men surrendered, +and he himself was captured and imprisoned in the Tower. In +May he escaped abroad, and in 1654 took part in the Highland +rebellion and was excepted from Cromwell’s act of grace, a +reward of £200 being offered for his capture, dead or alive. The +king’s cause being now for the time hopeless, Dalyell entered the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page780" id="page780"></a>780</span> +service of the tsar of Russia, and distinguished himself as general +in the wars against the Turks and Tatars. He returned to Charles +in 1665, and on the 19th of July 1666 he was appointed commander-in-chief +in Scotland to subdue the Covenanters. He +defeated them at Rullion Green and exercised his powers with +great cruelty, his name becoming a terror to the peasants. He +obtained several of the forfeited estates. On the 3rd of January +1667 he was made a privy councillor, and from 1678 till his death +represented Linlithgow in the Scottish parliament. He was +incensed by the choice of the duke of Monmouth as commander-in-chief +in June 1679, and was confirmed in his original appointment +by Charles, but in consequence did not appear at Bothwell +Bridge till after the close of the engagement. On the 25th of +November 1681, a commission was issued authorizing him to +enrol the regiment afterwards known as the Scots Greys. He +was continued in his appointment by James II., but died soon +after the latter’s accession in August 1685. He married Agnes, +daughter of John Ker of Cavers, by whom he had a son, Thomas, +created a baronet in 1685, whose only son and heir, Thomas, +died unmarried. The baronetage apparently became extinct, +but it was assumed about 1726 by James Menteith, a son of the +sister of the last baronet, who took the name of Dalyell; his +last male descendant, Sir Robert Dalyell, died unmarried in +1886.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAM.<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1) (A common Teutonic word, cf. Swed. and Ger. +<i>damm</i>, and the Gothic verb <i>faurdammjan</i>, to block up), a barrier +of earth or masonry erected to restrain, divert or contain a +body of water, particularly in order to form a reservoir. (2) +(Fr. <i>dame</i>, dame; Lat. <i>domina</i>, feminine of <i>dominus</i>, lord, +master), the mother of an animal, now chiefly used of the larger +quadrupeds, and particularly of a mare, the mother of a foal.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMAGES<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (through O. Fr. <i>damage</i>, mod. Fr. <i>dommage</i>, from +Lat. <i>damnum</i>, loss), the compensation which a person who has +suffered a legal wrong is by law entitled to recover from the person +responsible for the wrong. Loss caused by an act which is not +a legal wrong (<i>damnum sine injuria</i>) is not recoverable, e.g. +where a father loses a young child by the negligence of a third +party.</p> + +<p>The principle of compensation in law makes its first appearance +as a substitute for personal retaliation. In primitive law something +of the nature of the Anglo-Saxon <i>wer-gild</i>, or the <span class="grk" title="poinê">ποινή</span> +of the <i>Iliad</i>, appears to be universal. It marks out with great +minuteness the measure of the compensation appropriate to +each particular case of personal injury. And there is a resemblance +between the legal compensation, as it may be called, and +the compensation which an injured person, seeking his own +remedy, would be likely to exact for himself. In such a system +the two entirely different objects of personal satisfaction and +criminal punishment are not clearly separated, and in fact, +criminal and civil remedies were administered in the same +proceeding.</p> + +<p>Under modern systems of law, the object of legal compensation +is to place the injured person as nearly as possible in the situation +in which he would have been but for the injury; and the controlling +principle is that compensation should be determined so +far as possible by the actual amount of the loss sustained. In +England, civil proceedings for reparation and criminal proceedings +for punishment are with few exceptions carefully kept +separate. In Scotland, pursuit of the two kinds of remedies in +the same proceeding is possible but very rare; but in France and +other European states it is lawful and usual in the case of those +delicts which are also punishable criminally.</p> + +<p>In the law of England the two historical systems of common +law and equity viewed compensation or reparation from two +different points of view. The principle of the common law was +that the amount of every injury might be estimated by pecuniary +valuation. The idea was no doubt derived from the old tariffs +of <i>were</i>, <i>bot</i> and <i>wite</i>, in which the valuations were elaborate. +Until 1858 (Cairns’ Act) courts of equity had no direct jurisdiction +to award damages, and their business was to place the +injured party in the actual position to which he was entitled +(<i>restitutio ad integrum</i>). This difference comes out most clearly +in cases of breach of contract. The common law, with a few +partial exceptions, could do no more than compel the defaulter +to make good the loss of the other party, by paying him an ascertained +sum of money as damages. Equity, recognizing the fact +that complete satisfaction was not in all cases to be obtained by +mere money payment, compelled those who broke certain classes +of contracts specifically to perform them, and in the case of acts +or defaults not amounting to breach of contract, on satisfactory +proof that a wrong was contemplated, would interfere to prevent +it by injunction; while at common law no action could be +brought until the injury was accomplished, and then only +pecuniary damages could be obtained. Since the Judicature +Acts this distinction has ceased and the appropriate remedy may +be awarded in any division of the High Court of Justice.</p> + +<p>Under the common law damages were always assessed by a +jury. Under the existing procedure in England they may be +assessed (1) by a jury under the directions of a judge; (2) by a +judge alone or sitting with assessors; (3) by a referee, official or +special, or officer of the courts with or without the assistance of +mercantile or other assessors; (4) by a consensual tribunal such +as an arbitrator or valuer selected by the parties. Whatever the +mode of assessment, it is subject to review if the assessors have +clearly mistaken the proper measure of damage.</p> + +<p>In the case of assessment by a jury, the verdict may be set +aside because the damages are clearly excessive or palpably +insufficient, or arrived at by some irregular conduct, e.g. by +setting down the sum which each juryman would give and dividing +the result by twelve. The appellate court, however, cannot, +without the consent of the parties, itself fix the amount of +damages in a case which has been submitted to a jury (<i>Watt</i> v. +<i>Watt</i>, 1905, Appeal Cases 115).</p> + +<p>The courts have gradually evolved certain rules or principles +for the proper assessment of damages, although extreme difficulty +is found in their application to concrete cases. A +distinction is drawn between <i>general</i> and <i>special</i> +<span class="sidenote">Measure of damages.</span> +damages. (1) General damage is that <i>implied by law</i> +as necessarily flowing from the breach of right, and +requiring no proof. (2) Special damage is that <i>in fact</i> caused by +the wrong. Under existing practice this form of damage cannot +be recovered unless it has been specifically claimed and proved, +or unless the best available particulars or details have been +before trial communicated to the party against whom it is +claimed.</p> + +<p><i>Contracts.</i>—“The law imposes or implies a term that upon +breach of contract damages must be paid.” The general tendency +of legal decisions in cases of contract is (i.) to make the +amount of damages which may be awarded a matter of legal +certainty, (ii.) to leave to a jury or like tribunal little more to do +than find the facts, (iii.) and to revise the assessment if it is +clear that it has been made in disregard of the terms of the +contract or of the natural and direct consequences of the breach. +The measure of damage, general speaking, is the sum necessary +to place the aggrieved party in the same position so far as money +will do it as if the contract had been performed. If the breach +is proved, but the person complaining has suffered no real +damage, he is entitled to have his legal right recognized by an +award of what are called <i>nominal damages</i>, i.e. a sum just sufficient +to carry a judgment in his favour on the infraction of his +rights. Nominal damages, it will therefore be seen, are not the +same as “small damages.” He is, however, also entitled to +prove and recover the special or particular damage lawfully +attributable to the breach. Where the contract is to pay a +fixed sum of money or liquidated amount, the measure of +damages for non-payment is the sum agreed to be paid and +interest thereon at the rate stipulated in the contract or recognized +by law.</p> + +<p>The law is the same in Scotland and in France (Civil Code, art. +1153). In some contracts the parties themselves fix the sum +to be paid as damages if the contract is not fulfilled. These +damages are described as <i>liquidated</i>, in Scots law <i>stipulated</i> or +<i>estimated</i>. It would be supposed that the sum thus fixed would +be the proper damages to be awarded. And under the French +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page781" id="page781"></a>781</span> +Civil Code (arts. 1152, 1153, 1780) the stipulation of the parties +as to the damages to be paid for breach of a stipulation other +than for paying a sum of money is binding on the courts. But +in England, Scotland and the United States, courts disregard the +words used, and inquire into the real nature of the transaction in +order to see whether the sum fixed is to be treated as ascertained +damage or as a penalty to be held <i>in terrorem</i> over the defaulter, +and in the latter case, notwithstanding the stipulation, will +require proof of the actual loss. In <i>Kemble</i> v. <i>Farren</i> (1829, 6 +Bingham, 141), a contract between a manager and an actor +provided that for a breach of any of the stipulations therein, the +sum of £1000 should be payable by the defaulter, not as a +penalty, but as liquidated and ascertained damages. Yet, the +court, observing that under the stipulations of the contract the +sum of £1000, if it were taken to be liquidated damages, might +become payable for mere non-payment of a trifling sum, held +that it was not fixed as damages, but as a penalty only. The +case in which an agreed sum is most usually treated as a penalty +is a bond to pay a fixed sum containing a condition that it shall +be void if certain acts are done or a certain smaller sum paid. +Another case is where a single lump sum is fixed as the liquidated +amount of damage to be paid for doing or failing to do a number +of different things of very varying degrees of importance (<i>Elphinstone</i> +v. <i>Monkland Iron Co.</i>, 1887, 11 A.C. 333). But the courts +have accepted as creating a contractual measure of damage a +stipulation to finish sewerage works by a given day (<i>Law</i> v. +<i>Redditch Local Board</i>, 1892, 1 Q.B. 127); or to complete +torpedo boats within a limited time for a foreign government +(<i>Clydebank Engineering Co.</i> v. <i>Yzquierda</i>, 1905, A.C. 6). In +this last case the law lords indicated that the provision of an +agreed sum was peculiarly appropriate in view of the difficulty of +showing the exact damage which a state sustains by non-delivery +of a warship. Where the damage is not liquidated or agreed +it is assessed to upon evidence as to the actual loss naturally and +directly flowing from the breach of contract.</p> + +<p>In contracts for the sale of goods the measure of damages is +fixed by statute. Where the buyer wrongfully refuses or neglects +to accept and pay for, or the seller wrongfully neglects or refuses +to deliver the goods, the measure is the estimated loss directly +and naturally resulting in the ordinary course of events from +the buyer’s or seller’s breach of contract. Where there is an +available market for the goods in question, the measure of +damages is prima facie to be ascertained by the difference between +the contract price and the market or current price at the time +or times when the goods ought to have been accepted or delivered, +or if no such time was fixed for acceptance or delivery, then at +the time of refusal to accept or deliver (Sale of Goods Act 1893, +§§ 50, 51).</p> + +<p>Where there is no market, the value is fixed by the price of the +nearest available substitute. Where the sufferer, at the request +of the person in default, postpones purchase or sale, any increased +loss thereby caused falls on the defaulter. If the buyer, +before the time fixed for delivery, has resold the goods to a sub-vendor, +he cannot claim against his own vendor any damages +which the sub-vendor may recover against him for breach of +contract, because he ought to have gone into the market and +purchased other goods. But this is subject to modification in +cases falling within the rule in <i>Hadley</i> v. <i>Baxendale</i> (1854, 9 +Exchequer, 341). But trouble and expense incurred by the seller +of finding a new purchaser or other goods may be taken account +of in assessing the damages.</p> + +<p>Where the goods delivered are not as contracted the buyer +may as a rule sue the seller for a breach of warranty, or set it +up as reduction of price. Where the warranty is of quality the +loss is prima facie the difference between the value of the goods +delivered when delivered and the value which they would have +then had if they had answered to the warranty (Sale of Goods +Act 1893, § 53). In an American case, where a person had agreed +with a boarding-house keeper for a year, and quitted the house +within the time, it was held that the measure of damages was not +the price stipulated to be paid, but only the loss caused by the +breach of contract. In contracts to marry, a special class of +considerations is recognized, and the jury in assessing damages +will take notice of the conduct of the parties. The social position +and means of the defendant may be given in evidence to show +what the plaintiff has lost by the breach of contract.</p> + +<p>On a breach of contract to replace stock lent, the measure of +damages is the price of the stock on the day when it ought to +have been delivered, or on the day of trial, at the plaintiff’s +option.</p> + +<p>In contracts for the sale of realty, the measure of damage for +breach by the vendor is the amount of any deposit paid by the +would-be purchaser and of the expenses thrown away. But the +purchaser may, in a proper case, obtain specific performance, +and if he has been cheated may obtain damages in an action for +deceit.</p> + +<p>Breaches of trust are in a sense distinct from breaches of +contract, as they fell under the jurisdiction of courts of equity +and not of the common law courts. The rule applied was to +require a defaulting trustee to make good to the beneficiaries +any loss flowing from a breach of trust and not to allow him to +set off against this liability any gain to the trust fund resulting +from a different breach of trust or from good management +(Lewin on <i>Trusts</i>, ed. 1904, 1146).</p> + +<p>In estimating the proper amount to be assessed as damages +for a breach of contract, it is not permissible to include every +loss caused by the act or default upon which the claim for +damages is based. The damage to be awarded must be that +fairly and naturally arising from the breach under ordinary +circumstances or the special circumstances of the particular +contract, or in other words, which may reasonably be supposed +to have been in the contemplation of the parties at the time of +making the contract. The chief authority for this rule is the +case of <i>Hadley</i> v. <i>Baxendale</i> (1854, 9 Exch. 341), which has +been accepted in Scotland and the United States and throughout +the British empire, and often differs little, if at all, from the +rule adopted in the French civil code (art. 1150). In that case +damages were sought for the loss of profits caused by a steam mill +being kept idle, on account of the delay of the defendants in +sending a new shaft which they had contracted to make. The +court held the damage to be too remote, and stated the proper +rule as follows:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“Where two parties have made a contract which one of them has +broken, the damages which the other party ought to receive in respect +of such breach of contract should be such as may fairly and reasonably +be considered either arising naturally, i.e. according to the usual +course of things, from such breach of contract itself, or such as may +reasonably be supposed to have been in the contemplation of both +parties at the time they made the contract as the probable result of +the breach of it. Now if the special circumstances under which the +contract was actually made were communicated by the plaintiffs to +the defendants, and thus known to both parties, the damages resulting +from such contract which they would reasonably contemplate +would be the amount of injury which would ordinarily flow from a +breach of contract under these special circumstances so known and +communicated. But on the other hand, if those special circumstances +were wholly unknown to the party breaking the contract, he at the +most could only be supposed to have had in his mind the amount of +injury which would arise generally, and in the great multitude of +cases not affected by any special circumstances, from such breach of +contract.”<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> +</div> + +<p>The rule is, however, only a general guide, and does not +obviate the necessity of inquiring in each case what are the +natural or contemplated damages. In an action by the proprietor +of a theatre, it was alleged that the defendant had +written a libel on one of the plaintiff’s singers, whereby she was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page782" id="page782"></a>782</span> +deterred from appearing on the stage, and the plaintiff lost his +profits; such loss was held to be too remote to be the ground +of an action for damages. In <i>Smeed</i> v. <i>Foord</i> (1 Ellis and Ellis, +602), the defendant contracted to deliver a threshing-machine +to the plaintiff, a farmer, knowing that it was needed to thresh +the wheat in the field. Damages were sought for injury done to +the wheat by rain in consequence of the machine not having +been delivered in time, and also for a fall in the market before +the grain could be got ready. It was held that the first claim +was good, as the injury might have been anticipated, but that +the second was bad. When, through the negligence of a railway +company in delivering bales of cotton, the plaintiffs, having no +cotton to work with, were obliged to keep their workmen unemployed, +it was held that the wages paid and the profits lost +were too remote for damages. On the other hand, where the +defendant failed to keep funds on hand to meet the drafts of +the plaintiff, so that a draft was returned dishonoured, and his +business in consequence was for a time suspended and injured, +the plaintiff was held entitled to recover damage for such loss.</p> + +<p>The rule that the contract furnishes the measure of the +damages does not prevail in the case of unconscionable, i.e. +unreasonable, absurd or impossible contracts. The old school-book +juggle in geometrical progression has more than once +been before the courts as the ground of an action. Thus, when +a man agreed to pay for a horse a barley-corn per nail, doubling +it every nail, and the amount calculated as 32 nails was 500 +quarters of barley, the judge directed the jury to disregard the +contract, and give as damages the value of the horse. And when +a defendant had agreed for £5 to give the plaintiff two grains of +rye on Monday, four on the next Monday,<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and so on doubling it +every Monday, it was contended that the contract was impossible, +as all the rye in the world would not suffice for it; but one of the +judges said that, though foolish, it would hold in law, and the +defendant ought to pay something for his folly. And when a +man had promised £1000 to the plaintiff if he should find his owl, +the jury were directed to mitigate the damages.</p> + +<p>Interest is recoverable as damages at common law only upon +mercantile securities, such as bills of exchange and promissory +notes or where a promise to pay interest has been made in express +terms or may be implied from the usage of trade or other circumstances +[Mayne, <i>Damages</i> (7th ed.) 166]. Under the Civil +Procedure Act 1833, the jury is allowed to give interest by way +of damages on debts or sums payable at a certain time, or if not +so payable, from the date of demand in writing, and in actions +on policies of insurance, and in actions of tort arising out of +conversion or seizure of goods.</p> + +<p>In the United States, interest is in the discretion of the court, +and is made to depend on the equity of the case. In both +England and America compound interest, or interest on interest, +appears to have been regarded with the horror that formerly +attached to usury. Lord Eldon would not recognize as valid +an agreement to pay compound interest. And Chancellor Kent +held that compound interest could not be taken except upon a +special agreement made after the simple interest became due.</p> + +<p>In Scotland compound interest is not allowed by way of +damages.</p> + +<p><i>Torts.</i>—In actions arising otherwise than from breach of +contract (i.e. of tort, delict or quasi-delict), the principles applied +to the assessment of damage in cases arising <i>ex contractu</i> are +generally applicable (<i>The Notting Hill</i>, 1884, 9 P.D. 105); but +from the nature of the case less precision in assessment is attainable. +The remoteness of the damage claimed is a ground for +excluding it from the assessment. In some actions of tort the +damages can be calculated with exactness just as in cases of +contract, e.g. in most cases of interference with rights of property +or injury to property. Thus, for wrongful dispossession from a +plantation (in Samoa) it was held that the measure of damage +was the annual value of the produce of the lands when wrongfully +seized, less the cost of management, and that the wilful character +of the seizure did not justify the infliction of a penalty over and +above the loss to the plaintiff (<i>McArthur</i> v. <i>Cornwall</i>, 1892, +A.C. 75). Where minerals are wrongfully severed and carried +away, the damage is assessed by calculating the value of the +mineral as a chattel and deducting the reasonable expense of +getting it. But where the interference with property, whether +real or personal, is attended by circumstances of aggravation +such as crime or fraud or wanton insult, it is well established +that additional damages may be awarded which in effect are +penal or vindictive. In actions for injuries to the person or to +reputation, it is difficult to make the damages a matter for +exact calculation, and it has been found impossible or inexpedient +by the courts to prevent juries from awarding amounts which +operate as a punishment of the delinquent rather than as a +true assessment of the reparation due to the sufferer. And +while a bad motive (malice) is seldom enough to give a cause +of action, proof of its existence is a potent inducement to a jury +to swell the assessment of damages, as evidence of bad character +may induce them to reduce the damages to a derisory amount. +In the case of injuries to the person caused by negligence, the +tribunal considers, as part of the general damage, the actual pain +and suffering, including nervous shock (but not wounded feelings) +and the permanent or temporary character of the injury, and as +special damage the loss of time and employment during recovery +and the cost of cure. It is difficult by any arithmetical calculation +to value pain and suffering; nor is it easy to value the effect +of a permanent injury; and in the Workmen’s Compensation Act +and Employers’ Liability Act, an attempt has been made in the +case of workmen to assess by reference to the earnings of the +injured person.</p> + +<p>In the case of such wrongs as assault, arrest or prosecution, +the motives of the defendant naturally affect the amount of +general damage awarded, even when not essential elements in +the case, and the damages are “at large.” Any other rule would +enable a man to distribute blows as he can utter curses at a +statutory tariff of so much a curse, according to his rank. This +position was strongly asserted in the cases arising out of the +celebrated “General Warrants” (1763) in the time of Lord +Camden, who is reported in one case to have said, “damages +are designed not only as a satisfaction to the injured person, +but as a punishment to the guilty, and as a proof of the detestation +in which the wrongful act is held by the jury.” In another +case he mentioned the importance of the question at issue, +the attempt to exercise arbitrary power, as a reason why the +jury might give exemplary damages. Another judge, in another +case, said “I remember a case when the jury gave £500 damages +for knocking a man’s hat off; and the court refused a new +trial.” And he urged that exemplary damages for personal insult +would tend to prevent the practice of duelling.</p> + +<p>The right to give exemplary or punitive or (as they are sometimes +called) vindictive damages is fully recognized both in +England and in the United States, and especially in the following +cases. (1) Against the co-respondent in a divorce suit. This +right is the same as that recognized at common law in the +abolished action of criminal conversation, but the damages +awarded may by the court be applied for the maintenance and +education of the children of the marriage or the maintenance +of the offending wife. (2) In actions of trespass to land where +the conduct of the defendant has been outrageous. (3) In +actions of defamation spoken or written, attended by circumstances +of aggravation, and the analogous action of malicious +prosecution. (4) In the anomalous actions of seduction and +breach of promise of marriage.</p> + +<p>In actions for wrongs, as in those <i>ex contractu</i>, the damages +may be general or special. In a few cases of tort, the action fails +wholly if special damage is not proved, e.g. slander by imputing +to a man vicious, unchaste or immoral conduct, slander of title +to land or goods or nuisance.</p> + +<p>In theory, English law does not recognize “moral or intellectual” +damage, such as was claimed by the South African +Republic after the Jameson Raid. The law of Scotland allows +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page783" id="page783"></a>783</span> +a solatium for wounded feelings, as does French law under the +name of <i>dommage moral, éprouvé par la partie lésée dans sa +liberté, sa sûreté, son honneur, sa considération, ses affections +légitimes ou dans la jouissance de son patrimoine</i>. Under this head +compensation is awarded to widow, child or sister, for the loss of +husband, parent or brother, in addition to the actual pecuniary +loss (Dalloz, <i>Nouveau Code civil</i>, art. 1382). Claims of damage +for negligence are defeated by proof of what is known as contributory +negligence (<i>faute commune</i>). In other claims of tort, +as already stated, the conduct of the claimant may materially +reduce the amount of his damages.</p> + +<p>In cases of damages to ships or cargo by collision at sea, the +rule of the old court of admiralty (derived from the civil law +and preserved by the Judicature Acts) is that when both or all +vessels are to blame, the whole amount of the loss is divided +between them. The rule appears not to apply to cases where +death or personal injury results from the collision (“Vera Cruz,” +1884, 14 A.C. 59. “Bernina,” 1888, 13 A.C. 1).</p> + +<p><i>Costs.</i>—The costs of a legal proceeding are no longer treated as +damages to be assessed by the jury, nor do they depend on any +act of the jury. The right to receive them depends on the court, +and they are taxed or assessed by its officers (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Costs</a></span>). In a +few cases where costs cannot be given, e.g. on compulsory +acquisition of land in London, the assessing tribunal is invited +to add to the compensation price the owner’s expense in the +compensation proceedings.</p> + +<p><i>Death.</i>—In English law a right to recover damages for a tort +as a general rule was lost on the death of the sufferer or of the +delinquent. The cause of action was considered not to survive. +This rule differs from that of Scots law (under which the claim +for damages arises at the moment of injury and is not affected +by the death of either party). The English rule has been criticized +as barbarous, and has been considerably broken in upon by +legislation, in cases of taking the goods of another (4 Edw. III., +c. 7, 1330), and injuries to real or personal property (3 & 4 +Will. IV., c. 42, 1833), but continues in force as to such matters +as defamation, malicious prosecution and trespass to the person. +By the Fatal Accidents Act 1846 (commonly called Lord Campbell’s +Act), it is enacted that wherever a wrongful act would have +entitled the injured person to recover damages (if death had not +ensued), the person who in such case would have been liable +“shall be liable to an action for damages for the pecuniary loss +which the death has caused to certain persons, and although the +death shall have been caused under such circumstances as amount +in law to felony.” The only persons by whom or for whose +benefit such an action may be brought are the husband, wife, +parent and child (including grandchild and stepchild, but not +illegitimate child) of the deceased. The right of action and the +measure of damages are statutory and distinct from the right +which the deceased had till he died. It was held in <i>Osborne</i> v. +<i>Gillett</i>, 1873, L.R. 8 Ex. 88, and has since been approved (<i>Clark</i> +v. <i>London General Omnibus Co.</i>, 1906, 2 K.B. 648), that no +person can recover damages for the death of another wrongfully +killed by the act of a third person, unless he claims through or +represents the person killed, and unless that person in case of an +injury short of death would have had a good claim to recover +damages.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In Scotland the law of compensation for breach of contract is +substantially the same as in England. In cases of delict or quasi-delict, +the measure of reparation is a fair and reasonable compensation +for the advantage which the sufferer would, but for the wrong, +have enjoyed and has lost as a natural and proximate result of the +wrong, coupled with a solatium for wounded feelings. The claim +for reparation vests as a debt when it arises and survives to the +representatives of the sufferer, and against the representatives of the +delinquent. In other words, the maxim <i>actio personalis moritur cum +persona</i> does not apply in Scots law; and even in cases of murder +there has always been recognized a right to “assythement.”</p> + +<p>See also Mayne on <i>Damages</i>, 7th ed.; Sedgwick on <i>Damage</i>; +Bell, <i>Principles of Law of Scotland</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. F. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In the Indian Contracts Code (Act xii. of 1872), the rule is thus +summarized:—</p> + +<p>“When a contract has been broken, the party who suffers by +such breach is entitled to receive from the party who has broken +the contract, compensation for any loss or damage caused to him +thereby, which naturally arose in the usual course of things from +such breach, or which the parties knew when they made the contract +to be likely to result from the breach of it. Such compensation is +not to be given for any remote or indirect loss or damage sustained +by reason of the breach.... In estimating the loss or damage +arising from a breach of contract, the means of remedying the +inconvenience caused by the non-performance must be taken into +account” (§ 73).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Quolibet alio die lunae</i>, which was translated by some <i>every +Monday</i>, and by others <i>every other Monday</i>. The amount in the +latter case would have been 125 quarters, in the former 524,288,000 +quarters.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMANHŪR,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> a town of Lower Egypt, 38 m. E.S.E. of Alexandria +by rail, capital of the richly-cultivated province of Behera. +It is the ancient Timenhōr, “town of Horus,” which in Ptolemaic +times was capital of a nome and lay on the Canopic branch of the +Nile. Its name and other circumstances imply that Horus +(= Apollo) was worshipped there in the same form as at Edfu +(Brugsch, <i>Dictionnaire géographique</i>, p. 521), but its Greek name, +Hermopolis Parva, should indicate Thoth as the local god. +This apparent contradiction is perhaps due to some early misunderstanding +that held its ground after the Greeks knew Egypt +better. A much frequented fair is held at Damanhūr three +times a year, and there are several cotton manufactories. +Population (1907) 38,752.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMARALAND<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span>, a region of south-western Africa, bounded +W. by the Atlantic, E. by the Kalahari, N. by Ovampoland, +and S. by Great Namaqualand. It forms the central portion +of German South-West Africa. Damaraland is alternatively +known as Hereroland, both names being derived from the tribes +inhabiting the region. The so-called Damara consist of two +probably distinct peoples. They are known respectively as +“the Hill Damara” and “the Cattle Damara,” i.e. those who +breed cattle in the plains. The Hill Damara are Negroes with +much Hottentot blood, and have adopted the Hottentot tongue, +while the Cattle Damara are of distinct Bantu-Negro descent +and speak a Bantu language. The term Damara (“Two Dama +Women”) is of Hottentot origin, and is not used by the people, +who call themselves Ova-herero, “the Merry People” (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hottentots</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Herero</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMASCENING,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Damaskeening</span>, a term sometimes applied +to the production of damask steel, but properly the art of in-crusting +wire of gold (and sometimes of silver or copper) on the +surface of iron, steel or bronze. The surface upon which the +pattern is to be traced is finely undercut with a sharp instrument, +and the gold thread by hammering is forced into and securely +held by the minute furrows of the cut surface. This system of +ornamentation is peculiarly Oriental, having been much practised +by the early goldsmiths of Damascus, and it is still eminently +characteristic of Persian metal work.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMASCIUS,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> the last of the Neoplatonists, was born in +Damascus about A.D. 480. In his early youth he went to Alexandria, +where he spent twelve years partly as a pupil of Theon, +a rhetorician, and partly as a professor of rhetoric. He then +turned to philosophy and science, and studied under Hermeias +and his sons, Ammonius and Heliodorus. Later on in life he +migrated to Athens and continued his studies under Marinus, +the mathematician, Zenodotus, and Isidore, the dialectician. +He became a close friend of Isidore, succeeded him as head of the +school in Athens, and wrote his biography, part of which is +preserved in the <i>Bibliotheca</i> of Photius (see appendix to the +Didot edition of Diogenes Laërtius). In 529 Justinian closed the +school, and Damascius with six of his colleagues sought an +asylum, probably in 532, at the court of Chosroes I., king of +Persia. They found the conditions intolerable, and in 533, in a +treaty between Justinian and Chosroes, it was provided that they +should be allowed to return. It is believed that Damascius +settled in Alexandria and there devoted himself to the writing +of his works. The date of his death is not known.</p> + +<p>His chief treatise is entitled <i>Difficulties and Solutions of First +Principles</i> (<span class="grk" title="’Aporiai kai chuseis peri tôn prôtôn apxôn">Ἀπορίαι καὶ χύσεις περὶ τῶν πρώτων ἀρχῶν</span>). It +examines into the nature and attributes of God and the human +soul. This examination is, in two respects, in striking contrast +to that of certain other Neoplatonist writers. It is conspicuously +free from that Oriental mysticism which stultifies so much of the +later pagan philosophy of Europe. Secondly, it contains no +polemic against Christianity, to the doctrines of which, in fact, +there is no allusion. Hence the charge of impiety which Photius +brings against him. His main result is that God is infinite, and +as such, incomprehensible; that his attributes of goodness, +knowledge and power are credited to him only by inference +from their effects; that this inference is logically valid and +sufficient for human thought. He insists throughout on the +unity and the indivisibility of God, whereas Plotinus and +Porphyry had admitted not only a Trinity, but even an Ennead +(nine-fold personality).</p> + +<p>Interesting as Damascius is in himself, he is still more interesting +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page784" id="page784"></a>784</span> +as the last in the long succession of Greek philosophers. (See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neoplatonism</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The <span class="grk" title="Aporiai">Ἀπορίαι</span> was partly edited by J. Kopp +(1826), and in full by C. E. Ruelle (Paris, 1889). French trans. by +Chaignet (1898). See T. Whittaker, <i>The Neo-platonists</i> (Cambridge, +1901); E. Zeller, <i>History of Greek Philosophy</i>; C. E. Ruelle, <i>Le +Philosophe Damascius</i> (1861); Ch. Levêque, “Damascius” (<i>Journal +des savants</i>, February 1891). See also works quoted under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neoplatonism</a></span> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alexandrian School</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMASCUS,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> the chief town of Syria, and the capital of a +government province of the same name, 57 m. from Beirut, +situated in 33° 30′ N., and 36° 18′ E.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The origin of the city is unknown, and the popular +belief that it is the oldest city in the world still inhabited has +much to recommend it. It has been suggested that the ideogram +by which it is indicated in Babylonian monuments literally means +“fortress of the Amorites”; could this be proved it would be +valuable testimony to its antiquity if not its origin. The city is +mentioned in the document that describes the battle of the four +kings against five, inserted in the book of Genesis (ch. xiv.): +Abram (Abraham) is reported to have pursued the routed kings +to Hobah <i>north of Damascus</i> (v. 15). The name of the steward +of Abram’s establishment is given in Genesis xv. 2, as <i>Dammesek +Eliezer</i>, which is explained in the Aramaic and Syriac versions as +“Eliezer of Damascus.” This reading is adopted by the authorized +version, but the Hebrew, as it stands, will not support it. +There is probably here some textual corruption.</p> + +<p>In the period of the Egyptian suzerainty over Palestine in the +eighteenth dynasty Damascus (whose name frequently appears in +the Tell el-Amarna tablets) was capital of the small province of +Ubi. The name of the city in the Tell el-Amarna correspondence +is Dimashḳa. Towards the end of that period the overrunning +of Palestine and Syria by the Khabiri and Suti, the forerunners +of the Aramaean immigration, changed the conditions, language +and government of the country. One of the first indications of +this change that has been traced is the appearance of the Aramaean +Darmesek for Damascus in an inscription of Rameses III.</p> + +<p>The growth of an independent kingdom with Damascus as +centre must date from very early in the Aramaean occupation. +It had reached such strength that though Tiglath-Pileser I. +reduced the whole of northern Syria, and by the fame of his +victories induced the king of Egypt to send him presents, yet he +did not venture to attack Kadesh and Damascus, so that this +kingdom acted as a “buffer” between the king of Assyria and +the rising kingdom of Saul.</p> + +<p>David, however, after his accession made an expedition +against Damascus as a reprisal for the assistance the city had +given his enemy Hadadezer, king of Zobah. The expedition was +successful; David smote of the Syrians 22,000 men, and took +and garrisoned the city; “and the Syrians became servants to +David, and brought gifts” (2 Sam. viii. 5, 6; 1 Chron. xviii. 5). +This statement, it should be noticed, has been questioned by +some modern historical and textual critics, who believe that +“Syria” (Hebrew <i>Aram</i>) is here a corruption for “Edom.” +There is no other evidence—save the corrupt passage, 2 Sam. xxiv. +6, where “Tahtim-hodshi” is explained as meaning “the land +of the Hittites to Kadesh”—that David’s kingdom was so far +extended northward. However this may be, it is evident that +the Israelite possession of Syria did not last long. A subordinate +of Hadadezer named Rezon (Rasun) succeeded in establishing +himself in Damascus and in founding there a royal dynasty. +Throughout the reign of Solomon (1 Kings xi. 23, 24) this Rezon +seems to have been a constant enemy to the kingdom of Israel.</p> + +<p>It is inferred from 1 Kings xv. 19 that Abijah, son of Rehoboam, +king of Judah, made a league with Tab-Rimmon of Damascus to +assist him in his wars against Israel, and that afterwards Tab-Rimmon’s +son Ben-Hadad came to terms with the second successor +of Jeroboam, Baasha. Asa, son of Abijah, followed his +father’s policy, and bought the aid of Syria, whereby he was +enabled to destroy the border fort that Baasha had erected +(1 Kings xv. 22).</p> + +<p>Hostilities between Israel and Syria lasted to the days of Ahab. +From Omri the king of Syria took cities and the right to establish +a quarter for his merchants in Samaria (1 Kings xx. 34). His +son Ben-Hadad made an unsuccessful attack on Israel at Aphek, +and was allowed by Ahab to depart on a reversal of these terms +(<i>loc. cit.</i>). This was the cause of a prophetic denunciation (1 +Kings xx. 42). According to the Assyrian records Ahab fought +as Ben-Hadad’s ally at the battle of Karkar against Shalmaneser +in 854. This seems to indicate an intermediate defeat and +vassalage of Ahab, of which no direct record remains; and it +was probably in the attempt to throw off this vassalage in 853, +the year after the battle of Karkar, that Ahab met his death in +battle with the Syrians (1 Kings xxii. 34-40). In the reign of +Jehoram, Naaman, the Syrian general, came and was cleansed by +the prophet Elisha of leprosy (2 Kings v.).</p> + +<p>In 843 Hazael assassinated Ben-Hadad and made himself +king of Damascus. The states which Ben-Hadad had brought +together into a coalition against the advancing power of Assyria +all revolted; and Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, took advantage +of this in 842 and attacked Syria. He wasted the country, but +could not take the capital. Jehu, king of Israel, paid tribute to +Assyria, for which Hazael afterwards revenged himself, during +the time when Shalmaneser was distracted by his Armenian +wars, by attacking the borders of Israel (2 Kings x. 32).</p> + +<p>Adad-nirari IV. invaded Syria and besieged Damascus in 806. +Taking advantage of this and similar succeeding events, Jehoash, +king of Israel, recovered the cities that his father had lost to +Hazael.</p> + +<p>In 734 Ahaz became king of Judah, and Rezon (Raṣun, Rezin), +the king of Damascus at the time, came up against him; at the +same time the Edomites and the Philistines revolted. Ahaz +appealed to Tiglath-Pileser III., king of Assyria, sent him gifts, +and besought his protection. Tiglath-Pileser invaded Syria, and +in 732 succeeded in reducing Damascus (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Babylonia +and Assyria</a></span>, <i>Chronology</i>, § 5, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>, §§ 10 sqq.).</p> + +<p>Except for the abortive rising under Sargon in 720, we hear +nothing more of Damascus for a long period. In 333 B.C., after +the battle of Issus, it was delivered over by treachery to Parmenio, +the general of Alexander the Great; the harem and +treasures of Darius had here been lodged. It had a chequered +history during the wars of the successors of Alexander, being +occasionally in Egyptian hands. In 112 B.C. the empire of Syria +was divided by Antiochus Grypus and Antiochus Cyzicenus; +the city of Damascus fell to the share of the latter. Hyrcanus +took advantage of the disputes of these rulers to advance his +own kingdom. Demetrius Eucaerus, successor of Cyzicenus, +invaded Palestine in 88 B.C., and defeated Alexander Jannaeus +at Shechem. On his dethronement and captivity by the Parthians, +Antiochus Dionysus, his brother, succeeded him, but was +slain in battle by Hāritha (Aretas) the Arab—the first instance of +Arab interference with Damascene politics. Hāritha yielded to +Tigranes, king of Armenia, who in his turn was driven out by +Q. Caecilius Metellus (son of Scipio Nasica), the Roman general. +In 63 Syria was made a Roman province.</p> + +<p>In the New Testament Damascus appears only in connexion +with the miraculous conversion of St Paul (Acts ix., xxii., xxvi.), +his escape from Aretas the governor by being lowered in a basket +over the wall (Acts ix. 25; 2 Cor. xi. 32, 33), and his return +thither after his retirement in Arabia (Gal. i. 17).</p> + +<p>In 150, under Trajan, Damascus became a Roman provincial +city.</p> + +<p>On the establishment of Christianity Damascus became the +seat of a bishop who ranked next to the patriarch of Antioch. +The great temple of Damascus was turned by Arcadius into +a Christian church.</p> + +<p>In 635 Damascus was captured for Islam by Khālid ibn Walīd, +the great general of the new religion, being the first city to yield +after the battle of the Yarmuk (Hieromax). After the murder +of Ali, the fourth caliph, his successor Moawiya transferred the +seat of the Caliphate (q.v.) from Mecca to Damascus and thus +commenced the great dynasty of the Omayyads, whose rule +extended from the Atlantic to India. This dynasty lasted about +ninety years; it was supplanted by that of the Abbasids, who +removed the seat of empire to Mesopotamia; and Damascus +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page785" id="page785"></a>785</span> +passed through a period of unrest in which it was captured and +ravaged by Egyptians, Carmathians and Seljuks in turn. The +crusaders attacked Damascus in 1126, but never succeeded in +keeping a firm hold of it, even during their brief domination of the +country. It was the headquarters of Saladin in the wars with +the Franks. Of its later history we need only mention the +Mongolian capture in 1260; its Egyptian recapture by the +Mameluke Kotuz; the ferocious raid of Timur (Tamerlane) in +1399; and the conquest by the Turkish sultan Selim, whereby +it became a city of the Ottoman empire (1516). In its more +recent history the only incidents that need be mentioned are +its capture by Ibrahim Pasha, the Egyptian general, in 1832, +when the city was first opened to the representatives of foreign +powers; its revolt against Ibrahim’s tyranny in 1834, which +he crushed with the aid of the Druses; the return of the city +to Turkish domination, when the Egyptians were driven out +of Syria in 1840 by the allied powers; and the massacre of July +1860, when the Moslem population rose against the Christians, +burnt their quarter, and slaughtered about 3000 adult males.</p> + +<p><i>Modern City.</i>—Damascus is a city with a population estimated +at from 154,000 (35,000 Christians and Jews) to 225,000 (55,000 +Christians and Jews), situated near the northern edge of a plain +called the Ghutah, at the foot of Anti-Lebanon, 2250 ft. above +the sea. The river Barada (the <i>Abanah</i> of 2 Kings v. 12) rises +in the Anti-Lebanon, runs for about 10 m. in a narrow channel, +and then spreads itself fan-wise over the plain. About 18 m. +east of the city it loses itself in the marshlands known as the +Meadow Lakes. A second river, the ’Awaj (possibly the <i>Pharpar</i> +of 2 Kings), pursues a similar course. The plain is thus exceptionally +well irrigated, and its consequent fertility is proverbial +over the East. Damascus is situated on both banks of the +Barada, about 2 m. from the exit of the river from the gorge. +On the right bank is all the older part of the city, and a long +suburb called El-Meidān extending about a mile along the Hajj +Road. On the left bank are the suburbs El ‘Amāara and El-Salihia. +The waters of the river are carried by channels and +conduits to all the houses of the city. The orchards, gardens, +vineyards and fields of Damascus are said to extend over a +circuit of at least 60 m. In the surrounding plain are one hundred +and forty villages, occupied in all by about 50,000 persons (1000 +Christians, 2000 Druses).</p> + +<p>The rough mud walls in the private houses give poor promise +of splendour within. The entrance is usually by a low door, and +through a narrow winding passage which leads to the outer +court, where the master has his reception room. From this +another winding passage leads to the harem, which is the principal +part of the house. The plan of all is the same—an open court, +with a tesselated pavement, and one or two marble fountains; +orange and lemon trees, flowering shrubs, and climbing plants +give freshness and fragrance. All the apartments open into the +court; and on the south side is an open alcove, with a marble +floor, and raised dais round three sides, covered with cushions; +the front wall is supported by an ornamented Saracenic arch. +The decoration of some of the rooms is gorgeous, the walls being +covered in part with mosaics and in part with carved work, +while the ceilings are rich in arabesque ornaments, elaborately +gilt. A few of the modern Jewish houses have been embellished +at an enormous cost, but they are wanting in taste.</p> + +<p><i>Antiquities.</i>—Considering the great age of Damascus, its +comparative poverty in antiquities is remarkable. The walls +of the city seem to be Seleucid in origin; some of the Roman +gateways being still in good order. The <i>Derb el-Mistakīim</i>, or +“Straight Street,” still runs through the city from the eastern +to the western gate. At the north-west corner is a large castle +built in A.D. 1219, by El-Malik el-Ashraf, on the site of an earlier +palace. It is quadrangular, surrounded by a moat filled by the +Barada. The outer walls are in good preservation, but the +interior is ruined.</p> + +<p>The church of St John the Baptist constructed by Arcadius +on the site of the temple was turned by Caliph Walid I. (705-717) +to a mosque which was the most important building of Damascus. +It was a structure 431 ft. by 125 ft. interior dimensions, extending +along the south side of a quadrangle 163 yds. by 108 yds. Except +the famous inscription over the door—“Thy kingdom, O Christ, +is an everlasting kingdom, and thy dominion endureth throughout +all generations”—every trace of Christianity was effaced from +the church at its conversion. It was destroyed by fire on the +14th of October 1893, and though it was subsequently rebuilt, +much that was of archaeological and historical interest perished. +It is estimated that there are over two hundred mosques in +Damascus.</p> + +<p><i>Products, Manufactures, &c.</i>—Damascus occupies an important +commercial position, being the market for the whole of the desert; +it also is of great importance religiously, as being the starting-point +for the Hajj pilgrimage from Syria to Mecca, which leaves +on the 15th of the lunar month of Shawwal each year. This of +course brings much trade to the city. Its chief manufactures are +silk work, cloths and cloaks, gold and silver ornaments, &c., +brass and copper work, furniture and ornamental woodwork. +The bazaars of Damascus are among the most famous of their +kind. It is connected with Beirut and Mezerib by railway, and +at the end of the past century the great undertaking of running +a line to Mecca was commenced. In the surrounding gardens and +fields walnuts, apricots, wheat, barley, maize, &c. are grown. +Its commercial importance is referred to by Ezekiel (xxvii. 18), +who mentions its trade in wines and wool. The climate is good; +in winter there is often hard frost and much snow, and even in +summer, with a day temperature of 100° F., the nights are always +cool. Fever, dysentery and ophthalmia, chiefly due to exposure +to heavy dews and cold nights, are prevalent. Though still +the market of the nomads, the surer and cheaper sea route has +almost destroyed the transit trade to which it once owed its +wealth, and has even diminished the importance of the annual +pilgrim caravan to Mecca. The Damascene, however, still +retains his skill as a craftsman and tiller of the soil. The chief +imports are cloths, prints, muslins, raw silk, sugar, rice, &c.</p> + +<p>The value of exports and imports in certain specified years +is shown in the following table:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">1890.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1894.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1898.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Exports</td> <td class="tcr rb">£325,660</td> <td class="tcr rb">£400,830</td> <td class="tcr rb">£302,050</td> <td class="tcr rb">£386,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Imports</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">525,710</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">614,490</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">675,080</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">872,400</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Most of the Christians belong to the Orthodox and Roman +Catholic (United) Greek Churches; and there are also communities +of Melchites, Jacobites, Maronites, Nestorians, Armenians and +Protestants. There are Protestant missions, founded 1843, and +a British hospital.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Lortet, <i>La Syrie d’aujourd’hui</i>, p. 567 f. (Paris, +1884); Von Oppenheim, <i>Vom Mittelmeer zum Persischen Golf</i>, i. +49 f. (Berlin, 1899); G. A. Smith, <i>Historical Geography of the Holy +Land</i>; <i>Encyclopaedia Biblica</i>, art. “Damascus”; Consular Reports; +Baedeker-Socin, <i>Handbook to Syria and Palestine</i>. For the Great +Mosque see Dickie, Phené Spiers, and Sir C. W. Wilson in <i>Palestine +Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement</i>, Oct. 1897.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:305px; height:368px" src="images/img786.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="bold">DAMASK,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> the technical term applied to certain distinct types +of fabric. The term owes its origin to the ornamental silk fabrics +of Damascus, fabrics which were elaborately woven in colours, +sometimes with the addition of gold and other metallic threads. +At the present day it denotes a linen texture richly figured in +the weaving with flowers, fruit, forms of animal life, and other +types of ornament. “China, no doubt,” says Dr Rock (<i>Catalogue +of Textile Fabrics</i>, Victoria and Albert Museum), “was the first +country to ornament its silken webs with a pattern. India, +Persia, and Syria, then Byzantine Greece followed, but at long +intervals between, in China’s footsteps. Stuffs so figured brought +with them to the West the name ‘diaspron’ or diaper, bestowed +upon them at Constantinople. But about the 12th century the +city of Damascus, even then long celebrated for its looms, so +far outstripped all other places for beauty of design, that her +silken textiles were in demand everywhere; and thus, as often +happens, traders fastened the name of damascen or damask upon +every silken fabric richly wrought and curiously designed, no +matter whether it came or not from Damascus.” The term is +perhaps now best known in reference to damask table-cloths, a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page786" id="page786"></a>786</span> +species of figured cloth usually of flax or tow yarns, but sometimes +made partly of cotton. The finer qualities are made of the best +linen yarn, and, although the latter is of a brownish colour during +the weaving processes, the ultimate fabric is pure white. The +high lights in these cloths are obtained by long floats of warp +and weft, and, as these are set at right angles, they reflect the +light differently according to the angle of the rays of light; the +effect changes also with the position of the observer. Subdued +effects are produced by shorter floats of yarn, and sometimes +by special weaves. Any subject, however intricate, can be +copied by this method of weaving, provided that expense is no +object. The finest results are obtained when the so-called +double damask weaves are used. These weaves are shown under +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Die</a></span>, and it will be seen that each weave gives a maximum float +of seven threads. (In some special cases a weave is used which +gives a float of nine.) The small figure here shown to illustrate +a small section of a damask design is composed of the two single +damask weaves; these give a maximum float of four threads or +picks. No shading is shown in the design, and this for two +reasons—(1) the single damask weaves do not permit of +elaborate shading, although some very good effects are obtainable; +(2) the available space is not sufficiently large to show the +method to advantage. The different single damask weaves used +in the shading of these +cloths appear, however, +at the bottom of the +figure, while between +these and the design +proper there is an illustration +of the thirty-first +pick interweaving with all +the forty-eight threads.</p> + +<p>The principal British +centres for fine damasks +are Belfast and Dunfermline, +while the medium +qualities are made in +several places in Ireland, +in a few places in England, +and in the counties of +Fife, Forfar and Perth +in Scotland. Cotton +damasks, which are made +in Paisley, Glasgow, and several places in Lancashire, are +used for toilet covers, table-cloths, and similar purposes. They +are often ornamented with colours and sent to the Indian and +West Indian markets. Silk damasks for curtains and upholstery +decoration are made in the silk-weaving centres.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMASK STEEL,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Damascus Steel</span>, a steel with a peculiar +watered or streaked appearance, as seen in the blades of fine +swords and other weapons of Oriental manufacture. One way of +producing this appearance is to twist together strips of iron and +steel of different quality and then weld them into a solid mass. +A similar but inferior result may be obtained by etching with +acid the surface of a metal; parts of which are protected by some +greasy substance in such a way as to give the watered pattern +desired. The art of producing damask steel has been generally +practised in Oriental countries from a remote period, the most +famous blades having come from Isfahan, Khorasan, and +Shiraz in Persia.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMASUS,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> the name of two popes.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Damasus I.</span> was pope from 366 to 384. At the time of the +banishment of Pope Liberius (355), the deacon Damasus, like +all the Roman clergy, made energetic protest. When, however, +the emperor Constantius sent to Rome an anti-pope in the +person of Felix II., Damasus, with the other clergy, rallied to +his cause. When Liberius returned from exile and Felix was +expelled from Rome, Damasus again took his place among the +adherents of Liberius. On the death of Liberius (366) a considerable +party nominated Damasus successor; but the irreconcilables +of the party of Liberius refused to pardon his trimming, +and set up against him another deacon, Ursinus. A serious +conflict ensued between the rival factions, which quickly led to +rioting and hand-to-hand fighting. In one of these encounters +the then new basilica, called the Liberian Basilica (S. Maria +Maggiore), was partially destroyed, and 137 dead bodies were +left in the building. On several occasions the secular arm had to +intervene, although the government of the emperor Valentinian +was averse from involving itself in ecclesiastical affairs. From +the outset the prefect of Rome recognized the claims of Damasus, +and exerted himself to support him. Ursinus and the leading +men of his faction were expelled from Rome, and afterwards +from central Italy, or even interned in Gaul. They, however, +persisted obstinately in their opposition to Damasus, combating +him at first by riots, and then by calumnious law-suits, such as +that instituted by one Isaac, a converted and relapsed Jew.</p> + +<p>To the official support, which never failed him, Damasus +endeavoured to join the popular sympathy. From before his +election he had been in high favour with the Roman aristocracy, +and especially with the great ladies. At that period the urban +masses, but recently converted to Christianity, sought in the +worship of the martyrs a sort of substitute for polytheism. +Damasus showed great zeal in discovering the tombs of martyrs, +adorning them with precious marbles and monumental inscriptions. +The inscriptions he composed himself, in mediocre +verse, full of Virgilian reminiscences. Several have come down +to us on the original marbles, entire or in fragments; others are +known from old copies. In the interior of Rome he erected or +embellished the church which still bears his name (S. Lorenzo +in Damaso), near which his father’s house appears to have +stood.</p> + +<p>The West was recovering gradually from the troubles caused +by the Arian crisis. Damasus took part, more or less effectually, +in the efforts to eliminate from Italy and Illyria the last champions +of the council of Rimini. In spite of his declaration at +the council convened by him in 372, he did not succeed in +evicting Auxentius from Milan. But Auxentius died soon +afterwards, and his successor, Ambrose, undertook to bring +these hitherto abortive efforts to a successful conclusion, and to +complete the return of Illyria to the confessions of Nicaea. The +bishops of the East, however, under the direction of St Basil, +were involved in a struggle with the emperor Valens, whose +policy was favourable to the council of Rimini. Damasus, to +whom they appealed for help, was unable to be of much service +to them, the more so because that episcopal group, viewed +askance by St Athanasius and his successor Peter, was incessantly +combated at the papal court by the inveterate hatred of +Alexandria. The Eastern bishops triumphed in the end under +Theodosius, at the council of Constantinople (381), in which +the pope and the Western church took no part. They were +invited to a council of wider convocation, held at Rome in 382, +but very few attended.</p> + +<p>This council had brought to Rome the learned monk Jerome, +for whom Damasus showed great esteem. To him Damasus +entrusted the revision of the Latin text of the Bible and other +works of religious erudition. A short time before, the pope had +received a visit from the Priscillianists after their condemnation +in Spain, and had dismissed them. Damasus died in 384, on +the 11th of December, the day on which his memory is still +celebrated.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Damasus II.</span>, pope from the 17th of July to the 9th of August +1048, was the ephemeral successor of Clement II. His original +name was Poppo, and he was bishop of Brixen when the emperor +Henry III. raised him to the papacy.</p> +<div class="author">(L. D.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMAUN<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Daman</span>, a town of Portuguese India, capital of +the settlement of Damaun, situated on the east side of the +entrance of the Gulf of Cambay within the Bombay Presidency. +The area of the settlement is 82 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 41,671. +The settlement is divided into two parts, Damaun proper, and +the larger <i>pargana</i> of Nagar Havili, the two being separated +by a narrow strip of British territory. The soil is fertile, and rice, +wheat and tobacco are the chief crops. The teak forests are +valuable. Weaving is an industry less important than formerly; +mats and baskets are manufactured, and deep-sea fishing is an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page787" id="page787"></a>787</span> +important industry. The shipbuilding business at the town +of Damaun is important. Early in the 19th century a large +transit trade in opium between Karachi and China was carried +on at Damaun, but it ceased in 1837, when the British prohibited +it after their conquest of Sind. The settlement is administered as +a unit, and has a municipal chamber.</p> + +<p>Damaun town was sacked and burnt by the Portuguese in +1531. It was subsequently rebuilt, and in 1558 was again taken +by the Portuguese, who made a permanent settlement and +converted the mosque into a Christian church. From that time +it has remained in their hands. The territory of Damaun proper +was conquered by the Portuguese in 1559; that of Nagar Havili +was ceded to them by the Mahrattas in 1780 in indemnification +for piracy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAME<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (through the Fr. from Lat. <i>domina</i>, mistress, lady, +the feminine of <i>dominus</i>, master, lord), properly a name of +respect or a title equivalent to “lady,” now surviving in English +as the legal designation of the wife or widow of a baronet or knight +and prefixed to the Christian name and surname. It has also +been used in modern times by certain societies or orders, e.g. the +Primrose League, as the name of a certain rank among the lady +members, answering to the male rank of knight. The ordinary +use of the word by itself is for an old woman. As meaning +“mistress,” i.e. teacher, “dame” was used of the female keepers +of schools for young children, which have become obsolete since +the advance of public elementary education. At Eton College +boarding-houses kept by persons other than members of the +teaching staff of the school were known as “Dames’ Houses,” +though the head might not necessarily be a lady. As a term of +address to ladies of all ranks, from the sovereign down, “madam,” +shortened to “ma’am,” represents the French <i>madame</i>, my +lady.</p> + +<p>“Damsel,” a young girl or maiden, now only used as a literary +word, is taken from the Old French <i>dameisele</i>, formed from <i>dame</i>, +and parallel with the popular <i>dansele</i> or <i>doncele</i> from the medieval +Latin <i>domicella</i> or <i>dominicella</i>, diminutive of <i>domina</i>. The +French <i>damoiselle</i> and <i>demoiselle</i> are later formations. The +English literary form “damosel” was another importation from +France in the 15th century. In the early middle ages <i>damoiseau</i>, +medieval Latin <i>domicellus</i>, <i>dameicele</i>, <i>damoiselle</i>, <i>domicella</i>, were +used as titles of honour for the unmarried sons and daughters +of royal persons and lords (<i>seigneurs</i>). Later the <i>damoiseau</i> +(in the south <i>donzel</i>, in Béarn <i>domengar</i>) was specifically a young +man of gentle birth who aspired to knighthood, equivalent to +<i>écuyer</i>, esquire, or valet (q.v.). The <i>damoiseau</i> performed certain +functions and received training in knightly accomplishments +in the domestic service of his lord. Later again the name was +also used of nobles who had not been knighted. In certain +<i>seigneuries</i> in France, notably in that of Commercy, in Lorraine, +<i>damoiseau</i> became the permanent title of the holder. In England +the title, when used by the French-speaking nobility and members +of the court, was only applied to the son or grandson of the king; +thus in the <i>Laws of Edward the Confessor</i>, quoted in Du Cange +(<i>Glossarium, s.v. Domicellus</i>), we find “Rex vero Edgarum ... +pro filio nutrivit et quia cogitavit ipsum heredem facere, nominavit +<i>Ethelinge</i>, quod nos Domicellum, id, <i>Damisell</i>; sed nos +indiscrete de pluribus dicimus, quia Baronum filios vocamus +domicellos, Angli vero nullos nisi natos regum.” Froissart +calls Richard II. during the lifetime of his father the Black +Prince, <i>le jeune Demoisel</i>. The use of <i>damoiselle</i> followed much +the same development; it was first applied to the unmarried +daughters of royal persons and <i>seigneurs</i>, then to the wife of a +<i>damoiseau</i>, and also to the young ladies of gentle birth who +performed for the wives of the <i>seigneurs</i> the same domestic +services as the <i>damoiseaus</i> for their husbands. Hence the later +form <i>demoiselle</i> became merely the title of address of a young +unmarried lady, the <i>mademoiselle</i> of modern usage, the English +“miss.” At the court of France, after the 17th century, +<i>Mademoiselle</i>, without the name of the lady, was a courtesy +title given to the eldest daughter of the eldest brother of the king, +who was known as <i>Monsieur</i>. To distinguish the daughter of +Gaston d’Orléans, brother of Louis XIII., from the daughter of +Philippe d’Orléans, brother of Louis XIV., the former, Anne +Marie Louise, duchesse de Montpensier, was called <i>La Grande +Mademoiselle</i>, by which title she is known to history (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Montpensier, +A. M. L., Duchesse de</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAME’S VIOLET,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> the English name for <i>Hesperis matronalis</i>, +a herbaceous plant belonging to the natural order Cruciferae, +and closely allied to the wallflower and stock. It has an erect +stout leafy stem 2 to 3 ft. high, with irregularly toothed short-stalked +leaves and white or lilac flowers, ¾ in. across, which are +scented in the evening (hence the name of the genus, from the +Gr. <span class="grk" title="hesperos">ἕσπερος</span>, evening). The slender pods are constricted between +the seeds. The plant is a native of Europe and temperate +Asia, and is found in Britain as an escape from gardens, in +meadows and plantations.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMGHAN,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> a town of Persia in the province of Semnan va +Damghan, 216 m. from Teheran on the high-road thence to +Khorasan, at an elevation of 3770 ft. and in 36° 10′ N., 54° 20′ E. +Pop. about 10,000. There are post and telegraph offices, and +a great export trade is done in pistachios and almonds, the latter +being of the kind called <i>Kaghazi</i> (“of paper”) with very thin +shells, famous throughout the country. Damghan was an important +city in the middle ages, but only a ruined mosque with +a number of massive columns and some fine wood carvings +and two minarets of the 11th century remain of that period. +Near the city, a few miles south and south-west, are the remains +of Hecatompylos, extending from Frat, 16 m. south of Damghan, +to near Gúsheh, 20 m. west. Damghan was destroyed by the +Afghans in 1723. On an eminence in the western part of the +city are the ruins of a large square citadel with a small white-washed +building, called <i>Molūd Khaneh</i> (the house of birth), in +which Fath Ali Shah was born (1772).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMIANI, PIETRO<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1007-1072), one of the most celebrated +ecclesiastics of the 11th century, was born at Ravenna, and after +a youth spent in hardship and privation, gained some renown +as a teacher. About 1035, however, he deserted his secular +calling and entered the hermitage of Fonte Avellana, near +Gubbio; and winning sound reputation through his piety and +his preaching, he became the head of this establishment about +1043. A zealot for monastic and clerical reform, he introduced +a more severe discipline, including the practice of flagellation, +into the house, which, under his rule, quickly attained celebrity, +and became a model for other foundations. Extending the area +of his activities, he entered into communication with the emperor +Henry III., addressed to Pope Leo IX. in 1049 a writing denouncing +the vices of the clergy and entitled <i>Liber Gomorrhianus</i>; +and soon became associated with Hildebrand in the work of +reform. As a trusted counsellor of a succession of popes he was +made cardinal bishop of Ostia, a position which he accepted +with some reluctance; and presiding over a council at Milan in +1059, he courageously asserted the authority of Rome over this +province, and won a signal victory for the principles which he +advocated. He rendered valuable assistance to Pope Alexander +II. in his struggle with the anti-pope, Honorius II.; and having +served the papacy as legate to France and to Florence, he was +allowed to resign his bishopric in 1067. After a period of retirement +at Fonte Avellana, he proceeded in 1069 as papal legate to +Germany, and persuaded the emperor Henry IV. to give up his +intention of divorcing his wife Bertha. During his concluding +years he was not altogether in accord with the political ideas of +Hildebrand. He died at Faenza on the 22nd of February 1072. +Damiani was a determined foe of simony, but his fiercest wrath +was directed against the married clergy. He was an extremely +vigorous controversialist, and his Latin abounds in denunciatory +epithets. He was specially devoted to the Virgin Mary, and +wrote an <i>Officium Beatae Virginis</i>, in addition to many letters, +sermons, and other writings.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His works were collected by Cardinal Cajetan, and were published +in four volumes at Rome (1606-1615), and then at Paris in 1642, +at Venice in 1743, and there are other editions. See A. Vogel, <i>Peter +Damiani</i> (Jena, 1856); A. Capecelatro, <i>Storia di S. Pier Damiani e +del suo tempo</i> (Florence, 1862); F. Neukirch, <i>Das Leben des Peter +Damiani</i> (Göttingen, 1875); L. Guerrier, <i>De Petro Damiano</i> (Orleans, +1881); W. von Giesebrecht, <i>Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page788" id="page788"></a>788</span> +(Leipzig, 1885-1890); and Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, Band +iv. (Leipzig, 1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMIEN, FATHER,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> the name in religion of <span class="sc">Joseph de +Veuster</span> (1840-1889), Belgian missionary, was born at Tremeloo, +near Louvain, on the 3rd of January 1840. He was educated for +a business career, but in his eighteenth year entered the Church, +joining the Society of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and Mary (also +known as the Picpus Congregation), and taking Damien as his +name in religion. In October 1863, while he was still in minor +orders, he went out as a missionary to the Pacific Islands, taking +the place of his brother, who had been prevented by an illness. +He reached Honolulu in March 1864, and was ordained priest in +Whitsuntide of that year. Struck with the sad condition of the +lepers, whom it was the practice of the Hawaian government to +deport to the island of Molokai, he conceived an earnest desire +to mitigate their lot, and in 1873 volunteered to take spiritual +charge of the settlement at Molokai. Here he remained for the +rest of his life, with occasional visits to Honolulu, until he became +stricken with leprosy in 1885. Besides attending to the spiritual +needs of the lepers, he managed, by the labour of his own hands +and by appeals to the Hawaian government, to improve materially +the water-supply, the dwellings, and the victualling of the +settlement. For five years he worked alone; subsequently +other resident priests from time to time assisted him. He succumbed +to leprosy on the 15th of April 1889. Some ill-considered +imputations upon Father Damien by a Presbyterian minister +produced a memorable tract by Robert Louis Stevenson (<i>An +Open Letter to the Rev. Dr Hyde</i>, 1890).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also lives by E. Clifford (1889) and Fr. Pamphile (1889).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. M‘F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMIENS, ROBERT FRANÇOIS<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1715-1757), a Frenchman +who attained notoriety by his attack on Louis XV. of France in +1757, was born in a village near Arras in 1715, and early enlisted +in the army. After his discharge, he became a menial in the +college of the Jesuits in Paris, and was dismissed from this as +well as from other employments for misconduct, his conduct +earning for him the name of Robert le Diable. During the +disputes of Clement XI. with the parlement of Paris the mind +of Damiens seems to have been excited by the ecclesiastical +disorganization which followed the refusal of the clergy to grant +the sacraments to the Jansenists and Convulsionnaires; and he +appears to have thought that peace would be restored by the +death of the king. He, however, asserted, perhaps with truth, +that he only intended to frighten the king without wounding +him severely. On the 5th of January 1757, as the king was +entering his carriage, he rushed forward and stabbed him with a +knife, inflicting only a slight wound. He made no attempt to +escape, and was at once seized. He was condemned as a regicide, +and sentenced to be torn in pieces by horses in the Place de +Grève. Before being put to death he was barbarously tortured +with red-hot pincers, and molten wax, lead, and boiling oil were +poured into his wounds. After his death his house was razed to +the ground, his brothers and sisters were ordered to change their +names, and his father, wife, and daughter were banished from +France.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Pièces originales et procédures du procès fait à Robert François +Damiens</i> (Paris, 1757).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMIETTA,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a town of Lower Egypt, on the eastern (Damietta +or Phatnitic) branch of the Nile, about 12 m. above its mouth, +and 125 m. N.N.E. of Cairo by rail. Pop. (1907) 29,354. +The town is built on the east bank of the river between it and +Lake Menzala. Though in general ill-built and partly ruinous, +the town possesses some fine mosques, with lofty minarets, +public baths and busy bazaars. Along the river-front are many +substantial houses furnished with terraces, and with steps leading +to the water. Their wooden lattices of saw-work are very +graceful. After Cairo and Alexandria, Damietta was for centuries +the largest town in Egypt, but the silting up of the entrance +to the harbour, the rise of Port Said, and the remarkable development +of Alexandria have robbed Damietta of its value as a port. +It has still, however, a coasting trade with Syria and the Levant. +Ships over 6 ft. draught cannot enter the river, but must anchor +in the offing. Lake Menzala yields large supplies of fish, which +are dried and salted, and these, with rice, furnish the chief articles +of trade.</p> + +<p>Damietta is a Levantine corruption of the Coptic name +<i>Tamiati</i>, Arabic <i>Dimyāt</i>. The original town was 4 m. nearer +the sea than the modern city, and first rose into importance on +the decay of Pelusium. When it passed into the hands of the +Saracens it became a place of great wealth and commerce, and, +as the eastern bulwark of Egypt, was frequently attacked by the +crusaders. The most remarkable of these sieges lasted eighteen +months, from June 1218 to November 1219, and ended in the +capture of the town, which was, however, held but for a brief +period. In June 1249 Louis IX. of France occupied Damietta +without opposition, but being defeated near Mansura in the +February following, and compelled (6th April) to surrender +himself prisoner, Damietta was restored to the Moslems as part +of the ransom exacted. To prevent further attacks from the sea +the Mameluke sultan Bibars blocked up the Phatnitic mouth of +the Nile (about 1260), razed old Damietta to the ground, and +transferred the inhabitants to the site of the modern town. It +continued to be a place of commercial importance for a considerable +period, until in fact Port Said gave the eastern part of +the Delta a better port. Damietta gives its name to dimity, a +kind of striped cloth, for which the place was at one time famous. +Cotton and silk goods are still manufactured here.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMIRI,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> the common name of <span class="sc">Kamāl ud-Dīn Muhammad ibn +Mūsā ud-Damīrī</span> (1344-1405), Arabian writer on canon law and +natural history, belonged to one of the two towns called Damīra +near Damietta and spent his life in Egypt. Of the Shafi’ite school +of law, he became professor of tradition in the <i>Ruknīyya</i> at Cairo, +and also at the mosque el-Azhar; in connexion with this work +he wrote a commentary on the <i>Minhāj ut-Tālibin</i> of Nawāwi +(q.v.). He is, however, better known in the history of literature +for his <i>Life of Animals</i> (<i>Hayāt ul-Hayawān</i>), which treats in +alphabetic order of 931 animals mentioned in the Koran, the +traditions and the poetical and proverbial literature of the Arabs. +The work is a compilation from over 500 prose writers and nearly +200 poets. The correct spelling of the names of the animals is +given with an explanation of their meanings. The use of the +animals in medicine, their lawfulness or unlawfulness as food, +their position in folk-lore are the main subjects treated, while +occasionally long irrelevant sections on political history are +introduced.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The work exists in three forms. The fullest has been published +several times in Egypt; a mediate and a short recension exist in +manuscript. Several editions have been made at various times of +extracts, among them the poetical one by Suyūti (q.v.), which was +translated into Latin by A. Ecchelensis (Paris, 1667). Bochartus +in his <i>Hierozoicon</i> (1663) used Damīrī’s work. There is a translation +of the whole into English by Lieutenant-Colonel Jayakar (Bombay, +1906-1908).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMIRON, JEAN PHILIBERT<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1794-1862), French philosopher, +was born at Belleville. At nineteen he entered the +normal school, where he studied under Burnouf, Villemain, and +Cousin. After teaching for several years in provincial towns, he +came to Paris, where he lectured on philosophy in various institutions, +and finally became professor in the normal school, +and titular professor at the Sorbonne. In 1824 he took part +with P. F. Dubois and Th. S. Jouffroy in the establishment of +the <i>Globe</i>; and he was also a member of the committee of the +society which took for its motto <i>Aide-toi, le ciel t’aidera</i>. In +1833 he was appointed chevalier of the Legion of Honour, and in +1836 member of the Academy of Moral Sciences. Damiron died +at Paris on the 11th of January 1862.</p> + +<p>The chief works of Damiron, of which the best are his accounts +of French philosophers, are the following:—An edition of the +<i>Nouveaux mélanges philosophiques de Jouffroy</i> (1842), with a +notice of the author, in which Damiron softened and omitted +several expressions used by Jouffroy, which were opposed to the +system of education adopted by the Sorbonne, an article which +gave rise to a bitter controversy, and to a book by Pierre Leroux, +<i>De la mutilation des manuscrits de M. Jouffroy</i> (1843); <i>Essai sur +l’histoire de la philosophie en France au XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1828, 3rd ed. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page789" id="page789"></a>789</span> +1834); <i>Essai sur l’histoire de la philosophie en France au XVII. +siècle</i> (1846); <i>Mémoires à servir pour l’histoire de la philosophie +en France au XVIII. siècle</i> (1858-1864); <i>Cours de la philosophie</i>; +<i>De la Providence</i> (1849, 1850).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Franck, <i>Moralistes et philosophes</i> (1872).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMJANICH, JÁNOS<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1804-1849), Hungarian soldier, was +born at Stása in the Banat. He entered the army as an officer +in the 61st regiment of foot, and on the outbreak of the Hungarian +war of independence was promoted to be a major in the +third Honvéd regiment at Szeged. Although an orthodox Serb, +he was from the first a devoted adherent of the Magyar liberals. +He won his colonelcy by his ability and valour at the battles of +Alibunár and Lagerdorf in 1848. At the beginning of 1849 he +was appointed commander of the 3rd army corps in the middle +Theiss, and quickly gained the reputation of being the bravest +man in the Magyar army, winning engagement after engagement +by sheer dash and daring. At the beginning of March 1849 he +annihilated a brigade at Szolnók, perhaps his greatest exploit. +He was elected deputy for Szolnók to the Hungarian diet, but +declined the honour. Damjanich played a leading part in the +general advance upon the Hungarian capital under Görgei. He +was present at the engagements of Hort and Hatvan, converted +the doubtful fight of Tápió-Bicsk into a victory, and fought +with irresistible <i>élan</i> at the bloody battle of Isaszeg. At the +ensuing review at Gödöllö, Kossuth expressed the sentiments of +the whole nation when he doffed his hat as Damjanich’s battalions +passed by. Always a fiery democrat, Damjanich uncompromisingly +supported the extremist views of Kossuth, and was +appointed commander of one of the three divisions which, under +Görgei, entered Vācz in April 1849. His fame reached its +culmination when, on the 19th of April, he won the battle of +Nagysarló, which led to the relief of the hardly-pressed fortress +of Komárom. At this juncture Damjanich broke his leg, an +accident which prevented him from taking part in field operations +at the most critical period of the war, when the Magyars +had to abandon the capital for the second time. He recovered +sufficiently, however, to accept the post of commandant of the +fortress of Arad. After the Vilagós catastrophe, Damjanich, on +being summoned to surrender, declared he would give up the +fortress to a single company of Cossacks, but would defend it to +the last drop of his blood against the whole Austrian army. He +accordingly surrendered to the Russian general Demitrius +Buturlin (1790-1849), by whom he was handed over to the +Austrians, who shot him in the market-place of Arad a few days +later.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Ödön Hamvay, <i>Life of János Damjanich</i> (Hung.), (Budapest, +1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMMAR,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Dammer</span> (Hind, <i>damar</i> = resin, pitch), a resin, +or rather series of resins, obtained from various coniferous trees +of the genus <i>Dammara</i> (<i>Agathis</i>). East Indian dammar or cat’s +eye resin is the produce of <i>Dammara orientalis</i>, which grows in +Java, Sumatra, Borneo and other eastern islands and sometimes +attains a height of 80-100 ft. It oozes in large quantities +from the tree in a soft viscous state, with a highly aromatic +odour, which, however, it loses as it hardens by exposure. The +resin is much esteemed in oriental communities for incense-burning. +Dammar is imported into England by way of Singapore; +and as found in British markets it is a hard, transparent, +brittle, straw-coloured resin, destitute of odour. It is readily +soluble in ether, benzol and chloroform, and with oil of turpentine +it forms a fine transparent varnish which dries clear, smooth and +hard. The allied kauri gum, or dammar of New Zealand +(Australian dammar), is produced by <i>Dammara australis</i>, or +kauri-pine, the wood of which is used for wood paving. Much of +the New Zealand resin is found fossil in circumstances analogous +to the conditions under which the fossil copal of Zanzibar is +obtained. Dammar is besides a generic Indian name for various +other resins, which, however, are little known in western commerce. +Of these the principal are black dammar (the Hindustani +<i>kala-damar</i>), yielded by <i>Canarium strictum</i>, and white dammar, +Indian copal, or piney varnish (<i>sufed-damar</i>), the produce of +<i>Vateria indica</i>. Sal dammar (<i>damar</i>) is obtained from <i>Shorea +robusta</i>; <i>Hopea micrantha</i> is the source of rock dammar (the +Malay <i>dammer-batu</i>); and other species yield resins which are +similarly named and differ little in physical properties.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMMARTIN,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> a small town of France, in the department of +Seine et Marne, 22 m. N.E. of Paris. It is well situated on a +hill forming part of the plateau of la Goële, and is known as +Dammartin-en-Goële to distinguish it from Dammartin-sous-Tigeaux, +a small commune in the same department. Dammartin +is historically important as the seat of a countship of which the +holders played a considerable part in French history. The +earliest recorded count of Dammartin was a certain Hugh, who +made himself master of the town in the 10th century; but his +dynasty was replaced by another family in the 11th century. +Reynald I. (Renaud), count of Dammartin (d. 1227), who was +one of the coalition crushed by King Philip Augustus at the +battle of Bouvines (1214), left two co-heiresses, of whom the +elder, Maud (Matilda or Mahaut), married Philip Hurepel, son +of Philip Augustus, and the second, Alix, married Jean de Trie, +in whose line the countship was reunited after the death of +Philip Hurepel’s son Alberic. The countship passed, through +heiresses, to the houses of Fayel and Nanteuil, and in the 15th +century was acquired by Antoine de Chabannes (d. 1488), one +of the favourites of King Charles VII., by his marriage with +Marguerite, heiress of Reynald V. of Nanteuil-Aci and Marie of +Dammartin. This Antoine de Chabannes, count of Dammartin +in right of his wife, fought under the standard of Joan of Arc, +became a leader of the <i>Écorcheurs</i>, took part in the war of the +public weal against Louis XI., and then fought for him against +the Burgundians. The collegiate church at Dammartin was +founded by him in 1480, and his tomb and effigy are in the +chancel. His son, Jean de Chabannes, left three heiresses, +of whom the second left a daughter who brought the countship +to Philippe de Boulainvilliers, by whose heirs it was sold in +1554 to the dukes of Montmorency. In 1632 the countship was +confiscated by Louis XIII. and bestowed on the princes of +Condé.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMME,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> a decayed city of Belgium, 5 m. N.E. of Bruges, +once among the most important commercial ports of Europe. +It is situated on the canal from Bruges to Sluys (Ecluse), but +in the middle ages a navigable channel or river called the Zwyn +gave ships access to it from the North Sea. The great naval +battle of Sluys, in which Edward III. destroyed the French +fleet and secured the command of the channel, was fought in +the year 1340 at the mouth of the Zwyn. About 1395 this +channel began to show signs of silting up, and during the next +hundred years the process proved rapid. In 1490 a treaty was +signed at Damme between the people of Bruges and the archduke +Maximilian, and very soon after this event the channel became +completely closed up, and the foreign merchant gilds or “nations” +left the place for Antwerp. This signified the death of the port +and was indirectly fatal to Bruges as well. The marriage of +Charles the Bold and Margaret of York, sister of Edward IV., +was celebrated at Damme on the 2nd of July 1468. It will give +some idea of the importance of the town to mention that it had +its own maritime law, known as <i>Droit maritime de Damme</i>. The +new ship canal from Zeebrugge will not revive the ancient port, +as it follows a different route, leaving Damme and Ecluse quite +untouched. Damme, although long neglected, preserves some +remains of its former prosperity, thanks to its remoteness from +the area of international strife in the Low Countries. The tower +of Notre Dame, dating from 1180, is a landmark across the +dunes, and the church behind it, although a shell, merits inspection. +Out of a portion of the ancient markets a hôtel-de-ville +of modest dimensions has been constructed, and in the +hospital of St Jean are a few pictures. Camille Lemonnier has +given in one of his <i>Causeries</i> a striking picture of this faded +scene of former greatness, now a solitude in which the few +residents seem spectres rather than living figures.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMOCLES,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> one of the courtiers of the elder Dionysius of +Syracuse. When he spoke in extravagant terms of the happiness +of his sovereign, Dionysius is said to have invited him to a +sumptuous banquet, at which he found himself seated under +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page790" id="page790"></a>790</span> +a naked sword suspended by a single hair (Cicero, <i>Tusc.</i> v. 21; +Horace, <i>Odes</i>, iii. 1, 17; Persius iii. 40).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMOH,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the Jubbulpore +division of the Central Provinces. The town has a railway +station, 48 m. E. of Saugor. Pop. (1901) 13,355. It has a considerable +cattle-market, and a number of small industries, such +as weaving, dyeing and pottery-making.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District of Damoh</span> has an area of 2816 sq. m. Except +on the south and east, where the offshoots from the surrounding +hills and patches of jungle break up the country, the district +consists of open plains of varying degrees of fertility, interspersed +with low ranges and isolated heights. The richest tracts lie in +the centre. The gentle declivity of the surface and the porous +character of the prevailing sandstone formation render the +drainage excellent. All the streams flow from south to north. +The Sunar and the Bairma, the two principal rivers, traverse +the entire length of the district. Little use has been made of +any of the rivers for irrigation, though in many places they offer +great facilities for the purpose. Damoh was first formed into +a separate district in 1861. In 1901 the population was 285,326, +showing a decrease of 12% in one decade due to famine. Damoh +suffered severely from the famine of 1896-1897. Fortunately +the famine of 1900 was little felt. A branch of the Indian +Midland railway was opened throughout from Saugor to Katni +in January 1899.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMON,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> of Syracuse, a Pythagorean, celebrated for his +disinterested affection for Phintias (not, as commonly given, +Pythias), a member of the same sect. Condemned to death by +Dionysius the Elder (or Younger) of Syracuse, Phintias begged +to be set at liberty for a short time that he might arrange his +affairs. Damon pledged his life for the return of his friend; +and Phintias faithfully returned before the appointed day of +execution. The tyrant, to express his admiration of their +fidelity, released both the friends and begged to be admitted +to their friendship (Diod. Sic. x. 4; Cicero, <i>De Off.</i> iii. 10). +Hyginus (<i>Fab.</i> 257, who is followed by Schiller in his ballad, +<i>Die Bürgschaft</i>) tells a similar story, in which the two friends +are named Moerus and Selinuntius.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMOPHON,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> a Greek sculptor of Messene, who executed +many statues for the people of Messene, Megalopolis, Aegium and +other cities of Peloponnesus. Considerable fragments, including +three colossal heads from a group by him representing Demeter, +Persephone, Artemis and the giant Anytus, have been discovered +on the site of Lycosura in Arcadia, where was a temple of the +goddess called “The Mistress.” They are preserved in part in +the museum at Athens and partly on the spot. Hence there +has arisen a great controversy as to the date of the artist, who +has been assigned to various periods, from the 4th century B.C. +to the 2nd A.D. A good account of the whole matter will be +found in Frazer’s <i>Pausanias</i>, iv. 372-379. Frazer wisely inclines +to an early date; it is in fact difficult to find any period, +when the cities mentioned were in a position to found temples, +later than the time of Alexander.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMP,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a common Teutonic word, meaning vapour or mist +(cf. Ger. <i>Dampf</i>, steam), and hence moisture. In its primitive +sense the word persists in the vocabulary of coal-miners. Their +“firedamp” (formerly fulminating damp) is marsh gas, which, +when mixed with air and exploded, produced “choke damp,” +“after damp,” or “suffocating damp” (carbon dioxide). +“Black damp” consists of accumulations of irrespirable gases, +mostly nitrogen, which cause the lights to burn dimly, and +the term “white damp” is sometimes applied to carbon monoxide. +As a verb, the word means to stifle or check; hence +damped vibrations or oscillations are those which have been +reduced or stopped, instead of being allowed to die out naturally; +the “dampers” of the piano are small pieces of felt-covered +wood which fall upon the strings and stop their vibrations +as the keys are allowed to rise; and the “damper” of a +chimney or flue, by restricting the draught, lessens the rate of +combustion.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAMPIER, WILLIAM<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1652-1715), English buccaneer, navigator +and hydrographer, was born at East Coker, Somersetshire, +in 1652 (baptized 8th of June). Having early become an orphan, +he was placed with the master of a ship at Weymouth, in which +he made a voyage to Newfoundland. On his return he sailed to +Bantam in the East Indies. He served in 1673 in the Dutch +War under Sir Edward Sprague, and was present at two engagements +(28th of May; 4th of June); but then fell sick and was +put ashore. In 1674 he became an under-manager of a Jamaica +estate, but continued only a short time in this situation. He +afterwards engaged in the coasting trade, and thus acquired an +accurate knowledge of all the ports and bays of the island. He +made two voyages to the Bay of Campeachy (1675-1676), and +remained for some time with the logwood-cutters, varying this +occupation with buccaneering. In 1678 he returned to England, +again visiting Jamaica in 1679 and joining a party of buccaneers, +with whom he crossed the Isthmus of Darien, spent the year +1680 on the Peruvian coast, and sacking, plundering and burning, +made his way down to Juan Fernandez Island. After serving +with another privateering expedition in the Spanish Main, he +went to Virginia and engaged with a captain named Cook for a +privateering voyage against the Spaniards in the South Seas. +They sailed in August 1683, touched at the Guinea coast, and +then proceeded round Cape Horn into the Pacific. Having +touched at Juan Fernandez, they made the coast of South +America, cruising along Chile and Peru. They took some prizes, +and with these they proceeded to the Galapagos Islands and +to Mexico, which last they fell in with near Cape Blanco. +While they lay here Captain Cook died, and the command +devolved on Captain Davis, who, with several other pirate +vessels, English and French, raided the west American shores +for the next year, attacking Guayaquil, Puebla Nova, &c. At +last Dampier, leaving Davis, went on board Swan’s ship, and +proceeded with him along the northern parts of Mexico as far as +southern California. Swan then proposed, as the expedition met +with “bad success” on the Mexican coast, to run across the +Pacific and return by the East Indies. They started from Cape +Corrientes on the 31st of March 1686, and reached Guam in the +Ladrones on the 20th of May; the men, having almost come to +an end of their rations, had decided to kill and eat their leaders +next, beginning with the “lusty and fleshy” Swan. After six +months’ drunkenness and debauchery in the Philippines, the +majority of the crew, including Dampier, left Swan and thirty-six +others behind in Mindanao, cruised (1687-1688) from Manila +to Pulo Condore, from the latter to China, and from China to +the Spice Islands and New Holland (the Australian mainland). +In March 1688 they were off Sumatra, and in May off the Nicobars, +where Dampier was marooned (at his own request, as he +declares, for the purpose of establishing a trade in ambergris) +with two other Englishmen, a Portuguese and some Malays. +He and his companions contrived to navigate a canoe to Achin +in Sumatra; but the fatigues and distress of the voyage proved +fatal to several and nearly carried off Dampier himself. After +making several voyages to different places of the East Indies +(Tongking, Madras, &c.), he acted for some time, and apparently +somewhat unwillingly, as gunner to the English fort of Benkulen. +Thence he ultimately contrived to return to England in 1691.</p> + +<p>In 1699 he was sent out by the English admiralty in command +of the “Roebuck,” especially designed for discovery in and +around Australia. He sailed from the Downs, the 14th of +January, with twenty months’ provisions, touched at the +Canaries, Cape Verdes and Bahia, and ran from Brazil round +the Cape of Good Hope direct to Australia, whose west coast he +reached on the 26th of July, in about 26° S. lat. Anchoring in +Shark’s Bay, he began a careful exploration of the neighbouring +shore-lands, but found no good harbour or estuary, no fresh +water or provisions. In September, accordingly, he left Australia, +recruited and refitted at Timor, and thence made for New Guinea, +where he arrived on the 3rd of December. By sailing along to +its easternmost extremity, he discovered that it was terminated +by an island, which he named New Britain (now Neu Pommern), +whose north, south and east coasts he surveyed. That St +George’s Bay was really St George’s Channel, dividing the island +into two, was not perceived by Dampier; it was the discovery +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page791" id="page791"></a>791</span> +of his successor, Philip Carteret. Nor did Dampier visit the +west coast of New Britain or realize its small extent on that side. +He was prevented from prosecuting his discoveries by the discontent +of his men and the state of his ship. In May 1700 he was +again at Timor, and thence he proceeded homeward by Batavia +(4th July-17th October) and the Cape of Good Hope. In +February 1701 he arrived off Ascension Island, when the vessel +foundered (21st-24th February), the crew reaching land and +staying in the island till the 3rd of April, when they were conveyed +to England by some East Indiamen and warships bound for +home. In 1703-1707 Dampier commanded two government +privateers on an expedition to the South Seas with grievous +unsuccess; better fortune attended him on his last voyage, as +pilot to Woodes Rogers in the circumnavigation of 1708-1711. +On the former venture Alexander Selkirk, the master of one of +the vessels, was marooned at Juan Fernandez; on the latter +Selkirk was rescued and a profit of nearly £200,000 was made. +But four years before the prize-money was paid Dampier died +(March 1715) in St Stephen’s parish, Coleman Street, London. +Dampier’s accounts of his voyages are famous. He had a genius +for observation, especially of the scientific phenomena affecting +a seaman’s life; his style is usually admirable—easy, clear and +manly. His knowledge of natural history, though not scientific, +appears surprisingly accurate and trustworthy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Dampier’s <i>New Voyage Round the World</i> (1697); his <i>Voyages +and Descriptions</i> (1699), a work supplementary to the <i>New Voyage</i>; +his <i>Voyage to New Holland in ... 1699</i> (1703, 1709); also Funnell’s +Narrative of the Voyage of 1703-1707; Dampier’s <i>Vindication of +his Voyage</i> (1707); Welbe’s <i>Answer to Captain Dampier’s Vindication</i>; +Woodes Rogers, <i>Cruising Voyage Round the World</i> (1712).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. R. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAN<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (from a Hebrew word meaning “judge”), a tribe of +Israel, named after a son of Jacob and Bilhah, the maid of +Rachel. The meaning of the name (referred to in Gen. xxx. 5 seq., +xlix. 16) connects Dan with Dinah (“judgment”), the daughter +of Leah, whose story in Gen. xxxiv. (cf. xlix. 5 seq.) seems to +point to an Israelite occupation of Shechem, a treacherous +massacre of its Canaanite inhabitants by Simeon and Levi, and +the subsequent scattering of the latter. But, historically, the +occupation of Shechem, whether by conquest (Gen. xlviii. 22) or +purchase (xxxiii. 19), is as obscure as the conquest of central +Palestine itself (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Joshua</a></span>), and the true relation between Dan +and Dinah is uncertain. The earliest seats of Dan lay at Zorah, +Eshtaol and Kirjath-jearim, west of Jerusalem, whence they were +forced to seek a new home, and a valuable narrative detailing +some of the events of the move is preserved in the story of the +sanctuary of the Ephraimite Micah (q.v.). Laish (Leshem) was +taken with the sword and re-named Dan (see below). Here a +sanctuary was founded under the guardianship of Jonathan, +the grandson of Moses, which survived until the “captivity of +the land” (by Tiglath-Pileser IV. in 733-732), or, according to +another notice, until the fall of Shiloh (Judg. xviii. 30 seq.). Dan +formed the northern limit of the land,<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and with Abel (-beth-Maacah) +was an old place renowned for Israelite lore (2 Sam. +xx. 18; on the text see the commentaries). Little can be made +of Dan’s history. The reference to it as a seafaring folk (Judg. +v. 17) is difficult, and it is uncertain whether its character as +represented in Gen. xlix. 17, Deut. xxxiii. 22, refers to its earlier +or later seat. The post-exilic accounts of its southern border +would make it part of Judah, and both of them are in tradition +the greatest of the tribes in the wanderings in the wilderness. +Dan was subsequently either regarded as the embodiment of +wickedness or entirely ignored; late speculation that the +Antichrist should spring from it appears to be based upon an +interpretation of Gen. xlix. 17 (see further R. H. Charles, +<i>Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs</i>, pp. 128 seq.).</p> + +<p>A brief record of the Danite migration is found in some old +detached fragments which K. Budde (<i>Richter und Samuel</i>) +ingeniously arranges thus:—Judg. i. 34 (Amorite pressure); +Josh. xix. 47<i>a</i> (see the Septuagint), 47<i>b</i>; Judg. i. 35. The position +of Judg. xvii. seq. (after the stories of Samson) may imply that +the Philistines, not the Amorites, caused the migration (cf. +1 Sam. vii. 14, where the two ethnical terms interchange). The +Mosaic priesthood and the reference to Shiloh suggest that the +story of Eli may have belonged to this cycle of narratives; and +the spoliation of the unknown sanctuary of the Ephraimite +Micah and the character of the fierce Puritan tribesmen connect +Dan with the problems of the tribes of Simeon and Levi. Dan’s +northern home lay near Beth-rehob, which appears to have been +Aramean in David’s time (2 Sam. x. 6), and it is possible that +the migration has been antedated (cf. similarly the case of Jair, +Num. xxxii. 41, Judg. x. 3-5). The Tyrian artificer sent to +Solomon by Hiram was partly of Danite descent (2 Chron. +ii. 13 seq.; but of Naphtali, so 1 Kings vii. 14); and of the two +workers in brass who took part in the building of the tabernacle in +the desert, one was Danite (Oholiab, Ex. xxxi. 6), while the other +appears to have been Calebite (Bezalel, <i>ib</i>., <i>v</i>. 2; 1 Chron. ii. 20). +The Kenites, too, have been regarded as a race of metal-workers +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cain, Kenites</a></span>), and there is evidence which would show +that Danites, Calebites and Kenites were once closely associated +in tradition.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See S. A. Cook, <i>Critical Notes</i>, Index, <i>s.v.</i>: E. Meyer, <i>Israeliten</i>, +pp. 525 seq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> On the late phrase “Dan to Beersheba” as the extreme points +of religious life in Israel, see H. W. Hogg, <i>Expositor</i>, viii. 411-421 +(1898); and for a complete discussion of the tribe, his art. “Dan” +in <i>Encyc. Bib.</i></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAN,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> a town of ancient Israel, near the head-waters of the +Jordan, inhabited before its conquest by the Danites by a peaceful +commercial population who called their city Laish or Leshem +(Josh. xix. 47, Judg. xviii.). It appears to have been even at +this early period a sacred city, the shrine of Micah being removed +hither, and it was chosen by Jeroboam as the site of one of his +calf-shrines. It makes the north limit of Palestine in the proverbial +expression “from Dan to Beersheba.” The town was +plundered by Benhadad of Damascus, and appears from that +time to have gradually declined. Its site is sought in the mound +called Tell-el-Kadi, “the hill of the judge” (Dan = “judge” +in Hebrew), though weighty authorities incline to place it 4 m. +east of this, at Banias, the old Caesarea Philippi. (See above.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANA, CHARLES ANDERSON<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1819-1897), American journalist, +was born in Hinsdale, New Hampshire, on the 8th of +August 1819. At the age of twelve he became a clerk in his +uncle’s general store at Buffalo, which failed in 1837. In 1839 +he entered Harvard, but the impairment of his eyesight in 1841 +forced him to leave college, and caused him to abandon his +intention of entering the ministry and of studying in Germany. +From September 1841 until March 1846 he lived at Brook Farm, +where he was made one of the trustees of the farm, was head +waiter when the farm became a Fourierite phalanx, and was in +charge of the phalanstery’s finances when its buildings were +burned in 1846. He had previously written for (and managed) +the <i>Harbinger</i>, the Brook Farm organ, and had written as early +as 1844 for the Boston <i>Chronotype</i>. In 1847 he joined the staff +of the New York <i>Tribune</i>, and in 1848 he wrote from Europe +letters to it and other papers on the revolutionary movements +of that year. Returning to the <i>Tribune</i> in 1849, he became its +managing-editor, and in this capacity actively promoted the +anti-slavery cause, seeming to shape the paper’s policy at a time +when Greeley was undecided and vacillating. In 1862 his +resignation was asked for by the board of managers of the +<i>Tribune</i>, apparently because of wide temperamental differences +between him and Greeley. Secretary of War Stanton immediately +made him a special investigating agent of the war department; +in this capacity Dana discovered frauds of quartermasters +and contractors, and as the “eyes of the administration,” as +Lincoln called him, he spent much time at the front, and sent to +Stanton frequent reports concerning the capacity and methods +of various generals in the field; he went through the Vicksburg +campaign and was at Chickamauga and Chattanooga, and urged +the placing of General Grant in supreme command of all the +armies in the field. Dana was second assistant-secretary of war +in 1864-1865, and in 1865-1866 conducted the newly-established +and unsuccessful Chicago <i>Republican</i>. He became the editor +and part-owner of the New York <i>Sun</i> in 1868, and remained in +control of it until his death at Glen Cove, Long Island, New York, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page792" id="page792"></a>792</span> +on the 17th of October 1897. Under Dana’s control the <i>Sun</i> +opposed the impeachment of President Johnson; it supported +Grant for the presidency in 1868; it was a sharp critic of Grant +as president; and in 1872 took part in the Liberal Republican +revolt and urged Greeley’s nomination. It favoured Tilden, +the Democratic candidate for the presidency, in 1876, opposed +the Electoral Commission and continually referred to Hayes as +the “fraud president.” In 1884 it supported Benjamin F. +Butler, the candidate of Greenback-Labor and Anti-Monopolist +parties, for the presidency, and opposed Blaine (Republican) +and even more bitterly Cleveland (Democrat); it supported +Cleveland and opposed Harrison in 1888, although it had bitterly +criticized Cleveland’s first administration, and was to criticize +nearly every detail of his second, with the exception of Federal +interference in the Pullman strike of 1894; and in 1896, on +the free-silver issue, it opposed Bryan, the Democratic candidate +for the presidency. Dana’s literary style came to be the style +of the <i>Sun</i>—simple, strong, clear, “boiled down.” <i>The Art of +Newspaper Making</i>, containing three lectures which he wrote +on journalism, was published in 1900. With George Ripley +he edited <i>The New American Cyclopaedia</i> (15 vols., 1857-1863), +reissued as the <i>American Cyclopaedia</i> in 1873-1876. He had +excellent taste in the fine arts and edited an anthology, <i>The +Household Book of Poetry</i> (1857). He was a very good linguist, +published several versions from the German, and read the +Romance and Scandinavian languages; he was an art connoisseur +and left a remarkable collection of Chinese porcelain. +Dana’s <i>Reminiscences of the Civil War</i> was published in 1898, +as was his <i>Eastern Journeys, Notes of Travel</i>. He also edited a +campaign <i>Life of U. S. Grant</i>, published over his name and that +of General James H. Wilson in 1868.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See James Wilson, <i>The Life of Charles A. Dana</i> (New York, 1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANA, FRANCIS<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1743-1811), American jurist, was born in +Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 13th of June 1743. He was +the son of Richard Dana (1699-1772), a leader of the Massachusetts +provincial bar, and a vigorous advocate of colonial rights +in the pre-revolutionary period. Francis Dana graduated at +Harvard in 1762, was admitted to the bar in 1767, and, being +an opponent of the British colonial policy, became a leader of +the Sons of Liberty, and in 1774 was a member of the first provincial +congress of Massachusetts. During a two years’ visit to +England he sought earnestly to gain friends to his colony’s cause, +but returned to Boston in April 1776 convinced that a friendly +settlement of the dispute was impossible. He was a member of +the Massachusetts executive council from 1776 to 1780, and a +delegate to the Continental Congress from 1776 to 1778. As a +member of the latter body he became chairman in January 1778 +of the committee appointed to visit Washington at Valley Forge, +and confer with him concerning the reorganization of the army. +This committee spent about three months in camp, and assisted +Washington in preparing the plan of reorganization which Congress +in the main adopted. In this year he was also a member +of a committee to consider Lord North’s offer of conciliation, +which he vigorously opposed. In the autumn of 1779 he was +appointed secretary to John Adams, who had been selected +as minister plenipotentiary to negotiate treaties of peace and +commerce with Great Britain, and in December 1780 he was +appointed diplomatic representative to the Russian government. +He remained at St Petersburg from 1781 to 1783, but was never +formally received by the empress Catherine. In February 1784 +he was again chosen a delegate to Congress, and in January 1785 +he became a justice of the Massachusetts supreme court. He +was chief justice of this court from 1791 to 1806, and presided +with ability and rare distinction. He was an earnest advocate +of the adoption of the Federal constitution, was a member of the +Massachusetts convention which ratified that instrument, and +was one of the most influential advisers of the leaders of the +Federalist party. His tastes were scholarly, and he was one of +the founders of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. +He died at Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 25th of April 1811.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Richard Henry Dana</span> (1787-1879), was born in +Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 15th of November 1787. He +was educated at Harvard in the class of 1808. Subsequently he +studied law and in 1811 was admitted to practice. But all other +interests were early subordinated to his love of literature, to +which the greater part of his long life was devoted. He became +in 1814 a member of a literary society in Cambridge, known as +the Anthology Club. This club began the publication of a +monthly magazine, <i>The Monthly Anthology</i>, which gave way in +1815 to <i>The North American Review</i>. In the editorial control of +this periodical he was associated with Jared Sparks and Edward +T. Channing (1790-1856) until 1821, contributing essays and +criticisms which attracted wide attention. In 1821-1822 he +edited in New York a short-lived literary magazine, <i>The Idle +Man</i>. He published his first volume of <i>Poems</i> in 1827, and in +1833 appeared his <i>Poems and Prose Writings</i>, republished in +1850 in two volumes, in which were included practically all of +his poems and of his prose contributions to periodical literature. +Although the bulk of his published writings was not large, his +influence on American literature during the first half of the +19th century was surpassed by that of few of his contemporaries.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Richard Henry Dana</span> (1815-1882), son of the last-mentioned, +was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 1st of August 1815. +He entered Harvard in the class of 1835, but at the beginning of +his junior year an illness affecting his sight necessitated a suspension +of his college work, and in August 1834 he shipped before +the mast for California, returning in September 1836. The +rough experience of this voyage did more than endow him with +renewed health; it changed him from a dreamy, sensitive boy, +hereditarily disinclined to any sort of active career, into a self-reliant, +energetic man, with broad interests and keen sympathies. +He re-entered Harvard in December 1836 and graduated in June +1837. He was a student at the Harvard law school from 1837 +to 1840, and from January 1839 to February 1840 he was also an +instructor in elocution in the college. In 1840 the notes of his +sea-trip were published under the title <i>Two Years Before the Mast</i>. +The book attained an almost unprecedented popularity both in +America and in Europe, where it was translated into several +languages; and it came to be considered a classic. Immediately +after the appearance of this book Dana began the practice of law, +which brought him a large number of maritime cases. In 1841 he +published <i>The Seaman’s Friend</i>, republished in England as <i>The +Seaman’s Manual</i>, which was long the highest authority on the +legal rights and duties of seamen. After gaining recognition as +one of the most prominent members of the Suffolk bar, he became +associated in 1848 with the Free Soil movement, and took a +prominent part in the Buffalo convention of that year. This +step, which caused him to be ostracized for a time from the +Boston circles in which he had been reared, brought him the +cases of the fugitive slaves, Shadrach, Sims and Burns, and of the +rescuers of Shadrach. On the night following the surrender of +Burns (May 1854) Dana was brutally assaulted on the Boston +streets. In 1853 he took a prominent part in the state constitutional +convention. He allied himself with the Republican party +on its organization, but his inborn dislike for political manœuvring +prevented his ever becoming prominent in its councils. +In 1857 he became a regular attendant at the meetings of the +famous Boston Saturday Club, to the members of which he +dedicated his account of a vacation trip, <i>To Cuba and Back</i> +(1857). He returned to America from a trip round the world in +time to participate in the presidential campaign of 1860, and +after Lincoln’s inauguration he was appointed United States +district attorney for Massachusetts. In this office in 1863 he +won before the Supreme Court of the United States the famous +prize case of the “Amy Warwick,” on the decision in which +depended the right of the government to blockade the Confederate +ports, without giving the Confederate States an international +status as belligerents. He brought out in 1865 an edition +of <i>Wheaton’s International Law</i>, his notes constituting a most +learned and valuable authority on international law and its +bearings on American history and diplomacy; but immediately +after its publication Dana was charged by the editor of two +earlier editions, William Beach Lawrence, with infringing his +copyright, and was involved in litigation which was continued +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page793" id="page793"></a>793</span> +for thirteen years. In such minor matters as arrangement of +notes and verification of citations the court found against Dana, +but in the main Dana’s notes were vastly different from +Lawrence’s. In 1865 Dana declined an appointment as a +United States district judge. During the Reconstruction period +he favoured the congressional plan rather than that of President +Johnson, and on this account resigned the district-attorneyship. +In 1867-1868 he was a member of the Massachusetts House of +Representatives, and in 1867 was retained with William M. +Evarts to prosecute Jefferson Davis, whose admission to bail he +counselled. In 1877 he was one of the counsel for the United +States before the commission which in accordance with the treaty +of Washington met at Halifax, N.S., to arbitrate the fisheries +question between the United States and Great Britain. In +1878 he gave up his law practice and devoted the rest of his life +to study and travel. He died in Rome, Italy, on the 9th of +January 1882.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Charles Francis Adams, <i>Richard Henry Dana: a Biography</i> +(2 vols., Boston, Mass., 1891).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANA, JAMES DWIGHT<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1813-1895), American geologist, +mineralogist and zoologist, was born in Utica, New York, on +the 12th of February 1813. He early displayed a taste for science, +which had been fostered by Fay Edgerton, a teacher in the Utica +high school, and in 1830 he entered Yale College, in order to +study under Benjamin Silliman the elder. Graduating in 1833, +for the next two years he was teacher of mathematics to midshipmen +in the navy, and sailed to the Mediterranean while engaged +in his duties. In 1836-1837 he was assistant to Professor Silliman +in the chemical laboratory at Yale, and then, for four years, acted +as mineralogist and geologist of a United States exploring expedition, +commanded by Captain Charles Wilkes, in the Pacific +ocean (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wilkes, Charles</a></span>). His labours in preparing the +reports of his explorations occupied parts of thirteen years after +his return to America in 1842. In 1844 he again became a resident +of New Haven, married the daughter of Professor Silliman, +and in 1850, on the resignation of the latter, was appointed +Silliman Professor of Natural History and Geology in Yale +College, a position which he held till 1892. In 1846 he became +joint editor and during the later years of his life he was chief +editor of the <i>American Journal of Science and Arts</i> (founded +in 1818 by Benjamin Silliman), to which he was a constant +contributor, principally of articles on geology and mineralogy. +A bibliographical list of his writings shows 214 titles of books +and papers, beginning in 1835 with a paper on the conditions +of Vesuvius in 1834, and ending with the fourth revised edition +(finished in February 1895) of his <i>Manual of Geology</i>. His +reports on <i>Zoophytes</i>, on the <i>Geology of the Pacific Area</i>, and on +<i>Crustacea</i>, summarizing his work on the Wilkes expedition, +appeared in 1846, 1849 and 1852-1854, in quarto volumes, with +copiously illustrated atlases; but as these were issued in small +numbers, his reputation more largely rests upon his <i>System of +Mineralogy</i> (1837 and many later editions in 1892); <i>Manual +of Geology</i> (1862; ed. 4, 1895); <i>Manual of Mineralogy</i> (1848), +afterwards entitled <i>Manual of Mineralogy and Lithology</i> (ed. 4, +1887); and Corals and Coral Islands (1872; ed. 2, 1890). In +1887 Dana revisited the Hawaiian Islands, and the results of his +further investigations were published in a quarto volume in 1890, +entitled <i>Characteristics of Volcanoes</i>. By the Royal Society of +London he was awarded the Copley medal in 1877; and by +the Geological Society the Wollaston medal in 1874. His powers +of work were extraordinary, and in his 82nd year he was occupied +in preparing a new edition of his <i>Manual of Geology</i>, the 4th +edition being issued in 1895. He died on the 14th of April 1895.</p> + +<p>His son <span class="sc">Edward Salisbury Dana</span>, born at New Haven on +the 16th of November 1849, is author of <i>A Textbook of Mineralogy</i> +(1877; new ed. 1898) and a <i>Text Book of Elementary Mechanics</i> +(1881). In 1879-80 he was professor of natural philosophy and +then became professor of physics at Yale.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Life of J. D. Dana</i>, by Daniel C. Gilman (1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANAE,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> in Greek legend, daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos. +Her father, having been warned by an oracle that she would bear +a son by whom he would be slain, confined Danae in a brazen +tower. But Zeus descended to her in a shower of gold, and she +gave birth to Perseus, whereupon Acrisius placed her and her +infant in a wooden box and threw them into the sea. They were +finally driven ashore on the island of Seriphus, where they were +picked up by a fisherman named Dictys. His brother Polydectes, +who was king of the island, fell in love with Danae and married +her. According to another story, her son Perseus, on his return +with the head of Medusa, finding his mother persecuted by +Polydectes, turned him into stone, and took Danae back with him +to Argos. Latin legend represented her as landing on the coast +of Latium and marrying Pilumnus or Picumnus, from whom +Turnus, king of the Rutulians, was descended. Danae formed +the subject of tragedies by Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, +Livius Andronicus and Naevius. She is the personification of +the earth suffering from drought, on which the fertilizing rain +descends from heaven.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Apollodorus ii. 4; Sophocles, <i>Antigone</i>, 944; Horace, <i>Odes</i>, iii. +16; Virgil, <i>Aeneid</i>, vii. 410. See also P. Schwarz, <i>De Fabula +Danaeia</i> (1881).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANAO,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> a town of the province of Cebú, island of Cebú, +Philippine Islands, on the E. coast, at the mouth of the Danao +river, 17 m. N.N.E. of Cebú, the capital. Pop. (1903) 16,173. +Danao has a comparatively cool and healthy climate, is the +centre of a rich agricultural region producing rice, Indian corn, +sugar, copra and cacao, and coal is mined in the vicinity. The +language is Cebú-Visayan.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANAUS,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> in Greek legend, son of Belus, king of Egypt, and +twin-brother of Aegyptus. He was born at Chemmis (Panopolis) +in Egypt, but having been driven out by his brother he fled with his +fifty daughters to Argos, the home of his ancestress Io. Here he +became king and taught the inhabitants of the country to dig +wells. In the meantime the fifty sons of Aegyptus arrived in +Argos, and Danaus was obliged to consent to their marriage +with his daughters. But to each of these he gave a knife with +injunctions to slay her husband on the marriage night. They all +obeyed except Hyperm(n)estra, who spared Lynceus. She was +brought to trial by her father, acquitted and afterwards married +to her lover. Being unable to find suitors for the other daughters, +Danaus offered them in marriage to the youths of the district +who proved themselves victorious in racing contests (Pindar, +<i>Pythia</i>, ix. 117). According to another story, Lynceus slew +Danaus and his daughters and seized the throne of Argos (schol. +on Euripides, <i>Hecuba</i>, 886). By way of expiation for their crime +the Danaïdes were condemned to the endless task of filling with +water a vessel which had no bottom. This punishment, originally +inflicted on those who neglected certain mystic rites, was transferred +to those who, like the Danaïdes, despised the mystic rite +of marriage; cf. the water-bearing figure (<span class="grk" title="loutrophoros">λουτροφόρος</span>) on the +grave of unmarried persons. The murder of the sons of Aegyptus +by their wives is supposed to represent the drying up of the rivers +and springs of Argolis in summer by the agency of the nymphs.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Apollodorus ii. 1; Horace, <i>Odes</i>, iii. 11; O. Waser, in <i>Archiv für +Religionswissenschaft</i>, ii. Heft 1, 1899; articles in Pauly-Wissowa’s +<i>Realencyclopädie</i> and W. H. Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>; +Campbell Bonner, in <i>Harvard Studies</i>, xiii. (1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANBURITE,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> a rare mineral species consisting of calcium +and boron orthosilicate, CaB<span class="su">2</span>(SiO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>, crystallizing in the orthorhombic +system. It was discovered by C.U. Shepard in 1839 +at Danbury, Connecticut, U.S.A., and named by him after this +locality. The crystals are prismatic in habit, and closely resemble +topaz in form and interfacial angles. There is an imperfect +cleavage parallel to the basal plane. Crystals are +transparent to translucent, and colourless to pale yellow; +hardness 7; specific gravity 3.0. At Danbury the mineral occurs +with microcline and oligoclase embedded in dolomite. Large +crystals, reaching 4 in. in length, have been found with calcite in +veins traversing granite at Russell in St Lawrence county, New +York. Smaller but well-developed crystals have been found on +gneiss at Mt. Scopi and Petersthal (the valley of the Vals Rhine) +in Switzerland. Splendid crystals have recently been obtained +from Japan.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANBURY,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a city and one of the county-seats of Fairfield +county, Connecticut, U.S.A., in Danbury township, in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page794" id="page794"></a>794</span> +south-west part of the state, on the Still river, a tributary of the +Housatonic. Pop. (1890) 16,552; (1900) 16,537 (3702 foreign-born); +(1910) 20,234. In 1900 the population of the township, including +that of the city, was 19,474, and in 1910, 23,502. Danbury +is served by three divisions of the New York, New Haven & +Hartford railway; by the Danbury & Harlem electric railway, +which connects at Goldens Bridge, New York, with the Harlem +division of the New York Central; and by an electric line to +Bethel, Connecticut. Lake Kenosia, about 2½ m. from the centre +of the city, is a pleasure resort. A state normal school was +opened in Danbury in 1904, and there is a home for destitute +and homeless children under private (unsectarian) control. +The city has good water-power, and the municipality owns the +water works. The principal industry is the manufacture of felt +hats, begun in 1780, and in 1905 engaging about thirty factories, +with a product for the year valued at $5,798,107 (71.9% of the +value of all the factory products of the city, and 15.8% of the +value of all the felt hats produced in the United States). The +city ranked first among the cities of the country in this industry +in 1900 and second in 1905, and in 1905 no other city showed so +high a degree of specialization in it. Silver-plated ware (mostly +manufactured by Rogers Bros.) is another important product. +At Danbury is held annually the well-known agricultural +Danbury Fair. The township was settled in 1684 by emigrants +from Norwalk, and received its present name in 1687. When +the War of Independence opened, Enoch Crosby, believed to be +the original of Harvey Birch, the hero of J. F. Cooper’s <i>The Spy</i>, +was a resident of Danbury. A depot of military supplies was +established in the village of Danbury in 1776; in April 1777 +Governor William Tryon, of New York, raided the place, destroying +the military stores and considerable private property. +During his retreat he was attacked (April 26th) at Ridgefield +(about 9 m. south by east of Danbury) by the Americans under +General David Wooster (1710-1777), who was fatally wounded +in the conflict (being succeeded by General Benedict Arnold), +and to whose memory a monument was erected in Danbury in +1854. Danbury was chartered as a borough in 1832 and as a +city in 1880. In 1870 the <i>Danbury News</i> was established by the +consolidation of the <i>Jeffersonian</i> and the <i>Times</i>, by James +Montgomery Bailey (1841-1894), from 1865 to 1870 proprietor +of the <i>Times</i>. He wrote for the <i>News</i> humorous sketches, +which made him and the paper famous, Bailey being known as +the “Danbury News Man”; among his books are <i>Life in Danbury</i> +(1873), <i>The Danbury News Man’s Almanac</i> (1873), <i>They +All Do It</i> (1877), <i>England from a Back Window</i> (1878), <i>Mr +Philip’s Goneness</i> (1879), <i>The Danbury Boom</i> (1880), and <i>History +of Danbury</i> (1896).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANBY, FRANCIS<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1793-1861), English painter, was born in +the south of Ireland on the 16th of November 1793. His father +farmed a small property he owned near Wexford, but his death +caused the family to remove to Dublin, while Francis was still a +schoolboy. He began to practice drawing at the Royal Dublin +Society’s schools; and under an erratic young artist named +O’Connor he began painting landscape. Danby also made +acquaintance with George Petrie, and all three left for London +together in 1813. This expedition, undertaken with very inadequate +funds, quickly came to an end, and they had to get +home again by walking. At Bristol they made a pause, and +Danby, finding he could get trifling sums for water-colour +drawings, remained there working diligently and sending to the +London exhibitions pictures of importance. There his large +pictures in oil quickly attracted attention. “The Upas Tree” +(1820) and “The Delivery of the Israelites” (1825) brought +him his election as an associate of the Royal Academy. He left +Bristol for London, and in 1828 exhibited his “Opening of the +Sixth Seal” at the British Institution, receiving from that body +a prize of 200 guineas; and this picture was followed by two +others from the Apocalypse. He suddenly left London, declaring +that he would never live there again, and that the Academy, +instead of aiding him, had, somehow or other, used him badly. +Some insurmountable domestic difficulty overtook him also, and +for eleven or twelve years he lived on the Lake of Geneva, a +Bohemian with boat-building fancies, painting only now and +then. He returned to England in 1841, when his sons, James +and Thomas, both artists, were growing up. Other pictures by +him were “The Golden Age” and “The Evening Gun,” the +first begun before he left England, the second painted after his +return; he had taken up his abode at Exmouth, where he died +on the 9th of February 1861.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANCE,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> the name of an English family distinguished in +architecture, art and the drama. <span class="sc">George Dance</span>, the elder +(1700-1768), obtained the appointment of architect to the city +of London, and designed the Mansion House (1739); the churches +of St Botolph, Aldgate (1741), St Luke’s, Old Street; St +Leonard, Shoreditch; the old excise office; Broad Street; and +other public works of importance. He died on the 8th of +February 1768. His eldest son, <span class="sc">James Dance</span> (1722-1744), was +born on the 17th of March 1722, and educated at the Merchant +Taylors’ School and St John’s College, Oxford, which he left +before graduating. He took the name of Love, and became an +actor and playwright of no great merit. In the former capacity +he was for twelve years connected with Drury Lane theatre. +He wrote “an heroic poem” on <i>Cricket</i>, about 1740, and a volume +of <i>Poems on Several Occasions</i> (1754), and a number of comedies—the +earliest <i>Pamela</i> (1742).</p> + +<p>George Dance’s third son, Sir <span class="sc">Nathaniel Dance-Holland</span>, +Bart. (1735-1811), was born on the 18th of May 1735, and +studied art under Francis Hayman, and in Italy, where he met +Angelica Kauffmann, to whom he was devotedly and hopelessly +attached. From Rome he sent home “Dido and Aeneas” +(1763), and he continued to paint occasional historical pictures +of the same quasi-classic kind throughout his career. On his +return to England he took up portrait-painting with great +success, and contributed to the first exhibition of the Royal +Academy, of which he was a foundation member, full-length +portraits of George III. and his queen. These, and his portraits +of Captain Cook and of Garrick as Richard III., engraved by +Dixon, are his best-known works. Himself a rich man, in 1790 +he married a widow with £15,000 a year, dropped his profession, +and became M.P. for East Grinstead, taking the additional name +of Holland. He was made a baronet in 1800. He died on the +15th of October 1811, leaving a fortune of £200,000.</p> + +<p>George Dance’s fifth and youngest son, <span class="sc">George Dance</span>, the +younger (1741-1825), succeeded his father as city surveyor and +architect in 1768. He was then only twenty-seven, had spent +several years abroad, chiefly in Italy with his brother Nathaniel, +and had already distinguished himself by designs for Blackfriars +Bridge sent to the 1761 exhibition of the Incorporated Society of +Artists. His first important public work was the rebuilding +of Newgate prison in 1770. The front of the Guildhall was also +his. He, too, was a foundation member of the Royal Academy, +and for a number of years the last survivor of the forty original +academicians. His last years were devoted to art rather than to +architecture, and after 1798 his Academy contributions consisted +solely of chalk portraits of his friends, seventy-two of which were +engraved and published (1808-1814). He resigned his office in +1815, and after many years of illness died on the 14th of January +1825, and was buried in St Paul’s. His son, <span class="sc">Charles Dance</span> +(1794-1863), was for thirty years registrar, taxing officer and +chief clerk of the insolvent debtors’ court, retiring, when it was +abolished, on an allowance. In collaboration with J. R. Planché +and others, or alone, he wrote a great number of extravaganzas, +farces and comediettas. He was one of the first, if not the first, +of the burlesque writers, and was the author of those produced +so successfully by Madame Vestris for years at the Olympic. +Of his farces, <i>Delicate Ground, Who Speaks First?</i>, <i>A Morning +Call</i> and others are still occasionally revived. He died on the +6th of January 1863.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANCE<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (Fr. <i>danse</i>; of obscure origin, connected with Old +High Ger. <i>danson</i>, to stretch). The term “dancing” in its +widest sense includes three things:—(1) the spontaneous activity +of the muscles under the influence of some strong emotion, such +as social joy or religious exultation; (2) definite combinations of +graceful movements performed for the sake of the pleasure +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page795" id="page795"></a>795</span> +which the exercise affords to the dancer or to the spectator; +(3) carefully trained movements which are meant by the dancer +vividly to represent the actions and passions of other people. +In the highest sense it seems to be for prose-gesture what song +is for the instinctive exclamations of feeling. Regarded as the +outlet or expression of strong feeling, dancing does not require +much discussion, for the general rule applies that such demonstrations +for a time at least sustain and do not exhaust the flow +of feeling. The voice and the facial muscles and many of the +organs are affected at the same time, and the result is a high state +of vitality which among the spinning Dervishes or in the ecstatic +worship of Bacchus and Cybele amounted to something like +madness. Even here there is traceable an undulatory movement +which, as Herbert Spencer says, is “habitually generated by +feeling in its bodily discharge.” But it is only in the advanced +or volitional stage of dancing that we find developed the essential +feature of <i>measure</i>, which has been said to consist in “the alternation +of stronger muscular contractions with weaker ones,” an +alternation which, except in the cases of savages and children, +“is compounded with longer rises and falls in the degree of +muscular excitement.” In analysing the state of mind which +this measured dancing produces, we must first of all allow for +the pleasant glow of excitement caused by the excess of blood +sent to the brain. But apart from this, there is an agreeable +sense of uniformity in the succession of muscular efforts, and in +the spaces described, and also in the period of their recurrence. +If the steps of dancing and the intervals of time be not precisely +equal, there is still a pleasure depending on the gradually increasing +intensity of motion, on the undulation which uniformly +rises in order to fall. As Florizel says to Perdita, “When you do +dance, I wish you a wave of the sea” (<i>Winter’s Tale</i>, iv. 3). +The mind feels the beauty of emphasis and cadence in muscular +motion, just as much as in musical notes. Then, the figure of +the dance is frequently a circle or some more graceful curve or +series of curves,—a fact which satisfies the dancer as well as the +eye of the spectator. But all such effects are intensified by the +use of music, which not only brings a perfectly distinct set of +pleasurable sensations to dancer and spectator, but by the control +of dancing produces an inexpressibly sweet harmony of sound +and motion. This harmony is further enriched if there be two +dancing together on one plan, or a large company of dancers +executing certain evolutions, the success of which depends on +the separate harmonies of all the couples. The fundamental +condition is that throughout the dance all the dancers keep +within their bases of gravity. This is not only required for the +dancers’ own enjoyment, but, as in the famous Mercury on +tiptoe, it is essential to the beautiful effect for the spectator. +The idea of much being safely supported by little is what proves +attractive in the posturing ballet. But this is merely one condition +of graceful dancing, and if it be made the chief object the +dancer sinks into the acrobat.</p> + +<p>Dancing is, in fact, the universal human expression, by +movements of the limbs and body, of a sense of rhythm which +is implanted among the primitive instincts of the animal world. +The rhythmic principle of motion extends throughout the universe, +governing the lapse of waves, the flow of tides, the reverberations +of light and sound, and the movements of celestial +bodies; and in the human organism it manifests itself in the +automatic pulses and flexions of the blood and tissues. Dancing +is merely the voluntary application of the rhythmic principle, +when excitement has induced an abnormally rapid oxidization +of brain tissue, to the physical exertion by which the overcharged +brain is relieved. This is primitive dancing; and it +embraces all movements of the limbs and body expressive of +joy or grief, all pantomimic representations of incidents in the +lives of the dancers, all performances in which movements of +the body are employed to excite the passions of hatred or love, +pity or revenge, or to arouse the warlike instincts, and all ceremonies +in which such movements express homage or worship, +or are used as religious exercises. Although music is not an +essential part of dancing, it almost invariably accompanies it, +even in the crudest form of a rhythm beaten out on a drum.</p> + +<p><i>Primitive and Ancient Dancing.</i>—In Tigrè the Abyssinians +dance the <i>chassée</i> step in a circle, and keep time by shrugging +their shoulders and working their elbows backwards and forwards. +At intervals the dancers squat on the ground, still +moving the arms and shoulders in the same way. The Bushmen +dance in their low-roofed rooms supporting themselves by +sticks; one foot remains motionless, the other dances in a wild +irregular manner, while the hands are occupied with the sticks. +The Gonds, a hill-tribe of Hindustan, dance generally in pairs, +with a shuffling step, the eyes on the ground, the arms close to +the body, and the elbows at an angle with the closed hand. +Advancing to a point, the dancer suddenly erects his head, and +wheels round to the starting point. The women of the Pultooah +tribe dance in a circle, moving backwards and forwards in a bent +posture. The Santal women, again, are slow and graceful in +dance; joining hands, they form themselves into the arc of a +circle, towards the centre of which they advance and then retire, +moving at the same time slightly towards the right, so as to +complete the circle in an hour. The Kukis of Assam have only +the rudest possible step, an awkward hop with the knees very +much bent. The national dance of the Kamchadale is one of +the most violent known, every muscle apparently quivering at +every movement. But there, and in some other cases where +men and women dance together, there is a trace of deliberate +obscenity; the dance is, in fact, a rude representation of sexual +passion. It has been said that some of the Tasmanian <i>corrobories</i> +have a phallic design. The Yucatan dance of <i>naual</i> may also +be mentioned. The Andamans hop on one foot and swing the +arms violently backwards and forwards. The Veddahs jump +with both feet together, patting their bodies, or clapping their +hands, and make a point of bringing their long hair down in +front of the face. In New Caledonia the dance consists of a series +of twistings of the body, the feet being lifted alternately, but +without change of place. The Fijians jump half round from side +to side with their arms akimbo. The only modulation of the +Samoan dance is one of time—a <i>crescendo</i> movement, which is +well-known in the modern ball-room. The Javans are perhaps +unique in their distinct and graceful gestures of the hands and +fingers. At a Mexican feast called Huitzilopochtli, the noblemen +and women danced tied together at the hands, and embracing +one another, the arms being thrown over the neck. This resembles +the dance variously known as the Greek Bracelet or +Brawl, <span class="grk" title="Hormos">Ὅρμος</span>, or Bearsfeet; but all of them<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> probably are to a +certain extent symbolical of the relations between the sexes. +Actual contact of the partners, however, is quite intelligible as +matter of pure dancing; for, apart altogether from the pleasure +of the embrace, the harmony of the double rotation adds very +much to the enjoyment. In a very old Peruvian dance of +ceremony before the Inca, several hundreds of men formed a +chain, each taking hold of the hand of the man beyond his +immediate neighbour, and the whole body moving forwards and +backwards three steps at a time as they approached the throne. +In this, as in the national dance of the Coles of Lower Bengal, +there was perhaps a suggestion of “l’union fait la force.” In +Yucatan stilts were occasionally used for dancing.</p> + +<p>It seldom happens that dancing takes place without accompaniment, +either by the dancers or by others. This is not merely +because the feelings which find relief in dancing express themselves +at the same time in other forms; in some cases, indeed, +the vocal and instrumental elements largely predominate, and +form the ground-work of the whole emotional demonstration. +Whether they do so or not will of course depend on the intellectual +advancement of the nation or tribe and upon the particular +development of their aesthetical sensibility. A striking instance +occurs among the Zulus, whose grand dances are merely the +accompaniment to the colloquial war and hunting songs, in +which the women put questions which are answered by the men. +So also in Tahiti there is a set of national ballads and songs, +referring to many events in the past and present lives of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page796" id="page796"></a>796</span> +people. The fisherman, the woodsman, the canoe-builder, has +each his trade song, which on public occasions at least is illustrated +by dancing. But the accompaniment is often consciously +intended, by an appeal to the ear, to regulate and sustain the +excitement of the muscles. And a close relation will be found +always to exist between the excellence of a nation’s dancing +and the excellence or complexity of its music and poetry. In +some cases the performer himself sings or marks time by the +clanking of ornaments on his person. In others the accompaniment +consists sometimes of a rude chant improvised by those +standing round, or of music from instruments, or of mere clapping +of the hands, or of striking one stick against another or on the +ground, or of “marking time,” in the technical sense. The +Tasmanians beat on a rolled-up kangaroo-skin. The Kamchadales +make a noise like a continuous hiccough all through the +dance. The Andamans use a large hollow dancing-board, on +which one man is set apart to stamp. Sometimes it is the +privilege of the tribal chief to sing the accompaniment while his +people dance. The savages of New Caledonia whistle and strike +upon the hip.</p> + +<p>The rude imitative dances of early civilization are of extreme +interest. In the same way the dances of the Ostyak tribes +(Northern Asiatic) imitate the habitual sports of the chase and +the gambols of the wolf and the bear and other wild beasts, the +dancing consisting mainly of sudden leaps and violent turns +which exhaust the muscular powers of the whole body. The +Kamchadales, too, in dancing, imitate bears, dogs and birds. +The <i>Kru</i> dances of the Coast Negroes represent hunting scenes; +and on the Congo, before the hunters start, they go through a +dance imitating the habits of the gorilla and its movements +when attacked. The Damara dance is a mimic representation +of the movements of oxen and sheep, four men stooping with +their heads in contact and uttering harsh cries. The canter of +the baboon is the humorous part of the ceremony. The Bushmen +dance in long irregular jumps, which they compare to the leaping +of a herd of calves, and the Hottentots not only go on all-fours +to counterfeit the baboon, but they have a dance in which the +buzzing of a swarm of bees is represented. The Kennowits in +Borneo introduce the mias and the deer for the same purpose. +The Australians and Tasmanians in their dances called <i>corrobories</i> +imitate the frog and the kangaroo (both leaping animals). The +hunt of the emu is also performed, a number of men passing +slowly round the fire and throwing their arrows about so as +to imitate the movements of the animal’s head while feeding. +The Gonds are fond of dancing the bison hunt, one man with +skin and horns taking the part of the animal. Closely allied to +these are the mimic fights, almost universal among tribes to +which war is one of the great interests of life. The Bravery +dance of the Dahomans and the Hoolee of the Bhil tribe in the +Vindhya Hills are illustrations. The latter seems to have been +reduced to an amusement conducted by professionals who go +from village to village,—the battle being engaged in by women +with long poles on the one side, and men with short cudgels on +the other. There is here an element of comedy, which also +appears in the Fiji club-dance. This, although no doubt originally +suggested by war, is enlivened by the presence of a clown +covered with leaves and wearing a mask. The monotonous song +accompanying the club-dance is by way of commentary or explanation. +So, also, in Guatemala there is a public <i>baile</i> or dance, +in which all the performers, wearing the skins and heads of beasts, +go through a mock battle, which always ends in the victory of +those wearing the deer’s head. At the end the victors trace in +the sand with a pole the figure of some animal; and this exhibition +is supposed to have some historical reference. But nearly +all savage tribes have a regular war-dance, in which they appear +in fighting costume, handle their weapons, and go through the +movements of challenge, conflict, pursuit or defeat. The women +generally supply the stimulus of music. There is one very +picturesque dance of the Natal Kaffirs, which probably refers to +the departure of the warriors for the battle. The women appeal +plaintively to the men, who slowly withdraw, stamping on the +ground and darting their short spears or <i>assegais</i> towards the sky. +In Madagascar, when the men are absent on war, the women +dance for a great part of the day, believing that this inspires +their husbands with courage. In this, however, there may be +some religious significance. These war-dances are totally distinct +from the institution of military drill, which belongs to a later +period, when social life has become less impulsive and more reflective.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +There can be little doubt that some of the characteristic +movements of these primitive hunting and war-dances +survive in the smooth and ceremonious dances of the present day. +But the early mimetic dance was not confined to these two +subjects; it embraced the other great events of savage life—the +drama of courtship and marriage, the funeral dance, the +consecration of labour, the celebration of harvest or vintage;<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +sometimes, too, purely fictitious scenes of dramatic interest, +while other dances degenerated into games. For instance, in +Yucatan one man danced in a cowering attitude round a circle, +while another followed, hurling at him <i>bohordos</i> or canes, which +were adroitly caught on a small stick. Again, in Tasmania, the +dances of the women describe their “clamber for the opossum, +diving for shell-fish, digging for roots, nursing children and +quarrelling with husbands.” Another dance, in which a woman +by gesture taunts a chieftain with cowardice, gives him an +opportunity of coming forward and recounting his courageous +deeds in dance. The funeral dance of the Todas (another Indian +hill-tribe) consists in walking backwards and forwards, without +variation, to a howling tune of “ha! hoo!” The meaning of +this is obscure, but it can scarcely be solely an outburst of grief. +In Dahomey the blacksmiths, carpenters, hunters, braves and +bards, with their various tools and instruments, join in a dramatic +dance. We may add here a form of dance which is almost precisely +equivalent to the spoken incantation. It is used by the +professional devil-dancer of the wild Veddahs for the cure of +diseases. An offering of eatables is put on a tripod of sticks, +and the dancer, decorated with green leaves, goes into a paroxysm +of dancing, in the midst of which he receives the required information. +This, however, rather belongs to the subject of religious +dances.</p> + +<p>It is impossible here to enumerate either the names or the +forms of the sacred dances which formed so prominent a part +of the worship of antiquity. A mystic philosophy found in them +a resemblance to the courses of the stars. This Pythagorean +idea was expanded by Sir John Davies, in his epic poem <i>Orchestra</i>, +published in 1596. They were probably adapted to many +purposes,—to thanksgiving, praise, supplication and humiliation. +It is only one striking illustration of this widespread practice, +that there was at Rome a very ancient order of priests especially +named Salii, who struck their shields and sang <i>assamenta</i> as +they danced. The practice reappeared in the early church, +special provision being made for dancing in the choir. Scaliger, +who astonished Charles V. by his dancing powers, says the +bishops were called <i>Praesules</i>, because they led the dance on +feast days. According to some of the fathers, the angels are +always dancing, and the glorious company of the apostles is +really a <i>chorus</i> of dancers. Dancing, however, fell into discredit +with the feast of the <i>Agapae</i>. St Augustine says, “Melius est +fodere quam saltare”; and the practice was generally prohibited +for some time. No church or sect has raged so fiercely against +the cardinal sin of dancing as the Albigenses of Languedoc and +the Waldenses, who agreed in calling it the devil’s procession. +After the middle of the 18th century there were still traces of +religious dancing in the cathedrals of Spain, Portugal and +Roussillon—especially in the Mozarabic Mass of Toledo. An +account of the numerous secular dances, public and private, of +Greece and Rome will be found in the classical histories, and in +J. Weaver’s <i>Essay towards a History of Dancing</i>, (London, 1712), +which, however, must be revised by more recent authorities. +The Pyrrhic (derived from the Memphitic) in all its local varieties, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page797" id="page797"></a>797</span> +the Bacchanalia and the Hymenaea were among the more +important. The name of Lycurgus is also associated with the +Trichoria. Among the stage dances of the Athenians, which +formed interludes to the regular drama, one of the oldest was +the Delian dance of the Labyrinth, ascribed to Theseus, and +called <span class="grk" title="Geranos">Γέρανος</span>, from its resemblance to the flight of cranes, +and one of the most powerful was the dance of the Eumenides. +A further development of the art took place at Rome, under +Augustus, when Pylades and Bathyllus brought serious and comic +pantomime to great perfection. The subjects chosen were such +as the labours of Hercules, and the surprise of Venus and Mars by +Vulcan. The state of public feeling on the subject is well shown +in Lucian’s amusing dialogue <i>De Saltatione</i>. Before this Rome +had only very inferior buffoons, who attended dinner parties, +and whose art traditions belonged not to Greece, but to Etruria.<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +Apparently, however, the Romans, though fond of ceremony +and of the theatre, were by temperament not great dancers +in private. Cicero says: “Nemo fere saltat sobrius, nisi +forte insanit.” But the Italic dance of the imperial theatre, +supported by music and splendid dresses, supplanted for a +time the older dramas. It was the policy of Augustus to +cultivate other than political interests for the people; and he +passed laws for the protection and privilege of the pantomimists. +They were freed from the <i>jus virgarum</i>, and they used their +freedom against the peace of the city. Tiberius and Domitian +oppressed and banished them; Trajan and Aurelius gave them +such titles as decurions and priests of Apollo; but the pantomime +stage soon yielded to the general corruption of the +empire.</p> + +<p><i>Modern Dancing.</i>—In modern civilized countries dancing +has developed as an art and pastime, as an entertainment. Its +direct application to arouse emotion or religious feeling tends to +be obscured and finally dropped out.</p> + +<p>Italy, in the 15th century, saw the renaissance of dancing, +and France may be said to have been the nursery of the modern +art, though comparatively few modern dances are really French +in origin. The national dances of other countries were brought +to France, studied systematically, and made perfect there. +An English or a Bohemian dance, practised only amongst +peasants, would be taken to France, polished and perfected, +and would at last find its way back to its own country, no more +recognizable than a piece of elegant cloth when it returns from +the printer to the place from which as “grey” material it was +sent. The fact that the terminology of dancing is almost entirely +French is a sufficient indication of the origin of the rules that +govern it. The earliest dances that bear any relation to the +modern art are probably the <i>danses basses</i> and <i>danses hautes</i> +of the 16th century. The <i>danse basse</i> was the dance of the +court of Charles IX. and of good society, the steps being very +grave and dignified, not to say solemn, and the accompaniment +a psalm tune. The <i>danses hautes</i> or <i>baladines</i> had a skipping +step, and were practised only by clowns and country people. +More lively dances, such as the <i>Gaillarde</i> and <i>Volta</i>, were introduced +into France from Italy by Catherine de’ Medici, but even +in these the interest was chiefly spectacular. Other dances of +the same period were the <i>Branle</i> (afterwards corrupted to <i>Braule</i>, +and known in England as the Brawle)—a kind of generic dance +which was capable of an almost infinite amount of variety. +Thus there were imitative dances—<i>Branles mimés</i>, such as the +<i>Branles des Ermites</i>, <i>Branles des flambeaux</i> and the <i>Branles des +lavandières</i>. The <i>Branle</i> in its original form had steps like the +<i>Allemande</i>. Perhaps the most famous and stately dance of this +period was the <i>Pavane</i> (of Spanish origin), which is very fully +described in Tabouret’s <i>Orchésographie</i>, the earliest work in which +a dance is found minutely described. The <i>Pavane</i>, which was +really more a procession than a dance, must have been a very +gorgeous and noble sight, and it was perfectly suited to the dress +of the period, the stiff brocades of the ladies and the swords and +heavily-plumed hats of the gentlemen being displayed in its +simple and dignified measures to great advantage. The dancers +in the time of Henry III. of France usually sang, while performing +the <i>Pavane</i>, a <i>chanson</i>, of which this is one of the verses:</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Approche donc, ma belle,</p> + <p class="i2">Approche-toi, mon bien;</p> + <p class="i05">Ne me sois plus rebelle,</p> + <p class="i2">Puisque mon cœur est tien;</p> + <p class="i05">Pour mon âme apaiser,</p> + <p class="i05">Donne-moi un baiser.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>In the <i>Pavane</i> and <i>Branle</i>, and in nearly all the dances of the +17th and 18th centuries, the practice of kissing formed a not +unimportant part, and seems to have added greatly to the popularity +of the pastime. Another extremely popular dance was the +<i>Saraband</i>, which, however, died out after the 17th century. +It was originally a Spanish dance, but enjoyed an enormous +success for a time in France. Every dance at that time had its +own tune or tunes, which were called by its own name, and of +the <i>Saraband</i> the chevalier de Grammont wrote that “it either +charmed or annoyed everyone, for all the guitarists of the court +began to learn it, and God only knows the universal twanging +that followed.” Vauquelin des Yveteaux, in his eightieth year, +desired to die to the tune of the <i>Saraband</i>, “so that his soul might +pass away sweetly.” After the <i>Pavane</i> came the <i>Courante</i>, +a court dance performed on tiptoe with slightly jumping steps +and many bows and curtseys. The <i>Courante</i> is one of the most +important of the strictly modern dances. The minuet and the +waltz were both in some degree derived from it, and it had much +in common with the famous <i>Seguidilla</i> of Spain. It was a +favourite dance of Louis XIV., who was an adept in the art, +and it was regarded in his time as of such importance that a +nobleman’s education could hardly have been said to be begun +until he had mastered the <i>Courante</i>.</p> + +<p>The dance which the French brought to the greatest perfection—which +many, indeed, regard as the fine flower of the art—was +the <i>Minuet</i>. Its origin, as a rustic dance, is not less antique +than that of the other dances from which the modern art has +been evolved. It was originally a <i>branle</i> of Poitou, derived from +the <i>Courante</i>. It came to Paris in 1650, and was first set to +music by Lully. It was at first a gay and lively dance, but on +being brought to court it soon lost its sportive character and +became grave and dignified. It is mentioned by Beauchamps, +the father of dancing-masters, who flourished in Louis XIV.’s +reign, and also by Blondy, his pupil; but it was Pécour who +really gave the minuet its popularity, and although it was +improved and made perfect by Dauberval, Gardel, Marcel and +Vestris, it was in Louis XV.’s reign that it saw its golden age. +It was then a dance for two in moderate triple time, and was +generally followed by the gavotte. Afterwards the minuet was +considerably developed, and with the gavotte became chiefly a +stage dance and a means of display; but it should be remembered +that the minuets which are now danced on the stage are +generally highly elaborated with a view to their spectacular effect, +and have imported into them steps and figures which do not +belong to the minuet at all, but are borrowed from all kinds of +other dances. The original court minuet was a grave and simple +dance, although it did not retain its simplicity for long. But +when it became elaborated it was glorified and moulded into a +perfect expression of an age in which deportment was most +sedulously cultivated and most brilliantly polished. The “languishing +eye and smiling mouth” had their due effect in the +minuet; it was a school for chivalry, courtesy and ceremony; +the hundred slow graceful movements and curtseys, the pauses +which had to be filled by neatly-turned compliments, the beauty +and bravery of attire—all were eloquent of graces and outward +refinements which we cannot boast now. The fact that the +measure of the minuet has become incorporated in the structure +of the symphony shows how important was its place in the polite +world. The <i>Gavotte</i>, which was often danced as a pendant to +the minuet, was also originally a peasant’s dance, a <i>danse des +Gavots</i>, and consisted chiefly of kissing and capering. It also +became stiff and artificial, and in the later and more prudish +half of the 18th century the ladies received bouquets instead of +kisses in dancing the gavotte. It rapidly became a stage dance, +and it has never been restored to the ballroom. Grétry attempted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page798" id="page798"></a>798</span> +to revive it, but his arrangement never became popular. Other +dances which were naturalized in France were the <i>Écossaise</i>, +popular in 1760; the <i>Cotillon</i>, fashionable under Charles X., +derived from the peasant <i>branles</i> and danced by ladies in short +skirts; the <i>Galop</i>, imported from Germany; the <i>Lancers</i>, +invented by Laborde in 1836; the <i>Polka</i>, brought by a dancing-master +from Prague in 1840; the <i>Schottische</i>, also Bohemian, +first introduced in 1844; the <i>Bourrée</i>, or French clog-dance; the +<i>Quadrille</i>, known in the 18th century as the <i>Contre-danse</i>; and +the <i>Waltz</i>, which was danced as a <i>volte</i> by Henry III. of France, +but only became popular in the beginning of the 19th century. +We shall return to the history of some of these later dances in +discussing the dances at present in use.</p> + +<p>If France has been the nursery and school of the art of dancing, +Spain is its true home. There it is part of the national life, the +inevitable expression of the gay, contented, irresponsible, sunburnt +nature of the people. The form of Spanish dances has +hardly changed; some of them are of great antiquity, and may +be traced back with hardly a break to the performances in ancient +Rome of the famous dancing-girls of Cadiz. The connexion is +lost during the period of the Arab invasion, but the art was not +neglected, and Jovellanos suggests that it took refuge in the +Asturias. At any rate, dances of the 10th and 12th centuries +have been preserved uncorrupted. The earliest dances known +were the <i>Turdion</i>, the <i>Gibidana</i>, the <i>Pié-de-gibao</i>, and (later) the +<i>Madama Orleans</i>, the <i>Alemana</i> and the <i>Pavana</i>. Under Philip +IV. theatrical dancing was in high popularity, and ballets were +organized with extraordinary magnificence of decoration and +costume. They supplanted the national dances, and the <i>Zarabanda</i> +and <i>Chacona</i> were practically extinct in the 18th century. +It is at this period that the famous modern Spanish dances, the +<i>Bolero</i>, <i>Seguidilla</i> and the <i>Fandango</i>, first appear. Of these the +<i>Fandango</i> is the most important. It is danced by two people in +6-8 time, beginning slowly and tenderly, the rhythm marked by +the click of castanets, the snapping of the fingers and the +stamping of feet, and the speed gradually increasing until a +whirl of exaltation is reached. A feature of the <i>Fandango</i> and +also of the <i>Seguidilla</i> is a sudden pause of the music towards the +end of each measure, upon which the dancers stand rigid in the +attitudes in which the stopping of the music found them, and +only move again when the music is resumed. M. Vuillier, in his +<i>History of Dancing</i>, gives the following description of the <i>Fandango</i>:—“Like +an electric shock, the notes of the Fandango animate +all hearts. Men and women, young and old, acknowledge +the power of this air over the ears and soul of every Spaniard. +The young men spring to their places, rattling castanets or +imitating their sound by snapping their fingers. The girls are +remarkable for the willowy languor and lightness of their movements, +the voluptuousness of their attitudes—beating the +exactest time with tapping heels. Partners tease and entreat +and pursue each other by turns. Suddenly the music stops, and +each dancer shows his skill by remaining absolutely motionless, +bounding again into the full life of the Fandango as the orchestra +strikes up. The sound of the guitar, the violin, the rapid tic-tac +of heels (<i>taconeos</i>), the crack of fingers and castanets, the supple +swaying of the dancers, fill the spectator with ecstasy. The +measure whirls along in a rapid triple time. Spangles glitter; +the sharp clank of ivory and ebony castanets beats out the +cadence of strange, throbbing, deepening notes—assonances +unknown to music, but curiously characteristic, effective and +intoxicating. Amidst the rustle of silks, smiles gleam over white +teeth, dark eyes sparkle and droop and flash up again in flame. +All is flutter and glitter, grace and animation—quivering, +sonorous, passionate, seductive.”</p> + +<p>The <i>Bolero</i> is a comparatively modern dance, having been +invented by Sebastian Cerezo, a celebrated dancer of the time of +King Charles III. It is remarkable for the free use made in it +of the arms, and is said to be derived from the ancient <i>Zarabanda</i>, +a violent and licentious dance, which has entirely disappeared, +and with which the later Saraband has practically nothing in +common. The step of the <i>Bolero</i> is low and gliding but well +marked. It is danced by one or more couples. The <i>Seguidilla</i> is +hardly less ancient than the <i>Fandango</i>, which it resembles. +Every province in Spain has its own <i>Seguidilla</i>, and the dance is +accompanied by <i>coplas</i>, or verses, which are sung either to +traditional melodies or to the tunes of local composers; indeed, +the national music of Spain consists largely of these coplas. +Baron Davillier, among several specimens of <i>Seguidillas</i>, gives +this one</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Mi corazon volando</p> + <p class="i05">Se fué á tu pecho;</p> + <p class="i05">Le cortaste las alas,</p> + <p class="i2">Y quédo dentro.</p> + <p class="i2">Por atrevido</p> + <p class="i05">Se quedará por siempre</p> + <p class="i2">En el metido.”<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>M. Vuillier quotes a <i>copla</i> which he heard at Polenza, in the +Balearic Islands. This verse is formed on the rhythm of the +<i>Malagueña</i>:</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Una estrella se ha pardida</p> + <p class="i1">En el ciel y no parece;</p> + <p class="i05">En tu cara se ha metido;</p> + <p class="i1">Y en tu frente resplandece.”<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>Jota</i> is the national dance of Aragon, a lively and splendid, +but withal dignified and reticent, dance derived from the 16th-century +<i>Passacaille</i>. It is still used as a religious dance. The +<i>Cachuca</i> is a light and graceful dance in triple time. It is performed +by a single dancer of either sex. The head and shoulders +play an important part in the movements of this dance. Other +provincial dances now in existence are the <i>Jaleo de Jerez</i>, a whirling +measure performed by gipsies, the <i>Palotéa</i>, the <i>Polo</i>, the +<i>Gallegada</i>, the <i>Muyneria</i>, the <i>Habas Verdes</i>, the <i>Zapateado</i>, the +<i>Zorongo</i>, the <i>Vito</i>, the <i>Tirano</i> and the <i>Tripola Trapola</i>. Most of +these dances are named either after the places where they are +danced or after the composers who have invented tunes for them. +Many of them are but slight variations from the <i>Fandango</i> and +<i>Seguidilla</i>.</p> + +<p>The history of court dancing in Great Britain is practically +the same as that of France, and need not occupy much of our +attention here. But there are strictly national dances still in +existence which are quite peculiar to the country, and may be +traced back to the dances and games of the Saxon gleemen. +The Egg dance and the Carole were both Saxon dances, the Carole +being a Yule-tide festivity, of which the present-day Christmas +carol is a remnant. The oldest dances which remain unchanged +in England are the Morris dances, which were introduced in the +time of Edward III. The name Morris or Moorish refers to the +origin of these dances, which are said to have been brought back +by John of Gaunt from his travels in Spain. The Morris dances +are associated with May-day, and are danced round a maypole +to a lively and capering step, some of the performers having bells +fastened to their knees in the Moorish manner. They are dressed +as characters of old English tradition, such as Robin Hood, +Maid Marian, Friar Tuck, Little John and Tom the Piper. All +the true country dances of Great Britain are of an active and +lively measure; they may all, indeed, be said to be founded on +the jig; and the hornpipe, which is a kind of jig, is the national +dance of England. Captain Cook, on his voyages, made his sailors +dance hornpipes in calm weather to keep them in good health. +A characteristic of English dances was that they partook to a +great extent of the nature of games; there was little variety in +the steps, which were nearly all those of the jig or hornpipe, but +these were incorporated into various games or plays, of which +the Morris dances were the most elaborate. Richard Baxter +wrote that “sometimes the Morris dancers would come into the +church in all their linen and scarves and antic dresses, with +Morris bells jingling at their legs; and as soon as Common +Prayer was read, did haste and presently to their play again.” +May-day has always been celebrated in England with rustic +dances and festivities. Before the Reformation there were no +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page799" id="page799"></a>799</span> +really national dances in use at court; but in the reign of +Elizabeth the homely, domestic style of dancing reached the +height of its popularity. Remnants of many of these dances +remain to-day in the games played by children and country +people; “Hunt the Slipper,” “Kiss in the Ring,” “Here we go +round the Mulberry Bush,” are examples. All the Tudor dances +were kissing dances, and must have been the occasion of a great +deal of merriment. Mrs Groves gives the following description +of the Cushion dance:—“The dance is begun by a single person, +man or woman, who, taking a cushion in hand, dances about the +room, and at the end of a short time stops and sings: ‘This +dance it will no farther go,’ to which the musician answers: +’I pray you, good sir, why say so?’ ‘Because Joan Sanderson +will not come to.’ ‘She must come to whether she will or no,’ +returns the musician, and then the dancer lays the cushion before +a woman; she kneels and he kisses her, singing ‘Welcome, Joan +Sanderson.’ Then she rises, takes up the cushion, and both +dance and sing ‘Prinkum prankum is a fine dance, and shall we +go dance it over again?’ Afterwards the woman takes the +cushion and does as the man did.” Other popular dances—generally +adapted to the tunes of popular songs, the nature of +some of which may be guessed from their titles—were the +Trenchmore, Omnium-gatherum, Tolly-polly, Hoite cum toite, +Dull Sir John, Faine I would, Sillinger, All in a Garden Green, +An Old Man’s a Bed Full of Bones, If All the World were Paper, +John, Come Kiss Me Now, Cuckholds All Awry, Green Sleeves +and Pudding Pies, Lumps of Pudding, Under and Over, Up Tails +All, The Slaughter House, Rub her Down with Straw, Have at +thy Coat Old Woman, The Happy Marriage, Dissembling Love, +Sweet Kate, Once I Loved a Maiden Fair. Dancing practically +disappeared during the Puritan <i>régime</i>, but with the Restoration +it again became popular. It underwent no considerable developments, +however, until the reign of Queen Anne, when the glories +of Bath were revived in the beginning of the 18th century, and +Beau Nash drew up his famous codes of rules for the regulation +of dress and manners, and founded the balls in which the polite +French dances completely eclipsed the simpler English ones. +An account of a dancing lesson witnessed by a fond parent at +this time is worth quoting, as it shows how far the writer (but +not his daughter) had departed from the jolly, romping traditions +of the old English dances:—“As the best institutions are liable +to corruption, so, sir, I must acquaint you that very great abuses +are crept into this entertainment. I was amazed to see my girl +handed by and handing young fellows with so much familiarity, +and I could not have thought it had been my child. They very +often made use of a most impudent and lascivious step called +<i>setting</i> to partners, which I know not how to describe to you +but by telling you that it is the very reverse of <i>back</i> to <i>back</i>. +At last an impudent young dog bid the fiddlers play a dance called +<i>Moll Patley</i>, and, after having made two or three capers, ran to +his partner, locked his arms in hers, and whisked her round +cleverly above ground in such a manner that I, who sat upon one +of the lowest benches, saw farther above her shoe than I can think +fit to acquaint you with. I could no longer endure these enormities, +wherefore, just as my girl was going to be made a whirligig, +I ran in, seized my child and carried her home.” What we may +call polite dancing, when it became fashionable, soon invaded +London, its first home being Madame Cornely’s famous Carlisle +House in Soho Square. Ranelagh and Vauxhall and Almack’s +were all extensively patronized, and the rage for magnificent +entertainment and dancing culminated in the erection of the +palatial Pantheon in Oxford Street—a place so universally +patronized that even Dr Johnson was to be found there. White’s +and Boodle’s were also famous assembly rooms, but the most +exclusive of all these establishments was Almack’s, the original +of Brooks’s Club.</p> + +<p>The only true national dances of Scotland are reels, strathspeys +and flings, while in Ireland there is but one dance—the jig, which +is there, however, found in many varieties and expressive of +many shades of emotion, from the maddest gaiety to the wildest +lament. Curiously enough, although the Welsh dance often, +they have no strictly national dances.</p> + +<p>Dancing in present-day society is a comparatively simple affair, +as five-sixths of almost all ball programmes consists of waltzes. +The origin of the waltz is a much-debated subject, the French, +Italians and Bavarians each claiming for their respective +countries the honour of having given birth to it. As a matter of +fact the waltz, as it is now danced, comes from Germany; but +it is equally true that its real origin is French, since it is a development +of the <i>Volte</i>, which in its turn came from the <i>Lavolta</i> +of Provence, one of the most ancient of French dances. The +<i>Lavolta</i> was fashionable in the 16th century and was the delight +of the Valois court. The <i>Volte</i> danced by Henry III. was really +a <i>Valse à deux pas</i>; and Castil-Blaze says that “the waltz +which we took again from the Germans in 1795 had been a French +dance for four hundred years.” The change, it is true, came upon +it during its visit to Germany, hence the theory of its German +origin. The first German waltz tune is dated 1770—“Ach! du +lieber Augustin.” It was first danced at the Paris opera in 1793, +in Gardel’s ballet <i>La Dansomanie</i>. It was introduced to English +ballrooms in 1812, when it roused a storm of ridicule and opposition, +but it became popular when danced at Almack’s by the +emperor Alexander in 1816. The waltz <i>à trois temps</i> has a sliding +step in which the movements of the knees play an important +part. The <i>tempo</i> is moderate, so as to allow three distinct +movements on the three beats of each bar; and the waltz is +written in 3-4 time and in eight-bar sentences. Walking up and +down the room and occasionally breaking into the step of the +dance is not true waltzing, and the habit of pushing one’s partner +backwards along the room is an entirely English one. But the +dancer must be able to waltz equally well in all directions, +pivoting and crossing the feet when necessary in the reverse turn. +It need hardly be said that the feet should never leave the floor +in the true waltz. Gungl, Waldteufel and the Strauss family +may be said to have moulded the modern waltz to its present +form by their rhythmical and agreeable compositions. There +are variations which include hopping and lurching steps; these +are degradations, and foreign to the spirit of the true +waltz.</p> + +<p>The <i>Quadrille</i> is of some antiquity, and a dance of this kind +was first brought to England from Normandy by William the +Conqueror, and was common all over Europe in the 16th and +17th centuries. The term quadrille means a kind of card game, +and the dance is supposed to be in some way connected with +the game. A species of quadrille appeared in a French ballet in +1745, and since that time the dance has gone by that name. +Like many other dances, it came from Paris to Almack’s in +1815, and in its modern form was danced in England for the +first time by Lady Jersey, Lady Harriet Butler, Lady Susan +Ryder and Miss Montgomery, with Count Aldegarde, Mr Montgomery, +Mr Harley and Mr Montague. It immediately became +popular. It then consisted of very elaborate steps, which in +England have been simplified until the degenerate practice has +become common of walking through the dance. The quadrille, +properly danced, has many of the graces of the minuet. It is +often stated that the square dance is of modern French origin. +This is incorrect, and probably arises from a mistaken identification +of the terms quadrille and square dance. “Dull Sir John” +and “Faine I would” were square dances popular in England +three hundred years ago.</p> + +<p>An account of the country-dance, with the names of some of +the old dance-tunes, has been given above. The word is not, as +has been supposed, an adaptation of the French <i>contre-danse</i>, +neither is the dance itself French in origin. According to the +<i>New English Dictionary</i>, <i>contre-danse</i> is a corruption of “country-dance,” +possibly due to a peculiar feature of many of such dances, +like Sir Roger de Coverley, where the partners are drawn up in +lines opposite to each other. The earliest appearance of the +French word is in its application to English dances, which are +contrasted with the French; thus in the <i>Memoirs of Grammont</i>, +Hamilton says: “On quitta les danses françaises pour se mettre +aux contre-danses.” The English “country-dances” were introduced +into France in the early part of the 18th century and +became popular; later French modifications were brought back +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page800" id="page800"></a>800</span> +to England under the French form of the name, and this, no +doubt, caused the long-accepted but confused derivation.</p> + +<p>The <i>Lancers</i> were invented by Laborde in Paris in 1836. +They were brought over to England in 1850, and were made +fashionable by Madame Sacré at her classes in Hanover Square +Rooms. The first four ladies to dance the lancers in England +were Lady Georgina Lygon, Lady Jane Fielding, Mdlle. Olga de +Lechner and Miss Berkeley.</p> + +<p>The <i>Polka</i>, the chief of the Bohemian national dances, was +adopted by Society in 1835 at Prague. Josef Neruda had seen +a peasant girl dancing and singing the polka, and had noted +down the tune and the steps. From Prague it readily spread to +Vienna, and was introduced to Paris by Cellarius, a dancing-master, +who gave it at the Odéon in 1840. It took the public by +storm, and spread like an infection through England and America. +Everything was named after the polka, from public-houses to +articles of dress. Mr Punch exerted his wit on the subject +weekly, and even <i>The Times</i> complained that its French correspondence +was interrupted, since the polka had taken the place +of politics in Paris. The true polka has three slightly jumping +steps, danced on the first three beats of a four-quaver bar, the +last beat of which is employed as a rest while the toe of the unemployed +foot is drawn up against the heel of the other.</p> + +<p>The <i>Galop</i> is strictly speaking a Hungarian dance, which +became popular in Paris in 1830. But some kind of a dance +corresponding to the galop was always indulged in after <i>Voltes</i> +and <i>Contre-danses</i>, as a relief from their grave and constrained +measures.</p> + +<p>The <i>Washington Post</i> and several varieties of <i>Barn-dance</i> are +of American origin, and became fashionable towards the end of +the 19th century.</p> + +<p>The <i>Polka-Mazurka</i> is extremely popular in Vienna and Budapest, +and is a favourite theme with Hungarian composers. The six +movements of this dance occupy two bars of 3-4 time, and consist +of a mazurka step joined to the polka. It is of Polish origin.</p> + +<p>The <i>Polonaise</i> and <i>Mazurka</i> are both Polish dances, and are +still fashionable in Russia and Poland. Every State ball in +Russia is opened with the ceremonious Polonaise.</p> + +<p>The <i>Schottische</i>, a kind of modified polka, was “created” +by Markowski, who was the proprietor of a famous dancing +academy in 1850. The <i>Highland Schottische</i> is a fling. The +Fling and Reel are Celtic dances, and form the national dances +of Scotland and Denmark. They are complicated measures +of a studied and classical order, in which free use is made of the +arms and of cries and stampings. The <i>Strathspey</i> is a slow and +grandiose modification of the Reel.</p> + +<p><i>Sir Roger de Coverley</i> is the only one of the old English social +dances which has survived to the present day, and it is frequently +danced at the conclusion of the less formal sort of balls. It is a +merry and lively game in which all the company take part, men +and women facing each other in two long rows. The dancers +are constantly changing places in such a way that if the dance is +carried to its conclusion everyone will have danced with everyone +else. The music was first printed in 1685, and is sometimes +written in 2-4 time, sometimes in 6-8 time, and sometimes in +3-9 time.</p> + +<p>The <i>Cotillon</i> is a modern development of the French dance of +the same name referred to above. It is an extremely elaborate +dance, in which a great many toys and accessories are employed; +hundreds of figures may be contrived for it, in which presents, +toys, lighted tapers, biscuits, air-balloons and hurdles are used.</p> + +<p><i>Ballet, &c.</i>—The modern ballet (q.v.) seems to have been first +produced on a considerable scale in 1489 at Tortona, before +Duke Galeazzo of Milan. It soon became a common amusement +on great occasions at the European courts. The ordinary length +was five acts, each containing several <i>entrées</i>, and each <i>entrée</i> +containing several quadrilles. The accessories of painting, +sculpture and movable scenery were employed, and the representation +often took place at night. The allegorical, moral and +ludicrous ballets were introduced to France by Baïf in the time +of Catherine de’ Medici. The complex nature of these exhibitions +may be gathered from the title of one played at Turin in 1634—<i>La +verità nemica della apparenza, sollevata dal tempo.</i> Of the +ludicrous, one of the best known was the Venetian ballet of <i>I a +veritá raminga</i>. Now and then, however, a high political aim +may be discovered, as in the “Prosperity of the Arms of France,” +danced before Richelieu in 1641, or “Religion uniting Great +Britain to the rest of the World,” danced at London on the +marriage of Princess Elizabeth to the elector Frederick. Outside +the theatre, the Portuguese revived an ambulatory ballet which +was played on the canonization of Carlo Borromeo, and to +which they gave the name of the Tyrrhenic Pomp. During this +time also the ceremonial ball (with all its elaborate detail of +<i>courante</i>, minuet and saraband) was cultivated. The fathers of +the church assembled at Trent gave a ball in which they took a +part. Masked balls, too, resembling in some respects the Roman +Saturnalia, became common towards the end of the 17th century. +In France a ball was sometimes diversified by a masquerade, +carried on by a limited number of persons in character-costume. +Two of the most famous were named “au Sauvage” and “des +Sorciers.” In 1715 the regent of France started a system of +public balls in the opera-house, which did not succeed. Dancing, +also, formed a leading element in the Opéra Français introduced +by Quinault. His subjects were chiefly marvellous, drawn from +the classical mythologies; and the choral dancing was not merely +<i>divertissement</i>, but was intended to assist and enrich the dramatic +action of the whole piece.</p> + +<p><i>Musical Gymnastics.</i>—Dancing is an important branch of +physical education. Long ago Locke pointed out (<i>Education</i>, +§§ 67, 196) that the effects of dancing are not confined to the +body; it gives to children, he says, not mere outward gracefulness +of motion, but manly thoughts and a becoming confidence. +Only lately, however, has the advantage been recognized of +making gymnastics attractive by connecting it with what Homer +calls “the sweetest and most perfect of human enjoyments.” +The practical principle against heavy weights and intense +monotonous exertion of particular muscles was thus stated by +Samuel Smiles (<i>Physical Education</i>, p. 148):—“The greatest +benefit is derived from that exercise which calls into action the +greatest number of muscles, and in which the action of these is +intermitted at the shortest intervals.” It required only one +further step to see how, if light and changing movements were +desirable, music would prove a powerful stimulus to gymnastics. +It touches the play-impulse, and substitutes a spontaneous flow +of energy for the mechanical effort of the will. The force of +imitation or contagion, one of the most valuable forces in +education, is also much increased by the state of exhilaration +into which dancing puts the system. This idea was embodied +by Froebel in his <i>Kindergarten</i> plan, and was developed by Jahn +and Schreber in Germany, by Dio Lewis in the United States, +and by Ling (the author of the <i>Swedish Cure Movement</i>) in +Sweden.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—For the old division of the <i>Ars Gymnastica</i> into +<i>palaestrica</i> and <i>saltatoria</i>, and of the latter into <i>cubistica</i>, <i>sphaeristica</i> +and <i>orchestica</i>, see the learned work of Hieronymus Mercurialis, <i>De +arte Gymnastica</i> (Amsterdam, 1572). Cubistic was the art of throwing +somersaults, and is described minutely by Tuccaro in his <i>Trois +Dialogues</i> (Paris, 1599). Sphaeristic included several complex games +at ball and tilting—the Greek <span class="grk" title="kôrukos">κώρυκος</span>, and the Roman <i>trigonalis</i> +and <i>paganica</i>. Orchestic, divided by Plutarch into <i>latio</i>, <i>figura</i> and +<i>indicatio</i>, was really imitative dancing, the “silent poetry” of +Simonides. The importance of the <span class="grk" title="cheironomia">χειρονομία</span> or hand-movement +is indicated by Ovid:—“Si vox est, canta; si mollia brachia, salta.” +For further information as to modern dancing, see Rameau’s <i>Le +maître à danser</i> (1726); Querlon’s <i>Le triomphe des grâces</i> (1774); +Cahousac, <i>La danse ancienne et moderne</i> (1754); Vuillier, <i>History of +Dancing</i> (Eng. trans., 1897); Giraudet, <i>Traité de la danse</i> (1900).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. C. S.; A. B. F. Y.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Compare the Chica of South America, the Fandango of Spain, +and the Angrismene or la Fachée of modern Greece. See also +<i>Romaunt de la rose</i>, v. 776.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The Greek <span class="grk" title="karpaia">καρπαία</span> represented the surprise by robbers of a warrior +ploughing a field. The gymnopaedic dances imitated the sterner +sports of the palaestra.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The Greek Lenaea and Dionysia had a distinct reference to the +seasons.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The Pantomimus was an outgrowth from the <i>canticum</i> or choral +singing of the older comedies and <i>fabulae Atellanae</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> “My heart flew to thy breast. Thou didst cut its wings, so that +it remained there. And now it has waxed daring, and will stay with +thee for evermore.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> “A star is lost and appears not in the sky; in thy face it has set +itself; on thy brow it shines.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANCOURT, FLORENT CARTON<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1661-1725), French dramatist +and actor, was born at Fontainebleau on the 1st of November +1661. He belonged to a family of rank, and his parents entrusted +his education to Père de la Rue, a Jesuit, who made earnest +efforts to induce him to join the order. But he had no religious +vocation and proceeded to study law. He practised at the bar +for some time, but his marriage to the daughter of the comedian +François Lenoir de la Thorillière led him to become an actor, +and in 1685, in spite of the strong opposition of his family, he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page801" id="page801"></a>801</span> +appeared at the Théâtre Français. His gifts as a comedian gave +him immediate and marked success, both with the public and +with his fellow actors. He was the spokesman of his company +on occasions of state, and in this capacity he frequently appeared +before Louis XIV., who treated him with great favour. One of +his most famous impersonations was Alceste in the <i>Misanthrope</i> +of Molière. His first play, <i>Le Notaire obligeant</i>, produced in 1685, +was well received. <i>La Désolation des joueuses</i> (1687) was still +more successful. <i>Le Chevalier à la mode</i> (1687) is generally +regarded as his best work, though his claim to original authorship +in this and some other cases has been disputed. In <i>Le +Chevalier à la mode</i> appears the <i>bourgeoise</i> infatuated with the +desire to be an aristocrat. The type is developed in <i>Les Bourgeoises +à la mode</i> (1692) and <i>Les Bourgeoises de qualité</i> (1700). +Dancourt was a prolific author, and produced some sixty plays +in all. Some years before his death he terminated his career +both as an actor and as an author by retiring to his château at +Courcelles le Roi, in Berry, where he employed himself in making +a poetical translation of the Psalms and in writing a sacred +tragedy. He died on the 7th of December 1725. The plays of +Dancourt are faithful descriptions of the manners of the time, +and as such have real historical value. The characters are drawn +with a realistic touch that led to his being styled by Charles +Palissot the Teniers of comedy. He is very successful in his +delineation of low life, and especially of the peasantry. The +dialogue is sparkling, witty and natural. Many of the incidents +of his plots were derived from actual occurrences in the “fast” +and scandalous life of the period, and several of his characters +were drawn from well-known personages of the day. Most of +the plays incline to the type of farce rather than of pure comedy. +Voltaire defined his talent in the words: “Ce que Regnard était +à l’égard de Molière dans la haute comédie, le comédien Dancourt +l’était dans la farce.”</p> + +<p>His two daughters, Manon and Marie Anne (Mimi), both +obtained success on the stage of the Théâtre Français.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The complete works of Dancourt were published in 1760 (12 vols. +12mo). An edition of his <i>Théâtre choisi</i>, with a preface by F. Sarcey, +appeared in 1884.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANDELION<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (<i>Taraxacum officinale</i>), a perennial herb belonging +to the natural order Compositae. The plant has a wide range, +being found in Europe, Central Asia, North America, and the +Arctic regions, and also in the south temperate zone. The leaves +form a spreading rosette on the very short stem; they are smooth, +of a bright shining green, sessile, and tapering downwards. The +name dandelion is derived from the French <i>dent-de-lion</i>, an +appellation given on account of the tooth-like lobes of the leaves. +The long tap-root has a simple or many-headed rhizome; it is +black externally, and is very difficult of extirpation. The flower-stalks +are smooth, brittle, leafless, hollow, and very numerous. +The flowers bloom from April till August, and remain open from +five or six in the morning to eight or nine at night. The flower-heads +are of a golden yellow, and reach 1½ to 2 in. in width; +the florets are all strap-shaped. The fruits are olive or dull +yellow in colour, and are each surmounted by a long beak, on +which rests a pappus of delicate white hairs, which occasions +the ready dispersal of the fruit by the wind; each fruit contains +one seed. The globes formed by the plumed fruits are nearly +two inches in diameter. The involucre consists of an outer +spreading (or reflexed) and an inner and erect row of bracts. +In all parts of the plant a milky juice is contained, which has a +somewhat complex composition. The chief constituent is +taraxacin, a neutral principle. In addition the juice contains +taraxacerin (derived from the former), asparagin, inulin, resins +and salts. An extract (dose 5-15 grains), a liquid extract (dose +½-1 drachm) and a succus (dose 1-2 drachms) of the root are all +used medicinally. For the purposes formerly recognized taraxacum +is now never used, but it has been shown to possess definite +cholagogue properties, and may therefore be prescribed along +with ammonium chloride in cases of hepatic constipation, which +it very constantly relieves. The root—which is the medicinal +product—is most bitter from March to July, but the milky juice +it contains is less abundant in the summer than in the autumn. +For this reason, the extract and succus are usually prepared +during the months of September and October. After a frost a +change takes place in the root, which loses its bitterness to a +large extent. In the dried state the root will not keep well, +being quickly attacked by insects. Externally it is brown and +wrinkled, internally white, with a yellow centre and concentric +paler rings. It is two inches to a foot long, and about a quarter +to half an inch in diameter. The leaves are bitter, but are sometimes +eaten as a salad; they serve as food for silkworms when +mulberry leaves are not to be had. The root is roasted as a +substitute for coffee. Several varieties of the dandelion are +recognized by botanists; they differ in the degree and mode of +cutting of the leaf-margin and the erect or spreading character +of the outer series of bracts. The variety <i>palustre</i>, which affects +boggy situations, and flowers in late summer and autumn, has +nearly entire leaves, and the outer bracts of its involucre are +erect.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:527px; height:668px" src="images/img801.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Dandelion (<i>Taraxacum officinale</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">1, Unopened head; 2, ripe head from which all the fruits except +two have been removed; 3, one floret, enlarged; 4, one fruit.</td></tr></table> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANDOLO,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> the name of one of the most illustrious patrician +families of Venice, of which the earliest recorded member was +one of the electors of the first doge (A.D. 697). The Dandolo +gave to Venice four doges; of these the first and most famous was +Enrico Dandolo (<i>c.</i> 1120-1205), elected on the 1st of January +1193 (<i>more Veneto</i>, 1192). He had distinguished himself in various +military enterprises and diplomatic negotiations in the course of +an active career, and although over seventy years old and of +very weak sight (the story that he had been made blind by the +emperor Manuel Comnenus while he was at Constantinople is a +legend), he proved a most energetic and capable ruler. His first +care was to re-establish Venetian authority over the Dalmatians +who had rebelled with the king of Hungary’s protection, but he +failed to capture Zara, owing to the arrival of the Pisan fleet, +and although the latter was defeated by the Venetians, the undertaking +was suspended. In the meanwhile the situation in the +East was becoming critical. The Eastern emperor Isaac II. +Angelus had been deposed, imprisoned, and blinded by his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page802" id="page802"></a>802</span> +brother Alexius, who usurped the throne. The new emperor +proved unfriendly to the Venetians and made difficulties about +renewing their privileges. In the West a new crusade to the +Holy Land was in preparation, and the crusaders sent ambassadors, +one of whom was Villehardouin, the historian of the +expedition, to ask the Venetians to give them passage and +means of transport (1201). After much deliberation the republic +agreed to transport 4500 horse and 29,000 foot to Palestine with +provisions for one year, for a sum of 85,000 marks; in addition +50 Venetian galleys would be provided free of charge, while +Venice was to receive half the conquests made by the crusaders. +But as the time agreed upon for the departure approached, it +appeared that the crusaders had not the money to pay the stipulated +advance. Dandolo then proposed that if they helped him +to reduce Zara payment might be deferred. Some of the crusaders +disapproved of this attack on a Christian city, but the +majority, only too glad of an opportunity for plunder, willingly +agreed. The expedition sailed on the 8th of October 1202, three +hundred sail in all, with the aged Dandolo himself in command. +Zara was taken and pillaged, for which the Venetians were +severely reprimanded by the pope. But new possibilities of +conquest were now opened up at the suggestion of Alexius, the +son of the deposed emperor Isaac. He promised the crusaders +that if they went first to Constantinople and re-instated Isaac, +the latter would maintain them for a year, contribute 10,000 +men and 200,000 marks for the expedition to Egypt, and subject +the Eastern to the Western Church. The proposal was accepted, +largely owing to the influence of Dandolo, who saw in it a means +for further extending the dominions and commerce of the +Venetians. After wintering at Zara the fleet set sail on the 7th +of April 1203, and on the 23rd of June anchored in the Bosporus. +After long parleys the city was attacked by land and sea on the +17th of July (the fleet being commanded by Dandolo) and taken +by storm. The emperor Alexius fled, and Isaac reoccupied the +throne, but, although grateful to the crusaders, he was not disposed +to fulfil the promises made by his son. Tumults between +crusaders and Greeks arose, and the people of the city, excited +by a certain Alexis Murzuphlus, murmured at the new taxes +which were imposed on them. A revolt broke out, and an officer +named Nicholas Canabus was placed on the throne; Prince +Alexius was strangled by order of Murzuphlus, Isaac died of the +shock, Murzuphlus imprisoned Canabus and made himself +emperor (Alexius V.). The crusaders thereupon attacked Constantinople +a second time (12th of April 1204), and after a +desperate struggle captured the city, which they subjected to +hideous carnage. Immense booty was secured, the Venetians +obtaining among other treasures the four bronze horses which +adorn the façade of St Mark’s. The Eastern empire was abolished, +and a feudal Latin empire erected in its stead. The +leaders of the crusaders then met to elect an emperor. Dandolo +was one of the candidates, but Count Baldwin of Flanders was +elected and crowned on the 23rd of May. The Venetians were +given Crete and several other islands and ports in the Levant, +which formed an uninterrupted chain from Venice to the Black +Sea, a large part of Constantinople (whence the doge assumed +the title of “lord of a quarter and a half of Romania”), and +many valuable privileges. But hardly had the new state been +established when various provinces rose in rebellion and the +Bulgarians invaded Thrace. A Latin army was defeated by +them at Adrianople (April 1205), and the emperor himself was +captured and killed, the fragments of the force being saved only +by Dandolo’s prowess. But he was now old and ill, and on the +23rd of June 1205 he died. He certainly consolidated Venice’s +dominion in the East and increased its commercial prosperity +to a very high degree. But the policy he pursued in turning the +crusaders against Constantinople, in order to promote the +interests of the republic, while serving to break up the Greek +empire, created in its place a Latin state that was far too feeble +to withstand the onslaught of Greek national feeling and +Orthodox fanaticism; at the same time the Greeks were greatly +weakened and their power of resisting the Turks consequently +lessened. This paved the way for the Turkish invasion of +Europe, which proved an unmixed calamity for all Christendom, +Venice included.</p> + +<p>Enrico Dandolo’s sons distinguished themselves in the public +service, and his grandson Giovanni was doge from 1280 to 1289. +The latter’s son Andrea commanded the Venetian fleet in the +war against Genoa in 1294, and, having been defeated and taken +prisoner, he was so overwhelmed with shame that he committed +suicide by beating his head against the mast (according to Andrea +Navagero). Francesco Dandolo, also known as Dandolo Cane, +was doge from 1329 to 1339. During his reign the Venetians +went to war with Martino della Scala, lord of Verona, with the +result that they occupied Treviso and otherwise extended their +possessions on the <i>terra firma</i>. Andrea Dandolo (1307/10-1354), +the last doge of the family, reigned from 1343 to 1354. +He had been the first Venetian noble to take a degree at the +university of Padua, where he had also been professor of jurisprudence. +The terrible plague of 1348, wars with Genoa, against +whom the great naval victory of Lojera was won in 1353, many +treaties, and the subjugation of the seventh revolt of Zara, are +the chief events of his reign. The poet Petrarch, who was the +doge’s intimate friend, was sent to Venice on a peace mission by +Giovanni Visconti, lord of Milan. “Just, incorruptible, full of +zeal and of love for his country, and at the same time learned, +of rare eloquence, wise, affable, and humane,” is the poet’s +verdict on Andrea Dandolo (<i>Varior. epist.</i> xix.). Dandolo died +on the 7th of September 1354. He is chiefly famous as a historian, +and his <i>Annals</i> to the year 1280 are one of the chief sources +of Venetian history for that period; they have been published +by Muratori (<i>Rer. Ital. Script.</i> tom. xxi.). He also had a new +code of laws compiled (issued in 1346) in addition to the statute +of Jacopo Tiepolo.</p> + +<p>Another well-known member of this family was Silvestro +Dandolo (1796-1866), son of Girolamo Dandolo, who was the +last admiral of the Venetian republic and died an Austrian +admiral in 1847. Silvestro was an Italian patriot and took part +in the revolution of 1848.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—S. Romanin, <i>Storia documentata di Venezia</i> +(Venice, 1853); among more recent books H. Kretschmayr’s +excellent <i>Geschichte von Venedig</i> (Gotha, 1905) should be consulted: +it contains a bibliography of the authorities and all the latest researches +and discoveries; C. Cipolla and G. Monticolo have published +many essays and editions of chronicles in the <i>Archivio Veneto</i>, and the +“Fonti per la Storia d’Italia,” in the <i>Istituto storico italiano</i>; H. +Simonsfeld has written a life of <i>Andrea Dandolo</i> in German (Munich, +1876).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANDOLO, VINCENZO,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1758-1819), Italian chemist +and agriculturist, was born at Venice, of good family, though not +of the same house as the famous doges, and began his career as a +physician. He was a prominent opponent of the oligarchical +party in the revolution which took place on the approach of +Napoleon; and he was one of the envoys sent to seek the protection +of the French. When the request was refused, and +Venice was placed under Austria, he removed to Milan, where he +was made member of the great council. In 1799, on the invasion +of the Russians and the overthrow of the Cisalpine republic, +Dandolo retired to Paris, where, in the same year, he published +his treatise <i>Les Hommes nouveaux, ou moyen d’opérer une régénération +nouvelle</i>. But he soon after returned to the neighbourhood +of Milan, to devote himself to scientific agriculture. In 1805 +Napoleon made him governor of Dalmatia, with the title of +<i>provéditeur général</i>, in which position Dandolo distinguished +himself by his efforts to remove the wretchedness and idleness of +the people, and to improve the country by draining the pestilential +marshes and introducing better methods of agriculture. +When, in 1809, Dalmatia was re-annexed to the Illyrian provinces, +Dandolo returned to Venice, having received as his reward +from the French emperor the title of count and several other +distinctions. He died in his native city on the 13th of December +1819.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Dandolo published in Italian several treatises on agriculture, +vine-cultivation, and the rearing of cattle and sheep; a work on +silk-worms, which was translated into French by Fontanelle; a +work on the discoveries in chemistry which were made in the last +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page803" id="page803"></a>803</span> +quarter of the 18th century (published 1796); and translations of +several of the best French works on chemistry.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANDY,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> a word of uncertain origin which about 1813-1816 +became a London colloquialism for the exquisite or fop of the +period. It seems to have been in use on the Scottish border at +the end of the 18th century, its full form, it is suggested, being +“Jack-a-Dandy,” which from 1659 had a sense much like its +later one. It is probably ultimately derived from the French +<i>dandin</i>, “a ninny or booby,” but a more direct derivation was +suggested at the time of the uprise of the Regency dandies. In +<i>The Northampton Mercury</i>, under date of the 17th of April +1819, occurs the following: “Origin of the word ‘dandy.’ +This term, which has been recently applied to a species of +reptile very common in the metropolis, appears to have +arisen from a small silver coin struck by King Henry VII., of +little value, called a <i>dandiprat</i>; and hence Bishop Fleetwood +observes the term is applied to worthless and contemptible +persons.”</p> + +<p>It was Beau Brummel, the high-priest of fashion, who gave +dandyism its great vogue. But before his day foppery in dress +had become something more than the personal eccentricity +which it had been in the Stuart days and earlier. About the +middle of the 18th century was founded the Macaroni Club. +This was a band of young men of rank who had visited Italy +and sought to introduce the southern elegances of manner and +dress into England. The Macaronis gained their name from +their introduction of the Italian dish to English tables, and were +at their zenith about 1772, when their costume is described as +“white silk breeches, very tight coat and vest with enormous +white neckcloths, white silk stockings and diamond-buckled +red-heeled shoes.” For some time the moving spirit of the club +was Charles James Fox. It was with the advent of Brummel, +however, that the cult of dandyism became a social force. Beau +Brummel was supreme dictator in matters of dress, and the prince +regent is said to have wept when he disapproved of the cut of +the royal coat. Around the Beau collected a band of young +men whose insolent and affected manners made them universally +unpopular. Their chief glory was their clothes. They wore +coats of blue or brown cloth with brass buttons, the coat-tails +almost touching the heels. Their trousers were buckskin, so +tight that it is said they “could only be taken off as an eel +would be divested of his skin.” A pair of highly-polished +Hessian boots, a waistcoat buttoned incredibly tight so as to +produce a small waist, and opening at the breast to exhibit the +frilled shirt and cravat, completed the costume of the true dandy. +Upon the Beau’s disgrace and ruin, Lord Alvanley was regarded +as leader of the dandies and “first gentleman in England.” +Though in many ways a worthier man than Brummel, his vanity +exposed him to much derision, and he fought a duel on +Wimbledon Common with Morgan O’Connell, who, in the House +of Commons, had called him a “bloated buffoon.” After 1825 +“dandy” lost its invidious meaning, and came to be applied +generally to those who were neat in dress rather than to those +guilty of effeminacy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Barbey D’Aurevilly, <i>Du dandysme et de G. Brummel</i> (Paris, +1887).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANEGELD,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> an English national tax originally levied by +Æthelred II. (the Unready) as a means of raising the tribute +which was the price of the temporary cessation of the Danish +ravages. This expedient of buying off the invader was first +adopted in 991 ou the advice of certain great men of the kingdom. +It was repeated in 994, 1002, 1007 and 1012. With the accession +of the Danish king Canute, the original <i>raison d’être</i> of the tax +ceased to exist, but it continued to be levied, though for a +different purpose, assuming now the character of an occasional +war-tax. It was exceedingly burdensome, and its abolition by +Edward the Confessor in 1051 was welcomed as a great relief. +William the Conqueror revived it immediately after his accession, +as a convenient method of national taxation, and it was with the +object of facilitating its collection that he ordered the compilation +of Domesday Book. It continued to be levied until 1163, in +which year the name Danegeld appears for the last time in the +Rolls. Its place was taken by other imposts of similar character +but different name.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANELAGH,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> the name given to those districts in the north +and north-east of England which were settled by Danes and other +Scandinavian invaders during the period of the Viking invasions. +The real settlement of England by Danes began in the year 866 +with the appearance of a large army in East Anglia, which turned +north in the following year. The Danes captured York and +overthrew the Northumbrian kingdom, setting up a puppet +king of their own. They encamped in Nottingham in 868, and +Northern Mercia was soon in their hands; in 870 Edmund, king +of the East Anglians, fell before them. During the next few years +they maintained their hold on Mercia, and we have at this time +coins minted in London with the inscription “Alfdene rex,” the +name of the Danish leader. In the winter of 874-875 they +advanced as far north as the Tyne, and at the same time Cambridge +was occupied. In the meantime the great struggle with +Alfred the Great was being carried on. This was terminated by the +peace of Wedmore in 878, when the Danes withdrew from Wessex +and settled finally in East Anglia under their king Guthrum. +This peace was finally and definitely ratified in the document +known as the peace of Alfred and Guthrum, which is probably to +be referred to the year 880. The peace determined the boundary +of Guthrum’s East Anglian kingdom. According to the terms +of the agreement the boundary was to run along the Thames +estuary to the mouth of the Lea (a few miles east of London), +then up the Lea to its source near Leighton Buzzard, then due +north to Bedford, then eastwards up the Ouse to Watling Street +somewhere near Fenny or Stony Stratford. From this point +the boundary is left undefined, perhaps because the kingdoms +of Alfred and Guthrum ceased to be conterminous here, though if +Northamptonshire was included in the kingdom of Guthrum, +as seems likely, the boundary must be carried a few miles along +Watling Street. Thus Northern Mercia, East Anglia, the greater +part of Essex and Northumbria were handed over to the +Danes and henceforth constitute the district known as the +Danelagh.</p> + +<p>The three chief divisions of the Danelagh were (1) the kingdom +of Northumbria, (2) the kingdom of East Anglia, (3) the district +of the Five (Danish) Boroughs—lands grouped round Leicester, +Nottingham, Derby, Stamford and Lincoln, and forming a loose +confederacy. Of the history of the two Danish kingdoms we +know very little. Guthrum of East Anglia died in 890, and later +we hear of a king Eric or Eohric who died in 902. Another +Guthrum was ruling there in the days of Edward the Elder. The +history of the Northumbrian kingdom is yet more obscure. +After an interregnum consequent on the death of Healfdene the +kingdom passed in 883 to one Guthred, son of Hardicanute, who +ruled till 894, when his realm was taken over by King Alfred, +though probably only under a very loose sovereignty. It may be +noted here that Northumbria north of the Tyne, the old Bernicia, +seems never to have passed under Danish authority and rule, but +to have remained in independence until the general submission to +Edward in 924.</p> + +<p>More is known of the history of the five boroughs. From 907 +onwards Edward the Elder, working together with Æthelred of +Mercia and his wife, worked for the recovery of the Danelagh. In +that year Chester was fortified. In 911-912 an advance on Essex +and Hertfordshire was begun. In 914 Buckingham was fortified +and the Danes of Bedfordshire submitted. In 917 Derby was +the first of the five boroughs to fall, followed by Leicester a +few months later. In the same year after a keen struggle all the +Danes belonging to the “borough” of Northampton, as far north +as the Welland (i.e. the border of modern Northamptonshire), +submitted to Edward and at the same time Colchester was fortified; +a large portion of Essex submitted and the whole of the East +Anglian Danes came in. Stamford was the next to yield, soon +followed by Nottingham, and in 920 there was a general submission +on the part of the Danes and the reconquest of the Danelagh +was now complete.</p> + +<p>Though the independent occupation of the Danelagh by +Viking invaders did not last for more than fifty years at the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page804" id="page804"></a>804</span> +outside, the Danes left lasting marks of their presence in these +territories.</p> + +<p>The divisions of the land are foreign not native. The grouping +of shires round a county town as distinct from the old national +shires is probably of Scandinavian origin, and so certainly is the +division of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire into “ridings.” In +Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, part of Northamptonshire, +Nottinghamshire, Rutlandshire (of later formation) and +Yorkshire we have the counties divided into “wapentakes” +instead of “hundreds,” again a mark of Danish influence.</p> + +<p>When we turn to the social divisions we find in Domesday and +other documents classes of society in these districts bearing purely +Norse names, <i>dreng</i>, <i>karl</i>, <i>karlman</i>, <i>bonde</i>, <i>thrall</i>, <i>lysing</i>, <i>hold</i>; in +the system of taxation we have an assessment by <i>carucates</i> and +not by hides and <i>virgates</i>, and the duodecimal rather than the +decimal system of reckoning.</p> + +<p>The highly developed Scandinavian legal system has also left +abundant traces in this district. We may mention specially the +institution of the “lawmen,” whom we find as a judicial body in +several of the towns in or near the Danelagh. They are found at +Cambridge, Stamford, Lincoln, York and Chester. There can be +no doubt that these “lawmen,” who can be shown to form a close +parallel to and indeed the ultimate source of our jury, were of +Scandinavian origin. Many other legal terms can be definitely +traced to Scandinavian sources, and they are first found in use in +the district of the Danelagh.</p> + +<p>The whole of the place nomenclature of Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, +Nottinghamshire and Northern Northamptonshire is Scandinavian +rather than native English, and in the remaining districts +of the Danelagh a goodly proportion of Danish place-names may +be found. Their influence is also evident in the dialects spoken +in these districts to the present day. It is probable that until +the end of the 10th century Scandinavian dialects were almost the +sole language spoken in the district of the Danelagh, and when +English triumphed, after an intermediate bilingual state, large +numbers of words were adopted from the earlier Scandinavian +speech.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i>, edited by Earle and Plummer +(Oxford, 1892-1899); J. C. H. R. Steenstrup, <i>Normannerne</i> (4 vols., +1876-1882); and A. Bugge, <i>Vikingerne</i> (2 vols.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Mw.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANGERFIELD, THOMAS<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1650-1685), English conspirator, +was born about 1650 at Waltham, Essex, the son of a farmer. +He began his career by robbing his father, and, after a rambling +life, took to coining false money, for which offence and others he +was many times imprisoned. False to everyone, he first tried to +involve the duke of Monmouth and others by concocting information +about a Presbyterian plot against the throne, and this +having been proved a lie, he pretended to have discovered a +Catholic plot against Charles II. This was known as the “Meal-tub +Plot,” from the place where the incriminating documents +were hidden at his suggestion, and found by the king’s officers by +his information. Mrs Elizabeth Cellier,—in whose house the tub +was,—almoner to the countess of Powis, who had befriended +Dangerfield when he posed as a Catholic, was, with her patroness, +actually tried for high treason and acquitted (1680). Dangerfield, +when examined at the bar of the House of Commons, made +other charges against prominent Papists, and attempted to +defend his character by publishing, among other pamphlets, +<i>Dangerfield’s Narrative</i>. This led to his trial for libel, and on the +29th of June 1685 he received sentence to stand in the pillory on +two consecutive days, be whipped from Aldgate to Newgate, and +two days later from Newgate to Tyburn. On his way back he +was struck in the eye with a cane by a barrister, Robert Francis, +and died shortly afterwards from the blow. The barrister was, +tried and executed for the murder.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANIEL,<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> the name given to the central figure<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of the biblical +Book of Daniel (see below), which is now generally regarded as a +production dating from the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (175-164 +B.C.). There are no means of ascertaining anything definite +concerning the origin of the hero Daniel. The account of him in +Dan. i. has been generally misunderstood. According to i. 3, the +Babylonian chief eunuch was commanded to bring “certain of +the children of Israel, and of the king’s seed, and of the nobles” +to serve in the court. Many commentators have considered this +to mean that some of the children were of the royal Judaean line +of Jewish noble families, an interpretation which is not justified +by the wording of the passage, which contains nothing to indicate +that the author meant to convey the idea that Daniel was either +royal or noble. Josephus,<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> never doubting the historicity of +Daniel, made the prophet a relative of Zedekiah and consequently +of Jehoiakim, a conclusion which he apparently drew from the +same passage, i. 3. Pseudo-Epiphanius,<a name="fa3f" id="fa3f" href="#ft3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a> again, probably having +the same source in mind, thought that Daniel was a Jewish +noble. The true Epiphanius<a name="fa4f" id="fa4f" href="#ft4f"><span class="sp">4</span></a> even gives the name of his father as +Sabaan, and states that the prophet was born at Upper Beth-Horon, +a village near Jerusalem. The after life and death of the +seer are as obscure as his origin. The biblical account throws no +light on the subject. According to the rabbis,<a name="fa5f" id="fa5f" href="#ft5f"><span class="sp">5</span></a> Daniel went back +to <span class="correction" title="amended from Jersualem">Jerusalem</span> with the return of the captivity, and is supposed to +have been one of the founders of the mythical Great Synagogue. +Other traditions affirm that he died and was buried in Babylonia +in the royal vault, while the Jewish traveller Benjamin of +Tudela (12th cent. A.D.) was shown his tomb in Susa, which is +also mentioned by the Arab, Abulfaragius (Bar-hebraeus). +The author of <i>Daniel</i> did not pretend to give any sketch of the +prophet’s career, but was content merely with making him the +central figure, around which to group more or less disconnected +narratives and accounts of visions. In view of these facts, and +also of the generally inaccurate character of all the historical +statements in the work, there is really no evidence to prove even +the existence of the Daniel described in the book bearing his name.</p> + +<p>The question at once arises as to where the Maccabaean author +of <i>Daniel</i> could have got the name and personality of his Daniel. +It is not probable that he could have invented both name and +character. There is an allusion in the prophet Ezekiel (xiv. 14, +20, xxviii. 3) to a Daniel whom he places as a great personality +between Noah and Job. But this could not be our Daniel, whom +Ezekiel, probably a man of ripe age at the time of the Babylonian +deportation of the Jews, would hardly have mentioned in the same +breath with two such characters, much less have put him <i>between</i> +them, because, had the Daniel of the biblical book existed at this +time, he would have been a mere boy, lacking any such distinction +as to make him worthy of so high a mention. It is evident that +Ezekiel considered his Daniel to be a celebrated ancient prophet, +concerning whose date and origin, however, there is not a single +trace to guide research. Hitzig’s<a name="fa6f" id="fa6f" href="#ft6f"><span class="sp">6</span></a> conjecture that the Daniel of +Ezekiel was Melchizedek is quite without foundation. The most +that can be said in this connexion is that there may really have +been a spiritual leader of the captive Jews who resided at Babylon +and who was either named Daniel, perhaps after the unknown +patriarch mentioned by Ezekiel, or to whom the same name had +been given in the course of tradition by some historical confusion +of persons. Following this hypothesis, it must be assumed that +the fame of this Judaeo-Babylonian leader had been handed +down through the unclear medium of oral tradition until the time +of Antiochus Epiphanes, when some gifted Jewish author, feeling +the need of producing a work which should console his people in +their affliction under the persecutions of that monarch, seized +upon the personality of the seer who lived during a time of persecution +bearing many points of resemblance to that of Antiochus IV., +and moulded some of the legends than extant about the life +and activity of this misty prophet into such a form as should be +best suited to a didactic purpose.<a name="fa7f" id="fa7f" href="#ft7f"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page805" id="page805"></a>805</span></p> + +<p><span class="sc">Daniel, Book of.</span>—The Book of Daniel stands between Ezra +and Esther in the third great division of the Hebrew Bible known +as the <i>Hagiographa</i>, in which are classed all works which were +not regarded as being part of the Law or the Prophets. The book +presents the unusual peculiarity of being written in two languages, +i.-ii. 4 and viii.-xii. being in Hebrew, while the text of ii. 4-vii. +is the Palestinian dialect of Aramaic.<a name="fa8f" id="fa8f" href="#ft8f"><span class="sp">8</span></a> The subject matter, +however, falls naturally into two divisions which are not co-terminous +with the linguistic sections; viz. i.-vi. and vii.-xii. The +first of these sense-divisions deals only with narratives regarding +the reign of Nebuchadrezzar and his supposed son Belshazzar, +while the second section consists exclusively of apocalyptic +prophecies. There can be no doubt that a definite plan was +followed in the arrangement of the work. The author’s object +was clearly to demonstrate to his readers the necessity of faith +in Israel’s God, who shall not for ever allow his chosen ones to +be ground under the heel of a ruthless heathen oppressor. To +illustrate this, he makes use on the one hand (i.-vi.) of carefully +chosen narratives, somewhat loosely connected it is true, but all +treating substantially the same subject,—the physical triumph +of God’s servant over his unbelieving enemies; and on the other +hand (vii.-xii.), he introduces certain prophetic visions illustrative +of God’s favour towards the same servant, Daniel. So carefully +is this record of the visions arranged that the first two chapters of +the second part of the book (vii.-viii.) were no doubt purposely +made to appear in a symbolic form, in order that in the last two +revelations (xi.-xii.), which were couched in such direct language +as to be intelligible even to the modern student of history, the +author might obtain the effect of a climax. The book is probably +not therefore a number of parts of different origin thrown loosely +together by a careless editor, who does not deserve the title of +author.<a name="fa9f" id="fa9f" href="#ft9f"><span class="sp">9</span></a> The more or less disconnected sections of the first part +of the work were probably so arranged purposely, in order to +facilitate its diffusion at a time when books were known to the +people at large chiefly by being read aloud in public.</p> + +<p>Various attempts have been made to explain the sudden change +from Hebrew to Aramaic in ii. 4. It was long thought, for +example, that Aramaic was the vernacular of Babylonia and was +consequently employed as the language of the parts relating to +that country. But this was not the case, because the Babylonian +language survived until a later date than that of the events +portrayed in Daniel.<a name="fa10f" id="fa10f" href="#ft10f"><span class="sp">10</span></a> Nor is it possible to follow the theory of +Merx, that Aramaic, which was the popular tongue of the day +when the Book of Daniel was written, was therefore used for the +simpler narrative style, while the more learned Hebrew was made +the idiom of the philosophical portions.<a name="fa11f" id="fa11f" href="#ft11f"><span class="sp">11</span></a> The first chapter, +which is just as much in the narrative style as are the following +Aramaic sections, is in Hebrew, while the distinctly apocalyptic +chapter vii. is in Aramaic. A third view, that the bilingual +character of the work points to a time when both languages were +used indifferently, is equally unsatisfactory,<a name="fa12f" id="fa12f" href="#ft12f"><span class="sp">12</span></a> because it is highly +questionable whether two idioms can ever be used quite indifferently. +In fact, a hybrid work in two languages would be a +literary monstrosity. In view of the apparent unity of the entire +work, the only possible explanation seems to be that the book +was written at first all in Hebrew, but for the convenience of the +general reader whose vernacular was Aramaic, a translation, +possibly from the same pen as the original, was made into +Aramaic. It must be supposed then that, certain parts of the +original Hebrew manuscript being lost, the missing places were +supplied from the current Aramaic translation.<a name="fa13f" id="fa13f" href="#ft13f"><span class="sp">13</span></a></p> + +<p>It cannot be denied in the light of modern historical research +that if the Book of Daniel be regarded as pretending to full +historical authority, the biblical record is open to all manner of +attack. It is now the general opinion of most modern scholars +who study the Old Testament from a critical point of view that +this work cannot possibly have originated, according to the +traditional theory, at any time during the Babylonian monarchy, +when the events recorded are supposed to have taken place.</p> + +<p>The chief reasons for such a conclusion are as follows.<a name="fa14f" id="fa14f" href="#ft14f"><span class="sp">14</span></a></p> + +<p>1. The position of the book among the <i>Hagiographa</i>, instead of +among the Prophetical works, seems to show that it was introduced +after the closing of the Prophetical Canon. Some commentators +have believed that Daniel was not an actual prophet in +the proper sense, but only a seer, or else that he had no official +standing as a prophet and that therefore the book was not +entitled to a place among official prophetical books. But if the +work had really been in existence at the time of the completion +of the second part of the canon, the collectors of the prophetical +writings, who in their care did not neglect even the parable of +Jonah, would hardly have ignored the record of so great a +prophet as Daniel is represented to have been.</p> + +<p>2. Jesus ben Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), who wrote about 200-180 +B.C., in his otherwise complete list of Israel’s leading spirits +(xlix.), makes no mention of Daniel. Hengstenberg’s plea that +Ezra and Mordecai were also left unmentioned has little force, +because Ezra appears in the book bearing his name as nothing +more than a prominent priest and scholar, while Daniel is represented +as a great prophet.</p> + +<p>3. Had the Book of Daniel been extant and generally known +after the time of Cyrus (537-529 B.C.), it would be natural to look +for some traces of its power among the writings of Haggai, +Zechariah and Malachi, whose works, however, show no evidence +that either the name or the history of Daniel was known to these +authors. Furthermore, the manner in which the prophets are +looked back upon in ix. 6-10 cannot fail to suggest an extremely +late origin for the book. Besides this, a careful study of ix. 2 +seems to indicate that the Prophetical Canon was definitely +completed at the time when the author of Daniel wrote. It is also +highly probable that much of the material in the second part of +the book was suggested by the works of the later prophets, +especially by Ezekiel and Zechariah.</p> + +<p>4. Some of the beliefs set forth in the second part of the book +also practically preclude the possibility of the author having +lived at the courts of Nebuchadrezzar and his successors. Most +noticeable among these doctrines is the complete system of +angelology consistently followed out in the Book of Daniel, +according to which the management of human affairs is entrusted +to a regular hierarchy of commanding angels, two of +whom, Gabriel and Michael, are even mentioned by name. Such +an idea was distinctly foreign to the primitive Israelitish conception +of the indivisibility of Yahweh’s power, and must consequently +have been a borrowed one. It could certainly not have +come from the Babylonians, however, whose system of attendant +spirits was far from being so complete as that which is set forth +in the Book of Daniel, but rather from Persian sources where +a more complicated angelology had been developed. As many +commentators have brought out, there can be little doubt that +the doctrine of angels in Daniel is an indication of prolonged +Persian influence. Furthermore, it is now very generally admitted +that the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead, which is +advanced for the first time in the Old Testament in Daniel, also +originated among the Persians,<a name="fa15f" id="fa15f" href="#ft15f"><span class="sp">15</span></a> and could only have been +engrafted on the Jewish mind after a long period of intercourse +with the Zoroastrian religion, which came into contact with the +Jewish thinkers considerably after the time of Nebuchadrezzar.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page806" id="page806"></a>806</span></p> + +<p>5. All the above evidences are merely internal, but we are now +able to draw upon the Babylonian historical sources to prove +that Daniel could not have originated at the time of Nebuchadrezzar. +There can be no doubt that the author of Daniel thought +that Belshazzar (q.v.), who has now been identified beyond all +question with <i>Bel-šar-uzur</i>, the son of Nabonidus, the last Semitic +king of Babylon, was the son of Nebuchadrezzar, and that +Belshazzar attained the rank of king.<a name="fa16f" id="fa16f" href="#ft16f"><span class="sp">16</span></a> This prince did not even +come from the family of Nebuchadrezzar. Nabonidus, the father +of Belshazzar, was the son of a nobleman <i>Nabu-baladsu-iqbi</i>, who +was in all probability not related to any of the preceding kings of +Babylon. Had Nabonidus been descended from Nebuchadrezzar +he could hardly have failed in his records, which we possess, to +have boasted of such a connexion with the greatest Babylonian +monarch; yet in none of his inscriptions does he trace his descent +beyond his father. Certain expositors have tried to obviate the +difficulty, first by supposing that the expression “son of +Nebuchadrezzar” in Daniel means “descendant” or “son,” a +view which is rendered untenable by the facts just cited. This +school has also endeavoured to prove that the author of Daniel +did not mean to imply Belshazzar’s kingship of Babylon at all by +his use of the word “king,” but they suggest that the writer of +Daniel believed Belshazzar to have been co-regent. If Belshazzar +had ever held such a position, which is extremely unlikely in the +absence of any evidence from the cuneiform documents, he would +hardly have been given the unqualified title “king of Babylon” +as occurs in Daniel.<a name="fa17f" id="fa17f" href="#ft17f"><span class="sp">17</span></a> For example, Cambyses, son of Cyrus, was +undoubtedly co-regent and bore the title “king of Babylon” +during his father’s lifetime, but, in a contract which dates from the +first year of Cambyses, it is expressly stated that Cyrus was still +“king of the lands.” This should be contrasted with Dan. +viii. 1, where reference is made to the “third year of Belshazzar, +king of Babylon” without any allusion to another over-ruler. +Such attempts are at best subterfuges to support an impossible +theory regarding the origin of the Book of Daniel, whose author +clearly believed in the kingship of Belshazzar and in that prince’s +descent from Nebuchadrezzar.</p> + +<p>Furthermore, the writer of Daniel asserts (v. 1) that a +monarch “Darius the Mede” received the kingdom of Babylon +after the fall of the native Babylonian house, although it is +evident, from i. 21, x. 1, that the biblical author was perfectly +aware of the existence of Cyrus.<a name="fa18f" id="fa18f" href="#ft18f"><span class="sp">18</span></a> The fact that in no other +scriptural passage is mention made of any Median ruler between +the last Semitic king of Babylon and Cyrus, and the absolute +silence of the authoritative ancient authors regarding such a king, +make it apparent that the late author of Daniel is again in error +in this particular. It is known that Cyrus became master of +Media by conquering Astyages, and that the troops of the king of +Persia capturing Babylon took Nabonidus prisoner with but little +difficulty. Unsuccessful attempts have been made to identify this +mythical Darius with the Cyaxares, son of Astyages, of Xenophon’s +<i>Cyropaedia</i>, and also with the Darius of Eusebius, who was +in all probability Darius Hystaspis. There is not only no room +in history for this Median king of the Book of Daniel, but it is +also highly likely that the interpolation of “Darius the Mede” +was caused by a confusion of history, due both to the destruction +of the Assyrian capital Nineveh by the Medes, sixty-eight years +before the capture of Babylon by Cyrus, and also to the fame of +the later king, Darius Hystaspis, a view which was advanced as +early in the history of biblical criticism as the days of the Benedictine +monk, Marianus Scotus. It is important to note in +this connexion that Darius the Mede is represented as the son +of Xerxes (Ahasuerus) and it is stated that he established +120 satrapies. Darius <span class="correction" title="amended from Hystapis">Hystaspis</span> was the father of Xerxes, and +according to Herodotus (iii. 89) established twenty satrapies. +Darius the Mede entered into possession of Babylon after the +death of Belshazzar; Darius Hystaspis conquered Babylon +from the hands of certain rebels (Her. iii. 153-160). In fine, the +interpolation of a Median Darius must be regarded as the most +glaring historical inaccuracy of the author of Daniel. In fact, +this error of the author alone is proof positive that he must have +lived at a very late period, when the record of most of the earlier +historical events had become hopelessly confused and perverted.</p> + +<p>With these chief reasons why the Book of Daniel cannot have +originated in the Babylonian period, if the reader will turn more +especially to the apocalyptic sections (vii.-xii.), it will be quite +evident that the author is here giving a detailed account of +historical events which may easily be recognized through the thin +veil of prophetic mystery thrown lightly around them. It is +indeed highly suggestive that just those occurrences which are +the most remote from the assumed standpoint of the writer +are the most correctly stated, while the nearer we approach the +author’s supposed time, the more inaccurate does he become. +It is quite apparent that the predictions in the Book of Daniel +centre on the period of Antiochus Epiphanes (175-164 B.C.), when +that Syrian prince was endeavouring to suppress the worship +of Yahweh and substitute for it the Greek religion.<a name="fa19f" id="fa19f" href="#ft19f"><span class="sp">19</span></a> There can +be no doubt, for example, that in the “Little Horn” of vii. 8, +viii. 9, and the “wicked prince” described in ix.-x., who is to +work such evil among the saints, we have clearly one and the +same person. It is now generally recognized that the king +symbolized by the Little Horn, of whom it is said that he shall +come of one of four kingdoms which shall be formed from the +Greek empire after the death of its first king (Alexander), can be +none other than Antiochus Epiphanes, and in like manner the +references in ix. must allude to the same prince. It seems quite +clear that xi. 21-45 refers to the evil deeds of Antiochus IV. and +his attempts against the Jewish people and the worship of +Yahweh. In xii. follows the promise of salvation from the same +tyrant, and, strikingly enough, the predictions in this last section, +x.-xii., relating to future events, become inaccurate as soon as +the author finishes the section describing the reign of Antiochus +Epiphanes. The general style of all these prophecies differs +materially from that of all other prophetic writings in the Old +Testament. Other prophets confine themselves to vague and +general predictions, but the author of Daniel is strikingly +particular as to detail in everything relating to the period in +which he lived, i.e. the reign of Antiochus IV. Had the work +been composed during the Babylonian era, it would be more +natural to expect prophecies of the return of the exiled Jews to +Palestine, as in Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Isaiah, rather than the +acclamation of an ideal Messianic kingdom such as is emphasized +in the second part of Daniel.</p> + +<p>As a specimen of the apocalyptic method followed in Daniel, +the celebrated prophecy of the seventy weeks (ix. 24-27) may be +cited, a full discussion of which will be found in Prince, <i>Daniel</i> +157-161. According to Jer. xxv. 11-12, the period of Israel’s +probation and trial was to last seventy years. In the angelic +explanation in Daniel of Jeremiah’s prophecy, these years were +in reality year-weeks, which indicated a period of 490 years. This +is the true apocalyptic system. The author takes a genuine +prophecy, undoubtedly intended by Jeremiah to refer simply to +the duration of the Babylonian captivity, and, by means of a +purely arbitrary and mystical interpretation, makes it denote the +entire period of Israel’s degradation down to his own time. This +prophecy is really nothing more than an extension of the vision +of the 2300 evening-mornings of viii. 14, and of the “time, times +and a half a time” of vii. 25. The real problem is as to the +beginning and end of this epoch, which is divided into three +periods of uneven length; viz. one of seven weeks; one of sixty-two +weeks; and the last of one week. It seems probable that the +author of Daniel, like the Chronicler, began his period with the fall +of Jerusalem in 586. His first seven weeks, therefore, ending with +the rule of “Messiah the Prince,”<a name="fa20f" id="fa20f" href="#ft20f"><span class="sp">20</span></a> probably Joshua ben Jozadak, +the first high-priest after the exile (Ezra iii. 2), seem to coincide exactly +with the duration of the Babylon exile, i.e. forty-nine years.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page807" id="page807"></a>807</span></p> + +<p>The second period of the epoch, during which Jerusalem is to +be peopled and built, and at the end of which the Messiah is to +be cut off, is much more difficult to determine. The key to the +problem lies undoubtedly in the last statement regarding the +overthrow of the Messiah or Anointed One. Such a reference +coming from a Maccabean author can only allude to the deposition +by Antiochus IV. of the high-priest Onias III., which took +place about 174 B.C., and the Syrian king’s subsequent murder +of the same person not later than 171 (2 Macc. iv. 33-36). The +difficulty now arises that between 537 and 171 there are only 366 +years instead of the required number 434. It was evidently not +the author’s intention to begin the second period of sixty weeks +simultaneously with the first period, as some expositors have +thought, because the whole passage shows conclusively that he +meant seventy independent weeks. Besides, nothing is gained +by such a device, which would bring the year of the end of the +second period down to the meaningless date 152, too late to refer +to Onias. Cornill therefore adopted the only tenable theory +regarding the problem; viz. that the author of Daniel did not +know the chronology between 537 and 312, the establishment of +the Seleucid era, and consequently made the period too long. A +parallel case is the much quoted example of Demetrius, who +placed the fall of Samaria (722 B.C.) 573 years before the succession +of Ptolemy IV. (222), thus making an error of seventy-three +years. Josephus, who places the reign of Cyrus forty to fifty +years too early, makes a similar error.</p> + +<p>The last week is divided into two sections (26-27), in the first +of which the city and sanctuary shall be destroyed and in the +second the daily offering is to be suspended. All critical scholars +recognize the identity of this second half-week with the “time, +times and a half a time” of vii. 25. This last week must, therefore, +end with the restoration of the temple worship in 164 B.C.</p> + +<p>This whole prophecy, which is perhaps the most interesting +in the Book of Daniel, presents problems which can never be +thoroughly understood, first because the author must have been +ignorant of both history and chronology, and secondly, because, +in his effort to be as mystical as possible, he purposely made use +of indefinite and vague expressions which render the criticism of +the passage a most unsatisfactory task.</p> + +<p>The Book of Daniel loses none of its beauty and force because +we are bound, in the light of modern criticism, to consider it as +a production of the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes, nor should +conservative Bible-readers lament because the historical accuracy +of the work is thus destroyed. The influence of the work was +very great on the subsequent development of Christianity, but +it was not the influence of the <i>history</i> contained in it which made +itself felt, but rather of that sublime hope for a future deliverance +of which the author of Daniel never lost sight. The allusion to +the book by Jesus (Matt. xxiv. 15) shows merely that our Lord +was referring to the work by its commonly accepted title, and +implies no authoritative utterance with regard to its date or +authorship. Our Lord simply made use of an apt quotation from +a well-known work in order to illustrate and give additional force +to his own prediction. If the book be properly understood, it +must not only be admitted that the author made no pretence at +accuracy of detail, but also that his prophecies were clearly intended +to be merely an historical résumé, clothed for the sake of +greater literary vividness in a prophetic garb. The work, which is +certainly not a forgery, but only a consolatory political pamphlet, +is just as powerful, viewed according to the author’s evident +intention, as a consolation to God’s people in their dire distress +at the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, as if it were, what an ancient +but mistaken tradition had made it, really an accurate account of +events which took place at the close of the Babylonian period.<a name="fa21f" id="fa21f" href="#ft21f"><span class="sp">21</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—See bibliography in Bevan, <i>Daniel</i> 9, and add +Kamphausen, <i>Dan.</i>, in Haupt’s <i>Sacred Books of the Old Testament</i>; +Behrmann, <i>Dan.</i> (1894); J. D. Prince, <i>Dan.</i> (1899); G. A. Barton, +“The Compilation of the Book of Daniel,” in <i>Journ. Bibl. Lit.</i> +(1898), 62-86, against the unity of the book, &c., &c.; J. D. Davis, +“Persian Words and the Date of O.T. Documents,” in <i>Old +Testament and Semitic Studies: in Memory of W. R. Harper</i> +(Chicago, 1908).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. D. Pr.)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Additions to Daniel</span>.—The “additions to Daniel” are three +in number: <i>Susannah and the Elders</i>, <i>Bel and the Dragon</i>, and +<i>The Song of the Three Children</i>. Of these the two former have +no organic connexion with the text. The case is otherwise with +regard to the last. In some respects it helps to fill up a gap in the +canonical text between verses 23 and 24 of chapter iii. And yet +we find Polychronius, early in the 5th century, stating that this +song was not found in the Syriac version.</p> + +<p><i>Susannah.</i>—This addition was placed by Theodotion before +chap. i., and Bel and the Dragon at its close, whereas by the +Septuagint and the Vulgate it was reckoned as chap. xiii. after +the twelve canonical chapters, Bel and the Dragon as xiv. +Theodotion’s version is the source of the Peshitto and the Vulgate, +for all three additions, and the Septuagint is the source of +the Syro-Hexaplaric which has been published by Ceriani (<i>Mon. +Sacr.</i> vii.). The legend recounts how that in the early days of the +Captivity Susannah, the beautiful and pious wife of the rich +Joakim, was walking in her garden and was there seen by two +elders who were also judges. Inflamed with lust, they made +infamous proposals to her, and when repulsed they brought +against her a false charge of adultery. When brought before the +tribunal she was condemned to death and was on the way to +execution, when Daniel interposed and, by cross-questioning the +accusers apart, convinced the people of the falsity of the charge.</p> + +<p>The source of the story may, according to Ewald (<i>Gesch.</i>³ +iv. 636), have been suggested by the Babylonian legend of the +seduction of two old men by the goddess of love (see also Koran, +<i>Sur.</i> ii. 96). Another and much more probable origin of the work +is that given by Brüll (<i>Das apocr. Susanna-Buch</i>, 1877) and Ball +(<i>Speaker’s Apocr.</i> ii. 323-331). The first half of the story is based +on a tradition—originating possibly in Jer. xxix. 21-32 and found +in the Talmud and Midrash—of two elders Ahab and Zedekiah, +who in the Captivity led certain women astray under the delusion +that they should thereby become the mother of the Messiah. +But the most interesting part of the investigation is concerned +with the latter half of the story, which deals with the trial. The +characteristics of this section point to its composition about 100-90 +B.C., when Simon ben Shetaḥ was president of the Sanhedrin. +Its object was to support the attempts of the Pharisees to +bring about a reform in the administration of the law courts. +According to Sadducean principles the man who was convicted +of falsely accusing another of a capital offence was not put to +death unless his victim was already executed. The Pharisees held +that the intention of the accusers was equivalent to murder. Our +apocryph upholds the Pharisaic contention. As Simon ben Shetaḥ +insisted on a rigorous examination of the witnesses, so does our +writer: as he and his party required that the perjurer should suffer +the same penalty he sought to inflict on another, so our writer +represents the death penalty as inflicted on the perjured elders.</p> + +<p>The language was in all probability Semitic-Hebrew or +Aramaic. The paronomasiae in the Greek in verses 54-55 (<span class="grk" title="hupo +schinon ... schisei">ὑπὸ σχῖνον ... σχίσει</span>) and 58-59 (<span class="grk" title="hupo prinon ... prisei">ὑπὸ πρῖνον ... πρίσει</span>) present +no cogent difficulty against this view; for they may be accidental +and have arisen for the first time in the translation. But as Brüll +and Ball have shown (see <i>Speaker’s Apocr.</i> ii. 324), the same +paronomasiae are possible either in Hebrew or Aramaic.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—Ball in the <i>Speaker’s Apocr.</i> ii. 233 sqq.; Schürer, +<i>Gesch.</i>³ iii. 333; Rothstein in Kautzsch’s <i>Apocr. u. Pseud.</i> i. +176 sqq.; Kamphausen in <i>Ency. Bib.</i>; Marshall in Hastings’ <i>Bible +Dict.</i>; Toy in the <i>Jewish Encyc.</i></p> +</div> + +<p><i>Bel and the Dragon.</i>—We have here two independent narratives, +in both of which Daniel appears as the destroyer of heathenism. +The latter had a much wider circulation than the former, and is +most probably a Judaized form of the old Semitic myth of the +destruction of the old dragon, which represents primeval chaos +(see Ball, <i>Speaker’s Apocr.</i> ii. 346-348; Gunkel, <i>Schöpfung und +Chaos</i>, 320-323). Marduk destroys Tiamat in a similar manner +to that in which Daniel destroys the dragon (Delitzsch, <i>Das +babylonische Weltschöpfung Epos</i>), by driving a storm-wind into +the dragon which rends it asunder. Marshall (Hastings’ <i>Bib. +Dict.</i> i. 267) suggests that the “pitch” of the Greek (Aramaic +<span title="zifa">זיפא</span>) arose from the original term for storm-wind (<span title="zafa">זעפא</span>).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page808" id="page808"></a>808</span></p> + +<p>The Greek exists in two recensions, those of the Septuagint and +Theodotion. Most scholars maintain a Greek original, but this is +by no means certain. Marshall (Hastings’ <i>Bib Dict.</i> i. 268) argues +for an Aramaic, and regards Gasters’s Aramaic text [<i>Proceedings +of the Society of Biblical Archaeology</i> (1894), pp. 280-290, 312-317; +(1895) 75-94] as of primary value in this respect, but this is +doubtful.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—Fritzsche’s <i>Handbuch zu den Apoc.</i>; Ball in the +<i>Speaker’s Apocr.</i> ii. 344 sqq.; Schürer,³ <i>Gesch.</i> iii. 332 sqq.; and +the articles in the <i>Ency. Bibl., Bible Dict.</i>, and <i>Jewish Encyc.</i></p> + +<p>The Greek text is best given in Swete iii., and the Syriac will be +found in Walton’s <i>Polyglot</i>, Lagarde and Neubauer’s <i>Tobit</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Song of the Three Children.</i>—This section is composed of the +Prayer of Azariah and the Song of Azariah, Ananias and Misael, +and was inserted after iii. 23 of the canonical text of Daniel. +According to Fritzsche, König, Schürer, &c., it was composed in +Greek and added to the Greek translation. On the other hand, +Delitzsch, Bissell, Ball, &c., maintain a Hebrew original. The +latter view has been recently supported by Rothstein, <i>Apocr. und +Pseud.</i> i. 173-176, who holds that these additions were made to +the text before its translation into Greek. These additions still +preserve, according to Rothstein, a fragment of the original text, +i.e. verses 23-28, which came between verses 23 and 24 of +chapter iii. of the canonical text. They certainly fill up +excellently a manifest gap in this text. “The Song of the Three +Children” was first added after the verses just referred to, and +subsequently the Prayer of Azariah was inserted before these +verses.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—Ball in the <i>Speaker’s Apocr.</i> ii. 305 sqq.; Rothstein +in Kautzsch’s <i>Apocr. und Pseud.</i> i. 173 sqq.; Schürer,³ <i>Gesch.</i> iii. +332 sqq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. H. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Four personages of the name of Daniel appear in the Old Testament: +(1) the patriarch of Ezekiel (see above); (2) a son of David +(1 Chron. iii. 1); (3) a Levite contemporary with Ezra (Ezra viii. 2; +Neh. x. 6); (4) our Daniel.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Ant. x. 10, 1.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Chap, x., on the Prophets.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4f" id="ft4f" href="#fa4f"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Panarion, <i>adv.</i> Haeres. 55, 3.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5f" id="ft5f" href="#fa5f"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Prince, <i>Dan.</i> p. 26, n. 6.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6f" id="ft6f" href="#fa6f"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Dan.</i> p. viii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7f" id="ft7f" href="#fa7f"><span class="fn">7</span></a> The account in chap. ii. of the promotion of Daniel to be governor +of Babylon, as a reward for his correct interpretation of Nebuchadrezzar’s +dream, is very probably an imitation of the story of Joseph +in Gen. xl-xli. The points of resemblance are very striking. In both +accounts, we have a young Hebrew raised by the favour of a heathen +king to great political prominence, owing to his extraordinary God-given +ability to interpret dreams. In both versions, the heathen +astrologers make the first attempt to solve the difficulty, which +results in failure, whereupon the pious Israelite, being summoned to +the royal presence, in both cases through the friendly intervention +of a court official, triumphantly explains the mystery to the king’s +satisfaction (cf. Prince, <i>Dan.</i> p. 29).</p> + +<p><a name="ft8f" id="ft8f" href="#fa8f"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See Bevan, <i>Dan.</i> 28-40, on the Hebrew and Aramaic of Daniel.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9f" id="ft9f" href="#fa9f"><span class="fn">9</span></a> According to Lagarde, <i>Mitteilungen</i>, iv. 351 (1891); also Gött, +<i>Gelehrte Anzeigen</i> (1891), 497-520.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10f" id="ft10f" href="#fa10f"><span class="fn">10</span></a> The latest connected Babylonian inscription is that of +Antiochus Soter (280-260 B.C.), but the language was probably +spoken until Hellenic times; cf. Gutbrod, <i>Zeitschr. für Assyriol.</i> +vi. 27.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11f" id="ft11f" href="#fa11f"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Prince, <i>Dan.</i> 12.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12f" id="ft12f" href="#fa12f"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Bertholdt, Dan. 15; Franz Delitzsch, in Herzog, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, +2nd ed., iii. 470.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13f" id="ft13f" href="#fa13f"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Bevan, <i>Dan.</i> 27 ff.; Prince, <i>Dan.</i> 13.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14f" id="ft14f" href="#fa14f"><span class="fn">14</span></a> For this whole discussion, see Prince, <i>Dan.</i> 15 ff.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15f" id="ft15f" href="#fa15f"><span class="fn">15</span></a> The investigations of Haug, Spiegel and Windischmann show +that this was a real Zoroastrian doctrine.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16f" id="ft16f" href="#fa16f"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Prince, <i>Dan.</i> 35-42.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17f" id="ft17f" href="#fa17f"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Certain tablets published by Strassmaier, bearing date continuously +from Nabonidus to Cyrus, show that neither Belshazzar +nor “Darius the Mede” could have had the title “king of Babylon.” +See Driver, <i>Introduction</i>,³ xxii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18f" id="ft18f" href="#fa18f"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Prince, <i>Dan.</i> 44-56.</p> + +<p><a name="ft19f" id="ft19f" href="#fa19f"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Prince, <i>Dan.</i> 19-20, 140, 155, 179 ff.</p> + +<p><a name="ft20f" id="ft20f" href="#fa20f"><span class="fn">20</span></a> That “Messiah” or “Anointed One” was used of the High-Priest +is seen from Lev. x, 3, v. 16.</p> + +<p><a name="ft21f" id="ft21f" href="#fa21f"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Prince, <i>Dan.</i> 22-24.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANIEL<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Danil</span>), of Kiev, the earliest Russian travel-writer, +and one of the leading Russian travellers in the middle ages. He +journeyed to Syria and other parts of the Levant about 1106-1107. +He was the <i>igumen</i>, or abbot, of a monastery probably +near Chernigov in Little Russia: some identify him with one +Daniel, bishop of Suriev (fl. 1115-1122). He visited Palestine +in the reign of Baldwin I., Latin king of Jerusalem (1100-1118), +and apparently soon after the crusading capture of Acre (1104); +he claims to have accompanied Baldwin, who treated him with +marked friendliness, on an expedition against Damascus (<i>c.</i> 1107). +Though Daniel’s narrative, beginning (as it practically ends) at +Constantinople, omits some of the most interesting sections of +his journey, his work has considerable value. His picture of the +Holy Land preserves a record of conditions (such as the Saracen +raiding almost up to the walls of Christian Jerusalem, and the +friendly relations subsisting between Roman and Eastern +churches in Syria) peculiarly characteristic of the time; his +account of Jerusalem itself is remarkably clear, minute and +accurate; his three excursions—to the Dead Sea and Lower +Jordan (which last he compares to a river of Little Russia, the +Snov), to Bethlehem and Hebron, and towards Damascus—gave +him an exceptional knowledge of certain regions. In spite +of some extraordinary blunders in topography and history, his +observant and detailed record, marked by evident good faith, is +among the most valuable of medieval documents relating to +Palestine: it is also important in the history of the Russian +language, and in the study of ritual and liturgy (from its description +of the Easter services in Jerusalem, the Descent of the Holy +Fire, &c.). Several Russian friends and companions, from Kiev +and Old Novgorod, are recorded by Daniel as present with him at +the Easter Eve “miracle,” in the church of the Holy Sepulchre.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There are seventy-six MSS. of Daniel’s Narrative, of which only +five are anterior to A.D. 1500; the oldest is of 1475 (St Petersburg, +Library of Ecclesiastical History 9/1086). Three editions exist, of +which I. P. Sakharov’s (St Petersburg, 1849) is perhaps the best +known (in <i>Narratives of the Russian People</i>, vol. ii. bk. viii. pp. +1-45). See also the French version in <i>Itinéraires russes en orient</i>, ed +M<span class="sp">e</span> B. de Khitrovo (Geneva, 1889) (<i>Société de l’orient latin</i>); and +the account of Daniel in C. R. Beazley, <i>Dawn of Modern Geography</i>, +ii. 155-174.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. R. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANIEL, GABRIEL<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (1649-1728), French Jesuit historian, was +born at Rouen on the 8th of February 1649. He was educated +by the Jesuits, entered the order at the age of eighteen, and +became superior at Paris. He is best known by his <i>Histoire de +France depuis l’établissement de la monarchie française</i> (first +complete edition, 1713), which was republished in 1720, 1721, +1725, 1742, and (the last edition, with notes by Father Griffet) +1755-1760. Daniel published an abridgment in 1724 (English +trans., 1726), and another abridgment was published by Dorival +in 1751. Though full of prejudices which affect his accuracy, +Daniel had the advantage of consulting valuable original sources. +His <i>Histoire de la milice française</i>, &c. (1721) is superior to his +<i>Histoire de France</i>, and may still be consulted with advantage. +Daniel also wrote a by no means successful reply to Pascal’s +<i>Provincial Letters</i>, entitled <i>Entretiens de Cléanthe et d’Eudoxe sur +les lettres provinciales</i> (1694); two treatises on the Cartesian +theory as to the intelligence of the lower animals, and other +works.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sommervogel, <i>Bibliothèque de la Compagnie de Jésus</i>, t. ii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANIEL, SAMUEL<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1562-1619), English poet and historian, +was the son of a music-master, and was born near Taunton, in +Somersetshire, in 1562. Another son, John Daniel, was a +musician, who held some offices at court, and was the author of +<i>Songs for the Lute, Viol and Voice</i> (1606). In 1579 Samuel was +admitted a commoner of Magdalen Hall, Oxford, where he +remained for about three years, and then gave himself up to the +unrestrained study of poetry and philosophy. The name of +Samuel Daniel is given as the servant of Lord Stafford, ambassador +in France, in 1586, and probably refers to the poet. He +was first encouraged and, if we may believe him, taught in verse, +by the famous countess of Pembroke, whose honour he was +never weary of proclaiming. He had entered her household as +tutor to her son, William Herbert. His first known work, a +translation of Paulus Jovius, to which some original matter is +appended, was printed in 1585. His first known volume of verse +is dated 1592; it contains the cycle of sonnets to <i>Delia</i> and the +romance called <i>The Complaint of Rosamond</i>. Twenty-seven of +the sonnets had already been printed at the end of Sir Philip +Sidney’s <i>Astrophel and Stella</i> without the author’s consent. +Several editions of <i>Delia</i> appeared in 1592, and they were very +frequently reprinted during Daniel’s lifetime. We learn by +internal evidence that Delia lived on the banks of Shakespeare’s +river, the Avon, and that the sonnets to her were inspired by her +memory when the poet was in Italy. To an edition of <i>Delia</i> and +<i>Rosamond</i>, in 1594, was added the tragedy of <i>Cleopatra</i>, a severe +study in the manner of the ancients, in alternately rhyming +heroic verse, diversified by stiff choral interludes. <i>The First +Four Books of the Civil Wars</i>, an historical poem in <i>ottava rima</i>, +appeared in 1595. The bibliography of Daniel’s works is attended +with great difficulty, but as far as is known it was not until 1599 +that there was published a volume entitled <i>Poetical Essays</i>, +which contained, besides the “Civil Wars,” “Musophilus,” and +“A letter from Octavia to Marcus Antonius,” poems in Daniel’s +finest and most mature manner. About this time he became +tutor to Anne Clifford, daughter of the countess of Cumberland. +On the death of Spenser, in the same year, Daniel received the +somewhat vague office of poet-laureate, which he seems, however, +to have shortly resigned in favour of Ben Jonson. Whether it +was on this occasion is not known, but about this time, and at the +recommendation of his brother-in-law, Giovanni Florio, he was +taken into favour at court, and wrote a <i>Panegyric Congratulatorie +offered to the King at Burleigh Harrington in Rutlandshire</i>, in +<i>ottava rima</i>. In 1603 this poem was published, and in many cases +copies contained in addition his <i>Poetical Epistles</i> to his patrons +and an elegant prose essay called <i>A Defence of Rime</i> (originally +printed in 1602) in answer to Thomas Campion’s <i>Observations on +the Art of English Poesie</i>, in which it was contended that rhyme +was unsuited to the genius of the English language. In 1603, +moreover, Daniel was appointed master of the queen’s revels. +In this capacity he brought out a series of masques and pastoral +tragi-comedies,—of which were printed <i>A Vision of the Twelve +Goddesses</i>, in 1604; <i>The Queen’s Arcadia</i>, an adaptation of +Guarini’s <i>Pastor Fido</i>, in 1606; <i>Tethys Festival or the Queenes +Wake</i>, written on the occasion of Prince Henry’s becoming a +Knight of the Bath, in 1610; and <i>Hymen’s Triumph</i>, in honour +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page809" id="page809"></a>809</span> +of Lord Roxburgh’s marriage in 1615. Meanwhile had appeared, +in 1605, <i>Certain Small Poems</i>, with the tragedy of <i>Philotas</i>; +the latter was a study, in the same style as <i>Cleopatra</i>, written +some five years earlier. This drama brought its author into +difficulties, as Philotas, with whom he expressed some sympathy, +was taken to represent Essex. In 1607, under the title +of <i>Certaine small Workes heretofore divulged by Samuel Daniel</i>, the +poet issued a revised version of all his works except <i>Delia</i> and +the <i>Civil Wars</i>. In 1609 the Civil Wars had been completed +in eight books. In 1612 Daniel published a prose <i>History of +England</i>, from the earliest times down to the end of the reign +of Edward III. This work afterwards continued, and published +in 1617, was very popular with Drayton’s contemporaries. The +section dealing with William the Conqueror was published in +1692 as being the work of Sir Walter Raleigh, apparently without +sufficient grounds.</p> + +<p>Daniel was made a gentleman-extraordinary and groom of +the chamber to Queen Anne, sinecure offices which offered no +hindrance to an active literary career. He was now acknowledged +as one of the first writers of the time. Shakespeare, +Selden and Chapman are named among the few intimates who +were permitted to intrude upon the seclusion of a garden-house +in Old Street, St Luke’s, where, Fuller tells us, he would “lie +hid for some months together, the more retiredly to enjoy the +company of the Muses, and then would appear in public to converse +with his friends.” Late in life Daniel threw up his titular +posts at court and retired to a farm called “The Ridge,” which +he rented at Beckington, near Devizes in Wiltshire. Here he died +on the 14th of October 1619.</p> + +<p>The poetical writings of Daniel are very numerous, but in spite +of the eulogies of all the best critics, they were long neglected. +This is the more singular since, during the 18th century, when so +little Elizabethan literature was read, Daniel retained his poetical +prestige. In later times Coleridge, Charles Lamb and others +expended some of their most genial criticisms on this poet. Of +his multifarious works the sonnets are now, perhaps, most read. +They depart from the Italian sonnet form in closing with a +couplet, as is the case with most of the sonnets of Surrey and +Wyat, but they have a grace and tenderness all their own. Of a +higher order is <i>The Complaint of Rosamond</i>, a soliloquy in which +the ghost of the murdered woman appears and bewails her fate +in stanzas of exquisite pathos. Among the <i>Epistles to Distinguished +Persons</i> will be found some of Daniel’s noblest stanzas +and most polished verse. The epistle to Lucy, countess of Bedford, +is remarkable among those as being composed in genuine <i>terza +rima</i>, till then not used in English. Daniel was particularly +fond of a four-lined stanza of solemn alternately rhyming +iambics, a form of verse distinctly misplaced in his dramas. +These, inspired it would seem by like attempts of the countess of +Pembroke’s, are hard and frigid; his pastorals are far more +pleasing; and <i>Hymen’s Triumph</i> is perhaps the best of all his +dramatic writing. An extract from this masque is given in +Lamb’s <i>Dramatic Poets</i>, and it was highly praised by Coleridge. +In elegiac verse he always excelled, but most of all in his touching +address <i>To the Angel Spirit of the Most Excellent Sir Philip +Sidney</i>. We must not neglect to quote <i>Musophilus</i> among the +most characteristic writings of Daniel. It is a dialogue between +a courtier and a man of letters, and is a general defence of learning, +and in particular of poetic learning as an instrument in the +education of the perfect courtier or man of action. It is addressed +to Fulke Greville, and written, with much sententious melody, +in a sort of <i>terza rima</i>, or, more properly, <i>ottava rima</i> with the +couplet omitted. Daniel was a great reformer in verse, and the +introducer of several valuable novelties. It may be broadly said +of his style that it is full, easy and stately, without being very +animated or splendid. It attains a high average of general +excellence, and is content with level flights. As a gnomic writer +Daniel approaches Chapman, but is far more musical and +coherent. He is wanting in fire and passion, but he is preeminent +in scholarly grace and tender, mournful reverie.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Daniel’s works were edited by A. B. Grosart in 1885-1896.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANIELL, JOHN FREDERIC<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (1700-1845), English chemist +and physicist, was born in London on the 12th of March 1790, +and in 1831 became the first professor of chemistry at the newly +founded King’s College, London. His name is best known for +his invention of the Daniell cell (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1836), still extensively +used for telegraphic and other purposes. He also +invented the dew-point hygrometer known by his name (<i>Quar. +Journ. Sci.</i>, 1820), and a register pyrometer (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1830); +and in 1830 he erected in the hall of the Royal Society a water-barometer, +with which he carried out a large number of observations +<i>(Phil. Trans.</i>, 1832). A process devised by him for the +manufacture of illuminating gas from turpentine and resin was +in use in New York for a time. His publications include <i>Meteorological +Essays</i> (1823), an <i>Essay on Artificial Climate considered in +its Applications to Horticulture</i> (1824), which showed the necessity +of a humid atmosphere in hothouses devoted to tropical plants, +and an <i>Introduction to the Study of Chemical Philosophy</i> (1839). +He died suddenly of apoplexy on the 13th of March 1845, in +London, while attending a meeting of the council of the Royal +Society, of which he became a fellow in 1813 and foreign secretary +in 1839.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANIELL, THOMAS<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (1749-1840), English landscape painter, +was born at the Chertsey inn, kept by his father, in 1749, and +apprenticed to an heraldic painter. Daniell, however, was animated +with a love of the romantic and beautiful in architecture +and nature. Up to 1784 he painted topographical subjects and +flower pieces. By this time his two nephews (see below) had come +under his influence, the younger, Samuel, being apprenticed to +Medland the landscape engraver, and the elder, William, being +under his own care. In this year (1784) he embarked for India +accompanied by William, and found at Calcutta ample encouragement. +Here he remained ten years, and on returning to London +he published his largest work, <i>Oriental Scenery</i>, in six large +volumes, not completed till 1808. From 1795 till 1828 he +continued to exhibit Eastern subjects, temples, jungle hunts, &c., +and at the same time continued the publication of illustrated +works. These are—<i>Views of Calcutta</i>; <i>Oriental Scenery</i>, 144 +plates; <i>Views in Egypt</i>; <i>Excavations at Ellora</i>; <i>Picturesque +Voyage to China</i>. These were for the most part executed in +aquatint. He was elected an Academician in 1799, fellow of +the Royal Society about the same time, and at different times +member of several minor societies. His nephews both died before +him; his Indian period had made him independent, and he lived +a bachelor life in much respect at Kensington till his death on the +19th of March 1840.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">William Daniell</span> (1769-1837), his nephew, was fourteen +when he accompanied his uncle to India. His own publications, +engraved in aquatint, were—<i>Voyage to India</i>; <i>Zoography</i>; +<i>Animated Nature</i>; <i>Views of London</i>; <i>Views of Bootan</i>, a work +prepared from his uncle’s sketches; and a <i>Voyage Round Great +Britain</i>, which occupied him several years. The British +Institution made him an award of £100 for a “Battle of +Trafalgar,” and he was elected R.A. in 1822. He turned to +panorama painting before his death, beginning in 1832 with +Madras, the picture being enlivened by a representation of the +Hindu mode of taming wild elephants.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Samuel Daniell</span>, William’s younger brother, was brought up +as an engraver, and first appears as an exhibitor in 1792. A few +years later he went to the Cape and travelled into the interior +of Africa, with his sketching materials in his haversack. The +drawings he made there were published, after his return, in his +<i>African Scenery</i>. He did not rest long at home, but left for +Ceylon in 1806, where he spent the remaining years of his life, +publishing <i>The Scenery, Animals and Natives of Ceylon</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANNAT, WILLIAM T.<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1853-  ), American artist, was +born in New York city in 1853. He was a pupil of the Royal +Academy of Munich and of Munkacsy, and became an accomplished +draughtsman and a distinguished figure and portrait +painter. He early attracted attention with sketches and pictures +made in Spain, and a large composition, “The Quartette,” now +in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, was one of the +successes of the Paris Salon of 1884. Dannat settled in Paris, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page810" id="page810"></a>810</span> +became an officer of the Legion of Honour, and is represented in +the Luxembourg.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANNECKER, JOHANN HEINRICH VON<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1758-1841), +German sculptor, was born at Stuttgart, where his father was +employed in the stables of the duke of Württemberg, on the 15th +of October 1758. The boy was entered in the military school at +the age of thirteen, but after two years he was allowed to take his +own taste for art. We find him at once associating with the +young sculptors Scheffauer and Le Jeune, the painters Guibal and +Harper, and also with Schiller, and the musician Zumsteeg. His +busts of some of these are good; that of Schiller is well known. +In his eighteenth year he carried off the prize at the Concours +with his model of Milo of Crotona. On this the duke made him +sculptor to the palace (1780), and for some time he was employed +on child-angels and caryatides for the decoration of the reception +rooms. In 1783 he left for Paris with Scheffauer, and placed +himself under Pajou. His Mars, a sitting figure sent home to +Stuttgart, marks this period; and we next find him, still travelling +with his friend, at Rome in 1785, where he settled down to +work hard for five years. Goethe and Herder were then in Rome +and became his friends, as well as Canova, who was the hero of the +day, and who had undoubtedly a great authoritative influence on +his style. His marble statues of Ceres and Bacchus were done at +this time. These are now in the Residenz-schloss, at Stuttgart. +On his return to Stuttgart, which he never afterwards quitted +except for short trips to Paris, Vienna and Zürich, the double +influence of his admiration for Canova and his study of the antique +is apparent in his works. The first was a girl lamenting her dead +bird, which pretty light motive was much admired. Afterwards, +Sappho, in marble for the Lustschloss, and two offering-bearers +for the Jagdschloss; Hector, now in the museum, not in marble; +the complaint of Ceres, from Schiller’s poem; a statue of Christ, +worthy of mention for its nobility, which has been skilfully +engraved by Amsler; Psyche; kneeling water-nymph; Love, +a favourite he had to repeat. These stock subjects with sculptors +had freshness of treatment; and the Ariadne, done a little later, +especially had a charm of novelty which has made it a European +favourite in a reduced size. It was repeated for the banker Von +Bethmann in Frankfort, and it now appears the ornament of the +Bethmann Museum. Many of the illustrious men of the time +were modelled by him. The original marble of Schiller is now at +Weimar; after the poet’s death it was again modelled in colossal +size. Lavater, Metternich, Countess Stephanie of Baden, +General Benkendorf and others are much prized. Dannecker +was director of the Gallery of Stuttgart, and received many +academic and other distinctions. His death in 1841 was preceded +by a period of mental failure.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANNEWERK,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Danewerk</span> (Danish, <i>Dannevirke</i> or <i>Danevirke</i>, +“Danes’ rampart”), the ancient frontier rampart of the +Danes against the Germans, extending 10½ m. from just south of +the town of Schleswig to the marshes of the river Trene near the +village of Hollingstedt. The rampart was begun by Guðoðr +(<i>Godefridus</i>), king of Vestfold, early in the 9th century. In 934 +it was passed by the German king Henry I., after which it was +extended by King Harold Bluetooth (940-986), but was again +stormed by the emperor Otto II. in 974. The chronicler Saxo +Grammaticus mentions in his <i>Gesta Danorum</i> the “rampart of +Jutland” (<i>Jutiae moenia</i>) as having been once more extended +by Valdemar the Great (1157-1182), which has been cited among +the proofs that Schleswig (<i>Sønderjylland</i>) forms an integral part of +Jutland (<i>Manuel hist. de la question de Slesvig</i>, 1906). After the +union of Schleswig and Holstein under the Danish crown, the +Danevirke fell into decay, but in 1848 it was hastily strengthened +by the Danes, who were, however, unable to hold it in face of the +superiority of the Prussian artillery, and on the 23rd of April it +was stormed. From 1850 onwards it was again repaired and +strengthened at great cost, and was considered impregnable; but +in the war of 1864 the Prussians turned it by crossing the Schlei, +and it was abandoned by the Danes on the 6th of February +without a blow. It was thereupon destroyed by the Prussians; +in spite of which, however, a long line of imposing ruins still +remains. The systematic excavation of these, begun in 1900, has +yielded some notable finds, especially of valuable runic inscriptions +(F. de Jessen, <i>La Question de Slesvig</i>, pp. 25, 44-50, &c.).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lorenzen, <i>Dannevirke og Omegn</i> (2nd ed., Copenhagen, 1864); +H. Handelmann, <i>Das Dannewerk</i> (Kiel, 1885); Philippsen and +Sünksen, <i>Führer durch das Danewerk</i> (Hamburg, 1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANSVILLE,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> a village of Livingston county, New York, +U.S.A., 49 m. S. of Rochester, on the Canaseraga Creek. Pop. +(1890) 3758; (1900) 3633, of whom 417 were foreign-born; +(1905) 3908; (1910) 3938. The village is served by the Delaware, +Lackawanna & Western, and the Dansville & Mount Morris +railways. At Dansville is the Jackson Health Resort, a large +sanatorium, with which a nurses’ training school is connected. +There is a public library. The village has large nurseries and +vineyards, flour and paper mills, a large printing establishment, +a foundry, and a shoe factory. Dansville, named in honour of +Daniel P. Faulkner, was settled about 1800, and was incorporated +in 1845.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANTE,<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> Dante (or Durante) Alighieri (1265-1321), the +greatest of Italian poets, was born at Florence about the middle +of May 1265. He was descended from an ancient family, but +from one which at any rate for several generations had belonged +to the burgher and not to the knightly class. His biographers +have attempted on very slight grounds to deduce his origin from +the Frangipani, one of the oldest senatorial families of Rome. We +can affirm with greater certainty that he was connected with the +Elisei who took part in the building of Florence under Charles +the Great. Dante himself does not, with the exception of a +few obscure and scattered allusions, carry his ancestry beyond +the warrior Cacciaguida, whom he met in the sphere of Mars +(<i>Par.</i> xv. 87, foll.). Of Cacciaguida’s family nothing is known. +The name, as he told Dante (<i>Par.</i> xv. 139, 5), was given him at +his baptism; it has a Teutonic ring. The family may well have +sprung from one of the barons who, as Villani tells us, remained +behind Otto I. It has been noted that the phrase “Tonde +venner quivi” (xvi. 44) seems to imply that they were not +Florentines. He further tells his descendant that he was born in +the year 1106 (or, if another reading of xvi, 37, 38 be adopted, in +1091), and that he married an Aldighieri from the valley of the +Po. Here the German strain appears unmistakably; the name +Aldighiero (Aldiger) being purely Teutonic. He also mentions +two brothers, Moronte and Eliseo, and that he accompanied the +emperor Conrad III. upon his crusade into the Holy Land, where +he died (1147) among the infidels. From Eliseo was probably +descended the branch of the Elisei; from Aldighiero, son of +Cacciaguida, the branch of the Alighieri. Bellincione, son of +Aldighiero, was the grandfather of Dante. His father was a +second Aldighiero, a lawyer of some reputation. By his first +wife, Lapa di Chiarissimo Cialuffii, this Aldighiero had a son +Francesco; by his second, Donna Bella, whose family name is +not known, Dante and a daughter. Thus the family of Dante +held a most respectable position among the citizens of his beloved +city; but had it been reckoned in the very first rank they could +not have remained in Florence after the defeat of the Guelphs at +Montaperti in 1260. It is clear, however, that Dante’s mother at +least did so remain, for Dante was born in Florence in 1265. The +heads of the Guelph party did not return till 1267.</p> + +<p>Dante was born under the sign of the twins, “the glorious stars +pregnant with virtue, to whom he owes his genius such as it +is.” Astrologers considered this constellation as favourable to +literature and science, and Brunetto Latini, the philosopher and +diplomatist, his instructor, tells him in the <i>Inferno</i> (xv. 25, foll.) +that, if he follows its guidance, he cannot fail to reach the harbour +of fame. Boccaccio relates that before his birth his mother +dreamed that she lay under a very lofty laurel, growing in a green +meadow, by a very clear fountain, when she felt the pangs of +childbirth,—that her child, feeding on the berries which fell from +the laurel, and on the waters of the fountain, in a very short time +became a shepherd, and attempted to reach the leaves of the +laurel, the fruit of which had nurtured him,—that, trying to +obtain them he fell, and rose up, no longer a man, but in the guise +of a peacock. We know little of Dante’s boyhood except that +he was a hard student and was profoundly influenced by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page811" id="page811"></a>811</span> +Brunetto Latini. Boccaccio tells us that he became very familiar +with Virgil, Horace, Ovid and Statius, and all other famous +poets. From the age of eighteen he, like most cultivated young +men of that age, wrote poetry assiduously, in the philosophical +amatory style of which his friend, older by many years than himself, +Guido Cavalcanti, was a great exponent, and of which Dante +regarded Guido Guinicelli of Bologna as the master (<i>Purg.</i> +xxvi. 97, 8). Leonardo Bruni of Arezzo, writing a hundred years +or more after his death, says that “by study of philosophy, of +theology, astrology, arithmetic and geometry, by reading of +history, by the turning over many curious books, watching and +sweating in his studies, he acquired the science which he was to +adorn and explain in his verses.” Of Brunetto Latini Dante +himself speaks with the most loving gratitude and affection, +though he does not hesitate to brand his vices with infamy. +Under such guidance Dante became master of all the science of his +age at a time when it was not impossible to know all that could be +known. He had some knowledge of drawing; at any rate he tells +us that on the anniversary of the death of Beatrice he drew an +angel on a tablet. He was an intimate friend of Giotto, who +has immortalized his youthful lineaments in the chapel of the +Bargello, and who is recorded to have drawn from his friend’s +inspiration the allegories of Virtue and Vice which fringe the +frescoes of the Scrovegni Chapel at Padua. Nor was he less +sensible to the delights of music. Milton had not a keener ear +for the loud uplifted angel trumpets and the immortal harps of +golden wires of the cherubim and seraphim; and the English +poet was proud to compare his own friendship with Henry Lawes +with that between Dante and Casella, “met in the milder shades +of purgatory.” Of his companions the most intimate and +sympathetic were the lawyer-poet Cino of Pistoia, Lapo Gianni, +Guido Cavalcanti and others, similarly gifted and dowered +with like tastes, who moved in the lively and acute society of +Florence, and felt with him the first warm flush of the new spirit +which was soon to pass over Europe. He has written no sweeter +or more melodious lines than those in which he expresses the +wish that he, with Guido and Lapo, might be wafted by enchantment +over the sea wheresoever they might list, shielded from +tempest and foul weather, in such contentment that they should +wish to live always in one mind, and that the good enchanter +should bring Monna Vanna and Monna Bice and that other lady +into their barque, where they should for ever discourse of love +and be for ever happy. It is a wonderful thing (says Leonardo +Bruni) that, though he studied without intermission, it would +not have appeared to anyone that he studied, from his joyous +mien and youthful conversation. Like Milton he was trained in +the strictest academical education which the age afforded; but +Dante lived under a warmer sun and brighter skies, and found in +the rich variety and gaiety of his early life a defence against the +withering misfortunes of his later years. Milton felt too early the +chill breath of Puritanism, and the serious musing on the experience +of life, which saddened the verse of both poets, deepened in +his case rather into grave and desponding melancholy, than into +the fierce scorn and invective which disillusion wrung from Dante.</p> + +<p>We must now consider the political circumstances in which +lay the activity of Dante’s manhood. From 1115, the year of +the death of Matilda countess of Tuscany, to 1215, +Florence enjoyed a nearly uninterrupted peace. +<span class="sidenote">Political life.</span> +Attached to the Guelph party, it remained undivided +against itself. But in 1215 a private feud between the families +of Buondelmonte and Uberti introduced into the city the horrors +of civil war. Villani (lib. v. cap. 38) relates how Buondelmonte +de’ Buondelmonti, a noble youth of Florence, being engaged to +marry a lady of the house of Amidei, allied himself instead to a +Donati, and how Buondelmonte was attacked and killed by the +Amidei and Uberti at the foot of the Ponte Vecchio, close by the +pilaster which bears the image of Mars. “The death of Messer +Buondelmonte was the occasion and beginning of the accursed +parties of Guelphs and Ghibellines in Florence.” Of the seventy-two +families then in Florence thirty-nine became Guelph under +the leadership of the Buondelmonte and the rest Ghibelline +under the Uberti. The strife of parties was for a while allayed +by the war against Pisa in 1222, and the constant struggles +against Siena; but in 1248 Frederick II. sent into the city his +natural son Frederick “of Antioch,” with 1600 German knights. +The Guelphs were driven away from the town, and took refuge, +part in Montevarchi, part in Capraia. The Ghibellines, masters +of Florence, behaved with great severity, and destroyed the +towers and palaces of the Guelph nobles. At last the people +became impatient. They rose in rebellion, reduced the powers of +the podestà, elected a captain of the people to manage the internal +affairs of the city, with a council of twelve, established a more +democratic constitution, and, encouraged by the death of +Frederick II. in December 1250, recalled the exiled Guelphs. +Manfred, the bastard son of Frederick, pursued the policy of his +father. He stimulated the Ghibelline Uberti to rebel against +their position of subjection. A rising of the vanquished party +was put down by the people, in July 1258 the Ghibellines were +expelled from the town, and the towers of the Uberti razed to +the ground. The exiles betook themselves to the friendly city +of Siena. Manfred sent them a reinforcement of German horse, +under his kinsman Count Giordano Lancia. The Florentines, +after vainly demanding their surrender, despatched an army +against them. On the 4th of September 1260 was fought the +great battle of Montaperti, which dyed the Arbia red, and in +which the Guelphs were entirely defeated. The hand which +held the banner of the republic was sundered by the sword of +a traitor (<i>Inf.</i> xxxii. 106). For the first time in the history of +Florence the Carroccio was taken. Florence lay at the mercy of +her enemies. A parliament was held at Empoli, in which the +deputies of Siena, Pisa, Arezzo and other Tuscan towns consulted +on the best means of securing their new war power. They voted +that the accursed Guelph city should be blotted out. But +Farinata degli Uberti stood up in their midst, bold and defiant +as when he stood erect among the sepulchres of hell, and said that +if, from the whole number of the Florentines, he alone should +remain, he would not suffer, whilst he could wield a sword, that +his country should be destroyed, and that, if it were necessary to +die a thousand times for her, a thousand times would he be ready +to encounter death. Help came to the Guelphs from an unexpected +quarter. Clement IV., elected pope in 1265, offered the +crown of Apulia and Sicily to Charles of Anjou. The French +prince, passing rapidly through Lombardy, Romagna and the +Marches, reached Rome by way of Spoleto, was crowned on +the 6th of January 1266, and on the 23rd of February defeated +and killed Manfred at Benevento. In such a storm of conflict +did Dante first see the light. In 1267 the Guelphs were recalled, +but instead of settling down in peace with their opponents they +summoned Charles of Anjou to vengeance, and the Ghibellines +were driven out. The meteor passage of Conradin gave hope to +the imperial party, which was quenched when the head of the +fair-haired boy fell on the scaffold at Naples. Pope after pope +tried in vain to make peace. Gregory X. placed the rebellious +city under an interdict; in 1278 Cardinal Latini by order of +Nicholas III. effected a truce, which lasted for four years. The +city was to be governed by a committee of fourteen <i>buonomini</i>, +on which the Guelphs were to have a small majority. In 1282 +the constitution of Florence received the final form which it +retained till the collapse of freedom. From the three arti +<i>maggiori</i> were chosen six priors, in whose hands was placed the +government of the republic. Before the end of the century, +seven greater arts were recognized, including the <i>speziali</i>,—druggists +and dealers in all manner of oriental goods, and in +books—among whom Dante afterwards enrolled himself. They +remained in office for two months, and during that time lived and +shared a common table in the public palace. We shall see what +influence this office had upon the fate of Dante. The success of +the “Sicilian Vespers” (March 1282), the death of Charles of +Anjou (January 1285), and of Martin IV. in the following March, +roused again the courage of the Ghibellines. They entered +Arezzo, where the Ghibellines at present had the upper hand, and +threatened to drive out the Guelphs from Tuscany. Skirmishes +and raids, of which Villani and Bruni have left accounts, went on +through the winter of 1288-1289, forming a prelude to the great +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page812" id="page812"></a>812</span> +battle of Campaldino in the following summer. Then it was +that Dante saw “horsemen moving camp and commencing the +assault, and holding muster, and the march of foragers, the shock +of tournaments, and race of jousts, now with trumpets and now +with bells, with drums and castle signals, with native things and +foreign” (<i>Inf.</i> xxii. 1, foll.). On the 11th of June 1289, at Campaldino +near Poppi, in the Casentino, the Ghibellines were utterly +defeated. They never again recovered their hold on Florence, +but the violence of faction survived under other names. In a +letter quoted, though not at first hand, by Leonardo Bruni, which +is not now extant, Dante is said to mention that he himself fought +with distinction at Campaldino. He was present shortly afterwards +at the battle of Caprona (<i>Inf.</i> xxi. 95, foll.), and returned in +September 1289 to his studies and his love. His peace was of short +duration. On the 9th of June 1290 died Beatrice, whose mortal +love had guided him for thirteen years, and whose immortal spirit +purified his later life, and revealed to him the mysteries of Paradise.</p> + +<p>Dante had first met Beatrice Portinari at the house of her +father Folco on May-day 1274. In his own words, “already nine +times after my birth the heaven of light had returned as it were +to the same point, when there appeared to my eyes the glorious +lady of my mind, who was by many called Beatrice who knew not +what to call her. She had already been so long in this life that +already in its time the starry heaven had moved towards the east +the twelfth part of a degree, so that she appeared to me about +the beginning of her ninth year, and I saw her about the end of +my ninth year. Her dress on that day was of a most noble +colour, a subdued and goodly crimson, girdled and adorned in +such sort as best suited with her tender age. At that moment I +saw most truly that the spirit of life which hath its dwelling in +the secretest chamber of the heart began to tremble so violently +that the least pulses of my body shook therewith; and in +<span class="correction" title="amended from trembing">trembling</span> it said these words, ‘Ecce deus fortior me qui veniens +dominabitur mihi.’” In the <i>Vita Nuova</i> is written the story of +his passion from its commencement to within a year after the +lady’s death (June 9th, 1290). He saw Beatrice only once or +twice, and she probably knew little of him. She married Simone +de’ Bardi. But the worship of her lover was stronger for the +remoteness of its subject. The last chapter of the Vita Nuova +relates how, after the lapse of a year, “it was given me to behold +a wonderful vision, wherein I saw things which determined me +to say nothing further of this blessed one until such time as I +could discourse more worthily concerning her. And to this end +I labour all I can, as she in truth knoweth. Therefore if it be His +pleasure through whom is the life of all things that my life +continue with me a few years, it is my hope that I shall yet write +concerning her what hath not before been written of any woman. +After the which may it seem good unto Him who is the master of +grace that my spirit should go hence to behold the glory of its +lady, to wit, of that blessed Beatrice who now gloriously gazes on +the countenance of Him qui est per omnia saecula benedictus.” +In the <i>Convito</i> he resumes the story of his life. “When I had lost +the first delight of my soul (that is, Beatrice) I remained so pierced +with sadness that no comforts availed me anything, yet after +some time my mind, desirous of health, sought to return to the +method by which other disconsolate ones had found consolation, +and I set myself to read that little-known book of Boetius in +which he consoled himself when a prisoner and an exile. And +hearing that Tully had written another work, in which, treating +of friendship, he had given words of consolation to Laelius, I set +myself to read that also.” He so far recovered from the shock of +his loss that in 1292 he married Gemma, daughter of Manetto +Donati, a connexion of the celebrated Corso Donati, afterwards +Dante’s bitter foe. It is possible that she is the lady mentioned +in the <i>Vita Nuova</i> as sitting full of pity at her window and +comforting Dante for his sorrow. By this wife he had two sons +and two daughters, and although he never mentions her in the +<i>Divina Commedia</i>, and although she did not accompany him into +exile, there is no reason to suppose that she was other than a good +wife, or that the union was otherwise than happy. Certain it is +that he spares the memory of Corso in his great poem, and speaks +kindly of his kinsmen Piccarda and Forese.</p> + +<p>In 1293 Giano della Bella, a man of old family who had thrown +in his lot with the people, induced the commonwealth to adopt the +so-called “Ordinances of Justice,” a severely democratic constitution, +by which among other things it was enacted that no +man of noble family, even though engaged in trade, could hold +office as prior. Two years later Giano was banished, but the +ordinances remained in force, though the <i>grandi</i> recovered much +of their power.</p> + +<p>Dante now began to take an active part in politics. He was +inscribed in the <i>arte</i> of the <i>Medici</i> and <i>Speziali</i>, which made him +eligible as one of the six <i>priori</i> to whom the government of the +city was entrusted in 1282. Documents still existing in the +archives of Florence show that he took part in the deliberations +of the several councils of the city in 1295, 1296, 1300 and 1301. +The notice in the last year is of some importance. The pope +had demanded a contingent of 100 Florentine knights to serve +against his enemies, the Colonna family. On the 19th of June +we read in the contemporary report of the debate on this +question in the Council of a Hundred: “<i>Dantes Alagherius +consuluit quod de servitio faciendo Domino Papae nihil fieret</i>.” +Other instances of his invariable opposition to Boniface occur. +Filelfo says that he served on fourteen embassies, a statement not +only unsupported by evidence, but impossible in itself. Filelfo +does not mention the only embassy in which we know for certain +that Dante was engaged, that to the town of San Gemignano in +May 1300. From the 15th of June to the 15th of August 1300 +he held the office of prior, which was the source of all the miseries +of his life. The spirit of faction had again broken out in Florence. +The two rival families were the Cerchi and the Donati,—the first +of great wealth but recent origin, the last of ancient ancestry but +poor. A quarrel had arisen in Pistoia between the two branches +of the Cancellieri,—the Bianchi and Neri, the Whites and the +Blacks. The quarrel spread to Florence, the Donati took the side +of the Blacks, the Cerchi of the Whites. Pope Boniface was +asked to mediate, and sent Cardinal Matteo d’Acquasparta to +maintain peace. He arrived just as Dante entered upon his +office as prior. The cardinal effected nothing, but Dante and his +colleagues banished the heads of the rival parties in different +directions to a distance from the capital. The Blacks were sent to +Città della Pieve in the Tuscan mountains; the Whites, among +whom was Dante’s dearest friend Guido Cavalcanti, to Serrezzano +in the unhealthy Maremma. After the expiration of Dante’s +office both parties returned, Guido Cavalcanti so ill with fever +that he shortly afterwards died. At a meeting held in the church +of the Holy Trinity the Whites were denounced as Ghibellines, +enemies of the pope. The Blacks sought for vengeance. Their +leader, Corso Donati, hastened to Rome, and persuaded Boniface +VIII. to send for Charles of Valois, brother of the French king, +Philip the Fair, to act as “peacemaker.” The priors sent at +the end of September four ambassadors to the pope, one of whom, +according to the chronicler Dino, was Dante. There are, however, +improbabilities in the story, and the passage quoted in +support of it bears marks of later interpolation. He never again +saw the towers of his native city. Charles of Valois, after visiting +the pope at Anagni, retraced his steps to Florence, entering +the city on All Saints’ Day and taking up his abode in the +Oltr’ Arno. Corso Donati, who had been banished a second +time, returned in force and summoned the Blacks to arms. The +prisons were broken open, the podestà driven from the town, the +Cerchi confined within their houses, a third of the city was +destroyed with fire and sword. By the help of Charles the Blacks +were victorious. They appointed Cante de’ Gabrielli of Gubbio +as podestà, a man devoted to their interests. More than 600 +Whites were condemned to exile and cast as beggars upon the +world. On the 27th of January 1302, Dante, with four others +of the White party, was charged before the podestà, Cante +de’ Gabrielli, with <i>baratteria</i>, or corrupt jobbery and peculation +when in office, and, not appearing, condemned to pay a fine of +5000 lire of small florins. If the money was not paid within +three days their property was to be destroyed and laid waste; +if they did pay the fine they were to be exiled for two years from +Tuscany; in any case they were never again to hold office in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page813" id="page813"></a>813</span> +republic. The charge in Dante’s case was obviously preposterous, +though ingeniously devised; for he was known to be at the time +in somewhat straitened circumstances, and had recently been +in control of certain public works. But of all sins, that of +“barratry” was one of the most hateful to him. No doubt the +papal finger may be traced in the affair. On the 10th of March +Dante and fourteen others were condemned to be burned alive +if they should come into the power of the republic. Similar +sentences were passed in September 1311 and October 1315. +The sentence was not formally reversed till 1494, under the +government of the Medici.</p> + +<p>Leonardo Bruni, who accepts the story of the embassy to +Rome, states that Dante received the news of his banishment in +that city, and at once joined the other exiles at Siena. How he +escaped arrest in the papal states is not explained. The exiles +met first at Gargonza, a castle between Siena and Arezzo, and +then at Arezzo itself. They joined themselves to the Ghibellines, +to which party the podestà Uguccione della Faggiuola belonged. +The Ghibellines, however, were divided amongst themselves, and +the more strict Ghibellines were not disposed to favour the cause +of the White Guelphs. On the 8th of June 1302, however, a +meeting was held at San Godenzo, a place in the Florentine +territory, Dante’s presence at which is proved by documentary +evidence, and an alliance was there made with the powerful +Ghibelline clan of the Ubaldini. The exiles remained at Arezzo +till the summer of 1304. In September 1303 the fleur-de-lis had +entered Anagni, and Christ had a second time been made prisoner +in the person of his vicar. At the instigation of Philip the Fair, +William of Nogaret and Sciarra Colonna had entered the papal +palace at Anagni, and had insulted and, it is said, even beaten +the aged pontiff under his own roof. Boniface did not survive +the insult long, but died in the following month. He was succeeded +by Benedict XI., and in March the cardinal da Prato +came to Florence, sent by the new pope to make peace. The +people received him with enthusiasm; ambassadors came to him +from the Whites; and he did his best to reconcile the two parties. +But the Blacks resisted all his efforts. He shook the dust from +off his feet, and departed, leaving the city under an interdict. +Foiled by the calumnies and machinations of the one party, +the cardinal gave his countenance to the other. It happened +that Corso Donati and the heads of the Black party were absent +at Pistoia. Da Prato advised the Whites to attack Florence, +deprived of its heads and impaired by a recent fire. An army +was collected of 16,000 foot and 9000 horse. Communications +were opened with the Ghibellines of Bologna and Romagna, and +a futile attempt was made to enter Florence from Lastra, the +failure of which further disorganized the party. Dante had, +however, already separated from the “ill-conditioned and +foolish company” of common party-politicians, who rejected his +counsels of wisdom, and had learnt that he must henceforth form +a party by himself. In 1303 he had left Arezzo and gone to Forli +in Romagna, of which city Scarpetta degli Ordelaffi was lord. +To him, according to Flavius Blondus the historian (d. before +1484), a native of the place, Dante acted for a time as secretary.</p> + +<p>From Forli Dante probably went to Bartolommeo della Scala, +lord of Verona, where the country of the great Lombard gave him +his first refuge and his first hospitable reception. Can +Grande, to whom he afterwards dedicated the <i>Paradiso</i>, +<span class="sidenote">Dante’s Ghibellinism.</span> +was then a boy. Bartolommeo died in 1304, and it is +possible that Dante may have remained in Verona till +his death. We must consider, if we would understand the real +nature of Dante’s Ghibellinism, that he had been born and +bred a Guelph; but he saw that the conditions of the time were +altered, and that other dangers menaced the welfare of his +country. There was no fear now that Florence, Siena, Pisa, +Arezzo should be razed to the ground in order that the castle of +the lord might overlook the humble cottages of his contented +subjects; but there was danger lest Italy should be torn in +sunder by its own jealousies and passions, and lest the fair +domain bounded by the sea and the Alps should never properly +assert the force of its individuality, and should present a contemptible +contrast to a united France and a confederated +Germany. Sick with petty quarrels and dissensions, Dante +strained his eyes towards the hills for the appearance of a +universal monarch, raised above the jars of faction and the spur of +ambition, under whom each country, each city, each man, might, +under the institutions best suited to it, lead the life and do the +work for which it was best fitted. United in spiritual harmony +with the vicar of Christ, he should show for the first time to the +world an example of a government where the strongest force and +the highest wisdom were interpenetrated by all that God had +given to the world of piety and justice. In this sense and in no +other was Dante a Ghibelline. The vision was never realized—the +hope was never fulfilled. Not till 500 years later did +Italy become united and the “greyhound of deliverance” +chase from city to city the wolf of cupidity. But is it possible +to say that the dream did not work its own realization, or to +deny that the high ideal of the poet, after inspiring a few minds +as lofty as his own, has become embodied in the constitution of +a state which acknowledges no stronger bond of union than a +common worship of the exile’s indignant and impassioned verse?</p> + +<p>It is very difficult to determine with exactness the order and +the place of Dante’s wanderings. Many cities and castles in Italy +have claimed the honour of giving him shelter, or of +being for a time the home of his inspired muse. He +<span class="sidenote">Wanderings.</span> +certainly spent some time with Count Guido Salvatico +in the Casentino near the sources of the Arno, probably in the +castle of Porciano, and with Uguccione in the castle of Faggiuola +in the mountains of Urbino. After this he is said to have visited +the university of Bologna; and in August 1306 we find him at +Padua. Cardinal Napoleon Orsini, the legate of the French pope +Clement V., had put Bologna under a ban, dissolved the university +and driven the professors to the northern city. In May or June +1307 the same cardinal collected the Whites at Arezzo and tried +to induce the Florentines to recall them. The name of Dante is +found attached to a document signed by the Whites in the church +of St Gaudenzio in the Mugello. This enterprise came to nothing. +Dante retired to the castle of Moroello Malespina in the Lunigiana, +where the marble ridges of the mountains of Carrara descend +in precipitous slopes to the Gulf of Spezzia. From this time till +the arrival of the emperor Henry VII. in Italy, October 1310, all +is uncertain. His old enemy Corso Donati had at last allied +himself with Uguccione della Faggiuola, the leader of the +Ghibellines. Dante thought it possible that this might lead to +his return. But in 1308 Corso was declared a traitor, attacked +in his house, put to flight and killed. Dante lost his last hope. +He left Tuscany, and went to Can Grande della Scala at Verona. +From this place it is thought that he visited the university of +Paris (1309), studied in the rue du Fouarre and went on into +the Low Countries. That he ever crossed the Channel or went to +Oxford, or himself saw where the heart of Henry, son of Richard, +earl of Cornwall, murdered by his cousin Guy of Montfort in +1271, was “still venerated on the Thames,” may safely be disbelieved. +The only evidence for it is in the <i>Commentary</i> of John +of Serravalle, bishop of Fermo, who lived a century later, had no +special opportunity of knowing, and was writing for the benefit +of two English bishops. The election in 1308 of Henry of Luxemburg +as emperor stirred again his hopes of a deliverer. At the end +of 1310, in a letter to the princes and people of Italy, he proclaimed +the coming of the saviour; at Milan he did personal +homage to his sovereign. The Florentines made every preparation +to resist the emperor. Dante wrote from the Casentino a letter +dated the 31st of March 1311, in which he rebuked them for their +stubbornness and obstinacy. Henry still lingered in Lombardy +at the siege of Cremona, when Dante, on the 16th of April 1311, +in a celebrated epistle, upbraided his delay, argued that the +crown of Italy was to be won on the Arno rather than on the Po, +and urged the tarrying emperor to hew the rebellious Florentines +like Agag in pieces before the Lord. Henry was as deaf to this +exhortation as the Florentines themselves. After reducing +Lombardy he passed from Genoa to Pisa, and on the 29th of June +1312 was crowned by some cardinals in the church of St John +Lateran at Rome; the Vatican being in the hands of his adversary +King Robert of Naples. Then at length he moved towards +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page814" id="page814"></a>814</span> +Tuscany by way of Umbria. Leaving Cortona and Arezzo, he +reached Florence on the 19th of September. He did not dare to +attack it, but returned in November to Pisa. In the summer of +the following year he prepared to invade the kingdom of Naples; +but in the neighbourhood of Siena he caught a fever and died at +the monastery of Buonconvento, on the 24th of August 1313. +He lies in the Campo Santo of Pisa; and the hopes of Dante and +his party were buried in his grave.</p> + +<p>After the death of the emperor Henry (Bruni tells us) Dante +passed the rest of his life as an exile, sojourning in various places +throughout Lombardy, Tuscany and the Romagna, +under the protection of various lords, until at length +<span class="sidenote">Old age and death.</span> +he retired to Ravenna, where he ended his life. Very +little can be added to this meagre story. There is reason for +supposing that he stayed at Gubbio with Bosone dei Rafaelli, and +tradition assigns him a cell in the monastery of Sta Croce di Fonte +Avellana in the same district, situated on the slopes of Catria, +one of the highest peaks of the Apennines in that region. +After the death of the French pope, Clement V., he addressed a +letter, dated the 14th of July 1314, to the cardinals in conclave, +urging them to elect an Italian pope. About this time he came +to Lucca, then lately conquered by his friend Uguccione. Here he +completed the last cantos of the <i>Purgatory</i>, which he dedicated +to Uguccione, and here he must have become acquainted with +Gentucca, whose name had been whispered to him by her countryman +on the slopes of the Mountain of Purification (<i>Purg.</i> xxiv. +37). That the intimacy between the “world-worn” poet and +the young married lady (who is thought to be identifiable with +Gentucca Morla, wife of one Cosciorino Fondora) was other than +blameless, is quite incredible. In August 1315 was fought the +battle of Monte Catini, a day of humiliation and mourning for +the Guelphs. Uguccione made but little use of his victory; and +the Florentines marked their vengeance on his adviser by condemning +Dante yet once again to death if he ever should come +into their power. In the beginning of the following year Uguccione +lost both his cities of Pisa and Lucca. At this time Dante +was offered an opportunity of returning to Florence. The conditions +given to the exiles were that they should pay a fine and +walk in the dress of humiliation to the church of St John, and +there do penance for their offences. Dante refused to tolerate +this shame; and the letter is still extant in which he declines to +enter Florence except with honour, secure that the means of life +will not fail him, and that in any corner of the world he will be +able to gaze at the sun and the stars, and meditate on the sweetest +truths of philosophy. He preferred to take refuge with his most +illustrious protector Can Grande della Scala of Verona, then a +young man of twenty-five, rich, liberal and the favoured head +of the Ghibelline party. His name has been immortalized by an +eloquent panegyric in the seventeenth canto of the <i>Paradiso</i>. +Whilst on a visit at the court of Verona he maintained, on the +20th of January 1320, the philosophical thesis <i>De aqua et terra</i>, +on the levels of land and water, which is included in his minor +works. The last three years of his life were spent at Ravenna, +under the protection of Guido da Polenta. In his service Dante +undertook an embassy to the Venetians. He failed in the object +of his mission, and, returning disheartened and broken in spirit +through the unhealthy lagoons, caught a fever and died in +Ravenna on the 14th of September 1321. His bones still repose +there. His doom of exile has been reversed by the union of Italy, +which has made the city of his birth and the various cities of his +wanderings component members of a common country. His son +Piero, who wrote a commentary on the <i>Divina Commedia</i>, settled +as a lawyer in Verona, and died in 1364. His daughter Beatrice +lived as a nun in Ravenna, dying at some time between 1350 +(when Boccaccio brought her a present of ten gold crowns from a +Florentine gild) and 1370. His direct line became extinct in 1509.</p> + +<p><i>Dante’s Works.</i>—Of Dante’s works, that by which he is known +to all the educated world, and in virtue of which he holds his +place as one of the half-dozen greatest writers of all +time, is of course the <i>Commedia</i>. (The epithet <i>divina</i>, +<span class="sidenote">Divina Commedia.</span> +it may be noted, was not given to the poem by its +author, nor does it appear on a title-page until 1555, in the +edition of Ludovico Dolce, printed by Giolito; though it is +applied to the poet himself as early as 1512.) The poem is +absolutely unique in literature; it may safely be said that at no +other epoch of the world’s history could such a work have been +produced. Dante was steeped in all the learning, which in its +way was considerable, of his time; he had read the <i>Summa +Theologica</i> of Aquinas, the <i>Trésor</i> of his master Brunetto, and +other encyclopaedic works available in that age; he was familiar +with all that was then known of the Latin classical and post-classical +authors. Further, he was a deep and original political +thinker, who had himself borne a prominent part in practical +politics. He was born into a generation in which almost every +man of education habitually wrote verse, as indeed their predecessors +had been doing for the last fifty years. Vernacular +poetry had come late into Italy, and had hitherto, save for a few +didactic or devotional treatises hitched into rough rhyme, been +exclusively lyric in form. Amatory at first, later, chiefly in the +hands of Guittone of Arezzo and Guido Cavalcanti, taking an +ethical and metaphysical tone, it had never fully shaken off the +Provençal influence under which it had started, and of which +Dante himself shows considerable traces.</p> + +<p>The age also was unique, though the two great events which +made the 15th century a turning-point in the world’s history—the +invention of printing and the discovery of the new world (to +which might perhaps be added the intrusion of Islam into Europe)—were +still far in the future. But the age was essentially one of +great men; of free thought and free speech; of brilliant and +daring action, whether for good or evil. It is easy to understand +how Dante’s bitterest scorn is reserved for those “sorry souls +who lived without infamy and without renown, displeasing to +God and to His enemies.”</p> + +<p>The time was thus propitious for the production of a great +imaginative work, and the man was ready who should produce it. +It called for a prophet, and the prophet said, “Here am I.” +“Dante,” says an acute writer, “is not, as Homer is, the father +of poetry springing in the freshness and simplicity of childhood +out of the arms of mother earth; he is rather, like Noah, the +father of a second poetical world, to whom he pours forth his +prophetic song fraught with the wisdom and the experience of the +old world.” Thus the <i>Commedia</i>, though often classed for want +of a better description among epic poems, is totally different in +method and construction from all other poems of that kind. Its +“hero” is the narrator himself; the incidents do not modify the +course of the story; the place of episodes is taken by theological +or metaphysical disquisitions; the world through which the poet +takes his readers is peopled, not with characters of heroic story, +but with men and women known personally or by repute to him +and those for whom he wrote. Its aim is not to delight, but to +reprove, to rebuke, to exhort; to form men’s characters by +teaching them what courses of life will meet with reward, what +with penalty, hereafter; “to put into verse,” as the poet says, +“things difficult to think.” For such new matter a new vehicle +was needed. We have Bembo’s authority for believing that the +<i>terza rima</i>, surpassed, if at all, only by the ancient hexameter, as +a measure equally adaptable to sustained narrative, to debate, +to fierce invective, to clear-cut picture and to trenchant epigram, +was first employed by Dante.</p> + +<p>The action of the <i>Commedia</i> opens in the early morning of the +Thursday before Easter, in the year 1300. The poet finds himself +lost in a forest, escaping from which he has his way barred by a +wolf, a lion and a leopard. All this, like the rest of the poem, is +highly symbolical. This branch of the subject is too vast to be +entered on at any length here; but so far as this passage is concerned +it may be said that it seems to indicate that at this period +of his life, about the age of thirty-five, Dante went through some +experience akin to what is now called “conversion.” Having led +up till then the ordinary life of a cultivated Florentine of good +family; taking his part in public affairs, military and civil, as an +hereditary member of the predominant Guelph party; dallying +in prose which with all its beauty and passion is full of the +conceits familiar to the 13th century, and in verse which save for +the excellence of its execution differs in no way from that of his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page815" id="page815"></a>815</span> +predecessors, with the memory of his lost love; studying more +seriously, perhaps, than most of his associates; possibly travelling +a little,—gradually or suddenly he became convinced that all +was not well with him, and that not by leading, however blamelessly, +the “active” life could he save his soul. The strong vein of +mysticism, found in so many of the deepest thinkers of that age, +and conspicuous in Dante’s mind, no doubt played its part. His +efforts to free himself from the “forest” of worldly cares were +impeded by the temptations of the world—cupidity (including +ambition), the pride of life and the lusts of the flesh, symbolized +by the three beasts. But a helper is at hand. Virgil appears and +explains that he has a commission from three ladies on high to +guide him. The ladies are the Blessed Virgin, St Lucy (whom for +some reason never yet explained Dante seems to have regarded +as in a special sense his protector) and Beatrice. In Virgil we +are apparently intended to see the symbol of what Dante calls +philosophy, what we should rather call natural religion; Beatrice +standing for theology, or rather revealed religion. Under Virgil’s +escort Dante is led through the two lower realms of the next +world, Hell and Purgatory; meeting on the way with many +persons illustrious or notorious in recent or remoter times, as well +as many well enough known then in Tuscany and the neighbouring +states; but who, without the immortality, often unenviable, +that the poet has conferred on them, would long ago have +been forgotten. Popes, kings, emperors, poets and warriors, +Florentine citizens of all degrees, are there found; some doomed +to hopeless punishment, others expiating their offences in milder +torments, and looking forward to deliverance in due time. It is +remarkable to notice how rarely, if ever, Dante allows political +sympathy or antagonism to influence him in his distribution of +judgment. Hell is conceived as a vast conical hollow, reaching to +the centre of the earth. It has three great divisions, corresponding +to Aristotle’s three classes of vices, incontinence, brutishness +and malice. The first are outside the walls of the city of Dis; +the second, among whom are included unbelievers, tyrants, +suicides, unnatural offenders, usurers, are within; the first +apparently on the same level as those without, the rest separated +from them by a steep descent of broken rocks. (It should be said +that many Dante scholars hold that Aristotle’s “brutishness” has +no place in Dante’s scheme; but the symmetry of the arrangement, +the special reference made to that division, and certain +expressions used elsewhere by Dante, seem to make it probable +that he would here, as in most other cases, have followed his +master in philosophy.) The sinners by malice, which includes all +forms of fraud or treachery, are divided from the last by a yet +more formidable barrier. They lie at the bottom of a pit, the +depth of which is not stated, with vertical sides, and accessible +only by supernatural means; a monster named Geryon bearing +the poets down on his back. The torments here are of a more +terrible, often of a loathsome character. Ignominy is added to +pain, and the nature of Dante’s demeanour towards the sinners +changes from pity to hatred. At the very bottom of the pit is +Lucifer, immovably fixed in ice; climbing down his limbs they +reach the centre of the earth, whence a cranny conducts them +back to the surface, at the foot of the purgatorial mountain, +which they reach as Easter Day is dawning. Before the actual +Purgatory is attained they have to climb for the latter half of the +day and rest at night. The occupants of this outer region are +those who have delayed repentance till death was upon them. +They include many of the most famous men of the last thirty +years. In the morning the gate is opened, and Purgatory proper +is entered. This is divided into seven terraces, corresponding to +the seven deadly sins, which encircle the mountain and have +to be reached by a series of steep climbs, compared by Dante in +one instance to the path from Florence to Samminiato. The +penalties are not degrading, but rather tests of patience or +endurance; and in several cases Dante has to bear a share in +them as he passes. On the summit is the Earthly Paradise. +Here Beatrice appears, in a mystical pageant; Virgil departs, +leaving Dante in her charge. By her he is led through the +various spheres of which, according to both the astronomy and +the theology of the time, Heaven is composed, to the supreme +Heaven, or Empyrean, the seat of the Godhead. For one +moment there is granted him the intuitive vision of the Deity, +and the comprehension of all mysteries, which is the ultimate +goal of mystical theology; his will is wholly blended with that of +God, and the poem ends.</p> + +<p>The <i>Convito</i>, or <i>Banquet</i>, also called <i>Convivio</i> (Bembo uses the +first form, Trissino the other), is the work of Dante’s manhood, +as the <i>Vita Nuova</i> is the work of his youth. It consists, +in the form in which it has come down to us, of an +<span class="sidenote">Convito.</span> +introduction and three treatises, each forming an elaborate +commentary in a long canzone. It was intended, if completed, +to have comprised commentaries on eleven more canzoni, +making fourteen in all, and in this shape would have formed a +<i>tesoro</i> or handbook of universal knowledge, such as Brunetto +Latini and others have left to us. It is perhaps the least well +known of Dante’s Italian works, but crabbed and unattractive +as it is in many parts, it is well worth reading, and contains +many passages of great beauty and elevation. Indeed a knowledge +of it is quite indispensable to the full understanding of the <i>Divina +Commedia</i> and the <i>De Monarchia</i>. The time of its composition is +uncertain. As it stands it has very much the look of being the +contents of note-books partially arranged. Dante mentions princes +as living who died in 1309; he does not mention Henry VII. as +emperor, who succeeded in 1310. There are some passages which +seem to have been inserted at a later date. The canzoni upon +which the commentary is written were probably composed between +1292 and 1300, when he was seeking in philosophy consolation +for the loss of Beatrice. The <i>Convito</i> was first printed in Florence +by Buonaccorsi in 1490. It has never been adequately edited.</p> + +<p>The <i>Vita Nuova</i> (<i>Young Life</i> or <i>New Life</i>, for both significations +seem to be intended) contains the history of his love for Beatrice. +He describes how he met Beatrice as a child, himself a +child, how he often sought her glance, how she once +<span class="sidenote">Vita Nuova.</span> +greeted him in the street, how he feigned a false love +to hide his true love, how he fell ill and saw in a dream the death +and transfiguration of his beloved, how she died, and how his +health failed from sorrow, how the tender compassion of another +lady nearly won his heart from its first affection, how Beatrice +appeared to him in a vision and reclaimed his heart, and how at +last he saw a vision which induced him to devote himself to study +that he might be more fit to glorify her who gazes on the face of +God for ever. This simple story is interspersed with sonnets, +ballads and canzoni, arranged with a remarkable symmetry, to +which Professor Charles Eliot Norton was the first to draw +attention, chiefly written at the time to emphasize some mood of +his changing passion. After each of these, in nearly every case, +follows an explanation in prose, which is intended to make the +thought and argument intelligible to those to whom the language +of poetry was not familiar. The whole has a somewhat artificial +air, in spite of its undoubted beauty; showing that Dante +was still under the influence of the <i>Dugentisti</i>, many of whose +conceits he reproduces. The book was probably completed by +1300. It was first printed by Sermartelli in Florence, 1576.</p> + +<p>Besides the smaller poems contained in the <i>Vita Nuova</i> and +<i>Convito</i> there are a considerable number of canzoni, ballate and +sonnetti bearing the poet’s name. Of these many +undoubtedly are genuine, others as undoubtedly +<span class="sidenote">Canzoniere.</span> +spurious. Some which have been preserved under the +name of Dante belong to Dante de Maiano, a poet of a harsher +style; others which bear the name of Aldighiero are referable +to Dante’s sons Jacopo or Pietro, or to his grandsons; others may +be ascribed to Dante’s contemporaries and predecessors Cino +da Pistoia and others. Those which are genuine secure Dante +a place among lyrical poets scarcely if at all inferior to that of +Petrarch. Most of these were printed in <i>Sonetti e canzoni</i> +(Giunta, 1527). The best edition of the <i>Canzoniere</i> of Dante is +that by Fraticelli published by Barbéra at Florence. His collection +includes seventy-eight genuine poems, eight doubtful and +fifty-four spurious. To these are added an Italian paraphrase of +the seven penitential psalms in <i>terza rima</i>, and a similar paraphrase +of the Credo, the seven sacraments, the ten commandments, the +Lord’s Prayer and the Ave Maria.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page816" id="page816"></a>816</span></p> + +<p>The Latin treatise <i>De monarchia</i>, in three books, contains the +mature statement of Dante’s political ideas. In it he propounds +the theory that the supremacy of the emperor is derived +from the supremacy of the Roman people over the +<span class="sidenote">De monarchia.</span> +world, which was given to them direct from God. As +the emperor is intended to assure their earthly happiness, so +does their spiritual welfare depend upon the pope, to whom the +emperor is to do honour as to the first-born of the Father. The +date of its publication is almost universally admitted to be the +time of the descent of Henry VII. into Italy, between 1310 and +1313, although its composition may have been in hand from a +much earlier period. The book was first printed by Oporinus +at Basel in 1559, and placed on the Index of forbidden books.</p> + +<p>The treatise <i>De vulgari eloquentia</i>, in two books, also in Latin, +is mentioned in the <i>Convito</i>. Its object was first to establish the +Italian language as a literary tongue, and to distinguish +the noble or “courtly” speech which might become the +<span class="sidenote">De vulgari eloquentia.</span> +property of the whole nation, at once a bond of internal +unity and a line of demarcation against external +nations, from the local dialects peculiar to different districts; +and secondly, to lay down rules for poetical composition in the +language so established. The work was intended to be in four +books, but only two are extant. The first of these deals with the +language, the second with the style and with the composition of +the canzone. The third was probably intended to continue this +subject, and the fourth was destined to the laws of the ballata and +sonetto. It contains much acute criticism of poetry and poetic +diction. This work was first published in the Italian translation +of Trissino at Vicenza in 1529. The original Latin was not published +till 1577 at Paris by Jacopo Corbinelli, one of the Italians +who were brought from Florence by Catherine de’ Medici, from +a MS. now preserved at Grenoble. The work was probably left +unfinished in consequence of Dante’s death.</p> + +<p>Boccaccio mentions in his life of Dante that he wrote two +eclogues in Latin in answer to Johannes de Virgilio, who invited +him to come from Ravenna to Bologna and compose +a great work in the Latin language. The most interesting +<span class="sidenote">Eclogues.</span> +passage in the work is that in the first poem, where he expresses +his hope that when he has finished the three parts of his great +poem his grey hairs may be crowned with laurel on the banks of +the Arno. Although the Latin of these poems is superior to that +of his prose works, we may feel thankful that Dante composed +the great work of his life in his own vernacular. The versification, +however, is good, and there are pleasant touches of gentle humour. +The <i>Eclogues</i> have been edited by Messrs Wicksteed and Gardiner +(<i>Dante and Giovanni del Virgilio</i>, London, 1902).</p> + +<p>A treatise <i>De aqua et terra</i> has come down to us, which Dante +tells us was delivered at Mantua in January 1320 (perhaps 1321) +as a solution of the question which was being at that +time much discussed—whether in any place on the +<span class="sidenote">De aqua et terra.</span> +earth’s surface water is higher than the earth. It was +first published at Venice in 1508, by an ecclesiastic named +Moncetti, from a MS. which he alleged to be in his possession, but +which no one seems to have seen. Its genuineness is accordingly +very doubtful; but Dr Moore has from internal evidence made +out a very strong case for it.</p> + +<p>The <i>Letters</i> of Dante are among the most important materials +for his biography. Giovanni Villani mentions three as specially +remarkable—one to the government of Florence, in +which he complains of undeserved exile; another to +<span class="sidenote">Letters.</span> +the emperor Henry VII., when he lingered too long at the siege +of Brescia; and a third to the Italian cardinals to urge them to +the election of an Italian pope after the death of Clement V. +The first of these letters has not come down to us, the two last are +extant. Besides these we have one addressed to the cardinal da +Prato, one to a Florentine friend refusing the base conditions of +return from exile, one to the princes and lords of Italy to prepare +them for the coming of Henry of Luxembourg, another to the +Florentines reproaching them with the rejection of the emperor, +and a long letter to Can Grande della Scala, containing directions +for interpreting the <i>Divina Commedia</i>, with especial reference to +the <i>Paradiso</i>. Of less importance are the letters to the nephews +of Count Alessandro da Romena, to the marquis Moroello +Malespina, to Cino da Pistoia and to Guido da Polenta. The +genuineness of all the letters has at one time or another been +impugned; but the more important are now generally accepted. +They have been translated by Mr C. S. Latham, ed. by Mr G. R. +Carpenter (Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, 1891).</p> + +<p>Dante’s reputation has passed through many vicissitudes, and +much trouble has been spent by critics in comparing him with +other poets of established fame. Read and commented upon +with more admiration than intelligence in the Italian universities +in the generation immediately succeeding his death, his name +became obscured as the sun of the Renaissance rose higher +towards its meridian. In the 16th century he was held inferior +to Petrarch; in the 17th and first half of the 18th he was almost +universally neglected. His fame is now fully vindicated. Translations +and commentaries issue from every press in Europe and +America, and many studies for separate points are appearing +every year.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—It would be impossible here to give anything like +a complete account even of the editions of Dante’s works; still more +of the books which have been written to elucidate the <i>Commedia</i> +as a whole, or particular points in it. The section “Dante” in the +British Museum catalogue down to 1887 occupies twenty-nine folio +pages; the supplement, to 1900, as many more. The catalogue of +the Fiske collection, in Cornell University library, is in two quarto +volumes and covers 606 pages. A few of the more important editions +and of the more valuable commentaries and aids may, however, be +recorded.</p> + +<p><i>Editions.</i>—The <i>Commedia</i> was first printed by John Numeister +at Foligno, in April 1472. Two other editions followed in the same +year: one at Jesi (<i>Federicus Veronensis</i>), and Mantua (<i>Georgius et +Paulus Teutonici</i>). These, together with a Naples edition of about +1477 (Francesco del Tuppo), were included by Lord Vernon in +<i>Le Prime Quattro Edizioni</i> (1858). Another Neapolitan edition, without +printer’s name, is dated 1477, and in the same year Wendelin of +Spires published the first Venetian edition. Milan followed in 1478 +with that known from the name of its editor as the <i>Nidobeatine</i>. In +1481 appeared the first Florentine edition (<i>Nicolo and Lorenzo della +Magna</i>) with the commentary of Cristoforo Landino, and a series of +copper engravings ascribed to Baccio Baldini, varying in number in +different copies from two to twenty; a sumptuous and very carelessly +printed volume. Venice supplied most of the editions for many +years to come. Altogether twelve existed by the end of the century. +In 1502 Aldus produced the first “pocket” edition in his new +“italic” type, probably cut from the handwriting of his friend +Bembo. A second edition of this is dated 1515. The firm of Giunta at +Florence printed the poem in a small volume with cuts, in 1506; and +for the rest of the 16th century edition follows edition, to the number +of about thirty in all. The most noteworthy commentaries are +those of Alessandro Vellutello (Venice, 1544), and Bernardo Daniello +(Venice, 1568), both of Lucca. The Cruscan Academicians edited +the text in 1595. The first edition with woodcuts is that of Boninus +de Boninis (Brescia, 1487). Bernardino Benali followed at Venice +in 1491, and from that time onward few if any of the folio editions are +without them. The 17th century produced three (or perhaps four) +small, shabby and inaccurate editions. In 1716 a revival of interest +in Dante had set in, and before 1800 some score of editions had appeared, +the best-known being those of G. A. Volpi (Padua, 1727), +Pompeo Venturi (Venice, 1739) and Baldassare Lombardi (Rome, +1791).</p> + +<p><i>Commentaries.</i>—The <i>Commedia</i> began to be the subject of commentaries +as soon as, if not before, the author was in his grave. One +known as the <i>Anonimo</i> until in 1881 Dr Moore identified its writer +as Graziole de’ Bambaglioli, was in course of writing in 1324. It was +published by Lord Vernon, to whose munificence we owe the accessibility +of most of the earlier commentaries, in 1848. That of Jacopo +della Lana is thought to have been composed before 1340. It was +printed in the Venice and Milan editions of 1477, and 1478 respectively. +The so-called <i>Ottimo Comento</i> (Pisa, 1837) is of about the +same date. It embodies parts of Lana’s, but is largely an independent +work. Witte ascribes it to Andrea della Lancia, a Florentine notary. +Dante’s sons Pietro and Jacopo also commented on their father’s +poem. Their works were published, again at Lord Vernon’s expense, +in 1845 and 1848. Boccaccio’s lectures on the <i>Commedia</i>, cut short +at <i>Inf.</i> xvii. 17 by his death in 1375, are accessible in various forms. +His work was achieved by his disciple Benvenuto Rambaldi of Imola +(d. <i>c.</i> 1390). Benvenuto’s commentary, written in Latin, genial in +temper, and often acute, was popular from the first. Extracts from +it were used as notes in many MSS. Much of it was printed by +Muratori in his <i>Antiquitates Italicae</i>; but the entire work was first +published in 1887 by Mr William Warren Vernon, with the aid of Sir +James Lacaita. No greater boon has ever been offered to students +of Dante. Another early annotator who must not be overlooked is +Francesco da Buti of Pisa, who lectured in that city towards the close +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page817" id="page817"></a>817</span> +of the same century. His commentary, which served as the basis +of Landino’s already mentioned, was first printed in Pisa in 1858. +One more commentary deserves mention. During the council of +Constance, John of Serravalle, bishop of Fermo, fell in with the +English bishops Robert Hallam and Nicholas Bubwith, and at their +request compiled a voluminous exposition of the <i>Commedia</i>. This +remained in MS. till recently, when it was printed in a costly form.</p> + +<p><i>Translations.</i>—Probably the first complete translation of Dante +into a modern language was the Castilian version of Villena (1428). +In the following year Andreu Febrer produced a rendering into +Catalan verse. In 1515 Villegas published the <i>Inferno</i> in Spanish. +The earliest French version is that of B. Grangier (1597). Chaucer +has rendered several passages beautifully, and similar fragments are +embedded in Milton and others. But the first attempt to reproduce +any considerable portion of the poem was made by Rogers, who only +completed the <i>Inferno</i> (1782). The entire poem appeared first in +English in the version of Henry Boyd (1802) in six-line stanzas; but +the first adequate rendering is the admirable blank verse of H. F. +Cary (1814, 2nd ed. 1819), which has remained the standard translation, +though others of merit, notably those of Pollock (1854) and +Longfellow (1867) in blank verse, Plumptre (1887) and Haselfoot +(1887) in <i>terza rima</i>; J. A. Carlyle (<i>Inferno</i> only, 1847). C. E. Norton +(1891), and H. F. Tozer (1904), in prose, have since appeared. The +best in German are those of “Philalethes” (the late King John of +Saxony) and Witte, both in blank verse.</p> + +<p><i>Modern Editions and Commentaries.</i>—The first serious attempt to +establish an accurate text in recent times was made by Carl Witte, +whose edition (1862) has been subsequently used as the basis for the +text of the <i>Commedia</i> in the Oxford edition of Dante’s complete +works (1896 and later issues). Dr Toynbee’s text (1900) follows the +Oxford, with some modifications. The notes of Cary, Longfellow, +Witte and “Philalethes,” appended to their several translations, +and Tozer’s, in an independent volume, are valuable. Scartazzini’s +commentary is the most voluminous that has appeared since the +15th century. With a good deal of superfluous, and some superficial, +erudition, it cannot be neglected by any one who wishes to study the +poem thoroughly. An edition by A.J. Butler contains a prose version +and notes. Of modern Italian editions, Bianchi’s and Fraticelli’s are +still as good as any.</p> + +<p><i>Other Aids.</i>—For beginners no introduction is equal to the essay +on Dante by the late Dean Church. Maria Rossetti’s <i>Shadow of +Dante</i> is also useful. <i>A Study of Dante</i>, by J. A. Symonds, is +interesting. More advanced students will find Dr Toynbee’s <i>Dante +Dictionary</i> indispensable, and Dr E. Moore’s <i>Studies in Dante</i> of great +service in its discussion of difficult places. Two concordances, to the +<i>Commedia</i> by Dr Fay (Cambridge, Mass., 1888), and to the minor +works by Messrs Sheldon and White (Oxford, 1905), are due to +American scholars. Mr W. W. Vernon’s <i>Readings in Dante</i> have +profited many students. Dante’s minor works still lack thorough +editing and scholarly elucidation, with the exception of the <i>De +vulgari eloquentia</i>, which has been well handled by Professor Pio +Rajna (1896), and the <i>Vita Nuova</i> by F. Beck (1896) and Barbi +(1907). Good translations of the latter by D. G. Rossetti and C. E. +Norton, and of the <i>De monarchia</i> by F. C. Church and P. H. Wicksteed +are in existence. The best text is that of the Oxford <i>Dante</i>, though +much confessedly remains to be done. The dates of their original +publication have already been given.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The first attempt at a bibliography of editions +of Dante was made in Pasquali’s edition of his collected works +(Venice, 1739); but the first really adequate work on the subject is +that of the viscount Colomb de Batines (1846-1848). A supplement +by Dr Guido Biagi appeared in 1888. Julius Petzholdt had already +covered some of the same ground in <i>Bibliographia Dantea</i>, extending +from 1865 to 1880. The period from 1891 to 1900 has been dealt +with by SS. Passerini and Mazzi in <i>Un Decennio di bibliografia +Dantesca</i> (1905). The catalogues of the two libraries already named, +and that of Harvard University, are worth consulting. For the +MSS. Dr E. Moore’s <i>Textual Criticism</i> (1889) is the most complete +guide.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. J. B.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANTON, GEORGE JACQUES<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1759-1794), one of the most +conspicuous actors in the decisive episodes of the French Revolution, +was born at Arcis-sur-Aube on the 26th of October 1759. +His family was of respectable quality, though of very moderate +means. They contrived to give him a good education, and he +was launched in the career of an advocate at the Paris bar. +When the Revolution broke out, it found Danton following his +profession with apparent success, leading a cheerful domestic life, +and nourishing his intelligence on good books. He first appears +in the revolutionary story as president of the popular club or +assembly of the district in which he lived. This was the famous +club of the Cordeliers, so called from the circumstance that its +meetings were held in the old convent of the order of the +Cordeliers, just as the Jacobins derived their name from the +refectory of the convent of the Jacobin brothers. It is an odd +coincidence that the old rivalries of Dominicans and Franciscans +in the democratic movement inside the Catholic Church should +be recalled by the names of the two factions in the democratic +movement of a later century away from the church. The +Cordeliers were from the first the centre of the popular principle +in the French Revolution carried to its extreme point; they were +the earliest to suspect the court of being irreconcilably hostile to +freedom; and it was they who most vehemently proclaimed the +need for root-and-branch measures. Danton’s robust, energetic +and impetuous temperament made him the natural leader in such +a quarter. We find no traces of his activity in the two great +insurrectionary events of 1789—the fall of the Bastille, and the +forcible removal of the court from Versailles to the Tuileries. +In the spring of 1790 we hear his voice urging the people to prevent +the arrest of Marat. In the autumn we find him chosen to +be the commander of the battalion of the national guard of his +district. In the beginning of 1791 he was elected to the post of +administrator of the department of Paris. This interval was for +all France a barren period of doubt, fatigue, partial reaction and +hoping against hope. It was not until 1792 that Danton came +into the prominence of a great revolutionary chief.</p> + +<p>In the spring of the previous year (1791) Mirabeau had died, +and with him had passed away the only man who was at all likely +to prove a wise guide to the court. In June of that year the king +and queen made a disastrous attempt to flee from their capital and +their people. They were brought back once more to the Tuileries, +which from that time forth they rightly looked upon more as a +prison than a palace or a home. The popular exasperation was +intense, and the constitutional leaders, of whom the foremost was +Lafayette, became alarmed and lost their judgment. A bloody +dispersion of a popular gathering, known afterwards as the +massacre of the Champ-de-Mars (July 1791), kindled a flame of +resentment against the court and the constitutional party which +was never extinguished. The Constituent Assembly completed +its infertile labours in September 1791. Then the elections took +place to its successor, the short-lived Legislative Assembly. +Danton was not elected to it, and his party was at this time only +strong enough to procure for him a very subordinate post in the +government of the Parisian municipality. Events, however, +rapidly prepared a situation in which his influence became of +supreme weight. Between January and August 1792 the want +of sympathy between the aims of the popular assembly and the +spirit of the king and the queen became daily more flagrant and +beyond power of disguise. In April war was declared against +Austria, and to the confusion and distraction caused by the +immense civil and political changes of the past two years was now +added the ferment and agitation of war with an enemy on the +frontier. The distrust felt by Paris for the court and its loyalty +at length broke out in insurrection. On the memorable morning +of the 10th of August 1792 the king and queen took refuge with +the Legislative Assembly from the apprehended violence of the +popular forces who were marching on the Tuileries. The share +which Danton had in inspiring and directing this momentous +rising is very obscure. Some look upon him as the head and +centre of it. Apart from documents, support is given to this view +by the fact that on the morrow of the fall of the monarchy Danton +is found in the important post of minister of justice. This sudden +rise from the subordinate office which he had held in the commune +is a proof of the impression that his character had made on the +insurrectionary party. To passionate fervour for the popular +cause he added a certain broad steadfastness and an energetic +practical judgment which are not always found in company with +fervour. Even in those days, when so many men were so astonishing +in their eloquence, Danton stands out as a master of commanding +phrase. One of his fierce sayings has become a proverb. +Against Brunswick and the invaders, “<i>il nous faut de l’audace, et +encore de l’audace, et toujours de l’audace</i>,”—we must dare, and +again dare, and for ever dare. The tones of his voice were loud +and vibrant. As for his bodily presence, he had, to use his own +account of it, the athletic shape and the stern physiognomy of +the Liberty for which he was ready to die. Jove the Thunderer, +the rebel Satan, a Titan, Sardanapalus, were names that friends +or enemies borrowed to describe his mien and port. He was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page818" id="page818"></a>818</span> +thought about as a coarser version of the great tribune of the +Constituent Assembly; he was called the Mirabeau of the sansculottes, +and Mirabeau of the markets.</p> + +<p>In the executive government that was formed on the king’s +dethronement, this strong revolutionary figure found himself +the colleague of the virtuous Roland and others of the Girondins. +Their strength was speedily put to a terrible test. The alarming +successes of the enemy on the frontier, and the surrender of two +important fortresses, had engendered a natural panic in the capital. +But in the breasts of some of the wild men whom the disorder +of the time had brought to prominent place in the Paris commune +this panic became murderously heated. Some hundreds +of captives were barbarously murdered in the prisons. There has +always been much dispute as to Danton’s share in this dreadful +transaction. At the time, it must be confessed, much odium on +account of an imputed direction of the massacres fell to him. +On the whole, however, he cannot be fairly convicted of any part +in the plan. What he did was to make the best of the misdeed, +with a kind of sombre acquiescence. He deserves credit for +insisting against his colleagues that they should not flee from +Paris, but should remain firm at their posts, doing what they +could to rule the fierce storm that was raging around them.</p> + +<p>The elections to the National Convention took place in +September, when the Legislative Assembly surrendered its +authority. The Convention ruled France until October 1795. +Danton was a member; resigning the ministry of justice, he took +a foremost part in the deliberations and proceedings of the +Convention, until his execution in April 1794. This short period +of nineteen months was practically the life of Danton, so far as the +world is concerned with him.</p> + +<p>He took his seat in the high and remote benches which gave +the name of the Mountain to the thoroughgoing revolutionists +who sat there. He found himself side by side with Marat, whose +exaggerations he never countenanced; with Robespierre, whom +he did not esteem very highly, but whose immediate aims were in +many respects his own; with Camille Desmoulins and Phélippeaux, +who were his close friends and constant partisans. The +foes of the Mountain were the group of the Girondins,—eloquent, +dazzling, patriotic, but unable to apprehend the fearful nature of +the crisis, too full of vanity and exclusive party-spirit, and too +fastidious to strike hands with the vigorous and stormy Danton. +The Girondins dreaded the people who had sent Danton to the +Convention; and they insisted on seeing on his hands the blood of +the prison massacres of September. Yet in fact Danton saw +much more clearly than they saw how urgent it was to soothe the +insurrectionary spirit, after it had done the work of abolition +which to him, as to them too, seemed necessary and indispensable. +Danton discerned what the Girondins lacked the political genius +to see, that this control of Paris could only be wisely effected by +men who sympathized with the vehemence and energy of Paris, +and understood that this vehemence and energy made the only +force to which the Convention could look in resisting the Germans +on the north-east frontier, and the friends of reaction in the +interior. “Paris,” he said, “is the natural and constituted centre +of free France. It is the centre of light. When Paris shall perish +there will no longer be a republic.”</p> + +<p>Danton was among those who voted for the death of the king +(January 1793). He had a conspicuous share in the creation of +the famous revolutionary tribunal, his aim being to take the +weapons away from that disorderly popular vengeance which had +done such terrible work in September. When all executive +power was conferred upon a committee of public safety, Danton +had been one of the nine members of whom that body was originally +composed. He was despatched on frequent missions from +the Convention to the republican armies in Belgium, and wherever +he went he infused new energy into the work of national liberation. +He pressed forward the erection of a system of national education, +and he was one of the legislative committee charged with the +construction of a new system of government. He vainly tried to +compose the furious dissensions between Girondins and Jacobins. +The Girondins were irreconcilable, and made Danton the object +of deadly attack. He was far too robust in character to lose +himself in merely personal enmities, but by the middle of May +(1793) he had made up his mind that the political suppression +of the Girondins had become indispensable. The position of +the country was most alarming. Dumouriez, the victor of Valmy +and Jemmappes, had deserted. The French arms were suffering +a series of checks and reverses. A royalist rebellion was gaining +formidable dimensions in the west. Yet the Convention was +wasting time and force in the vindictive recriminations of +faction. There is no positive evidence that Danton directly +instigated the insurrection of the 31st of May and the 2nd of June, +which ended in the purge of the Convention and the proscription +of the Girondins. He afterwards spoke of himself as in some +sense the author of this revolution, because a little while before, +stung by some trait of factious perversity in the Girondins, he +had openly cried out in the midst of the Convention, that if he +could only find a hundred men, they would resist the oppressive +authority of the Girondin commission of twelve. At any rate, +he certainly acquiesced in the violence of the commune, and he +publicly gloried in the expulsion of the men who stood obstinately +in the way of a vigorous and concentrated exertion of +national power. Danton, unlike the Girondins, accepted the fury +of popular passion as an inevitable incident in the work of +deliverance. Unlike Billaud Varenne or Hébert, or any other +of the Terrorist party, he had no wish to use this frightful two-edged +weapon more freely than was necessary. Danton, in short, +had the instinct of the statesman. His object was to reconcile +France with herself; to restore a society that, while emancipated +and renewed in every part, should yet be stable; and +above all to secure the independence of his country, both by +a resolute defence against the invader, and by such a mixture +of vigour with humanity as should reconcile the offended opinion +of the rest of Europe. This, so far as we can make it out, was +what was in his mind.</p> + +<p>The position of the Mountain had now undergone a complete +change. In the Constituent Assembly its members did not +number more than 30 out of the 578 of the third estate. In +the Legislative Assembly they had not been numerous, and +none of their chiefs had a seat. In the Convention for the +first nine months they had an incessant struggle for their very +lives against the Girondins. They were now (June 1793) for the +first time in possession of absolute power. It was not easy, however, +for men who had for many months been nourished on the +ideas and stirred to the methods of opposition, all at once to +develop the instincts of government. Actual power was in the +hands of the two committees—that of public safety and of +general security. Both were chosen out of the body of the +Convention. The drama of the nine months between the expulsion +of the Girondins and the execution of Danton turns upon the +struggle of the committee to retain power—first, against the +insurrectionary commune of Paris, and second, against the +Convention, from which the committees derived an authority +that was regularly renewed on the expiry of each short term.</p> + +<p>Danton, immediately after the fall of the Girondins, had +thrown himself with extraordinary energy into the work to be +done. The first task in a great city so agitated by anarchical +ferment had been to set up a strong central authority. In this +genuinely political task Danton was prominent. He was not a +member of the committee of public safety when that body was +renewed in the shape that speedily made its name so redoubtable +all over the world. This was the result of a self-denying ordinance +which he imposed upon himself. It was he who proposed that +the powers of the committee should be those of a dictator, and +that it should have copious funds at its disposal. In order to +keep himself clear of any personal suspicion, he announced his +resolution not to belong to the body which he had thus done his +best to make supreme in the state. His position during the +autumn of 1793 was that of a powerful supporter and inspirer, +from without, of the government which he had been foremost in +setting up. Danton was not a great practical administrator and +contriver, like Carnot, for instance. But he had the gift of raising +in all who heard him an heroic spirit of patriotism and fiery +devotion, and he had a clear eye and a cool judgment in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page819" id="page819"></a>819</span> +tempestuous emergencies which arose in such appalling succession. +His distinction was that he accepted the insurrectionary forces, +instead of blindly denouncing them as the Girondins had done. +After these forces had shaken down the throne, and then, by +driving away the Girondins, had made room for a vigorous +government, Danton perceived the expediency of making all +haste to an orderly state. Energetic prosecution of the war, and +gradual conciliation of civil hatreds, had been, as we have said, +the two marks of his policy ever since the fall of the monarchy. +The first of these objects was fulfilled abundantly, partly owing +to the energy with which he called for the arming of the whole +nation against its enemies. His whole mind was now given to +the second of them. But the second of them, alas, was desperate.</p> + +<p>It was to no purpose that, both in his own action and in the +writings of Camille Desmoulins (<i>Le Vieux Cordelier</i>), of whom he +was now and always the intimate and inspirer, he worked against +the iniquities of the bad men, like Carrier and Collot d’Herbois, +in the provinces, and against the severity of the revolutionary +tribunal in Paris. The black flood could not at a word or in an +hour subside from its storm-lashed fury. The commune of Paris +was now composed of men like Hébert and Chaumette, to whom +the restoration of any sort of political order was for the time +indifferent. They wished to push destruction to limits which +even the most ardent sympathizers with the Revolution condemn +now, and which Danton condemned then, as extravagant and +senseless. Those men were not politicians, they were fanatics; +and Danton, who was every inch a politician, though of a vehement +type, had as little in common with them as John Calvin of +Geneva had with John of Leiden and the Münster Anabaptists. +The committee watched Hébert and his followers uneasily for +many weeks, less perhaps from disapproval of their excesses +than from apprehensions of their hostility to the committee’s own +power. At length the party of the commune proposed to revolt +against the Convention and the committees. Then the blow was +struck, and the Hébertists were swiftly flung into prison, and +thence under the knife of the guillotine (March 24th, 1794). +The execution of the Hébertists was the first victory of the +revolutionary government over the extreme insurrectionary +party. But the committees had no intention to concede anything +to their enemies on the other side. If they refused to follow the +lead of the anarchists of the commune, they were none the more +inclined to give way to the Dantonian policy of clemency. +Indeed, such a course would have been their own instant and +utter ruin. The Terror was not a policy that could be easily +transformed. A new policy would have to be carried out by new +men, and this meant the resumption of power by the Convention, +and the death of the Terrorists. In Thermidor 1794 such a +revolution did take place, with those very results. But in +Germinal feeling was not ripe. The committees were still too +strong to be overthrown. And Danton seems to have shown +a singular heedlessness. Instead of striking by vigour in the +Convention, he waited to be struck. In these later days a certain +discouragement seems to have come over his spirit. His wife had +died during his absence on one of his expeditions to the armies; +he had now married again, and the rumour went that he was +allowing domestic happiness to tempt him from the keen incessant +vigilance proper to the politician in such a crisis. He must have +known that he had enemies. When the Jacobin club was +“purified” in the winter, Danton’s name would have been +struck out as a moderate if Robespierre had not defended him. +The committees had deliberated on his arrest soon afterwards, +and again it was Robespierre who resisted the proposal. Yet +though he had been warned of the lightning that was thus playing +round his head, Danton did not move. Either he felt himself +powerless, or he rashly despised his enemies. At last Billaud +Varenne, the most prominent spirit of the committee after +Robespierre, succeeded in gaining Robespierre over to his designs +against Danton. Robespierre was probably actuated by the +motives of selfish policy which soon proved the greatest blunder +of his life. The Convention, aided by Robespierre and the +authority of the committee, assented with ignoble unanimity. +On the 30th of March Danton, Desmoulins and others of the +party were suddenly arrested. Danton displayed such vehemence +before the revolutionary tribunal, that his enemies feared +lest he should excite the crowd in his favour. The Convention, +in one of its worst fits of cowardice, assented to a proposal made +by St Just that, if a prisoner showed want of respect for justice, +the tribunal might pronounce sentence without further delay. +Danton was at once condemned, and led, in company with +fourteen others, including Camille Desmoulins, to the guillotine +(April 5th, 1794). “I leave it all in a frightful welter,” he said; +“not a man of them has an idea of government. Robespierre +will follow me; he is dragged down by me. Ah, better be a poor +fisherman than meddle with the government of men!”</p> + +<p>Events went as Danton foresaw. The committees presently +came to quarrel with the pretensions of Robespierre. Three +months after Danton, Robespierre fell. His assent to the execution +of Danton had deprived him of the single great force that +might have supported him against the committee. The man who +had “saved France from Brunswick” might perhaps have saved +her from the White reaction of 1794.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Sources for the life of Danton abound in the +national archives and in the columns of the <i>Moniteur</i>. His <i>Œuvres</i> +were published by A. Vermorel (Paris, 1866), and his speeches are +included in H. Morse Stephens’ <i>Principal Speeches of the Statesmen +and Orators of the French Revolution</i> (vol. ii., Oxford, 1892); cf. F. V. +Aulard, <i>Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la Convention</i> (Danton and +his group; 2 vols., 1885-1886). The charges of corruption freely +brought against Danton by contemporaries were accepted by many +historians, and he has been persistently accused of instigating or at +least abetting, by failure to use the power he possessed, the September +massacres. A minute examination of the evidence by F. V. Aulard +and J. F. E. Robinet in France, followed by A. H. Beesly in England, +has placed his career and his character in a fairer light. The chief +books on Danton’s life are:—A. Bougeart, <i>Danton, documents pour +servir à l’histoire de la Révolution française</i> (Brussels, 1861); J. F. E. +Robinet, <i>Danton, mémoire sur sa vie privée</i> (Paris, 1865), <i>Le Procès +des Dantonistes</i> (Paris, 1879), <i>Danton émigré</i> (Paris, 1887), <i>Danton, +homme d’état</i> (Paris, 1889); F. V. Aulard, <i>Hist. pol. de la Rév. fr.</i> +(Paris, 1901), and <i>Danton</i> (Paris, 1887); A. Dubost, <i>Danton et la +politique contemporaine</i> (Paris, 1880); A. H. Beesly, <i>Life of Danton</i> +(1899, new ed. 1906); H. Belloc, <i>Danton</i> (1899). There is a short +“Life of Danton” in Morse Stephens’ <i>Principal Speeches</i>, cited +above. See also C. F. Warwick, <i>Danton and the French Revolution</i> +(1909).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Mo.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANUBE<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Donau</i>, Hungarian <i>Duna</i>, Rumanian <i>Dunarea</i>, +Lat. <i>Danubius</i> or <i>Danuvius</i>, and in the lower part of its course +<i>Ister</i>), the most important river of Europe as regards the volume +of its outflow, but inferior to the Volga in length and in the area +of its drainage. It originates at Donaueschingen in the Black +Forest, where two mountain streams, the Brigach and the Brege, +together with a third stream from the Palace Gardens, unite +at an elevation of 2187 ft. above the sea to form the Danube +so called. From this point it runs in an easterly direction until +it falls into the Black Sea some 1750 m. from its source, being the +only European river of importance with a course from west to east. +Its basin, which comprises a territory of nearly 300,000 sq. m., +is bounded by the Black Forest, some of the minor Alpine ranges, +the Bohemian Forest and the Carpathian Mountains on the north, +and by the Alps and the Balkan range on the south. From the +point where the Danube first becomes navigable, i.e. at its +junction with the Iller at Ulm (1505 ft. above sea-level), it is fed +by at least 300 tributaries, the principal of which on the right +bank are the Inn, the Drave and the Save; while on the left +bank are the Theiss or Tisza, the Olt, the Sereth and the Pruth. +These seven rivers have a total length of 2920 m. and drain one +half of the basin of the Danube.</p> + +<p>The course of this mighty river is rich in historical and political +associations. For a long period it formed the frontier of the +Roman empire; near Eining (above Regensburg) was +the ancient Abusina, which for nearly five centuries +<span class="sidenote">Historical and political associations.</span> +was the chief Roman outpost against the northern +barbarians. Traces of Trajan’s wall still exist between +that point and Wiesbaden, while another line of fortifications +bearing the same emperor’s name are found in the +Dobrudja between Cernavoda (on the lower Danube) and +Constantza. At intervening points are still found many notable +Roman remains, such as Trajan’s road, a marvellous work on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page820" id="page820"></a>820</span> +right bank of the river in the rocky Kazan defile (separating the +Balkans on the south from the Carpathians on the north), where +a contemporary commemorative tablet is still conspicuously +visible. At Turnu Severin below the end of this famous gorge +are the remains of a solid masonry bridge constructed by the +same emperor at the period of his Dacian conquests. But since +Roman days the central Danube has never formed the boundary +of a state; on the contrary it became the route followed from +east to west by successive hordes of barbarians—the Huns, +Avars, Slavs, Magyars and Turks; while the Franks under +Charlemagne, the Bavarians and the Crusaders all marched in +the opposite direction towards the east. In more modern days +its banks were the scenes of many bloody battles during the +Napoleonic Wars. Still more recently it has become the great +highway of commerce for central Europe. It has been pointed +out by J. G. Kohl (<i>Austria and the Danube</i>, London, 1844) and +others that, in consequence of the Danube having been in +constant use as the line of passage of migratory hostile tribes, +it nowhere forms the boundary between two states from Orsova +upwards, and thus it traverses as a central artery Württemberg, +Bavaria, Austria and Hungary, while on the other hand various +tributaries both north and south, which formed serious obstacles +to the march of armies, have become lines of separation between +different states. Thus Hungary is separated from Austria by the +rivers March and Leitha; the river Enns, for a considerable +period the extreme western boundary of the Magyar kingdom, +still separates Upper and Lower Austria; the Inn and the +Salzach divide Austria from Bavaria, and farther west the Iller +separates Bavaria from Württemberg.</p> + +<p>The Danube after leaving Donaueschingen flows south-east +in the direction of Lake Constance, and below Immendingen a +considerable quantity of its waters escapes through +subterranean fissures to the river Ach in the Rhine +<span class="sidenote">Course.</span> +basin. At Gutmadingen it turns to the north-east, which +general direction, although with many windings, it maintains as +far as Linz. At Tuttlingen it contracts and the hills crowd close +to the banks, while ruins of castles crown almost every possible +summit. The scenery is wild and beautiful until the river passes +Sigmaringen. At Ulm, where the river leaves Württemberg +and enters Bavaria, it is joined by a large tributary, the Iller, +and from this point becomes navigable downstream for specially +constructed boats carrying 100 tons of merchandise. It is here +some 78 yds. in breadth, with an average depth of 3 ft. 6 in. +Continuing its north-easterly course it passes through Bavaria, +gradually widening its channel first at Steppberg, then at Ingolstadt, +but finally narrowing again until it reaches Regensburg +(height 949 ft.). At this point it changes its direction to the south-east, +and passing along the southern slopes of the Bavarian +Forest enters Austria at Passau (height 800 ft.). In its passage +through Bavaria it receives several important affluents on both +banks, notably on the right the Alpine rivers Lech, Isar and Inn, +the last of which at the junction near Passau exceeds in volume +the waters of the Danube.</p> + +<p>From Passau the Danube flows through Austria for a distance +of 233 m. Closed in by mountains it flows past Linz in an unbroken +stream—below, it expands and divides into many arms +until it reaches the famous whirlpool near Grein where its waters +unite and flow on in one channel for 40 m., through mountains +and narrow passes. Beyond Krems it again divides, forming +arms and islands beyond Vienna. The Danube between Linz and +Vienna is renowned not only for its picturesque beauty but for the +numerous medieval and modern buildings of historical and archaeological +interest which crown its banks. The splendid Benedictine +monastery of Melk and the ruins of Dürrenstein, the prison +of Richard Cœur de Lion, are among the most interesting.</p> + +<p>After passing Vienna and the Marchfeld, the Danube (here +316 yds. wide and 429 ft. above sea-level) passes through a defile +formed by the lower spurs of the Alps and the Carpathians and +enters Hungary at the ruined castle of Theben a little above +Pressburg, the old Magyar capital, after leaving which the river +passes through the Hungarian plains, receiving several affluents +on both sides. It divides into three channels, forming several +islands. After passing the fortress of Komárom it loses its easterly +course at Vácz (Waitzen), and flows nearly due south for 230 m. +down to its junction with the Drave (81 ft. above sea-level), +passing in its course Budapest, the capital of Hungary, and +farther on Mohács. Below Mohács the Franz Josef canal connects +the Danube with the Theiss. After its junction with the +Save the Danube follows a south-easterly direction for 200 m. +until it is joined on the right bank of the Drave at Belgrade, +above which it receives on the left bank the Theiss or Tisz., the +largest of its Hungarian affluents. From Belgrade the Danube +separates Hungary from Servia. It flows eastward until it has +passed through the stupendous Kazan defile, in which its waters +(at Semlin 1700 yds. wide and 40 ft. deep) are hemmed in by +precipitous rocks to a width of only 162 yds., with a depth of +150 ft. and a tremendous current. Emerging, above Orsova, at +a height of 42 ft. above sea-level, it opens to nearly a mile in +width and, turning south-eastwards, is again narrowed by its +last defile, the Iron Gates, where it passes over the Prigrada +rock. The course of the river through Hungary, from Pressburg +to Orsova, is some 600 m.</p> + +<p>The river now flows south, separating Servia from Rumania +down to its junction with the Timok, after which as far as +Silistria, a distance of 284 m., it separates Rumania from +Bulgaria. The north bank is mostly flat and marshy, whereas +the Bulgarian bank is almost continuously crowned by low +heights on which are built the considerable towns of Vidin +(Widdin), Lom Palanka, Rustchuk and Silistria, all memorable +names in Turko-Russian wars. From Silistria the river flows +through Rumanian territory and after passing Cernavoda, where +it is crossed by a modern railway bridge, it reaches (left bank) +the important commercial ports of Braila and Galatz. A few +miles east of Galatz the Pruth enters on the left bank, which is +thenceforward Russian territory. The Danube flows in a single +channel from Galatz for 30 m. to the Ismail Chatal (or fork), +where it breaks up into the several branches of the delta. The +Kilia branch from this point flows to the north-east past the +towns of Ismail and Kilia, and 17 m. below the latter breaks up +into another delta discharging by seven channels into the Black +Sea. The Tulcea branch flows south-east from the Ismail +Chatal, and 7 m. below the town of Tulcea separates into two +branches. The St George’s branch, holding a general, though +winding, course to the south-east, discharges by two channels +into the sea; and the Sulina branch, taking an easterly direction, +emerges into the Black Sea 20 m. south of the Ochakov mouth of +the Kilia, and 20 m. north of the Kedrilles mouth of the St George.</p> + +<p>In 1857 the proportion of discharge by the three branches of the +Danube was Sulina 7%, St George’s 30% and Kilia 63%; but +in 1905 the relative proportions had altered to Sulina 9%, St +George’s 24% and Kilia 67%. The average outflow by the +three mouths combined is 236,432 cub. ft. per second. The +delta enclosed between the Kilia and St George’s branches, about +1000 sq. m. in area, mainly consists of one large marsh covered +with reeds, and intersected by channels, relieved in places by +isolated elevations covered with oak, beech and willows, many +of them marking the ancient coast-line. On the eastern side of +the Kilia delta the coast-line is constantly advancing and the +sea becoming shallower, owing to the enormous amount of solid +deposits brought down by the river. In time of ordinary flood +the Kilia branch with its numerous mouths pours into the sea +some 3000 cub. ft. of sand and mud per minute. Its effects are +felt as far south as Sulina, and tend to necessitate the farther +extension into the sea of the guiding piers of that port.</p> + +<p>In the course of the 19th century, more especially during its +latter half, much was done to render the Danube more available +as a means of communication. In 1816 Austria and +Bavaria made arrangements for the common utilization +<span class="sidenote">Navigation.</span> +of the upper portion of the river, and since then both +governments have been liberal in expenditure on its improvement. +In 1844 the Ludwigs Canal was constructed by King Louis +of Bavaria. It is 110 m. in length and 7 ft. in depth, and connects +the Danube at Kelheim (half way between Ulm and Passau) with +the Rhine at Mainz by means of the rivers Altmühl, Regnitz and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page821" id="page821"></a>821</span> +Main. Various other projects exist, one for the connexion of the +Danube (near Vienna) with the river Oder at Oderberg, another +for a canal from the Danube to the Moldau at Budweis, 125 m. in +length, which owing to the regularization of the Moldau is the +last uncompleted link of a navigable channel 1875 m. in length +between Sulina and Hamburg at the mouths of the Danube and +the Elbe respectively. There also exist other schemes for joining +the Danube with the rivers Neckar and Theiss, and also for +connecting the Oder Canal with the Vistula and the Dniester. +Between Ulm and Vienna, a distance of 629 m., works of +rectification have been numerous and have greatly improved +the navigability of the river. The draining of the Donau-moos +between Neuburg and Ingolstadt, commenced in 1791, was +successfully completed about 1835; and in 1853 the removal of +the rocks which obstructed the river below Grein was finally +achieved; while at Vienna itself the whole mass of the Danube +was conducted nearer the town for a distance of nearly 2 m. +through an artificial channel 10 m. in length and 330 yds. in +width, with a depth of about 12 ft., and at a cost with subsidiary +works of over three millions sterling. The work, begun in 1866, +involved the removal of 12,000,000 cub. metres of sand and +gravel, and proved a great success, not only amply realizing its +principal object, the protection of Vienna from disastrous inundations, +but also improving the navigability of the river in that +portion of its course. The Hungarian government also, throughout +the latter half of the 19th century, expended vast sums at +Budapest for the improvement of navigation and the protection +of the town from inundation, and in the regularization of the +Danube down to Orsova.</p> + +<p>In prehistoric times a great part of the plains of Hungary +formed a large inland sea, which ultimately burst its bounds, +whereupon the Danube forced its way through the Carpathians +at the Kazan defile. Much of what then formed the bottom of +this sea consisted until modern times of marshes and waste lands +lying in the vicinity of its numerous rivers. The problem of +draining and utilizing these lands was not the only difficulty to +be surmounted by the Hungarian engineers; the requirements +of navigation and the necessity in winter of preventing the +formation of large ice-fields, such as caused the disastrous floods +at Budapest in 1838, had also to be considered. In carrying out +these works the Hungarian government between 1867 and 1895 +spent seven millions sterling, and a further expenditure of three +and a half millions was provided for up to 1907. At Budapest, +where the formation of ice-fields at the upper entrance of the two +side arms of the Danube—the Promontor on the north, 20 m. in +length, and the Soroksar, 35 m. long,—caused the inundation +alluded to, the latter branch has been artificially blocked and +the whole of the Danube now flows through Budapest in a single +channel. For the first section of 60 m. after entering Hungary, +the bed of the river, here surcharged with gravel, was constantly +changing its course. It has been regularized throughout, the +width of the stream varying from 320 to 400 yds. In the second +section from Gönyö to Paks, 164 m. in length, the river had a +tendency to form islands and sandbanks—its width now varies +uniformly from 455 to 487 yds. The third section of 113 m., from +Paks to the mouth of the Drave, differed from the others and made +innumerable twists and curves. No fewer than seventeen cuttings +have been made, reducing the original course of the river by 75 m. +The fourth section, 217 m. in length, from the Drave to Old +Moldova, resembles in its characteristics the second section and +has been similarly treated. Cuttings have also been made where +necessary, and the widths of the channel are 487 yds. to the mouth +of the Theiss, 650 between that point and the Save, and lower +down 760 yds. In the fifth and last section from Old Moldova +to Orsova and the Iron Gates the river is enclosed by mountains +and rocky banks, and the obstacles to navigation are rocks and +whirlpools.</p> + +<p>Article VI. of the treaty of London (1871) authorized the +powers which possess the shores of this part of the Danube to +come to an understanding with the view of removing these +impediments, and to have the right of levying a provisional tax +on vessels of every flag which may henceforth benefit thereby +until the extinction of the debt contracted for the execution of the +works. As the riverain powers could not come to an agreement on +the subject, the great powers at the congress of Berlin (1878) +entrusted to Austria-Hungary the execution of the works in +question. Austria-Hungary subsequently conferred its rights on +Hungary, by which country the works were carried out at a cost +of about one and a half millions sterling.</p> + +<p>The principal obstructions between Old Moldova and Turnu +Severin were the Stenka Rapids, the Kozla Dojke Rapids, the +Greben section and the Iron Gates. At the first named there +was a bank of rocks, some of them dry at low water, extending +almost across the river (985 yds. wide). The fall of the river bed +is small, but the length of the rapid is 1100 yds. The Kozla +Dojke, 9 m. below the Stenka Rapids, extend also for 1100 yds., +with a fall of 1 in 1000, where two banks of rocks cause a sudden +alternation in the direction of the current. The river is here +only 170 to 330 yds. in width. Six miles farther on is the Greben +section, the most difficult part of the works of improvement. A +spur of the Greben mountains runs out below two shoals where +the river suddenly narrows to 300 yds. at low water, but presently +widens to 1½ m. Seven miles lower down are the Jucz Rapids, +where the river-bed has a fall of 1 in 433. At the Iron Gates, +34 m. below the Greben, the Prigrada rocky bank nearly blocked +the river at the point where it widens out after leaving the Kazan +defile. The general object of the works was to obtain a navigable +depth of water at all seasons of 2 metres (6.56 ft.) on that portion +of the river above Orsova, and a depth of 3 metres (9.84 ft.) +below that town. To effect this at Stenka, Kozla Dojke, Islaz +and Tachtalia, channels 66 yds. wide had to be cut in the solid +rock to a depth of 6 ft. 6 in. below low water. The point of the +Greben spur had to be entirely removed for a distance of 167 yds. +back from its original face. Below the Greben point a training +wall 7 to 9 ft. high, 10 ft. at top and nearly 4 m. in length, has +been built along the Servian shore in order to confine the river +in a narrow channel. At Jucz another similar channel had to be +cut and a training wall built. At the Iron Gates a channel 80 yds. +wide, nearly 2000 yds. in length and 10 ft. deep (in the immediate +vicinity of traces of an old Roman canal) had to be cut on the +Servian side of the river through solid rock. Training walls have +been built on either side of the channel to confine the water so as +to raise its level; that on the right bank having a width of 19 ft. +6 in. at top, and serving as a tow-path; that on the left being +13 ft. in width. These training walls are built of stone with flat +revetments to protect them against ice. These formidable and +expensive works have not altogether realized the expectations +that had been formed of them. One most important result, +however, has been attained, i.e. vessels can now navigate the +Iron Gates at all seasons of the year when the river is not closed +by ice, whereas formerly at extreme low water, lasting generally +for about three months in the late summer and autumn, through +navigation was always at a standstill, and goods had to be landed +and transported considerable distances by land. The canal was +opened for traffic on the 1st of October 1898. It was designed of +sufficient width, as was supposed, for the simultaneous passage +of boats in opposite directions; but on account of the great +velocity of the current this has been found to be impracticable.</p> + +<p>From the Iron Gates down to Braila, which is the highest point +to which large sea-going ships ascend the river, there have been +no important works of improvement. From Braila to +Sulina, a distance of about 100 m., the river falls under +<span class="sidenote">European commission of the Danube.</span> +the jurisdiction of the European commission of the +Danube, an institution of such importance as to merit +lengthened notice. It was called into existence under +Art. XVI. of the treaty of Paris (1856), and in November of that +year a commission was constituted in which Austria, France, +Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, Sardinia and Turkey were each +represented by one delegate “to designate and cause to be executed +the works necessary below Isaktcha<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> to clear the mouths +of the Danube as well as the neighbouring parts of the sea, from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page822" id="page822"></a>822</span> +the sands and other impediments which obstructed them, in order +to put that part of the river and the said parts of the sea in the +best possible state for navigation.”</p> + +<p>In Art. XVIII. of the same treaty it was anticipated that the +European commission would have finished the works described +within the period of two years, when it was to be dissolved and its +powers taken over by a Riverain commission to be established +under the same treaty; but this commission has never come +into existence. Extended by short periods up to 1871, the +powers of the European commission were then prolonged under +the treaty of London for twelve years. At the congress of Berlin +in 1878 its jurisdiction was extended from Isakcea to Galatz +(26 m.), and it was decided that the commission, in which +Rumania was henceforward to be represented by a delegate, +should exercise its powers in complete independence of the +territorial authority. By the treaty of London of 1883 the +jurisdiction of the commission was extended from Galatz to +Braila and its powers were prolonged for twenty-one years (i.e. till +the 24th of April 1904), after which its existence was to continue +by tacit prolongation for successive terms of three years unless +one of the high contracting powers should propose any modification +in its constitution or attributes. It was also decided that +the European commission should no longer exercise any effective +control over that portion of the Kilia branch of which the two +banks belonged to one of the riverain powers (Russia and +Rumania), while as regards that portion of it which separated the +two countries, control was to be exercised by the Russian and +Rumanian delegates on the European commission. Russia was +also authorized to levy tolls intended to cover the expenses of +any works of improvement that might be undertaken by her. +Art. VII. of the same treaty declared that the regulations for +navigation, river police, and superintendence drawn up on the +2nd of June 1882 by the European commission, assisted by the +delegates of Servia and Bulgaria, should be made applicable to +that part of the Danube situated between the Iron Gates and +Braila. In consequence of Rumania’s opposition, the proposed +<i>Commission Mixte</i> was never formed, and these regulations have +never been put in force. As regards the extension of the powers +of the European commission to Braila, 11 m. above Galatz, and +at the head of the maritime navigation, a tacit understanding has +been arrived at, under which questions concerning navigation +proper come under the jurisdiction of the commission, while the +police of the ports remains in the hands of the Rumanian +authorities.</p> + +<p>Sir Charles Hartley, who was chief engineer of the commission +from 1856 to 1907,<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> in a paper contributed to the Institution of +Civil Engineers in 1873 (vol. xxxvi.), gave the following graphic +description of the state of the Sulina mouth when the commission +entered on its labours in 1856:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“The entrance to the Sulina branch was a wild open seaboard +strewn with wrecks, the hulls and masts of which, sticking out of +the submerged sandbanks, gave to mariners the only guide where the +deepest channel was to be found. The depth of the channel varied +from 7 to 11 ft., and was rarely more than 9 ft.</p> + +<p>“The site now occupied by wide quays extending several miles +in length was then entirely covered with water when the sea rose a +few inches above ordinary level, and that even in a perfect calm; +the banks of the river near the mouth were only indicated by +clusters of wretched hovels built on piles and by narrow patches of +sand skirted by tall weeds, the only vegetable product of the vast +swamps beyond.</p> + +<p>“For some years before the improvements, an average of 2000 +vessels of an aggregate capacity of 400,000 tons visited the Danube, +and of this number more than three-fourths loaded either the whole +or part of their cargoes from lighters in the Sulina roadstead, where, +lying off a lee shore, they were frequently exposed to the greatest +danger. Shipwrecks were of common occurrence, and occasionally +the number of disasters was appalling. One dark winter night in +1855, during a terrific gale, 24 sailing ships and 60 lighters went +ashore off the mouth and upwards of 300 persons perished.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The state of affairs in the river was not much better than at the +Sulina mouth. Of the three arms of the Danube, the Kilia, the +Sulina and the St George, the central or Sulina branch, owing to its +greater depth of water over the bar, had from time immemorial +been the principal waterway for sea-going vessels; its average +depth throughout its course, which could not always be counted +on, was 8 ft., but it contained numerous shoals where vessels had +to lighten, so that cargo had often to be shifted several times in +the voyage down the river. It also contained numerous bends +and sharp curves, sources of the greatest difficulty to navigation.</p> + +<p>The commission fixed its seat at Galatz. Provisional works +of improvement were begun almost immediately at the mouth of +the Sulina branch of the Danube, but two years were spent in +discussing the relative claims to adoption of the Kilia, the Sulina +and the St George’s mouths. Unable to agree, the delegates +referred the question to their respective governments, and a +technical commission appointed by France, England, Prussia and +Sardinia met at Paris and decided unanimously in favour of St +George’s; but recommended, instead of the embankment of the +natural channel, the formation of an artificial canal 17 ft. in +depth closed by sluices at its junction with the river, and reaching +the sea at some distance from the natural embouchure. The +choice of St George’s made by this commission was adopted at +Galatz in December 1858, and six of the seven representatives +voted for its canalization; but owing to various political and +financial considerations, it was ultimately decided to do nothing +more in the meantime than render permanent and effective +the provisional works already in progress at the Sulina mouth. +These consisted of two piers forming a seaward prolongation of +the fluvial channel, begun in 1858 and completed in 1861. The +northern pier had a length of 4631 ft., the southern of 3000, +and the depth of the water in which they were built varied from +6 to 20 ft. At the commencement of the works the depth of the +channel was only 9 ft. but by their completion it had increased +to 19 ft. The works designed and constructed by Sir Charles +Hartley had in fact proved so successful that nothing more was +ever heard of the St George’s project. In 1865 a new lighthouse +was erected at the end of the north pier. The value of these +early works of the commission is shown by the fact that of 2928 +vessels navigating the lower Danube in 1855, 36 were wrecked, +while of 2676 in 1865 only 7 were wrecked. In 1871 it was +found expedient to lengthen the piers seaward, and in 1876 the +south jetty was prolonged, so as to bring its end exactly opposite +the lighthouse on the north pier. This resulted in an increase of +the depth to 20½ ft., and for fifteen years, from 1879 to 1895, this +depth remained constant without the aid of dredging. In 1894, +owing to the constantly increasing size of vessels frequenting the +Danube, it was found necessary to deepen the entrance still +further, and to construct two parallel piers between the main +jetties, reducing the breadth of the river to 500 ft., and thereby +increasing the scour. There is now a continuous channel 24 ft. +in depth, 5200 ft. in length, and 300 ft. in width between the piers, +and 600 ft. outside the extremities of the piers, until deep water +is reached in the open sea. This depth is only maintained by +constant dredging. The engineers of the commission have been +equally successful in dealing with the Sulina branch of the river. +Its original length of 45 m. from St George’s Chatal to the sea was +impeded at the commencement of the improvement works by +eleven bends, each with a radius of less than 1000 ft., besides +numerous others of somewhat larger radius, and its bed was +encumbered by ten shifting shoals, varying from 8 to 13 ft. in +depth at low water. By means of a series of training walls, +by groynes thrown out from the banks, by revetments of the +banks, and by dredging, all done with the view of narrowing the +river, a minimum depth of 11 ft. was attained in 1865, and 13 ft. +in 1871. In 1880 the needs of commerce and the increased size +of steamers frequenting the river necessitated the construction +of a new entrance from the St George’s branch. This work, +designed in 1857, but unexecuted during a quarter of a century, +owing to insufficiency of funds, was completed in 1882; and in +1886, after other comparatively short cuttings had been made to +get rid of difficult bends and further to deepen the channel +without having to resort to dredgers, the desired minimum depth +of 15 ft. was attained. Since that date a series of new cuttings +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page823" id="page823"></a>823</span> +has been made. These have shortened the length of the Sulina +canal by 11 nautical m., eliminated all the difficult bends and +shoals, and provided an almost straight waterway 34 m. in length +from Sulina to St George’s Chatal, with a minimum depth of +20 ft. when the river is at its lowest.</p> + +<p>In the early days of the commission, i.e. from 1857 to 1860, the +money spent on the works of improvement, amounting to about +£150,000, was advanced as a loan by the then territorial power, +Turkey; but in 1860 the commission began to levy taxes on +vessels frequenting the river, and since then has repaid its debt +to the Turkish government, as well as various loans for short +periods, and a larger one of £120,000 guaranteed by the powers, +and raised in 1868, mainly through the energy of the British +commissioner, Sir John Stokes. This last loan was paid off in +1882 and the commission became free from debt in 1887. It has +now an average annual income of about £80,000 derived from +taxes paid by ships when<a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a> leaving the river. The normal annual +expenditure amounts to about £56,000, while £24,000 is generally +allotted to extraordinary works, such as new cuttings, &c. +Between 1857 and 1905 a sum of about one and three quarter +millions sterling was spent on engineering works, including the +construction of quays, lighthouses, workshops and buildings, +&c. Sulina from being a collection of mud hovels has developed +into a town with 5000 inhabitants; a well-found hospital has been +established where all merchant sailors receive gratuitous treatment; +lighthouses, quays, floating elevators and an efficient +pilot service all combine to make it a first-class port.</p> + +<p>The result of all the combined works for the rectification of the +Danube is that from Sulina up to Braila the river is navigable for +sea-going vessels up to 4000 tons register, from Braila to Turnu +Severin it is open for sea-going vessels up to 600 tons, and for flat +barges of from 1500 to 2000 tons capacity. From Turnu Severin +to Orsova navigation is confined to river steamers, tugs and +barges drawing 6 ft. of water. Thence to Vienna the draught is +limited to 5 ft., and from Vienna to Regensburg to a somewhat +lower figure. Barges of 600 tons register can be towed from the +lower Danube to Regensburg. Here petroleum tanks have been +constructed for the storage of Rumanian petroleum, the first +consignment of which in 1898, conveyed in tank boats, took six +weeks on the voyage up from Giurgevo. The principal navigation +company on the upper Danube is the Société Impériale et Royale +Autrichienne of Vienna, which started operations in 1830. This +company also owns the Fünfkirchen mines, producing annually +500,000 tons of coal. The society transports goods and +passengers between Galatz and Regensburg. A less important +society is the Rumanian State Navigation Company, possessing +a large flotilla of tugs and barges, which run to Budapest, where +they have established a combined service with the South Danube +German Company for the transport of goods from Pest to +Regensburg. A Hungarian Navigation Company, subsidized by +the state, has also been formed, and the Hungarian railways, the +Servian government and private owners own a large number of +tugs and barges.</p> + +<p>But it is the trade of the lower Danube that has principally +benefited. Freights from Galatz and Braila to North Sea ports +have fallen from 50s. to about 12s. or even 10s. per ton. Sailing +ships of 200 tons register have given way to steamers up to +4000 tons register carrying a deadweight of nearly 8000 tons; and +good order has succeeded chaos. From 1847 to 1860 an average +of 203 British ships entered the Danube averaging 193 tons each; +from 1861 to 1889, 486 ships averaging 796 tons; in 1893, 905 +vessels of 1,287,762 tons, or 68% of the total traffic, and rather +more than two and a half times the total amount of British +tonnage visiting the Danube in the fourteen years between 1847 +and 1860. The average amount of cereals (principally wheat) +annually exported from the Danube during the period 1901-1905 +was 13,000,000 quarters, i.e. about five times the average annual +exportation during the period 1861-1867. It has been calculated +that between 1861 and 1902 the total tonnage of ships frequenting +the Danube increased five-fold, while the mean size of individual +ships increased ten-fold.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Marsiglius, <i>Danubius Pannonico-Mysicus</i> (the +Hague, 1726); Schulte, <i>Donaufahrten</i> (1819-1829); Planche, +<i>Descent of the Danube</i> (1828); Széchenyi, <i>Über die Donauschiffahrt</i> +(1836); A. Müller, <i>Die Donau vom Ursprunge bis zu den Mündungen</i> +(1839-1841); J. G. Kohl, <i>Die Donau</i> (Trieste, 1853-1854); G. B. +Rennie, <i>Suggestions for the Improvement of the Danube</i> (1856); Sir +C. A. Hartley, <i>Description of the Delta of the Danube</i> (1862 and 1874); +<i>Mémoire sur le régime administratif établi aux embouchures du +Danube</i> (Galatz, 1867); Desjardins, <i>Rhône et Danube</i>, a defence of +the canalization scheme (Paris, 1870); <i>Carte du Danube entre Braïla +et la mer</i>, published by the European Commission (Leipzig, 1874); +Peters, <i>Die Donau und ihr Gebiet, eine geologische Studie</i> (1876); +A. F. Heksch, <i>Guide illustré sur le Danube</i> (Vienna, 1883); F. D. +Millet, <i>The Danube</i> (New York, 1893); Schweiger-Lerchenfeld, <i>Die +Donau als Völkerweg, Schiffahrtsstrasse, und Reiseroute</i> (Vienna, +1895); D. A. Sturza, <i>La Question des Portes de Fer et des cataractes +du Danube</i> (Berlin, 1899); A. de Saint Clair, <i>Le Danube: étude de +droit international</i> (Paris, 1899); D. A. Sturdza, <i>Recueil de documents +relatifs à la liberté de navigation du Danube</i>, pp. 933 (Berlin, +1904); A. Schroth-Ukmar, <i>Donausagen von Passau bis Wien</i> +(Vienna, 1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. Tr.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Isakcea was 66 nautical m. from the sea measured by the +Sulina arm of the Danube, 37 m. below Braila and 26 m. below +Galatz.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Sir Charles Hartley became consulting engineer in 1872, when he +was succeeded as resident engineer by Mr Charles Kühl, C.E., C.M.G. +To those two gentlemen is mainly due the conspicuous success of the +engineering works.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Ships pay no taxes to the commission on entering the river, but +on leaving it every ship of over 1500 tons register pays 1s. 5d. per +registered ton if loaded at Galatz or Braila, or 11d. per ton if loaded +at Sulina. This includes pilotage and light dues. Smaller vessels +pay less and ships of less than 300 tons are exempt.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANVERS,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> a township of Essex county, on the coast of +Massachusetts, U.S.A., about 19 m. N. by E. of Boston. Pop. +(1890) 7454; (1900) 8542, of whom 1873 were foreign-born; +(1910 census) 9407. Danvers includes an area of 14 sq. m. of +level country diversified by hills. There are several villages or +business centres, the largest of which, bearing the same name +as the township, is served by the Boston & Maine railway. In +the township are a state insane asylum, with accommodation for +1000 patients; St John’s Preparatory College (Roman Catholic), +conducted by the Xavierian Brothers; and, in Peabody Park, +the Peabody Institute, with a good public library and museum, +the gift (1867) of George Peabody. The Danvers historical +society has a valuable collection. Although chiefly a residential +town, Danvers has various manufactures, the most important of +which are leather, boots and shoes, bricks, boxes and electric +lamps. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was +$2,017,908, of which more than one half was the value of leather. +Danvers owns its water-works and its electric lighting and power +plant. A part of what is now Danvers was included in the grant +made by the court of assistants to Governor John Endecott and +the Rev. Samuel Skelton of the Salem church in 1632. Danvers +was set off from Salem as a district in 1752 and was incorporated +as a township in 1757, but the act of incorporation was disallowed +in 1759 by the privy council on the recommendation of the board +of trade, in view of George II.’s disapproval of the incorporation +of new townships at that time,—hence the significance of the +words on the seal of Danvers, “The King Unwilling”; in 1775 +the district was again incorporated. Salem Village, a part of +the present township, was the centre of the famous witchcraft +delusion in 1692. In 1885 South Danvers was set off as a separate +township, and in 1868 was named Peabody in honour of George +Peabody, who was born and is buried there. In 1857 part of +Beverly was annexed to Danvers. Among distinguished natives +of Danvers are Samuel Holton (1738-1816), a member (1778-1780 +and 1782-1787) of the Continental Congress and (1793-1795) of +the Federal Congress; Israel Putnam; Moses Porter (1755-1822), +who served through the War of Independence and the War of +1812; and Grenville Mellen Dodge (b. 1831), a prominent railway +engineer, who fought in the Union army in the Civil War, +reaching the rank of major-general of volunteers, was a Republican +member of the national House of Representatives in +1867-1869, and in 1898 president of the commission which +investigated the management of the war with Spain.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. W. Hanson, <i>History of the Town of Danvers</i> (Danvers, 1848); +Ezra D. Hines, <i>Historic Danvers</i> (Danvers, 1894) and <i>Historical +Address</i> (Boston, 1907), in celebration of the 150th anniversary of +the first incorporation; and A. P. White, “History of Danvers” in +<i>History of Essex County, Mass.</i> (Philadelphia, 1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANVILLE,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Vermilion county, +Illinois, U.S.A., in the E. part of the state, near the Big Vermilion +river, 120 m. S. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 11,491; (1900) 16,354, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page824" id="page824"></a>824</span> +of whom 1435 were foreign-born; (1910) 27,871. Danville +is served by the Chicago & Eastern Illinois (whose shops are +here), the Wabash, the Chicago, Indiana & Southern, and the +Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, and by three +interurban lines. There are three public parks (Lincoln, Douglas +and Ellsworth), a Carnegie library (1883), and a national home +for disabled volunteer soldiers (opened in 1898). Situated in the +vicinity of an extensive coalfield (the Grape Creek district), +Danville has a large trade in coal; it has also several manufacturing +establishments engaged principally in the construction and +repair of railway cars, and in the manufacture of bricks, foundry +products, glass, carriages, flour and hominy. The value of the +factory products of the city in 1905 was $3,304,120, an increase +of 72.7% since 1900. Danville was first settled about 1830 and +was first incorporated in 1839; in 1874 it was chartered as a city +under the general state law of 1872 for the incorporation of +municipalities. It annexed Vermilion Heights in 1905, South +Danville (pop. in 1900, 898) in 1906, and Germantown (pop. in +1900, 1782) and Roselawn in 1907.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANVILLE,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Boyle county, +Kentucky, U.S.A., 113 m. S. by W. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890) +3766; (1900) 4285 (1913 negroes) (1910) 5420. The city is +served by the Southern and the Cincinnati Southern railways, +the latter connecting at Junction City (4 m. S.) with the Louisville +& Nashville railway. Danville is an attractive city, +situated in the S.E. part of the fertile “Blue Grass region” +of Kentucky. In McDowell Park there is a monument to the +memory of Dr Ephraim McDowell (1771-1830), who after 1795 +lived in Danville, and is famous for having performed in +1809 the first entirely successful operation for the removal of +an ovarian tumour. Danville is the seat of several educational +institutions, the most important of which is the Central University +of Kentucky (Presbyterian), founded in 1901 by the +consolidation of Centre College (opened at Danville in 1823), +and the Central University (opened at Richmond, Ky., in 1874). +The law school also is in Danville. The classical, scientific and +literary department of the present university is still known as +Centre College; the medical and dental departments are in Louisville, +and the university maintains a preparatory school, the +Centre College academy, at Danville. In 1908 the university had +87 instructors and 696 students. Other institutions at Danville +are Caldwell College for women (1860; Presbyterian), and the +Kentucky state institution for deaf mutes (1823). The Transylvania +seminary was opened here in 1785, but four years later +was removed to Lexington (q.v.), and a Presbyterian theological +seminary was founded here in 1853, but was merged with the +Louisville theological seminary (known after 1902 as the +Presbyterian Theological Seminary of Kentucky) in 1901. The +municipality owns and operates its water-works and power plant. +From its first settlement in 1781 until the admission of Kentucky +into the Union in 1792 Danville was an important political centre. +There was an influential political club here from 1786 to 1790, +and here, too, sat the several conventions—nine in all—which +asked for a separation from Virginia, discussed the proposed +conditions of separation from that commonwealth, framed the +first state constitution, and chose Frankfort as the capital. +Danville was incorporated in 1789. It was the birthplace of +James G. Birney and of Theodore O’Hara.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANVILLE,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> a borough and the county-seat of Montour +county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the N. branch of the Susquehanna +river, about 65 m. N. by E. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1890) +7998; (1900) 8042, of whom 771 were foreign-born; (1910 +census) 7517. It is served by the Delaware, Lackawanna & +Western, and the Philadelphia & Reading railways, and by +electric railway to Bloomsburg. The borough is built on an +elevated bank of the river at the base of Montour Ridge, where +the narrow valley appears to be shut in on every side by hills; +the river is spanned by a steel bridge, built in 1905. Iron, coal +and limestone abound in the vicinity, and the borough has large +manufactories of stoves and furnaces, and of iron and steel, in one +of which in 1845 a “T”-rail, probably the first in America, was +rolled. It is the seat of a state hospital for the insane (established +in 1868). The water-works and electric light plant are owned and +operated by the municipality. A settlement was founded here +about 1776 by Captain William Montgomery and his son Daniel; +and a town was laid out in 1792 and called Dan’s Town until the +present name was adopted a few years later. Growth was slow +until the discovery of iron ore on Montour Ridge, followed in +1832 by the completion of the N. branch of the Pennsylvania +Canal, which runs through the centre of the borough. Danville +was incorporated in 1849.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANVILLE,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> a city in Pittsylvania county, Virginia, U.S.A., on +the Dan river about 140 m. (by rail) S.W. of Richmond. Pop. +(1890) 10,305; (1900) 16,520 (6515 negroes); (1910) 19,020. It +is on the main line of the Southern railway, and is the terminus +of branches to Richmond and Norfolk; it is also served by the +Danville & Western railway, a road (75 m. long) connecting with +Stuart, Va., and controlled by the Southern, though operated +independently. The city is built on high ground above the river. +It has a city hall, a general hospital, a Masonic temple, and a +number of educational institutions, including the Roanoke +College (1860; Baptist), for young women; the Randolph-Macon +Institute (1897; Methodist Episcopal, South), for girls; +and a commercial college. The river furnishes valuable water-power, +which is utilized by the city’s manufactories (value of +product in 1900, third in rank in the state, $8,103,484, of which +only $3,693,792 was “factory” product; in 1905 the “factory” +product was valued at $4,774,818), including cotton mills—in +1905 Danville ranked first among the cities of the state in the +value of cotton goods produced—a number of tobacco factories, +furniture and overall factories, and flour and knitting mills. +The city is a jobbing centre and wholesale market for a considerable +area in southern Virginia and northern North Carolina, and +is probably the largest loose-leaf tobacco market in the country, +selling about 40,000,000 ℔ annually. In the industrial suburb +of Schoolfield, which in 1908 had a population of about 3000, there +is a large textile mill. The city owns and operates its water-supply +system (with an excellent filtration plant installed in 1904) +and its gas and electric lighting plants. Danville was settled +about 1770, was first incorporated as a town in 1792, and became +a city in 1833; it is politically independent of Pittsylvania +county. To Danville, after the evacuation of Richmond on the +2nd of April 1865, the archives of the Confederacy were carried, +and here President Jefferson Davis paused for a few days in his +flight southward.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DANZIG,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Dantsic</span> (Polish <i>Gdansk</i>), a strong maritime +fortress and seaport of Germany, capital of the province of West +Prussia, on the left bank of the western arm of the Vistula, +4 m. S. of its entrance, at Neufahrwasser, into the Baltic, 253 m. +N.E. from Berlin by rail. Pop. (1885) 114,805; (1905) 159,088. +The city is traversed by two branches of the Mottlau, a small +tributary of the Vistula, dredged to a depth of 15 ft., thus enabling +large vessels to reach the wharves of the inner town. The +strong fortifications which, with ramparts, bastions and wet +ditches, formerly entirely surrounded the city, were removed on +the north and west sides in 1895-1896, the trenches filled in, and +the area thus freed laid out on a spacious plan. One portion, +acquired by the municipality, has been turned into promenades +and gardens, the Steffens Park, outside the Olivaer Tor, fifty acres +in extent, occupying the north-western corner. The remainder of +the massive defences remain, with twenty bastions, in the hands +of the military authorities; the works for laying the surrounding +country under water on the eastern side have been modernized, +and the western side defended by a cordon of forts crowning the +hills and extending down to the port of Neufahrwasser.</p> + +<p>Danzig almost alone of larger German cities still preserves its +picturesque medieval aspect. The grand old patrician houses of +the days of its Hanseatic glory, with their lofty and often elaborately +ornamented gables and their balconied windows, are the +delight of the visitor to the town. Only one ancient feature is +rapidly disappearing—owing to the exigencies of street traffic—the +stone terraces close to the entrance doors and abutting on the +street. Of its old gates the Hohe Tor, modelled after a Roman +triumphal arch, is a remarkable monumental erection of the 16th +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page825" id="page825"></a>825</span> +century. From it runs the Lange Gasse, the main street, to the +Lange Markt. On this square stands the Artus- or Junker-hof +(the merchant princes of the middle ages were in Germany styled +<i>Junker</i>, squire), containing a hall richly decorated with wood +carving and pictures, once used as a banqueting-room and now +serving as the exchange. There are twelve Protestant and seven +Roman Catholic churches and two synagogues. Of these the +most important is St Mary’s, begun in 1343 and completed in +1503, one of the largest Protestant churches in existence. It +possesses a famous painting of the Last Judgment, formerly +attributed to Jan van Eyck, but probably by Memlinc. Among +other ancient buildings of note are the beautiful Gothic town hall, +surmounted by a graceful spire, the armoury (Zeughaus) and +the Franciscan monastery, restored in 1871, and now housing +the municipal picture gallery and a collection of antiquities. +Of modern structures, the government offices, the house of the +provincial diet, the post office and the palace of the commander +of the 17th army corps, which has its headquarters in Danzig, are +the most noteworthy.</p> + +<p>The manufacture of arms and artillery is carried on to a great +extent, and the imperial and private docks and shipbuilding +establishments, notably the Schichau yard, turn out ships of the +largest size. The town is famous for its amber, beer, brandy and +liqueurs, and its transit trade makes it one of the most important +commercial cities of northern Europe. Danzig originally owed its +commercial importance to the fact that it was the shipping port +for the corn grown in Poland and the adjacent regions of Russia +and Prussia; but for some few years past this trade has been +slipping away from her. On the other hand, her trade in timber +and sugar has grown proportionally. Nevertheless energetic +efforts are being made to check any loss of importance—first, in +1898, by a determined attempt to make Danzig an industrial +centre, manufacturing on a large scale; and secondly, by the +construction and opening in 1899 of a free harbour at Neufahrwasser +at the mouth of the Vistula. The industries which it has +been the principal aim to foster and further develop are shipbuilding +(naval and marine), steel foundries and rolling mills, +sugar refineries, flour and oil mills, and distilleries.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The origin of Danzig is unknown, but it is mentioned +in 997 as an important town. At different times it was held by +Pomerania, Poland, Brandenburg and Denmark, and in 1308 +it fell into the hands of the Teutonic knights, under whose +rule it long prospered. It was one of the four chief towns of +the Hanseatic League. In 1455, when the Teutonic Order had +become thoroughly corrupt, Danzig shook off its yoke and submitted +to the king of Poland, to whom it was formally ceded, +along with the whole of West Prussia, at the peace of Thorn. +Although nominally subject to Poland, and represented in the +Polish diets and at the election of Polish kings, it enjoyed the +rights of a free city, and governed a considerable territory with +more than thirty villages. It suffered severely through various +wars of the 17th and 18th centuries, and in 1734, having declared +in favour of Stanislus Leszczynski, was besieged and taken by the +Russians and Saxons. At the first partition of Poland, in 1772, +Danzig was separated from that kingdom; and in 1793 it came +into the possession of Prussia. In 1807, during the war between +France and Prussia, it was bombarded and captured by Marshal +Lefebvre, who was rewarded with the title of duke of Danzig; +and at the peace of Tilsit Napoleon declared it a free town, under +the protection of France, Prussia and Saxony, restoring to it its +ancient territory. A French governor, however, remained in it, +and by compelling it to submit to the continental system almost +ruined its trade. It was given back to Prussia in 1814.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. C. Schultz, <i>Danzig und seine Bauwerke</i> (Berlin, 1873); +Wistulanus, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Danzig</i> (Danzig, 1891); <i>Défense de +Dantzig en 1813; documents militaires du lieutenant-général Campredon</i>, +pub. by Auriel (Paris, 1888); Daniel, <i>Deutschland</i> (Leipzig, 1895).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAPHLA<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Dafla</span>) <b>HILLS,</b> a tract of hilly country on the +border of Eastern Bengal and Assam, occupied by an independent +tribe called Daphla. It lies to the north of the Tezpur and North +Lakhimpur subdivisions, and is bounded on the west by the Aka +Hills and on the east by the Abor range. Colonel Dalton in +<i>The Ethnology of Bengal</i> considers the Daphlas to be closely allied +to the hill Miris, and they are akin to and intermarry with the +Abors. They have a reputation for cowardice, and as politically +they are disunited, they are at the mercy of the Akas, their +less numerous but more warlike neighbours on the west. Their +clothing is scanty, and its most distinguishing feature is a cane +cap with a fringe of bearskin or feathers, which gives them a very +curious appearance. The men wear their hair in a plait, which is +coiled into a ball on the forehead, to which they fasten their +caps with a long skewer. In 1872 a party of independent +Daphlas suddenly attacked a colony of their own tribesmen, who +had settled at Amtola in British territory, and carried away forty-four +captives to the hills. This led to the Daphla expedition of +1874, when a force of 1000 troops released the prisoners and +reduced the tribe to submission. According to the census of 1901 +the Daphlas in British territory numbered 954, the tribal country +not being enumerated.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAPHNAE<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (Tahpanhes, Taphne; mod. <i>Defenneh</i>), an ancient +fortress near the Syrian frontier of Egypt, on the Pelusian arm of +the Nile. Here King Psammetichus established a garrison of +foreign mercenaries, mostly Carians and Ionian Greeks (Herodotus +ii. 154). After the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar +in 588 B.C., the Jewish fugitives, of whom Jeremiah was one, came +to Tahpanhes. When Naucratis was given by Amasis II. the +monopoly of Greek traffic, the Greeks were all removed from +Daphnae, and the place never recovered its prosperity; in +Herodotus’s time the deserted remains of the docks and buildings +were visible. The site was discovered by Prof. W. M. Flinders +Petrie in 1886; the name “Castle of the Jew’s Daughter” +seems to preserve the tradition of the Jewish refugees. There is +a massive fort and enclosure; the chief discovery was a large +number of fragments of pottery, which are of great importance +for the chronology of vase-painting, since they must belong to +the time between Psammetichus and Amasis, i.e. the end of the +7th or the beginning of the 6th century B.C. They show the +characteristics of Ionian art, but their shapes and other details +testify to their local manufacture.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. M. F. Petrie, <i>Tanis II., Nebesheh, and Defenneh</i> (4th Memoir +of the Egypt Exploration Fund, 1888).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Gr.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAPHNE<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (Gr. for a laurel tree), in Greek mythology, the +daughter of the Arcadian river-god Ladon or the Thessalian +Peneus, or of the Laconian Amyclas. She was beloved by Apollo, +and when pursued by him was changed by her mother Gaea into +a laurel tree sacred to the god (Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> i. 452-567). In +the Peloponnesian legends, another suitor of Daphne, Leucippus, +son of Oenomaüs of Pisa, disguised himself as a girl and joined her +companions. His sex was discovered while bathing, and he was +slain by the nymphs (Pausanias viii. 20; Parthenius, <i>Erotica</i>, 15).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAPHNE,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> in botany, a genus of shrubs, belonging to the +natural order Thymelaeaceae, and containing about forty species, +natives of Europe and temperate Asia. <i>D. Laureola</i>, spurge +laurel, a small evergreen shrub with green flowers in the leaf axils +towards the ends of the branches and ovoid black very poisonous +berries, is found in England in copses and on hedge-banks in stiff +soils. <i>D. Mezereum</i>, mezereon, a rather larger shrub, 2 to 4 ft. +high, has deciduous leaves, and bears fragrant pink flowers in +clusters in the axils of last season’s leaves, in early spring before +the foliage. The bright red ovoid berries are cathartic, the whole +plant is acrid and poisonous, and the bark is used medicinally. +It is a native of Europe and north Asia, and found apparently wild +in copses and woods in Britain. It is a well-known garden plant, +and several other species of the genus are cultivated in the open +air and as greenhouse plants. <i>D. Cneorum</i> (Europe) is a hardy +evergreen trailing shrub, with bright pink sweet-scented flowers. +<i>D. pontica</i> (Eastern Europe) is a hardy spreading evergreen +with greenish-yellow fragrant flowers. <i>D. indica</i> (China) and +<i>D. japonica</i> (Japan) are greenhouse evergreens with respectively +red or white and pinkish-purple flowers.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAPHNEPHORIA,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> a festival held every ninth year at Thebes +in Boeotia in honour of Apollo Ismenius or Galaxius. It consisted +of a procession in which the chief figure was a boy of good family +and noble appearance, whose father and mother must be alive. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page826" id="page826"></a>826</span> +Immediately in front of this boy, who was called Daphnephoros +(laurel bearer), walked one of his nearest relatives, carrying an +olive branch hung with laurel and flowers and having on the +upper end a bronze ball from which hung several smaller balls. +Another smaller ball was placed on the middle of the branch or +pole (called <span class="grk" title="kôpô">κωπώ</span>), which was then twined round with purple +ribbons, and at the lower end with saffron ribbons. These balls +were said to indicate the sun, stars and moon, while the ribbons +referred to the days of the year, being 365 in number. The Daphnephoros, +wearing a golden crown, or a wreath of laurel, richly +dressed and partly holding the pole, was followed by a chorus of +maidens carrying suppliant branches and singing a hymn to the +god. The Daphnephoros dedicated a bronze tripod in the temple +of Apollo, and Pausanias (ix. 10. 4) mentions the tripod dedicated +there by Amphitryon when his son Heracles had been Daphnephoros. +The festival is described by Proclus (in Photius <i>cod.</i> 239).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also A. Mommsen, <i>Feste der Stadt Athen</i> (1898); C. O. Müller, +<i>Orchomenos</i> (1844); article in Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire +des antiquités</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAPHNIS,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> the legendary hero of the shepherds of Sicily, and +reputed inventor of bucolic poetry. The chief authorities for his +story are Diodorus Siculus, Aelian and Theocritus. According +to his countryman Diodorus (iv. 84), and Aelian (<i>Var. Hist.</i>, x. 18), +Daphnis was the son of Hermes (in his character of the shepherd-god) +and a Sicilian nymph, and was born or exposed and found +by shepherds in a grove of laurels (whence his name.) He was +brought up by the nymphs, or by shepherds, and became the +owner of flocks and herds, which he tended while playing on the +syrinx. When in the first bloom of youth, he won the affection +of a nymph, who made him promise to love none but her, +threatening that, if he proved unfaithful, he would lose his eyesight. +He failed to keep his promise and was smitten with blindness. +Daphnis, who endeavoured to console himself by playing +the flute and singing shepherds’ songs, soon afterwards died. He +fell from a cliff, or was changed into a rock, or was taken up to +heaven by his father Hermes, who caused a spring of water to +gush out from the spot where his son had been carried off. Ever +afterwards the Sicilians offered sacrifices at this spring as an +expiatory offering for the youth’s early death. There is little +doubt that Aelian in his account follows Stesichorus (q.v.) of +Himera, who in like manner had been blinded by the vengeance +of a woman (Helen) and probably sang of the sufferings of +Daphnis in his recantation. Nothing is said of Daphnis’s blindness +by Theocritus, who dwells on his amour with Naïs; his +victory over Menalcas in a poetical competition; his love for +Xenea brought about by the wrath of Aphrodite; his wanderings +through the woods while suffering the torments of unrequited love; +his death just at the moment when Aphrodite, moved by compassion, +endeavours (but too late) to save him; the deep sorrow, +shared by nature and all created things, for his untimely end +(Theocritus i. vii. viii.). A later form of the legend identifies +Daphnis with a Phrygian hero, and makes him the teacher of +Marsyas. The legend of Daphnis and his early death may be +compared with those of Narcissus, Linus and Adonis—all +beautiful youths cut off in their prime, typical of the luxuriant +growth of vegetation in the spring, and its sudden withering away +beneath the scorching summer sun.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. G. Welcker, <i>Kleine Schriften zur griechischen Litteraturgeschichte</i>, +i. (1844); C. F. Hermann, <i>De Daphnide Theocriti</i> (1853); +R. H. Klausen, <i>Aeneas und die Penaten</i>, i. (1840); R. Reitzenstein, +<i>Epigramm und Skolion</i> (1893); H. W. Prescott in <i>Harvard Studies</i>, x. +(1899); H. W. Stoll in Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>; and +G. Knaack in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARÁB<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (originally <span class="sc">Darábgerd</span>), a district of the province +of Fars in Persia. It has sixty-two villages, and possesses a hot +climate, snow being rarely seen there in winter. It produces a +great quantity of dates and much tobacco, which is considered +the best in Persia. The town Daráb, the capital of the district, +is situated in a very fertile plain, 140 m. S.E. of Shiraz. It has +a population of about 5000, and extensive orchards of orange +and lemon trees and immense plantations of date-palms. Legend +ascribes the foundation of the city to Darius, hence its name +Daráb-gerd (Darius-town). In the neighbourhood there are +various remains of antiquity, the most important of which +3½ m. S., is known as the Kalah i Daráb, or citadel of Darius, and +consists of a series of earthworks arranged in a circle round +an isolated rock. Nothing, however, remains to fix the date or +explain the history of the fortification. Another monument in the +vicinity is a gigantic bas-relief, carved on the vertical face of a +rock, representing the victory of the Sassanian Shapur I. (Sapor) +of Persia over the Roman emperor Valerian, A.D. 260.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARBHANGA,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the +Patna division of Bengal. The town is on the left bank of the +Little Baghmati river, and has a railway station. Pop. (1901) +66,244. The town is really a collection of villages that have +grown up round the residence of the raja. This is a magnificent +palace, with gardens, a menagerie and a good library. There +are a first-class hospital, with a Lady Dufferin hospital attached; +a handsome market-place, and an Anglo-vernacular school. +The district of Darbhanga extends from the Nepal frontier to the +Ganges. It was constituted in 1875 out of the unwieldy district +of Tirhoot. Its area is 3348 sq. m. In 1901 the population was +2,912,611, showing an increase of 4% in the decade. The district +consists entirely of an alluvial plain, in which the principal rivers +are the Ganges, Buri Gandak, Baghmati and Little Baghmati, +Balan and Little Balan, and Tiljuga. The land is especially fertile +in the more elevated part of the district S.W. of the Buri Gandak; +rice is the staple crop, and it may be noted that the cultivator +in Darbhanga is especially dependent on the winter harvest. +The chief exports are rice, indigo, linseed and other seeds, saltpetre +and tobacco. There are several indigo factories and saltpetre +refineries, and a tobacco factory. The district is traversed by the +main line of the Bengal & North-Western railway and by branch +lines, part of which were begun as a famine relief work in 1874.</p> + +<p>The maharaja bahadur of Darbhanga, a Rajput, whose ancestor +Mahesh Thakor received the Darbhanga raj (which includes large +parts of the modern districts of Darbhanga, Muzaffarpur, +Monghyr, Purnea and Bhagalpur) from the emperor Akbar early +in the 16th century, is not only the premier territorial noble of +Behar but one of the greatest noblemen of all India. Maharaja +Lachhmeswar Singh Bahadur, who succeeded to the raj in 1860 +and died in 1898, was distinguished for his public services, and +especially as one of the most munificent of living philanthropists. +Under his supervision his raj came to be regarded as the model +for good and benevolent management; he constructed hundreds +of miles of roads planted with trees, bridged all the rivers, and +constructed irrigation works on a great scale. His charities were +without limit; thus he contributed £300,000 for the relief of the +sufferers from the Bengal famine of 1873-1874, and it is computed +that during his possession of the raj he expended at least +£2,000,000 on charities, works of public utility, and charitable +remissions of rent. For many years he served as a member of the +legislative council of the viceroy with conspicuous ability and +moderation of view. As representative of the landowners of +Berar and Bengal he took an important part in the discussion +on the Bengal Tenancy Bill. He was succeeded by his brother, +Maharaja Rameshwar Singh Bahadur, who was born on the 16th +of January 1860, and on attaining his majority in 1878 was +appointed to the Indian Civil Service, serving as assistant +magistrate successively at Darbhanga, Chhapra and Bhagalpur. +In 1886 he was created a raja bahadur, exempted from attendance +at the civil courts, and appointed a member of the legislative +council of Bengal. He was created a maharaja bahadur on his +succession to the raj in 1898. Like his brother, he was educated +by an English tutor, and his administration carried on the +enlightened traditions of his predecessor.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sir Roper Lethbridge, <i>The Golden Book of India</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">D’ARBLAY, FRANCES<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (1752-1840), English novelist and +diarist, better known as <span class="sc">Fanny Burney</span>, daughter of Dr Charles +Burney (q.v.), was born at King’s Lynn, Norfolk, on the 13th of +June 1752. Her mother was Esther Sleepe, granddaughter of a +French refugee named Dubois. Fanny was the fourth child in a +family of six. Of her brothers, James (1750-1821) became an +admiral and sailed with Captain Cook on his second and third +voyages, and Charles Burney (1757-1817) was a well-known +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page827" id="page827"></a>827</span> +classical scholar. In 1760 the family removed to London, and +Dr Burney, who was now a fashionable music master, took a +house in Poland Street. Mrs Burney died in 1761, when Fanny +was only nine years old. Her sisters Esther (Hetty), afterwards +Mrs Charles Rousseau Burney, and Susanna, afterwards Mrs +Phillips, were sent to school in Paris, but Fanny was left to +educate herself. Early in 1766 she paid her first visit to Dr +Burney’s friend Samuel Crisp at Chessington Hall, near Epsom. +Dr Burney had first made Samuel Crisp’s acquaintance about +1745 at the house of Fulke Greville, grandfather of the diarists, +and the two studied music while the rest of the guests hunted. +Crisp wrote a play, <i>Virginia</i>, which was staged by David Garrick +in 1754 at the request of the beautiful countess of Coventry (née +Maria Gunning). The play had no great success, and in 1764 +Crisp established himself in retirement at Chessington Hall, +where he frequently entertained his sister, Mrs Sophia Gast, of +Burford, Oxfordshire, and Dr Burney and his family, to whom +he was familiarly known as “daddy” Crisp.<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> It was to her +“daddy” Crisp and her sister Susan that Fanny Burney addressed +large portions of her diary and many of her letters. After his +wife’s death in 1767, Dr Burney married Elizabeth Allen, widow +of a King’s Lynn wine-merchant.</p> + +<p>From her fifteenth year Fanny lived in the midst of an exceptionally +brilliant social circle, gathered round her father in Poland +Street, and later in his new home in St Martin’s Street, Leicester +Fields. Garrick was a constant visitor, and would arrive before +eight o’clock in the morning. Of the various “lyons” they +entertained she leaves a graphic account, notably of Omai, +the Otaheitan native, and of Alexis Orlov, the favourite of +Catherine II. of Russia. Dr Johnson she first met at her father’s +home in March 1777. Her father’s drawing-room, where she met +many of the chief musicians, actors and authors of the day, was +in fact Fanny’s only school. Her reading, however, was by +no means limited. Macaulay stated that in the whole of Dr +Burney’s library there was but one novel, Fielding’s <i>Amelia</i>; +but Austin Dobson points out that she was acquainted with the +abbé Prévost’s <i>Doyen de Killérine</i>, and with Marivaux’s <i>Vie de +Marianne</i>, besides <i>Clarissa Harlowe</i> and the books of Mrs +Elizabeth Griffith and Mrs Frances Brooke. Her diary also +contains the record of much more strenuous reading. Her stepmother, +a woman of some cultivation, did not encourage habits +of scribbling. Fanny, therefore, made a bonfire of her MSS., +among them a <i>History of Caroline Evelyn</i>, a story containing an +account of Evelina’s mother. Luckily her journal did not meet +with the same fate. The first entry in it was made on the 30th of +May 1768, and it extended over seventy-two years. The earlier +portions of it underwent wholesale editing in later days, and much +of it was entirely obliterated. She planned out <i>Evelina</i>, or <i>A +Young Lady’s Entrance into the World</i>, long before it was written +down. <i>Evelina</i> was published by Thomas Lowndes in the end of +January 1778, but it was not until June that Dr Burney learned +its authorship, when the book had been reviewed and praised +everywhere. Fanny proudly told Mrs Thrale the secret. Mrs +Thrale wrote to Dr Burney on the 22nd of July: “Mr Johnson +returned home full of the Prayes of the <i>Book</i> I had lent him, and +protesting that there were passages in it which might do <i>honour</i> +to Richardson: we talk of it for ever, and he feels ardent after +the denouement; he could not get <i>rid</i> of the Rogue, he said.” +Miss Burney soon visited the Thrales at Streatham, “the most +consequential day I have spent since my birth” she calls the +occasion. It was the prelude to much longer visits there. Dr +Johnson’s best compliments were made for her benefit, and +eagerly transcribed in her diary. His affectionate friendship for +“little Burney” only ceased with his death.</p> + +<p><i>Evelina</i> was a continued success. Sir Joshua Reynolds sat up all +night to read it, as did Edmund Burke, who came next to Johnson +in Miss Burney’s esteem. She was introduced to Elizabeth +Montagu and the other bluestocking ladies, to Richard Brinsley +Sheridan, and to the gay Mrs Mary Cholmondeley, the sister of +Peg Woffington, whose manners, as described in the diary, +explain much of <i>Evelina</i>. At the suggestion of Mrs Thrale, and +with offers of help from Arthur Murphy, and encouragement from +Sheridan, Fanny began to write a comedy. Crisp, realizing the +limitations of her powers, tried to dissuade her, and the piece, +<i>The Witlings</i>, was suppressed in deference to what she called a +“hissing, groaning, catcalling epistle” from her two “daddies.” +Meanwhile her intercourse with Mrs Thrale proved very exacting, +and left her little time for writing. She went with her to Bath +in 1780, and was at Streatham again in 1781. Her next book was +written partly at Chessington and after much discussion with +Mr Crisp. <i>Cecilia; or, Memoirs of an Heiress</i>, by the author of +<i>Evelina</i>, was published in 5 vols. in 1782 by Messrs Payne & +Cadell (who paid the author £250—not £2000 as stated by +Macaulay). If <i>Cecilia</i> has not quite the freshness and charm +of <i>Evelina</i>, it is more carefully constructed, and contains many +happy examples of what Johnson called Miss Burney’s gift of +“character-mongering.” Burke sent her a letter full of high +praise. But some of her friends found the writing too often +modelled on Johnson’s, and Horace Walpole thought the personages +spoke too uniformly in character.</p> + +<p>On the 24th of April 1783, Fanny Burney’s “most judicious +adviser and stimulating critic,” “daddy” Crisp, died. He was +her devoted friend, as she was to him, “the dearest thing on +earth.” The next year she was to lose two more friends. Mrs +Thrale married Piozzi, and Johnson died. Fanny had met the +celebrated Mrs Delany in 1783, and she now attached herself to +her. Mrs Delany, who was living (1785) in a house near Windsor +Castle presented to her by George III., was on the friendliest +terms with both the king and queen, and Fanny was honoured +with more than one royal interview. Queen Charlotte, soon afterwards, +offered Miss Burney the post of second keeper of the robes, +with a salary of £200 a year, which after some hesitation was +accepted. Much has been said against Dr Burney for allowing +the authoress of <i>Evelina</i> and <i>Cecilia</i> to undertake an office which +meant separation from all her friends and a wearisome round of +court ceremonial. On the other hand, it may be fairly urged that +Fanny’s literary gifts were really limited. She had written +nothing for four years, and apparently felt she had used her +best material. “What my daddy Crisp says,” she wrote as early +as 1779, “’that it would be the best policy, but for pecuniary +advantages, for me to write no more,’ is exactly what I have +always thought since <i>Evelina</i> was published” (<i>Diary</i>, i. 258). +Her misgivings as to her unfitness for court life were quite +justified. From Queen Charlotte she received unvarying kindness, +though she was not very clever with her waiting-maid’s +duties. She had to attend the queen’s toilet, to take care of her +lap-dog and her snuff-box, and to help her senior, Mrs Schwellenberg, +in entertaining the king’s equerries and visitors at tea. +The constant association with Mrs Schwellenberg, who has been +described as “a peevish old person of uncertain temper and +impaired health, swaddled in the buckram of backstairs +etiquette,” proved to be the worst part of Fanny’s duties. Her +diary is full of amusing court gossip, and sometimes deals with +graver matters, notably in the account of Warren Hastings’ +trial, and in the story of the beginning of George III.’s madness, +as seen by a member of his household. But the strain told on her +health, and after pressure both from Fanny and her numerous +friends, Dr Burney prepared with her a joint memorial asking +the queen’s leave to resign. She left the royal service in July +1791 with a retiring pension of £100 a year, granted from the +queen’s private purse, and returned to her father’s house at +Chelsea. Dr Burney had been appointed organist at Chelsea +Hospital in 1783, through Burke’s influence.</p> + +<p>In 1792 she became acquainted with a group of French exiles, +who had taken a house, Juniper Hall, near Mickleham, where +Fanny’s sister, Mrs Phillips, lived. On the 31st of July 1793 she +married one of the exiles, Alexandre D’Arblay, an artillery +officer, who had been adjutant-general to La Fayette. They +took a cottage at Bookham on the strength, it appears, of Miss +Burney’s pension. In 1793 she produced her <i>Brief Reflections +relative to the Emigrant French Clergy</i>. Her son Alexandre was +born on the 18th of December 1794. In the following spring +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page828" id="page828"></a>828</span> +Sheridan produced at Drury Lane her <i>Edwy and Elgiva</i>, a tragedy +which was not saved even by the acting of the Kembles and Mrs +Siddons. The play was never printed. Money was now a serious +object, and Madame D’Arblay was therefore persuaded to issue +her next novel, <i>Camilla: or A Picture of Youth</i> (5 vols., 1796), +by subscription. A month after publication Dr Burney told +Horace Walpole that his daughter had made £2000 by the book, +and this sum was almost certainly augmented later. It is interesting +to note that Jane Austen was among the subscribers. Unfortunately +its literary success was not as great. “How I like +<i>Camilla</i>?” wrote Horace Walpole to Miss Hannah More (August +29th, 1796), “I do not care to say how little. Alas! she has +reversed experience ... this author knew the world and +penetrated characters before she had stepped over the threshold; +and, now she has seen so much of it, she has little or no insight +at all: perhaps she apprehended having seen too much, and kept +the bags of foul air that she brought from the Cave of Tempests +too closely tied.” Nevertheless <i>Camilla</i> has found judicious +persons to admire it, notably Jane Austen in <i>Northanger Abbey</i>. +A second play, <i>Love and Fashion</i>, was actually put in rehearsal in +1799, but was withdrawn in the next year. In 1801 Madame +D’Arblay accompanied her husband to Paris, where General +D’Arblay eventually obtained a place in the civil service. In +1812 she returned to England, bringing with her her son Alexandre +to escape the conscription. In 1814 she published <i>The Wanderer; +or Female Difficulties</i>. Possibly because readers expected to find +a description of her impressions of revolutionary France, it had +a large sale, from which the author realized £7000. Nobody, +it has been said, ever read <i>The Wanderer</i>. In the end of the +year General D’Arblay came to England and took his wife +back to France. During the Hundred Days of 1815 she was +in Belgium, and the vivid account in her Diary of Brussels +during Waterloo may have been used by Thackeray in <i>Vanity +Fair</i>. General D’Arblay now received permission to settle in +England. After his death, which took place at Bath on the 3rd +of May 1818, his wife lived in Bolton Street, Piccadilly. There +she was visited in 1826 by Sir Walter Scott, who describes her +(<i>Journal</i>, November 18th, 1826) as an elderly lady with no +remains of personal beauty, but with a gentle manner and a +pleasing countenance. The later years of her life were occupied +with the editing of the <i>Memoirs of Dr Burney, arranged from his +own Manuscripts, from family papers and from personal recollections</i> +(3 vols., 1832). Her style had, as time went on, altered for +the worse, and this book is full of extraordinary affectations. +Madame D’Arblay died in London on the 6th of January 1840 +and was buried at Walcot, Bath, near her son and husband.</p> + +<p>Madame D’Arblay is still read in <i>Evelina</i>, but her best title to +the affections of modern readers is the <i>Diary and Letters</i>. The +small egotisms of the writer do not alienate other readers as they +did John Wilson Croker. Dr Johnson lives in its pages almost as +vividly as in those of Boswell, and King George and his wife in a +friendlier light than in most of their contemporary portraits. +Croker, in <i>The Quarterly Review</i>, April 1833 and June 1842, made +two attacks on Madame D’Arblay. The first is an unfriendly +but largely justifiable criticism on the <i>Memoirs of Dr Burney</i>. In +the second, a review of the first three volumes of the <i>Diary and +Letters</i>, Croker abused the writer’s innocent vanity, and declared +that, considering their bulk and pretensions, the <i>Diary and +Letters</i> were “nearly the most worthless we have ever waded +through.” These pronouncements drew forth the eloquent +defence by Lord Macaulay, first printed in <i>The Edinburgh Review</i>, +January 1843, which, in spite of some inaccuracies and considerable +exaggeration, has perhaps done more than anything else to +maintain Madame D’Arblay’s constant popularity.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The <i>Diary and Letters of Madame D’Arblay</i> was +edited by her niece, Charlotte Frances Barrett, in 7 vols. (1842-1846). +The text, covering the years 1778-1840, was edited with preface, +notes and reproductions of contemporary portraits and other +illustrations, by Mr Austin Dobson in 6 vols. (1904-1905). This +<i>Diary</i>, which begins with the publication of <i>Evelina</i>, was supplemented +in 1889 by <i>The Early Diary of Frances Burney</i> (1768-1778), +which was in the first instance suppressed as being of purely private +interest, edited by Mrs Annie Raine Ellis, with an introduction +giving many particulars of the Burney family. Mrs Ellis also edited +<i>Evelina</i> for “Bohn’s Novelist’s Library” in 1881, and <i>Cecilia</i> in 1882. +See also Austin Dobson’s <i>Fanny Burney</i> (<i>Madame D’Arblay</i>) (1903), +in the “English Men of Letters Series.”</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> His letters to Mrs Gast and another sister, Anne, were edited +with the title of <i>Burford Papers</i> (1906), by W. H. Hutton.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARBOY, GEORGES<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1813-1871), archbishop of Paris, was +born at Fayl-Billot in <span class="correction" title="amended from Haut">Haute</span> Marne on the 16th of January 1813. +He studied with distinction at the seminary at Langres, and was +ordained priest in 1836. Transferred to Paris as almoner of the +college of Henry IV., and honorary canon of Notre Dame, he +became the close friend of Archbishop Affre and of his successor +Archbishop Sibour. He was appointed bishop of Nancy in 1859, +and in January 1863 was raised to the archbishopric of Paris. +The archbishop was a strenuous upholder of episcopal independence +in the Gallican sense, and involved himself in a controversy +with Rome by his endeavours to suppress the jurisdiction of the +Jesuits and other religious orders within his diocese. Pius IX. +refused him the cardinal’s hat, and rebuked him for his liberalism +in a letter which was probably not intended for publication. At +the Vatican council he vigorously maintained the rights of the +bishops, and strongly opposed the dogma of papal infallibility, +against which he voted as inopportune. When the dogma had +been finally adopted, however, he was one of the first to set the +example of submission. Immediately after his return to Paris +the war with Prussia broke out, and his conduct during the +disastrous year that followed was marked by a devoted heroism +which has secured for him an enduring fame. He was active in +organizing relief for the wounded at the commencement of the +war, remained bravely at his post during the siege, and refused +to seek safety by flight during the brief triumph of the Commune. +On the 4th of April 1871 he was arrested by the communists as +a hostage, and confined in the prison at Mazas, from which he +was transferred to La Roquette on the advance of the army of +Versailles. On the 27th of May he was shot within the prison +along with several other distinguished hostages. He died in the +attitude of blessing and uttering words of forgiveness. His body +was recovered with difficulty, and, having been embalmed, was +buried with imposing ceremony at the public expense on the +7th of June. It is a noteworthy fact that Darboy was the +third archbishop of Paris who perished by violence in the +period between 1848 and 1871. Darboy was the author of a +number of works, of which the most important are a <i>Vie de St +Thomas Becket</i> (1859), a translation of the works of St Denis the +Areopagite, and a translation of the <i>Imitation of Christ</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. A. Foulon, <i>Histoire de la vie et des œuvres de Mgr. Darboy</i> +(Paris, 1889), and J. Guillermin, <i>Vie de Mgr. Darboy</i> (Paris, 1888), +biographies written from the clerical standpoint, which have called +forth a number of pamphlets in reply.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARCY, THOMAS DARCY,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1467-1537), English +soldier, was a son of Sir William Darcy (d. 1488), and belonged to +a family which was seated at Templehurst in Yorkshire. In early +life he served, both as a soldier and a diplomatist, in Scotland and +on the Scottish borders, where he was captain of Berwick; and +in 1505, having been created Baron Darcy, he was made warden +of the east marches towards Scotland. In 1511 Darcy led some +troops to Spain to help Ferdinand and Isabella against the +Moors, but he returned almost at once to England, and was with +Henry VIII. on his French campaign two years later. One of the +most influential noblemen in the north of England, where he held +several important offices, Darcy was also a member of the royal +council, dividing his time between state duties in London and a +more active life in the north. He showed great zeal in preparing +accusations against his former friend, Cardinal Wolsey; however, +after the cardinal’s fall his words and actions caused him +to be suspected by Henry VIII. Disliking the separation from +Rome, Darcy asserted that matrimonial cases were matters for +the decision of the spiritual power, and he was soon communicating +with Eustace Chapuys, the ambassador of the emperor +Charles V., about an invasion of England in the interests of the +Roman Catholics. Detained in London against his will by the +king, he was not allowed to return to Yorkshire until late in +1535, and about a year after his arrival in the north the rising +known as the Pilgrimage of Grace broke out. For a short time +Darcy defended Pontefract Castle against the rebels, but soon +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page829" id="page829"></a>829</span> +he surrendered to them this stronghold, which he could certainly +have held a little longer, and was with them at Doncaster, being +regarded as one of their leaders. Upon the dispersal of the insurgents +Darcy was pardoned, but he pleaded illness when +Henry requested him to proceed to London. He may have +assisted to suppress the rising which was renewed under Sir +Francis Bigod early in 1537, but the king believed, probably with +good reason, that he was guilty of fresh treasons, and he was +seized and hurried to London. During his imprisonment he +uttered his famous remark about Thomas Cromwell:—“Cromwell, +it is thou that art the very original and chief causer of all +this rebellion and mischief, ... and I trust that or thou die, +though thou wouldst procure all the noblemen’s heads within the +realm to be stricken off, yet shall there one head remain that shall +strike off thy head.” Tried by his peers, Darcy was found guilty of +treason, and was beheaded on the 20th of June 1537. In 1548 his +barony was revived in favour of his son George (d. 1557), but it +became extinct on the death of George’s descendant John in 1635.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARDANELLES<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (Turk. <i>Bahr-Sefed Boghazi</i>), the strait, in +ancient times called the Hellespont (q.v.), uniting the Sea of +Marmora with the Aegean, so called from the two castles which +protect the narrowest part and preserve the name of the city of +Dardanus in the Troad, famous for the treaty between Sulla and +Mithradates in 84 B.C. The shores of the strait are formed by the +peninsula of Gallipoli on the N.W. and by the mainland of Asia +Minor on the S.E.; it extends for a distance of about 47 m. with +an average breadth of 3 or 4 m. At the Aegean extremity stand +the castles of Sedil Bahr and Kum Kaleh respectively in Europe +and Asia; and near the Marmora extremity are situated the +important town of Gallipoli (Callipolis) on the northern side, and +the less important though equally famous Lamsaki or Lapsaki +(Lampsacus) on the southern. The two castles of the Dardanelles +<i>par excellence</i> are Chanak-Kalehsi, Sultanieh-Kalehsi, or +the Old Castle of Anatolia, and Kilid-Bahr, or the Old Castle of +Rumelia, which were long but erroneously identified with Sestos +and Abydos now located farther to the north. The strait of the +Dardanelles is famous in history for the passage of Xerxes by +means of a bridge of boats, and for the similar exploit on the part +of Alexander. It is famous also from the story of Hero and +Leander, and from Lord Byron’s successful attempt (repeated by +others) to rival the ancient swimmer. Strategically the Dardanelles +is a point of great importance, since it commands the +approach to Constantinople from the Mediterranean. The +passage of the strait is easily defended, but in 1807 the English +admiral (Sir) J. T. Duckworth made his way past all the fortresses +into the Sea of Marmora. The treaty of July 1841, confirmed by +the Paris peace of 1856, prescribed that no foreign ship of war +might enter the strait except by Turkish permission, and even +merchant vessels are only allowed to pass the castle of Chanak-Kalehsi +during the day.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Choiseul-Gouffier, <i>Voyage pittoresque</i> (Paris, 1842); Murray’s +<i>Handbook for Constantinople</i> (London, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARDANELLES<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (Turk. <i>Sultanieh Kalehsi</i>, or <i>Chanak Kalehsi</i>), +the chief town and seat of government of the lesser Turkish +province of Bigha, Asia Minor. It is situated at the mouth of the +Rhodius, and at the narrowest part of the strait of the Dardanelles, +where its span is but a mile across. Its recent growth has +been rapid, and it possesses a lyceum, a military hospital, a public +garden, a theatre, quays and water-works. Exclusive of the +garrison, the population is estimated at 13,000, of whom one-half +are Turkish, and the remainder Greek, Jewish, Armenian and +European. The town contains many mosques, Greek, Armenian +and Catholic churches, and a synagogue. There is a resident +Greek bishop. The civil governor, and the military commandants +of the numerous fortresses on each side of the strait, are +stationed here. Many important works have been added to +the defences. The Ottoman fleet is stationed at Nagara (anc. +<i>Abydos</i>). The average annual number of merchant vessels +passing the strait is 12,000 and the regular commercial vessels +calling at the port of Dardanelles are represented by numerous +foreign agencies. Besides the Turkish telegraph service, the +Eastern Telegraph Company has a station at Dardanelles, and +there are Turkish, Austrian, French and Russian post offices. +The import trade consists of manufactures, sugar, flour, coffee, +rice, leather and iron. The export trade consists of valonia +(largely produced in the province), wheat, barley, beans, chickpeas, +canary seed, liquorice root, pine and oak timber, wine and +pottery. Excepting in the items of wine and pottery, the export +trade shows steady increase. Every year sees a larger area of +land brought under cultivation by immigrants, and adds to +the number of mature (i.e. fruit-bearing) valonia trees. Vine-growers +are discouraged by heavy fiscal charges, and by the low +price of wine; many have uprooted their vineyards. The pottery +trade is affected by change of fashion, and the factories are losing +their importance. The lower quarters of the town were heavily +damaged in the winter of 1900-1901 by repeated inundations +caused by the overflow of the Rhodius.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See V. Cuinet, <i>Turquie d’Asie</i> (Paris, 1890-1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARDANUS,<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> in Greek legend, son of Zeus and Electra, the +mythical founder of Dardanus on the Hellespont and ancestor of +the Dardans of the Troad and, through Aeneas, of the Romans. +His original home was supposed to have been Arcadia, where +he married Chryse, who brought him as dowry the Palladium +or image of Pallas, presented to her by the goddess herself. +Having slain his brother Iasius or Iasion (according to others, +Iasius was struck by lightning), Dardanus fled across the sea. +He first stopped at Samothrace, and when the island was visited +by a flood, crossed over to the Troad. Being hospitably received +by Teucer, he married his daughter Batea and became the +founder of the royal house of Troy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Apollodorus iii. 12; Diod. Sic. v. 48-75; Virgil, <i>Aeneid</i>, iii. +163 ff.; articles in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopädie</i> and Roscher’s +<i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARDISTAN,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> a purely conventional name given by scientists +to a tract of country on the north-west frontier of India. There is +no modern race called Dards, and no country so named by its +inhabitants, but the inhabitants of the right bank of the Indus, +from the Kandia river to Batera, apply it to the dwellers on the +left bank. In the scientific use of the appellation, Dardistan +comprises the whole of Chitral, Yasin, Panyal, the Gilgit valley, +Hunza and Nagar, the Astor valley, the Indus valley from +Bunji to Batera, the Kohistan-Malazai, i.e. the upper reaches of +the Panjkora river, and the Kohistan of Swat. The so-called +Dard races are referred to by Pliny and Ptolemy, and are +supposed to be a people of Aryan origin who ascended the Indus +valley from the plains of the Punjab, reaching as far north as +Chitral, where they dispossessed the Khos. They have left their +traces in the different dialects, Khoswar, Burishki and Shina, +spoken in the Gilgit agency.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The question of Dardistan is debated at length in Leitner’s +<i>Dardistan</i> (1877); Drew’s <i>Jummoo and Kashmir Territories</i> (1875); +Biddulph’s <i>Tribes of the Hindu-Kush</i> (1880) and Durand’s <i>The +Making of a Frontier</i> (1899). For further details see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gilgit</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARES PHRYGIUS,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> according to Homer (<i>Iliad</i>, v. 9) a Trojan +priest of Hephaestus. He was supposed to have been the author +of an account of the destruction of Troy, and to have lived before +Homer (Aelian, <i>Var. Hist.</i> xi. 2). A work in Latin, purporting to +be a translation of this, and entitled <i>Daretis Phrygii de excidio +Trojae historia</i>, was much read in the middle ages, and was then +ascribed to Cornelius Nepos, who is made to dedicate it to Sallust; +but the language is extremely corrupt, and the work belongs to a +period much later than the time of Nepos (probably the 5th +century A.D.). It is doubtful whether the work as we have it is an +abridgment of a larger Latin work or an adaptation of a Greek +original. Together with the similar work of Dictys Cretensis +(with which it is generally printed) the <i>De excidio</i> forms the chief +source for the numerous middle age accounts of the Trojan legend. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dictys</a></span>; and O. S. von Fleschenberg, <i>Daresstudien</i>, 1908.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAR-ES-SALAAM<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (“The harbour of peace”), a seaport of +East Africa, in 6° 50′ S. 39° 20′ E., capital of German East +Africa. Pop. (1909) estimated at 24,000, including some 500 +Europeans. The entrance to the harbor, which is perfectly +sheltered (hence its name), is through a narrow opening in the +palm-covered shore. The harbour is provided with a floating +dock, completed in 1902. The town is built on the northern +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page830" id="page830"></a>830</span> +sweep of the harbour and is European in character. The streets +are wide and regularly laid out. The public buildings, which are +large and handsome, include the government and customs offices +on the quay opposite the spot where the mail boats anchor, the +governor’s house, state hospital, post office, and the Boma or +barracks. Adjoining the governor’s residence are the botanical +gardens, where many European plants are tested with a view to +acclimatization. There are various churches, and government +and mission schools. In the town are the head offices of the +Deutsch-Ostafrikanische Gesellschaft, the largest trading company +in German East Africa. The mangrove swamps at the +north-west end of the harbour have been drained and partially +built over.</p> + +<p>Until the German occupation nothing but an insignificant +village existed at Dar-es-Salaam. In 1862 Said Majid, sultan of +Zanzibar, decided to build a town on the shores of the bay, and +began the erection of a palace, which was never finished, and of +which but scanty ruins remain. In 1871 Said Majid died, and his +scheme was abandoned. In 1876 Mr (afterwards Sir) William +McKinnon began the construction of a road from Dar-es-Salaam +to Victoria Nyanza, intending to make of Dar-es-Salaam an +important seaport. This project however failed. In 1887 Dr +Carl Peters occupied the bay in the name of the German East +Africa Company. Fighting with the Arabs followed, and in 1889 +the company handed over their settlement to the German +imperial government. In 1891 the town was made the administrative +capital of the colony. It is the starting point of a railway +to Mrogoro, and is connected by overland telegraph via Ujiji +with South Africa. A submarine cable connects the town with +Zanzibar. Dar-es-Salaam was laid out by the Germans on an +ambitious scale in the expectation that it would prove an +important centre of commerce, but trade developed very slowly. +Ivory, rubber and copal are the chief exports. The trade returns +are included in those of German East Africa (q.v.).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARESTE DE LA CHAVANNE, ANTOINE ELISABETH +CLÉOPHAS<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1820-1882), French historian, was born in Paris on +the 28th of October 1820, of an old Lyons family. Educated at +the École des Chartes, he became professor in the faculty of +letters at Grenoble in 1844, and in 1849 at Lyons, where he +remained nearly thirty years. He died on the 6th of August +1882. His works comprise: <i>Histoire de l’administration en +France depuis Philippe-Auguste</i> (2 vols., 1848); <i>Histoire des +classes agricoles en France depuis saint Louis jusqu’à Louis XVI</i> +(2 vols., 1853 and 1858), now quite obsolete; and a <i>Histoire de +France</i> (8 vols., 1865-1873), completed by a <i>Histoire de la +Restauration</i> (2 vols., 1880), a good summary of the work of +Veil-Castel, and by a <i>Histoire du Gouvernement de Juillet</i>, a +dry enumeration of dates and facts. Before the publication of +Lavisse’s great work, Dareste’s general history of France was +the best of its kind; it surpassed in accuracy the work of Henri +Martin, especially in the ancient periods, just as Martin’s in its +turn was an improvement upon that of Sismondi.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARESTE DE LA CHAVANNE, RODOLPHE MADELEINE +CLÉOPHAS<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1824-  ), French jurist, was born in Paris on the +25th of December 1824. He studied at the École des Chartes +and the École de Droit, and starting early on a legal career he +rose to be counsellor to the court of cassation (1877 to 1900). +His first publication was an <i>Essai sur François Hotman</i> (1850), +completed later by his publication of Hotman’s correspondence +in the <i>Revue historique</i> (1876), and he devoted the whole of his +leisure to legal history. Of his writings may be mentioned <i>Les +Anciennes Lois de l’Islande</i> (1881); <i>Mémoire sur les anciens +monuments du droit de la Hongrie</i> (1885), and <i>Études d’histoire du +droit</i> (1889). On Greek law he wrote some notable works: <i>Du +prêt à la grosse chez les Athéniens</i> (1867); <i>Les Inscriptions hypothécaires +en Grèce</i> (1885), <i>La Science du droit en Grèce: Platon, +Aristote, Thêophraste</i> (1893), and <i>Étude sur la loi de Gortyne</i> (1885). +He collaborated with Théodore Reinach and B. Haussoullier +in their <i>Recueil des inscriptions juridiques grecques</i> (1905), and +his name is worthily associated with the edition of Philippe de +Beaumanoir’s <i>Coutumes de Beauvaisis</i>, published by Salmon +(2 vols., 1899, 1900).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARFUR,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> a country of east central Africa, the westernmost +state of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It extends from about +10° N. to 16° N. and from 21° E. to 27° 30′ E., has an area of some +150,000 sq. m., and an estimated population of 750,000. It is +bounded N. by the Libyan desert, W. by Wadai (French Congo), +S. by the Bahr-el-Ghazal and E. by Kordofan. The two last-named +districts are <i>mudirias</i> (provinces) of the Anglo-Egyptian +Sudan. The greater part of the country is a plateau from 2000 +to 3000 ft. above sea-level. A range of mountains of volcanic +origin, the Jebel Marra, runs N. and S. about the line of the 24° E. +for a distance of over 100 m., its highest points attaining from +5000 to 6000 ft. East to west this chain extends about 80 m. +Eastward the mountains fall gradually into sandy, bush-covered +steppes. North-east of Jebel Marra lies the Jebel Medob +(3500 ft. high), a range much distorted by volcanic action, and +Bir-el-Melh, an extinct volcano with a crater 150 ft. deep. South +of Jebel Marra are the plains of Dar Dima and Dar Uma; S.W. +of the Marra the plain is 4000 ft. above the sea. The watershed +separating the basins of the Nile and Lake Chad runs north and +south through the centre of the country. The mountains are +scored by numerous <i>khors</i>, whose lower courses can be traced +across the tableland. The khors formerly contained large rivers +which flowed N.E. and E. to the Nile, W. and S.W. to Lake +Chad, S. and S.E. to the Bahr-el-Ghazal. The streams going +N.E. drain to the Wadi Melh, a dry river-bed which joins the +Nile near Debba, but on reaching the plain the waters sink into +the sandy soil and disappear. The torrents flowing directly east +towards the Nile also disappear in the sandy deserts. The khors +in the W., S.W. and S.,—the most fertile part of Darfur—contain +turbulent torrents in the rainy season, when much of the southern +district is flooded. Not one of the streams is perennial, but in +times of heavy rainfall the waters of some khors reach the Bahr-el-Homr +tributary of the Bahr-el-Ghazal. (For some 200 m. the +Bahr-el-Homr marks the southern frontier of the country.) In +the W. and S. water can always be obtained in the dry season by +digging 5 or 6 ft. below the surface of the khors.</p> + +<p>The climate, except in the south, where the rains are heavy +and the soil is a damp clay, is healthy except after the rains. +The rainy season lasts for three months, from the middle of June +to the middle of September. In the neighbourhood of the khors +the vegetation is fairly rich. The chief trees are the acacias +whence gum is obtained, and baobab (<i>Adansonia digitata</i>); +while the sycamore and, in the Marra mountains, the <i>Euphorbia +candelabrum</i> are also found. In the S.W. are densely forested +regions. Cotton and tobacco are indigenous. The most fertile +land is found on the slopes of the mountains, where wheat, +durra, <i>dukhn</i> (a kind of millet and the staple food of the people) +and other grains are grown. Other products are sesame, cotton, +cucumbers, water-melons and onions.</p> + +<p>Copper is obtained from Hofrat-el-Nahas in the S.E., iron is +wrought in the S.W.; and there are deposits of rock-salt in +various places. The copper mines (in 9° 48′ N. 24° 5′ E.) are +across the Darfur frontier in the Bahr-el-Ghazal province. The +vein runs N.W. and S.E. and in places rises in ridges 2 ft. above +the general level of ground. There is an immense quantity of ore, +(silicate and carbonate) specimens containing 14% of metal. +Camels and cattle are both numerous and of excellent breeds. +Some of the Arab tribes, such as the Baggara, breed only cattle, +those in the north and east confine themselves to rearing camels. +Horses are comparatively rare; they are a small but sturdy +breed. Sheep and goats are numerous. The ostrich, common in +the eastern steppes, is bred by various Arab tribes, its feathers +forming a valuable article of trade.</p> + +<p><i>Inhabitants.</i>—The population of Darfur consists of negroes +and Arabs. The negro <i>For</i>, forming quite half the inhabitants, +occupy the central highlands and part of the Dar Dima and Dar +Uma districts; they speak a special language, and are subdivided +into numerous tribes, of which the most influential are +the Masabat, the Kunjara and the Kera. They are of middle +height, and have rather irregular features. The <i>For</i> are described +as clean and industrious, somewhat fanatical, but generally +amenable to civilization, and freedom-loving. The <i>Massalit</i> are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page831" id="page831"></a>831</span> +a negro tribe which, breaking off from the For some centuries +back, have now much Arab blood, and speak Arabic; while +the <i>Tunjur</i> are an Arab tribe which must have arrived in the +Sudan at a very early date, as they have incorporated a large +For element, and no longer profess Mahommedanism. The <i>Dago</i> +(<i>Tago</i>) formerly inhabited Jebel Marra, but they have been +driven to the south and west, where they maintain a certain +independence in Dar Sula, but are treated as inferiors by the +For. The Zaghawa, who inhabit the northern borders, are on the +contrary regarded by the For as their equals, and have all the +prestige of a race that at one time made its influence felt as far as +Bornu. Among other tribes may be mentioned the Berti +and Takruri, the Birgirid, the Beraunas, and immigrants from +Wadai and Bagirmi, and Fula from west of Lake Chad. Genuine +Arab tribes, e.g. the Baggara and Homr, are numerous, and they +are partly nomadic and partly settled. The Arabs have not, +generally speaking, mixed with the negro tribes. They are great +hunters, making expeditions into the desert for five or six days +at a time in search of ostriches.</p> + +<p>Slaves, ostrich feathers, gum and ivory used to be the chief +articles of trade, a caravan going annually by the Arbain +(“Forty Days”) road to Assiut in Egypt and taking back +cloth, fire-arms and other articles. The slave trade has ceased, +but feathers, gum and ivory still constitute the chief exports of +the country. The principal imports are cotton goods, sugar and +tea. There is also an active trade in camels and cattle.</p> + +<p>The internal administration of the country is in the hands of the +sultan, who is officially recognized as the agent of the Sudan +government. The administrative system resembles that of other +Mahommedan countries.</p> + +<p><i>Towns.</i>—The capital is El-Fasher, pop. about 10,000, on the +western bank of the Wadi Tendelty in an angle formed by the +junction of that wadi with the Wadi-el-Kho, one of the streams +which flow towards the Bahr-el-Homr. Fasher is the residence +of the sultan. There are a few fine buildings, but the town +consists mainly of tukls and box-shaped straw sheds. It is 500 m. +W.S.W. of Khartum. Dara, a small market town, is 110 m. S. +of El-Fasher. Shakka is in the S.E. of the country near the +Bahr-el-Homr, +and was formerly the headquarters of the slave dealers.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The Dago or Tago negroes, inhabitants of Jebel +Marra, appear to have been the dominant race in Darfur in the +earliest period to which the history of the country goes back. +How long they ruled is uncertain, little being known of them +save a list of kings. According to tradition the Tago dynasty +was displaced, and Mahommedanism introduced, about the 14th +century, by Tunjur Arabs, who reached Darfur by way of Bornu +and Wadai. The first Tunjur king was Ahmed-el-Makur, who +married the daughter of the last Tago monarch. Ahmed reduced +many unruly chiefs to submission, and under him the country +prospered. His great-grandson, the sultan Dali, a celebrated +figure in Darfur histories, was on his mother’s side a For, and thus +was effected a union between the negro and Arab races. Dali +divided the country into provinces, and established a penal code, +which, under the title of <i>Kitab Dali</i> or Dali’s Book, is still +preserved, and shows principles essentially different from those +of the Koran. His grandson Soleiman (usually distinguished by +the Forian epithet <i>Solon</i>, the Arab or the Red) reigned from 1596 +to 1637, and was a great warrior and a devoted Mahommedan. +Soleiman’s grandson, Ahmed Bahr (1682-1722), made Islam the +religion of the state, and increased the prosperity of the country +by encouraging immigration from Bornu and Bagirmi. His rule +extended east of the Nile as far as the banks of the Atbara. +Under succeeding monarchs the country, involved in wars with +Sennar and Wadai, declined in importance. Towards the end of +the 18th century a sultan named Mahommed Terab led an army +against the Funj, but got no further than Omdurman. Here he +was stopped by the Nile, and found no means of getting his army +across the river. Unwilling to give up his project, Terab remained +at Omdurman for months. He was poisoned by his wife at the +instigation of disaffected chiefs, and the army returned to +Darfur. The next monarch was Abd-er-Rahman, surnamed +el-Raschid or the Just. It was during his reign that Napoleon +Bonaparte was campaigning in Egypt; and in 1799 Abd-er-Rahman +wrote to congratulate the French general on his defeat +of the Mamelukes. To this Bonaparte replied by asking the +sultan to send him by the next caravan 2000 black slaves upwards +of sixteen years old, strong and vigorous. To Abd-er-Rahman +likewise is due the present situation of the <i>Fasher</i>, or royal township. +The capital had formerly been at a place called Kobbé. +Mahommed-el-Fadhl, his son, was for some time under the +control of an energetic eunuch, Mahommed Kurra, but he ultimately +made himself independent, and his reign lasted till 1839, +when he died of leprosy. He devoted himself largely to the +subjection of the semi-independent Arab tribes who lived in the +country, notably the Rizighat, thousands of whom he slew. In +1821 he lost the province of Kordofan, which in that year was +conquered by the Egyptians. Of his forty sons, the third, +Mahommed Hassin, was appointed his successor. Hassin is +described as a religious but avaricious man. In the later part of +his reign he became involved in trouble with the Arab slave +raiders who had seized the Bahr-el-Ghazal, looked upon by the +Darfurians as their especial “slave preserve.” The negroes of +Bahr-el-Ghazal paid tribute of ivory and slaves to Darfur, and +these were the chief articles of merchandise sold by the Darfurians +to the Egyptian traders along the Arbain road to Assiut. The +loss of the Bahr-el-Ghazal caused therefore much annoyance to +the people of Darfur. Hassin died in 1873, blind and advanced in +years, and the succession passed to his youngest son Ibrahim, +who soon found himself engaged in a conflict with Zobeir (q.v.), +the chief of the Bahr-el-Ghazal slave traders, and with an +Egyptian force from Khartum. The war resulted in the destruction +of the kingdom. Ibrahim was slain in battle in the autumn +of 1874, and his uncle Hassab Alla, who sought to maintain the +independence of his country, was captured in 1875 by the troops +of the khedive, and removed to Cairo with his family. The +Darfurians were restive under Egyptian rule. Various revolts +were suppressed, but in 1879 General Gordon (then governor-general +of the Sudan) suggested the reinstatement of the ancient +royal family. This was not done, and in 1881 Slatin Bey (Sir +Rudolf von Slatin) was made governor of the province. Slatin +defended the province against the forces of the Mahdi, who were +led by a Rizighat sheik named Madibbo, but was obliged to +surrender (December 1883), and Darfur was incorporated in the +Mahdi’s dominions. The Darfurians found Dervish rule as irksome +as that of the Egyptians had been, and a state of almost +constant warfare ended in the gradual retirement of the +Dervishes from Darfur. Following the overthrow of the khalifa +at Omdurman in 1898 the new (Anglo-Egyptian) Sudan government +recognized (1899) Ali Dinar, a grandson of Mahommed-el-Fadhl, +as sultan of Darfur, on the payment by that chief of +an annual tribute of £500. Under Ali Dinar, who during the +<i>Mahdia</i> had been kept a prisoner in Omdurman, Darfur enjoyed +a period of peace.</p> + +<p>The first European traveller known to have visited Darfur was +William George Browne (q.v.), who spent two years (1793-1795) +at Kobbé. Sheik Mahommed-el-Tounsi travelled in 1803 through +various regions of Africa, including Darfur, in search of Omar, +his father, and afterwards gave to the world an account of +his wanderings, which was translated into French in 1845 by +M. Perron. Gustav Nachtigal in 1873 spent some months in +Darfur, and since that time the country has become well +known through the journeys of Gordon, Slatin and others.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Browne’s account of Darfur will be found in his +<i>Travels in Africa, Egypt and Syria</i> (London, 1799); Nachtigal’s +<i>Sahara und Sudan</i> gives the results of that traveller’s observations. +The first ten chapters of Slatin Pasha’s book <i>Fire and Sword in the +Sudan</i> (English edition, London, 1896) contain much information +concerning the country, its history, and a full account of the +overthrow of Egyptian authority by the Mahdi. See also <i>The +Anglo-Egyptian Sudan</i> (London, 1905), edited by Count Gleichen, +and the bibliography given under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sudan</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARGAI,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> the name of a mountain peak and a frontier station +in the north-west Frontier Province of India. The mountain peak +is situated on the Samana Range, and the Kohat border, and is +famous for the stand made there by the Afridis and Orakzais in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page832" id="page832"></a>832</span> +the Tirah Campaign. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tirah Campaign</a></span>.) Dargai station is +situated on the Peshawar border, and is the terminus of the +frontier railway running from Nowshera to the Malakand Pass.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARGOMIJSKY, ALEXANDER SERGEIVICH<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1813-1869), +Russian composer, was born in 1813, and educated in St Petersburg. +He was already known as a talented musical amateur +when in 1833 he met Glinka and was encouraged to devote himself +to composition. His light opera <i>Esmeralda</i> was written in +1839, and his <i>Roussalka</i> was performed in 1856, but he had but +small success or recognition either at home or abroad, except +in Belgium, till the ’sixties, when he became one of Balakirev’s +circle. His opera <i>The Stone Guest</i> then became famous among +the progressive Russian school, though it was not performed till +1872. Dargomijsky died in January 1869. His compositions +include a number of songs, and some orchestral pieces.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARIAL,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> a gorge in the Caucasus, at the east foot of Mt. +Kasbek, pierced by the river Terek for a distance of 8 m. between +vertical walls of rock (5900 ft.). It is mentioned in the Georgian +annals under the names of Ralani, Dargani, Darialani; the +Persians and Arabs knew it as the Gate of the Alans; Strabo +calls it <i>Porta Caucasica</i> and <i>Porta Cumana</i>; Ptolemy, <i>Porta +Sarmatica</i>; it was sometimes known as <i>Portae Caspiae</i> (a name +bestowed also on the “gate” or pass beside the Caspian at +Derbent); and the Tatars call it <i>Darioly</i>. Being the only available +passage across the Caucasus, it has been fortified since a +remote period—at least since 150 B.C. In Russian poetry it has +been immortalized by Lermontov. The present Russian fort, +Darial, which guards this section of the Georgian military road, +is at the northern issue of the gorge, at an altitude of 4746 ft.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARIEN,<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> a district covering the eastern part of the isthmus +joining Central and South America. It is mainly within the +republic of Panama, and gives its name to a gulf of the Carribbean +Sea. Darien is of great interest in the history of geographical +discovery. It was reconnoitred in the first year of the 16th +century by Rodrigo Bastidas of Seville; and the first settlement +was Santa Maria la Antigua, situated on the small Darien river, +north-west of the mouth of the Atrato. In 1513 Vasco Nuñez +de Balboa stood “silent upon a peak in Darien,”<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and saw the +Pacific at his feet stretching inland in the Gulf of San Miguel; +and for long this narrow neck of land seemed alternately to proffer +and refuse a means of transit between the two oceans. The first +serious attempt to turn the isthmus to permanent account as a +trade route dates from the beginning of the 18th century, and +forms an interesting chapter in Scottish history. In 1695 an act +was passed by the Scottish parliament giving extensive powers +to a company trading to Africa and the Indies; and this +company, under the advice of one of the most remarkable +economists of the period, William Paterson (q.v.), determined to +establish a colony on the isthmus of Darien as a general emporium +for the commerce of all the nations of the world. Regarded with +disfavour both in England and Holland, the project was taken +up in Scotland with the enthusiasm of national rivalry towards +England, and the “subscriptions sucked up all the money in the +country.” On the 26th of July 1698 the pioneers set sail from +Leith amid the cheers of an almost envious multitude; and on +the 4th of November, with the loss of only fifteen out of 1200 men, +they arrived at Darien, and took up their quarters in a well-defended +spot, with a good harbour and excellent outlook. The +country they named New Caledonia, and two sites selected for +future cities were designated respectively New Edinburgh and +New St Andrews. At first all seemed to go well; but by and by +lack of provisions, sickness and anarchy reduced the settlers to +the most miserable plight; and in June 1699 they re-embarked +in three vessels, a weak and hopeless company, to sail whithersoever +Providence might direct. Meanwhile a supplementary +expedition had been prepared in Scotland; two vessels were +despatched in May, and four others followed in August. But +this venture proved even more unfortunate than the former. +The colonists arrived broken in health; their spirits were crushed +by the fate of their predecessors, and embittered by the harsh +fanaticism of the four ministers whom the general assembly of +the Church of Scotland had sent out to establish a regular +presbyterial organization. The last addition to the settlement +was the company of Captain Alexander Campbell of Fonab, who +arrived only to learn that a Spanish force of 1500 or 1600 men lay +encamped at Tubacanti, on the river Santa Maria, waiting for the +appearance of a Spanish squadron in order to make a combined +attack on the fort. Captain Campbell, on the second day after +his arrival, marched with 200 men across the isthmus to Tubacanti, +stormed the camp in the night-time, and dispersed the Spanish +force. On his return to the fort on the fifth day he found it +besieged by the Spaniards from the men-of-war; and, after a +vain attempt to maintain its defence, he succeeded with a few +companions in making his escape in a small vessel. A capitulation +followed, and the Darien colony was no more. Of those who +had taken part in the enterprise only a miserable handful ever +reached their native land.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. H. Burton, <i>The Darien Papers</i> (Bannatyne Club, 1849); +Macaulay, <i>History of England</i> (London, 1866); and A. Lang, <i>History +of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. (Edinburgh, 1907).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Keats, in his famous sonnet beginning:—“Much have I travelled +in the realms of gold,” of which this is the concluding line, inaccurately +substitutes Cortez for Balboa.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARIUS<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (Pers. <i>Dārayavaush</i>; Old Test. <i>Daryavesh</i>), the +name of three Persian kings.</p> + +<p>1. <span class="sc">Darius the Great</span>, the son of Hystaspes (q.v.). The +principal source for his history is his own inscriptions, especially +the great inscription of Behistun (q.v.), in which he relates how he +gained the crown and put down the rebellions. In modern times +his veracity has often been doubted, but without any sufficient +reason; the whole tenor of his words shows that we can rely upon +his account. The accounts given by Herodotus and Ctesias of +his accession are in many points evidently dependent on this +official version, with many legendary stories interwoven, e.g. +that Darius and his allies left the question as to which of them +should become king to the decision of their horses, and that +Darius won the crown by a trick of his groom.</p> + +<p>Darius belonged to a younger branch of the royal family of +the Achaemenidae. When, after the suicide of Cambyses (March +521), the usurper Gaumata ruled undisturbed over the whole +empire under the name of Bardiya (Smerdis), son of Cyrus, and +no one dared to gainsay him, Darius, “with the help of Ahura-mazda,” +attempted to regain the kingdom for the royal race. +His father Hystaspes was still alive, but evidently had not the +courage to urge his claims. Assisted by six noble Persians, whose +names he proclaims at the end of the Behistun inscription, he +surprised and killed the usurper in a Median fortress (October +521; for the chronology of these times cf. E. Meyer, <i>Forschungen +zur alten Geschichte</i>, ii. 472 ff.), and gained the crown. But this +sudden change was the signal for an attempt on the part of all +the eastern provinces to regain their independence. In Susiana, +Babylon, Media, Sagartia, Margiana, usurpers arose, pretending +to be of the old royal race, and gathered large armies around them; +in Persia itself Vahyazdāta imitated the example of Gaumata and +was acknowledged by the majority of the people as the true +Bardiya. Darius with only a small army of Persians and Medes +and some trustworthy generals overcame all difficulties, and in +520 and 519 all the rebellions were put down (Babylon rebelled +twice, Susiana even three times), and the authority of Darius +was established throughout the empire.</p> + +<p>Darius in his inscriptions appears as a fervent believer in the +true religion of Zoroaster. But he was also a great statesman and +organizer. The time of conquests had come to an end; the wars +which Darius undertook, like those of Augustus, only served the +purpose of gaining strong natural frontiers for the empire and +keeping down the barbarous tribes on its borders. Thus Darius +subjugated the wild nations of the Pontic and Armenian +mountains, and extended the Persian dominion to the Caucasus; +for the same reasons he fought against the Sacae and other +Turanian tribes. But by the organization which he gave to the +empire he became the true successor of the great Cyrus. His +organization of the provinces and the fixing of the tributes is +described by Herodotus iii. 90 ff., evidently from good official +sources. He fixed the coinage and introduced the gold coinage +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page833" id="page833"></a>833</span> +of the Daric (which is not named after him, as the Greeks believed, +but derived from a Persian word meaning “gold”; in Middle +Persian it is called <i>zarīg</i>). He tried to develop the commerce of +the empire, and sent an expedition down the Kabul and the Indus, +led by the Carian captain Scylax of Caryanda, who explored the +Indian Ocean from the mouth of the Indus to Suez. He dug a +canal from the Nile to Suez, and, as the fragments of a hieroglyphic +inscription found there show, his ships sailed from the +Nile through the Red Sea by Saba to Persia. He had connexions +with Carthage (i.e. the <i>Karkā</i> of the Nakshi Rustam inscr.), +and explored the shores of Sicily and Italy. At the same time +he attempted to gain the good-will of the subject nations, and for +this purpose promoted the aims of their priests. He allowed the +Jews to build the Temple of Jerusalem. In Egypt his name +appears on the temples which he built in Memphis, Edfu and the +Great Oasis. He called the high-priest of Saïs, Uzahor, to Susa +(as we learn from his inscription in the Vatican), and gave him +full powers to reorganize the “house of life,” the great medical +school of the temple of Saïs. In the Egyptian traditions he is +considered as one of the great benefactors and lawgivers of the +country (Herod. ii. 110, Diod. i. 95). In similar relations he stood +to the Greek sanctuaries (cf. his rescript to “his slave” Godatas, +the inspector of a royal park near Magnesia, on the Maeander, +in which he grants freedom of taxes and forced labour to the +sacred territory of Apollo. See Cousin and Deschamps, <i>Bulletin +de corresp. hellén.</i>, xiii. (1889), 529, and Dittenberger, <i>Sylloge +inscr. graec.</i>, 2); all the Greek oracles in Asia Minor and Europe +therefore stood on the side of Persia in the Persian wars and +admonished the Greeks to attempt no resistance.</p> + +<p>About 512 Darius undertook a war against the Scythians. A +great army crossed the Bosporus, subjugated eastern Thrace, and +crossed the Danube. The purpose of this war can only have been +to attack the nomadic Turanian tribes in the rear and thus to +secure peace on the northern frontier of the empire. It was based +upon a wrong geographical conception; even Alexander and his +Macedonians believed that on the Hindu Kush (which they called +Caucasus) and on the shores of the Jaxartes (which they called +Tanais, i.e. Don) they were quite near to the Black Sea. Of +course the expedition undertaken on these grounds could not but +prove a failure; having advanced for some weeks into the Russian +steppes, Darius was forced to return. The details given by Herodotus +(according to him Darius had reached the Volga!) are quite +fantastical; and the account which Darius himself had given on a +tablet, which was added to his great inscription in Behistun, is +destroyed with the exception of a few words. (See R. W. Macan, +<i>Herodotus</i>, vol. ii. appendix 3; G. B. Grundy, <i>Great Persian +War</i>, pp. 48-64; J. B. Bury in <i>Classical Review</i>, July 1897.)</p> + +<p>Although European Greece was intimately connected with the +coasts of Asia Minor, and the opposing parties in the Greek +towns were continually soliciting his intervention, Darius did not +meddle with their affairs. The Persian wars were begun by the +Greeks themselves. The support which Athens and Eretria gave +to the rebellious Ionians and Carians made their punishment +inevitable as soon as the rebellion had been put down. But the +first expedition, that of Mardonius, failed on the cliffs of Mt. +Athos (492), and the army which was led into Attica by Datis in +490 was beaten at Marathon. Before Darius had finished his +preparations for a third expedition an insurrection broke out in +Egypt (486). In the next year Darius died, probably in October +485, after a reign of thirty-six years. He is one of the greatest +rulers the east has produced.</p> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Darius II.</span>, <span class="sc">Ochus.</span> Artaxerxes I., who died in the beginning +of 424, was followed by his son Xerxes II. But after a +month and a half he was murdered by his brother Secydianus, or +Sogdianus (the form of the name is uncertain). Against him rose +a bastard brother, Ochus, satrap of Hyrcania, and after a short +fight killed him, and suppressed by treachery the attempt of his +own brother Arsites to imitate his example (Ctesias <i>ap.</i> Phot. 44; +Diod. xii. 71, 108; Pausan. vi. 5, 7). Ochus adopted the name +Darius (in the chronicles called <i>Nothos</i>, the bastard). Neither +Xerxes II. nor Secydianus occurs in the dates of the numerous +Babylonian tablets from Nippur; here the dates of Darius II. +follow immediately on those of Artaxerxes I. Of Darius II.’s +reign we know very little (a rebellion of the Medes in 409 is +mentioned in Xenophon, <i>Hellen.</i> i. 2. 19), except that he was quite +dependent on his wife Parysatis. In the excerpts from Ctesias +some harem intrigues are recorded, in which he played a disreputable +part. As long as the power of Athens remained intact +he did not meddle in Greek affairs; even the support which the +Athenians in 413 gave to the rebel Amorges in Caria would not +have roused him (Andoc. iii. 29; Thuc. viii. 28, 54; Ctesias +wrongly names his father Pissuthnes in his stead; an account +of these wars is contained in the great Lycian stele from Xanthus +in the British Museum), had not the Athenian power broken down +in the same year before Syracuse. He gave orders to his satraps +in Asia Minor, Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus, to send in the +overdue tribute of the Greek towns, and to begin war with +Athens; for this purpose they entered into an alliance with +Sparta. In 408 he sent his son Cyrus to Asia Minor, to carry on +the war with greater energy. In 404 he died after a reign of +nineteen years, and was followed by Artaxerxes II.</p> + +<p>3. <span class="sc">Darius III.</span>, <span class="sc">Codomannus</span>. The eunuch Bagoas (q.v.), +having murdered Artaxerxes III. in 338 and his son Arses in 336, +raised to the throne a distant relative of the royal house, whose +name, according to Justin x. 3, was Codomannus, and who had +excelled in a war against the Cadusians (cf. Diod. xvii. 5 ff., where +his father is called Arsames, son of Ostanes, a brother of +Artaxerxes). The new king, who adopted the name of Darius, +took warning by the fate of his predecessors, and saved himself +from it by forcing Bagoas to drink the cup himself. Already +in 336 Philip II. of Macedon had sent an army into Asia Minor, +and in the spring of 334 the campaign of Alexander began. In +the following year Darius himself took the field against the +Macedonian king, but was beaten at Issus and in 331 at Arbela. +In his flight to the east he was deposed and killed by Bessus +(July 330).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The name Darius was also borne by many later dynasts of +Persian origin, among them kings of Persis (q.v.), Darius of Media +Atropatene who was defeated by Pompeius, and Darius, king of +Pontus in the time of Antony.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(Ed. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARJEELING,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> a hill station and district of British India, in +the Bhagalpur division of Bengal. The sanatorium is situated +367 m. by rail north of Calcutta. In 1901 it had a population of +16,924. It is the summer quarters of the Bengal government +and has a most agreeable climate, which neither exceeds 80° F. in +summer, nor falls below 30° in winter. The great attraction of +Darjeeling is its scenery, which is unspeakably grand. The view +across the hills to Kinchinjunga discloses a glittering white wall +of perpetual snow, surrounded by towering masses of granite. +There are several schools of considerable size for European boys +and girls, and a government boarding school at Kurseong. The +buildings and the roads suffered severely from the earthquake of +the 12th of June 1897. But a more terrible disaster occurred in +October 1899, when a series of landslips carried away houses and +broke up the hill railway. The total value of the property +destroyed was returned at £160,000.</p> + +<p>The district of Darjeeling comprises an area of 1164 sq. m. +It consists of two well-defined tracts, <i>viz.</i> the lower Himalayas +to the south of Sikkim, and the <i>tarai</i>, or plains, which extend from +the south of these ranges as far as the northern borders of +Purnea district. The plains from which the hills take their rise +are only 300 ft. above sea-level; the mountains ascend abruptly +in spurs of 6000 to 10,000 ft. in height. The scenery throughout +the hills is picturesque, and in many parts magnificent. The two +highest mountains in the world, Kinchinjunga in Sikkim +(28,156 ft.) and Everest in Nepal (29,002 ft.), are visible from the +town of Darjeeling. The principal peaks within the district are—Phalut +(11,811 ft.), Subargum (11,636), Tanglu (10,084), Situng +and Sinchal Pahai (8163). The chief rivers are the Tista, Great +and Little Ranjit, Ramman, Mahananda, Balasan and Jaldhaka. +None of them is navigable in the mountain valleys; but the +Tista, after it debouches on the plains, can be navigated by cargo +boats of considerable burthen. Bears, leopards and musk deer +are found on the higher mountains, deer on the lower ranges, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page834" id="page834"></a>834</span> +a few elephants and tigers on the slopes nearest to the plains. +In the lowlands, tigers, rhinoceroses, deer and wild hogs are +abundant. A few wolves are also found. Of small game, hares, +jungle fowl, peacocks, partridges, snipe, woodcock, wild ducks +and geese, and green pigeons are numerous in the <i>tarai</i>, and +jungle fowl and pheasants in the hills. The mahseer fish is found +in the Tista.</p> + +<p>In 1901 the population was 249,117, showing an increase of +12% since 1891, compared with an increase of 43% in the +previous decade. The inhabitants of the hilly tract consist to a +large extent of Nepali immigrants and of aboriginal highland +races; in the <i>tarai</i> the people are chiefly Hindus and Mahommedans. +The Lepchas are considered to be the aboriginal +inhabitants of the hilly portion of the district. They are a fine, +frank race, naturally open-hearted and free-handed, fond of +change and given to an out-door life; but they do not seem +to improve on being brought into contact with civilization. It +is thought that they are now being gradually driven out of the +district, owing to the increase of regular cultivation, and to the +government conservation of the forests. They have no word for +plough in their language, and they still follow the nomadic form +of tillage known as <i>jum</i> cultivation. This consists in selecting a +spot of virgin soil, clearing it of forest and jungle by burning, and +scraping the surface with the rudest agricultural implements. +The productive powers of the land become exhausted in a few +years, when the clearing is abandoned, a new site is chosen, and +the same operations are carried on <i>de novo</i>. The Lepchas are also +the ordinary out-door labourers on the hills. They have no caste +distinctions but speak of themselves as belonging to one of nine +septs or clans, who all eat together and intermarry with each +other. In the upper or northern <i>tarai</i>, along the base of the hills, +the Mechs form the principal ethnical feature. This tribe inhabits +the deadly jungle with impunity, and cultivates cotton, rice +and other ordinary crops, by the <i>jum</i> process described above. +The cultivation of tea was introduced in 1856, and is now a +large industry. Cinchona cultivation was introduced by the +government in 1862, and has since been taken up by private +enterprise. There is a coal mine at Daling. The Darjeeling +Himalayan railway of 2 ft. gauge, opened in 1880, runs for +50 m. from Siliguri in the plains on the Eastern Bengal line.</p> + +<p>The British connexion with Darjeeling dates from 1816, when, +at the close of the war with Nepali, the British made over to the +Sikkim raja the <i>tarai</i> tract, which had been wrested from him and +annexed by Nepal. In 1835 the nucleus of the present district of +British Sikkim or Darjeeling was created by a cession of a portion +of the hills by the raja of Sikkim to the British as a sanatorium. +A military expedition against Sikkim, rendered necessary in 1850 +by the imprisonment of Dr A. Campbell, the superintendent of +Darjeeling, and Sir Joseph Hooker, resulted in the stoppage of the +allowance granted to the raja for the cession of the hill station +of Darjeeling, and in the annexation of the Sikkim <i>tarai</i> at the foot +of the hills and of a portion of the hills beyond. In August 1866 the +hill territory east of the Tista, acquired as the result of the Bhutan +campaign of 1864, was added to the jurisdiction of Darjeeling.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARLEY, GEORGE<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (1795-1846), Irish poet, was born in +Dublin in 1795. His parents, who were gentle folks of independent +means, emigrated to America, leaving the boy in charge of his +grandfather at Springfield, Co. Dublin. He was educated at +Trinity College, Dublin, graduating in 1820; but an unfortunate +stammer prevented him from going into the church or to the bar, +and he established himself in London, where he published his +first volume of poems, the <i>Errors of Ecstasie</i>, in 1822, and became +a regular contributor to <i>The London Magazine</i>. He was intimate +with Cary, the translator of Dante, and with Charles Lamb. In +1826 he published under the name of “Grey Penseval” a volume +of prose tales and sketches, <i>Labour in Idleness</i> (1826), one of +which, “The Enchanted Lyre,” is plainly autobiographical. +<i>Sylvia, or the May Queen</i> (1827, reprint 1892), a fairy opera, met +with no success, but about 1830 he became dramatic and art +critic to the <i>Athenaeum</i>. His other works are: <i>Nepenthe</i> (1835, +reprint 1897), his most considerable poem; introduction to the +works of Beaumont and Fletcher (1840); with two plays, +<i>Thomas à Becket</i> (1840), and <i>Ethelstan</i> (1841). He died in +London on the 23rd of November 1846.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Selections from the Poems of George Darley</i>, with an introduction by +R. A. Streatfield, appeared in 1904. See also the edition by Ramsay +Colles in the “Muses’ Library” (1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARLING, GRACE HORSLEY<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (1815-1842), British heroine, +was born at Bamborough, Northumberland, on the 24th of +November 1815. Her father, William Darling, was the keeper of +the Longstone (Farne Islands) lighthouse. On the morning of +the 7th of September 1838, the “Forfarshire,” bound from +Hull to Dundee, with sixty-three persons on board, struck on the +Farne Islands, forty-three being drowned. The wreck was +observed from the lighthouse, and Darling and his daughter +determined to try and reach the survivors. They recognized +that though they might be able to get to the wreck, they would +be unable to return without the assistance of the shipwrecked +crew, but they took this risk without hesitation. By a combination +of daring, strength and skill, the father and daughter reached +the wreck in their coble and brought back four men and a +woman to the lighthouse. Darling and two of the rescued men +then returned to the wreck and brought off the four remaining +survivors. This gallant exploit made Grace Darling and her +father famous. The Humane Society at once voted them its gold +medal, the treasury made a grant, and a public subscription was +organized. Grace Darling, who had always been delicate, died +of consumption on the 20th of October 1842.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Grace Darling, her true story</i> (London, 1880).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARLING,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> a river of Australia. It rises in Queensland and +flows into New South Wales, forming for a considerable distance +the boundary of the two colonies; in its upper reaches it is +known as the Barwon, but from Bourke to its junction on the +Victorian border with the river Murray, it is called the Darling. +Its length is 1160 m., and with its affluents it drains an area of +about 200,000 sq. m. During the dry season its course is marked +by a series of shallow pools, but during the winter, when it is +subject to sudden floods, it is navigable as far as Bourke for +steamers of light draft. Excepting a narrow strip on the banks +of the river, the country through which it passes is, for the most +part, an arid plain.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARLINGTON,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> a market town and municipal and parliamentary +borough of Durham, England, 232 m. N. by W. of +London, on the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1891) 38,060; +(1901) 44,511. It lies in a slightly undulating plain on the small +river Skerne, a tributary of the Tees, not far from the main river. +Its appearance is almost wholly modern, but there is a fine old +parish church dedicated to St Cuthbert. It is cruciform, and in +style mainly transitional Norman. It has a central tower surmounted +by a spire of the 14th century, which necessitated the +building of a massive stone screen across the chancel arch to +support the piers. Traces of an earlier church were discovered in +the course of restoration. Educational establishments include +an Elizabethan grammar school, a training college for school-mistresses +(British and Foreign School Society), and a technical +school. There is a park of forty-four acres. The industries of +Darlington are large and varied. They include worsted spinning +mills; collieries, ironstone mines, quarries and brickworks; the +manufacture of iron and steel, both in the rough and in the form of +finished articles, as locomotives, bridge castings, ships’ engines, +gun castings and shells, &c. The parliamentary borough returns +one member. The town was incorporated in 1867, and the +corporation consists of a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen +councillors. Area, 3956 acres.</p> + +<p>Not long after the bishop and monks of Lindisfarne had +settled at Durham in 995, Styr the son of Ulf gave them the vill +of Darlington (Dearthington, Darnington), which by 1083 had +grown into importance, probably owing to its situation on the +road from Watling Street to the mouth of the Tees. Bishop +William of St Carileph in that year changed the church to a +collegiate church, and placed there certain canons whom he +removed from Durham. Bishop Hugh de Puiset rebuilt the +church and built a manor house which was for many years the +occasional residence of the bishops of Durham. Boldon Book, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page835" id="page835"></a>835</span> +dated 1183, contains the first mention of Darlington as a +borough, rated at £5, while half a mark was due from the dyers +of cloth. The next account of the town is in Bishop Hatfield’s +Survey (<i>c.</i> 1380), which states that “Ingelram Gentill and his +partners hold the borough of Derlyngton with the profits of the +mills and dye houses and other profits pertaining to the borough +rendering yearly four score and thirteen pounds and six shillings.” +Darlington possesses no early charter, but claimed its privileges +as a borough by a prescriptive right. Until the 19th century it +was governed by a bailiff appointed by the bishop. The mention +of dyers in the Boldon Book and Hatfield’s Survey probably +indicates the existence of woollen manufacture. Before the 19th +century Darlington was noted for the manufacture of linen, +worsted and flax, but it owes its modern importance to the +opening of the railway between Darlington and Stockton on the +27th of September 1825. “Locomotive No. 1,” the first that +ever ran on a public railway, stands in Bank Top station, a +remarkable relic of the enterprise. As part of the palatinate of +Durham, Darlington sent no members to parliament until 1862, +when it was allowed to return one member. The fairs and +markets in Darlington were formerly held by the bishop and +were in existence as early as the 11th century. According to +Leland, Darlington was in his time the best market town in the +bishopric with the exception of Durham. In 1664 the bishop, +finding that the inhabitants of the town had set up a market “in +the season of the year unaccustomed,” i.e. from the fortnight +before Christmas to Whit Monday, prohibited them from continuing +it. The markets and fairs were finally in 1854 purchased +by the local authority, and now belong to the corporation.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARLINGTONIA<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (called after William Darlington, an American +botanist), a Californian pitcher-plant, belonging to the order +Sarraceniaceae. There is only one species, <i>D. californica</i>, which +is found at 5000 ft. altitude on the Sierra Nevadas of California, +growing in sphagnum-bogs along with sundews and rushes. +The pitcher-like leaves form a cluster, and are 1 to 2 ft. high, +slender, erect, and end in a rounded hooded top, from which +hangs a blade shaped like a fish-tail which guards the entrance to +the pitcher. Insects are attracted to the leaves by the bright +colouring, especially of the upper part; entering they pass down +the narrow funnel guided by downward pointing hairs which also +prevent their ascent. They form a putrefying mass in the bottom +of the pitcher, and the products of their decomposition are +presumably absorbed by the leaf for food.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:390px; height:522px" src="images/img835.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><i>Darlingtonia californica.</i></td></tr></table> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARLY, MATTHIAS,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> 18th-century English caricaturist, +designer and engraver. This extremely versatile artist not only +issued political caricatures, but designed ceilings, chimney-pieces, +mirror frames, girandoles, decorative panels and other +mobiliary accessories, made many engravings for Thomas +Chippendale, and sold his own productions over the counter. +He was apparently an architect by profession. The first publication +which can be attributed to him with certainty is a coloured +caricature, “The Cricket Players of Europe” (1741). In 1754 +he issued <i>A new Book of Chinese Designs</i>, which was intended to +minister to the passing craze for furniture and household decorations +in the Chinese style. It was in this year that he engraved +many of the plates for the <i>Director</i> of Thomas Chippendale. He +published from many addresses, most of them in the Strand or +its immediate neighbourhood, and his shop was for a long period +perhaps the most important of its kind in London. In his book +<i>Nollekens and his Times</i>, J. T. Smith, writing of Richard Cosway, +says:—“So ridiculously foppish did he become that Matth. +Darly, the famous caricature print seller, introduced an etching +of him in his window in the Strand as the ‘Macaroni Miniature +Painter.’” Darly was for many years in partnership with a man +named Edwards, and together they published many political +prints, which were originally issued separately and collected +annually into volumes under the title of <i>Political and Satirical +History</i>. Darly was a member both of the Incorporated Society +of Artists and the Free Society of Artists, forerunners of the +Royal Academy, and to their exhibitions he contributed many +architectural drawings, together with a profile etching of himself +(1775). Upon one of these etchings, published from 39 Strand, +he is described as “Professor of Ornament to the Academy of +Great Britain.” Darly’s most important publication was <i>The +Ornamental Architect or Young Artists’ Instructor</i> (1770-1771), +a title which was changed in the edition of 1773 to <i>A Compleat +Body of Architecture, embellished with a great Variety of Ornaments</i>. +He also issued <i>Sixty Vases by English, French and +Italian Masters</i> (1767). In addition to his immense mass of +other productions Darly executed many book plates, illustrated +various books and cabinet-makers’ catalogues, and gave lessons +in etching. His skill as a caricaturist brought him into close +personal relations with the politicians of his time, and in 1763 +he was instrumental in saving John Wilkes, whose partisan he +was, from death at the hands of James Dunn, who had determined +to kill him. Darly, who described himself as “Liveryman and +block maker,” issued his last caricature in October 1780, and as +his shop, No. 39 Strand, was let to a new tenant in the following +year, it is to be presumed that he had by that time died, or +become incapable of further work. As a designer of furniture +Darly travelled in a dozen years or so from the extremes of +pseudo-Chinese affectation to classical severity of the type +popularized by the brothers Adam.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARMESTETER, JAMES<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (1849-1894), French author and +antiquarian, was born of Jewish parents on the 28th of March +1849 at Château Salins, in Alsace. The family name had +originated in their earlier home of Darmstadt. He was educated +in Paris, where, under the guidance of Michel Bréal and Abel +Bergaigne, he imbibed a love for Oriental studies, to which for a +time he entirely devoted himself. He was a man of vast intellectual +range. In 1875 he published a thesis on the mythology +of the <i>Zend Avesta</i>, and in 1877 became teacher of Zend at the +École des Hautes Études. He followed up his researches with his +<i>Études iraniennes</i> (1883), and ten years later published a complete +translation of the <i>Zend Avesta</i>, with historical and philological +commentary (3 vols., 1892-1893), in the <i>Annales du musée +Guimet</i>. He also edited the Zend Avesta for Max Müller’s <i>Sacred +Books of the East</i>. Darmesteter regarded the extant texts as far +more recent than was commonly believed, placing the earliest in +the 1st century B.C., and the bulk in the 3rd century A.D. In +1885 he was appointed professor in the Collège de France, and +was sent to India in 1886 on a mission to collect the popular +songs of the Afghans, a translation of which, with a valuable +essay on the Afghan language and literature, he published on +his return. His impressions of English dominion in India +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page836" id="page836"></a>836</span> +were conveyed in <i>Lettres sur l’Inde</i> (1888). England interested +him deeply; and his attachment to the gifted English writer, +A. Mary F. Robinson, whom he shortly afterwards married (and +who in 1901 became the wife of Professor E. Duclaux, director +of the Pasteur Institute at Paris), led him to translate her poems +into French in 1888. Two years after his death a collection of +excellent essays on English subjects was published in English. +He also wrote <i>Le Mahdi depuis les origines de l’Islam jusqu’à +nos jours</i> (1885); <i>Les Origines de la poésie persane</i> (1888); +<i>Prophètes d’Israël</i> (1892), and other books on topics connected +with the east, and from 1883 onwards drew up the annual +reports of the <i>Société Asiatique</i>. He had just become connected +with the <i>Revue de Paris</i>, when his delicate constitution succumbed +to a slight attack of illness on the 19th of October 1894.</p> + +<p>His elder brother, <span class="sc">Arsène Darmesteter</span> (1846-1888), was a +distinguished philologist and man of letters. He studied under +Gaston Paris at the École des Hautes Études, and became +professor of Old French language and literature at the Sorbonne. +His <i>Life of Words</i> appeared in English in 1888. He also collaborated +with Adolphe Hatzfeld in a <i>Dictionnaire général de la langue +française</i> (2 vols., 1895-1900). Among his most important work +was the elucidation of Old French by means of the many glosses +in the medieval writings of Rashi and other French Jews. His +scattered papers on romance and Jewish philology were collected +by James Darmesteter as <i>Arsène Darmesteter, reliques scientifiques</i> +(2 vols., 1890). His valuable <i>Cours de grammaire +historique de la langue française</i> was edited after his death by +E. Muret and L. Sudre (1891-1895; English edition, 1902).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There is an <i>éloge</i> of James Darmesteter in the <i>Journal asiatique</i> +(1894, vol. iv. pp. 519-534), and a notice by Henri Cordier, with a +list of his writings, in <i>The Royal Asiatic Society’s Journal</i> (January +1895); see also Gaston Paris, “James Darmesteter,” in <i>Penseurs +et poètes</i> (1896, pp. 1-61).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARMSTADT,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> a city of Germany, capital of the grand-duchy +of Hesse-Darmstadt, on a plain gently sloping from the Odenwald +to the Rhine, 21 m. by rail S.E. from Mainz and 17 m. S. from +Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1905) 83,000. It is the residence of +the grand-duke and the seat of government of the duchy. +Darmstadt consists of an old and a new town, the streets of the +former being narrow and gloomy and presenting no attractive +features. The new town, however, which includes the greater +part of the city, contains broad streets and several fine squares. +Among the latter is the stately Luisenplatz, on which are the house +of parliament, the old palace and the post office, and in the centre +of which is a column surmounted by the statue of the grand-duke +Louis I., the founder of the new town. The square is crossed +by the Rhein-strasse, the most important thoroughfare in the +city, leading directly from the railway station to the ducal +palace. This last, a complex of buildings, dating from various +centuries, but possessing few points of special interest, is surrounded +by grounds occupying the site of the old moat. +Opposite to it, on the north side, and adjoining the pretty palace +gardens, are the court theatre and the armoury, and a little +farther west the handsome buildings of the new museum, erected +in 1905 and containing the valuable scientific and art collections +of the state, which were formerly housed in the palace: a library +of 600,000 volumes and 4000 MSS., a museum of Egyptian and +German antiquities, a picture gallery with masterpieces of old +German and Dutch schools, a natural history collection and the +state archives. To the right of the entrance to the palace gardens +is the tomb of the “great landgravine,” Caroline Henrietta, wife +of the landgrave Louis IX., surmounted by a marble urn, the +gift of Frederick the Great of Prussia, bearing the inscription +<i>femina sexu, ingenio vir</i>. To the south of the castle lies the old +town, with the market square, the town hall (lately restored and +enlarged) and the town church. Of the eight churches (seven +Evangelical) only the Roman Catholic is in any way imposing. +There are two synagogues. The town possesses a technical high +school, having (since 1900) power to confer the degree of doctor +of engineering, and attended by about 2000 students, two +gymnasia, a school of agriculture, an artisans’ school and a +botanical garden. The chemist, Justus von Liebig, was born +in Darmstadt in 1803. Among the chief manufactures are the +production of machinery, carpets, playing cards, chemicals, +tobacco, hats, wine and beer.</p> + +<p>The surroundings of Darmstadt are attractive and contain +many features of interest. To the east of the town lies the +Mathildenhöhe, formerly a park and now converted into villa +residences. Here are the Alice hospital and the pretty Russian +church, built (1898-1899) by the emperor Nicholas II. of Russia +in memory of the empress Maria, wife of Alexander II. In the +vicinity is the Rosenhöhe, with the mausoleum of the ducal house, +with the tomb of the grand-duchess Alice, daughter of Queen +Victoria of England.</p> + +<p>Darmstadt is mentioned in the 11th century, but in the 14th +century it was still a village, held by the counts of Katzenelnbogen. +It came by marriage into the possession of the house of +Hesse in 1479, the male line of the house of Katzenelnbogen +having in that year become extinct. The imperial army took +it in the Schmalkaldic War, and destroyed the old castle. In +1567, after the death of Philip the Magnanimous, his youngest +son George received Darmstadt and chose it as his residence. +He was the founder of the line of Hesse-Darmstadt. Its most +brilliant days were those of the reign of Louis X. (1790-1830), +the first grand-duke, under whom the new town was built.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Walther, <i>Darmstadt wie es war und wie es geworden</i> (Darms. +1865); and Zernin und Wörner, <i>Darmstadt und seine Umgebung</i> +(Zürich, 1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARNLEY, HENRY STEWART<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> or <b>STUART</b>, <span class="sc">Lord</span> (1545-1567), +earl of Ross and duke of Albany, second husband of Mary, +queen of Scots, was the eldest son of Matthew Stewart, earl of +Lennox (1516-1571), and through his mother Lady Margaret +Douglas (1515-1578) was a great-grandson of the English king +Henry VII. Born at Temple Newsam in Yorkshire on the 7th of +December 1545, he was educated in England, and his lack of +intellectual ability was compensated for by exceptional skill in +military exercises. After the death of Francis II. of France in 1560 +Darnley was sent into that country by his mother, who hoped +that he would become king of England on Elizabeth’s death, +and who already entertained the idea of his marriage with Mary, +queen of Scots, the widow of Francis, as a means to this end. +Consequently in 1561 both Lady Margaret and her son, who were +English subjects, were imprisoned by Elizabeth; but they were +soon released, and Darnley spent some time at the English court +before proceeding to Scotland in February 1565. The marriage +of Mary and Darnley was now a question of practical politics, +and the queen, having nursed her new suitor through an attack of +measles, soon made up her mind to wed him, saying he “was the +properest and best proportioned long man that ever she had +seen.” The attitude of Elizabeth towards this marriage is +difficult to understand. She had permitted Darnley to journey to +Scotland, and it has been asserted that she entangled Mary into +this union; but on the other hand she and her council declared +their dislike of the proposed marriage, and ordered Darnley and +his father to repair to London, a command which was disobeyed. +In March 1565 there were rumours that the marriage had already +taken place, but it was actually celebrated at Holyrood on the +29th of July 1565.</p> + +<p>Although Mary had doubtless a short infatuation for Darnley, +the union was mainly due to political motives, and in view of the +characters of bride and bridegroom it is not surprising that +trouble soon arose between them. Contrary to his expectations +Darnley did not receive the crown matrimonial, and his foolish +and haughty behaviour, his vicious habits, and his boisterous +companions did not improve matters. He was on bad terms +with the regent Murray and other powerful nobles, who disliked +the marriage and were intriguing with Elizabeth. Scotland was +filled with rumours of plot and assassination, and civil war was +only narrowly avoided. Unable to take any serious part in +affairs of state, Darnley soon became estranged from his wife. +He believed that Mary’s relations with David Rizzio injured him +as a husband, and was easily persuaded to assent to the murder +of the Italian, a crime in which he took part. Immediately +afterwards, however, flattered and cajoled by the queen, he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page837" id="page837"></a>837</span> +betrayed his associates to her, and assisted her to escape +from Holyrood to Dunbar. Owing to these revelations he was +deserted and distrusted by his companions in the murder, and +soon lost the queen’s favour. In these circumstances he decided +to leave Scotland, but a variety of causes prevented his departure; +and meanwhile at Craigmillar a band of nobles undertook to free +Mary from her husband, who refused to be present at the baptism +of his son, James, at Stirling in December 1566. The details of +the conspiracy at Craigmillar are not clear, nor is it certain what +part, if any, Mary took in these proceedings. The first intention +may have been to obtain a divorce for the queen, but it was soon +decided that Darnley must be killed. Rumours of the plot came +to his ears, and he fled from Stirling to Glasgow, where he fell +ill, possibly by poisoning, and where Mary came to visit him. +Another reconciliation took place between husband and wife, +and Darnley was persuaded to journey with Mary by easy stages +to Edinburgh. Apartments were prepared for the pair at Kirk +o’ Field, a house just inside the city walls, and here they remained +for a few days. On the evening of the 9th of February 1567 Mary +took an affectionate farewell of her husband, and went to attend +some gaieties in Edinburgh. A few hours later, on the morning +of the 10th, Kirk o’ Field was blown up with gunpowder. +Darnley’s body was found at some distance from the house, and +it is supposed that he was strangled whilst making his escape. +The remains were afterwards buried in the chapel at Holyrood.</p> + +<p>Much discussion has taken place about this crime, and the +guilt or innocence of Mary is still a question of doubt and debate. +It seems highly probable, however, that the queen was accessory +to the murder, which was organized by her lover and third +husband, Bothwell (q.v.). As the father of King James I., +Darnley is the direct ancestor of all the sovereigns of England +since 1603. Personally he was a very insignificant character and +his sole title to fame is his connexion with Mary, queen of Scots.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further information, and also for a list of the works bearing on +his life, see the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mary, Queen of Scots</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARRANG,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> a district of British India, in the province of +Eastern Bengal and Assam. It lies between the Bhutan and +Daphla Hills and the Brahmaputra, including many islands in the +river. The administrative headquarters are at Tezpur. Its area +is 3418 sq. m. It is for the most part a level plain watered by +many tributaries of the Brahmaputra. The two subdivisions of +Tezpur Mangaldai differ greatly in character. Tezpur is part of +Upper Assam and shares in the prosperity which tea cultivation +has brought to that part of the valley. In this portion of the +district there are still large areas of excellent land awaiting +settlement, and the cultivator finds a market for his produce +in the flourishing tea-gardens, to which large quantities of +coolies are imported every year. In Mangaldai, on the other +hand, most of the good rice land was settled about 1880-1890 +when the subdivision had a population of 146 to the square mile, +as against 42 for Tezpur; the soil is not favourable for tea, and +the population is stationary or receding. In 1901 the population +of the whole district was 337,313, showing an increase of 10% in +the decade. The principal grain-crop is rice. The principal means +of communication is by river. A steam tramway of 2½ ft. gauge +has been opened from Tezpur to Balipara, a distance of 20 m.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Darrang originally formed, according to tradition, part of the +dominions of Bana Raja, who was defeated by Krishna in a battle +near Tezpur (“the town of blood”). The massive granite ruins +found near by prove that the place must have been the seat of +powerful and civilized rulers. In the 16th century Darrang was +subject to the Koch king of Kamarupa, Nar Narayan, and on the +division of his dominions among his heirs passed to an independent +line of rajas. Early in the 17th century the raja Bali Narayan +invoked the aid of the Ahoms of Upper Assam against the Mussulman +invaders; after his defeat and death in 1637 the Ahoms dominated +the whole district, and the Darrang rajas sank into petty feudatories. +About 1785 they took advantage of the decay of the Ahom +kingdom to try and re-establish their independence, but they were +defeated by a British expedition in 1792, and in 1826 Darrang, with +the rest of Assam, passed under British control.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARTFORD,<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> a market town in the Dartford parliamentary +division of Kent, England, on the Darent, 17 m. E.S.E. of +London by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. of +urban district (1891), 11,962; (1901) 18,644. The town lies low, +flanked by two chalky eminences, called East and West Hills. +It possesses a town hall, a grammar school (1576), and a Martyr’s +Memorial Hall. The most noteworthy building, however, is the +parish church, restored in 1863, which contains a curious old +fresco and several interesting brasses, and has a Norman tower. +The prosperity of the town depends on the important works in its +vicinity, including powder works, paper mills, and engineering, +iron, chemical and cement works. One of the first attempts at +the manufacture of paper in England was made here by Sir John +Spielman (d. 1607), jeweller to Queen Elizabeth. Dartford was +the scene, in 1235, of the marriage, celebrated by proxy, between +Isabella, sister of Henry III., and the Emperor Frederick II.; +and in 1331 a famous tournament was held in the place by +Edward III. The same monarch established an Augustinian +nunnery on West Hill in 1355, of which, however, few remains +exist. After the Dissolution it was used as a private residence +by Henry VIII., Anne of Cleves and Elizabeth. The chantry of +St Edmund the Martyr which stood on the opposite side of the +town was a part of Edward III.’s endowment to the priory, and +became so famous as a place of pilgrimage, especially for those +on their way to Canterbury, that the part of Watling Street which +crossed there towards London was sometimes called “St +Edmund’s Way.” It was here also that Wat Tyler’s insurrection +began in 1377, and the house in which he resided is shown. On +Dartford Heath is a lunatic asylum of the London County Council, +and, at Long Reach, the infectious diseases hospital of the +Metropolitan Asylums Board. Stone church, 2 m. E. of Dartford, +mainly late Early English (1251-1274), and carefully restored by +G. E. Street in 1860, is remarkable; the richness of the work +within increases from west to east, culminating in a choir arcade +decorated with work among the finest of its period extant; +the period is that of the choir of Westminster Abbey, and from a +comparison of building materials, choir arcades and sculpture +of foliage, a common architect has been suggested. Greenhithe, +on the banks of the Thames, has large chalk quarries in its +neighbourhood, from which lime and cement are manufactured.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARTMOOR,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> a high plateau in the south-west of Devonshire, +England. Its length is about 23 m. from N. to S. and its extreme +breadth 20 m., the mean altitude being about 1500 ft. The area +exceeding 1000 ft. in elevation is about 200 sq. m. It is the +highest and easternmost in a broken chain of granitic elevations +which extends through Cornwall to the Scilly Isles. The higher +parts are open, bleak and wild, strongly contrasting with the +more gentle scenery of the well-wooded lowlands surrounding it. +Sloping heights rise from the main tableland in all directions, +crested with broken masses of granite, locally named <i>tors</i>, and +often singularly fantastic in outline. The highest of these are +Yes Tor and High Willhays in the north-west, reaching altitudes +of 2028 and 2039 ft. Large parts of the moor, especially in the +centre, are covered with morasses; and head-waters of all the +principal streams of Devonshire (q.v.) are found here. Two main +roads cross the moor, one between Exeter and Plymouth, and +the other between Ashburton and Tavistock, intersecting at Two +Bridges. Both avoid the higher part of the moor, which, for the +rest, is traversed only in part by a few rough tracks. The central +part of Dartmoor was a royal forest from a date unknown, but +apparently anterior to the Conquest. Its woods were formerly +more extensive than now, but a few small tracts in which dwarf +oaks are characteristic remain in the lower parts. Previous to +1337, the forest had been granted to Richard, earl of Cornwall, +by Henry III., and from that time onward it has belonged to the +duchy of Cornwall. The districts immediately surrounding the +moor are called the Venville or Fenfield districts. The origin of +this name is not clear. The holders of land by Venville tenure +under the duchy have rights of pasture, fishing, &c. in the forest, +and their main duty is to “drive” the moor at certain times +in order to ascertain what head of cattle are pastured thereon, +and to prevent trespassing. The antiquarian remains of Dartmoor +are considered among those of Devonshire.</p> + +<p>Dartmoor convict prison, near Princetown, was adapted to its +present purpose in 1850; but the original buildings were erected +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page838" id="page838"></a>838</span> +in 1809 for the accommodation of French prisoners. A tract of +moorland adjacent to the prison has been brought under cultivation +by the inmates.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See S. Rowe, <i>Perambulation of the ... forest of Dartmoor</i> +(Plymouth, 1848); J. L. W. Page, <i>Exploration of Dartmoor</i> (London, +1889); S. Baring-Gould, <i>Book of Dartmoor</i> (London, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARTMOUTH,<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> a town in Halifax county, Nova Scotia, +Canada, on the north-eastern side of Halifax harbour, connected +by a steam ferry with Halifax, of which it is practically a suburb. +Pop. (1901) 4806. It contains a large sugar refinery, foundries, +machine shops, saw mills, skate, rope, nail, soap and sash +factories.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARTMOUTH,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> a seaport, market town, and municipal +borough in the Torquay parliamentary division of Devonshire, +England, 27 m. E. of Plymouth. Pop. (1901) 6579. It is +beautifully situated on the west bank and near the mouth of +the river Dart, which here forms an almost land-locked estuary. +The town is connected by a steam ferry with Kingswear on the +opposite bank, which is served by a branch of the Great Western +railway. The houses of Dartmouth, many of which are ancient, +rise in tiers from the shore, beneath a range of steep hills. An +embankment planted with trees fronts the river. The cruciform +church of St Saviour is of the 14th and 15th centuries, and +contains a graceful rood-screen of the 16th century, an ancient +stone pulpit and interesting monuments. Dartmouth Castle, +in part of Tudor date, commands the river a little below the +town. Portions of the cottage of Thomas Newcomen, one of +the inventors of the steam-engine, are preserved. Dartmouth is a +favourite yachting centre, and shipbuilding, brewing, engineering +and paint-making are carried on. Coal is imported, and resold +to ships calling at the harbour. The borough is under a mayor, +four aldermen and twelve councillors. Area, 1924 acres.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Probably owing its origin to Saxon invaders, Dartmouth +(<i>Darentamuthan</i>, <i>Dertemue</i>) was a seaport of importance +when Earl Beorn was buried in its church in 1049. From its +sheltered harbour William II. embarked for the relief of Mans, +and the crusading squadron set sail in 1190, while John landed +here in 1214. The borough, first claimed as such in the reign of +Henry I., was in existence by the middle of the 13th century, +since a deed of Gilbert Fitz-Stephen, lord of the manor, mentions +the services due from “his burgesses of Dertemue,” and a borough +seal of 1280 is extant. The king in 1224 required the bailiffs and +good men of Dartmouth to keep all ships in readiness for his +service, and in 1302 they were to furnish two ships for the Scottish +expedition, an obligation maintained throughout the century. +The men of the vill were made quit of toll in 1337, and in +1342 the town was incorporated by a charter frequently confirmed +by later sovereigns. Edward III. in 1372 granted that +the burgesses should be sued only before the mayor and bailiffs, +and Richard II. in 1393 granted extended jurisdiction and a +coroner; further charters were obtained in 1604 and 1684. A +French attack on the town was repulsed in 1404, and in 1485 the +burgesses received a royal grant of £40 for walling the town +and stretching a chain across the river mouth. Dartmouth fitted +out two ships against the Armada, and was captured by both the +royalists and parliamentarians in the Civil War. It returned two +representatives to parliament in 1298, and from 1350 to 1832. +In the latter year the representation was reduced to one, and was +merged in that of the county in 1868. Manorial markets were +granted for Dartmouth in 1231 and 1301. These were important +since as early as 1225 the fleet resorted there for provisions. +During the 14th and 15th centuries there was a regular trade +with Bordeaux and Brittany, and complaints of piracies by +Dartmouth men were frequent.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARTMOUTH COLLEGE,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> an American institution of higher +education, in Hanover, New Hampshire. It is Congregational in +its affiliations, but is actually non-sectarian. The college is open +only to men except during the summer session, when women also +are admitted. Dartmouth embraces, in addition to the original +college, incorporated in 1769, a medical school, dating from the +establishment of a professorship of medicine in the college in +1798; the Thayer school of civil engineering, established in 1867 +by the bequest of Gen. Sylvanus Thayer; and the Amos Tuck +school of administration and finance, established in 1900 by +Edward Tuck—a remarkable feature, as it was the first, and, +until the establishment at Harvard of a similar graduate school, +the only commercial school in the country whose work is largely +post-graduate. The Chandler school of science and the arts was +founded by Abiel Chandler in 1851, in connexion with Dartmouth, +and was incorporated into the collegiate department in +1893 as the Chandler scientific course in the college. From 1866 +to 1893 the New Hampshire college of agriculture and the +mechanic arts, now at Durham, was connected with Dartmouth. +The medical school offers a four years’ course, and each of the +other two professional schools a two years’ course, the first year +of which may, under certain conditions, be counted as the senior +year of the undergraduate department. The college has a +beautiful campus or “yard”; a library of more than 100,000 +volumes, housed in Wilson Hall (1885); instruction halls, residence +halls—Thornton and Wentworth (1828), Hallgarten (1874), +Richardson (1897), and Fayerweather (1900); a gymnasium +(Bissell Hall, built in 1867); an athletic field, known as Alumni +Oval; Bartlett Hall (1890-1891), the house of the College Young +Men’s Christian Association; Rollins Chapel (1885); College +Hall (1901), a social headquarters; an astronomical and meteorological +observatory (Shattuck Observatory, 1854); the Mary +Hitchcock hospital (1893), associated with the medical college; +museums (especially the Butterfield Museum); Culver Hall (1871), +the chemical laboratory; and Wilder Hall (1899), the physical +laboratory. The college in 1908 had 100 officers of administration +and instruction and 1219 students. It is maintained chiefly +by the proceeds of a productive endowment fund amounting to +$2,700,000 and by tuition fees ($125 a year for each student). +The government is entrusted to a board of twelve trustees, five +of whom are elected upon the nomination of the alumni.</p> + +<p>Dartmouth is the outgrowth of Moor’s Indian charity school, +founded by Eleazer Wheelock (1711-1779) about 1750 at +Lebanon, Connecticut; this school was named in 1755 in honour +of Joshua Moor, who in this year gave to it lands and buildings. +In 1765 Samson Occom (<i>c.</i> 1723-1792), an Indian preacher +and former student of the school, visited England and Scotland +in its behalf and raised £10,000, whereupon plans were made +for enlargement and for a change of site to Hanover. In 1769 the +school was incorporated by a charter granted by George III. as +Dartmouth College, being named after the earl of Dartmouth, +president of the trustees of the funds raised in Great Britain. +The first college building, Dartmouth Hall (closely resembling +Nassau Hall at Princetown and the University Hall of Brown +University), was built in 1784-1791 and is still standing, as are +the typical college church, built in 1796 and enlarged in 1877 and +1889, and Moor Hall, the second building for Moor’s charity +school, since 1852 called the Chandler building. During the War +of Independence the support from Great Britain was mostly +withdrawn. In 1815 President John Wheelock (1754-1817), +who had succeeded his father in 1779, and was a Presbyterian +and a Republican, was removed by the majority of the board +of trustees, who were Congregationalists and Federalists, and +Francis Brown was chosen in his place. Wheelock, upon his +appeal to the legislature, was reinstated at the head of a new +corporation, called Dartmouth University. The state courts +upheld the legislature and the “University,” but in 1819 after +the famous argument of Daniel Webster (q.v.) in behalf of the +“College” board of trustees as against the “University” board +before the United States Supreme Court, that body decided that +the private trust created by the charter of 1769 was inviolable, +and Dr Francis Brown and the old “College” board took +possession of the institution’s property. This was one of the +most important decisions ever made by the United States +Supreme Court.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Frederick Chase, <i>A History of Dartmouth College and the Town +of Hanover</i> (Cambridge, 1891). For the Dartmouth College Case see +Shirley, <i>The Dartmouth College Causes</i> (St Louis, Missouri, 1879); +Kent, <i>Commentaries on American Law</i> (vol. i. Boston, 1884); and +Joseph Story, <i>Commentaries on the Constitution</i> (vol. ii., Boston, 1891).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page839" id="page839"></a>839</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARTMOUTH, EARL OF,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> an English title borne by the family +of Legge from 1710 to the present day.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">William Legge</span> (<i>c.</i> 1609-1670), the eldest son of Edward +Legge (d. 1616), vice-president of Munster, gained some military +experience on the continent of Europe and then returning to +England assisted Charles I. in his war against the Scots in 1638. +He was also very useful to the king during the months which +preceded the outbreak of the Civil War, although his attempt +to seize Hull in January 1642 failed. During the war Legge +distinguished himself at Chalgrove and at the first battle of +Newbury, and in 1645 he became governor of Oxford. However, +he only held this position for a few months, as he shared the +disgrace of Prince Rupert, to whom he was very devoted; but +he was largely instrumental in putting an end to the quarrel +between the king and the prince. Legge helped Charles to +escape from Hampton Court in 1647, and after attending upon +him he was arrested in May 1648. He was soon released, but +was again captured in the following year while proceeding to +Ireland in the interests of Charles II. Regaining his freedom in +1653, he spent some years abroad, but in 1659 he was once more +in England inciting the royalists to rise. Legge enjoyed the +favour of Charles II., who offered to make him an earl. The old +royalist died on the 13th of October 1670.</p> + +<p>Legge’s eldest son, <span class="sc">George, Baron Dartmouth</span> (1647-1691), +served as a volunteer in the navy during the Dutch war of 1665-1667, +and quickly won his way to high rank. He was also a +member of the household of the duke of York, afterwards +James II.; was governor of Portsmouth and master-general of +the army; in 1678 he commanded as colonel the troop at Nieuport, +and in 1682 he was created Baron Dartmouth. In 1683 as +“admiral of a fleet” he sailed to Tangiers, dismantled the fortifications +and brought back the English troops, a duty which he +discharged very satisfactorily. Under James II. Dartmouth +was master of the horse and governor of the Tower of London; +and in 1688, when William of Orange was expected, James II. +made him commander-in-chief of his fleet. Although himself +loyal to James, the same cannot be said of many of his officers, +and an engagement with the Dutch fleet was purposely avoided. +Dartmouth, however, refused to assist in getting James Edward, +prince of Wales, out of the country, and even reproved the king +for attempting this proceeding. He then left the fleet and took +the oath of allegiance to William and Mary, but in July 1691 he +was arrested for treason, and was charged with offering to hand +over Portsmouth to France and to command a French fleet. +Macaulay believed that this accusation was true, but there are +those who hold that Dartmouth spoke the truth when he protested +his innocence. Further proceedings against him were +prevented by his death, which took place in the Tower of London +on the 25th of October 1691.</p> + +<p>Lord Dartmouth’s only son, <span class="sc">William</span>, 1st <span class="sc">Earl of Dartmouth</span> +(1672-1750), succeeded to his father’s barony in 1691. +In 1702 he was appointed a member of the board of trade and +foreign plantations, and eight years later he became secretary of +state for the southern department and joint keeper of the signet +for Scotland. In 1711 he was created viscount Lewisham and +earl of Dartmouth; in 1713 he exchanged his offices for that of +keeper of the privy seal, which he held until the end of 1714. +After a long period of retirement from public life he died on the +15th of December 1750. Dartmouth’s eldest son George, viscount +Lewisham (<i>c.</i> 1703-1732), predeceased his father. Other sons +were: Heneage Legge (1704-1759), judge of the court of +exchequer; Henry Legge (q.v.), afterwards Bilson-Legge; and +Edward Legge (1710-1747), who served for some time in the navy +and died on the 19th of September 1747.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">William</span>, 2nd <span class="sc">Earl of Dartmouth</span> (1731-1801), was a son +of George, viscount Lewisham, and a grandson of the 1st earl, +whom he succeeded in 1750. For a few months in 1765 and 1766 +he was president of the board of trade and foreign plantations; +in 1772 he returned to the same office holding also that of +secretary for the colonies; and in 1775 he became lord privy +seal. With regard to the American colonies Dartmouth advised +them in 1777 to accept the conciliatory proposals put forward by +Lord North, but in 1776 he opposed similar proposals and advocated +the employment of force. In March 1782 he resigned his +office as lord privy seal and in 1783 he was lord steward of the +household; he died on the 15th of July 1801. Dartmouth was a +friend of Selina, countess of Huntingdon, and his piety and his +intimacy with the early Methodists won for him the epithet of the +<i>Psalm-singer</i>. Dartmouth College was named after him, and +among his papers preserved at Patshull House, Wolverhampton, +are many letters from America relating to the struggle for +independence. His sixth son, Sir Arthur Kaye Legge (d. 1835), +was an admiral of the blue, and his seventh son, Edward Legge +(d. 1827), was bishop of Oxford.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">George</span>, 3rd <span class="sc">Earl of Dartmouth</span> (1755-1810), the eldest son +of the 2nd earl, was lord warden of the stannaries and president +of the board of control; later he was lord steward and then lord +chamberlain of the royal household. He died on the 1st of +November 1810, when his eldest son, William (1784-1853), +became 4th earl. William’s son, William Walter (1823-1891), +became 5th earl in 1853 and was succeeded in 1891 by his son +William Heneage Legge (b. 1851) as 6th earl of Dartmouth. As +Lord Lewisham this nobleman was a member of parliament +from 1878 to 1891, and was vice-chamberlain of the household in +1885-1886, and again from 1886 to 1892.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARU, PIERRE ANTOINE NOËL BRUNO,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1767-1829), +French soldier and statesman, was born at Montpellier +on the 12th of January 1767. He was educated at the military +school of Tournon, conducted by the Oratorians, and entered the +artillery at an early age. His fondness for literature, however, +soon made itself felt, and he published several slight pieces, until +the outbreak of the French Revolution called him to a sterner +occupation. In 1793 he became commissary to the army, +protecting the coasts of Brittany from projected descents of the +British, or of French royalists. Thrown into prison on a frivolous +charge of friendliness to the royalists and England, he was released +after the fall of Robespierre in the summer of 1794, and rose in +the service until, in 1799, he became chief commissary to the +French army serving under Masséna in the north of Switzerland. +In that position he won repute for his organizing capacity, great +power of work and unswerving probity—the last of which +qualities was none too common in the French armies at that +time. These exacting tasks did not absorb all his energies. He +found time, even during the campaign, to translate part of Horace +and to compose two poems, the <i>Poème des Alpes</i> and the <i>Chant de +guerre</i>. The latter celebrated in indignant strains the murder +of the French envoys to the congress of Rastadt.</p> + +<p>The accession of Napoleon Bonaparte to power in November +1799 led to the employment of Daru as chief commissary to the +Army of Reserve intended for North Italy, and commanded +nominally by Berthier, but really by the First Consul. Conjointly +with Berthier and Dejean, he signed the armistice with the +Austrians which closed the campaign in North Italy in June +1800. Daru now returned, for a time, mainly to civil life, and +entered the tribunate, where he ably maintained the principles +of democratic liberty. On the renewal of war with England, in +May 1803, he again resumed his duties as chief commissary for +the army on the northern coasts. It was afterwards asserted +that, on Napoleon’s resolve to turn the army of England against +Austria, Daru had set down at the emperor’s dictation all the +details of the campaign which culminated at Ulm. The story is +apocryphal; but Napoleon’s confidence in him was evinced by +his being appointed to similar duties in the Grand Army, which in +the autumn of 1805 overthrew the armies of Austria and Russia. +After the battle of Austerlitz, he took part in the drafting of the +treaty of Presburg. At this time, too, he became intendant-general +of the military household of Napoleon. In the campaigns +of 1806-1807 he served, in his usual capacity, in the army which +overthrew the forces of Russia and Prussia; and he had a share +in drawing up the treaty of Tilsit (7th of July 1807). After this he +supervised the administrative and financial duties in connexion +with the French army which occupied the principal fortresses of +Prussia, and was one of the chief agents through whom Napoleon +pressed hard on that land. At the congress of Erfurt, Daru had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page840" id="page840"></a>840</span> +the privilege of being present at the interview between Goethe +and Napoleon, and interposed tactful references to the works of +the great poet. Daru fulfilled his usual duties in the campaign +of 1809 against Austria. Afterwards, when the subject of the +divorce of Josephine and the choice of a Russian or of an Austrian +princess came to be discussed, Daru, on being consulted by +Napoleon, is said boldly to have counselled his marriage with a +French lady; and Napoleon, who admired his frankness and +honesty, took the reply in good part.</p> + +<p>In 1811 he became secretary of state in succession to Maret, +duc de Bassano, and showed his usual ability in the administration +of the vast and complex affairs of the French empire, +including the arrangements connected with the civil list and the +imperial domains. But neither his devotion to civic duty nor to +the administration of the affairs of the Grand Army could ward +off disaster. Late in the year 1813 he took up the portfolio of +military affairs. After the first abdication of Napoleon in 1814, +Daru retired into private life, but aided Napoleon during the +Hundred Days. After the second Restoration he became a +member of the Chamber of Peers, in which he ably defended the +cause of popular liberty against the attacks of the ultra-royalists. +He died at Meulan on the 5th of September 1829.</p> + +<p>Few men of the Napoleonic empire have been more generally +admired and respected than Daru. On one occasion when +he expressed a fear that he lacked all the gifts of a courtier, +Napoleon replied, “Courtiers! They are common enough about +me; I shall never be in want of them. What I want is an +enlightened, firm and vigilant administrator; and that is why +I have chosen you.” At another time Napoleon said, “Daru is +good on all sides; he has good judgment, a good intellect, a great +power for work, and a body and mind of iron.” The only +occasion on which he is known to have sunk beneath the weight +of his duties was in the course of writing letters at the emperor’s +dictation for the third night in succession.</p> + +<p>Of Daru’s literary works may be mentioned his <i>Histoire de +Venise</i>, published at Paris in 7 vols. in 1819; the <i>Histoire de +Bretagne</i>, in 3 vols. (Paris, 1826); a poetical translation of +Horace (of which Le Brun remarked: “Je ne lis point Daru, +j’aime trop mon Horace”); <i>Discours en vers sur les facultés de +l’homme</i> (Paris, 1825), and <i>Astronomie</i>, a didactic poem in six +cantos (Paris, 1820).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the “Notice” by Viennet prefixed to the fourth edition of +Daru’s <i>Histoire de la république de Venise</i> (9 vols., 1853), and three +articles by Sainte-Beuve in <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vol. ix. For the many +letters of Napoleon to Daru see the <i>Correspondance de Napoléon I<span class="sp">er</span></i> +(32 vols., Paris, 1858-1870).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Hl. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARWEN,<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> a municipal borough in the Darwen parliamentary +division of Lancashire, England, 20 m. N.W. from Manchester +by the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1891) 34,192; +(1901) 38,212. It lies on the river Darwen, which traverses a +densely populated manufacturing district, and is surrounded by +high-lying moors. Darwen is a centre of the cotton trade and +has also blast furnaces, and paper-making, paper-staining and +fire-clay works. In the neighbourhood are collieries and stone +quarries. The market hall is the chief public building; there are +technical schools, a free library, and two public parks. Darwen +was incorporated in 1788. The corporation consists of a mayor, +six aldermen and eighteen councillors.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (1809-1882), English naturalist, +author of the <i>Origin of Species</i>, was born at Shrewsbury on the +12th of February 1809. He was the younger of the two sons and +the fourth child of Dr Robert Waring Darwin, son of Dr Erasmus +Darwin (q.v.). His mother, a daughter of Josiah Wedgwood +(1730-1795), died when Charles Darwin was eight years old. +Charles Darwin’s elder brother, Erasmus Alvey (1804-1881), +was interested in literature and art rather than science: on the +subject of the wide difference between the brothers Charles wrote +that he was “inclined to agree with Francis Galton in believing +that education and environment produce only a small effect on +the mind of anyone, and that most of our qualities are innate” +(<i>Life and Letters</i>, London, 1887, p. 22). Darwin considered that +his own success was chiefly due to “the love of science, unbounded +patience in long reflecting over any subject, industry in observing +and collecting facts, and a fair share of invention as well as of +common sense” (<i>l.c.</i> p. 107). He also says: “I have steadily +endeavoured to keep my mind free so as to give up any hypothesis, +however much beloved (and I cannot resist forming one on every +subject), as soon as facts are shown to be opposed to it” (<i>l.c.</i> +p. 103). The essential causes of his success are to be found in this +latter sentence, the creative genius ever inspired by existing +knowledge to build hypotheses by whose aid further knowledge +could be won, the calm unbiassed mind, the transparent honesty +and love of truth which enabled him to abandon or to modify his +own creations when they ceased to be supported by observation. +The even balance between these powers was as important as their +remarkable development. The great naturalist appeared in the +ripeness of time, when the world was ready for his splendid +generalizations. Indeed naturalists were already everywhere +considering and discussing the problem of evolution, although +Alfred Russel Wallace was the only one who, independently of +Darwin, saw his way clearly to the solution. It is true that +hypotheses essentially the same as natural selection were suggested +much earlier by W. C. Wells (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1813), and +Patrick Matthew (<i>Naval Timber and Arboriculture</i>, 1831), but +their views were lost sight of and produced no effect upon the +great body of naturalists. In the preparation for Darwin Sir +Charles Lyell’s <i>Principles of Geology</i> played an important part, +accustoming men’s minds to the vast changes brought about by +natural processes, and leading them, by its lucid and temperate +discussion of Lamarck’s and other views, to reflect upon evolution.</p> + +<p>Darwin’s early education was conducted at Shrewsbury, first +for a year at a day-school, then for seven years at Shrewsbury +School under Dr Samuel Butler (1774-1839). He gained but +little from the narrow system which was then universal. In 1825 +he went to Edinburgh to prepare for the medical profession, for +which he was unfitted by nature. After two sessions his father +realized this, and in 1828 sent him to Cambridge with the idea +that he should become a clergyman. He matriculated at Christ’s +College, and took his degree in 1831, tenth in the list of those +who do not seek honours. Up to this time he had been keenly +interested in sport, and in entomology, especially the collecting +of beetles. Both at Edinburgh, where in 1826 he read his first +scientific paper, and at Cambridge he gained the friendship of +much older scientific men—Robert Edmond Grant and William +Macgillivray at the former, John Stevens Henslow and Adam +Sedgwick at the latter. He had two terms’ residence to keep after +passing his last examination, and studied geology with Sedgwick. +Returning from their geological excursion together in North +Wales (August 1831), he found a letter from Henslow urging him +to apply for the position of naturalist on the “Beagle,” about to +start on a surveying expedition. His father at first disliked the +idea, but his uncle, the second Josiah Wedgwood, pleaded with +success, and Darwin started on the 27th of December 1831, the +voyage lasting until the 2nd of October 1836. It is practically +certain that he never left Great Britain after this latter date. +After visiting the Cape de Verde and other islands of the +Atlantic, the expedition surveyed on the South American +coasts and adjacent islands (including the Galapagos), afterwards +visiting Tahiti, New Zealand, Australia, Tasmania, Keeling +Island, Maldives, Mauritius, St Helena, Ascension; and Brazil, +de Verdes and Azores on the way home. His work on the geology +of the countries visited, and that on coral islands, became the +subject of volumes which he published after his return, as well +as his <i>Journal of a Naturalist</i>, and his other contributions to the +official narrative. The voyage must be regarded as the real +preparation for his life-work. His observations on the relation +between animals in islands and those of the nearest continental +areas, near akin and yet not the same, and between living +animals and those most recently extinct and found fossil in the +same country, here again related but not the same, led him even +then to reflect deeply upon the modification of species. He had +also been much impressed by “the manner in which closely +allied animals replace one another in proceeding southwards” +in South America. On his return home Darwin worked at his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page841" id="page841"></a>841</span> +collections, first at Cambridge for three months and then in +London. His pocket-book for 1837 contains the words: “In +July opened first note-book on Transmutation of Species. Had +been greatly struck from about the month of previous March +[while still on the voyage and just over twenty-eight years old] +on character of South American fossils, and species on Galapagos +Archipelago. These facts (especially latter) origin of all my +views.” From 1838 to 1841 he was secretary of the Geological +Society, and saw a great deal of Sir Charles Lyell, to whom he +dedicated the second edition of his <i>Journal</i>. On the 29th of +January 1839 he married his cousin, Emma Wedgwood, the +daughter of Josiah Wedgwood of Maer. They lived in London +until September 1842, when they moved to Down, which was +Darwin’s home for the rest of his life. His health broke down +many times in London, and remained precarious during the whole +of his life. The immense amount of work which he got through +was only made possible by the loving care of his wife. For eight +years (1846 to 1854) he was chiefly engaged upon four monographs +on the recent and fossil Cirripede Crustacea (<i><span class="correction" title="amended from Ray">Roy</span>. Soc.</i>, +1851 and 1854; <i>Palaeontograph. Soc.</i>, 1851 and 1854). Towards +the close of this work Darwin became very wearied of it, especially +of the synonymy. For a time he hoped to start a movement +which should discourage the habit of appending the name of the +describer to the name of the species, a custom which he thought +led to bad and superficial work. From this time he was engaged +upon the numerous lines of inquiry which led to the great work +of his life, the <i>Origin of Species</i>, published in November 1859.</p> + +<p>Soon after opening his note-book in July 1837 he began to +collect facts bearing upon the formation of the breeds of domestic +animals and plants, and quickly saw “that selection was the +keystone of man’s success. But how selection could be applied +to organisms living in a state of nature remained for some time a +mystery to me.” Various ideas as to the causes of evolution +occurred to him, only to be successively abandoned. He had +the idea of “laws of change” which affected species and finally +led to their extinction, to some extent analogous to the causes +which bring about the development, maturity and finally death +of an individual. He also had the conception that species must +give rise to other species or else die out, just as an individual dies +unrepresented if it bears no offspring. These and other ideas, of +which traces exist in his Diary, arose in his mind, together with +perhaps some general conception of natural selection, during the +fifteen months after the opening of his note-book. In October +1838 he read <i>Malthus on Population</i>, and his observations having +long since convinced him of the struggle for existence, it at once +struck him “that under these circumstances favourable variations +would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones to be +destroyed. The result of this would be the formation of new +species. Here, then, I had a theory by which to work.” In +June 1842 he wrote out a sketch, which two years later he +expanded to an essay occupying 231 pages folio. The idea of +progressive divergence as an advantage in itself, because the +competition is most severe between organisms most closely +related, did not occur to him until long after he had come to +Down. During the growth of the <i>Origin</i> Sir Joseph Hooker was +his most intimate friend, and on the 11th of January 1844 he +wrote: “At last gleams of light have come, and I am almost +convinced (quite contrary to the opinion I started with) that +species are not (it is like confessing a murder) immutable” +(<i>l.c.</i> ii. 13). In 1855 he began a correspondence with the great +American botanist Asa Gray, and in 1857 explained his views +in a letter which afterwards became classical. In 1856, urged by +Lyell, he began the preparation of a third and far more expanded +treatise, and had completed about half of it when, on the 18th of +June 1858, he received a manuscript essay from A. R. Wallace, +who was then at Ternate in the Moluccas. Wallace wanted +Darwin’s opinion on the essay, which he asked should be forwarded +to Lyell. Darwin was much startled to find in the essay +a complete abstract of his own theory of natural selection. He +forwarded it the same day, writing to Lyell, “your words have +come true with a vengeance—that I should be forestalled.” He +placed himself in the hands of Lyell and Hooker, who decided to +send Wallace’s essay to the Linnean Society, together with an +abstract of Darwin’s work, which they asked him to prepare, +the joint essay being accompanied by a preface in the form of an +explanatory letter written by them to the secretary. The title +of the joint communication was “On the Tendency of Species +to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and +Species by Natural Means of Selection.” It was read on the 1st +of July 1858, and appears in the <i>Linn. Soc. Journal</i> (Zoology) +for that year. In this statement of the theory of natural selection, +Darwin’s part consisted of two sections, the first being extracts +from his 1844 essay, including a brief account of sexual selection, +and the second an abstract of his letter to Asa Gray dated +the 5th of September 1857. This latter, probably his first +attempt to expound natural selection, cannot be surpassed as a +clear statement of the theory. Darwin explained at the outset, +what he insisted on elsewhere, that the facts of adaptation or +contrivance in nature are the real difficulty to be explained by +a theory of evolution, the stumbling-block of every previous +suggestion. Until he could explain “the mistletoe, with its +pollen carried by insects, and seed by birds—the woodpecker, +with its feet and tail, beak and tongue, to climb the tree and +secure insects,” he was “scientifically orthodox.” Nevertheless +he was led to believe in evolution, apart from any possible +motive-cause, by “general facts in the affinities, embryology, +rudimentary organs, geological history, and geographical distribution +of organic beings.” He then proceeds to describe the +manner in which he met the difficulty of adaptation by “his +notions on the means by which Nature makes her species.” The +essentials of the statement are as follows:—I. Man has made +his domestic breeds of animals and plants by selection, conscious +or unconscious, of very slight or greater variations. II. The +material for selection exists in nature, namely, slight variations +of all parts of the organism. III. The “unerring power” which +sifts these variations is “<i>natural selection</i> ... which selects +exclusively for the good of each organic being.” The rate of +increase is such that only a few in each generation can live: +hence the never sufficiently appreciated struggle for life. “What +a trifling difference must often determine which shall survive +and which perish!” The remaining heads explain the complex +nature of the struggle, the reasons for deficient direct evidence, +the advantage of divergence, &c. In the joint essay the phrases +“natural selection” and “sexual selection” were first made +public by Darwin, the “struggle for existence” by Wallace. +Darwin and Wallace had met only once before the departure of +the latter for the East. Their rivalry in the discovery of the +great principle of natural selection was the beginning of a lifelong +friendship. Wallace was lying ill with intermittent fever at +Ternate in February 1858 when he began to think of Malthus’s +<i>Essay on Population</i>, read several years before: suddenly the +idea of the survival of the fittest flashed upon him. In two +hours he had “thought out almost the whole of the theory,” +and in three evenings had finished his essay. Darwin, also +inspired after reading Malthus, in October 1838, did not publish +until nearly twenty years had elapsed, and then only when +Wallace sent him his essay. Canon H. B. Tristram was the first +to apply the new theory, explaining by its aid the colours of +desert birds, &c. (<i>Ibis</i>, October 1859).</p> + +<p>Acting under the advice of Lyell and Hooker, Darwin then +began to prepare what was to become the great work of his life. +It appeared on the 24th of November 1859, with the full title, +<i>On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the +Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life</i>. The +whole edition of 1250 copies was exhausted on the day of issue. +The first four chapters explain the operation of artificial selection +by man and of natural selection in consequence of the struggle for +existence. The fifth chapter deals with the laws of variation and +causes of modification other than natural selection. The five +succeeding chapters consider difficulties in the way of a belief +in evolution generally as well as in natural selection. The three +remaining chapters (omitting the recapitulation which occupies +the last) deal with the evidence for evolution. The theory which +suggested a cause of evolution is thus given the foremost place, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page842" id="page842"></a>842</span> +and the evidence for the existence of evolution considered last of +all. This method of presentation was no doubt adopted because +it was just the want of a reasonable motive-cause which more +than anything else prevented the acceptance of evolution. But +the other side of the book must not be eclipsed by the brilliant +theory of Darwin and Wallace. The evidence for evolution itself +had never before been thought out and marshalled in a manner +which bears any comparison with that of Darwin in the <i>Origin</i>, +and the work would have been in the highest degree epoch-making +had it consisted of the later chapters alone. In the fifth +chapter Darwin incorporated a certain proportion of the +doctrines of Buffon,—modifications due to the direct influence +of environment; and of Lamarck,—the hereditary effects of use +and disuse. Lyell for a long time hesitated to accept the new +teaching, and Darwin carried on a long correspondence with him. +His public confession of faith was made at the anniversary +dinner of the Royal Society in 1864. A storm of controversy +arose over the book, reaching its height at the meeting of the +British Association at Oxford in 1860, when the celebrated duel +between T. H. Huxley and Bishop Wilberforce of Oxford took +place. Throughout these struggles Huxley was the foremost +champion for evolution and for fair play to natural selection, +although he never entirely accepted the latter theory, holding +that until man by his selection had made his domestic breed +sterile <i>inter se</i>, there was no sufficient evidence that selection +accounts for natural species which are thus separated by the +barrier of sterility. The theory of natural selection was at first +greatly misunderstood. Thus some writers thought it implied +conscious choice in the animals themselves, others that it was +the personification of some active power. By many it was +thought to be practically the same idea as Lamarck’s. Herbert +Spencer’s alternative phrase, “the survival of the fittest,” probably +helped to spread a clear appreciation of Darwin’s meaning.</p> + +<p>The history of opinion since 1859 may be summed up as follows. +Evolution soon gained general acceptance, except among a certain +number of those of middle or more advanced age at the time +when the <i>Origin</i> appeared. Although natural selection had been +an essential force in producing this conviction, there gradually +grew up a tendency to minimize its importance in relation to the +causes originally suggested by Buffon and Lamarck, which were +ably presented and further elaborated by Herbert Spencer. In +America a school of Neo-Lamarckians appeared, and for a time +flourished under the inspiration of the vigorous personality of +E. D. Cope. The writings of August Weismann next raised a +controversy over the scope of heredity, assailing the very +foundation of the hypotheses of Buffon, Lamarck and Herbert +Spencer by demanding evidence that the “acquired characters” +upon which they rest are capable of hereditary transmission. +The quantitative determination of heredity has been the +subject of much patient investigation under the leadership of +Francis Galton. The question of isolation as a factor in species-formation +has been greatly discussed, G. J. Romanes proposing, +in his hypothesis of “Physiological Selection,” that the barrier +of sterility may arise spontaneously by variation between two +sets of individuals as the beginning instead of the climax of +specific distinction. Others have fixed their attention upon the +variations, which provided the material for natural selection, and +have advocated the view that evolution proceeds by immense +strides instead of the minute steps in which Darwin and Wallace +believed. Others, again, have found significance in the artificial +production of “monstrosities” or huge modifications during +individual development. All through the period a varying +proportion of naturalists, probably larger now than at any other +time, has followed the founders of the theory, and has sought the +motive-cause of evolution in “the accumulative power of natural +selection,” which Darwin, as his first public statement indicates, +looked upon “as by far the most important element in the production +of new forms.” They hold, with Darwin and Wallace, +that although variation provides the essential material, natural +selection, from its accumulative power, is of such paramount +importance that it may be said to create new species as truly as a +man may be said to make a building out of the material provided +by stones of various shapes, a metaphor suggested and elaborated +by Darwin, and forming the concluding sentences of <i>The Variation +of Animals and Plants under Domestication</i>. This, probably the +second in importance of all his works, was published in 1868, and +may be looked upon as a complete account of the material of +which he had given a very condensed abstract in the first chapter +of the <i>Origin</i>, together with the conclusions suggested by it. +He finally brought together an immense number of apparently +disconnected sets of observations under his “provisional hypothesis +of pangenesis,” which assumes that every cell in the body, +at every stage of growth and in maturity, is represented in each +germ-cell by a gemmule. The germ-cell is only the meeting-place +of gemmules, and the true reproductive power lies in the whole +of the body-cells which despatch their representatives, hence +“pangenesis.” There are reasons for believing that this infinitely +complex conception, in which, as his letters show, he had great +confidence, was forced upon Darwin in order to explain the +hereditary transmission of acquired characters involved in the +small proportion of Lamarckian doctrine which he incorporated. +If such transmission does not occur, a far simpler hypothesis based +on the lines of Weismann’s “continuity of the germ-plasm” is +sufficient to account for the facts.</p> + +<p>The <i>Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex</i>, was +published in 1871; as the title implies, it really consists of two +distinct works. The first, and by far the shorter, was the full +justification of his statement in the Origin that “light would be +thrown on the origin of man and his history.” In the second +part he brought together a large mass of evidence in support of +his hypothesis of sexual selection which he had briefly described +in the 1858 essay. This hypothesis explains the development of +colours and structures peculiar to one sex and displayed by it in +courtship, by the preferences of the other sex. The majority of +naturalists probably agree with Darwin in believing that the +explanation is real, but relatively unimportant. It is interesting +to note that only in this subject and those treated of in the <i>Variation +under Domestication</i> had Darwin exhausted the whole of the +material which he had collected. The <i>Expression of the Emotions</i>, +published in 1872, offered a natural explanation of phenomena +which appeared to be a difficulty in the way of the acceptance of +evolution. In 1876 Darwin brought out his two previously +published geological works on <i>Volcanic Islands</i> and <i>South +America</i> as a single volume. The widely read <i>Formation of +Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms</i> appeared in 1881. +He also published various volumes on botanical subjects. The +<i>Fertilization of Orchids</i> appeared in 1862. The subject of cross-fertilization +of flowers was in Darwin’s mind, as shown by his +note-book in 1837. In 1841 Robert Brown directed his attention +to Christian Conrad Sprengel’s work (Berlin, 1793), which confirmed +his determination to pursue this line of research. <i>The +Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom</i> +(1876) contained the direct evidence that the offspring of cross-fertilized +individuals are more vigorous, as well as more numerous, +than those produced by a self-fertilized parent. <i>Different Forms +of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species</i> appeared in 1877. It is +here shown that each different form, although possessing both +kinds of sexual organs, is specially adapted to be fertilized by the +pollen of another form, and that when artificially fertilized by its +own pollen less vigorous offspring, bearing some resemblance to +hybrids, are produced. He says, “no little discovery of mine +ever gave me so much pleasure as the making out the meaning +of heterostyled flowers” (<i>Autobiography</i>). <i>Climbing Plants</i> was +published in 1875, although it had, in large part, been communicated +to the Linnean Society, in whose publications much of the +material of several of his other works appeared. This inquiry +into the nature of the movements of twining plants was suggested +to him in a paper by Asa Gray. <i>The Power of Movement in +Plants</i> (1880) was produced by him in conjunction with his son +Francis. It was an inquiry into the minute power of movement +possessed, he believed, by plants generally, out of which the +larger movements of climbing plants of many different groups +had been evolved. The work included an investigation of other +kinds of plant movement due to light, gravity, &c., all of which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page843" id="page843"></a>843</span> +he regarded as modifications of the one fundamental movement +(circumnutation) which exists in a highly specialized form in +climbing plants. <i>Insectivorous Plants</i> (1875) is principally concerned +with the description of experiments on the Sun-dew +(<i>Drosera</i>), although other insect-catching plants, such as <i>Dionaea</i>, +are also investigated.</p> + +<p>Charles Darwin’s long life of patient, continuous work, the +most fruitful, the most inspiring, in the annals of modern science, +came to an end on the 19th of April 1882. He was buried in +Westminster Abbey on the 26th. It is of much interest to attempt +to set forth some of the main characteristics of the man who did +so much for modern science, and in so large a measure moulded +the form of modern thought. Although his ill-health prevented +Darwin, except on rare occasions, from attending scientific and +social meetings, and thus from meeting and knowing the great +body of scientific and intellectual workers of his time, probably +no man has ever inspired a wider and deeper personal interest and +affection. This was in part due to the intimate personal friends +who represented him in the circles he was unable frequently to +enter, but chiefly to the kindly, generous, and courteous nature +which was revealed in his large correspondence and published +writings, and especially in his treatment of opponents.</p> + +<p>In a deeply interesting chapter of the <i>Life and Letters</i> Francis +Darwin has given us his reminiscences of his father’s everyday +life. Rising early, he took a short walk before breakfasting alone +at 7.45, and then at once set to work, “considering the 1½ hours +between 8.0 and 9.30 one of his best working times.” He then +read his letters and listened to reading aloud, returning to work +at about 10.30. At 12 or 12.15 “he considered his day’s work +over,” and went for a walk, whether wet or fine. For a time he +rode, but after accidents had occurred twice, was advised to give +it up. After lunch he read the newspaper and wrote his letters +or the MS. of his books. At about 3.0 he rested and smoked for +an hour while being read to, often going to sleep. He then went +for a short walk, and returning about 4.30, worked for an hour. +After this he rested and smoked, and listened to reading until tea +at 7.30, a meal which he came to prefer to late dinner. He then +played two games of backgammon, read to himself, and listened +to music and to reading aloud. He went to bed, generally very +much tired, at 10.30, and was often much troubled by wakefulness +and the activity of his thoughts. It is thus apparent that the +number of hours devoted to work in each day was comparatively +few. The immense amount he achieved was due to concentration +during these hours, also to the unfailing and, because of his health, +the necessary regularity of his life.</p> + +<p>The appearance of Charles Darwin has been made well known +in numerous portraits and statues. He was tall and thin, being +about six feet high, but looked less because of a stoop, which +increased towards the end of his life. As a young man he had +been active, with considerable powers of endurance, and possessed +in a marked degree those qualities of eye and hand which make +the successful sportsman.</p> + +<p>Charles Darwin was, as a young man, a believer in Christianity, +and was sent to Cambridge with the idea that he would take +orders. It is probable, however, that he had merely yielded to +the influences of his home, without thinking much on the subject +of religion. He first began to reflect deeply on the subject during +the two years and a quarter which intervened between his return +from the “Beagle” (October 2nd, 1836) and his marriage (January +29th, 1839). His own words are, “disbelief crept over me at a +very slow rate, but was at last complete. The rate was so slow +that I felt no distress.” His attitude was that of the tolerant +unaggressive agnostic, sympathizing with and helping in the +social and charitable influences of the English Church in his +parish. He was evidently most unwilling that his opinions on +religious matters should influence others, holding, as his son, +Francis Darwin, says, “that a man ought not to publish on a +subject to which he has not given special and continuous +thought” (<i>l.c.</i> i. p. 305).</p> + +<p>In addition to the personal qualities and powers of Charles +Darwin, there were other contributing causes without which the +world could never have reaped the benefit of his genius. It is +evident that Darwin’s health could barely have endured the strain +of working for a living, and that nothing would have been left +over for his researches. A deep debt of gratitude is owing to his +father for placing him in a position in which all his energy could +be devoted to scientific work and thought. But his ill-health was +such that this important and essential condition would have +been insufficient without another even more essential. Francis +Darwin, in the <i>Life and Letters</i> (i. pp. 159-160), writes these +eloquent and pathetic words:—“No one indeed, except my +mother, knows the full amount of suffering he endured, or the full +amount of his wonderful patience. For all the latter years of his +life she never left him for a night; and her days were so planned +that all his resting hours might be shared with her. She shielded +him from every avoidable annoyance, and omitted nothing that +might save him trouble, or prevent him becoming over-tired, +or that might alleviate the many discomforts of his ill-health. I +hesitate to speak thus freely of a thing so sacred as the lifelong +devotion which prompted all this constant and tender care. But +it is, I repeat, a principal feature of his life, that for nearly forty +years he never knew one day of the health of ordinary men, and +that thus his life was one long struggle against the weariness and +the strain of sickness. And this cannot be told without speaking +of the one condition which enabled him to bear the strain and +fight out the struggle to the end.”</p> + +<p>Charles Darwin was honoured by the chief societies of the +civilized world. He was made a knight of the Prussian order, +“Pour le Mérite,” in 1867, a corresponding member of the Berlin +Academy of Sciences in 1863, a fellow in 1878, and later in the +same year a corresponding member of the French Institute in the +botanical section. He received the Bressa prize of the Royal +Academy of Turin, and the Baly medal of the Royal College of +Physicians in 1879, the Wollaston medal of the Geological Society +in 1859, a Royal medal of the Royal Society in 1853, and the +Copley medal in 1864. His health prevented him from accepting +the honorary degree which Oxford University wished to confer +on him, but his own university had stronger claims, and he +received its honorary LL.D. in 1877.</p> + +<p>Two daughters and five sons survived him, four of the latter +becoming prominent in the scientific world,—Sir George Howard +(b. 1845), who became professor of astronomy and experimental +philosophy at Cambridge in 1883; Francis (b. 1848), the distinguished +botanist; Leonard (b. 1850), a major in the royal +engineers, and afterwards well known as an economist; and +Horace (b. 1851), civil engineer.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin, including an autobiographical +chapter</i>, edited by his son Francis Darwin (3 vols., +London, 1887); <i>Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection</i>, +by E. B. Poulton (London, 1896); <i>Life and Letters of Thomas Henry +Huxley</i>, by Leonard Huxley (2 vols., London, 1900); A. R. Wallace, +<i>Darwinism</i> (1889); G. J. Romanes, <i>Darwin and after Darwin</i> (1895). +Also the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">T. H. Huxley</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. B. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DARWIN, ERASMUS<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (1731-1802), English man of science +and poet, was born at Elton, in Nottinghamshire, on the 12th of +December 1731. After studying at St John’s College, Cambridge, +and at Edinburgh, he settled in 1756 as a physician at Nottingham, +but meeting with little success he moved in the following +year to Lichfield. There he gained a large practice, and did +much, both by example and by more direct effort, to diminish +drunkenness among the lower classes. In 1781 he removed to +Derby, where he died suddenly on the 18th of April 1802. The +fame of Erasmus Darwin as a poet rests upon his <i>Botanic Garden</i>, +though he also wrote <i>The Temple of Nature, or the Origin of +Society, a Poem, with Philosophical Notes</i> (1803), and <i>The Shrine +of Nature</i> (posthumously published). The <i>Botanic Garden</i> (the +second part of which—<i>The Loves of the Plants</i>—was published +anonymously in 1789, and the whole of which appeared in 1791) +is a long poem in the decasyllabic rhymed couplet. Its merit lies +in the genuine scientific enthusiasm and interest in nature which +pervade it; and of any other poetic quality—except a certain, +sometimes felicitous but oftener ill-placed, elaborated pomp of +words—it may without injustice be said to be almost destitute. +It was for the most part written laboriously, and polished with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page844" id="page844"></a>844</span> +unsparing care, line by line, often as he rode from one patient to +another, and it occupied the leisure hours of many years. The +artificial character of the diction renders it in emotional passages +stilted and even absurd, and makes Canning’s clever caricature—<i>The +Loves of the Triangles</i>—often remarkably like the poem it +satirizes: in some passages, however, it is not without a stately +appropriateness. Gnomes, sylphs and nereids are introduced on +almost every page, and personification is carried to an extraordinary +excess. Thus he describes the <i>Loves of the Plants</i> +according to the Linnaean system by means of a most ingenious +but misplaced and amusing personification of each plant, and +often even of the parts of the plant. It is significant that botanical +notes are added to the poem, and that its eulogies of scientific +men are frequent. Erasmus Darwin’s mind was in fact rather +that of a man of science than that of a poet. His most important +scientific work is his <i>Zoonomia</i> (1794-1796), which contains a +system of pathology, and a treatise on generation, in which he, +in the words of his famous grandson, Charles Robert Darwin, +“anticipated the views and erroneous grounds of opinions of +Lamarck.” The essence of his views is contained in the following +passage, which he follows up with the conclusion “that one and +the same kind of living filaments is and has been the cause of all +organic life”:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“Would it be too bold to imagine that, in the great length of time +since the earth began to exist, perhaps millions of ages before the +commencement of the history of mankind,—would it be too bold to +imagine that all warm-blooded animals have arisen from one living +filament, which the great First Cause endued with animality, with +the power of acquiring new parts, attended with new propensities, +directed by irritations, sensations, volitions and associations, and +thus possessing the faculty of continuing to improve by its own +inherent activity, and of delivering down these improvements by +generation to its posterity, world without end!”</p> +</div> + +<p>In 1799 Darwin published his <i>Phytologia, or the Philosophy of +Agriculture and Gardening</i> (1799), in which he states his opinion +that plants have sensation and volition. A paper on <i>Female Education +in Boarding Schools</i> (1797) completes the list of his works.</p> + +<p>Robert Waring Darwin (1766-1848), his third son by his first +marriage, a doctor at Shrewsbury, was the father of the famous +Charles Darwin; and Violetta, his eldest daughter by his second +marriage, was the mother of Francis Galton.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Anna Seward, <i>Memoirs of the Life of Dr Darwin</i> (1804); and +Charles Darwin, <i>Life of Erasmus Darwin, an introduction to an essay +on his works by Ernst Krause</i> (1879).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DASENT, SIR GEORGE WEBBE<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (1817-1896), English writer, +was born in St Vincent, West Indies, on the 22nd of May 1817, +the son of the attorney-general of that island. He was educated +at Westminster school, King’s College, and Oxford, where he +was a contemporary of J. T. Delane (q.v.), whose friend he had +become at King’s College. On leaving the university in 1840 he +was appointed to a diplomatic post in Stockholm. Here he met +Jacob Grimm, and at his suggestion first interested himself in +Scandinavian literature and mythology. In 1842 he published +the results of his studies, a version of <i>The Prose or Younger +Edda</i>, and in the following year he issued a <i>Grammar of the +Icelandic or Old-Norse Tongue</i>, taken from the Swedish. Returning +to England in 1845, he became assistant editor of <i>The Times</i> +under Delane, whose sister he married; but he still continued his +Scandinavian studies, publishing translations of various Norse +stories. In 1853 he was appointed professor of English literature +and modern history at King’s College, London. In 1861-1862 he +visited Iceland, and subsequently published <i>Gisli the Outlaw</i> and +other translations from the Icelandic. In 1870 he was appointed +a civil service commissioner and consequently resigned his post +on <i>The Times</i>. In 1876 he was knighted. He retired from the +public service in 1892, and died at Ascot on the 11th of June 1896. +In addition to the works mentioned above, he published <i>The +Story of Burnt Njal</i>, from the Icelandic of the <i>Njals Saga</i> (1861).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Life of Delane</i> (1908), by Arthur Irwin Dasent.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DASHKOV, CATHERINA ROMANOVNA VORONTSOV,<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> +<span class="sc">Princess</span> (1744-1810), Russian <i>littérateur</i>, was the third daughter +of Count Roman Vorontsov, a member of the Russian senate, +distinguished for his intellectual gifts. (For the family see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vorontsov</a></span>.) She received an exceptionally good education, +having displayed from a very early age the masculine ability +and masculine tastes which made her whole career so singular. +She was well versed in mathematics, which she studied at the +university of Moscow, and in general literature her favourite +authors were Bayle, Montesquieu, Boileau, Voltaire and +Helvetius. While still a girl she was connected with the Russian +court, and became one of the leaders of the party that attached +itself to the grand duchess (afterwards empress) Catherine. +Before she was sixteen she married Prince Mikhail Dashkov, a +prominent Russian nobleman, and went to reside with him at +Moscow. In 1762 she was at St Petersburg and took a leading part, +according to her own account <i>the</i> leading part, in the <i>coup d’état</i> +by which Catherine was raised to the throne. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Catherine +II.</a></span>) Another course of events would probably have resulted in +the elevation of the Princess Dashkov’s elder sister, Elizabeth, +who was the emperor’s mistress, and in whose favour he made no +secret of his intention to depose Catherine. Her relations with the +new empress were not of a cordial nature, though she continued +devotedly loyal. Her blunt manners, her unconcealed scorn of +the male favourites that disgraced the court, and perhaps also her +sense of unrequited merit, produced an estrangement between +her and the empress, which ended in her asking permission to +travel abroad. The cause of the final breach was said to have +been the refusal of her request to be appointed colonel of the +imperial guards. Her husband having meanwhile died, she +set out in 1768 on an extended tour through Europe. She +was received with great consideration at foreign courts, and her +literary and scientific reputation procured her the <i>entrée</i> to the +society of the learned in most of the capitals of Europe. In +Paris she secured the warm friendship and admiration of Diderot +and Voltaire. She showed in various ways a strong liking for +England and the English. She corresponded with Garrick, Dr +Blair and Principal Robertson; and when in Edinburgh, where +she was very well received, she arranged to entrust the education +of her son to Principal Robertson. In 1782 she returned to the +Russian capital, and was at once taken into favour by the empress, +who strongly sympathized with her in her literary tastes, and +specially in her desire to elevate Russ to a place among the +literary languages of Europe. Immediately after her return the +princess was appointed “directeur” of the St Petersburg +Academy of Arts and Sciences; and in 1784 she was named the +first president of the Russian Academy, which had been founded +at her suggestion. In both positions she acquitted herself with +marked ability. She projected the Russian dictionary of the +Academy, arranged its plan, and executed a part of the work +herself. She edited a monthly magazine; and wrote at least +two dramatic works, <i>The Marriage of Fabian</i>, and a comedy +entitled <i>Toissiokoff</i>. Shortly before Catherine’s death the friends +quarrelled over a tragedy which the princess had allowed to find +a place in the publications of the Academy, though it contained +revolutionary principles, according to the empress. A partial +reconciliation was effected, but the princess soon afterwards +retired from court. On the accession of the emperor Paul in 1796 +she was deprived of all her offices, and ordered to retire to a +miserable village in the government of Novgorod, “to meditate +on the events of 1762.” After a time the sentence was partially +recalled on the petition of her friends, and she was permitted to +pass the closing years of her life on her own estate near Moscow, +where she died on the 4th of January 1810.</p> + +<p>Her son, the last of the Dashkov family, died in 1807 and bequeathed +his fortune to his cousin Illarion Vorontsov, who thereupon +by imperial licence assumed the name Vorontsov-Dashkov; +and Illarion’s son, Illarion Ivanovich Vorontsov-Dashkov (b. 1837), +held an appointment in the tsar’s household from 1881 to 1897.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Memoirs of the Princess Dashkoff written by herself</i> were published +in 1840 in London in two volumes. They were edited by Mrs +W. Bradford, who, as Miss Wilmot, had resided with the princess +between 1803 and 1808, and had suggested their preparation.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DASS, PETTER<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1647-1708), the “father” of modern +Norwegian poetry, was the son of Peter Dundas, a Scottish +merchant of Dundee, who, leaving his country about 1630 to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page845" id="page845"></a>845</span> +escape the troubles of the Presbyterian <span class="correction" title="amended from chursh">church</span>, settled in Bergen, +and in 1646 married a Norse girl of good family. Petter Dass +was born in 1647 on the island of Nord Herö; on the north coast +of Norway. Seven years later his father died, and his mother +placed him with his aunt, the wife of the priest of another little +island-parish. In 1660 he was sent to school at Bergen, in 1665 to +the university of Copenhagen, and in 1667 he began to earn his +daily bread as a private tutor. In 1672 he was ordained priest, +and remained till 1681 as under-chaplain at Nesne, a little parish +near his birthplace; for eight years more he was resident +chaplain at Nesne; and at last in 1689 he received the living of +Alstahoug, the most important in the north of Norway. The +rule of Alstahoug extended over all the neighbouring districts, +including Dass’s native island of Herö, and its privileges were +accompanied by great perils, for it was necessary to be constantly +crossing stormy firths of sea. Dass lived here in quietude, with +something of the honours and responsibilities of a bishop, +brought up his family in a God-fearing way, and wrote endless +reams of verses. In 1700 he asked leave to resign his living +in favour of his son Anders Dass, but this was not permitted; +in 1704, however, Anders became his father’s chaplain. About +this time Petter went to Bergen, where he visited Dorothea +Engelbrechtsdatter, with whom he had been for many years in +correspondence. He continued to write till 1707, and died in +August 1708. The materials for his biography are very numerous; +he was regarded with universal curiosity and admiration in +his lifetime; and, besides, he left a garrulous autobiography in +verse. A portrait, painted in middle age, now in the church of +Melhus, near Trondhjem, represents him in canonicals, with +deep red beard and hair, the latter waved and silky, and a head of +massive proportions. The face is full of fire and vigour. His +writings passed in MS. from hand to hand, and few of them were +printed in his lifetime. <i>Nordlands Trompet</i> (The Trumpet of +Nordland), his greatest and most famous poem, was not published +till 1739; <i>Den norska Dale-Vise</i> (The Norwegian Song of the +Valley) appeared in 1696; the <i>Aandelig Tidsfordriv</i> (Spiritual +Pastime), a volume of sacred poetry, was published in 1711. <i>The +Trumpet of Nordland</i> remains as fresh as ever in the memories +of the inhabitants of the north of Norway; boatmen, peasants, +priests will alike repeat long extracts from it at the slightest +notice, and its popularity is unbounded. It is a rhyming +description of the province of Nordland, its natural features, its +trades, its advantages and its drawbacks, given in dancing verse +of the most breathless kind, and full of humour, fancy, wit and +quaint learning. The other poems of Petter Dass are less universally +read; they abound, however, in queer turns of thought, +and fine homely fancies.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The collected writings of Dass were edited (3 vols., Christiania, +1873-1877) by Dr A. E. Eriksen.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DASYURE,<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> a bookname for any member of the zoological +family <i>Dasyuridae</i>. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marsupialia</a></span>.) The name is better +restricted to animals of the typical genus <i>Dasyurus</i>, sometimes +called true Dasyures. These are mostly inhabitants of the +Australian continent and Tasmania, where in the economy of +nature they take the place of the smaller predaceous Carnivora, +the cats, civets and weasels of other parts of the world. They +hide themselves in the daytime in holes among rocks or in hollow +trees, but prowl about at night in search of the small living +mammals and birds which constitute their prey, and are to some +extent arboreal in habit. The spot-tailed dasyure (<i>D. maculatus</i>), +about the size of a cat, inhabiting Tasmania and Southern +Australia, has transversely striated pads on the soles of the feet. +These organs are also present in the North Australian dasyure +(<i>D. hallucatus</i>) and the Papuan <i>D. albopunctatus</i>, and are +regarded by Oldfield Thomas as indication of arboreal habits; +in the common dasyure (<i>D. viverrinus</i>) from Tasmania and +Victoria, and the black-tailed dasyure (<i>D. geoffroyi</i>) from South +Australia, these feet-pads are absent, whence these species are +believed to seek their prey on the ground. The ursine dasyure +(<i>Sarcophilus ursinus</i>), often called the “Tasmanian Devil,” +constitutes a distinct genus. In size it may be compared to an +English badger; the general colour of the fur is black tinged +with brown, with white patches on the neck, shoulders, rump and +chest. It is a burrowing animal, of nocturnal habits, intensely +carnivorous, and commits great depredations on the sheepyards +and poultry-lofts of the settlers. In writing of this species Krefft +says that one—by no means a large one—escaped from confinement +and killed in two nights fifty-four fowls, six geese, an +albatross and a cat. It was recaptured in what was considered a +stout trap, with a door constructed of iron bars as thick as a lead +pencil, but escaped by twisting this solid obstacle aside.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DATE PALM.<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> The dates<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of commerce are the fruit of a species +of palm, <i>Phoenix dactylifera</i>, a tree which ranges from the Canary +Islands through Northern Africa and the south-east of Asia to +India. It has been cultivated and much prized throughout most +of these regions from the remotest antiquity. Its cultivation and +use are described on the mural tablets of the ancient Assyrians. +In Arabia it is the chief source of national wealth, and its fruit +forms the staple article of food in that country. The tree has also +been introduced along the Mediterranean shores of Europe; but +as its fruit does not ripen so far north, the European plants are +only used to supply leaves for the festival of Palm Sunday among +Christians, and for the celebration of the Passover by Jews. It +was introduced into the new world by early Spanish missionaries, +and is now cultivated in the dry districts of the south-western +United States and in Mexico. The date palm is a beautiful tree, +growing to a height of from 60 to 80 ft., and its stem, which is +strongly marked with old leaf-scars, terminates in a crown of +graceful shining pinnate leaves. The flowers spring in branching +spadices from the axils of the leaves, and as the trees are unisexual +it is necessary in cultivation to fertilize the female flowers by +artificial means. The fruit is oblong, fleshy and contains one +very hard seed which is deeply furrowed on the inside. The fruit +varies much in size, colour and quality under cultivation. +Regarding this fruit, W. G. Palgrave (<i>Central and Eastern +Arabia</i>) remarked: “Those who, like most Europeans at home, +only know the date from the dried specimens of that fruit shown +beneath a label in shop-windows, can hardly imagine how delicious +it is when eaten fresh and in Central Arabia. Nor is it, when +newly gathered, heating,—a defect inherent to the preserved +fruit everywhere; nor does its richness, however great, bring +satiety; in short it is an article of food alike pleasant and healthy.” +In the oases of Sahara, and in other parts of Northern Africa, +dates are pounded and pressed into a cake for food. The dried +fruit used for dessert in European countries contains more than +half its weight of sugar, about 6% of albumen, and 12% of +gummy matter. All parts of the date palm yield valuable +economic products. Its trunk furnishes timber for house-building +and furniture; the leaves supply thatch; their footstalks are +used as fuel, and also yield a fibre from which cordage is spun.</p> + +<p><i>Date sugar</i> is a valuable commercial product of the East Indies, +obtained from the sap or toddy of <i>Phoenix sylvestris</i>, the toddy +palm, a tree so closely allied to the date palm that it has been +supposed to be the parent stock of all the cultivated varieties. +The juice, when not boiled down to form sugar, is either drunk +fresh, or fermented and distilled to form arrack. The uses of the +other parts and products of this tree are the same as those of the +date palm products. <i>Date palm meal</i> is obtained from the stem of +a small species, <i>Phoenix farinifera</i>, growing in the hill country of +southern India.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further details see Sir G. Watt, <i>Dictionary of the Economic +Products of India</i> (1892); and <i>The Date Palm</i>, U.S. Department +of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin No. 53 +(W. T. Swingle), 1904.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Lat. <i>dactylus</i>, finger, hence fruit of the date palm, gave O. Fr. +<i>date</i>, mod. <i>datte</i>; distinguish “date,” in chronology, from Lat. +<i>datum</i>, <i>data</i>, given, used at the beginning of a letter, &c., to show +time and place of writing, e.g. <i>Datum Romae</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DATIA,<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> a native state of Central India, in the Bundelkhand +agency. It lies in the extreme north-west of Bundelkhand, near +Gwalior, and is surrounded on all sides by other states of Central +India, except on the east where it meets the United Provinces. +The state came under the British government after the treaty +of Bassein in 1802. Area, 911 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 173,759. +Estimated revenue, £70,000; tribute to Sindhia paid through the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page846" id="page846"></a>846</span> +British Government, £1000. The chief, whose title is maharaja, +is a Rajput of the Bundela clan, being descended from a younger +son of a former chief of Orchha. The state suffered from famine +in 1896-1897, and again to a less extent in 1899-1900. It is +traversed by the branch of the Indian Midland railway from +Jhansi to Gwalior. The town of Datia has a railway station, +16 m. from Jhansi. Pop. (1901) 24,071. It is surrounded by +a stone wall, enclosing handsome palaces, with gardens; the +palace of Bir Singh Deo, of the 17th century, is “one of the finest +examples of Hindu domestic architecture in India” (<i>Imperial +Gazetteer of India</i>, 1908).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DATIVE<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> (Lat. <i>dativus</i>, giving or given, from <i>dare</i>, to give), +the name, in grammar, of the case of the “indirect object,” the +person or thing to or for whom or which anything is given or done. +In law, the word signifies something, such as an office, which +may be disposed of at will or pleasure, and is opposed to perpetual. +In Scots law the term is applied to persons, duties or powers, +appointed or granted by a court of law; thus an “executor-dative” +is an executor appointed by the court and not by a +testator. It answers, therefore, to the English administrator (q.v.). +In Roman law, a <i>tutor</i> was either <i>dativus</i>, if expressly nominated +in a testament, or <i>optivus</i>, if a power of selection was given.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DATOLITE,<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> a mineral species consisting of basic calcium and +boron orthosilicate, Ca(BOH)SiO<span class="su">4</span>. It was first observed by +J. Esmark in 1806, and named by him from <span class="grk" title="dateisthai">δατεῖσθαι</span>, “to +divide,” and <span class="grk" title="lithos">λίθος</span>, “stone,” in allusion to the granular structure +of the massive mineral. It usually occurs as well-developed +glassy crystals bounded by numerous bright faces, many of which +often have a more or less pentagonal outline. The crystals were +for a long time considered to be orthorhombic, and indeed they +approach closely to this system in habit, interfacial angles and +optical orientation; humboldtite was the name given by A. Lévy +in 1823 to monoclinic crystals supposed to be distinct from +datolite, but the two were afterwards proved to be identical. +The mineral also occurs as masses with a granular to compact +texture; when compact the fractured surfaces have the appearance +of porcelain. A fibrous variety with a botryoidal or globular +surface is known as botryolite. Datolite is white or colourless, +often with a greenish tinge; it is transparent or opaque. Hardness +5-5½; specific gravity 3.0.</p> + +<p>Datolite is a mineral of secondary origin, and in its mode of +occurrence it resembles the zeolites, being found with them in the +amygdaloidal cavities of basic igneous rocks such as basalt; it is +also found in gneiss and serpentine, and in metalliferous veins +and in beds of iron ore. At Arendal in Norway, the original +locality for both the crystallized and botryoidal varieties, it is +found in a bed of magnetite. In amygdaloidal basaltic rocks it is +found at Bishopton in Renfrewshire and near Edinburgh; and +as excellent crystallized specimens at several localities in the +United States, e.g. at Westfield in Massachusetts, Bergen and +Paterson in New Jersey, and in the copper-mining region of +Lake Superior. At St Andreasberg in the Harz it occurs both +in diabase and in the veins of silver ore. Fine specimens have +recently been obtained from Tasmania.</p> + +<p>Large crystals of datolite completely altered to chalcedony +were formerly found with magnetite in the Haytor iron mine on +Dartmoor in Devonshire; to these pseudomorphs the name +haytorite has been applied.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAUB, KARL<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (1765-1836), German Protestant theologian, +was born at Cassel on the 20th of March 1765. He studied +philosophy, philology and theology at Marburg in 1786, and +eventually (1795) became professor ordinarius of theology at +Heidelberg, where he died on the 22nd of November 1836. Daub +was one of the leaders of a school which sought to reconcile +theology and philosophy, and to bring about a speculative +reconstruction of orthodox dogma. In the course of his intellectual +development, he came successively under the influence +of Kant, Schelling and Hegel, and on account of the different +phases through which he passed he was called the Talleyrand of +German thought. There was one great defect in his speculative +theology: he ignored historical criticism. His purpose was, as +Otto Pfleiderer says, “to connect the metaphysical ideas, which +had been arrived at by means of philosophical dialectic, directly +with the persons and events of the Gospel narratives, thus raising +these above the region of ordinary experience into that of +the supernatural, and regarding the most absurd assertions +as philosophically justified. Daub had become so hopelessly +addicted to this perverse principle that he deduced not only Jesus +as the embodiment of the philosophical idea of the union of God +and man, but also Judas Iscariot as the embodiment of the idea +of a rival god, or Satan.” The three stages in Daub’s development +are clearly marked in his writings. His <i>Lehrbuch der +Katechetik</i> (1801) was written under the spell of Kant. His +<i>Theologumena</i> (1806), his <i>Einleitung in das Studium der christl. +Dogmatik</i> (1810), and his <i>Judas Ischarioth</i> (2 vols., 1816, 2nd +ed., 1818), were all written in the spirit of Schelling, the last +of them reflecting a change in Schelling himself from theosophy +to positive philosophy. Daub’s <i>Die dogmatische Theologie jetziger +Zeit oder die Selbstsucht in der Wissenschaft des Glaubens</i> (1833), +and <i>Vorlesungen über die Prolegomena zur Dogmatik</i> (1839), are +Hegelian in principle and obscure in language.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Rosenkranz, <i>Erinnerungen an Karl Daub</i> (1837); D. Fr. +Strauss, <i>Charakteristiken und Kritiken</i> (2nd ed., 1844); and cf. F. +Lichtenberger, <i>History of German Theology</i> (1889); Otto Pfleiderer, +<i>Development of Theology</i> (1890).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. A. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAUBENTON, LOUIS-JEAN-MARIE<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (1716-1800), French +naturalist, was born at Montbar (Côte d’Or) on the 29th of May +1716. His father, Jean Daubenton, a notary, destined him for +the church, and sent him to Paris to learn theology, but the study +of medicine was more to his taste. The death of his father in +1736 set him free to follow his own inclinations, and accordingly +in 1741 he graduated in medicine at Reims, and returned to his +native town with the intention of practising as a physician. +But about this time Buffon, also a native of Montbar, had formed +the plan of bringing out a grand treatise on natural history, and +in 1742 he invited Daubenton to assist him by providing the +anatomical descriptions for that work. The characters of the +two men were opposed in almost every respect. Buffon was +violent and impatient; Daubenton, gentle and patient; Buffon +was rash in his judgments, and imaginative, seeking rather to +divine than to discover truths; Daubenton was cautious, and +believed nothing he had not himself been able to see or ascertain. +From nature each appeared to have received the qualities requisite +to temper those of the other; and a more suitable coadjutor than +Daubenton it would have been difficult for Buffon to obtain. In +the first section of the natural history Daubenton gave descriptions +and details of the dissection of 182 species of quadrupeds, +thus procuring for himself a high reputation, and exciting the +envy of Réaumur, who considered himself as at the head of +the learned in natural history in France. A feeling of jealousy +induced Buffon to dispense with the services of Daubenton in the +preparation of the subsequent parts of his work, which, as a +consequence, lost much in precision and scientific value. Buffon +afterwards perceived and acknowledged his error, and renewed +his intimacy with his former associate. The number of dissertations +on natural history which Daubenton published in the +memoirs of the French Academy is very great. Zoological +descriptions and dissections, the comparative anatomy of recent +and fossil animals, vegetable physiology, mineralogy, experiments +in agriculture, and the introduction of the merino sheep into +France gave active occupation to his energies; and the cabinet +of natural history in Paris, of which in 1744 he was appointed +keeper and demonstrator, was arranged and considerably +enriched by him. From 1775 Daubenton lectured on natural +history in the college of medicine, and in 1783 on rural economy +at the Alfort school. He was also professor of mineralogy at the +Jardin du Roi. As a lecturer he was in high repute, and to the +last retained his popularity. In December 1799 he was appointed +a member of the senate, but at the first meeting which he attended +he fell from his seat in an apoplectic fit, and after a short illness +died at Paris on the 1st of January 1800.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAUBENY, CHARLES GILES BRIDLE<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (1795-1867), English +chemist, botanist and geologist, was the third son of the Rev. +James Daubeny, and was born at Stratton in Gloucestershire on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page847" id="page847"></a>847</span> +the 11th of February 1795. In 1808 he went to Winchester, and +in 1810 he was elected to a demyship at Magdalen College, +Oxford, where the lectures of Dr Kidd first awakened in him a +desire for the cultivation of natural science. In 1814 he graduated +with second-class honours, and in the next year he obtained +the prize for the Latin essay. From 1815 to 1818 he studied +medicine in London and Edinburgh. He took his M.D. degree +at Oxford, and was a fellow of the College of Physicians. In 1819, +in the course of a tour through France, he made the volcanic +district of Auvergne a special study, and his <i>Letters on the +Volcanos of Auvergne</i> were published in <i>The Edinburgh Journal</i>, +1820-21. He was elected F.R.S. in 1822. By subsequent +journeys in Hungary, Transylvania, Italy, Sicily, France and +Germany he extended his knowledge of volcanic phenomena; +and in 1826 the results of his observations were given in a work +entitled <i>A Description of Active and Extinct Volcanos</i> (2nd ed., +1848). In common with Gay Lussac and Davy, he held subterraneous +thermic disturbances to be probably due to the contact +of water with metals of the alkalis and alkaline earths. In +November 1822 Daubeny succeeded Dr Kidd as professor of +chemistry at Oxford, and retained this post until 1855; and in +1834 he was appointed to the chair of botany, to which was +subsequently attached that of rural economy. At the Oxford +botanic garden he conducted numerous experiments upon the +effect of changes in soil, light and the composition of the atmosphere +upon vegetation. In 1830 he published in the <i>Philosophical +Transactions</i> a paper on the iodine and bromine of mineral waters. +In the following year appeared his <i>Introduction to the Atomic +Theory</i>, which was succeeded by a supplement in 1840, and in +1850 by a second edition. In 1831 Daubeny represented the +universities of England at the first meeting of the British Association, +which at his request held their next session at Oxford. +In 1836 he communicated to the Association a report on the +subject of mineral and thermal waters. In 1837 he visited +the United States, and acquired there the materials for papers +on the thermal springs and the geology of North America, read +in 1838 before the Ashmolean Society and the British Association. +In 1856 he became president of the latter body at its +meeting at Cheltenham. In 1841 Daubeny published his <i>Lectures +on Agriculture</i>; in 1857 his <i>Lectures on Roman Husbandry</i>; in +1863 <i>Climate: an inquiry into the causes of its differences and +into its influence on Vegetable Life</i>; and in 1865 an <i>Essay on the +Trees and Shrubs of the Ancients</i>, and a <i>Catalogue of the Trees +and Shrubs indigenous to Greece and Italy</i>. His last literary work +was the collection of his <i>Miscellanies</i>, published in two volumes, +in 1867. In all his undertakings Daubeny was actuated by a +practical spirit and a desire for the advancement of knowledge; +and his personal influence on his contemporaries was in keeping +with the high character of his various literary productions. He +died in Oxford on the 12th of December 1867.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Obituary by John Phillips in <i>Proceedings of Ashmolean Soc.</i>, +1868.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAUBIGNY, CHARLES FRANÇOIS<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1817-1878), French landscape +painter, allied in several ways with the Barbizon School, +was born in Paris, on the 15th of February 1817, but spent much +time as a child at Valmondois, a village on the Oise to the north-west +of Paris. Daubigny was the son of an artist, and most of his +family were painters. He began to paint very early in life, and at +the age of seventeen he took a studio of his own. Within twelve +months he had saved enough to go to Italy, where he studied and +painted for nearly two years; he then returned to Paris, not to +leave it again until, in 1860, he took a house at Auvers on the +Oise. By 1837 Daubigny had become famous as a river and landscape +painter, although he had been devoting himself as well to +drawing in black-and-white, to etching, wood engraving, and +lithography. In 1855 his picture, “Lock at Optevoz,” now in +the Louvre, was purchased by the state; four years later +Daubigny was created knight of the Legion of Honour, and in +1874 he was promoted to be an officer. In 1866, at the invitation +of Lord, then Mr Leighton and others, he visited London, where, +however, he was hurt by his now famous “Moonlight” being +badly hung in the Old Royal Academy. But the personal +encouragement of his admirers in England made up for the disappointment, +and the sale of his picture to a Royal Academician +greatly pleased him. In 1870-1871 he again visited London, and +subsequently Holland, where he painted a number of river scenes +with windmills. In 1874, having returned to Paris, he fell ill, +and from that time until he died (on the 19th of February 1878) +his work won less distinction than before. In 1904 the municipality +of Auvers-sur-Oise decided to erect a bronze monument +to Daubigny’s memory.</p> + +<p>Daubigny’s finest pictures were painted between 1864 and +1874, and these for the most part consist of carefully completed +landscapes with trees, river and a few ducks. It has curiously +been said, yet with some appearance of truth, that when +Daubigny liked his pictures himself he added another duck or +two, so that the number of ducks often indicates greater or less +artistic quality in his pictures. One of his sayings was, “The +best pictures do not sell,” as he frequently found his finest +achievements little understood. Yet although during the latter +part of his life he was considered a highly successful painter, the +money value of his pictures since his death has increased nearly +tenfold. Daubigny is chiefly preferred in his riverside pictures, +of which he painted a great number, but although there are two +large landscapes by Daubigny in the Louvre, neither is a river +view. They are for that reason not so typical as many of his +smaller Oise and Seine pictures.</p> + +<p>The works of Daubigny are, like Corot’s, to be found in many +modern collections. His most ambitious canvases are: “Springtime” +(1857), in the Louvre; “Borde de la Cure, Morvan” (1864); +“Villerville sur Mer” (1864); “Moonlight” (1865); “Andrésy sur +Oise” (1868); and “Return of the Flock—Moonlight” (1878).</p> + +<p>His followers and pupils were his son Karl (who sometimes +painted so well that his works are occasionally mistaken for those +of his father, though in few cases do they equal his father’s +mastery), Oudinot, Delpy and Damoye.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Fred Henriet, <i>C. Daubigny et son œuvre</i> (Paris, 1878); +D. Croal Thomson, <i>The Barbizon School of Painters</i> (London, 1890); +J. W. Mollett, <i>Daubigny</i> (London, 1890); J. Claretie, <i>Peintres +et sculpteurs contemporains: Daubigny</i> (Paris, 1882); Albert +Wolff, <i>La Capitale de l’art: Ch. François Daubigny</i> (Paris, 1881).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. C. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAUBRÉE, GABRIEL AUGUSTE<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (1814-1896), French +geologist, was born at Metz, on the 25th of June 1814, and +educated at the École Polytechnique in Paris. At the age of +twenty he had qualified as a mining engineer, and in 1838 he was +appointed to take charge of the mines in the Bas-Rhin (Alsace), +and subsequently to be professor of mineralogy and geology at +the Faculty of Sciences, Strassburg. In 1859 he became engineer +in chief of mines, and in 1861 he was appointed professor of +geology at the museum of natural history in Paris and was also +elected member of the Academy of Sciences. In the following +year he became professor of mineralogy at the École des Mines, +and in 1872 director of that school. In 1880 the Geological +Society of London awarded to him the Wollaston medal. His +published researches date from 1841, when the origin of certain +tin minerals attracted his attention; he subsequently discussed +the formation of bog-iron ore, and worked out in detail the +geology of the Bas-Rhin (1852). From 1857 to 1861, while +engaged in engineering works connected with the springs of +Plombières, he made a series of interesting observations on +thermal waters and their influence on the Roman masonry through +which they made their exit. He was, however, especially distinguished +for his long-continued and often dangerous experiments +on the artificial production of minerals and rocks. He likewise +discussed the permeability of rocks by water, and the effects of +such infiltration in producing volcanic phenomena; he dealt with +the subject of metamorphism, with the deformations of the earth’s +crust, with earthquakes, and with the composition and classification +of meteorites. He died in Paris on the 29th of May 1896.</p> + +<p>His publications were: <i>Études et expériences synthétiques sur +le métamorphisme et sur la formation des roches cristallines</i> +(1860); <i>Études synthétiques de géologie expérimentale</i> (1879); +<i>Les Eaux souterraines à l’époque actuelle</i> (2 vols., 1887); <i>Le +Eaux souterraines aux époques anciennes</i> (1887).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page848" id="page848"></a>848</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAUDET, ALPHONSE<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (1840-1897), French novelist, was born +at Nîmes on the 13th of May 1840. His family, on both sides, +belonged to the <i>bourgeoisie</i>. The father, Vincent Daudet, was a +silk manufacturer—a man dogged through life by misfortune and +failure. The lad, amid much truancy, had but a depressing boyhood. +In 1856 he left Lyons, where his schooldays had been +mainly spent, and began life as an usher at Alais, in the south. +The position proved to be intolerable. As Dickens declared that +all through his prosperous career he was haunted in dreams by +the miseries of his apprenticeship to the blacking business, so +Daudet says that for months after leaving Alais he would wake +with horror thinking he was still among his unruly pupils. On +the 1st of November 1857 he abandoned teaching, and took +refuge with his brother Ernest, only some three years his senior, +who was trying, “and thereto soberly,” to make a living as a +journalist in Paris. Alphonse betook himself to his pen likewise,—wrote +poems, shortly collected into a small volume <i>Les Amoureuses</i> +(1858), which met with a fair reception,—obtained employment +on the <i>Figaro</i>, then under Cartier de Villemessant’s +energetic editorship, wrote two or three plays, and began to be +recognized, among those interested in literature, as possessing +individuality and promise. Morny, the emperor’s all-powerful +minister, appointed him to be one of his secretaries,—a post +which he held till Morny’s death in 1865,—and showed him no +small kindness. He had put his foot on the road to fortune.</p> + +<p>In 1866 appeared <i>Lettres de mon moulin</i>, which won the attention +of many readers. The first of his longer books, <i>Le petit chose</i> +(1868), did not, however, produce any very popular sensation. +It is, in its main feature, the story of his own earlier years told +with much grace and pathos. The year 1872 produced the +famous <i>Aventures prodigieuses de Tartarin de Tarascon</i>, and the +three-act piece <i>L’Arlésienne</i>. But <i>Fromont jeune et Risler aîné</i> +(1874) at once took the world by storm. It struck a note, not +new certainly in English literature, but comparatively new in +French. Here was a writer who possessed the gift of laughter and +tears, a writer not only sensible to pathos and sorrow, but also to +moral beauty. He could create too. His characters were real +and also typical; the <i>ratés</i>, the men who in life’s battle had +flashed in the pan, were touched with a master hand. The book +was alive. It gave the illusion of a real world. <i>Jack</i>, the story +of an illegitimate child, a martyr to his mother’s selfishness, which +followed in 1876, served only to deepen the same impression. +Henceforward his career was that of a very successful man of +letters,—publishing novel on novel, <i>Le Nabab</i> (1877), <i>Les Rois en +exil</i> (1879), <i>Numa Roumestan</i> (1881), <i>Sapho</i> (1884), <i>L’Immortel</i> +(1888),—and writing for the stage at frequent intervals,—giving +to the world his reminiscences in <i>Trente ans de Paris</i> (1887), +and <i>Souvenirs d’un homme de lettres</i> (1888). These, with the +three <i>Tartarins</i>,—Tartarin the mighty hunter, Tartarin the +mountaineer, Tartarin the colonist,—and the admirable short +stories, written for the most part before he had acquired fame +and fortune, constitute his life work.</p> + +<p>Though Daudet defended himself from the charge of imitating +Dickens, it is difficult altogether to believe that so many similarities +of spirit and manner were quite unsought. What, however, +was purely his own was his style. It is a style that may rightly +be called “<i>impressionist</i>,” full of light and colour, not descriptive +after the old fashion, but flashing its intended effect by a masterly +juxtaposition of words that are like pigments. Nor does it +convey, like the style of the Goncourts, for example, a constant +feeling of effort. It is full of felicity and charm,—<i>un charmeur</i> +Zola has called him. An intimate friend of Edmond de Goncourt +(who died in his house), of Flaubert, of Zola, Daudet belonged +essentially to the naturalist school of fiction. His own experiences, +his surroundings, the men with whom he had been brought +into contact, various persons who had played a part, more or less +public, in Paris life—all passed into his art. But he vivified the +material supplied by his memory. His world has the great gift +of life. <i>L’Immortel</i> is a bitter attack on the French Academy, to +which august body Daudet never belonged.</p> + +<p>Daudet wrote some charming stories for children, among which +may be mentioned <i>La Belle Nivernaise</i>, the story of an old boat +and her crew. His married life—he married in 1867 Julia Allard—seems +to have been singularly happy. There was perfect +intellectual harmony, and Madame Daudet herself possessed +much of his literary gift; she is known by her <i>Impressions de +nature et d’art</i> (1879), <i>L’Enfance d’une Parisienne</i> (1883), and +by some literary studies written under the pseudonym of Karl +Steen. In his later years Daudet suffered from insomnia, failure +of health and consequent use of chloral. He died in Paris on the +17th of December 1897.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The story of Daudet’s earlier years is told in his brother Ernest +Daudet’s <i>Mon frère et moi</i>. There is a good deal of autobiographical +detail in Daudet’s <i>Trente ans de Paris</i> and <i>Souvenirs d’un homme de +lettres</i>, and also scattered in his other books. The references to him +in the <i>Journal des Goncourt</i> are numerous. See also L. A. Daudet, +<i>Alphonse Daudet</i> (1898), and biographical and critical essays by +R. H. Sherard (1894); by A. Gerstmann (1883); by B. Diederich +(1900); by A. Hermant (1903), and a bibliography by J. Brivois +(1895); also <i>The Works of Alphonse Daudet</i>, translated by L. Ensor, +H. Frith, E. Bartow (1902, etc.). Criticism of Daudet is also to +be found in F. Brunetière, <i>Le Roman naturaliste</i> (new ed., 1897); +J. Lemaître, <i>Les Contemporains</i> (vols. ii. and iv.); G. Pellissier, <i>Le +Mouvement littéraire au XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1890); A. Symons, <i>Studies in +Prose and Verse</i> (1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. T. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAULATABAD,<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> a hill-fortress in Hyderabad state, India, +about 10 m. N.W. of the city of Aurangabad. The former city of +Daulatabad (Deogiri) has shrunk into a mere village, though +to its earlier greatness witness is still borne by its magnificent +fortress, and by remains of public buildings noble even in their +decay. The fortress stands on a conical rock crowning a hill that +rises almost perpendicularly from the plain to a height of some +600 ft. The outer wall, 2¾ m. in circumference, once enclosed the +ancient city of Deogiri (Devagiri), and between this and the base +of the upper fort are three lines of defences. The fort is a place of +extraordinary strength. The only means of access to the summit +is afforded by a narrow bridge, with passage for not more than +two men abreast, and a long gallery, excavated in the rock, which +has for the most part a very gradual upward slope, but about +midway is intercepted by a steep stair, the top of which is covered +by a grating destined in time of war to form the hearth of a huge +fire kept burning by the garrison above. Besides the fortifications +Daulatabad contains several notable monuments, of which +the chief are the Chand Minar and the Chini Mahal. The Chand +Minar, considered one of the most remarkable specimens of +Mahommedan architecture in southern India, is a tower 210 ft. +high and 70 ft. in circumference at the base, and was originally +covered with beautiful Persian glazed tiles. It was erected in +1445 by Ala-ud-din Bahmani to commemorate his capture of the +fort. The Chini Mahal, or China Palace, is the ruin of a building +once of great beauty. In it Abul Hasan, the last of the Kutb +Shahi kings of Golconda, was imprisoned by Aurangzeb in 1687.</p> + +<p>Deogiri is said to have been founded <i>c.</i> A.D. 1187 by Bhillama I. +the prince who renounced his allegiance to the Chalukyas and +established the power of the Yadava dynasty in the west. In +1294 the fort was captured by Ala-ud-din Khilji, and the rajas, +so powerful that they were held by the Mussulmans at Delhi +to be the rulers of all the Deccan, were reduced to pay tribute. +The tribute falling into arrear, Deogiri was again occupied by the +Mahommedans under Malik Kafur, in 1307 and 1310, and in 1318 +the last raja, Harpal, was flayed alive. Deogiri now became an +important base for the operations of the Mussulman conquering +expeditions southwards, and in 1339 Mahommed ben Tughlak +Shah determined to make it his capital, changed its name to +Daulatabad (“Abode of Prosperity”), and made arrangements +for transferring to it the whole population of Delhi. The project +was interrupted by troubles which summoned him to the north; +during his absence the Mussulman governors of the Deccan +revolted; and Daulatabad itself fell into the hands of Zafar +Khan, the governor of Gulbarga. It remained in the hands of the +Bahmanis till 1526, when it was taken by the Nizam Shahis. +It was captured by the emperor Akbar, but in 1595 it again +surrendered to Ahmad Nizam Shah of Ahmednagar, on the fall of +whose dynasty in 1607 it passed into the hands of the usurper, +the Nizam Shahi minister Malik Amber, originally an Abyssinian +slave, who was the founder of Kharki (the present Aurangabad). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page849" id="page849"></a>849</span> +His successors held it until their overthrow by Shah Jahan, the +Mogul emperor, in 1633; after which it remained in the possession +of the Delhi emperors until, after the death of Aurangzeb, +it fell to the first nizam of Hyderabad. Its glory, however, had +already decayed owing to the removal of the seat of government +by the emperors to Aurangabad.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAUMIER, HONORÉ<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (1808-1879), French caricaturist and +painter, was born at Marseilles. He showed in his earliest youth +an irresistible inclination towards the artistic profession, which +his father vainly tried to check by placing him first with a +<i>huissier</i>, and subsequently with a bookseller. Having mastered +the technique of lithography, Daumier started his artistic career +by producing plates for music publishers, and illustrations for +advertisements; these were followed by anonymous work for +publishers, in which he followed the style of Charlet and displayed +considerable enthusiasm for the Napoleonic legend. +When, in the reign of Louis Philippe, Philipon launched the +comic journal, <i>La Caricature</i>, Daumier joined its staff, which +included such powerful artists as Devéria, Raffet and Grandville, +and started upon his pictorial campaign of scathing satire upon +the foibles of the bourgeoisie, the corruption of the law and the +incompetence of a blundering government. His caricature of the +king as “Gargantua” led to Daumier’s imprisonment for six +months at Ste Pélagie in 1832. The publication of <i>La Caricature</i> +was discontinued soon after, but Philipon provided a new field +for Daumier’s activity when he founded the <i>Charivari</i>. For this +journal Daumier produced his famous social caricatures, in which +bourgeois society is held up to ridicule in the figure of Robert +Macaire, the hero of a then popular melodrama. Another +series, “<i>L’histoire ancienne</i>,” was directed against the pseudo-classicism +which held the art of the period in fetters. In 1848 +Daumier embarked again on his political campaign, still in the +service of <i>Charivari</i>, which he left in 1860 and rejoined in 1864. +In spite of his prodigious activity in the field of caricature—the +list of Daumier’s lithographed plates compiled in 1904 numbers +no fewer than 3958—he found time for flight in the higher sphere +of painting. Except for the searching truthfulness of his vision +and the powerful directness of his brushwork, it would be difficult +to recognize the creator of <i>Robert Macaire</i>, of <i>Les Bas bleus</i>, +<i>Les Bohémiens de Paris</i>, and the <i>Masques</i>, in the paintings of +“Christ and His Apostles” at the Ryks Museum in Amsterdam, +or in his “Good Samaritan,” “Don Quixote and Sancho Panza,” +“Christ Mocked,” or even in the sketches in the Ionides Collection +at South Kensington. But as a painter, Daumier, one of the +pioneers of naturalism, was before his time, and did not meet with +success until in 1878, a year before his death, when M. Durand-Ruel +collected his works for exhibition at his galleries and +demonstrated the full range of the genius of the man who has been +well called the Michelangelo of caricature. At the time of this +exhibition Daumier, totally blind, was living in a cottage at +Valmondois, which was placed at his disposal by Corot, and +where he breathed his last in 1879. An important exhibition of +his works was held at the École des Beaux-Arts in 1900.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His life and art were made the subject of an important volume +by Arséne Alexandre in 1888; see also Gustave Geffroy, <i>Daumier</i> +(Paris, Libraire de l’Art), and Henri Frantz and Octave Uzanne, +<i>Daumier and Gavarni</i> (London, <i>The Studio</i>, 1904), with a large selection +of the artist’s work.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAUN (DHAUN), LEOPOLD JOSEF,<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count Von</span> (1705-1766), +prince of Thiano, Austrian field marshal, was born at Vienna +on the 24th of September 1705. He was intended for the +church, but his natural inclination for the army, in which his +father and grandfather had been distinguished generals, proved +irresistible. In 1718 he served in the campaign in Sicily, in his +father’s regiment. He had already risen to the rank of colonel +when he saw further active service in Italy and on the Rhine in +the War of the Polish Succession (1734-35). He continued to add +to his distinctions in the war against the Turks (1737-39), in +which he attained the rank of a general officer. In the War of the +Austrian Succession (1740-42), Daun, already a lieutenant field +marshal in rank, distinguished himself by the careful leadership +which was afterwards his greatest military quality. He was +present at Chotusitz and Prague, and led the advanced guard +of Khevenhüller’s army in the victorious Danube campaign +of 1743. Field Marshal Traun, who succeeded Khevenhüller in +1744, thought equally highly of Daun, and entrusted him with +the rearguard of the Austrian army when it escaped from the +French to attack Frederick the Great. He held important +commands in the battles of Hohenfriedberg and Soor, and in the +same year (1745) was promoted to the rank of <i>Feldzeugmeister</i>. +After this he served in the Low Countries, and was present +at the battle of Val. He was highly valued by Maria Theresa, +who made him commandant of Vienna and a knight of the +Golden Fleece, and in 1754 he was elevated to the rank of field +marshal.</p> + +<p>During the interval of peace that preceded the Seven Years’ +War he was engaged in carrying out an elaborate scheme for the +reorganization of the Austrian army; and it was chiefly through +his instrumentality that the military academy was established +at Wiener-Neustadt in 1751. He was not actively employed in +the first campaigns of the war, but in 1757 he was placed at the +head of the army which was raised to relieve Prague. On the +18th of June 1757 Daun defeated Frederick for the first time in +his career in the desperately fought battle of Kolin (q.v.). In +commemoration of this brilliant exploit the queen immediately +instituted a military order bearing her name, of which Daun was +nominated first grand cross. The union of the relieving army +with the forces of Prince Charles at Prague reduced Daun to the +position of second in command, and as such he took part in the +pursuit of the Prussians and the victory of Breslau. Frederick +now reappeared and won the most brilliant victory of the age +at Leuthen. Daun was present on that field, but was not held +accountable for the disaster, and when Prince Charles resigned +his command, Daun was appointed in his place. With the +campaign of 1758 began the war of manœuvre in which Daun, +if he missed, through over-caution, many opportunities of crushing +the Prussians, at least maintained a steady and cool resistance +to the fiery strategy of Frederick. In 1758 Major-General +Loudon, acting under Daun’s instructions, forced the king to +raise the siege of Olmütz, and later in the same year Daun himself +surprised Frederick at Hochkirch and inflicted a severe defeat +upon him (October 14th). In the following year the war of +manœuvre continued, and on the 20th and 21st of November he +surrounded the entire corps of General Finck at Maxen, forcing +the Prussians to surrender. These successes were counterbalanced +in the following year by the defeat of Loudon at +Liegnitz, which was attributed to the dilatoriness of Daun, and +Daun’s own defeat in the great battle of Torgau (q.v.). In this +engagement Daun was so severely wounded that he had to return +to Vienna to recruit.</p> + +<p>He continued to command until the end of the war, and afterwards +worked with the greatest energy at the reorganization of +the imperial forces. In 1762 he had been appointed president +of the <i>Hofkriegsrath</i>. He died on the 5th of February 1766. By +the order of Maria Theresa a monument to his memory was +erected in the church of the Augustinians, with an inscription +styling him the “saviour of her states.” In 1888 the 56th +regiment of Austrian infantry was named after him. As a +general Daun has been reproached for the dilatoriness of his +operations, but wariness was not misplaced in opposing a general +like Frederick, who was quick and unexpected in his movements +beyond all precedent. Less defence perhaps may be made for +him on the score of inability to profit by a victory.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Der deutsche Fabius Cunctator, oder Leben u. Thaten S. E. des +H. Leopold Reichsgrafen v. Dhaun K.K.F.M.</i> (Frankfort and +Leipzig, 1759-1760), and works dealing with the wars of the period.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAUNOU, PIERRE CLAUDE FRANÇOIS<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (1761-1840), French +statesman and historian, was born at Boulogne-sur-Mer, and after +a brilliant career in the school of the Oratorians there, joined the +order in Paris in 1777. He was professor in various seminaries +from 1780 till 1787, when he was ordained priest. He was +already known in literary circles by several essays and poems, +when the revolution opened a wider career. He threw himself +with ardour into the struggle for liberty, and refused to be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page850" id="page850"></a>850</span> +silenced in his advocacy of the civil constitution of the clergy +by the offer of high office in the church. Elected to the Convention +by Pas-le-Calais, he associated himself with the Girondists, +but strongly opposed the death sentence on the king. He took +little part in the struggle against the Mountain, but was involved +in the overthrow of his friends, and was imprisoned for a year. +In December 1794 he returned to the Convention, and was the +principal author of the constitution of the year III. It seems to +have been due to his Girondist ideas that the Ancients were +given the right of convoking the <i>corps législatif</i> outside Paris, +an expedient which made possible Napoleon’s <i>coup d’état</i> of the +18th and 19th Brumaire. The creation of the Institute was also +due to Daunou, who drew up the plan for its organization. His +energy was largely responsible for the suppression of the royalist +insurrection of the 13th Vendémiaire, and the important place he +occupied at the beginning of the Directory is indicated by the +fact that he was elected by twenty-seven departments as member +of the Council of Five Hundred, and became its first president. +He had himself set the age qualification of the directors at forty, +and thus debarred himself as candidate, as he was only thirty-four. +The direction of affairs having passed into the hands +of Talleyrand and his associates, Daunou turned once more to +literature, but in 1798 he was sent to Rome to organize the +republic there, and again, almost against his will, he lent his aid +to Napoleon in the preparation of the constitution of the year +VIII. His attitude towards Napoleon was not lacking in independence, +but in this controversy with the pope, the emperor was +able again to secure from him the learned treatise <i>Sur la puissance +temporelle du Pape</i> (1809). Still he took little part in the new +régime, with which at heart he had no sympathy, and turned +more and more to literature. At the Restoration he was +deprived of the post of archivist of the empire, which he had +held from 1807, but from 1819 to 1830 (when he again became +archivist of the kingdom) he held the chair of history and ethics +at the Collège de France, and his courses were among the most +famous of that age of public lectures. During the reign of Louis +Philippe he received many honours. In 1839 he was made a peer. +He died in 1840.</p> + +<p>In politics Daunou was a Girondist without combativeness; +a confirmed republican, who lent himself always to the policy +of conciliation, but whose probity remained unchallenged. He +belonged essentially to the centre, and lacked both the genius +and the temperament which would secure for him a commanding +place in a revolutionary era. As an historian his breadth of view +is remarkable for his time; for although thoroughly imbued with +the classical spirit of the 18th century, he was able to do justice +to the middle ages. His <i>Discours sur l’état des lettres au XIII<span class="sp">e</span> +siècle</i>, in the sixteenth volume of the <i>Histoire littéraire de France</i>, +is a remarkable contribution to that vast collection, especially +as coming from an author so profoundly learned in the ancient +classics. Daunou’s lectures at the Collège de France, collected +and published after his death, fill twenty volumes (<i>Cours +d’études historiques</i>, 1842-1846). They treat principally of the +criticism of sources and the proper method of writing history, and +occupy an important place in the evolution of the scientific study +of history in France. All his works were written in the most +elegant style and chaste diction; but apart from his share in the +editing of the <i>Historiens de la France</i>, they were mostly in the +form of separate articles on literary and historical subjects. +Personally Daunou was reserved and somewhat austere, preserving +in his habits a strange mixture of bourgeois and monk. His +indefatigable work as archivist in the time when Napoleon was +transferring so many treasures to Paris is not his least claim to +the gratitude of scholars.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Mignet, <i>Notice historique sur la vie et les travaux de Daunou</i> +(Paris, 1843); Taillandier, <i>Documents bibliographiques sur Daunou</i> +(Paris, 1847), including a full list of his works; Sainte-Beuve, +<i>Daunou</i> in his <i>Portraits Contemporains</i>, t. iii. (unfavourable and +somewhat unfair).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAUPHIN<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Delphinus</i>), an ancient feudal title in France, +borne only by the counts and dauphins of Vienne, the dauphins +of Auvergne, and from 1364 by the eldest sons of the kings of +France. The origin of this curious title is obscure and has been +the subject of much ingenious controversy; but it now seems clear +that it was in the first instance a proper name. Among the Norsemen, +and in the countries colonized by them, the name Dolphin +or Dolfin (<i>dolfr</i>, “a wound”) was fairly common, e.g. in the +north of England; thus a Dolfin is mentioned among the tenants-in-chief +in Domesday Book, and there was a Dolphin, lord of +Carlisle, towards the end of the 11th century. It has thus been +conjectured by some that the dauphins of Vienne derived their +title from Teutonic sources through Germany. But in the south, +too, the name—not necessarily derived from the same root—was +not unknown, though exceedingly rare, and was moreover +illustrated by two conspicuous figures in the Catholic martyrology: +St Delphinus, bishop of Bordeaux from 380 to 404, and +St Annemundus, surnamed Dalfinus, bishop of Lyons from +<i>c.</i> 650 to 657. Whatever its origin, this name was borne by +Guigo, or Guigue IV. (d. 1142), count of Albon and Grenoble, as an +additional name, during the lifetime of his father, and was also +adopted by his son Guigue V. Beatrice, daughter and heiress +of Guigue V., whose second husband was Hugh III., duke of +Burgundy, bestowed the name on their son André, to recall his +descent from the ancient house of the counts of Albon, and in the +charters he is called sometimes Andreas Dalphinus, sometimes +Dalphinus simply, but his style is still “count of Albon and +Vienne.” His successors Guigue VI. (d. 1270) and John I. +(d. 1282) call themselves sometimes Delphinus, sometimes +Delphini, the name being obviously treated as a patronymic, +and in the latter form it was borne by the sons of the reigning +“dauphin.” But even under Guigue VI. foreigners had begun +to confuse the name with a title of dignity, an imperial diploma +of 1248 describing Guigue as “Guigo Dalphinus Viennensis.”</p> + +<p>It was not until the third dynasty, founded by the marriage +of Anne, heiress of John I., with Humbert, lord of La Tour du +Pin, that “dauphin” became definitely established as a title. +Humbert not only assumed the name of Delphinus, but styled +himself regularly Dauphin of the Viennois (Dalphinus Viennensis), +and in a treaty concluded in 1285 between Humbert and +Robert, duke of Burgundy, the word <i>delphinatus</i> (Dauphiné) +appears for the first time, as a synonym for <i>comitatus</i> (county). +In 1349 Humbert II., the last of his race, sold Dauphiné to +Charles of Valois, who, when he became king of France in 1364, +transferred it to his eldest son. From that time the eldest sons of +the kings of France were always either actual or titular dauphins +of the Viennois. The “canting arms” of a dolphin, which they +quartered with the royal <i>fleurs de lys</i>, were originally assumed by +Dauphin, count of Clermont, instead of the arms of Auvergne +(the earliest extant example is appended to a deed of 1199), and +from him they were borrowed by the counts of the Viennois. +Guigue VI. used this device on his secret seal from his accession, +the earliest extant example dating from 1237, but, though no +specimens have survived, M. Prudhomme thinks it probable that +the dolphin was also borne by André Dauphin. It was also +assumed by Guigue V., count of Forez (1203-1241), a descendant +of Guigue Raymond of the Viennois, count of Forez, in right of his +wife Ida Raymonde. It is thus abundantly clear that the name +of Dauphin was not assumed from the armorial device, but vice +versa.</p> + +<p>The eldest son of the French king was sometimes called +“the king dauphin” (<i>le roy daulphin</i>), to distinguish him from +the dauphin of Auvergne, who was known, since Auvergne became +an appanage of the royal house, as “the prince dauphin.” The +dauphinate of Auvergne, which is to be distinguished from the +county, dates from 1155, when William VII., count of Auvergne, +was deposed by his uncle William VIII. “the Old.” William VII. +had married a daughter of Guigue IV. Dauphin, after whom their +son was named Dauphin (Delphinus). The name continued, as in +Viennois, as a patronymic, and was not used as a title until 1281, +when Robert II., count of Clermont, in his will, styles himself for +the first time Dauphin of Auvergne (<i>Alvernie delphinus</i>) for the +portion of the county of Auvergne left to his house. In 1428 +Jeanne, heiress of the dauphin Béraud III., married Louis de +Bourbon, count of Montpensier (d. 1486), thus bringing the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page851" id="page851"></a>851</span> +dauphinate into the royal house of France. It was annexed to +the crown in 1693.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Prudhomme, “De l’origine et du sens des mots dauphin et +dauphiné” in <i>Bibliothèque de l’École des Chartes</i>, liv. an. 1893 (Paris, +1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAUPHINÉ,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> one of the old provinces (the name being still +in current use in the country) of pre-Revolutionary France, in +the south-east portion of France, between Provence and Savoy; +since 1790 it forms the departments of the Isère, the Drôme and +the Hautes Alpes.</p> + +<p>After the death of the last king of Burgundy, Rudolf III., in +1032, the territories known later as Dauphiné (as part of his +realm) reverted to the far-distant emperor. Much confusion +followed, out of which the counts of Albon (between Valence and +Vienne) gradually came to the front. The first dynasty ended in +1162 with Guigue V., whose daughter and heiress, Beatrice, +carried the possessions of her house to her husband, Hugh III., +duke of Burgundy. Their son, André, continued the race, this +second dynasty making many territorial acquisitions, among +them (by marriage) the Embrunais and the Gapençais in 1232. +In 1282 the second dynasty ended in another heiress, Anna, who +carried all to her husband, Humbert, lord of La Tour du Pin +(between Lyons and Grenoble). The title of the chief of the house +was Count (later Dauphin) of the Viennois, <i>not</i> of Dauphiné. +(For the origin of the terms Dauphin and Dauphiné see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dauphin</a></span>.) +Humbert II. (1333-1349), grandson of the heiress Anna, was the +last independent Dauphin, selling his dominions in 1349 to +Charles of Valois, who on his accession to the throne of France +as Charles V. bestowed Dauphiné on his eldest son, and the title +was borne by all succeeding eldest sons of the kings of France. +In 1422 the Diois and the Valentinois, by the will of the last +count, passed to the eldest son of Charles VI., and in 1424 were +annexed to the Dauphiné. Louis (1440-1461), later Louis XI. +of France, was the last Dauphin who occupied a semi-independent +position, Dauphiné being annexed to the crown in 1456. The +suzerainty of the emperor (who in 1378 had named the Dauphin +“Imperial Vicar” within Dauphiné and Provence) gradually died +out. In the 16th century the names of the reformer Guillaume +Farel (1489-1565) and of the duke of Lesdiguières (1543-1626) +are prominent in Dauphiné history. The “States” of Dauphiné +(dating from about the middle of the 14th century) were suspended +by Louis XIII. in 1628, but their unauthorized meeting +(on the 21st of July 1788) in the tennis court (<i>Salle du Jeu de +Paume</i>) of the castle of Vizille, near Grenoble, was one of +the earliest premonitory signs of the great French Revolution +of 1789. It was at Laffrey, near Grenoble, that Napoleon +(March 7th, 1815) was first acclaimed by his old soldiers sent to +arrest him.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—J. Brun-Durand, <i>Dictionnaire topographique du +département de la Drôme</i> (Paris, 1891); Jules Chevalier, <i>Essai +historique sur l’église et la ville de Die</i>, Montélimar and Valence +(2 vols., 1888 and 1896); W. A. B. Coolidge, H. Duhamel and Félix +Perrin, <i>Climbers’ Guide to the Central Alps of the Dauphiny</i> (a revision +of a French work by the same, issued at Grenoble in 1887), London, +1892 (new ed. 1905); J. J. Guiffrey, <i>Histoire de la réunion du +Dauphiné à la France</i> (Paris, 1868); Joanne, <i>Dauphiné</i> (Paris, 1905); +A. Prudhomme, <i>Histoire de Grenoble</i> (Grenoble, 1888); <i>Ib.</i>, “De +l’origine des mots ‘Dauphin’ et Dauphiné” (article in vol. liv. (1893) +of the <i>Bibliothèque de l’École des Chartes</i>); A. Rochas, <i>Biographie +du Dauphiné</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1856); J. Roman, <i>Dictionnaire topographique</i> +(Paris, 1884); <i>Tableau historique</i> (Paris, 2 vols., 1887 and +1890); and <i>Répertoire archéologique du département des Hautes-Alpes</i> +(Paris, 1888); J. Roman, <i>Histoire de la ville de Gap</i> (Gap, 1892); +A. De Terrebasse, <i>Notice sur les Dauphins de Viennois</i> (Vienne, +1875); J. M. De Valbonnais, <i>Histoire de Dauphiné</i> (2 vols., Geneva, +1722); J. A. Félix Faure, <i>Les Assemblées de Vizille et de Romans</i>, +1788 (Paris, 1887); O. Chenavas, <i>La Révolution de 1788 en Dauphiné</i> +(Grenoble, 1888); C. Lory, <i>Description géologique du Dauphiné</i> +(Paris, 1860).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAURAT<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Dorat</span>), <b>JEAN</b> (in Lat. <span class="sc">Auratus</span>), (1508-1588), +French poet and scholar, and member of the Pléiade, was born +at Limoges in 1508. His name was originally Dinemandy. He +belonged to a noble family, and, after studying at the college of +Limoges, came up to Paris to be presented to Francis I., who +made him tutor to his pages. He rapidly gained an immense +reputation as a classical scholar. As a private tutor in the house +of Lazare de Baïf, he had J. A. de Baïf for his pupil. His son, +Louis, showed great precocity, and at the age of ten translated +into French verse one of his father’s Latin pieces; his poems +were published with his father’s. Jean Daurat became the +director of the Collège de Coqueret, where he had among his +pupils, besides Baïf, Ronsard, Remy, Belleau and Pontus de +Tyard. Joachim du Bellay was added by Ronsard to this group; +and these five young poets, under the direction of Daurat, formed +a society for the reformation of the French language and literature. +They increased their number to seven by the initiation of the +dramatist Étienne Jodelle, and thereupon they named themselves +La Pléiade, in emulation of the seven Greek poets of Alexandria. +The election of Daurat as their president proved the weight of his +personal influence, and the value his pupils set on the learning to +which he introduced them, but as a writer of French verse he is +the least important of the seven. Meanwhile he collected around +him a sort of Academy, and stimulated the students on all sides +to a passionate study of Greek and Latin poetry. He himself +wrote incessantly in both those languages, and was styled the +Modern Pindar. His influence extended beyond the bounds of +his own country, and he was famous as a scholar in England, +Italy and Germany. In 1556 he was appointed professor of +Greek at the Collège Royale, a post which he continued to hold +until, in 1567, he resigned it in favour of his nephew, Nicolas +Goulu. Charles IX. gave him the title of <i>poeta regius</i>. His flow +of language was the wonder of his time; he is said to have composed +more than 15,000 Greek and Latin verses. The best of +these he published at Paris in 1586 as <i>J. Aurati Lemovicis poëtae +et interpretis regii poëmata</i>. He died at Paris on the 1st of +November 1588, having survived all his illustrious pupils of the +Pléiade, except Pontus de Tyard. He was a little, restless +man, of untiring energy, rustic in manner and appearance. His +unequalled personal influence over the most graceful minds of +his age gives him an importance in the history of literature for +which his own somewhat vapid writings do not fully account.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Œuvres poétiques</i> in the vernacular of Jean Daurat +were edited (1875) with biographical notice and bibliography by +Ch. Marty-Laveaux in his <i>Pléiade française</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVENANT, CHARLES<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (1656-1714), English economist, +eldest son of Sir William Davenant, the poet, was born in London, +and educated at Cheam grammar school and Balliol College, +Oxford, but left the university without taking a degree. At the +age of nineteen he had composed a tragedy, <i>Circe</i>, which met with +some success, but he soon turned his attention to law, and having +taken the degree of LL.D., he became a member of Doctors’ +Commons. He was member of parliament successively for St +Ives, Cornwall, and for Great Bedwyn. He held the post of +commissioner of excise from 1683 to 1689, and that of inspector-general +of exports and imports from 1705 till his death in 1714. +He was also secretary to the commission appointed to treat for +the union with Scotland. As an economist, he must be classed +as a strong supporter of the mercantile theory, and in his economic +pamphlets—as distinct from his political writings—he takes up +an eclectic position, recommending governmental restrictions on +colonial commerce as strongly as he advocates freedom of exchange +at home. Of his writings, a complete edition of which +was published in London in 1771, the following are the more +important:—<i>An Essay on the East India Trade</i> (1697); <i>Two +Discourses on the Public Revenues and Trade of England</i> (1698); +<i>An Essay on the probable means of making the people gainers in +the balance of Trade</i> (1699); <i>A Discourse on Grants and Resumptions +and Essays on the Balance of Power</i> (1701).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVENANT<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">D’Avenant</span>), <b>SIR WILLIAM</b> (1606-1668), +English poet and dramatist, was baptized on the 3rd of March +1606; he was born at the Crown Inn, Oxford, of which his +father, a wealthy vintner, was proprietor. It was stated that +Shakespeare always stopped at this house in passing through the +city of Oxford, and out of his known or rumoured admiration of +the hostess, a very fine woman, there sprang a scandalous story +which attributed Davenant’s paternity to Shakespeare, a legend +which there is reason to believe Davenant himself encouraged, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page852" id="page852"></a>852</span> +but which later criticism has cast aside as spurious. In 1621 the +vintner was made mayor of Oxford, and in the same year his son +left the grammar school of All Saints, where his master had been +Edward Sylvester, and was entered an undergraduate of Lincoln +College, Oxford. He did not stay at the university, however, +long enough to take a degree, but was hurried away to appear at +court as a page, in the retinue of the gorgeous duchess of Richmond. +From her service he passed into that of Fulke Greville, +Lord Brooke, in whose house he remained until the murder of +that eminent man in 1628. This blow threw him upon the world, +not altogether without private means, but greatly in need of a +profitable employment.</p> + +<p>He turned to the stage for subsistence, and in 1629 produced +his first play, the tragedy of <i>Albovine</i>. It was not a very brilliant +performance, but it pleased the town, and decided the poet to +pursue a dramatic career. The next year saw the production at +Blackfriars of <i>The Cruel Brother</i>, a tragedy, and <i>The Just Italian</i>, +a tragi-comedy. Inigo Jones, the court architect, for whom +Ben Jonson had long supplied the words of masques and complimentary +pieces, quarrelled with his great colleague in the year +1634, and applied to William Davenant for verses. The result +was <i>The Temple of Love</i>, performed by the queen and her ladies +at Whitehall on Shrove Tuesday, 1634, and printed in that year. +Another masque, <i>The Triumphs of the Prince D’Amour</i>, followed +in 1636. The poet returned to the legitimate drama by the +publication of the tragi-comedy of <i>The Platonic Lovers</i>, and the +famous comedy of <i>The Wits</i>, in 1636, the latter of which, however, +had been licensed in 1633. The masque of <i>Britannica Triumphans</i> +(1637) brought him into some trouble, for it was suppressed as a +punishment for its first performance having been arranged for +a Sunday. By this time Davenant had, however, thoroughly +ingratiated himself with the court; and on the death of Ben +Jonson in 1637 he was rewarded with the office of poet-laureate, +to the exclusion of Thomas May, who considered himself entitled +to the honour. It was shortly after this event that Davenant +collected his minor lyrical pieces in a volume entitled <i>Madagascar +and other Poems</i> (1638); and in 1639 he became manager +of the new theatre in Drury Lane. The civil war, however, put a +check upon this prosperous career; and he was among the most +active partisans of royalty through the whole of that struggle for +supremacy.</p> + +<p>As early as May 1642, Davenant was accused before the Long +Parliament of being mainly concerned in a scheme to seduce the +army to overthrow the Commons. He was accordingly apprehended +at Faversham, and imprisoned for two months in London; +he then attempted to escape to France, and succeeded in reaching +Canterbury, where he was recaptured. Escaping a second time, +he made good his way to the queen, with whom he remained in +France until he volunteered to carry over to England some +military stores for the army of his old friend the earl of Newcastle, +by whom he was induced to enter the service as lieutenant-general +of ordnance. He acquitted himself with so much +bravery and skill that, after the siege of Gloucester, in 1643, he +was knighted by the king. After the battle of Naseby he retired +to Paris, where he became a Roman Catholic, and spent some +months in the composition of his epic poem of <i>Gondibert</i>. In +1646 he was sent by the queen on a mission to Charles I., then at +Newcastle, to advise him to “part with the church for his peace +and security.” The king dismissed him with some sharpness, +and Davenant returned to Paris, where he was the guest of Lord +Jermyn. In 1650 he took the command of a colonizing expedition +that set sail from France to Virginia, but was captured in the +Channel by a parliamentary man-of-war, which took him back +to the Isle of Wight. Imprisoned in Cowes castle until 1651, +he tempered the discomfort and suspense of his condition by +continuing the composition of <i>Gondibert</i>. He was sent up to the +Tower to await his trial for high treason, but just as the storm +was about to break over his head, all cleared away. It is believed +that the personal intercession of Milton led to this result. Another +account is that he was released by the desire of two aldermen +of York, once his prisoners, whom he had allowed to escape. +Davenant, released from prison, immediately published <i>Gondibert</i>, +the work on which his fame mainly rests, a chivalric epic in +the four-line stanza which Sir John Davies had made popular +by his <i>Nosce teipsum</i>, the influence of which is strongly +marked in the philosophical passages of <i>Gondibert</i>. It is a +cumbrous, dull production, but is relieved with a multitude +of fine and felicitous passages, and lends itself most happily to +quotation.</p> + +<p>During the civil war one of his plays had been printed, the +tragedy of <i>The Unfortunate Lovers</i>, in 1643. One of his best +plays, <i>Love and Honour</i>, was published in 1649, but appears to +have been acted long before. He found that there were many +who desired him to recommence his theatrical career. Such a +step, however, was absolutely forbidden by Puritan law. Davenant, +therefore, by the help of some influential friends, obtained +permission to open a sort of theatre at Rutland House, in +Charterhouse Yard, where, on the 21st of May 1656, he began a +series of representations, which he called <i>operas</i>, as an inoffensive +term. This word was then first introduced into the English +language. The opening piece was a kind of dialogue defending +the drama in the abstract. This was followed by his own <i>Siege of +Rhodes</i>, printed the same year, which was performed with stage +decorations and machinery of a kind hitherto quite unthought of +in England. Two other innovations in its production were the +introduction of recitative and the appearance of a woman, Mrs +Coleman, on the stage. He continued until the Restoration to +produce ephemeral works of this kind, only one of which, <i>The +Cruelty of the Spaniards in Peru</i>, in 1658, was of sufficient literary +merit to survive. In 1660 he had the infinite satisfaction of being +able to preserve the life of that glorious poet who had, nine years +before, saved his own from a not less imminent danger. The +mutual relations of Milton and Davenant do honour to the +generosity of two men who, sincerely opposed in politics, knew +how to forget their personal anger in their common love of letters. +In 1659 Davenant suffered a short imprisonment for complicity +in Sir George Booth’s revolt. Under Charles II. Davenant +flourished in the dramatic world; he opened a new theatre in +Lincoln’s Inn Fields, which he called the Duke’s; and he introduced +a luxury and polish into the theatrical life which it had +never before known in England. Under his management, the +great actors of the Restoration, Betterton and his coevals, took +their peculiar French style and appearance; and the ancient +simplicity of the English stage was completely buried under the +tinsel of decoration and splendid scenery. Davenant brought +out six new plays in the Duke’s Theatre, <i>The Rivals</i> (1668), an +adaptation of <i>The Two Noble Kinsmen</i>, which Davenant never +owned, <i>The Man’s the Master</i> (1669), comedies translated from +Scarron, <i>News from Plymouth</i>, <i>The Distresses</i>, <i>The Siege</i>, <i>The +Fair Favourite</i>, tragi-comedies, all of which were printed after +his death, and only one of which survived their author on the +stage. He died at his house in Lincoln’s Inn Fields on the night +of the 7th of April 1668, and two days afterwards was buried in +Poets’ Corner, Westminster Abbey, with the inscription “O rare +Sir William Davenant!” In 1672 his writings were collected in +folio. His last work had been to travesty Shakespeare’s <i>Tempest</i> +in company with Dryden.</p> + +<p>The personal character, adventures and fame of Davenant, +and more especially his position as a leading reformer, or rather +debaser, of the stage, have always given him a prominence in the +history of literature which his writings hardly justify. His plays +are utterly unreadable, and his poems are usually stilted and +unnatural. With Cowley he marks the process of transition +from the poetry of the imagination to the poetry of the intelligence; +but he had far less genius than Cowley, and his +influence on English drama must be condemned as wholly +deplorable.</p> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVENPORT, EDWARD LOOMIS<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (1816-1877), American +actor, born in Boston, made his first appearance on the stage in +Providence in support of Junius Brutus Booth. Afterwards he +went to England, where he supported Mrs Anna Cora Mowatt +(Ritchie) (1819-1870), Macready and others. In 1854 he was +again in the United States, appearing in Shakespearian plays +and in dramatizations of Dickens’s novels. As Bill Sykes he was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page853" id="page853"></a>853</span> +especially successful, and his Sir Giles Overreach and Brutus +were also greatly admired. He died at Canton, Pennsylvania, +on the 1st of September 1877. In 1849 he had married Fanny +Vining (Mrs Charles Gill) (d. 1891), an English actress also in +Mrs Mowatt’s company. Their daughter <span class="sc">Fanny</span> (<span class="sc">Lily Gipsy</span>) +<span class="sc">Davenport</span> (1850-1898) appeared in America at the age of twelve +as the king of Spain in <i>Faint Heart Never Won Fair Lady</i>. +Later (1869) she was a member of Daly’s company; and afterwards, +with a company of her own, acted with especial success +in Sardou’s <i>Fédora</i> (1883), <i>Cleopatra</i> (1890), and similar plays. +Her last appearance was on the 25th of March 1898, shortly +before her death.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVENPORT, ROBERT<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (fl. 1623-1639), English dramatist, is +mentioned as the author of a play licensed in 1624 under the title +of <i>Henry I.</i> In 1653 <i>Henry I. and Henry II.</i> was entered at +Stationers’ Hall by Humphrey Moseley with a second part said +to be the work of Davenport and Shakespeare. Of this play or +plays nothing has been discovered, but <i>King John and Matilda</i> +(printed 1655), which probably dates from about the same time, +has survived. Throughout the play, as in its closing scene +quoted by Charles Lamb in his <i>Dramatic Specimens</i>, there is much +“passion and poetry” which saves the piece from being classed +as pure melodrama. <i>The City-Night-Cap</i> was licensed in 1624, +but not printed until 1661. The underplot of this unsavoury +play was borrowed from Cervantes and Boccaccio, and Mrs +Aphra Behn’s <i>Amorous Prince</i> (1671) is an adaptation from it. +<i>A New Tricke to Cheat the Divell</i> (printed 1639) is a farcical +comedy, which contains among other things the idea of the +popular supper story which reappears in Hans Andersen’s +<i>Little Claus and Big Claus</i>. As told by Davenport the story +closely resembles the <i>Scottish Freires of Berwick</i>, which was +printed in 1603. Three other plays entered in the Stationers’ +Register as Davenport’s are lost, and he collaborated in two +plays with Thomas Drue.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Davenport’s plays were reprinted by A. H. Bullen in <i>Old English +Plays</i> (new series, 1890). The volume includes two didactic poems, +which first saw the light in 1623.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVENPORT,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> a city and the county seat of Scott county, +Iowa, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river, opposite Rock Island, +Illinois, with which it is connected by two fine bridges and by +a ferry. It is the third largest city in the state. Pop. (1890) +26,872; (1900) 35,254, including 8479 foreign-born (6111 +German), and 19,230 of foreign parentage (13,294 German); +(1905, state census) 39,797; (1910) 43,028. Davenport is served +by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Milwaukee & +St Paul, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Iowa & Illinois +(interurban), and the Davenport, Rock Island & North Western +railways; opposite the city is the western terminus of the +Illinois and Mississippi, or Hennepin, Canal (which connects the +Mississippi and Illinois rivers). Davenport lies on the slope of a +bluff affording extensive views of landscape and river scenery. +In the city are an excellent public library, an Academy of Sciences, +several turn-halls and other German social organizations, the +Iowa soldiers’ orphans’ home, Brown business college, and several +minor Roman Catholic institutions. Davenport is an episcopal +see of the Roman Catholic and the Protestant Episcopal churches. +The city has a large commerce and trade by water and rail in coal +and grain, which are produced in the vicinity, is of special +importance. With Rock Island and Moline it forms one great +commercial unit. Among Davenport’s manufactures are the +products of foundries and machine shops, and of flouring, grist +and planing mills; glucose syrup and products; locomotives, +steel cars and car parts, washing machines, waggons, carriages, +agricultural implements, buttons, macaroni, crackers and +brooms. The value of the total factory product for 1905 +was $13,695,978, an increase of 38.7% over that of 1900. +Davenport was founded in 1835, under the leadership of Colonel +George Davenport; it was incorporated as a town in 1838, +and was chartered as a city in 1851.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVENTRY,<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough in the +Southern parliamentary division of Northamptonshire, England, +74 m. N.W. from London by the London & North Western +railway. Pop. (1901) 3780. It is picturesquely situated on a +sloping site in a rich undulating country. On the adjacent +Borough Hill are extensive earthworks, and the discovery of +remains here and at Burnt Walls, immediately south, proves the +existence of a considerable Roman station. The chief industry +of the town is the manufacture of boots and shoes. The borough +is under a mayor, four aldermen and twelve councillors. Area, +3633 acres.</p> + +<p>In spite of the Roman remains on Borough Hill, nothing is +known of the town itself until the time of the Domesday Survey, +when the manor consisting of eight hides belonged to the countess +Judith, the Conqueror’s niece. According to tradition, Daventry +was created a borough by King John, but there is no extant +charter before that of Elizabeth in 1576, by which the town +was incorporated under the name of the bailiff, burgesses and +commonalty of the borough of Daventry. The bailiff was to +be chosen every year in the Moot Hall and to be assisted by +fourteen principal burgesses and a recorder. James I. confirmed +this charter in 1605-1606, and Charles II. in 1674-1675 granted a +new charter. The “quo warranto” rolls show that a market every +Wednesday and a fair on St Augustine’s day were granted to +Simon son of Walter by King John. The charter of 1576 confirms +this market and fair to the burgesses, and grants them two +new fairs each continuing for two days, on Tuesday after Easter +and on the feast of St Matthew the Apostle. Wednesday is still +the market day. The town was an important coaching centre, and +there was a large local industry in the manufacture of whips. +During the civil wars Daventry was the headquarters of Charles I. +in the summer of 1645, immediately before the battle of Naseby, +at which he was defeated. A Cluniac priory founded here shortly +after the Conquest has left no remains.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVEY OF FERNHURST, HORACE DAVEY,<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1833-1907), +English judge, son of Peter Davey, of Horton, Bucks, was +born on the 30th of August 1833, and educated at Rugby and +University College, Oxford. He took a double first-class in +classics and mathematics, was senior mathematical scholar and +Eldon law scholar, and was elected a fellow of his college. In +1861 he was called to the Bar at Lincoln’s Inn, and read in the +chambers of Mr (afterwards Vice-Chancellor) Wickens. Devoting +himself to the Chancery side, he soon acquired a large practice, +and in 1875 became a Q.C. In 1880 he was returned to parliament +as a Liberal for Christchurch, Hants, but lost his seat in +1885. On Gladstone’s return to power in 1886 he was appointed +solicitor-general and was knighted, but had no seat in the House, +being defeated at both Ipswich and Stockport in 1886; in 1888 +he found a seat at Stockton-on-Tees, but was rejected by that +constituency in 1892. As an equity lawyer Sir Horace Davey +ranked among the finest intellects and the most subtle pleaders +ever known at the English bar. He was standing counsel to the +university of Oxford, and senior counsel to the Charity Commissioners, +and was engaged in all the important Chancery suits +of his time. Among the chief leading cases in which he took a +prominent part were those of <i>The Mogul Steamship Company</i> +v. <i>M‘Gregor</i>, 1892, <i>Boswell</i> v. <i>Coaks</i>, 1884, <i>Erlanger</i> v. <i>New +Sombrero Company</i>, 1878, and the <i>Ooregum Gold Mines Company</i> +v. <i>Roper</i>, 1892; he was counsel for the promoters in the trial of +the bishop of Lincoln, and leading counsel in the Berkeley peerage +case. In 1862 he married Miss Louisa Donkin, who, with two +sons and four daughters, survived him. In 1893 he was raised +to the bench as a lord justice of appeal, and in the next year was +made a lord of appeal in ordinary and a life peer. He died in +London on the 20th of February 1907. Lord Davey’s great legal +knowledge was displayed in his judgments no less than at the +bar. In legislation he took no conspicuous part, but he was +a keen promoter of the act passed in 1906 for the checking of +gambling.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVID<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> (a Hebrew name meaning probably <i>beloved</i><a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a>), in the +Bible, the son of Jesse, king of Judah and Israel, and founder of +the royal Judaean dynasty at Jerusalem. The chronology of his +period is uncertain: the usual date, 1055-1015 B.C., is probably +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page854" id="page854"></a>854</span> +<span class="sidenote">Source.</span> +thirty years to half a century too early. The books of Samuel +(strictly, 1 Sam. xvi.-1 Kings ii.), which are our principal source +for the history of David, show how deep an impression +the personality of the king, his character, his +genius and the romantic story of his early years had left on the +mind of the nation. Of no hero of antiquity do we possess so +life-like a portrait. Minute details and traits of character are +portrayed with a vividness which bears all the marks of contemporary +narrative. But the record is by no means all of one piece +or of one date. This history, as we now have it, is extracted +from various sources of unequal value, which are fitted together +in a way which offers considerable difficulties to the critic. In +the history of David’s early adventures, for example, the +narrative is not seldom disordered, and sometimes seems to +repeat itself with puzzling variations of detail, which have led +critics to the unanimous conclusion that the First Book of +Samuel is drawn from at least two sources. It is indeed easy to +understand that the romantic incidents of this period were much +in the mouths of the people—to whom David was a popular +hero—and in course of time were written down in various forms +which were not combined into perfect harmony by later editors, +who gave excerpts from several sources rather than a new and +independent history. These excerpts, however, have been so +pieced together, that it is often impossible to separate them with +precision, and to distinguish accurately between earlier and later +elements. It even appears from a study of the Greek text that +some copies of the books of Samuel incorporated narratives +which other copies did not acknowledge. For the literary +problems of these books, see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Samuel (Books)</a></span>.</p> + +<p>The parallel history of David in 1 Chron. xi.-xxix. contains a +great deal of additional matter, which can rarely be treated as +of equal historical value with the preceding. Where it follows +the chapters in Samuel it is important for textual and other +critical problems, but it omits narratives in which it is not +interested (David’s youth, persecution by Saul, Absalom’s +revolt, &c.), and adds long passages (David’s arrangements for +the temple, &c.) which reflect the views of a much later age +than David’s. The lists of officers, &c., are fuller than those +in Samuel, and here and there contain notices of value. A +comparison of the two records, however, is especially important +for its illustration of the later tendency to idealize the figure of +David, and the historical critic has to bear in mind the possibility +that this tendency had begun long before the Chronicler’s time, +and that it may be found in the relatively older records preserved +in Samuel.</p> + +<p>David’s father, Jesse, was a citizen of Bethlehem in Judah, +5 m. south of Jerusalem; the polite deprecation in 1 Sam. +xviii. 18 means little (cf. Saul in ix. 21). Tradition +made him a descendant of the ancient nobles of +<span class="sidenote">Introduction to Saul.</span> +Judah through Boaz and the Moabitess Ruth, but the +tendency to furnish a noble ancestry for a noble figure—especially +one of obscure birth—is widespread (cf. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Genealogy</a></span>). +He was the youngest of eight sons,<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and spent his youth in an +occupation which the Hebrews as well as the Arabs seem to have +held in low esteem. He kept his father’s sheep in the desert +steppes of Judah, and there developed the strength, agility, +endurance and courage which distinguished him throughout life +(cf. 1 Sam. xvii. 34, xxiv. 2; 2 Sam. xvii. 9). There, too, he acquired +that skill in music which led to his first introduction to Saul +(1 Sam. xvi. 14-23, and the apocryphal Psalm of David, Ps. cli. in +the Septuagint). He found favour in the king’s eye, and became +his armour-bearer.<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a> But traditions varied. In 1 Sam. xvii. he +does not follow his master to the field against the Philistines; +he is an obscure untried shepherd lad sent by his father with +supplies for his brothers in the Israelite camp. He does not even +present himself before the king, and his brothers treat him with a +petulance hardly conceivable if he stood well at court, and it +appears from the close that neither Saul nor his captain Abner +had heard of him before (vv. 55-58). There is, indeed, a flat +contradiction between the two accounts, but a family of Greek +MSS. represented by the Vatican text omit xvii. 12-31, xvii. 55-xviii. + 5, and thus the difficulty is greatly lessened. Characteristic +of the omitted portions are the friendship which sprang up +between Jonathan and David and the latter’s appointment to a +command in the army. A further difficulty is caused by 2 Sam. +xxi. 19, which makes Elhanan the slayer of Goliath. David’s +exploit is not referred to in 1 Sam. xxi. 10-15, xxix., and on this +and other grounds the simpler tradition in 2 Sam. is usually preferred. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Goliath</a></span>.) But it must have been by some valiant +deed that Saul was led to notice him (cf. xiv. 52), and David +soon became both a popular hero and an object of jealousy +to Saul. According to the Hebrew text of 1 Sam. xviii., Saul’s +jealousy leaped at once to the conclusion that David’s ambition +would not stop short of the kingship. Such a suspicion would be +intelligible if we could suppose that the king had heard something +of the significant act of Samuel, which now stands at the head of +the history of David in witness of that divine election and unction +with the spirit of Yahweh on which his whole career hung (xvi. +1-13). But this passage is the sequel to the rejection of Saul in +xv., and Samuel’s position agrees with that of the late writer in +vii., viii. and xii.<a name="fa4k" id="fa4k" href="#ft4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>The shorter text, represented by the Septuagint, gives an +account of Saul’s jealousy which is psychologically more +intelligible.<a name="fa5k" id="fa5k" href="#ft5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a> According to this text Saul was simply +possessed with such a personal dislike and dread of +<span class="sidenote">Conflicts with Saul.</span> +David as might easily occupy his disordered brain. +To be quit of his hateful presence he gave him a military +command. In this charge David increased his reputation +as a soldier and became a general favourite. Saul’s daughter +Michal loved him; and her father, whose jealousy continued to +increase, resolved to put the young captain on a perilous enterprise, +promising him the hand of Michal as a reward of success, +but secretly hoping that he would perish in the attempt. David’s +good fortune did not desert him; he won his wife, and in this new +advancement continued to grow in the popular favour, and to +gain fresh laurels in the field. At this point it is necessary to +look back on the proposed marriage of David with Saul’s eldest +daughter Merab (xviii. 17-19; cf. xvii. 2-5). When the time +came for Saul to fulfil his promise, Merab was given to Adriel of +Abel-Meholah (perhaps an Aramaean). What is said of this +affair interrupts the original context of chap. xviii., to which the +insertion has been clumsily fitted by an interpolation in the +second half of ver. 21 (LXX omits). We have here, therefore, a +notice drawn from a distinct source which connects itself with +the other omitted passage, xvii. 12-31, where Saul had promised +his daughter to the one who should overthrow Goliath (ver. 25). +Since Merab and Michal are confounded in 2 Sam. xxi. 8, the +whole episode of Merab and David perhaps rests on a similar +confusion of names.</p> + +<p>As the king’s son-in-law, David was necessarily again at court. +He became chief of the bodyguard, as Ewald rightly interprets +1 Sam. xxii. 14, and ranked next to Abner (xx. 25), so that Saul’s +insane fears were constantly exasperated by personal contact +with him. On at least one occasion the king’s frenzy broke out +in an attempt to murder David with his own hand.<a name="fa6k" id="fa6k" href="#ft6k"><span class="sp">6</span></a> At another +time Saul actually gave commands to assassinate his son-in-law, +but the breach was made up by Jonathan, whose chivalrous +spirit had united him to David in a covenant of closest friendship +(xix. 1-7). The circumstances of the final outburst of Saul’s +hatred, which drove David into exile, are not easily disentangled. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page855" id="page855"></a>855</span> +The narrative of 1 Sam. xx., which is the principal account of +the matter, cannot originally have been preceded by xix. 11-24; +in chap. xx. David appears to be still at court, and Jonathan +is even unaware that he is in any danger, whereas the preceding +verses represent him as already a fugitive. It may also be +doubted whether the narrative of David’s escape from his own +house by the aid of his wife Michal (xix. 11-17) has any close +connexion with ver. 10, and does not rather belong to a later +period.<a name="fa7k" id="fa7k" href="#ft7k"><span class="sp">7</span></a> David’s daring spirit might very well lead him to visit +his wife even after his first flight. The danger of such an enterprise +was diminished by the reluctance to violate the apartments +of women and attack a sleeping foe, which appears also in Judges +xvi. 2, and among the Arabs.<a name="fa8k" id="fa8k" href="#ft8k"><span class="sp">8</span></a></p> + +<p>According to chap. xx. David was still at court in his usual +position when he became certain that the king was aiming at his +life. He betook himself to Jonathan, who thought his suspicions +groundless, but undertook to test them. A plan was arranged by +which Jonathan should draw from the king an expression of his +feelings, and a tremendous explosion revealed that Saul regarded +David as the rival of his dynasty, and Jonathan as little better +than a fellow-conspirator. After a final interview (xx. 40-42), +which must be regarded as a later expansion, they parted and +David fled. He sought the sanctuary at Nob, where he had been +wont to consult the priestly oracle (xxii. 15), and here, concealing +his disgrace by a fictitious story, he also obtained bread from the +consecrated table and the sword of Goliath (chap. xxi. i-9).<a name="fa9k" id="fa9k" href="#ft9k"><span class="sp">9</span></a> +His hasty flight—without food and weapon—suggests that the +narrative should follow upon xix. 17.</p> + +<p>It was perhaps after this that David made a last attempt to +find a place of refuge in the prophetic circle of Samuel at Ramah +(xix. 18-24). The episode now stands in another +connexion, where it is certainly out of place. It might, +<span class="sidenote">Outlaw life.</span> +however, fit into the break that plainly exists in the +history at xxi. 10 after the affair at Nob. Deprived of the +protection of religion as well as of justice, David tried his fortune +among the Philistines at Gath. Recognized and suspected as a +redoubtable foe, he made his escape by feigning madness, which +in the East has inviolable privileges (xxi. 11-16).<a name="fa10k" id="fa10k" href="#ft10k"><span class="sp">10</span></a> The passage +anticipates chap. xxvii., and it is hardly probable that the slayer +of Goliath or of any other Philistine giant fled to the Philistines +with their dead hero’s sword. He returned to the wilds of Judah, +and was joined at Adullam<a name="fa11k" id="fa11k" href="#ft11k"><span class="sp">11</span></a> by his father’s house and by a small +band of outlaws, of which he became the head. Placing his +parents under the charge of the king of Moab, he took up the life +of a guerilla captain, cultivating friendly relations with the +townships of Judah (xxx. 26), which were glad to have on their +frontiers a protector so valiant as David, even at the expense of +the blackmail which he levied in return. A clear conception of +his life at this time, and of the respect which he inspired by the +discipline in which he held his men, and of the generosity which +tempered his fiery nature, is given in chap. xxv. His force +gradually swelled, and he was joined by the prophet Gad (note his +message xxii. 5) and by the priest Abiathar, the only survivor +of a terrible massacre by which Saul took revenge for the favours +which David had received at the sanctuary of Nob. He was +even able to strike at the Philistines, and to rescue Kĕīlah (south +of Adullam and to the east of Beit Jibrīn) from their attack +(xxiii. 1-13). Forced to flee by the treachery of the very men +whom he had succoured, he lived for a time in constant fear of +being captured by Saul, and at length took refuge with Achish +king of Gath and established himself in Ziklag. Popular tradition, +as though unwilling to let David escape from Saul, told of +that king’s continual pursuit of the outlaw, of the attempt of the +men of Ziph (S.E. of Hebron) to betray him, of David’s magnanimity +displayed on two occasions, and of Jonathan’s visit to +console his bosom friend (xxiv.-xxvi.).<a name="fa12k" id="fa12k" href="#ft12k"><span class="sp">12</span></a> The situation was one +which lent itself to the imagination.</p> + +<p>The site of Ziklag is unknown. It hardly lay near Gath +(probably Tell es-Sāfi, 12 m. E. of Ashdod), but rather to the +south of Judah (Josh. xix. 5). Here he occupied himself in +chastening the Amalekites and other robber tribes who made +raids on Judah and the Philistines without distinction (xxvii.). +The details of the text are obscure, and seem to imply that David +systematically attacked populations friendly to Achish whilst +pretending that he had been making forays against Judah. If +this were an attempt to steer a middle course his true actions +could not have been kept secret long, and as it is implied that the +Philistines subsequently acquiesced in David’s sovereignty in +Hebron, it is not easy to see what interest they had in embroiling +him with the men of Judah. At length, in the second year, he +was called to join his master in a great campaign against Saul. +The Philistines for once directed their forces towards the plain of +Jezreel (Esdraelon) in the north; and Saul, forsaken by Yahweh, +already gave himself up for lost. David accompanied the army +as a matter of course. But his presence was not observed +until they reached their destination, when the jealousy of the +Philistines overrode his protestations of fidelity and he was +ordered to return. He reached Ziklag only to find the town +pillaged by the Amalekites. Pursuing the foes, he inflicted +upon them a signal chastisement and took a great booty, +part of which he spent in politic gifts to the leading men of +the towns in the south country.<a name="fa13k" id="fa13k" href="#ft13k"><span class="sp">13</span></a></p> + +<p>Meantime Saul had fallen in battle, and northern Israel was in +a state of chaos. The Philistines took possession of the fertile +lowlands of Jezreel and the Jordan, and the shattered forces +of Israel were slowly rallied by Abner in the remote city of +Mahanaim in Gilead, under the nominal sovereignty of Saul’s son +Ishbaal. David now took the first great step to the throne. He +was no longer an outlaw with a band of wandering companions, +but a petty chieftain, head of a small colony of men, allied with +families of Caleb and Jezreel (in Judah), and on friendly footing +<span class="sidenote">King at Hebron.</span> +with the sheikhs south of Hebron. In response to an +oracle he was bidden to move northwards to Judah +and successfully occupied it with Hebron as his capital. +Here he was anointed king, the first ruler of the southern kingdom. +If the chronological notice may be trusted, he was then thirty +years of age, and he reigned there for seven and a half years +(2. Sam. ii. 1-4<i>a</i>, 11, v. 4 sq.). The noble elegy on the death of +Saul and Jonathan, quoted from the Book of Jashar (2 Sam. i.), +is marked by the absence both of religious feeling and of allusions +to his earlier experiences with Saul which David might have been +expected to make. It was deemed only natural that he should +sympathize deeply with the disasters of the northern kingdom. +His vengeance on the Amalekite who slew Saul—the account +is a doublet of 1 Sam. xxxi.—is consistent with his generous +treatment of his late adversary in his outlaw life, and with this +agrees his embassy of thanks to the men of Jabesh-Gilead for their +chivalrous rescue of the bodies of the fallen heroes (2 Sam. ii. 4<i>b</i>-7). +The embassy threw out a hint,—their lord was dead and David +himself had been anointed king over Judah; but the relation +between Jabesh-Gilead and Saul had been a close one, and it was +not to be expected that its eyes would be turned upon the king of +Judah when Saul’s son was installed at the not distant Mahanaim. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page856" id="page856"></a>856</span> +The interest of the narratives is now directed away from the +Philistines to the decaying fortunes of Saul’s house. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abner</a></span> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saul</a></span>.) Abner had taken Saul’s son Ishbaal and his authority +was gradually consolidated in the north. War broke out between +the two parties at Gibeon a few miles north of Jerusalem. A +sham contest was changed into a fatal fray by the treachery of +Ishbaal’s men; and in the battle which ensued Abner was not +only defeated, but, by slaying Asahel, drew upon himself a blood-feud +with Joab. The war continued. Ishbaal’s party became +weaker and weaker; and at length Abner quarrelled with his +nominal master and offered the kingdom to David. The king +seized the opportunity to demand the return of Michal, his +wife. The passage (iii. 12-16) is not free from difficulties, +but it is intelligible that David should desire to ally himself +as closely as possible with Saul’s family (cf. xii. 8). The base +murder of Abner by Joab did not long defer the inevitable issue +of events. Ishbaal lost hope, and after he had been foully +assassinated by two of his own followers, all Israel sought David +as king.</p> + +<p>The biblical narrative is admittedly not so constructed as to +enable us to describe in chronological order the thirty-three years +of David’s reign over all Israel. It is possible that some of the +incidents ascribed to this period properly belong to an earlier +part of his life, and that tradition has idealized the life of David +the king even as it has not failed to colour the history of David +the outlaw and king of Hebron.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In the preceding account the biblical narratives have been +followed as closely as possible in the light of the critical results +generally accepted. That they have been affected by the +growth of popular tradition is patent from the traces +<span class="sidenote">Critical considerations.</span> +of duplicate narratives, from the difficulty caused, for +example, by the story of Goliath (q.v.), and from a closer +study of the chapters. The later views of the history of this period +are represented in the book of Chronicles, where immediately after +Saul’s death David is anointed at Hebron king over all Israel +(1 Chron. xi.). It is quite in harmony with this that the same source +speaks of the Israelites who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii. +1-22), and of the host which came to him at Hebron to turn over to +him Saul’s kingdom (xii. 23-40). This treatment of history can be at +once corrected by the books of Samuel, but it is only from a deeper +study of the internal evidence that these, too, appear to give expression +to doubtful and conflicting views. It is questionable whether +David could have become king over all Israel immediately after the +death of Ishbaal. The chronological notices in ii. 10 sqq. allow an +interval of no less than five and a half years, and nowhere do the +events of these years appear to be recorded. But David’s position +in the south of Judah is clear. He is related by marriage with south +Judaean clans of Caleb, Jezreel, and probably Geshur. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Absalom</a></span>.) +He was at the head of a small colony (1 Sam. xxvii. 3), and on +friendly terms with the sheikhs south of Hebron (xxx. 26-31).<a name="fa14k" id="fa14k" href="#ft14k"><span class="sp">14</span></a> His +step forward to Hebron is in every way intelligible and is the natural +outcome of his policy. It is less easy to trace his previous moves. +There are gaps in the narratives, and the further back we proceed +the more serious do their difficulties become. These chapters bring +him farther north, and they commence by depicting David as a man +of Bethlehem, high in the court of Saul, the king’s son-in-law, and +a popular favourite with the people. But notwithstanding this, the +relation is broken off, and years elapse before David gains hold upon +the Hebrews of north Israel, the weakness of the union being +proved by the ease with which it was subsequently broken after +Solomon’s death. Much of the life of Saul is obscure, and this too, +it would seem, because tradition loved rather to speak of the founder +of the ideal monarchy than of his less successful rival. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saul</a></span>.) +It is not impossible that some traditions did not bring them +together. If Jerusalem and its immediate neighbourhood were first +conquered by David (2 Sam. v.), it is probable that Beeroth and +Gibeon (2 Sam. iv. 2, xxi. 2), Shaalbim, Har-heres and Aijalon +(Judg. i. 35), Gezer (<i>ib.</i> i. 29), Chephirah and Kirjath-jearim (Josh. +ix. 17) had remained Canaanite. The evidence has obviously some +bearing upon the history of Saul, as also upon the intercourse between +Judah and Benjamin which David’s early history implies. It has +been conjectured, therefore, that David’s original home lay in the +south. Since the early historical narrative (1 Sam. xxv. 2) finds +him in Maon, Winckler has suggested that he was a Calebite chief, +while a criticism of the details relating to David’s family has induced +Marquart<a name="fa15k" id="fa15k" href="#ft15k"><span class="sp">15</span></a> to conjecture that he was born at Arad (Tell ‘Arād) +about 17 m. S.E. of Hebron. Once indeed we find him in the wilderness +of Paran 1 (Sam. xxv. 1, LXX reads Maon), and a more southerly +origin has been thought of (Winckler). This is involved with other +views of the early history of the Israelites; see further below.</p> +</div> + +<p>David owed his success to his troop of freebooters (1 Sam. +xxii. 2), now an organized force, and absolutely attached to his +person. The valour of these “mighty men” (<i>gibbōrīm</i>) +was topical. The names of the most honoured are +<span class="sidenote">Capture of Jerusalem.</span> +preserved, and we have some interesting accounts of +their exploits in the days of the giants (2 Sam. xxi., +xxiii.). We hear of two great battles with the “Philistines” in +the valley of Rephaim, near Jerusalem, at a time when David’s +base was Adullam (v. 17-25). In one conflict a giant thought +to slay him, but he was saved by Abishai, the brother of Joab, +and the men took an oath that David should no more go to battle +lest he “quench the light of Israel.” On another occasion, +Elhanan of Bethlehem slew the giant Goliath of Gath, and +David’s own brother Shimei (or Shammah) overthrew a monster +who could boast of twenty-four fingers and toes. In yet another +incident the Philistines maintained a garrison in Bethlehem, +and David expressed a wish for a drink from its well. The wish +was gratified at the risk of the lives of three brave men, and he +recognized the solemnity of the occasion by pouring out the +water as an offering unto Yahweh.</p> + +<p>From a later summary (viii. 1) it seems that the Philistines +were at length vanquished, and the unknown Metheg-Ammah +taken out of their hands.<a name="fa16k" id="fa16k" href="#ft16k"><span class="sp">16</span></a> Not until the district was cleared +could Jerusalem be taken, and the capture of the almost impregnable +Jebusite fortress furnished a centre for future action. +Here, in the midst of a region which had been held by aliens, he +fortified the “city of David” and garrisoned it with his men. +Meanwhile the ark of Yahweh, the only sanctuary of national +significance, had remained in obscurity since its return from the +Philistines in the early youth of Samuel. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ark</a></span>.) David +brought it up from Baalah of Judah with great pomp, and pitched +a tent for it in Zion, amidst national rejoicings. The narrative +(2 Sam. vi.) represents the act as that of a loyal and God-fearing +heart which knew that the true principle of Israel’s unity and +strength lay in national adherence to Yahweh; but the event +was far from having the significance which later times ascribed +to it (1 Chron. xiii., xv. sqq.); even Solomon visited the sanctuary +at Gibeon, and Absalom vowed his vow unto Yahweh at Hebron. +It was not unnatural that the king who had his palace built by +Tyrian artists should have proposed to erect a permanent +temple to Yahweh. Such, at least, was the thought of later +writers, who have given effect to the belief in chap. viii. It was +said that the prophet Nathan commanded the execution of this +plan to be delayed for a generation; but David received at the +same time a prophetic assurance that his house and kingdom +should be established for ever before Yahweh.</p> + +<p>What remains to be said of his internal policy may be briefly +detailed. In civil matters the king looked heedfully to the +execution of justice (viii. 15), and was always accessible +to the people (xiv. 4). But he does not appear to have +<span class="sidenote">Internal policy.</span> +made any change in the old local administration of +justice, or to have appointed a central tribunal (xv. 2, where, +however, Absalom’s complaint that the king was inaccessible is +merely factious). A few great officers of state were appointed +at the court of Jerusalem (viii. 16-18, xx. 23-26), which was +not without a splendour hitherto unknown in Israel. Royal +pensioners, of whom Jonathan’s son Mephibosheth was one, were +gathered round a princely table. The art of music was not +neglected (xix. 35). A more dangerous piece of magnificence was +the harem. Another innovation was the census; it was undertaken +despite the protests of Joab, and was checked by the +rebukes of the prophet Gad and the visitation of a pestilence +(xxiv.). Striking, too, is the conception of the national God who +incites the king to do an act for which he was to be punished.<a name="fa17k" id="fa17k" href="#ft17k"><span class="sp">17</span></a> +To us, the proposal to number the people seems innocent and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page857" id="page857"></a>857</span> +laudable, and the latest sources of the Pentateuch contain several +such lists. This new procedure, we may imagine, was resented +by the northern Hebrews as an encroachment upon their +liberties. We learn that the destroying angel was stayed at +the threshing-floor of Araunah the Jebusite,<a name="fa18k" id="fa18k" href="#ft18k"><span class="sp">18</span></a> and the spot thus +sanctified was made a sanctuary, and commemorated by an +altar. It was the very place upon which Solomon’s temple was +supposed to be founded. The census-taking may have been a +preliminary to the great wars, but the latter, on the other hand, +are obviously presupposed by the extent of his kingdom. For +his wars a larger force than his early bodyguard was required, and +the Chronicler gives an account of the way in which an army of +nearly 300,000 was raised and held by David’s thirty heroes +(1 Chron. xxvii.). It is certain at all events that no small body +of soldiers would be needed, and this alone would imply that all +Israel was by this time under his entire control.</p> + +<p>Apart from the Ammonite war, our sources are confined to +a mere summary (viii.), which includes even the Amalekites +(viii. 12, cf. i Sam. xxx.). After the defeat of the +Philistines came the turn of Moab. It was under the +<span class="sidenote">Wars and conquests.</span> +care of the king of Moab that David placed his parents +when he fled from Saul (1 Sam. xxii. 3 sqq.), and what led to the +war is unknown. The severity with which the land was treated +may pass for a gentle reprisal if the Moabites of that day were +not more humane than their descendants in the days of King +Mesha.<a name="fa19k" id="fa19k" href="#ft19k"><span class="sp">19</span></a> A deadly conflict with the Ammonites was provoked by +a gross insult to friendly ambassadors of Israel;<a name="fa20k" id="fa20k" href="#ft20k"><span class="sp">20</span></a> and this war, +of which we have pretty full details in 2 Sam. x. i-xi. 1, xii. 26-31, +assumed unexpected dimensions when the Ammonites procured +the aid of their Aramean neighbours. The defeat of Hadadezer +brought about the submission of other lesser kings. The glory of +this victory was increased by the complete subjugation of Edom +in a war conducted by Joab with characteristic severity (2 Sam. +viii. 13; 1 Kings xi. 15-17; Ps. lx., title). The fall of Rabbah +concludes David’s war-like exploits; he carried off the jewelled +crown of their god (Milcom), and subjected the people, not to +torture (1 Chron. xx. 3), but to severe menial labour (xii. 26-31).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Aramean states, Beth-rehob, Maacah, Tob, &c., lay partly to +the north of Gilead and partly in the region which was the scene of the +fight with Jabin (Josh. xi. 1-9, Judg. iv.; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deborah</a></span>). Apparently +it was here, too, that the Danites found a settlement (Judg. xviii. +28); the migration has perhaps been ante-dated. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dan, tribe</a></span>.) +The account of David’s wars is remarkable for the inclusion of the +Syrians of Damascus and beyond the Euphrates; some exaggeration +has been suspected (cf. 2 Sam. viii. 5 with x. 16). Some misunderstanding +has been caused by the confusion of Edom (<span title="Edom">אדם</span>) and +Aram (<span title="Aram">ארם</span>) in viii. 13. A more moderate idea of David’s power +has been found in Ps. lx. 6-12, or, preferably, in the description of +the boundaries (2 Sam. xxiv. 5 sqq.). To the east of the Jordan he +held rule from Aroer to Gad and Gilead; on its west his power +extended from Beersheba in the south to Dan and Ijon at the foot +of Hermon. Moab, Ammon and Edom would appear to have been +merely tributary, whilst in the north among his allies David could +number the king of Hamath. To the north-west Israel bordered upon +Tyre, with whom its relations were friendly. The king of Tyre, who +recognized David’s newly won position (v. 11 seq.), is called Hiram; +possibly—unless the notice is an anticipation of 1 Kings v.—his +father Abibaal is meant.<a name="fa21k" id="fa21k" href="#ft21k"><span class="sp">21</span></a></p> +</div> + +<p>As the birth of Solomon is placed before the capture of Rabbah +of Ammon (xii.), it would appear that David’s wars were ended +within the first half of his reign at Jerusalem, and the +tributary nations thus do not seem to have attempted +<span class="sidenote">Internal troubles.</span> +any revolt during his lifetime (see 1 Kings xi. 14 sqq. +and 25). It was only when the nation was no longer knit +together by the fear of danger from without that the internal +difficulties of the new kingdom became more manifest. Such at +least is the impression which the narratives convey.<a name="fa22k" id="fa22k" href="#ft22k"><span class="sp">22</span></a> So, after +David had completed a series of conquests which made Palestine +the greatest of the petty states of the age, troubles arose with the +Israelites, who in times past had sought for him to be king (iii. +17, v. 1-3), with his old subjects the men of Judah, and with +the members of his own household. The northern tribes, who +appear to have submitted willingly to his rule, were not all of one +mind. There were men of stronger build than the weak Ishbaal +and the crippled son of Jonathan, the survivors of Saul’s house, +and it is only to be expected that David’s first care must have +been to cement the union of the north and south. The choice of +Jerusalem, standing on neutral ground, may be regarded as a +stroke of genius, and there is nothing to show that the king +exercised that rigour which was to be the cause of his grandson’s +undoing. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rehoboam</a></span>.) On the other hand, when Sheba, +probably one of Saul’s clan, headed a rising and was promptly +pursued by Joab to Abel-beth-maacah on the west of Dan, +honour was satisfied by the death of the rebel, and no further +steps were taken (xx.).<a name="fa23k" id="fa23k" href="#ft23k"><span class="sp">23</span></a> This policy of leniency towards Israel +is characteristic of David, and may well have become a popular +theme in the tales of succeeding generations. This same magnanimity +towards the survivors of Saul’s house has left its mark upon +many of the narratives, and helps to a truer understanding of the +stories of his early life. Thus it was quite in keeping with the +romantic attachment between David and Saul’s son Jonathan +that when he became king of Israel he took Jonathan’s son +Meribbaal under his care (ix.).<a name="fa24k" id="fa24k" href="#ft24k"><span class="sp">24</span></a> The deed was not merely +generous, it was politic to have Saul’s grandson under his eyes. +The hope of restoring the lost kingdom had not died out (cf. +xvi. 3). But from another source we gain quite a different idea +of the relations. A disastrous famine ravaged the land for three +long years, and when Yahweh was consulted the reply came that +there was “blood upon Saul and upon his house because he put +the Gibeonites to death.” The unavenged blood was the cause +of divine anger, and retribution must be made. This David +recognized, and, summoning the injured clan, inquired what +expiation could be made. Bloodshed could only be atoned by +blood-money or by shedding the blood of the offender or of +his family. The Gibeonites demanded the latter, and five sons +of Merab (the text by a mistake reads Michal) and two sons of +Saul’s concubine were sacrificed. The awful deed took place at +the beginning of harvest (April-May), and the bodies remained +suspended until, with the advent of the autumn rains, Yahweh +was once more reconciled to his land (xxi. 1-14). The incident +is a valuable picture of crude ideas of Yahweh, and, if nothing +else were needed, it was sufficient to involve David in a feud +with the Benjamites.<a name="fa25k" id="fa25k" href="#ft25k"><span class="sp">25</span></a> Here, too, we learn of the tardy burial of +the bones of Saul and Jonathan which had remained in Jabesh-Gilead +since the battle of Gilboa;—the history of David’s dealings +with the family of Saul has been obscured. That he took over +his harem is only in accordance with the Eastern policy (cf. xii. 8).</p> + +<p>The harem, an indispensable part of Eastern state, was responsible +for many fatal disorders, although it is clear from 2 Sam. +xvi. 21 that the nation at large was not very sensitive +to the enormities which flow from this system. David’s +<span class="sidenote">Absalom’s revolt.</span> +deep fall in the matter of Bathsheba (xi.) was too great +an iniquity to be passed over lightly, and the base murder of her +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page858" id="page858"></a>858</span> +husband Uriah the Hittite could not go unavenged. Bathsheba’s +influence added a new element of danger to the usual jealousies of +the harem, and two of David’s sons perished in vain attempts to +claim the throne, which she appears to have viewed as the rightful +inheritance of her own child. This, at least, is certain in the +revolt of Adonijah (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solomon</a></span>), and it was probably believed +that the action of the impulsive Absalom arose from the suspicion +that the birth of Solomon was the death-blow to his succession.</p> + +<p>As a piece of writing the vivid narratives are without an equal. +David’s sons were estranged from one another, and acquired +all the vices of Oriental princes. The severe impartiality of the +sacred historian has concealed no feature in this dark picture,—the +brutal passion of Amnon, the shameless counsel of the wily +Jonadab, the “black scowl”<a name="fa26k" id="fa26k" href="#ft26k"><span class="sp">26</span></a> that rested on the face of Absalom +through two long years of meditated revenge, the panic of the +court when the blow was struck and Amnon was assassinated in +the midst of his brethren. Not until five years had elapsed was +Absalom fully reconciled with his father. Then he meditated +revolt. As heir-apparent he collected a bodyguard, and studiously +courting personal popularity by a pretended interest in +the administration of kingly justice, ingratiated himself with the +mass. Four years later (so read in xv. 7) he ventured to raise the +standard of revolt in Hebron, with the malcontent Judaeans as +his first supporters, and the crafty Ahithophel as his chief adviser. +Arrangements had been made for the simultaneous proclamation +of Absalom in all parts of the land. The surprise was complete, +and David was compelled to evacuate Jerusalem, where he might +have been crushed before he had time to rally his faithful subjects. +He was warmly received by the Gileadites, and the first battle +destroyed the party of Absalom, who was himself captured and +slain by Joab. Then all the people repented except the men of +Judah, who were not to be conciliated without a virtual admission +of prerogative of kinship to the king. This concession involved +important consequences. The precedence claimed by Judah was +challenged by the northern tribes even on the day of David’s +victorious return to his capital, and a rupture ensued, headed by +Sheba, which but for the energy of Joab might have led to a +second and more dangerous rebellion.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Several indications suggest that the revolt was one in which the +men of Judah originally took the leading if not the only part. The +unruly clans which David knew how to control when he was at +Ziklag or Hebron were doubtless ready to support the rebellious son. +The removal of the court to Jerusalem provided a suitable opportunity, +and an element of jealousy even may not have been wanting. +If Geshur be the district in Josh. xiii. 2, 1 Sam. xxvii. 8, it is significant +that the scene of Absalom’s exile lay to the south, that +Ahithophel was a south Judaean, and that Amasa probably belonged +to the Jezreel<a name="fa27k" id="fa27k" href="#ft27k"><span class="sp">27</span></a> with which David was connected through his wife +Ahinoam. The eleven years which elapsed between the murder of +Amnon and the revolt would seem to disprove any connexion between +the two; the chronology may rest upon the tradition that Solomon +was twelve years old when he came to the throne. David’s hurried +flight, attended only by his bodyguard, indicates that his position was +not a very strong one, and it is difficult to connect this with the fact +that he had already waged the wars mentioned in 2 Sam. viii. and x. +If his reason for taking refuge in Ishbaal’s capital Mahanaim is not +obvious, it is even more remarkable that he should have been received +kindly by the Ammonites whom he had previously decimated. On +the theory that the revolt of Absalom chronologically should precede +the great wars, a slight correction of the already corrupt text in xvii. +27 makes Nahash himself David’s ally, and accounts for David’s +eagerness to repay to Hanun, the son of Nahash, the kindness which +he had received from the father (x. 2). That the revolt of Sheba is in +an impossible position is obvious. Tradition has probably confused +Benjamite risings with Absalom’s misguided enterprise; the parts +played by Shimei and Meribbaal, at all events, are extremely +suggestive. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Absalom</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ahithophel</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<p>The Appendix ascribes to David a song of triumph and some +exceedingly obscure “last words” (xxii.-xxiii. 7) which cannot +be used as historical material. The history of his life +is immediately continued in 1 Kings i., where his old +<span class="sidenote">David’s life-work.</span> +age and weakness are for the first time vividly emphasized. +The events of the remaining years after 2 Sam. xx. are +left untold, but the Chronicler omits the revolt of Absalom and +represents the king as busily occupied with schemes concerning +the future temple. The last spark of his old energy was called +forth to secure the succession of Solomon against the ambition of +Adonijah. It is noteworthy that, as in the case of Absalom, the +pretender, though supported by Joab and Abiathar, found his chief +stay among the men of Judah (1 Kings i. 9). (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solomon</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>To estimate the work of David it is necessary to take into +account the situation before and after his period. According to +the prevailing traditions, Saul at his death had left North Israel +disunited and humiliated. From this condition David raised the +land to the highest state of prosperity and glory, and by his +conquests made the united kingdom the most powerful state of +the age. To do this other qualities than mere military capacity +were required. David was not only a great captain, he was a +national hero in whom all the noblest elements of the Hebrew +genius were combined. His talent enabled him to weld together +the mixed southern clans which became incorporated under +Judah, and to build up a monarchy which represented the +highest conception of national life possible under the circumstances. +The structure, it is true, was not permanent. Under +his successor it began to decay, and in the next generation it fell +asunder and lived only in the hearts of the people as the proudest +memory of past history and the prophetic ideal of future glory.<a name="fa28k" id="fa28k" href="#ft28k"><span class="sp">28</span></a> +Opinion will differ, however, as to the extent to which later ideals +have influenced the narratives upon which the student of Hebrew +history and religion is dependent, and how far the reigns of David +and Solomon altered the face of Hebrew history. The foundation +of the united monarchy was the greatest advance in the whole +course of the history of the Israelites, and around it have been +collected the hopes and fears which a varied experience of monarchical +government aroused. Many of the narratives furnish a +vivid picture of the life of David with a minuteness of personal +detail which has suggested to some that their author was intimately +acquainted with the events, and, if not a contemporary, +belonged to the succeeding generation, while to others it has +seemed more probable that these reflect rather “the plastic +mould of popular tradition.” It cannot be doubted that the +three types of David, represented by the books of Samuel, of +Chronicles, and the superscriptions of the Psalms, are irreconcilable, +and that they represent successive developments of the +original traditions. That the oldest of these three does not +contain earlier attempts to idealize him is unlikely. “Political +circumstances naturally led to an ever-increasing appreciation of +his person and his work as the unifier of Israel. In the eyes of +posterity he became more and more completely the model of an +Israelitish king and the natural consequence was that he was +idealized. The hope of the regeneration of his dynasty, and, at +a later period, of its restoration to the throne—the Messianic +expectation—must have worked powerfully in the same direction. +And meanwhile the religious convictions of the highest minds in +Israel were undergoing a marked change. The conceptions of +Yahweh and of the religion which was acceptable to him were +constantly being elevated and purified. This could not but have +an influence on the current ideas concerning David. He, too, +must be remodelled as the conceptions of God were changed.”<a name="fa29k" id="fa29k" href="#ft29k"><span class="sp">29</span></a> +But what is lost as regards historical material is a distinct gain +to the study of the development of Hebrew thought and +philosophy of history.</p> + +<p>David’s character must be judged partly in the light of the +times in which he lived and partly in connexion with the great +truths which he represents, truths whose value is not impaired +should they prove to be the convictions of later ages. Accordingly, +David is not to be condemned for failing to subdue the +sensuality which is the chief stain on his character, but should +rather be judged by his habitual recognition of a generous +standard of conduct, by the undoubted purity and lofty justice +of an administration which was never stained by selfish considerations +or motives of personal rancour,<a name="fa30k" id="fa30k" href="#ft30k"><span class="sp">30</span></a> and finally by the calm +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page859" id="page859"></a>859</span> +courage which enabled him to hold an even and noble course in +the face of dangers and treachery. His great sin in the matter of +Uriah would have been forgotten but for his repentance: the +things at which modern ideas are most offended are not always +those that would have given umbrage to early writers. That he +did not reform at a stroke all ancient abuses appears particularly +in relation to the practice of blood revenge; to put an end to this +deep-rooted custom would have been an impossibility. But it is +clear from 2 Sam. iii. 28 sqq., xiv. 1-10, that his sympathies +were against the barbarous usage. Nor is it just to accuse him +of cruelty in his treatment of enemies. As it was impossible to +establish a military cordon along the borders of Canaan, it was +necessary absolutely to cripple the adjoining tribes. From the +lust of conquest for its own sake David appears to have been +wholly free.</p> + +<p>The generous elevation of David’s character is seen most +clearly in those parts of his life where an inferior nature would +have been most at fault,—in his conduct towards Saul, in the +blameless reputation of himself and his band of outlaws in the +wilderness of Judah, in his repentance under the rebuke of Nathan +and in his noble bearing on the revolt of Absalom. His touching +love for his worthless son is one of the most beautiful descriptions +of paternal affection. His unfailing insight into character, and +his power of winning men’s hearts and touching their better +impulses, appear in innumerable traits (e.g. 2 Sam. xiv. 18-20, +iii. 31-37, xxiii. 15-17), and here, as elsewhere, the charm which +the life of David has upon its readers is entirely unaffected by +technical questions of literary and historical criticism.</p> + +<p>To the later generations David was pre-eminently the Psalmist +and the founder of the Temple service. The Hebrew titles ascribe +to him seventy-three psalms; the Septuagint adds +some fifteen more; and later opinion, both Jewish +<span class="sidenote">Growth of tradition.</span> +and Christian, claimed for him the authorship of the +whole Psalter (so the Talmud, Augustine and others). That the +tradition of the titles requires careful sifting is no longer doubted, +and the results of recent criticism have been to confirm the view +that “it is no longer possible to treat the psalms as a record of +David’s spiritual life through all the steps of his chequered +career” (W. R. Smith, <i>Old Test. in Jew. Church</i>², p. 224). Nor +can it be maintained that the elaborate ritual ascribed to David +by the chronicler has any historical value. See further +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chronicles</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psalms</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>On the other hand, these traditions, however unhistorical in their +present form, cannot be pure imagination. The male and female +singers (if the reading be correct) whom Sennacherib carried off from +Jerusalem in Hezekiah’s time, may well have belonged to an old +foundation (A. Jeremias, <i>Alte Test. im Lichte d. Alten Orients</i>², +p. 527), and though David’s skill referred to in Amos vi. 5 may be +due to a gloss, it is a Judaean narrative which tells of the invention +of music, ascribing it possibly to a Judaean legendary hero +(Gen. iv. 21). And although the Levitical organization, as ascribed to +David, is manifestly post-exilic, it is at least certain that many of the +Levitical families were of southern origin. It is in David’s history +that the clans of the south first attained prominence, and some of +them are known to have been staunch upholders of a purer worship +of Yahweh, or to have been associated with the introduction of +religious institutions among the Israelites. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Levites</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>The difficulty of the historical problems increases when the narratives +of David are more closely studied: (<i>a</i>) 2 Sam. iii. 18, xix. 9 +show that according to one view David delivered <i>Israel</i> (not Judah) +from the Philistines. This is in contradiction to ii. 8 sqq. (from another +source), where Saul’s son recovers Israelite territory, but is supported +by ix., where Mephibosheth is found at Lo-debar. This historical +view has probably left its trace upon the present traditions of Saul, +whose defeat by the “Philistines” (here found in the north and not +as usual in the south) left Israel in much the same position as when +he was anointed king (cf. 1 Sam. xxxi. 7 with xiii. 7). Again (<i>b</i>) the +primitive stories of conflicts with “Philistine” giants between +Hebron and Jerusalem (2 Sam. v. 17 sqq., xxi. 15 sqq. and xxiii.) +find their analogy in Caleb’s overthrow of the sons of Anak (Judg. +i. 10; Josh. xv. 14), and in the allusion to the same prehistoric folk +in the account of the spies (Num. xiii. 28). From a number of points +of evidence there appears to have been a group of traditions of a +movement from the south (probably Kadesh, Num. xiii. 26) associated +with Caleb, David and the Levites. If the clans of Moses’ kin +which moved into Judah bore the ark (Num. x. 29 sqq.; see Kenites), +and if Abiathar carried it before David (1 Kings ii. 26), there were +traditions of the ark distinct from those which associate it with +Joshua and Shiloh (cf. 2 Sam. vii. 6). But the stories of conflicts in a +much larger area than the few cities in the immediate neighbourhood +of Jerusalem (see above) can scarcely be read with the numerous +narratives which recount or imply relations between the young David +of Bethlehem and Saul or the Israelites. It is possible, therefore, +that one early account of David was that of an entrance into the +land of Judah, and that round him have gathered traditions partly +individual and partly tribal or national. See further S. A. Cook, +<i>Critical Notes on O.T. History</i>, pp. 122 sqq., and art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span> (<i>History</i>), +§§ 6-8.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—Robertson Smith’s later views subsequent to 1877 +(when he wrote the article on David for this <i>Encyclopaedia</i>) were +expressed partly in the <i>Old Test. in Jewish Church</i> (1881 and 1892), +<i>passim</i>, and partly in the article on the Books of Samuel in the <i>Ency. +Brit.</i> (9th ed.); on David’s character see especially his criticism of +Renan, <i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i>, 1888, pp. 134 sqq. Mention may be made of +Stähelin’s <i>Leben Davids</i> (Basel, 1866), still valuable for the numerous +parallels adduced from oriental history; Cheyne’s <i>Aids to Devout +Study of Criticism</i> (1892), a criticism of David’s history in its bearing +upon religion; Marcel Dieulafoy, <i>David the King</i> (1902), full, but +not critical; H. A. White, Hastings’ <i>Dict.</i> art. “David”; Cheyne, +<i>Ency. Bib.</i> art. “David”; and (on the romantic element in the +narratives) Luther in Ed. Meyer, <i>Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstämme</i> +(1906), pp. 181 sqq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. R. S.; S. A. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See further the third edition of Schrader’s <i>Keilinschr. u. das Alte +Test.</i> pp. 225, 483.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> But four in xvii. 13 sqq., and seven in 1 Chron. ii. 13-15.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> An armour-bearer was not a full warrior but a sort of page or +apprentice-in-arms, whose most warlike function is to kill outright +those whom his master has struck down—an office which among the +Arabs was often performed by women.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4k" id="ft4k" href="#fa4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Samuel</a></span>. The older history repeatedly indicates that David’s +kingship was predicted by a divine oracle, but would hardly lead us +to place the prediction so early (1 Sam. xxv. 30; 2 Sam. iii. 9, v. 2).</p> + +<p><a name="ft5k" id="ft5k" href="#fa5k"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The LXX omits xviii. 1-6 (to “Philistine”), the first and last +clauses of 8, 10-11, the reason given for Saul’s fear in 12, 17-19, +the second half of 21. It also modifies 28, and omits the second +half of 29 and the whole of 30.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6k" id="ft6k" href="#fa6k"><span class="fn">6</span></a> 1 Sam. xix. 9. The parallel narrative, xviii. 10 sqq., is wanting in +the Greek, and in the light of subsequent events is improbable. +Its aim is to paint Saul’s character as black as possible.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7k" id="ft7k" href="#fa7k"><span class="fn">7</span></a> The close of ver. 10 in the Hebrew is corrupt, and the words +“(and it came to pass) that night” seem to belong to the next +verse (so the Greek). H. P. Smith suggests that the passage originally +followed upon xviii. 27.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8k" id="ft8k" href="#fa8k"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Wellhausen cites a closely parallel case from Sprenger’s <i>Leben +Muhammad</i>, vol. ii. p. 543.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9k" id="ft9k" href="#fa9k"><span class="fn">9</span></a> On the meaning of this difficult passage, see the discussions by +W. R. Smith, <i>Religion of the Semites</i>(²), p. 455 sqq., and Schwally +<i>Semit. Kriegsalterthümer</i>, p. 60 sqq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10k" id="ft10k" href="#fa10k"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Interesting parallels in Barhebraeus <i>Chron.</i>, ed. Brun and +Kirsch, p. 222, and Ewald, <i>Hist. Israel</i>, iii. p. 84.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11k" id="ft11k" href="#fa11k"><span class="fn">11</span></a> The cave of Adullam has been traditionally placed (since the +12th century) at Khareitūn, two hours’ journey south of Bethlehem. +But the town of Adullam, which has not been identified with any +certainty, lay in the low country of Judah (Josh. xv. 35). The +“cave” is also spoken of as a “hold” or fortress, and this is everywhere +the true reading. The name has been identified with ‘<i>Īd-el-mā</i> +(or -<i>miyē</i>) about 12 m. S.W. of Bethlehem.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12k" id="ft12k" href="#fa12k"><span class="fn">12</span></a> According to a late Rabbinical story, David, like Bruce of +Scotland, was once saved by a spider which spun its web over the +cave wherein he was concealed.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13k" id="ft13k" href="#fa13k"><span class="fn">13</span></a> The law of the distribution of booty after war enacted by David +(xxx. 24 sqq.) is given as a Mosaic precedent in the post-exilic priestly +legislation (Num. xxxi. 27). On the importance of this explicit +statement, see W. R. Smith, <i>Old Test. in Jewish Church</i>(²), 386 sq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14k" id="ft14k" href="#fa14k"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Bethel (ver. 27) is probably the Bethuel near Ziklag (1 Chron. iv. +30). David’s friendly relations with the Philistines find a parallel +in Isaac’s covenant with Abimelech (q.v.). In Ps. xxxiv. the latter +name actually appears in place of Achish.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15k" id="ft15k" href="#fa15k"><span class="fn">15</span></a> <i>Fundamente Israel. u. jüd. Gesch.</i> (1896), pp. 23 sqq.; see also +Winckler, <i>Gesch. Isr.</i> i. 24; <i>Keilinschr. u. d. Alte Test.</i>(³), p. 228 sqq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16k" id="ft16k" href="#fa16k"><span class="fn">16</span></a> 1 Chron. xviii. 1 reads “Gath and her dependent villages”; the +original reading is a matter for conjecture.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17k" id="ft17k" href="#fa17k"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Cf. the idea in 1 Kings xxii. 19-23; Ezek. xiv. 9; contrast +1 Chron. xxi. 1.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18k" id="ft18k" href="#fa18k"><span class="fn">18</span></a> This un-Hebraic name, which is not unlike <i>arōn</i>, “ark,” should +possibly be corrected to Adonijah (Cheyne, <i>Ency. Bib. s.v.</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft19k" id="ft19k" href="#fa19k"><span class="fn">19</span></a> David destroyed two-thirds of the Moabites—presumably of +their fighting men (2 Sam. viii. 2); Mesha destroys the inhabitants +of the captured cities in honour of his god Chemosh.</p> + +<p><a name="ft20k" id="ft20k" href="#fa20k"><span class="fn">20</span></a> It finds a parallel in the fate of the heralds of Orchomenus (Frazer, +<i>Pausan</i>. v. 135) and in an Arabian story (Ibn Athīr, viii. 360; +Nöldeke in Budde, <i>Hand-Commentar, ad loc.</i>); cf. also Ewald, iii. +152.</p> + +<p><a name="ft21k" id="ft21k" href="#fa21k"><span class="fn">21</span></a> On the questions raised see the commentaries upon 2 Sam. viii. +and x. and the <i>Ency. Biblica, s.vv.</i> “David,” “Merom,” “Zobah.” +The main problem is whether the account of David’s rule has been +exaggerated, or whether the attempt has been made to throw back +to the time of the first king of all Israel later political conditions.</p> + +<p><a name="ft22k" id="ft22k" href="#fa22k"><span class="fn">22</span></a> Viz. the present position of 2 Sam. ix.-xx. after the miscellaneous +collection of details in v.-viii. See, on the other hand, the view of +1 Kings v. 3, 4.</p> + +<p><a name="ft23k" id="ft23k" href="#fa23k"><span class="fn">23</span></a> The present position of this incident, immediately after Absalom’s +rebellion was quelled, is almost inconceivable (Winckler, H. P. +Smith, B. Luther, Ed. Meyer). See next page.</p> + +<p><a name="ft24k" id="ft24k" href="#fa24k"><span class="fn">24</span></a> He was five years of age at the battle of Gilboa (iv. 4), and is now +grown up and with a young child (ix. 12). But the narrative loses +its point unless David’s kindness “for Jonathan’s sake” comes at an +early date soon after he became king, and although the youth is found +at Lo-debar (east of the Jordan) under the protection of Machir, the +independent fragment in ii. 8 sqq. implies that the Israelites had +recovered the position they had lost at the battle of Gilboa.</p> + +<p><a name="ft25k" id="ft25k" href="#fa25k"><span class="fn">25</span></a> There is an unmistakable reference to the occurrence in the episode +of Shimei, who hovers in the background of Absalom’s revolt with a +large body of men at his command (xvi. 7 sqq.).</p> + +<p><a name="ft26k" id="ft26k" href="#fa26k"><span class="fn">26</span></a> If Ewald’s brilliant interpretation of an obscure word in 2 Sam. +xiii. 32 be correct.</p> + +<p><a name="ft27k" id="ft27k" href="#fa27k"><span class="fn">27</span></a> “Israelite” (2 Sam. xvii. 25) is a very unnecessary designation; +1 Chron. ii. 17 would make him an Ishmaelite.</p> + +<p><a name="ft28k" id="ft28k" href="#fa28k"><span class="fn">28</span></a> See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hebrew Religion</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Messiah</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prophet</a></span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft29k" id="ft29k" href="#fa29k"><span class="fn">29</span></a> Kuenen, “The Critical Method,” <i>Modern Review</i>, 1880, p. 701 +(<i>Gesammelte Abhandlungen</i>, Germ. ed. by Budde, p. 33).</p> + +<p><a name="ft30k" id="ft30k" href="#fa30k"><span class="fn">30</span></a> His charges to Solomon in 1 Kings ii. 5-9 do not arise necessarily +from motives of revenge; a young and untried sovereign could not +afford to continue the clemency which his father was strong enough to +extend to dangerous enemies. Apart from this, it is possible that the +words have been written to shift from Solomon’s shoulders the bloodshed +incurred in establishing his throne.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 7, Slice 9, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 38799-h.htm or 38799-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/7/9/38799/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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