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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of How We are Fed, by James Franklin Chamberlain
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: How We are Fed
+       A Geographical Reader
+
+Author: James Franklin Chamberlain
+
+Release Date: February 5, 2012 [EBook #38762]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW WE ARE FED ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Peter Vachuska, Fritz Ohrenschall, Chuck Greif,
+Julia Neufeld and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=).
+
+Small capital text has been replaced with all capitals.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Publisher's Mark]
+
+  _HOME AND WORLD SERIES_
+
+
+  HOW WE ARE FED
+
+  A GEOGRAPHICAL READER
+
+  BY
+
+  JAMES FRANKLIN CHAMBERLAIN, ED.B., S.B.
+  DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL
+  LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA
+
+  New York
+  THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+  LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.
+  1912
+
+  _All rights reserved_
+
+  COPYRIGHT, 1903,
+  BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
+
+  Set up, electrotyped, and published June, 1903. Reprinted
+  January, June, August, 1904: July, 1905; January, 1906;
+  August, December, 1907; September, 1909; August, 1910;
+  August, 1911; June, 1912.
+
+
+  Norwood Press
+  J. S. Cushing & Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
+  Norwood, Mass., U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In the ordinary course of events, most individuals take some part in the
+manifold industries which engage the mind and the hand of man, by which
+alone our present-day civilization can be maintained. These great world
+activities touch the daily life of _every_ member of society, whether
+child or adult, worker or idler.
+
+A chain of mutual dependence, too often unrecognized, binds together the
+members of the human family, whether they belong to the same community
+or dwell on opposite sides of the earth. The links of this chain are
+made up of the articles which constitute our daily food, our clothing,
+homes, fuel, light, our means of communication and transportation, and
+only by continuous cooeperation are they kept together.
+
+The highest motive in education is to present the conditions which will
+lead to the most complete living; to build up the best possible members
+of society; to develop character. An individual who does not understand
+the life of which he finds himself a part, cannot be in full sympathy
+with its conditions and hence cannot be of the most service to himself
+or to others. Only to the extent that education and life follow the same
+general course, can each be truly successful. Far too little is done in
+our schools to acquaint children with their relations to the great
+industrial and social organization of which they are members. Even grown
+persons have, as a rule, a very indefinite knowledge of these relations.
+
+It is a recognized principle that our knowledge of geography has its
+foundation in our knowledge of the home. The natural connecting link
+between the immediate surroundings and the outside world is the _present
+daily life of the home_. Through the industries seen in the community,
+the commodities in general use, and the history of their creation and
+supply, the pupil acquires an insight into the life about him as well as
+into that of other parts of the world. He also realizes the great truth
+that the world and its people are in intimate touch with _him_. In this
+way he is led back and forth along the routes which civilization has
+followed in its progress, which it also follows to-day, as mankind clasp
+hands across oceans and continents. Thus the remote and abstract become
+immediate and concrete. Facts are seen in a setting of reason, and a
+logical and interesting basis for the study of physical, climatic, and
+human conditions is furnished.
+
+This study begins with the commodities in constant use and finally
+encompasses the whole world, but always with the home as the base of
+operations. It will create a knowledge of the interdependence of
+individuals, communities, and nations, and a genuine respect for the
+work of the hands and for the worker. The importance of this respect is
+not likely to be overestimated. Without it a true democracy cannot long
+exist.
+
+Reading should not only serve for the acquisition and the expression of
+the thought contained in the printed page; it should, in addition,
+stimulate to _new_ thought--to independent power in reasoning. On this
+account questions are inserted which the pupil is left to answer. These
+are suggestive of a much larger number, which should be worked out by
+the teacher. Too many of the questions found in books do not "stimulate
+thought" or "independent power in reasoning." They are purely
+informatory and not at all formative.
+
+No attempt has been made to treat every article of food. Those in most
+general use, as well as those which will best serve to develop a
+knowledge of geographical conditions and of man's relation to man, have
+been chosen.
+
+A given industry is pursued in somewhat different ways in different
+places. It has not been thought wise to describe each modification in
+these pages. For example, the method of handling wheat in California is
+different from that employed in Minnesota. The value of the work will be
+increased if the teacher will bring out these points.
+
+_All places mentioned should he definitely located_, both as to position
+on the map or globe and with reference to the home. When developed from
+the standpoint of direct, personal interest, a knowledge of the
+location of places as well as of other facts mentioned is most likely to
+be retained.
+
+The illustrations used have been very carefully selected for their
+_teaching value_. They give a clearness to mental pictures which can be
+derived only through observation of that which the illustrations
+symbolize. Much experience in the use of geographical illustrations has
+shown that pupils need to be directed in their examination of them. To
+secure the best results they must be made the centers of
+thought-developing questions.
+
+Thanks are due the Pillsbury-Washburn Flour Mills Company of
+Minneapolis, the Swift Packing Company of Chicago, the Walter Baker
+Company of Dorchester, the United Fruit Company of New Orleans, and Dr.
+Charles U. Shepard of Pinehurst Plantation, for the excellent
+illustrations furnished by them.
+
+                                      JAMES FRANKLIN CHAMBERLAIN.
+
+STATE NORMAL SCHOOL,
+  LOS ANGELES, March, 1903.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                            PAGE
+
+  THE PAST AND THE PRESENT                     1
+
+  THE STORY OF A LOAF OF BREAD                 7
+
+  HOW OUR MEAT IS SUPPLIED                    18
+
+  MARKET GARDENING                            32
+
+  DAIRY PRODUCTS                              41
+
+  BUTTER MAKING                               44
+
+  CHEESE                                      50
+
+  THE FISHING INDUSTRY                        54
+
+  OYSTER FARMING                              64
+
+  A RICE FIELD                                70
+
+  HOW SUGAR IS MADE                           77
+
+  BEET SUGAR                                  84
+
+  MAPLE SUGAR                                 87
+
+  WHERE SALT COMES FROM                       91
+
+  MACARONI AND VERMICELLI                     99
+
+  ON A COFFEE PLANTATION                     104
+
+  THE TEA GARDENS OF CHINA                   113
+
+  A CUP OF COCOA                             120
+
+  A CRANBERRY BOG                            131
+
+  THE COCOANUT ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC        139
+
+  A BUNCH OF BANANAS                         146
+
+  HOW DATES GROW                             155
+
+  THE ORANGE GROVES OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA   165
+
+  A VISIT TO A VINEYARD                      174
+
+  NUTTING                                    184
+
+  A WALNUT VACATION                          187
+
+  CHESTNUTS                                  193
+
+  A BAG OF PEANUTS                           195
+
+  ASSORTED NUTS                              201
+
+  A STRANGE CONVERSATION                     206
+
+
+
+
+HOW WE ARE FED
+
+
+
+
+THE PAST AND THE PRESENT
+
+
+Long, long ago people did not live as we do to-day. Their homes were
+very different from ours, for they were made of the skins of wild
+animals, of the limbs and bark of trees, or of tall grasses. There were
+no stoves, chairs, tables, or beds in their houses. Instead of lamps,
+gas, or electricity, a fire on the dirt floor or in front of the house,
+furnished the light.
+
+The clothing of these people was as simple as their homes. It was made
+of skins and furs in cold countries and in warm countries of braided
+grasses and the fibers of certain plants. You may be sure that tailors
+and dressmakers were not consulted as to the latest styles, for the
+styles did not change and there were neither tailors nor dressmakers to
+talk to. Each family made its own clothing, and there was not a sewing
+machine to be found.
+
+How would you like to use a bone for a needle? Sometimes, instead of
+sharpened bones, long thorns were used. The sinews of the deer, or of
+some other animal, usually furnished the thread.
+
+When the people were in need of food, they went into the forest and
+gathered roots, nuts, and fruits. Wild animals were killed by means of
+such weapons as bows and arrows and spears, and fish were caught in the
+lakes and streams.
+
+The food was not cooked as ours is; for, as I have told you, there were
+no stoves. Sometimes the meat was broiled over the fire, sometimes baked
+in a hole filled with ashes and coals, but it was often eaten raw. It
+was not easy to have a variety of food, and there were times when it was
+very difficult to obtain anything. When food was abundant, the people
+feasted, and when it was scarce, they were often hungry. How would you
+like to wait for your breakfast while your father went to the woods or
+to the river in search of something to eat?
+
+When the meals were prepared, they were not neatly served as yours are,
+but each person took his portion and sat on the ground while he ate it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Indians at Dinner.]
+
+All of this seems very strange to you, I know. If you live in the city,
+you are accustomed to seeing the butcher, the baker, the milkman, and
+the grocer call every day. There are stores where people can buy
+whatever they want to eat, drink, or wear. You wonder how any one could
+live in such a way as I have described, but there _are_ people who live
+in this fashion to-day, although you have never seen any of them. They
+are _uncivilized_. Where do you think they are to be found? When people
+live in this way, it takes most of their time to provide themselves with
+the things that are necessary to life. They have little opportunity to
+improve their ways of living and of thinking.
+
+Civilized people divide their work. Some provide food, some make
+clothing, some build houses, and some furnish fuel. Each one does his or
+her part. In this way, you see, they learn to do their work better and
+better, because each gives much time and thought to one kind of work.
+This plan gives each one time to study and to learn something about the
+world and its people. Think how much better our homes, our clothing, and
+our food are, than are those of uncivilized people, and how many other
+advantages we have.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--White People at Dinner.]
+
+It is only possible to live as we do, when each one works for others as
+well as for himself. If any one fails to do his part, the rest must
+suffer until some one is found to take his place. It is to prepare
+yourself to do _your part_ in some useful work for others, that you are
+going to school day by day. You do not now know just what that work is
+to be, but I want you to remember that _all_ honest work is noble. It is
+not so important _what work_ you do, as it is that you should do your
+work _well_. No matter what your work may be, you can carry sunshine in
+your face and helpfulness in your heart. If you do this, you will be
+known and loved. Hard work, coarse clothes, and lack of money can never
+hide these things, neither will the finest of clothing cover a selfish
+or untruthful nature.
+
+Let us look at this dinner table loaded with good things to eat and
+drink. There are bread, butter, meat, vegetables, milk, tea, fruits, and
+other things. You see at once that many persons must have worked to
+provide this food, for only a small part of the work was done in the
+kitchen. If these things could but speak, they might tell you stories as
+wonderful as fairy tales. They have been gathered here from the fertile
+plains of the West, from the sunny South, from Brazil, from the islands
+of the Pacific Ocean, from far-off China, and even from the waters of
+the sea.
+
+
+
+
+THE STORY OF A LOAF OF BREAD
+
+
+In the dark granary of a farmer's barn in North Dakota once lived a
+modest family of grains of wheat. The bright, warm days of the summer
+time, during which they had been placed in this dark room, soon grew
+shorter and cooler. The swallows, whose mud nests were in the rafters
+overhead, told the wheat brothers that winter was coming, and then flew
+away to the balmy southland.
+
+Soon biting winds and blinding snow came sweeping over the level land.
+Sometimes the farmhouse was almost hidden under the drifts, and the
+farmer had to shovel out a path to the barn, so that he could feed the
+horses and cattle. By and by the days grew warmer, the snow disappeared,
+and the birds returned one by one. The farmer and his men got out their
+plows and harrows, and prepared the soil for the seeds soon to be
+planted.
+
+The wheat was now shoveled into sacks and taken to the fields. Here it
+was placed in great machines drawn by horses, which scattered it evenly
+over the land and at the same time covered it with soft soil. The men
+whistled and sang as they worked, and blackbirds, bluebirds, and larks
+flew back and forth, singing and searching for bugs and worms, as well
+as for the shining kernels of wheat.
+
+The wheat was not content to remain underground, but kept trying to push
+itself out into the world. One night there came a warm shower, and the
+next morning what looked like tiny, green blades of grass appeared all
+over the field.
+
+All through the spring and summer the wheat kept growing, and finally
+there appeared at the ends of the stalks clusters of kernels, just like
+those which the farmer had planted. Some of these kernels had produced
+families of twenty or thirty. These clusters are called _heads_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Harvesting Wheat in Southern California.]
+
+As the south wind passed over the field it brought the wheat messages
+from Minnesota, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, and other states, telling of
+relatives who were already turning golden in the summer sunshine. One
+day some of the kernels thought they heard a voice from California. Do
+you think they did?
+
+The grain in some of the fields was called _winter wheat_. This was
+because the grain had been sown the autumn before, and had remained in
+the ground all winter, covered by a blanket of snow. Why was it sown in
+the fall? The wheat of which I am telling you was called by the farmer
+_spring wheat_.
+
+Soon machines, each drawn by several horses, appeared. They cut the
+waving grain, and bound it up in bundles called _sheaves_. These were
+set up in double rows to dry, and afterward put into another machine
+which separated the kernels from the stalks, which were now called
+_straw_. This work the farmer calls _threshing_. See if you can find out
+how this used to be done.
+
+After threshing, the wheat was put into sacks and taken to the nearest
+railroad station. Freight cars then carried it across the level prairies
+to the beautiful city of Minneapolis, built beside the Falls of Saint
+Anthony. What river is this city on? Of what use are the falls?
+
+There are tall buildings called _elevators_ here in which the wheat was
+stored for a time. Before being put into the elevators it was examined
+and _graded_. As there was wheat from many farms it could not be kept
+separate, so each farmer was told how much he had, and how it graded.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Threshing Wheat in Southern California.]
+
+Some time after this the wheat was taken to one of the great mills to be
+ground into flour. The largest of these mills manufactures about
+fifteen thousand barrels of flour every day. This is the largest flour
+mill in the world.
+
+When the kernels reached the mill, they were put into machines called
+_separators_, to be separated from all companions such as grass seed,
+mustard seed, and wild buckwheat. They were then placed in an iron box
+in which brushes were revolving rapidly, and were _scoured_ to free them
+from fuzz and dirt. Those that were very dirty were washed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--The Flour Mills in Minneapolis.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--The Largest Flour Mill in the World.]
+
+The kernels were _steamed_, in order that the coating, called _bran_,
+might not break into small pieces. This is called _tempering_. The
+kernels now thought that their trials were over, but they were mistaken.
+Soon they found themselves being _crushed_ between rollers. After they
+came out they were _sifted_, and then run between other rollers. This
+was repeated six times, and each time the flour was a little finer, for
+the rollers were closer together. The flour was then run through tubes
+of flannel. These took out whatever dust it contained. It was then
+ground still finer. The flour was then put into sacks or barrels, which
+were marked for shipment to other parts of the country.
+
+Only the wheat intended for the very best grade of flour is treated as
+carefully as this was.
+
+What industry does the use of barrels bring in?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Grinding Wheat.]
+
+From the mills the flour was sent to many parts of the land to supply
+stores, bakeries, hotels, and homes. Some of it found its way to the
+bakery near your home. The bakers, in their clean suits of white,
+weighed the flour which they were going to use, and then added a
+certain amount of water to it. Some yeast and salt were added also. This
+mixture they called _dough_. You have seen your mother mix or _knead_
+dough, I am sure. The bakers did not do the kneading with their hands,
+but by means of machinery made for this purpose.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Bolting Flour.]
+
+When the dough had been thoroughly kneaded it was left to _rise_. It is
+the yeast that causes the rising. This makes the bread light and spongy.
+It was then cut into loaves and placed in the oven. The ovens in the
+bakery are very much larger than those in your kitchen stove, for many
+loaves are baked at once. When a nice shade of brown appeared on the
+loaves, the bakers took them out of the oven by means of long shovels.
+Soon the delivery wagons came and were loaded with the fresh bread to be
+delivered to stores and homes. This loaf was just left at the door and
+is still warm.
+
+So, you see, a loaf of bread has quite a history. I have told you the
+life story of this one from the time of its grandparents, who were
+raised on the plains of North Dakota. Would it not be interesting to see
+each of the people who have had something to do with its production, and
+to make the journey which the wheat and the flour made? You can do both
+in your thoughts.
+
+
+
+
+HOW OUR MEAT IS SUPPLIED
+
+
+Ramon lived in a plain, one-story house, built in the shade of some
+cottonwood trees that fringed each side of a small river in the eastern
+part of Colorado. A wide veranda extended entirely around the house, but
+there were very few flowers and no lawn. I am afraid you would not think
+it a very pleasant place for a home.
+
+Not far from the _ranch house_, as it was called, were the barn and the
+_corrals_. A corral is a yard with a strong, high fence about it, in
+which cattle or horses may be placed. On the bottom land beside the
+stream, there was a corn and an alfalfa patch, besides one containing
+some potatoes and garden vegetables.
+
+During most of the year the stream was quite shallow, and flowed quietly
+over its bed, but when heavy rains occurred it rose rapidly, spreading
+over much of the bottom land and carrying so much clay with it that it
+was almost the color of coffee.
+
+Except along the river, not a tree was in sight from Ramon's home, and
+it was many miles to the nearest house. For hundreds of miles both north
+and south, there stretched a vast plain. Little was to be seen but sand,
+grass, and sagebrush. I had almost forgotten the prairie dogs, which
+scamper across the plain or sit up straight and motionless on a little
+mound of sand beside their burrows. They watch you closely, not moving
+unless they regard you as a dangerous creature, when, quick as a flash,
+they disappear.
+
+The rainfall is very slight in this part of the country, being less than
+twenty inches a year. On this account there is little attention paid to
+farming, but instead, the settlers own great herds of cattle as well as
+many horses. Ramon's father is one of the _cattlemen_ of Colorado. He
+owns more than ten thousand head of cattle, and some of the cattlemen
+own twice that number. Of course such great herds of cattle must have
+much land to graze on. Some of the land is owned by the government and
+any one may use it. Everywhere fences are far apart. These great
+pastures are called _ranges_.
+
+Ramon's life is not much like yours. His home is far from schools,
+churches, stores, or railroads. He seldom sees strangers, but he enjoys
+long rides on his own pony, _Prince_. Sometimes he goes with his father
+and at other times he takes a gallop with one of the "cowboys" who herd
+the cattle.
+
+The "cowboys" almost live in the saddle. They are out in all kinds of
+weather and are not boys at all, but strong, hardy men. They wear
+broad-brimmed hats, and carry long ropes called lassos or _lariats_,
+with which they catch the cattle.
+
+Where there are so many herds they sometimes get mixed up. On this
+account each cattleman marks or _brands_ his animals. These brands may
+be the initial letter of the owner's name, or they may be in the form of
+a horseshoe, a cross, a circle, or a crescent.
+
+Each spring and fall the cowboys gather the cattle together. This is
+called "rounding up" the cattle. They are then counted and the calves
+born since the last "round up" are branded. In the fall, in addition to
+this work, animals are selected for the market. Why is the fall a better
+time for this than the spring?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Branding Cattle.--Point to the Lariats.]
+
+The cowboys, mounted upon their swift, strong ponies, single out the
+animals that have never been branded, and swinging their lassos over
+their heads, they throw them with such skill that the loop settles over
+the head or about the leg of the one wanted. As soon as the rope
+tightens, the pony braces its forefeet firmly and the animal is finally
+thrown to the ground. It is then branded with a hot iron and allowed to
+go. Ramon used to feel very sorry for them until his father explained
+that it hurt them very little, for only the skin was burned.
+
+Sometimes the cattle selected to be sold, are not quite fat enough for
+the market. They are then taken farther east into the _corn belt_ and
+fed for a time.
+
+When they are shipped directly from the range to the market, they are
+driven to the nearest railroad and put into yards beside the track. They
+are then made to walk up an incline with high railings ending at the
+open doors of a cattle car. The animals are arranged so that the first
+faces one side of the car, the second the other, and so on. This is done
+so that the cattle cannot hook one another, and also that they may be
+fed and watered on the way from a long iron trough which is fastened to
+each side of the car.
+
+The great cattle markets of the United States are Omaha, Kansas City,
+and Chicago. Find these cities.
+
+One day when Ramon was about fourteen years old, his father told him
+that he was going to take a train load of cattle to Chicago and that he
+might go with him. It was a happy time for Ramon, you may be sure, for
+he was very anxious to see some of the wonderful sights his father had
+told him about.
+
+At last the day when they were to start on their journey arrived. The
+afternoon before, the cowboys had driven the cattle to the railroad so
+as to load them early in the morning. Soon after breakfast Ramon kissed
+his mother and his little sister good-by, and he and his father rode off
+across the level plain.
+
+Finding the cattle already loaded in the cars, Ramon and his father were
+soon seated in the _caboose_, rolling over the miles of railroad which
+connected them with Chicago. Whenever the train stopped for a few
+minutes, they took a long stick and went from car to car making the
+cattle that had lain down get up, so that they might not be injured by
+the others.
+
+When bedtime came, they made their beds on the benches along each side
+of the caboose, which are covered with cushions. As they had brought
+blankets with them, they were fairly comfortable.
+
+Ramon did not sleep very soundly the first night. The engine shrieked
+from time to time, and the car rocked and jolted so that he was afraid
+of falling from his bed.
+
+The next day they reached a part of the country where great cornfields
+waved in the breeze. The leaves had already turned brown, and golden
+ears of grain peeped out from the ends of the husks. There were stubble
+fields, too, where wheat and oats had been harvested.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Bird's Eye View of Union Stock Yards, Chicago.]
+
+The country became more thickly settled as they went on, and the towns
+were nearer together. Streams were more common, and grass and timber
+more abundant. The young traveler wondered why this was so. Can you
+tell?
+
+Early in the morning of the fourth day the train reached Chicago. After
+much switching and backing the cars were run into the Union Stock Yards,
+and the cattle were unloaded.
+
+Ramon was thoroughly bewildered by what he saw and heard. Men were
+shouting and cracking whips; others were riding up and down the alleys
+that separate the yards; dogs were barking and turning the animals this
+way and that, and gates were swinging back and forth.
+
+The cattle were weighed and examined to see if they had any disease, and
+were then placed in charge of a _commission merchant_ to be sold. Buyers
+come to the yards and bargain with these commission merchants. When an
+unusually large number of cattle come in, the prices are likely to fall;
+when few arrive, the prices rise.
+
+When the cattle had been yarded, Ramon's father said that they would go
+and have breakfast. In the afternoon they visited the "yards," and the
+slaughter and packing houses. The "yards" cover about a square mile of
+territory. They are divided into countless pens or small yards,
+containing sheds, feeding racks, and watering troughs.
+
+Ramon asked how many cattle were unloaded in these yards daily. His
+father handed him a copy of the _Chicago Live Stock World_, and at the
+top of the first column he read that on the day previous there had been
+received 18,500 cattle, 35,000 hogs, and 18,000 sheep. He was told that
+sometimes the receipts are much larger than this and sometimes not so
+large.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Dressing Beef.]
+
+They followed the bodies of the cattle from the slaughterhouses where
+they are dressed, into the cooling rooms. These are simply great
+refrigerators. Wagons come to the cooling rooms and haul loads of the
+meat to butcher shops, hotels, and depots. Within a few hours it finds
+its way to smaller cities and towns in all directions. A great deal of
+meat is shipped even to Europe. Why does not Europe produce its own
+meat?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Cooling Beef.]
+
+When the meat has thoroughly hardened in the cooling rooms, it is sent
+to the curing rooms, where it is cut up and packed. Each person here
+does his particular work from morning until night.
+
+Ramon learned, to his surprise, that every part of the animal is used.
+Hair, hide, horns, hoofs, teeth, bones, and even blood, are made use of.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Splitting Backbone of Hogs.]
+
+Most of the hogs which enter the great meat-packing cities are raised in
+the corn belt.
+
+The sheep need much pasturage, and so the largest flocks are found in
+the Western and Southwestern states. A single herder may take care of
+several thousand sheep. His faithful companions and helpers are
+intelligent shepherd dogs. After a great flock of sheep has fed on an
+area, hardly a green thing is left. The people in the part of the West
+where there is little rainfall, object to the pasturing of sheep around
+the head waters of streams, because when the vegetation is removed the
+water runs off too quickly.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Curing Pork in Salt.]
+
+In the evening our friends watched the men, women, and children march
+out of the "yards." They were told that not less than thirty-five
+thousand persons were employed in the various establishments. There is
+but one city in Colorado which contains so many people.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Chopping Sausage Meat.]
+
+As they sat at breakfast next morning, Ramon wondered how many of the
+people of Chicago were eating steaks from cattle which he had seen on
+his father's ranch. The thought was a new one to him. His trip had shown
+him that the cattlemen who lived and worked on those far-away plains
+were doing their part in supplying people all over our country with
+meat. Their lonely life, with all of its disadvantages, now had a new
+meaning for him, and he went back to his Western home content with it,
+yet very glad to have had this glimpse of another side of life.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Packing Poultry.]
+
+
+
+
+MARKET GARDENING
+
+
+Think of the immense quantities of fruits and vegetables that are used
+daily on the tables of a great city such as New York or Chicago. As we
+travel up and down the streets of any great city, we see rows of
+buildings, sometimes built in solid blocks and sometimes a little
+distance apart. Some have trees and small lawns in front of them; others
+are without even this touch of nature. Nowhere, except in the outskirts,
+do we find gardens.
+
+_These people depend upon others to furnish them with their vegetable
+food._
+
+Now let us make some excursions into the region surrounding one of these
+cities. For miles and miles we see on every hand _truck farms_ or
+_market gardens_. The main business of those who live in these districts
+is to furnish food for the people of the city, so that the latter may
+devote their time to their various occupations.
+
+We see growing potatoes, cabbages, tomatoes, beans, peas, squashes,
+turnips, onions, sweet corn, celery, melons, and many other things.
+Usually all of these will be found in one garden, but sometimes the
+farmer raises only a few kinds, or perhaps but one.
+
+Market gardening is very common in Germany, Holland, Italy, China, and
+in other densely populated countries. Therefore we often find people who
+have come from these countries to America engaged in this business.
+Chinese gardeners are seldom seen in the East, but on the Pacific coast
+they raise most of the vegetables used in the cities and towns.
+
+In the early spring, before the ground is warm enough to make seeds
+grow, the gardener starts his plants in "hotbeds." These are long wooden
+boxes, or frames, without bottoms, covered with glass. They are usually
+placed on the south side of some building or high fence. The glass
+covers allow the warm sunshine to enter the "beds" freely, but they
+prevent the rapid escape of the heat. You see now why they are called
+"hotbeds." They are like small greenhouses.
+
+A little later in the spring the fields are thoroughly cultivated and
+the plants transplanted. Of course only the vegetables desired for the
+early market are started in this way. What advantage is there in having
+the vegetables ready for the market very early in the season?
+
+Vegetable farming is not easy work, although it is a pleasure to see
+things grow day by day as you care for them, and as nature supplies her
+sunshine and her rain. The fields must be cultivated almost constantly,
+to keep the soil loose, as well as to remove the weeds. Much of the
+weeding has to be done by hand, which is tedious work.
+
+We want our vegetables fresh every morning; and as the truck farms are
+at some distance from the city, the farmer must load up his wagon the
+night before. Of course much produce is sent to the cities on trains,
+but where farmers live near enough to deliver it themselves, their crops
+are more profitable to them. Why?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--A Market Scene.]
+
+Everything is put in readiness before dark; and while others are still
+in bed, the farmer mounts his wagon to start toward the sleeping city. I
+have often ridden ten or fifteen miles on such a load before the stars
+faded away.
+
+It is a novel experience. At first the night seems strangely still, but
+soon you are able to distinguish many voices coming from various places.
+The frogs croak from the ponds by the roadside; crickets and locusts
+send their shrill notes from grass and tree; a night owl startles you by
+his dismal hoot; the lamps of the fireflies gleam, then disappear only
+to shine out again a little farther on.
+
+At last a faint glow appears in the eastern sky, which grows brighter
+and brighter until the shining face of the sun is pushed above the
+horizon. Do you not think such a ride would be more enjoyable than a
+street car ride?
+
+In the cities there are market places where produce from the country is
+taken. In Chicago there is a very busy street where much of the buying
+and selling is done. Study the picture carefully. Here the buyers from
+hotels, restaurants, and stores, as well as the men who wish to peddle
+the produce from house to house, go for their daily supplies. There are
+also commission merchants whose stores are on this street. They sell the
+produce for those who ship it to the city by train.
+
+We go to the stores and get what we want each day, or the peddlers bring
+it to the door. You see how necessary it is to have special workers to
+supply us with the different kinds of food. We consider it very
+important that we should have vegetables and fruits fresh daily. The
+work of supplying us with this food is very important. Remember that
+those who till the soil are entitled to as great respect as are those
+who do not work with their hands. Contact with nature makes men and
+women better, and many of the noblest souls that the world has known
+have lived in the country and plowed, planted, and harvested the
+products of the soil.
+
+[Illustration: Market Scene. Chicago.]
+
+[Illustration: Market Scene. New York.]
+
+
+
+
+DAIRY PRODUCTS
+
+
+Uncle Ben lives on a dairy farm in the western part of New York State.
+It is a beautiful _rolling_ country with cultivated fields, woodland,
+and pastures, and here and there a sparkling stream winding its way
+through the lowlands. The farmhouses are large and well built, and are
+surrounded by grand old maple, beech, and elm trees. Most of the barns
+are painted red with white trimmings.
+
+There are many dairy farms in the neighborhood. Some of the farmers send
+their milk to the towns to be used directly, some sell it to creameries,
+and some to cheese factories.
+
+Last summer I spent my vacation on Uncle Ben's farm, and Cousin Frank
+and I had happy times, you may be sure.
+
+Every day, just before sundown, we went to the pasture for the cows.
+There were about twenty-five of them, and they always seemed perfectly
+contented after the long day of feasting on rich grass and clover.
+
+After we drove them into the barnyard Uncle Ben helped us fasten them in
+their _stanchions_ in the barn. Then the men brought the bright pails
+and cans to begin milking. Cousin Frank and I always helped, although he
+can milk much faster than I. Some of the cows gave but two or three
+quarts, while others gave as many gallons.
+
+We strained the milk into cans holding eight gallons each, and put them
+into tanks of water to cool. After milking was finished we turned the
+cattle into the barnyard for the night.
+
+In the morning we commenced milking about sunrise. After breakfast the
+cans were loaded into a spring wagon and Uncle Ben drove to the depot.
+Here they were put on the "milk train," which took them to the city.
+
+Many other people sent milk on this same train. It was sent to bakeries,
+to hotels and restaurants, and to milkmen, who delivered it from house
+to house. Usually the milkmen put the milk into pint or quart bottles
+for people who like to have it in that form. Uncle Ben told us that
+much of the milk that is sent to New York City is bottled before it is
+sent. The bottling is done by machinery. He also told us that, because
+of the great importance of having pure milk, there are, in all cities,
+inspectors who carefully examine the milk and report to the Board of
+Health. The cows also are inspected, and if any are sick, they are
+usually killed.
+
+Each evening some one drove to the depot again to get empty cans which
+the milk train had brought home. These were always carefully washed in
+hot water before being used again.
+
+
+
+
+BUTTER MAKING
+
+
+One day, after I had been on the farm about a week, Uncle Ben took Frank
+and me to the _creamery_. A creamery is a place where the milk and cream
+are separated and butter is made.
+
+We found several wagonloads of milk being unloaded. The milk was weighed
+as it was received, for it is sold by weight.
+
+The milk was then strained into a large galvanized iron tub, from which
+a pipe carried it into a circular machine called the _separator_. The
+separator revolves rapidly, throwing the milk, which is heavier than the
+cream, to the outer edge, where it passes through small holes into a
+compartment by itself. The cream rises along the center and passes
+through another set of openings into a special compartment. A pipe
+carries it to a large vat, while another pipe conveys the milk to large
+tanks.
+
+Uncle Ben told me that when people make their own butter, they must wait
+for the cream to _rise_ on the milk. The cream is then skimmed off, and
+the milk is called _skimmed milk_. Although the milk in the creamery is
+not skimmed, the same name is used for it.
+
+I asked if the skimmed milk was used for anything. Uncle Ben gave me a
+cupful of it to taste. It was very good. He then told me that the
+separator takes out only the part needed in making butter, leaving all
+of the sugar. I did not know before that milk contains sugar.
+
+The farmers take home loads of this milk to feed it to their hogs. For
+each hundred pounds of milk delivered, they get back seventy-five pounds
+of skimmed milk, besides the pay for their cream.
+
+The creamery man told me that he made from four to six pounds of butter
+from one hundred pounds of milk.
+
+The cream remains in the large vat about twenty-four hours before it is
+churned. The churn, as you see by the picture, is a great barrel made
+to revolve by machinery. It takes from thirty-five minutes to one hour
+to churn. The man told me that I might look at the book in which he kept
+the record of the churning. I saw that he made from two hundred fifty to
+six hundred pounds of butter at a churning. He said that some churns
+would produce more than one thousand pounds at a churning.
+
+Not all of the cream is made into butter. There is left in the bottom of
+the churn a liquid called _buttermilk_. This is drawn off, and the
+butter is washed and _worked_ before being taken out of the churn. The
+working is done by means of paddles in the churn. It continues for six
+or eight minutes and squeezes the liquid out of the butter.
+
+While the butter is being worked, it is salted. Some of the butter is
+unsalted, but most of it is salted. When butter is made in the home, it
+must be churned by hand. Only a few pounds at a time can be made in this
+way.
+
+When the butter was taken out of the churn, the men packed it solidly in
+wooden boxes about two feet square and four inches deep. The bottom
+of each box consisted of strips as wide as a _square_ of butter. These
+were held together by a clamp, and the sides were hooked to the bottom
+and to one another. When the butter is to be cut into squares, these
+sides are removed and zinc ones take their places. In these there are
+slits running from top to bottom. Through these slits a wire saw is run,
+and so the butter is quickly cut into one or two pound squares. The
+butter is then wrapped in fancy papers upon which the name of the butter
+or of the creamery is stamped.
+
+[Illustration: A Separator.]
+
+[Illustration: A Churn.]
+
+Of course some of the butter is packed in wooden tubs and shipped in
+that form. This butter is a little cheaper than that put up in squares.
+
+
+
+
+CHEESE
+
+
+I was so much pleased with my visit to the creamery, that Uncle Ben
+promised to show me how cheese is made. So one morning just after
+breakfast he, Cousin Frank, and I started out. After a pleasant ride of
+about five miles we reached the factory.
+
+The first process here was the same as that at the creamery. After the
+milk was weighed it was run into great zinc-lined vats. There were four
+of these in the factory, each of which held about five thousand pounds.
+
+Uncle Ben explained that the milk must _curdle_ before cheese can be
+made. In order to make it curdle quickly, a little less than a pound of
+a substance called _rennet_ was put into each vat.
+
+A man worked at each vat with a long wooden rake, stirring the milk
+constantly. I saw a glass tube standing in the milk and asked what it
+was. Uncle Ben told me to look at it closely. I saw that it was a
+thermometer, and that it registered eighty degrees. A little while after
+I looked again, when it showed a temperature of ninety degrees. The milk
+is kept warm, so as to help it to curdle quickly.
+
+In about an hour I could see the curd very plainly, but the men kept on
+stirring and cutting it. Presently one of them carried a piece of the
+curd to a table. He heated a small iron rod and touched it with the
+curd. When he pulled the curd away, little threads were drawn out to the
+length of half an inch or more. This he called the "acid test," which
+showed that the curd was in the right condition to be made into cheese.
+
+Of course only a part of the milk had turned into curd; the rest was
+_whey_, that was drawn off and run into tanks. Each man who had
+delivered one hundred pounds of milk was given a check for seventy-five
+pounds of the whey. It is fed to hogs. About two hours from the time
+that the milk was put into the vats, the whey was drawn off.
+
+One of the men now took a long knife and cut the curd into oblong cakes.
+These he frequently lifted and turned over. After continuing this for
+about twenty minutes, the pieces of curd were put into a small mill,
+placed on a board over the vat, and the curd was chopped into strips
+from one to six inches long and from one-half an inch to an inch thick.
+Salt was scattered over the mass by one man, while another pitched it
+about with a three-pronged wooden fork. The man told me that he used
+three pounds of salt to each thousand pounds of milk.
+
+Next, a piece of cloth was placed on a board about sixteen inches
+square. Two circular metal frames or bands, about six inches high, were
+fitted one within the other and placed on the cloth. The frame was
+filled with curd, covered by a cloth, and another set placed on top of
+it until there were five. They were then put on a table directly under a
+block which was fastened to a screw. By turning the screw the block was
+pressed against the top board, and so each frame of curd was pressed. I
+saw the whey running out as the squeezing went on. The superintendent
+told us that the curd would be left in the press until the next day.
+
+We were then taken into the room where the cheese "ripens." Here we saw
+large racks reaching nearly to the ceiling, filled with double rows of
+cheeses. The smallest ones weighed but three pounds, while the largest
+weighed fifty pounds. It may take but a few days and it may take many
+months to "ripen" a cheese. It depends upon the flavor wanted. The man
+said that in England "strong" cheese is generally liked, while in our
+country "mild" cheese is preferred.
+
+I asked how much cheese five thousand pounds of milk would make, and was
+told that it would make between four and five hundred pounds.
+
+On the way home Uncle Ben told us that although our country is a great
+dairy country, we import certain kinds of cheese from Europe. He told us
+how the Swiss people pasture their cattle on the steep mountain sides,
+and that in every little mountain valley cheese is made, some of which
+finds its way over the mountains and across the sea to the United
+States.
+
+
+
+
+THE FISHING INDUSTRY
+
+
+Have you ever stood by the side of a stream and watched the fish dart
+from one shadow of overhanging rock into another, or swim lazily at the
+bottom of some deep pool? How gracefully they move and turn! How like
+water jewels they flash as the sunlight falls upon them!
+
+Most streams and lakes, like the ocean, contain fish. So we have
+fresh-water and salt-water fish. There are a few bodies of water so full
+of salt that fish cannot live in them. Do you know of any such bodies of
+water?
+
+Most of the fish used as food come from the ocean. In this, and in most
+other countries, there are many men who do nothing but fish, in order
+that other people may be supplied with this sort of food. They do not
+depend upon hook and line alone, but use nets also.
+
+Nets are great sacks made of cord, knotted or woven together in such a
+way as to leave spaces or _meshes_. These meshes are not big enough to
+allow large fish to escape. Sometimes the fishermen go out in rowboats
+some distance from shore and then throw the net into the water. Corks or
+floats keep the upper edge of the net near the surface, while weights
+hold the lower edge on the bottom. Ropes are fastened to each end, and
+so it is drawn toward the shore. How the fishermen wish that they could
+see to the bottom of the restless water and know what their harvest is
+to be! When the boats have almost reached the shore, horses are
+sometimes driven into the water and hitched to the ropes. At last the
+net is dragged out upon the sands and the uncertainty is past.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Drying Nets.]
+
+Look! Within the folds of the net is a countless number of fishes, each
+jumping, squirming, wriggling, trying to get back to its ocean home.
+They are of many sizes, shapes, and colors. Those not good for food,
+together with the smallest ones, are thrown back into the water.
+
+Sometimes a net called a "dip-net" is dropped from a fishing schooner
+and drawn about a "school" of fish. I have seen many barrels of fish
+brought up at one time in this way.
+
+The fishermen keep a close watch for the appearance of these "schools,"
+you may be sure. Whales and dolphins pursue them, and gulls and
+cormorants circle overhead, for they, too, are fishers. Their
+appearance helps the men to tell where the "schools" are. There is a
+great rush for the fishing grounds when they are sighted. The
+white-sailed schooners skim over the waters almost like a flock of
+birds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--A Fishing Schooner.]
+
+Large quantities of fish are caught by a method called _trawl fishing_.
+This may be carried on miles from the shore. How do you suppose it is
+done? To a very long and strong line, many shorter ones, each with a
+hook at the end, are attached. These lines, to which large buoys are
+fastened, are left in the water for several hours, and then fishermen in
+flat-bottomed boats called _dories_ row out from the schooner and
+examine them. The lines are then reset and the fish taken to the
+schooner to be dressed. This is a common method of catching codfish,
+which is carried on during summer and winter alike. Storms and fogs are
+likely to occur while the men are out in their little boats, making
+their work full of danger as well as of hardship.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Splitting Codfish.]
+
+Many of the fish are packed in ice and sold fresh, while others are
+cured on the boats or on shore. Some of the fishing schooners carry
+great quantities of salt when they start out on a trip. The fish are
+dressed and packed in this. Sometimes they are packed in brine, and
+along the shores of some countries they are strung on poles to dry.
+
+Codfish are dried in great quantities along the New England coast by
+placing them on frames made of strips of wood and raised a little above
+the wharf, so that the air can circulate freely. When the skin and bones
+are removed and the flesh cut into strips, it is called "shredded"
+codfish.
+
+The principal food-fish are the cod, mackerel, herring, halibut, shad,
+salmon, sardines, and whitefish. Whitefish are caught in the Great
+Lakes. To this list the lobster may be added, although it is not a fish.
+
+A common method of catching lobsters is to sink a box made of lath to
+the bottom, where they crawl about on the rocks. A fish head is placed
+in the box for bait. The lobsters crawl in and are likely to remain
+until the box is examined.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Drying Codfish.]
+
+Lobster steamers, fitted up with tanks containing salt water, run from
+Nova Scotia and Newfoundland to Boston and New York. Here those not
+wanted are placed on cars containing similar tanks and sent to interior
+cities. In this way fresh lobsters are served thousands of miles from
+where they were caught.
+
+A lobster that would cost us from twenty-five to seventy-five cents
+brings the fisherman not more than ten cents.
+
+Along our New England coast there are many towns engaged extensively in
+fishing. Portland, Gloucester, Boston, and Provincetown are among the
+number. Gloucester is the most important fishing town in the United
+States. From it fishing schooners go as far as Newfoundland, Greenland,
+Iceland, and even to the coast of Ireland. There are also important
+fisheries on the Pacific coast, from San Francisco to Alaska. Here the
+salmon are taken in great numbers. They weigh from twenty to one hundred
+pounds. The fish are canned and shipped to all parts of the country.
+Besides being caught in nets and traps and on lines many are caught in
+"fish wheels." These are fastened to the stern of a boat and revolve in
+the water. The fish are caught in pockets and dropped in the boat as the
+wheel brings them up over it.
+
+There are very extensive fisheries along the shores of the British Isles
+and on the western coast of Europe. Fishing is the chief industry in
+the towns along the coast of Norway. The air is full of the odor of
+fish, while drying fish, nets, and boats are everywhere in sight.
+
+Although the supply of fish in the ocean is very great, it is
+diminishing, especially near the shore. Most countries now pay
+considerable attention to the raising of both fresh and salt water
+fishes, and they have passed laws regulating fishing. Eggs are hatched
+in great _hatcheries_, from which the young fish are taken where they
+are most needed.
+
+The great ocean is free to all to sail over or fish in at will. There is
+a narrow strip along the shore three miles wide, which belongs to the
+country which it borders. The men of other countries are not allowed to
+fish there.
+
+The fisherman is a brave and sturdy man. His life is full of danger. He
+battles constantly with the winds and the waves. Fogs may hide the sharp
+rocks which seem to wait for a chance to destroy his little vessel.
+Sometimes icebergs or great ocean steamers sink his boat and he is never
+seen again.
+
+When storms are raging and night has settled over sea and land, and
+angry waves are dashing themselves into foam against the shore, the
+mothers, wives, and children look anxiously from their cottage windows
+toward the sea, and pray that their loved ones may return to them in
+safety.
+
+
+
+
+OYSTER FARMING
+
+
+It sounds strange to speak of farming in the ocean, but there are many
+and large oyster farms all along our coast. Some of these farms are
+covered by water all of the time and some are uncovered when the tide is
+low. Oyster farms are far more profitable than are those upon which corn
+and wheat are raised.
+
+This is a new industry in our country because civilized people have not
+lived here very long, but it is a very old one in some parts of the
+world. As long ago as the seventh century a Roman knight raised oysters
+for the market, and it is said that the business made him very wealthy.
+
+You will understand better about the cultivation of oysters, if I tell
+you first how they live and grow in their natural homes.
+
+Except during the first few days of their lives, oysters are prisoners.
+They cannot move about freely from place to place as fishes and most
+animals can, but they are attached to rocks, to the shells of their dead
+relatives, and to other objects. How, then, do you suppose they get
+their food? They grow in immense numbers, and they crowd one another
+more than people do in the tenement houses in our great cities. In fact
+most of them are soon crowded out, and they die, leaving room for the
+rest to grow upon their empty homes. In this way the oyster beds spread
+out.
+
+These oyster beds are not found in very deep water, but rather along the
+shore, generally near the mouth of some river. As I have told you, they
+often live where they are uncovered when the tide goes out. You can see
+from this that it is not very difficult to gather oysters, so that,
+partly on this account, man has used them for food for ages.
+
+When the Pilgrim Fathers landed on the shores of New England, they found
+that the Indians used oysters very commonly. All along the coast were
+great heaps of the shells. At the very first Thanksgiving dinner given
+in America, oysters were served.
+
+Oysters used to be so plentiful on these natural beds that they were
+very cheap. In some places where the winter weather was cold enough to
+freeze the water along the shore, people cut holes in the ice and
+gathered them by means of long-handled rakes.
+
+In a single year an oyster will produce more than a million young ones.
+Just think of it! If all of this family grew up, they would fill a room
+fourteen feet in each dimension.
+
+These young oysters are _very_ small. They are called "spat." Most of
+them are drifted away by waves and currents, or devoured by larger sea
+animals. The few that escape soon attach themselves to some object, so
+getting a chance to begin the battle of life.
+
+If oysters are caught at all times of the year it does not give them a
+chance to produce their young, and this, as well as catching the young
+ones themselves, has destroyed many of the natural beds. In order to
+keep up the supply of this food men commenced oyster farming. You see
+how our daily needs and desires lead to the establishment of great
+industries.
+
+The oyster farmer prepares his farm in various ways. He places clean
+oyster shells, stones, trays, bundles of sticks, and other things on the
+bottom, so that the oysters may find something to which to attach
+themselves. Then he places the young oysters or "spat" on these objects.
+When trays are used, several are placed one upon another and bound
+together by means of a chain. These trays are taken up from time to time
+in order to gather the oysters that are ready for market.
+
+Stones are sometimes piled on the bottom and the "spat" are placed in
+the crevices between them. Often stakes are planted in a somewhat
+circular form. Cords are attached to the stakes, to which bundles of
+sticks are fastened in such a way as to keep them a little above the
+bottom. Young oysters attach themselves to these sticks, which may be
+drawn up when the proper time comes.
+
+Shells are used more commonly than other things. They are taken from the
+restaurants and hotels to the farms in boat loads, to be scattered over
+the bottom.
+
+The young oysters grow at very different rates. In two years they may
+grow to be six inches in length, or it may take several years to reach
+that size. They grow more rapidly on the artificial beds, and are better
+in quality also. The starfish is one of the greatest enemies of the
+oyster, large numbers of which it destroys every year.
+
+During the fishing season the oyster men go to the beds in their boats
+and scoop the oysters up from the bottom. This is called dredging. The
+scoops with their loads of oysters are drawn to the deck of the boat by
+machinery. Sometimes the oysters are gathered by means of long tongs.
+
+As the oysters are usually in clusters, these have to be broken up. For
+this purpose a sort of a hammer known as a _culling iron_ is used. The
+oysters are broken apart and sorted. Sometimes the oyster man makes
+three grades and sometimes four.
+
+Oysters are not the only things drawn up in the dredge. Starfish,
+lobsters, and various kinds of fishes are gathered in. The starfish are
+killed and the rest thrown back.
+
+The oysters are heaped up in great piles on the deck of the boat. Sacks
+and barrels are filled with them, and many car loads are shipped daily
+from the cities near the fishing grounds. Chesapeake Bay is the center
+of the oyster industry in our country. Find it. There are oyster beds,
+however, all along both the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts.
+
+Great quantities of oysters are canned near where they are caught.
+Getting them out of their shells is not an easy matter. For this purpose
+a knife is used. This work is called in the South "shucking oysters."
+Canning oysters is an important industry in the city of Baltimore. Have
+you ever seen cans of oysters that came from there?
+
+
+
+
+A RICE FIELD
+
+
+When you do not feel quite satisfied with your breakfast, dinner, or
+supper, and think that there should be a greater variety of food on the
+table, just come with me and we will visit some of the boys and girls of
+far-away China. What do you suppose _their_ chief article of food is?
+Rice. Rice in the morning, rice at noon, and rice at night. Rice from
+the beginning to the end of the year. In the poorer families a bit of
+dried fish and some vegetables are usually eaten with it. Those who can
+afford such things have bits of preserved ginger, mushrooms, and barley
+cakes with the rice. Of course the rich people have other things to eat,
+but most of the people of China are poor.
+
+In the fertile portions of China the people live very close together.
+Gardens take the place of farms. Workmen often receive no more than ten
+cents a day. On this account they cannot afford the variety of food
+that we have, but must be content with whatever is cheap and nourishing
+for their labor. If the rice crop were to fail, the Chinese would
+suffer. You will see how important this food is to them, when I tell you
+that they are forbidden by law to sell rice to other countries.
+
+Perhaps you are wondering where the rice that we use in this country
+comes from. Rice is grown in great quantities in Japan, Corea,
+Indo-China, Ceylon, India, the Philippines, the Hawaiian Islands, and in
+our Gulf states.
+
+Rice is the chief food of one half the people of the world. Although we
+raise large quantities, we produce only about one half of what we use.
+It is a kind of grain which will not thrive on the fertile Western
+prairies where corn, oats, and wheat grow. It needs a warm climate and a
+great deal of water. For this reason the rice fields are found on the
+marshy lands near the coast, and by the banks of rivers, where they can
+be easily flooded. Some rice is raised on the uplands, but not so
+successfully as on the lowlands.
+
+Canals are dug from the streams through the farms, and from these
+smaller ditches branch off so as to reach all parts. They are so
+arranged that the farmer can turn the water on or off whenever he
+wishes. On some of the farms, wells furnish the water to the canals.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--A Rice Field.--Observe the Canal.]
+
+In the Gulf states the fields are plowed in the winter, and the rice is
+sown between the first of April and the middle of May. Sometimes the
+seed is sown broadcast, as wheat is, and sometimes it is planted in
+regular drills or trenches about twelve inches apart.
+
+The Japanese sow the seed in gardens, and when the plants are eight or
+ten inches high, they are pulled up and transplanted to the fields. The
+men work right in the water, for the fields are flooded at the time.
+
+In our country the farmer floods the field as soon as the seeds are
+planted, allowing the water to remain five or six days. When the young
+blade of rice is a few inches high, the field is again flooded. After
+the second leaf appears on the stalk, the water is turned on and left
+for twenty or thirty days. After the land dries the crop is hoed. The
+fields are irrigated from time to time, until about eight days before
+the harvest, which generally occurs in August.
+
+When full grown, the stalks are from one to six feet in height, with
+long, slender leaves. The kernels grow much as those of wheat and oats
+do.
+
+On account of the fields being so wet, rice, in most countries, is cut
+by hand. In China and Japan small curved sickles are used, and the
+grain is bound up in very small bundles. In Louisiana and some other
+parts of the South, regular harvesters are used. They have very broad
+wheels. Why?
+
+After the grain has been bound into bundles, these are set up in double
+rows to dry. This is called _shocking_ the rice. The grain is then put
+through a thrashing machine, to separate it from the straw.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Harvesting Rice.]
+
+Rice kernels are covered by a husk. Before the husk is removed the grain
+is often called _paddy rice_. Removing the hulls or husks is called
+_hulling_. The hulling machine is a long tube into one end of which the
+rice is poured. Within the tube are ribs which revolve rapidly. As the
+kernels pass between these the hulls are taken off.
+
+If you were passing through a Chinese village, you might hear sounds
+like those produced when a man pounds with a mallet on a great piece of
+timber. On searching for the sounds, you would find that they came from
+the rice mill. The mill consists of a portion of a log hollowed out and
+placed upright. In the hollow a quantity of rice is held. A piece of
+timber, fastened to a pivot, extends in a horizontal position with one
+end over the mill. To this end another timber is fastened in an upright
+position. A Chinaman gets on to the end of the long timber which is
+farthest from the mill. This raises the end with the upright. He then
+jumps off and the upright falls, striking upon the rice. In this way the
+hulls are worn off.
+
+After hulling, the grain is carefully screened, in order to remove the
+hulls, the broken and very small kernels, and the _rice flour_. This
+latter makes good cattle food.
+
+Perhaps you have noticed that rice kernels have a bluish appearance.
+This is not natural, but is the result of polishing. The polishing
+removes much of the best part of the grain, but the rice sells for a
+higher price simply on account of its appearance.
+
+The polishing machine is cylindrical or drum-like in shape. Moosehide or
+sheepskin is tacked to the cylinder. It is made to revolve rapidly, so
+that the kernels are polished as they pass over the skin. After being
+polished the kernels are run through screens and sorted. The rice is
+then put up in barrels or sacks and shipped.
+
+
+
+
+HOW SUGAR IS MADE
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Sowing Sugar Seed.]
+
+This picture represents one of the beginnings of the great industry of
+sugar making. The small objects which you see in the trenches are pieces
+of sugar cane. These "cuttings," as they are called, are covered with
+soil. They soon sprout, and from them grow the tall, waving fields of
+cane, which resemble cornfields. The canes are taller than cornstalks,
+however. How high do you think those shown in the picture are?
+
+In about ten months after planting the cane is ready to cut. In the
+Southern states this work usually begins about the middle of October.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Cutting Sugar Cane.]
+
+The canes are jointed, as cornstalks are, and the spongy substance
+between the joints is filled with a sweet juice. It is from this juice
+or sap that cane sugar is made. I have seen children chew pieces of the
+cane, and enjoy it as you do candy; for this use it is sometimes sold in
+stores in the South.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Loading Cars with Sugar Cane.]
+
+After the canes are cut they are hauled to the mill or sugarhouse on
+wagons. On the large plantations _tram cars_ sometimes run right into
+the fields.
+
+At the mill the canes are run between heavy rollers, which squeeze out
+the sap. Sometimes as many as seventy-five pounds of sap are obtained
+from one hundred pounds of cane. The crushed stalks are used in the mill
+for fuel, and the ashes are returned to the land to fertilize it.
+
+When the juice is first pressed out, it is not at all clear in color. It
+is then placed in great vats or kettles and heated. This heating causes
+the water which is in the sap to evaporate, and it also brings some of
+the impurities to the top, where they are skimmed off. When the
+evaporating has been finished, there are two products, molasses and
+brown sugar.
+
+The sugar must next be refined. For this purpose it is usually sent to
+cities outside of the sugar belt. There are great refineries in New
+Orleans, San Francisco, St. Louis, Chicago, and other cities.
+
+When the _raw sugar_, as it is called, reaches the refinery, which is
+generally a tall building, it is taken to the top story and dissolved in
+hot water. It then passes through bags which act as _filters_, and
+through a great cylinder which contains burned bones, known as
+_bone-black_. You remember that I told you that the bones of the cattle
+were saved. This is one of the uses to which they are put. When the
+liquid comes out of this bone filter it is a perfectly clear sirup,
+which is then crystallized.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--A Sugar Mill.]
+
+You know that we buy refined sugar in three forms: granulated sugar,
+loaf sugar, and pulverized sugar. When granulated sugar is wanted, the
+crystals are placed in a great drum, which revolves until they are
+thoroughly dried in the right form. To make loaf sugar, the crystals are
+pressed into molds, then dried, and cut into the size desired. In
+powdered sugar they are simply ground to a powdered condition.
+
+Think how much labor is required to produce sugar, and yet you can buy
+it for five cents a pound.
+
+There are great fields of sugar cane in the Gulf states, in Cuba, in the
+Hawaiian Islands, in the East Indies, in India, and in other warm, moist
+parts of the world. We buy a great deal of sugar from Cuba, and from the
+Hawaiian Islands. To what city do you think the sugar from the Hawaiian
+Islands is sent?
+
+
+
+
+BEET SUGAR
+
+
+Although the cane fields of the moist, hot countries yield great
+quantities of sugar, there are other sources from which this useful
+product comes. In the year 1747 a German scientist discovered that sugar
+can be made from beets, and now about two thirds of our supply come from
+these plants.
+
+The sugar beet is not just like the plant of the same name which we
+raise for table use. It is white, and sometimes weighs as much as ten or
+fifteen pounds. Beets do not need so much water nor so much heat as
+sugar cane, so they can be raised in Germany, France, Austria, Russia,
+and other countries, as well as in California, Utah, and Nebraska, in
+our own land.
+
+In some parts of California there are fields of beets stretching for
+miles. The seeds are planted in rows, which, after the plants have come
+up, are thinned. In four or five months from the time the seeds are
+planted, the beets are ready to harvest.
+
+On most of the large _ranches_ the beets are dug by machinery. Men then
+move back and forth in the fields, cutting off the leaves and a little
+of the upper part of the beet, for this contains too much mineral matter
+to be of value in making sugar. The workmen use large knives, and they
+walk on their knees.
+
+The beets are now taken to the factory in wagons, or, if it is far away,
+they are sent on trains. When the loads of beets reach the factory, they
+are weighed. The teamsters then drive up an inclined plane to a plank
+roadway. There are generally several of these. On each side of the road
+or platform are deep V-shaped trenches with wooden sides, in which
+streams of water run. When the wagon has reached the right spot, the
+platform upon which it rests is raised in a slanting position, and the
+beets fall into the trench.
+
+A basket full of beets is taken from each load and tested, to see how
+much sugar they contain, for this determines the price to be paid.
+
+The stream of water in the trench carries the beets along, just as they
+would be carried in a brook. This, you see, is a quick and easy way of
+washing them.
+
+The streams of water carry the beets into the factory, where they are
+cut up into strips by machinery. The juice is then washed out in vats
+containing warm water, and is boiled down in great tanks. The raw sugar
+is refined much as the cane sugar is. After the sugar has been dried, it
+is run through spouts into sacks held open to catch it as it comes out.
+One hundred pounds are put into each sack. One workman sews the sacks up
+and another wheels them to the wareroom. Train loads are carried away to
+be distributed in the parts of our country that do not produce sugar.
+
+
+
+
+MAPLE SUGAR
+
+
+You would enjoy helping to make some maple sugar, I am sure, so let us
+make a trip to the woods of Vermont or New York, where maple sugar is
+made from the sap of the sugar-maple tree.
+
+You will need your cap and mittens, as the sugar season is the early
+spring, when there is yet snow on the ground. Besides, some of the work
+is done at night, and you will not wish to miss that.
+
+The owner of the "sugar bush" bores holes into the trees a short
+distance from the ground, into which he slips small spouts, called
+"spiles."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Tapping a Tree.]
+
+This is called _tapping_ the trees. Underneath the spout a pail is
+placed. During the day the sap trickles out and runs into the pail.
+During the colder hours of the night the sap flows slowly, if at all.
+Sometimes it is so cold that little sap runs for two or three days at a
+time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Oxen hauling Sap.]
+
+The sap is collected in barrels and drawn on sleds to the camp or place
+where it is to be boiled down. This is done in great pans called
+_evaporators_, which may be five or six feet wide, and fifteen feet
+long. They are divided into sections, and these are connected by means
+of little openings.
+
+The sap flows into one end of the evaporator and follows a zigzag path
+through the different sections. By flowing slowly over so large a
+surface, evaporation goes on rapidly and the sap is changed to sirup by
+the time it has finished its journey.
+
+The sirup is put up in cans, or boiled down into sugar, which is molded
+into small cakes, and brings a high price.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Sap-yoke and Pails for gathering Sap.]
+
+"Sugaring off," as the boiling down of the sap is called, is quite an
+event. Often a number of people will be invited to go to the sugarhouse
+and take part in the operation.
+
+Before the modern evaporator came into use "sugaring off" always
+occurred at night. This was necessary, because during the day the sap
+buckets had to be attended to. The young people would sing songs, tell
+stories, and eat sugar.
+
+Some of the "sugar bushes" contain but a few trees and some contain one
+or two thousand or even more. A tree will yield from one to six pounds
+of sugar during a season.
+
+Our country produces great quantities of sugar every year, but we use so
+much that we have to buy much more than we manufacture at home. It was
+not always in such common use, however, because people in olden times
+did not understand how to make it cheaply.
+
+Long, long ago sugar was used only as a medicine. Don't you wish that
+all medicine to-day was as good as sugar? About seven hundred years ago
+an Italian nobleman died and left to his relatives, among other things,
+_six pounds of sugar_. His will caused considerable comment among the
+people, who said that no one family should be allowed to have so much
+sugar in its possession.
+
+
+
+
+WHERE SALT COMES FROM
+
+
+The Arab, journeying over the yellow sands, riding upon the back of his
+faithful "ship of the desert," often looks longingly for some sign of
+water to cool his parched lips. The sailor may ride upon the beautiful
+blue waters of the ocean in his white-winged ship; but although there is
+nothing but water to greet his eyes, he cannot drink it, for it is
+bitter to the taste.
+
+If you were to place a quantity of ocean water over a fire and evaporate
+it, there would remain a white substance. This is common salt. You see
+that it is as necessary to provide fresh water when one wishes to cross
+the ocean, as it is if one is going to cross the desert.
+
+Most streams and lakes contain _fresh_ water, so you will wonder why the
+waters of the ocean are briny. The rocks and soil of the earth contain
+salt, and the streams wash it from the land. Each one carries so little
+that we do not notice it, but they have worked so steadily and so long,
+that they have carried a great amount to the sea. None of it can escape,
+so the ocean gets more and more briny.
+
+No healthy person would ever think of eating salt alone as a food, and
+yet our food would taste very unsatisfactory without it. Farmers supply
+their cattle and horses with salt, and wild animals search for it in the
+forests, and lick it from the soil with their tongues.
+
+Salt is so important to us that I want to tell you about some of the
+ways in which men obtain it.
+
+Sometimes sea water is placed in great vats and evaporated. This leaves
+the salt, which is then refined. You know that the sun's heat causes the
+waters of a shallow pond to evaporate during warm weather. Shallow
+basins are often scooped out along the coast, and the waters which fill
+them are then shut off from the larger body. In time the water
+evaporates, and the salt, which has formed in thin layers, is
+collected.
+
+I said that most lakes are fresh-water bodies. There are some, however,
+that are _very_ salty. Great Salt Lake is one of these. Streams flow
+into it, but none flows out. If you were to bathe in the waters of this
+lake, you would find that your body would not sink.
+
+I have seen great piles of glistening salt along the shore of Great Salt
+Lake which had been obtained by evaporation. A railroad runs beside the
+lake, and the salt is loaded upon the cars to be hauled away. When the
+people first settled in Utah, they used to drive to the lake in wagons
+to get a supply of salt.
+
+Although the ocean and a few lakes contain immense quantities of this
+useful article, we get most of our supply from other sources.
+
+In the western part of New York State, at some distance below the
+surface of the earth, there is a thick layer of salt. Wells are drilled
+down to this; water is pumped into them, and then pumped out again as
+brine. This brine is evaporated in large pans made of iron, two quarts
+of brine yielding about a pound of salt.
+
+In China salt has been obtained in this way for hundreds and even
+thousands of years. Though they had little machinery to work with in
+those days, yet by patient, steady effort, they drilled wells two
+thousand and even three thousand feet in depth. From twenty-five to
+forty years were required to drill some of these wells. Those who
+commenced them knew that they were not likely to enjoy the fruits of
+their labor and that others must get the benefit of what they did. What
+does this show about these people? What benefits are you receiving from
+what others have done?
+
+Salt is also mined as coal and iron are. This is called _rock salt_. It
+is obtained in Germany, Poland, Austria, India, the United States, and
+in many other countries.
+
+One of the most interesting salt fields of the world is in the
+southeastern part of California. It is on the Colorado Desert, near the
+Colorado River. This was once a part of the ocean floor and the rocks
+contain much salt. Water seeping through the earth dissolves the salt
+and brings it to the surface at this place. What happens to the water?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Harvesting Salt, Salton, California. Is there
+any Water in this Field?]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Loading Cars with Salt. Salton, California.]
+
+This salt field covers an area of about one thousand acres, to a depth
+of from one to eight inches. You can see by the picture that it looks
+more like a field of snow and ice than one of salt. The bright sunlight
+is reflected from its surface with such power that it hurts one's eyes.
+
+A great plow drawn by a steam engine moves over this dazzling field,
+and throws the salt up in furrows. It is then piled up, loaded on to
+cars, and taken to sheds, where it is purified. Indians and Japanese do
+most of the work.
+
+In order to purify the brines they are boiled in iron pans and treated
+in various ways to make them fit for table use. When evaporation is
+rapid, the salt crystals are quite small, but slower evaporation
+produces larger ones. Rock salt is dissolved in water and then
+evaporated. To get the finest of salt, the crystals must be ground. When
+salt is to be used for other purposes than to season food, not so much
+pains are taken. Name other uses of salt.
+
+In olden times, when salt was not so easily obtained as it is to-day, it
+was regarded in some countries as a luxury. This seems strange, does it
+not? At one time the Chinese made it into little cakes, stamped the
+image of the emperor upon it, and used it as money. In Arabia those who
+together ate food which had been salted, believed that this established
+a special bond of friendship between them. This led to the old saying,
+"There is salt between us."
+
+
+
+
+MACARONI AND VERMICELLI
+
+
+Have you ever wondered as you have looked at the hollow sticks of
+macaroni in the stores or as you have eaten them at the table, how they
+were made in that way, and what they were made of?
+
+In Italy macaroni is a very important article of food, and its use is
+rapidly increasing in our own country. For a long time it was not made
+outside of Italy, where the city of Genoa was the center of the
+industry. Locate this city. Do you know what great man was born there?
+Now macaroni and vermicelli are made in other countries. There are a few
+factories in the United States, but most of what we use still comes from
+Italy.
+
+In making these foods only the best hard wheat is used.
+
+After grinding the wheat, the bran is taken out and the flour is placed
+in a large wooden tub. Water is added, and the two are mixed by hand
+for a few minutes. In this tub a marble wheel about five feet in
+diameter and eighteen inches in thickness is fastened in an upright
+position. This wheel weighs about a ton.
+
+After the flour and water have been mixed, the wheel is set in motion by
+machinery, and it slowly circles around in the tub, pressing the dough
+under it.
+
+A man keeps walking in front of the wheel, moving the dough from the
+edges of the tub and placing it directly in the path of it. This work of
+pressing the flour into a paste continues for a little more than half an
+hour.
+
+The wheel is then stopped and the paste, which is quite stiff, is cut
+into cakes about a foot square and from one to three inches in
+thickness.
+
+These are put into an iron cylinder heated by steam. In the bottom of
+the cylinder is a copper plate filled with holes having the centers
+filled. A cover fitted to a great screw which turns by machinery is
+placed on top. This slowly, but steadily, presses the paste downward.
+It is thus forced through these openings, and of course comes out in the
+form of round, hollow pipes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Drying Macaroni in Italy.]
+
+As these pipes issue from the cylinder, they are straightened out on a
+wooden tray or platform, and with a large, sharp knife cut into lengths
+of about three feet. They are then taken to a drying room and spread on
+wire frames covered with oiled paper. Here they are left for about five
+days, after which they are placed in boxes and are ready to ship.
+
+The only difference between macaroni and vermicelli is that the pipes
+of vermicelli are very small and are not hollow.
+
+When vermicelli is wanted, two plates are placed on the bottom of the
+press. The under one is of iron and contains holes about one inch in
+diameter. The upper one is of copper and contains _groups_ of very small
+openings. There are sometimes eighty of these openings in a group. When
+the plates are screwed together, the groups of small holes are directly
+above the larger openings.
+
+As the paste is pressed, it passes through the little holes and then
+issues from the larger ones; this keeps each little group of pipes
+somewhat apart from the others.
+
+Saffron is added to the paste to color it, and the great golden mass is
+quite a pretty sight as it steadily lengthens.
+
+The workman cuts off six or seven feet of it at a time; and holding it
+above his head with one hand, he shakes it out with the other, as one
+might shake the folds of a piece of silk. The pipes tangle up very
+little. They are cut into lengths of about eighteen inches.
+
+It is then taken to the drying room and spread out on the trays just as
+the macaroni is. A handful of the vermicelli is taken at a time, and by
+a peculiar twist of the arm it is placed on the paper in a form
+something like that of the letter _n_. After drying for five days it is
+packed and shipped.
+
+
+
+
+ON A COFFEE PLANTATION
+
+
+Juan and Lupe live in a beautiful valley where palm and banana trees
+wave their broad leaves in the breeze. It is never cold there, so that
+many kinds of plants and flowers grow out of doors which we do not see
+in our country except in greenhouses. On clear days they can see lofty
+mountains far to the westward, which sometimes wear caps of white.
+
+Juan is fourteen years old and Lupe is twelve. Their skin is much darker
+than yours, and they have bright black eyes and black hair. Their father
+owns a great coffee plantation in Brazil, not far from the city of Rio
+Janeiro.
+
+There are many men, women, and children employed on the plantation, and
+Juan and Lupe enjoy roaming about from place to place and watching them
+at their work.
+
+In the nursery they see men planting the coffee seeds in the rich soil.
+There are some plants that have just come up, and some that are ready
+to transplant. They are set out in rows, six or eight feet apart each
+way, and sometimes more.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--A Coffee Nursery.]
+
+The trees would grow much taller than those you see in the picture, if
+they were not kept pruned. Do you know why they are prevented from
+growing tall? Whenever you look at a coffee plantation, you see the dark
+green foliage of the tree, which is an evergreen. Lupe is very fond of
+the blossoms. They are clear white and very fragrant.
+
+A tree will yield a small amount the second year after planting, but it
+will not produce a full crop for five or more years. Two pounds is a
+good average crop for a tree.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Picking Coffee.]
+
+The children like to watch the pickers as they go from tree to tree.
+Many of them are about their own age. Some carry a sack slung over the
+shoulders, and others carry baskets or pails. The _berries_ must be
+picked by hand, for they do not all ripen at once. They are dark
+scarlet in color and look a little like cranberries. A good picker
+gathers about three bushels in a day. The pickers are given a check
+every time they fill a basket. Sometimes Juan tends to this work, and he
+enjoys it very much. At the end of each week the pickers are paid
+according to the number of checks they have.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Coffee Berries.]
+
+Within the berry are two kernels or seeds, with their flat sides
+together. These are called "coffee beans." It is these beans from which
+the drink is made.
+
+The picking is but a small part of the work of preparing coffee for the
+market. The first operation is removing the pulp. This used to be done
+by tramping on the berries, but now it is done in a better way.
+
+The berries are thrown into a large tank filled with water, which
+carries them through a pipe to the pulping machine. This machine removes
+the pulp and separates the beans.
+
+Next the beans are carried to a second tank, where they remain for about
+twenty-four hours, to wash off a sticky substance which covers the shell
+of the bean.
+
+If you have ever put beans or peas into a basin of water, you have
+noticed that nearly all of them sink, while a few float. These latter
+are the poor ones. This is the way in which the good and bad coffee
+beans are separated. A pipe carries off the seeds that float on the
+surface of the water.
+
+The beans are dried on cement floors upon which they are spread. This
+drying takes a long time. Before sunset each day the coffee must be
+carried under shelter, for the dew injures it. While they are drying,
+the workmen stir them. Sometimes artificial heat is used, but this is
+expensive. Juan's father has a watchman whose duty it is to guard the
+coffee at night, for it is very valuable.
+
+Each bean is covered by a strong shell, or hull, which has to be
+removed. The soaking has loosened this, and so it comes off easier than
+it otherwise would. Juan and Lupe often watch the wheels of the huller
+as they turn, moved by patient oxen.
+
+There are two wheels set upright over a circular box, into which the
+coffee is put. As it passes between the wheels and the bottom of the
+box, the hulls are removed. Underneath the hull is a thin skin, which is
+also taken off.
+
+In some countries people want the coffee dyed or colored. A bluish color
+is given to it by coating the wheels of the hulling machine with lead.
+
+The hulls are separated from the beans in a winnowing machine, and the
+coffee is then sorted. Often this is done by hand. The beans are spread
+out on a table, and girls and boys, and sometimes grown persons, sort
+it into several grades.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Sorting and sacking Coffee.]
+
+Juan's father has this work done by machinery. The coffee is put into a
+cylinder, in the bottom of which there are holes of different sizes by
+which it is graded.
+
+The last process is to sack the coffee and send it by railroad to Rio
+Janeiro. Of course it is neither roasted nor ground until it reaches its
+destination.
+
+We do not produce coffee in our country, but we are the greatest coffee
+drinkers in the world. A large part of our supply comes from Brazil.
+Trace the course of the ship from Rio Janeiro to New York. Juan has
+often done this, and his father has promised to take him with him
+sometime, when he goes with a cargo of coffee.
+
+You naturally think that coffee of different names must come from
+different countries, or at least from different trees. This is not
+always the case. Several brands may come from the same tree. The name
+depends partly upon the size and the general appearance of the beans.
+
+Coffee is a native of the far East, but it has gradually been
+transplanted to other countries, until it is now very extensively used.
+Brazil, Central America, Mexico, the West Indies, the Hawaiian Islands,
+Java, Ceylon, and Arabia are coffee-raising countries.
+
+In 1551 coffee found its way to the city of Constantinople; in 1652 it
+had reached London; and in 1720 it was planted in the West Indies. You
+see it worked its way westward rather slowly.
+
+Several hundred years ago, coffee was very expensive, so that only the
+rich could afford to use it. Instead of drinking it at home, people went
+to "coffeehouses," where it was served. To these "coffeehouses" men
+brought whatever news they had heard and told it to one another. In this
+way these places served about the same purpose that newspapers do now.
+
+
+
+
+THE TEA GARDENS OF CHINA
+
+
+At the bottom of the teapot you will find some leaves. Spread one of
+them out carefully. You can see that it was once long and slender, a
+little like willow leaves. It may have grown in some garden in far-away
+China, for we get a great deal of tea from that country.
+
+I have told you how close together the people live on the fertile plains
+of eastern China. There is so little room that many live on boats on the
+rivers and in the harbors. On this account their farms are not so large
+as ours.
+
+The tea trees in the gardens are about five or six feet high. If they
+were allowed to, they would reach a height of twenty-five feet; but they
+are kept trimmed for the same reasons that the coffee trees are pruned.
+
+The trees are raised from seeds, and are generally planted on land which
+slopes toward the south. What advantage is this?
+
+In about three years after planting, the first crop of leaves can be
+gathered. In China they are usually gathered four times each year, and
+the trees continue to yield for twenty-five or thirty years.
+
+When the leaves are picked, they are full of sap or juice, and so have
+to be dried. The drying is usually done on trays made of bamboo. While
+they are drying, they are rubbed and rolled between the palms of the
+hands, so that they may dry more quickly and evenly.
+
+Next the leaves are placed, a few at a time, in iron pans over a
+charcoal fire. They are left in these but a short time, for they are
+hot. This process is called "firing." Sometimes the leaves are "fired"
+but once, and sometimes twice.
+
+The tea is then spread out, and broken bits of stems are removed. Some
+of the tea growers place the tea in baskets which are suspended over
+slow fires, for drying.
+
+If you were to look into some of the _tea-hongs_ or houses where tea is
+cured and packed, you would find the tea dried in a very curious
+fashion.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Picking Tea. "Pinehurst," South Carolina.]
+
+In one of the rooms you would see several Chinamen rolling and tossing
+balls about with their bare feet. The balls are about the size of
+footballs and are partly filled with tea. Although it looks like play,
+it is hard work. As the balls are tossed about, the tea leaves are given
+their rounded or twisted appearance. From time to time the workers stop
+and tie the bags up more closely at the neck. This method is used in
+making _gunpowder tea_.
+
+Black and green teas are not different varieties, but are produced by
+different methods of handling.
+
+In the great tea-hongs there are professional _tasters_,--that is, men
+who do nothing but sip tea from small cups, so as to grade it and fix
+its value. This is considered a very particular line of work and
+requires an educated taste.
+
+The ocean atmosphere has a bad effect on tea, so that the very finest
+grades are seldom sent across the sea. When tea is to be shipped by
+water, it is placed in boxes lined with a sort of sheet lead. This
+protects the tea greatly. Most of the tea sent to the United States
+lands at San Francisco. Why? How does it get to other parts of our
+country?
+
+Great quantities of tea are pressed into the form of bricks and sent
+over mountains and across deserts into Russia.
+
+This is called "brick tea." The Russians are great tea drinkers, and
+whenever any one calls in Russia, tea is served. They call their teapot
+a _samovar_.
+
+Better tea is obtained from Ceylon and India than from China. In these
+countries Europeans have charge of most of the tea farms, and they have
+carefully studied the cultivation and handling of tea.
+
+There is a little tea raised in our own country in the state of South
+Carolina. It is very fine in quality and people are willing to pay a
+high price for it. Some of it has been sold for five dollars a pound.
+
+When tea was first brought into Europe, it was regarded as a great
+luxury, just as coffee was. People paid as much as fifty dollars a pound
+for it. It is said that some of the tea raised to-day for the royal
+family of China, is worth a hundred dollars a pound.
+
+Many people in this country do not enjoy a cup of tea unless they have
+milk and sugar in it. The Chinese do not use either in their tea. In
+Russia it is quite common to draw the tea through a lump of sugar held
+between the teeth.
+
+You know that tea parties are very common. The most celebrated tea party
+ever held was called the "Boston Tea Party." See what you can find out
+about it.
+
+
+
+
+A CUP OF COCOA
+
+
+On the eighteenth day of June, in the year 1771, this notice appeared in
+the _Essex Gazette_ of Massachusetts:--
+
+                          "AMOS TRASK,
+
+     At his House a little below the Bell-Tavern in
+
+                            DANVERS,
+
+                  Makes and sells Chocolate,
+
+     which he will warrant to be good, and takes Cocoa to grind. Those
+     who may please to favor him with their Custom may depend upon being
+     well served, and at a very cheap Rate."
+
+This seems to have been the first notice of the manufacture and sale of
+cocoa and chocolate in our country. What is peculiar about the notice?
+
+In those days the raw product was brought to Massachusetts by the
+Gloucester fishermen. They obtained it in the West Indies in exchange
+for fish and other things which they took there.
+
+When the Spanish soldier, Cortez, conquered Mexico in 1519, he found
+that the people of that country were very fond of a drink which they
+called "chocolatl." It was served to their ruler, Montezuma, in a cup of
+gold. When the Spaniards went home, they of course introduced the drink
+into their own country. For a long time it was very expensive and was
+not commonly used outside of Spain, for the Spaniards kept the secret of
+its preparation.
+
+Cocoa and chocolate are products of the seeds of a tree called the cacao
+tree. It is a tropical tree and grows in both the Old and the New World.
+
+Although the cacao tree grows wild, it is also cultivated in orchards
+much like fruit orchards which you have seen. The trees are seldom more
+than twenty feet high, but they are rather inclined to spread out. They
+require some shade, and so other trees are often planted between the
+rows to shade them. The trees begin to bear when five or six years old,
+and continue to yield for forty years. There are generally two chief
+harvests each year, but the fruit is ripening all of the time.
+
+The blossoms, which grow in clusters, are small and pink or yellow in
+color. They grow directly from the branches or the trunk of the tree.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Cocoa Pods and Leaves.
+
+(Permission of WALTER BAKER & CO., Ltd.)]
+
+In about four months after the tree has blossomed, you will find dark
+yellow or brown pods hanging from it. These look a little like ripe
+cucumbers, but they are more pointed at one end and are grooved or
+fluted. These pods are from six inches to a foot or more in length, with
+a rather thick, tough rind.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Native Cocoa Pickers. Ceylon. (Permission of
+WALTER BAKER & CO., Ltd.)]
+
+How do you think the pods are gathered? They are cut off by men carrying
+long poles, sometimes of bamboo, to the ends of which knives are
+fastened. Only the ripe pods are cut off and collected in a heap under
+the tree. They are left in these heaps for about twenty-four hours,
+when they are cut open and the seeds are gathered in baskets.
+
+The seeds are called "beans." There are five rows of them, about the
+size of almonds, within the pink pulp of the fruit. When fresh they are
+white, but when dried they are brown. If you taste one, you will find it
+bitter.
+
+You have often seen on packages of chocolate, as well as on the cans of
+breakfast cocoa, the picture of a young woman carrying some chocolate
+upon a tray. It is the picture of a beautiful girl who once served
+chocolate in the old city of Vienna. Her name was Anette Baldauff, and
+she married a rich count and "lived happily ever after." It is said that
+a painting of her hangs upon the walls of the great art gallery in
+Dresden. Point out the cities I have mentioned.
+
+The seeds are carried from the orchard to the sheds, where they are
+prepared for market. Here they go through a process of fermentation or
+"sweating." For this purpose they are placed in a covered box, or they
+may even be covered with earth. This is called "claying." Now the seeds
+must be dried. They are spread out on platforms, raised a little above
+the ground, so that the air can circulate underneath. You notice that
+the roofs do not cover them just now, for their only purpose is to keep
+off the dew and the rain. They are fastened to frames which have wheels
+under them. During the day they are not used, but at night they are
+rolled over the cocoa.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Drying Cocoa Seed. Ceylon.
+
+(Permission of WALTER BAKER & CO., Ltd.)]
+
+The cocoa is stirred by workmen using long shovels or rakes, so that it
+may dry quickly and evenly. Once a day the beans are shoveled into heaps
+and the workmen tread upon them with their bare feet, as you see. This
+is called "dancing the cocoa."
+
+After the seeds have dried for about two weeks they are nearly the color
+of red bricks. They are put up for shipment in canvas sacks holding one
+hundred and fifty pounds each. The name of the plantation is usually
+stamped upon the outside. Guayaquil exports more cocoa than any other
+city. Find it. A great deal comes from the island of Trinidad, and from
+the northern part of South America.
+
+When the "beans" have reached their destination, they must be cleaned,
+to rid them of dust and dirt collected on the way. They are then placed
+in a great revolving cylinder and roasted. You remember that when coffee
+is roasted it brings out a pleasant odor called its _aroma_. The same is
+true of cocoa. The roasting also helps to loosen a shell which surrounds
+the seed. The shell is next removed and the "beans" are then crushed.
+
+The Mexicans used to crush the seeds on a large stone, hollowed out on
+top. This they called a "matate."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Grinding Cocoa.
+
+(Permission of WALTER BAKER & CO., Ltd.)]
+
+The crushing is now done by machinery. The broken bits of the cocoa are
+called "cocoa nibs." When the cocoa is ground to a powder, it is put
+into strong bags and pressed. This pressure removes a part of an oily
+substance known as "cocoa butter." Remember, then, that cocoa is the
+meal or flour made from the crushed seeds from which some of the oil has
+been removed. Chocolate differs from cocoa in that none of this oil is
+removed in making it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Moulding Cocoa.
+
+(Permission of WALTER BAKER & CO., Ltd.)]
+
+You have often seen the words "sweet chocolate" on the labels. This is
+made by adding a quantity of pulverized sugar to the "plain" or "bitter"
+chocolate. Sometimes vanilla beans are added.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Cooling Cocoa.
+
+(Permission of WALTER BAKER & CO., Ltd.)]
+
+The pasty mass known as chocolate must be molded. When the proper amount
+has been placed in each of several metal molds which rest on a table,
+they are made to rock or shake, and this causes the chocolate to assume
+the right shape. The molds are then taken to the cooling room, where
+they are placed on frames, one above another, in long rows. Girls and
+women wrap the cakes of chocolate in the wrappers specially prepared for
+them, after which they are packed in boxes ready for shipment.
+
+At Dorchester, Massachusetts, on the Neponset River, is situated the
+largest establishment for the manufacture of cocoa and chocolate in
+America. It is interesting to know that on the very spot where these
+great mills now stand, was built, in 1765, the first one of the kind in
+this country.
+
+
+
+
+A CRANBERRY BOG
+
+
+                WAREHAM, MASSACHUSETTS, Dec. 10, 1901.
+
+DEAR FRANK: How surprised you will be to learn that I am now a country
+boy. We left Boston early last spring, and came out here to go into the
+business of cranberry raising. It seemed very strange at first to travel
+along country roads, or through woods and fields, instead of upon the
+cement walks of our city streets, but we all think the country
+delightful.
+
+A cranberry farm is a marsh or a bog, so you will see that the vines
+need a great deal of water. There are both wild and cultivated bogs.
+Those that are cultivated are provided with a system of ditches, so that
+they can be flooded from time to time. It is a good deal like irrigation
+in Southern California, I suppose. We flood the bogs to prevent the
+berries from freezing, as well as to furnish the vines with water. I
+will tell you more about that by and by.
+
+Father wanted a larger bog than the one he first bought, so, soon after
+we came, he got another small piece of marsh land which joins it on the
+west, and started vines on it.
+
+You know that willows, rosebushes, grapevines, and many other plants
+will grow from _cuttings_. It is the same with cranberry vines. The
+lower end of each cutting is pressed into the soil, and it soon begins
+to grow. They are set in rows about fourteen inches apart. One of our
+neighbors, who was starting a bog at the same time, cut the vines into
+pieces an inch or two long, and scattered them over the ground. He then
+harrowed them in. The vines multiply just as strawberry plants do, by
+putting out _runners_.
+
+They tell us that our new bog will produce a crop in three years. Do you
+have to wait that long for a crop of oranges?
+
+By the middle of June our bog was in full blossom. The flowers are quite
+small and their color is a little like that of the flesh. I read an
+interesting thing about them the other day. It seems that the berries
+used to be called "craneberries," because people thought that the
+blossoms, just before they opened fully, "resembled the neck, head, and
+bill of a crane." By dropping the _e_, we got the present name.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--A Cranberry Bog. Showing the Young Vines.]
+
+During our harvest time, which lasted from the middle of September to
+the last of October, we were very busy. We did not commence to go to
+school until the berries were picked. You see, frost may occur and spoil
+the crop, so that everybody works as fast as possible until the harvest
+is over. Father had about twenty pickers some of the time, besides our
+own family.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Cranberry Pickers at Work. Notice how the Bog
+is divided into Rows by Means of Cords.]
+
+When we were ready to begin picking, father took some twine and
+stretched it back and forth across the bog, fastening it to small
+stakes. This divided the field into rows. Each picker was given a row,
+and he was not allowed to change until it was finished.
+
+At first it seemed great fun to get down on the ground and strip off the
+bright berries, but when one does this day after day it gets pretty
+tiresome. It must be easy to pick oranges, because you can stand up
+while you work.
+
+Father paid the pickers twelve cents a pail. It takes about three
+pailfuls to make a bushel. I averaged about one dollar and a half each
+day. I bought a suit of clothes and all of my books for the year, and
+have considerable money left. Some of the pickers who were quite small
+did not earn very much. Do you recognize Jennie? She worked a part of
+every day.
+
+Twice during the picking season there was a sharp frost, but we saved
+the crop.
+
+The government sends out a Weather Map every day. Our teacher gets one,
+and there is one tacked up in the post office every morning. These maps
+tell what kind of weather to expect, and father watches them closely.
+When he saw that frost was likely to occur, he and the men opened the
+gates which hold back the water, in order to flood the part of the bog
+where we had not picked. The vines were buried nearly two feet beneath
+the surface of the water. Father says the water cools so slowly that its
+temperature is much above that of the surface of the ground or the air
+near it, so the berries do not get frost-bitten. Soon after sunrise the
+water was drawn off, and the next day the bog was dry enough for the
+pickers to work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.--A Young Worker. Notice how the Berries are
+picked.]
+
+I wonder if the Weather Bureau is of any use to farmers in California. I
+know that the sailors watch for the flags which tell when storms are
+coming, that they may not go to sea if a violent storm is expected.
+Father says very many lives and much property are saved every year in
+this way.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Winnowing and Barreling Cranberries.]
+
+I have not told you what we do with the cranberries after they are
+picked. Of course we cannot help gathering some leaves and twigs with
+the berries, and these must be taken out. For this purpose the berries
+are put into a winnowing machine. I will send you a picture of one. As
+the man turns the crank, wooden fans within turn rapidly, blowing out
+the leaves, twigs, and dirt. The berries drop through a screen and run
+out of a spout into a barrel, as you see. We then put them into crates
+or barrels for sale. Father tells me that cranberries are shipped from
+our country to Europe, because those raised here are much better than
+the European berries.
+
+There are great quantities of cranberries raised in this part of
+Massachusetts. I have been reading lately that they are produced in New
+Jersey, on Long Island, in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Canada, and
+some other sections. From what I have read, I guess they are not raised
+in Southern California. Wouldn't it seem strange if you were to eat
+berries raised on our bog, three thousand miles away?
+
+Now I want you to tell me about the orange groves of Southern
+California, for none of us have ever seen an orange growing.
+
+I wish you all a very "Merry Christmas" and a "Happy New Year."
+
+                                      Your loving friend,
+
+                                                        WILL.
+
+
+
+
+THE COCOANUT ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC
+
+
+Imagine yourself on a great ocean steamship, gliding over the blue water
+of the Pacific Ocean toward the Samoan Islands. Among the first things
+that you will see as you near the shores of these islands will be tall,
+slender, graceful trees, rising without a branch to a height of thirty
+to eighty feet. At the top is a sort of crown, composed of long,
+drooping leaves. These beautiful trees lean out over the water and toss
+their leaves in the strong and steady breeze from the ocean. They seem
+to nod a friendly greeting to you as you approach, and to wave a loving
+farewell to you as you sail away. These trees are the cocoanut palms.
+They grow on all of the tropical islands of the Pacific Ocean, in the
+West Indies, and along the shores of most warm countries, but never far
+from the sea.
+
+When the cocoanut falls into the water, it is rocked and tossed by the
+waves and drifted about by the currents, but it is safe within its
+shell, for the salt water cannot penetrate this. When it finally comes
+to rest upon some strange shore, it is ready to give to the world
+another cocoanut palm, if the climate is like that from which it sailed.
+In this way nature has helped the trees to become widely distributed.
+
+There are cocoanut plantations as well as wild groves of the trees. When
+a plantation is to be established, the planter selects the ripest nuts
+and dries them for several weeks. They are then planted, and by and by a
+little palm springs from the small end of the nut and the roots from the
+large end. When the young trees are from six months to two years old,
+they are transplanted in rows thirty or forty feet apart. They begin to
+bear nuts in about five years, but they do not yield a full crop for
+fifteen or twenty years. Do you think that a poor man could afford to go
+into the business of cocoanut raising?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--A Cocoanut Grove.]
+
+As you see in the picture, cocoanuts grow in clusters. You notice
+also that they grow close to the stem instead of at the ends of the
+branches. They do not all ripen at once, but nuts may be picked at
+almost any time. A tree will produce from fifty to one hundred nuts each
+year. If you were to go into an apple, a peach, or a cherry orchard, you
+could easily pick the ripe fruit. Gathering cocoanuts is quite a
+different matter, however. Let us observe this shiny-skinned Samoan boy
+and see how he picks them. He fastens a short piece of rope in the form
+of a loop to each foot. Letting one of the loops catch on a rough place
+on the bark of the tree he places the hollow of his foot against it,
+clasps the trunk with his hands, and raises himself a little. Then the
+other loop is fastened a little higher up, and he raises himself again.
+In this way he finally reaches the nuts. With a knife he cuts off the
+ripe ones, which fall to the ground and are then piled up. They are then
+placed in baskets which are hung from a pole and carried on the
+shoulders of two men or are loaded on to donkeys and taken to the shed.
+
+The ripe cocoanut is a valuable article of food just as it is picked
+from the tree. It contains also a milk which is a nourishing drink. Most
+of the cocoanut sent to other countries, however, is in a form known as
+_copra_.
+
+At the shed the hard shell, which covers the meat, is split open by
+means of an ax. The meat is removed with a knife and is then spread out
+on mats to dry. This dried cocoanut is copra.
+
+The inhabitants of these cocoanut islands live in a much more simple
+style than we do, and the cocoanut tree supplies many of the things that
+they use daily.
+
+Let us examine the home of a native Samoan. The frame and posts of the
+house are made of the slender trunks of the cocoanut palm, while the
+roof is covered with its leaves instead of with shingles. The cups,
+bowls, dippers, and many other household utensils are made of the
+shells. If a whole shell is wanted, the "eyes" are pushed in, the milk
+is used, and ants are allowed to eat the meat. These make excellent
+water bottles. Baskets, curtains, and twine, are made from the fiber of
+the leaves, and the bark is used for fuel.
+
+From the copra an oil is pressed which is used in the manufacture of
+soap. It makes a perfectly white soap that will float on the water. It
+is also used to furnish light, and the people rub it on their bodies to
+prevent sunburn. The sap of the tree is made into sugar, vinegar, and a
+liquor.
+
+While in our country the cocoanut is important chiefly to bakers and
+confectioners, in these far-away islands it is the most useful of
+plants, and one of the chief articles of food. Would you not like to
+visit the cocoanut islands and learn more of their interesting people?
+
+
+
+
+A BUNCH OF BANANAS
+
+
+Every day, as you walk along the streets you see great bunches of
+bananas hanging in front of fruit and grocery stores. You find them at
+the corner fruit stand, and peddlers carry them from house to house.
+
+Although bananas are so common now and so cheap that all can afford to
+eat them, this was not so when your grandparents were children. In those
+days the fruit was regarded as quite a luxury, for there were few people
+engaged in carrying it from its tropical home to the cities of our
+country. Now many small but swift ships, called "fruiters," carry on
+this business. They get their cargoes of fruit in the West Indies or
+Central America, and within a week after sailing they are unloading at
+New Orleans, Baltimore, New York, or Boston. If the number of bananas
+which reach our country each year were equally distributed, each person
+would receive twenty-five.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--A Banana Tree.]
+
+Let us get aboard that wonderful train upon which all may travel free of
+cost, which runs equally well upon land and water. We step off right in
+the center of a banana plantation on the island of Jamaica.
+
+Yes, these are banana trees all about you. See how long and broad the
+leaves are and how gracefully they droop! Some of them are ten or
+fifteen feet long; almost as long as the trees are tall. The trees, you
+see, are simply stalks from which the leaves unroll. Here you can see
+some just starting out. They are rolls of bright green, pointing upward,
+each starting from the center of the stalk. No, the leaves were not torn
+in that way by the pickers. The wind sometimes whips them into ribbons,
+for they are very tender.
+
+These stalks growing from the base of the main stem are called "suckers"
+here; in Costa Rica they are called "bits." You remember that there are
+no seeds in bananas. It is these "suckers" that are planted when a
+farmer wants to start a plantation. They are set out when two or three
+feet high and within a year they bear fruit. What did I tell you about
+the length of time required for the cocoanut to bear?
+
+It is but four years since the trees in this plantation were single
+"suckers," standing about fifteen feet apart. Now there are several
+stalks grouped about each parent plant, and the beautiful leaves,
+touching overhead, form shaded aisles of green.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--A Banana Plantation.]
+
+Of course a great number of "suckers" are not allowed to grow together.
+Keeping these cut down is called "cleaning the plantation."
+
+Now let us examine the fruit on this tree beside us. You see that the
+great cluster or bunch is made up of smaller bunches. These are called
+"hands," and each banana is spoken of as a "finger." Let us count the
+"hands" in this bunch. This is an unusually large one, for it contains
+thirteen. Nine "hands" make a _full bunch_. As you see, there are from
+ten to twenty "fingers" in a "hand." Buyers will seldom take bunches of
+less than six "hands."
+
+Here come the fruit cutters to help get a cargo for the "fruiter" we saw
+at anchor.
+
+Yes, the bananas are green, I know, and they are always green when
+gathered. They will ripen in the storehouses when they reach the United
+States.
+
+No, it is not a waste to cut down the stalks, for they die after bearing
+their fruit, and the smaller stalks about them will soon yield. Some of
+these stalks, you see, have but one bunch and some have two or three.
+How odd the bunches look with the "fingers" all pointing upward!
+
+The banana leaves which the men are wrapping about the bunches are to
+protect the fruit. It bruises very easily and great quantities are lost
+on this account. They are not always wrapped, however.
+
+When the fruit reaches the vessel, it is carefully inspected; and if not
+in just the right condition, it is refused. The bunches which are
+accepted, are taken into the hold of the ship and packed closely
+together. The planter receives for these from ten to thirty-five cents a
+bunch. Just think of buying eight or nine dozen of bananas for ten
+cents!
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Loading a Small Boat with Bananas to be taken
+to the "Fruiter" in the Harbor.]
+
+The men will not stop work until the ship is loaded. It may take
+twenty-four hours, and it may take twice that long, for a "fruiter" will
+carry from fifteen to twenty thousand bunches of fruit.
+
+In some parts of Central America, where there are no harbors, the
+planters float the fruit down the streams in canoes. The vessels anchor
+at some distance from the shore, and the bananas are taken out in boats
+called _dories_. They are hoisted up to the deck of the ship by means of
+pulleys, and then packed in the hold. The thousands of bunches which are
+bruised in handling are thrown into the sea.
+
+While the northern ports get most of their supply of bananas from the
+West Indies, the Pacific coast states are supplied from Central America.
+The "fruiters" unload at New Orleans into trains, which carry the fruit
+to Los Angeles, San Francisco, and other places. Banana trains also run
+from New Orleans to St. Louis, Chicago, and other parts of the country.
+
+The fruit ships have great pipes or ventilators, which carry the cool,
+fresh air from the sea down into the hold. Sometimes when they reach
+port it is so cold that the bananas cannot be taken out for a few days.
+Wagons are loaded with the fruit at the wharves, and it is taken to
+warehouses where it gradually turns yellow. I am sure you have seen
+loads of the green fruit on the streets.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--A "Fruiter" taking a Cargo of Bananas.]
+
+When the wholesale merchant sells the fruit, he often incloses each
+bunch in the rough material of which gunny sacks are made, and then puts
+a light, circular frame, made of strips of wood, over it. This, you see,
+protects the bananas. The grocer or fruit man takes hold of the frame
+without danger of mashing the fruit, lifts the bunch, and hangs it upon
+a hook. The frame and sacking are then removed.
+
+Bananas grow in the tropical parts of Asia and Africa and on many of the
+islands of the Pacific Ocean. They are also raised in Florida, and they
+ripen in sheltered places in Southern California.
+
+You have seen both yellow and red bananas. The red ones usually bring
+the higher price, but they do not keep well and are not so extensively
+raised as the yellow ones.
+
+The banana is an important article of food. It is much more nourishing
+than potatoes or even good, white bread. A flour or meal can be made
+from the fruit by drying it and then grinding.
+
+
+
+
+HOW DATES GROW
+
+
+Three thousand years before the shepherds followed the star to the
+manger at Bethlehem, the beautiful date palm was cultivated beside the
+banks of the Euphrates and the Nile rivers. The date was the bread of
+the people who lived in these fertile valleys, and it is an important
+article of food in northern Africa, Arabia, and Persia to-day.
+
+Look at a map of northern Africa, and you will see that the great Sahara
+covers a large part of it. Here and there across the drifting sands wind
+caravan routes, traveled by camels ridden by strangely dressed men.
+These routes lead to beautiful garden spots called _oases_. Here are
+wells and springs, with little streams flowing in the shade of fig, date
+palm, and other trees. The people who dwell within these groves beside
+the cooling waters look out upon the desert as the inhabitants of an
+island might look upon the boundless sea. Find some of these oases and
+learn why they are fertile. The people who live in these oases depend
+upon dates for their living. The dreary journey from the coast to the
+interior is made to procure quantities of this fruit, which are wanted
+by the outside world.
+
+If you were to make a journey in a desert country, you would find that
+you could not carry such articles of food as you would have if you
+remained at home. The sunshine beats down fiercely, the springs and
+wells are far apart, and the patient animals must not be overloaded. The
+chief article of food carried is the date. A mass is packed together
+until it is so hard that pieces are chopped off with a hatchet when they
+are wanted.
+
+Like the cocoanut palm, the date palm rises to a great height, sometimes
+fifty or sixty feet, without branches. It ends in a crown of beautiful
+feathery leaves which droop downward. These leaves may be ten or fifteen
+feet long. Many of them stand edgewise. Unlike most trees, the trunk
+does not steadily increase in size, and you can tell nothing as to
+the age of the tree by its diameter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--Date Palms loaded with Ripe Fruit, Biskra,
+Algeria. (Year Book U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1900.)]
+
+In its wild state many shoots spring from the base of the tree. These
+may grow as high as the parent stalk, so that in time a jungle or
+thicket is formed.
+
+The flowers, which are clear white, grow in clusters. There are from six
+to twenty of these clusters on a tree, each of which produces a bunch of
+dates. The female tree bears the fruit. The blossoms are pollinated both
+by the wind and by man.
+
+There are from ten to fifteen pounds of dates in a bunch. A tree will
+average from one hundred to two hundred pounds each year, although trees
+have been known to yield six hundred pounds. The trees yield when from
+four to eight years old, and continue to bear for a century.
+
+The dates, green at first, later in the year a yellowish brown, are,
+when ripe, amber or black in color.
+
+The trees require a very dry, hot climate, but moist soil. Long, long
+ago, this saying was common among the Arabs, "The date palm, the queen
+of trees, must have her feet in running water and her head in the
+burning sky."
+
+Although there are lovely date palm trees on the grounds of many
+California homes, few of them bear fruit. The temperature must average
+from eighty to ninety degrees for a considerable time in the summer, in
+order to mature it. What is the average summer temperature in your
+locality?
+
+If an ordinary tree is frost-bitten, it recovers and soon puts out a new
+growth; but if the crown of the date palm be frozen, the tree dies.
+
+When the Moors went to Spain, in the eleventh century, they introduced
+this valuable tree which the mission fathers several hundred years later
+brought to Mexico and to Southern California.
+
+How would you like to try to climb a date palm tree? Although they look
+so smooth and are without branches, the natives of the desert climb them
+without any help whatever. The trunk is always somewhat rough, and this
+makes it possible to ascend them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Date Palm Trees.]
+
+Not all of the dates in a bunch ripen at once, so they are usually
+picked by hand and only the ripe ones selected. Sometimes, however, the
+bunches are cut off. Some dates contain so much sap that the bunches
+must be hung up to allow it to drain off before they can be shipped.
+This sap is called _date honey_, and is saved. They are sent to the
+coast towns in bags or boxes called _frails_. Where dates are to be sold
+in small quantities, they are repacked in the small boxes such as you
+have seen.
+
+You know that dates are very sweet, and it is no wonder that they are,
+for they contain from fifty-five to sixty per cent of sugar.
+
+The trees are often tapped, and the sap which flows out is made into
+sugar. Vinegar and a liquor called _arrack_ are also made from it. The
+leaves of the tree are made into bags and mats; from the stones a drink
+is made which takes the place of coffee. From the leafstalks baskets are
+made, while the trunk furnishes material for houses and for fences.
+
+If the dates could speak, they could tell us many wonderful stories of
+the far East, of the river boats on the Nile, of the drifting sands
+which come so close to the river's banks, of the caravans creeping over
+the desert toward the green oases and then fading out of sight, bearing
+loads of this food to the countries where it is not produced.
+
+
+
+
+THE ORANGE GROVES OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
+
+
+                            PASADENA, CALIFORNIA, Jan. 4, 1902.
+
+DEAR FRIEND WILL: I was very glad to receive your letter, and much
+surprised to know that you are living on a farm. I am glad that you
+described the raising of cranberries, for I did not know much about it
+before. When I told my teacher about getting the letter, she asked me to
+read it in the geography class and to show the pictures. I asked our
+grocery-man where he gets his cranberries, and found that some of them
+came from Wareham.
+
+You are having cold weather now, I know. Is the skating good? I have not
+seen ice as thick as window glass since we came to California, except
+that delivered by the iceman. Just now there is a beautiful covering of
+snow on the mountains a few miles north and east of town. Just think of
+picking roses and callas with snow in plain sight! The snow never
+remains more than a day or two on these mountains.
+
+Soon after we came to Pasadena, father bought an orange grove of
+twenty-five acres. We are picking the fruit now. People began to pick
+oranges several weeks ago, and the work will continue all winter.
+
+Orange trees are planted about twenty feet apart, but the groves do not
+look as apple orchards do in the East, for no grass is allowed to grow
+in them.
+
+The best orange section is east of here, near Redlands and Riverside,
+but some good fruit is raised near Pasadena also.
+
+Father keeps our trees pruned down rather low, so that it is easier to
+pick the oranges than it would be if they were allowed to grow very
+tall.
+
+Orange raising is like cranberry growing in one way--the land must be
+irrigated in each case. Here the water is piped from the mountain
+streams and from tunnels. We form basins about ten feet square around
+each tree and fill them with water. Most of our irrigating is done
+during the summer, as the winter is our rainy season. _You_ would not
+call it a very rainy time. Our average is about twenty inches for the
+whole year.
+
+The trees in our grove have been set out about six years, and they are
+bearing nicely now. Orange trees begin to bear when they are four years
+old; so, you see, we have to wait a little longer for a crop than you do
+for a crop of cranberries. It costs a good deal to start an orange
+grove. Trees cost from one dollar to one and one-half dollars each at
+the nurseries. A few years ago they sold for twenty cents each.
+
+I wish that you could see the trees when they are in full blossom, and
+also when they are loaded with the golden fruit. I am going to put some
+orange blossoms into the envelope, but I am afraid they will not reach
+you in very good condition. They are very fragrant, and you can smell
+their perfume some distance from a tree in blossom.
+
+To-day we picked about two hundred and fifty boxes of oranges. We always
+speak of _picking_ them, although they are not picked, but cut. You
+see, if they were picked off, the part where the stem pulled off would
+soon begin to decay.
+
+We take a wagon load of fruit boxes, and, while father drives slowly
+between the rows of trees, I throw them off.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Picking Oranges in California.]
+
+Each picker carries a sack slung over one shoulder, and as fast as he
+cuts off an orange, he drops it into the sack. The sacks are emptied
+into the boxes, and these are loaded on to the wagon. Father pays five
+cents a box for picking, and a good picker will gather about forty boxes
+in a day.
+
+We sell most of our oranges to fruit companies. These companies pack and
+ship the fruit. At the packing houses the oranges are placed in tubs of
+water and scrubbed with small brushes. Many women, girls, and boys work
+at this. The washing is to take off dirt, and also _scale_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Grading and Packing Oranges.]
+
+After the oranges are washed, they are placed in a sort of trough which
+is highest at the end near the tub. They roll down this trough to the
+_grader_. This is a machine so arranged that the oranges pass through
+different openings according to their size, and come out sorted.
+
+In the warehouse close by they are wrapped and packed. Chinamen often do
+this work. Each orange is wrapped in a separate piece of paper, which
+has the brand of the company stamped upon it. It is then packed firmly
+in a box. A certain number of oranges of each grade fill a box,
+ninety-six of the largest grade, and about two hundred of the smallest.
+Those which are too small, as well as the imperfect oranges, are
+rejected. These are called _culls_. Sometimes these are sold for a low
+price, and sometimes they are thrown away by wagon loads.
+
+After the boxes are filled, they are placed in special fruit cars and
+hurried to St. Louis, Chicago, New York, Boston, and other cities.
+
+Yes, the Weather Bureau is of great help to fruit growers. Of course we
+have very little winter here, but oranges will not endure much cold. The
+mercury falls below the freezing point but a few times each season. On
+New Year's Day the temperature here was fifty-eight degrees. I looked up
+the Boston temperature for the same day and found that it was only four
+degrees above zero. When the Bureau predicts a sharp freeze, the farmers
+build small fires in their orchards, or turn on a good deal of water.
+The fires are built in small wire baskets. They make a smudge instead of
+a flame. The people in the raisin districts watch the weather reports
+pretty closely, for rain injures the drying grapes.
+
+Growers have to _spray_ or _fumigate_ the trees to destroy the scale
+that I spoke of which is a great enemy of the orange, to kill the
+insects, and to wash off dirt. This is sometimes done by putting a great
+piece of canvas over the tree, forming a sort of tent which prevents the
+fumes from escaping. It was found that the ladybugs would eat the scale
+and so they were brought into California from the East. They do a great
+deal of good, but still we have to spray the trees.
+
+Orange trees are raised from the seed, and the trees produced in this
+way are called _seedlings_. By _budding_, a fruit much better than the
+oranges grown on the seedling tree has been produced. There were five
+acres of seedlings in our grove, and father budded the trees. He cut
+off the limbs rather close to the trunk of the tree. Then he slipped
+buds from _navel_ trees into cuts made through the bark in the end of
+each limb left on the tree. He then wound cord tightly about the limb
+and put on some wax. After a time a new growth started out where these
+buds were placed. These new branches will bear much improved fruit.
+
+We have a very fine variety of oranges called Washington Navels. Trees
+of this variety were obtained by our government from Brazil. Two of
+these were brought to Riverside, a town about seventy-five miles east of
+Pasadena, and planted on a ranch belonging to a Mr. Tibbits. They did
+well, and all of the trees of this variety in Southern California were
+obtained from these two through budding. These trees are still living.
+
+California and Florida are the two important orange-growing states of
+our country. Father says the industry is much older in Florida than in
+our state. Florida growers can ship their fruit to market much cheaper
+than we can. It costs us ninety cents for each box.
+
+Mexico, the West Indies, Italy, southern France, and Spain are also
+orange producers. These countries have the advantage of cheap labor,
+father says.
+
+I wish that you could visit us. We would have fine times, I am sure.
+
+The next time I write I will tell you about some of the other fruits
+raised in California.
+
+                            Your sincere friend,
+                                               FRANK.
+
+
+
+
+A VISIT TO A VINEYARD
+
+
+                                 PASADENA, CALIFORNIA, Oct. 1, 1902.
+
+DEAR FRIEND WILL: Last week father went to Fresno, which is about three
+hundred miles northwest of here, in the San Joaquin valley. He took me
+with him, and we visited some of the great vineyards and raisin-packing
+establishments near and in that city.
+
+Raisins are simply dried grapes. Although there are many countries where
+grapes grow, there are few where raisins are made. Dew, fog, and rain
+injure the fruit, so that the San Joaquin valley, with its dry, hot
+atmosphere, is well adapted to this industry.
+
+There are a great many different kinds of grapes but only the green
+variety is used in making raisins. The raisin grapes are called
+_muscats_. If the grapes are left on the vines long enough, they become
+raisins. I have picked some pretty good raisins from the vines. Of
+course by being spread out, they dry quicker and more evenly.
+
+The sugar that you find on and in the raisins is not put there by the
+people who dry the grapes. It comes from the juice of the grape.
+
+Grapevines grow from both roots and cuttings. Of course cuttings are the
+cheaper. Often they may be had for the asking. Many think that it is
+better to set out rooted vines than cuttings.
+
+They are planted in rows from six feet apart to twelve or fifteen feet.
+During the first year the young vines will grow several feet. In the
+fall, when the flow of the sap has been checked by frost, the vines are
+pruned. A vineyard in California looks quite different from one in the
+East. During the winter it is simply so many rows of stumps several
+inches in thickness and one or two feet high. During the summer the
+branches grow from these stumps and produce their beautiful clusters of
+grapes, only to be cut off in the fall or winter.
+
+The trimmings are generally burned in the vineyard at the same time that
+they are cut off. A sort of furnace made of sheet iron is fastened
+between two wheels and drawn by horses up and down between the rows. A
+man pitches the cuttings into it, and they burn as it moves along.
+
+In the early summer men go through the vineyards sprinkling a coating of
+sulphur on the vines. This is to prevent mildew, which damages the fruit
+very much.
+
+During the last half of August and September the grapes are picked.
+Sometimes the harvest continues into October. Most of the grapes had
+been gathered when we visited the vineyards.
+
+When the juice of the grapes is one fourth sugar, they are ready to
+pick. The grower generally tells the condition by the taste and color of
+the fruit, although there are instruments for determining the amount of
+sugar.
+
+Like oranges, grapes are cut from the vines and not picked. We saw great
+companies of Chinamen going through the vineyards cutting off the
+beautiful clusters. These they placed on shallow, wooden trays to dry.
+In a week or two, when the upper side of the clusters is pretty well
+dried, the grapes are turned. We saw the workmen place an empty tray,
+upside down, over the filled one. Then, holding the two together, they
+turned them over, and the grapes dropped into the tray that had been
+placed on top.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Picking Grapes.--Notice the Mountains in the
+Background.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Drying Raisin Grapes.]
+
+During this drying time the people watch the reports of the Weather
+Bureau. In some places flags are displayed when rain is expected. As a
+rule the grape season is over before the rains begin.
+
+When the grapes are taken from the trays, they are placed in boxes
+holding about one hundred pounds each. These are called _sweat boxes_.
+Here the driest grapes absorb some of the moisture from the others, and
+the mass becomes more uniform.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--A Vineyard after being Pruned.]
+
+After the drying process has been finished, the stems are rather
+brittle. To make them softer and easier to handle, the grapes are next
+placed in a cool room and left there for a time.
+
+After visiting some of the vineyards, we drove to one of the great
+packing establishments in Fresno. These packing houses are nearly always
+in the cities and towns, because there help can be easily obtained. The
+packing house that we visited employs four hundred people, mostly girls
+and women.
+
+The raisins are first placed on wooden or metal frames the size of a
+raisin box. These are called _forms_, and the packers are paid according
+to the number of forms filled. When these are filled, the raisins are
+carefully transferred to the boxes.
+
+A box of raisins weighs twenty pounds, but there are half boxes and
+quarter boxes put up also. A paper is placed on the bottom of each box,
+and over the raisins another is placed. On top of this there is a fancy
+paper on which the name of the packer is stamped.
+
+In most establishments there are three grades of raisins, Imperial
+Clusters, London Layers, and the loose and imperfect stems.
+
+Sometimes a second crop of grapes is gathered a little later in the
+fall. Of course these do not dry so well because the days are shorter,
+it is cooler, and rains sometimes occur. On this account they are dipped
+in lye and then rinsed in water. The lye cracks the skin, and so the
+juice evaporates more quickly. These are called Valencia raisins. There
+is not a very good market for these, so that people do not dip them so
+commonly now as they used to.
+
+We saw the machine where the raisins are _stemmed_. They pass from a
+hopper into a space between two woven-wire cylinders. The inner one
+revolves within the other. In this way the raisins are broken from the
+stems. They are then run through a fanning mill which cleans them, and
+they are finally graded by passing through screens having openings of
+different sizes.
+
+Most of the seedless raisins are made from seedless grapes, but there
+are machines for removing the seeds from the grapes which contain them.
+
+The superintendent of the packing house said that nearly all of the
+raisins that we import come from Spain, and that they are exported
+chiefly from the city of Malaga.
+
+The purple and other _wine grapes_ are taken to the wineries and sold by
+the ton, to be made into wine.
+
+There are many other things that I should like to write about, but my
+letter is a pretty long one now, so I will close.
+
+                                Your loving friend,
+                                                 FRANK.
+
+
+
+
+NUTTING
+
+
+Have you ever gone into the woods on a beautiful autumn day? The bright,
+warm sunshine floods the earth where the trees are far apart and sifts
+down through the branches. All nature seems to invite you to lie down
+under a tree and dream. It was on such a day that Rip Van Winkle fell
+into his long sleep.
+
+How pretty the trees look in their fall suits of yellow, crimson, red,
+and brown! What a rustling is made as your feet tread the carpet of
+leaves!
+
+The breezes pass among the branches and whisper a message to the
+bright-colored leaves. They understand and obey. Singly, in groups, and
+in showers, they silently float downward. By night and by day they fall,
+but soon this carpet will be changed for one of white.
+
+Listen! The leaves are not the only things that are falling. You can
+hear the _thump_, _thump_ of nuts as they drop from their lofty perches
+in the walnut and hickory-nut trees.
+
+Sit down quietly on that log and you will soon see the busy nut
+gatherers. With their tails curled over their backs, they race up and
+down the trees, or spring from branch to branch, carrying their precious
+burdens to their homes in the hollows of trunk or limb. Now one sits up
+straight, holding a nut between his paws, and turning it slowly as he
+cracks and eats it. If he sees you, he whisks out of sight, or scolds
+you from a safe place far above the ground.
+
+When the winter winds are whistling through the leafless trees, and
+snows are drifting over the ground, these little nut gatherers feast to
+their hearts' content.
+
+The squirrels do not gather all of the nuts. Children and grown people
+enjoy nutting. When there are not enough nuts on the ground, the men and
+boys climb the trees to shake them off. Then everybody hunts among the
+leaves for the treasures.
+
+Some of the most important nuts are walnuts, hickory nuts, hazelnuts,
+almonds, chestnuts, Brazil nuts, pecans, and peanuts.
+
+Many of the hickory nuts fall out of their coverings bright and clean.
+Walnuts generally have to be _shucked_, and the juice stains the hands
+almost black.
+
+As hazelnuts grow on bushes, they can be easily picked. They usually
+drop out of their burs after there have been a few frosts.
+
+Many nuts are gathered in the woods, but in some places the trees are
+cultivated just as fruit trees are.
+
+We usually eat nuts between meals, or as a dessert. They are not simply
+dainties, but are very valuable articles of food. In some countries the
+poor people depend upon them for food.
+
+In almost any city of our country are to be found the nuts that I have
+mentioned, with perhaps several other kinds. These have come from
+different states, some from Canada, some from Brazil, and some from
+Spain.
+
+I am sure you will enjoy gathering nuts of different kinds, so let us
+set out on a nutting expedition.
+
+
+
+
+A WALNUT VACATION
+
+
+How would you like to have your school close for two weeks, so that you
+could gather walnuts? Every year many of the boys and girls of Southern
+California are given a vacation just for this purpose. It is called the
+"walnut vacation," and occurs in the month of October.
+
+These children do not take their baskets and go off to the woods where
+they can romp and play, watch the squirrels, and gather beautiful autumn
+leaves. They gather nuts from the trees which their parents own, for in
+Southern California there are many walnut ranches or groves. You see the
+vacation means a vacation for work instead of for play.
+
+Walnut trees are set out in rows just as apple trees are, but their
+roots and branches extend to such a distance from the trunks that they
+need to be about twice as far apart.
+
+The walnut harvest, which begins about the first of October, is a busy
+time. Men, women, boys, and girls may be seen in the groves, shaking the
+nuts from the trees, picking them up, and putting them into sacks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--A Walnut Grove.]
+
+The men shake the trees, and there is a shower of nuts to the earth. Do
+not go under the branches now unless you want to be pelted. A single
+tree has been known to yield three hundred pounds of nuts in a season.
+
+When the trees have been given a good shaking, there are still some nuts
+clinging to the branches. These are obtained by shaking the limbs
+separately, by means of long poles, to the ends of which wire hooks are
+fastened. As all of the nuts do not ripen at the same time, the trees
+are sometimes gone over two or three times.
+
+Now the boys, girls, and women go to work filling pails and baskets and
+emptying them into sacks, for they can do this work as well as men.
+
+Usually the nuts drop out of their covering or _shuck_ when they strike
+the ground; but if they do not, the _shuck_ must be removed. Sometimes
+the covering is cut off. If you handle the nuts with your bare hands,
+they will be stained almost black, and you will have to let the color
+wear off.
+
+The days are bright and warm, and this sort of nutting becomes rather
+tiresome before sundown. The work must be done and the vacation is not a
+very long one, so each does his part cheerfully.
+
+When the nuts have been gathered, they are taken to the shed or place
+where they are to be washed. Here they are poured into a large wire
+cylinder which revolves in a tank filled with water. The machine is
+turned by a horse walking round and round, and it both washes and grades
+the nuts. The smaller ones pass through the meshes in the wire and are
+called _second grade_. The larger ones are known as _first grade_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--Washing, Drying, and Sacking Walnuts.]
+
+When the walnuts come out of the washer, they are spread out on shallow,
+wooden trays to dry. Sometimes several thousand trays may be seen on
+one ranch. They are loaded on to a small car and pushed to the part of
+the field where they are wanted.
+
+If there is no foggy or cloudy weather, they will dry in about five
+days, but if there is, it may take ten.
+
+After the nuts are thoroughly dried, the trays are placed on the car and
+pushed to the _bleacher_. This is a large box made of tarred paper. It
+is placed over the trays, and a quantity of sulphur is burned in it.
+This is simply to whiten the shells, for they sell for a higher price
+when they are bleached. Sometimes the nuts are whitened by dipping them
+into a liquid preparation.
+
+The nuts are now sacked and marked, ready to ship. Soon after the boys
+and girls have finished their "walnut vacation," the nuts are on their
+way to the eastern part of the United States.
+
+Most of the walnuts raised in California have soft shells. Some have
+such thin shells that they are called "paper shells." The walnuts that
+grow in the woods of Indiana, Illinois, and other states have hard
+shells. They are dark in color and are called _black walnuts_. The trees
+are quite valuable, as the wood is used in making furniture.
+
+
+
+
+CHESTNUTS
+
+
+Let us go on a chestnutting expedition to the southern part of France.
+We can gather the nuts in many of the states of our own country, but the
+trip to a strange land will be enjoyed by all.
+
+The chestnut trees, many of which are very old, spread their branches to
+great distances. The nuts, as you see, are inclosed in a _bur_ or coat
+which covers the shell. There are generally two nuts in each bur.
+
+When _you_ eat chestnuts, you eat them as a sort of dainty, not as a
+regular article of food. This is not the case in the home of Jean, the
+boy who is helping his father fill those sacks. In his home, as in many
+homes in southern Europe, the nuts form one of the chief articles of
+daily food.
+
+In the winter Jean sells the freshly roasted nuts on a street corner in
+the city of Lyons. He gets a good many pennies each noon from workmen
+and poor people generally, who use them for their midday meal. He sells
+ten nuts for a penny.
+
+This is not the only way in which they are eaten. Jean's mother boils
+them with celery and mashes them as we do potatoes. The nuts are also
+ground into a flour from which bread is made. They are often used in the
+dressing for fowls.
+
+Confectioners use great quantities of chestnuts. In Lyons there are
+establishments where as many as two hundred persons are employed in
+preparing them.
+
+The nuts are first peeled, and then boiled in clear water, which removes
+the thin coating next the kernel. They are then placed in a sirup
+flavored with Mexican vanilla, in which they remain for about three
+days. After draining, they are coated with vanilla or chocolate and
+packed in attractive boxes. In this form they are worth forty-five or
+fifty cents a pound.
+
+
+
+
+A BAG OF PEANUTS
+
+
+Last summer Harry's parents took him with them on a visit to Virginia.
+Harry has always lived in New York City, and the country life of the
+South was very interesting to him.
+
+They visited friends who live on a beautiful _plantation_, as the farms
+in the South are called. A driveway lined with grand old trees leads
+through the flower-studded lawn up to the retired manor house, whose
+wide verandas completely circle it round.
+
+Beyond the house are the stables where work horses, driving horses, and
+saddle horses are kept; and beyond these is the pretty little boathouse,
+standing on the bank of a small river that winds its way through the
+plantation.
+
+The morning after Harry arrived, his friend Bert asked him if he would
+like to go across the river to see the men harvest peanuts.
+
+Now whenever Harry had wanted peanuts, he had always gone to a stand
+and bought a sack. He had never thought about where they came from. He
+had heard of shaking nuts from trees, so he supposed that they were
+going to the woods.
+
+He was therefore much surprised when Bert took him to a field across the
+river where men were plowing vines from the ground.
+
+"Do peanuts grow in the ground?" he asked.
+
+"Why, of course they do," answered Bert.
+
+"I thought that nuts grew on trees," said Harry.
+
+"Father says that the peanut is not a _real_ nut," replied his friend.
+"He says they should be called _ground nuts_ or _ground peas_." He
+pulled up one of the vines, and the boys threw themselves down under a
+tree to examine it.
+
+When the small clods of soil clinging to the roots of the plant had been
+removed, Harry saw a number of pods which he recognized as peanuts.
+
+Opening one of the pods, Bert took out the kernels.
+
+"These," said he, "are the _seeds_, and they are planted much as other
+seeds are.
+
+"Before they are planted the shell must be removed, but we have to be
+careful not to break the thin skin that covers the kernel. If that be
+broken, the seed will not grow.
+
+"The kernels are planted about one foot apart, in rows that are, as you
+see, about three feet apart. Sometimes they are planted by hand and
+sometimes by machinery."
+
+"I wonder if peanuts are raised in the country around New York," said
+Harry.
+
+"No, I think not," replied Bert, "for they are very easily killed by
+frost. Great quantities are raised in North Carolina and in Tennessee.
+Father says that the negroes of western Africa raised them long, long
+before they were known in the United States. He says that they are a
+very important article of food there, and that whole villages take part
+in the planting and harvesting.
+
+"After the vines blossom," continued Bert, "a very strange thing
+happens."
+
+"What is it?" asked Harry.
+
+"The flower stalks bend downward and push themselves right into the
+soil, and on these the pods develop. If the stalks do not enter the
+earth within a few hours after the flowers fall, they die."
+
+Harry now watched the plowing. The plows were drawn up and down the rows
+and ran directly under the vines, lifting them out of the soil. After
+they had been plowed out about two hours, men took them upon pitchforks
+and piled them up. Harry noticed that some of the piles were covered
+with corn fodder, and asked why this was. Bert told him that it was to
+keep out the rain.
+
+"What happens to the nuts after the vines have been piled up?" said
+Harry.
+
+"They remain in the piles fifteen or twenty days, and are then spread
+out on the ground or hauled to the barn, where the nuts are picked off,"
+answered Bert. "Sometimes they are picked by hand and sometimes by
+machinery. Let us go to the lower field; we have an earlier variety
+there, and the nuts are being picked now."
+
+They found men, women, and children picking the pods one by one and
+dropping them into baskets. These were emptied into sacks. Harry tried
+to lift one of these, and was surprised to find it so heavy. Bert told
+him that it weighed about one hundred pounds.
+
+"Do you burn the vines after the nuts are picked?" asked Harry.
+
+"No," said Bert, "they are fed to the cattle. We call the vines _peanut
+hay_."
+
+Bert explained that his father sold the sacks of nuts to the factory,
+where they were cleaned and sorted.
+
+The next day the boys went to town and visited the peanut factory.
+
+The nuts were first put through a machine which removed the dirt. They
+were then polished and sorted into four grades. The poorest grade is
+used in making peanut candy. The nuts were then sacked, and were ready
+to be shipped to the North.
+
+Harry learned that an oil is made from the nuts which is used as olive
+oil is used, and also that peanut butter is produced from them. He
+found that many men were employed on plantations all through Virginia
+and other states of the South, in raising the peanuts that are sold on
+the streets of every city and town in our country.
+
+
+
+
+ASSORTED NUTS
+
+
+After the Thanksgiving dinner had been eaten, the nuts were passed, and
+the children asked Uncle John to tell them something about a few of
+them.
+
+"All right," said he. "You pick out the ones that you want to know
+about."
+
+Frank handed him an almond.
+
+"This nut," said Uncle John, "came from sunny Spain. It grew not far
+from the blue Mediterranean. Almonds are raised in most parts of
+southern Europe and in the northern part of Africa. Ages ago they grew
+in the Holy Land, and are mentioned in the Bible."
+
+"Do almonds grow in any part of our country?" asked Helen.
+
+"I think they grow in California," said Frank.
+
+"You are right," said Uncle John. "There are many almond orchards in the
+southern part of the state.
+
+"An almond tree in full bloom is a beautiful sight. The blossoms are
+white, tinted with pink, and as they appear before the leaves do, there
+is nothing to hide them."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Almond Trees in Full Bloom.]
+
+"Does the nut have a covering?" inquired Mary.
+
+"Yes," replied Uncle John. "When the nut is ripe, the shuck opens
+gradually, and sometimes the nuts fall out.
+
+"When people have large orchards, they spread pieces of canvas under
+the trees and then shake them or beat them by means of long poles.
+
+"The nuts that do not fall out of the shucks are obtained by opening the
+shuck with a knife. The nuts are then dried, and are ready for market."
+
+As soon as Uncle John had finished, Mary handed him a hazelnut. "Please
+tell about this one," said she.
+
+"I have often gone hazel nutting when I was a boy," said her uncle.
+"Hazelnuts grow on bushes in thickets. They are six or eight feet high
+and very slender. Baskets are sometimes made of them, and I have often
+used them for arrows.
+
+"Sometimes the nuts grow singly, and sometimes in groups of two or
+three. A bur covers the nut, which sticks very closely until it is ripe.
+Then the nuts often fall out.
+
+"After I had gathered the hazelnuts, I used to spread them out on the
+roof of the wood house to dry."
+
+"Nuts that look just like these are called filberts," said Helen.
+
+"Filberts are cultivated hazelnuts," replied Uncle John; "they are
+larger than the wild ones."
+
+"I would like to know how this nut grows," said Helen, handing her uncle
+a black nut shaped like a triangular prism.
+
+"This," said Uncle John, "came from Brazil, and is called a Brazil nut.
+Do you know where Brazil is?"
+
+"It is in the northeastern part of South America," replied Helen.
+
+"The great Amazon River is in Brazil, and it flows through tropical
+forests," said Mary.
+
+"Much of our coffee comes from Brazil," said Frank.
+
+Uncle John then told the children that Brazil nuts come from the
+northern part of Brazil and from the Orinoco valley.
+
+Helen asked if they grow as walnuts and hickory nuts do.
+
+"No," answered her uncle, "they grow inside of a great case or shell.
+There are from eighteen to twenty-five in one shell, which is nearly as
+large as a man's head."
+
+"How are the nuts got out of the shells?" asked Mary.
+
+"When they fall, men break them open and take out the nuts," replied
+Uncle John. "Most of them are sent down the Amazon to the city of Para
+and from there shipped to the United States and other countries."
+
+None of the children knew where Para is situated, so they all went to
+the library to look at the atlas. After they had located it, Uncle John
+told them of his visit to the city and of the wonderful things which he
+saw on a steamboat trip up the Amazon River.
+
+
+
+
+A STRANGE CONVERSATION
+
+
+One evening after I had been reading for some time, I went to the
+kitchen to get a drink of water. That part of the house was dark and
+quiet, and as I stepped through the doorway, I heard low, musical
+voices, apparently in the pantry. I was very much surprised, you may be
+sure, and I kept perfectly still, and listened.
+
+"Yes," said a voice, which I could barely hear, "I am a long way from
+home indeed, and sometimes it makes me quite lonely when I think of it."
+
+"Tell us about your home, and how you lived," said another low voice.
+
+"Well," began the first speaker, "my name is _Pepper_. With twenty-five
+or thirty brothers and sisters I grew in a cluster on a vine. We were
+but a small part of the family, for there were similar clusters all over
+our vine. We were about as large as peas, and grew somewhat after the
+fashion of currants.
+
+"All about were other vines to which friends and relatives were
+attached. Pepper vines are always anxious to get to the top, and so some
+of these vines climbed trees and some twined themselves about poles,
+which men had set in the ground for this purpose. Our vine was three or
+four years old when we appeared on it."
+
+"How long did you live on the vine?" asked a voice that I had not heard
+before.
+
+"Only a few months," replied Pepper. "You see, we had to make room for
+another set of berries. Two sets appear each year for twenty years or
+more.
+
+"Under the influence of the tropical sunshine and the warm rains we grew
+day by day, and we were as happy as the butterflies and birds about us.
+By and by we began to turn red. All of this time a _hull_ or coat was
+forming on the outside of our bodies.
+
+"Before we became entirely red, workmen came to the field, and, by
+rubbing us between their hands, separated us from the stems to which we
+lovingly clung.
+
+"After having been picked, I was, with many others, placed upon a mat to
+dry. These mats were all about us, each covered with berries. After
+being thoroughly dried we were put into a mill and ground, and I became
+what I am now, _Black Pepper_."
+
+"Are there other kinds of pepper?" asked some one.
+
+"Oh, yes," said Pepper, "there is _White Pepper_, and _Red_, or _Cayenne
+Pepper_. Some of my friends were made into White Pepper. They were
+soaked in limewater for about two weeks, and this, of course, softened
+and wrinkled their hulls which had always fitted so nicely. This was bad
+enough, but it was not the worst."
+
+"What happened next?" said several voices.
+
+"They were then," continued Pepper, "trodden under the bare feet of
+dark-skinned men, and this rubbed off their hulls completely. After this
+they were ground as we had been.
+
+"Cayenne Pepper is not a member of our family at all, although it has
+the same name. I have looked up its genealogy, and I find that it
+received its name from the city of Cayenne, in French Guiana, near which
+it grows. It is in the form of bell-shaped pods, and grows on low, bushy
+plants instead of vines.
+
+"The pods are green at first, but red when ripe. No doubt you have seen
+strings of them hanging in the grocery store when you were on the
+shelves. People sometimes use the pods as they are, but usually they are
+dried, ground, mixed with yeast, and baked into flat cakes like
+crackers. When these cakes are ground, Red, or Cayenne Pepper, is
+produced. It is put up in little boxes just as we are.
+
+"Pepper used to be regarded as a great luxury," the speaker went on.
+"Until the eighteenth century the Portuguese handled almost all of it.
+It was not uncommon for rents to be paid with pepper. If any of you have
+read ancient history, you know that when Alaric took Rome he demanded,
+among other things, one thousand pounds of pepper as a ransom.
+
+"My home was in the East Indies," said Pepper, "but there are members
+of our family living in the Philippines, India, Mexico, the West Indies,
+and other tropical countries."
+
+"Your story is a very interesting one," said a voice, "and now, if you
+care to hear it, I will tell something of my life."
+
+"Yes, do tell us," said several at once.
+
+"Very well, I will follow the example of our friend Pepper and introduce
+myself at once. I am known as Ginger. I have relatives living in China,
+in India, and in the western part of Africa, but I came from the West
+Indies. The Ginger family is not like that of Pepper; it has no lofty
+notions."
+
+Pepper seemed a little inclined to get angry, so Ginger hastened to say:
+"I mean that our vines do not climb trees or poles, but run along the
+ground. I was a _root_ and not a _fruit_."
+
+"When I was about a year old I, with countless friends, was dug from the
+ground. We were cut from the vines and put into vats of scalding water."
+
+"That was _dreadful_," said Pepper.
+
+"We were treated in that way to prevent us from _sprouting_," continued
+Ginger. "After being taken out of the water, we were thoroughly dried
+and then ground. We were then put up in cans and boxes and sold as
+_Black Ginger_. Others were scraped before being ground, and they were
+then called _White Ginger_.
+
+"We were placed on board a great ship and finally landed at New York.
+After remaining in a large store there for some time, I was brought to
+the corner grocery, and so I found my way to this shelf.
+
+"I am gradually wasting away, and I shall not last a great while longer.
+In my tropical home I seemed to be of no use to anybody, while now I am
+called for frequently by the cook, and my services seem to be
+appreciated, so I am happy."
+
+"To be of some real use in this world is the greatest joy of life,"
+remarked a strange voice.
+
+There was silence for a moment, and then Ginger said "May we not hear
+from you, friend?"
+
+"Your stories almost make me believe that I am still in the land of my
+birth," was the reply.
+
+There was a peculiar little rattle about the voice, which I recognized
+at once as belonging to Cinnamon.
+
+"For several years I was rocked to and fro by gentle tropic breezes or
+lashed about by storms. From my perch I could see beautiful flowers,
+bright insects, and even serpents in the thicket at my feet. Birds of
+brilliant plumage often perched upon me. My home was on the island of
+Ceylon.
+
+"It is often said that where there is much bark there is no bite. In my
+own case that is not so."
+
+"I do not understand," said Ginger.
+
+"Why," said Cinnamon, laughing, "I am _all_ bark, and I have
+considerable bite, as those who have tasted me know.
+
+"I was taken from one of the smaller limbs of a cinnamon tree. I was
+slipped within a larger piece of bark, for we each rolled up when
+stripped from the limbs. A still larger piece was slipped over us and so
+on until quite a bundle had been formed. Some were quite short, and some
+were three feet in length."
+
+
+
+
+                   STORIES OF CALIFORNIA
+
+                            BY
+
+                       ELLA M. SEXTON
+
+                _With many illustrations_
+
+              Cloth      16mo      $1.00 net
+
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+in our schools and libraries, so that every child may read
+it."--_Pacific Churchman._
+
+"This volume comprises some excellent contributions to history, as it
+certainly comprises some notable contributions to romance. The little
+book is one which will appeal, therefore, to readers old and young.
+Several of the stories explain in some degree the remarkable physical
+characteristics of California, but the writer's chief aim has been to
+unfold to children and their parents the life of bygone days."--_The
+Outlook._
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