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diff --git a/38622.txt b/38622.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..93a1573 --- /dev/null +++ b/38622.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18313 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 7, Slice 7, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 7, Slice 7 + "Crocoite" to "Cuba" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: January 20, 2012 [EBook #38622] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE CROWLAND: "The dissolution of the monastery in 1539 was + fatal to the progress of the town, which had prospered under the + thrifty rule of the monks, and it rapidly sank into the position of + an unimportant village." 'unimportant' amended from 'umimportant'. + + ARTICLE CROWNE, JOHN: "The king exacted one more comedy, which + should, he suggested, be based on the No pued esser of Moreto." + 'be' amended from 'he'. + + ARTICLE CRUSADES: "Taking a route midway between the eastern route + of the crusaders of 1097 and the western route of Louis VII. in + 1148 ..." 'western' amended from 'westerh'. + + ARTICLE CRUSADES: "... beginning as charitable societies, developed + into military clubs, and developed again from military clubs into + chartered companies, possessed of banks, navies and considerable + territories." 'societies' amended from 'socities'. + + ARTICLE CUBA: "The range near Baracoa is extremely wild and + broken." 'extremely' amended from 'entremely'. + + ARTICLE CUBA: "The total commercial movement of the island in the + five calendar years 1902-1906 averaged $177,882,640 ..." + 'commercial' amended from 'commerical'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME VII, SLICE VII + + Crocoite to Cuba + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + CROCOITE CROWE, EYRE EVANS + CROCUS CROWE, SIR JOSEPH ARCHER + CROESUS CROW INDIANS + CROFT, SIR HERBERT CROWLAND + CROFT, SIR JAMES CROWLEY, ROBERT + CROFT, WILLIAM CROWN (coin) + CROFTER CROWN and CORONET + CROKER, JOHN WILSON CROWN DEBT + CROKER, RICHARD CROWNE, JOHN + CROKER, THOMAS CROFTON CROWN LAND + CROLL, JAMES CROWN POINT + CROLY, GEORGE CROWTHER, SAMUEL ADJAI + CROMAGNON RACE CROYDON + CROMARTY, GEORGE MACKENZIE CROZAT, PIERRE + CROMARTY CROZET ISLANDS + CROMARTY FIRTH CROZIER, WILLIAM + CROME, JOHN CROZIER + CROMER, EVELYN BARING CRUCIAL + CROMER CRUCIFERAE + CROMORNE CRUDEN, ALEXANDER + CROMPTON, SAMUEL CRUDEN + CROMPTON CRUELTY + CROMWELL, HENRY CRUIKSHANK, GEORGE + CROMWELL, OLIVER CRUNDEN, JOHN + CROMWELL, RICHARD CRUSADES + CROMWELL, THOMAS CRUSENSTOLPE, MAGNUS JAKOB + CRONJE, PIET ARNOLDUS CRUSIUS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST + CROOKES, SIR WILLIAM CRUSTACEA + CROOKSTON CRUSTUMERIUM + CROP CRUVEILHIER, JEAN + CROPSEY, JASPER FRANCIS CRUZ E SILVA, ANTONIO DINIZ DA + CROQUET CRYOLITE + CRORE CRYPT + CROSBY, HOWARD CRYPTEIA + CROSS, and CRUCIFIXION CRYPTOBRANCHUS + CROSSBILL CRYPTOGRAPHY + CROSSEN CRYPTOMERIA + CROSSING CRYPTO-PORTICUS + CROSSKEY, HENRY WILLIAM CRYSTAL-GAZING + CROSS RIVER CRYSTALLITE + CROSS-ROADS, BURIAL AT CRYSTALLIZATION + CROSS SPRINGER CRYSTALLOGRAPHY + CROTCH, WILLIAM CRYSTAL PALACE, THE + CROTCHET CSENGERY, ANTON + CROTONA CSIKY, GREGOR + CROTONIC ACID CSOKONAI, MIHALY VITEZ + CROTON OIL CSOMA DE KOROS, ALEXANDER + CROUP CTENOPHORA + CROUSAZ, JEAN PIERRE DE CTESIAS + CROW CTESIPHON + CROWBERRY CUBA + CROWD + + + + +CROCOITE, a mineral consisting of lead chromate, PbCrO4, and +crystallizing in the monoclinic system. It is sometimes used as a paint, +being identical in composition with the artificial product +chrome-yellow; it is the only chromate of any importance found in +nature. It was discovered at Berezovsk near Ekaterinburg in the Urals in +1766; and named crocoise by F. S. Beudant in 1832, from the Greek +[Greek: krokos], saffron, in allusion to its colour, a name first +altered to crocoisite and afterwards to crocoite. It is found as +well-developed crystals of a bright hyacinth-red colour, which are +translucent and have an adamantine to vitreous lustre. On exposure to +light much of the translucency and brilliancy is lost. The streak is +orange-yellow; hardness 2(1/2)-3; specific gravity 6.0. In the Urals the +crystals are found in quartz-veins traversing granite or gneiss: other +localities which have yielded good crystallized specimens are Congonhas +do Campo near Ouro Preto in Brazil, Luzon in the Philippines, and Umtali +in Mashonaland. Gold is often found associated with this mineral. +Crystals far surpassing in beauty any previously known have been found +in the Adelaide Mine at Dundas, Tasmania; they are long slender prisms, +3 or 4 in. in length, with a brilliant lustre and colour. + +Associated with crocoite at Berezovsk are the closely allied minerals +phoenicochroite and vauquelinite. The former is a basic lead Chromate, +Pb3Cr2O9, and the latter a lead and copper phosphate-chromate, 2(Pb, +Cu)CrO4. (Pb, Cu)3(PO4)2. Vauquelinite forms brown or green monoclinic +crystals, and was named after L. N. Vauquelin, who in 1797 discovered +(simultaneously with and independently of M. H. Klaproth) the element +chromium in crocoite. (L. J. S.) + + + + +CROCUS, a botanical genus of the natural order Iridaceae, containing +about 70 species, natives of Europe, North Africa, and temperate Asia, +and especially developed in the dry country of south-eastern Europe and +western and central Asia. The plants are admirably adapted for climates +in which a season favourable to growth alternates with a hot or dry +season; during the latter they remain dormant beneath the ground in the +form of a short thickened stem protected by the scaly remains of the +bases of last season's leaves (known botanically as a "corm"). At the +beginning of the new season of growth, new flower- and leaf-bearing +shoots are developed from the corm at the expense of the food-stuff +stored within it. New corms are produced at the end of the season, and +by these the plant is multiplied. + +These crocuses of the flower garden are mostly horticultural varieties +of _C. vernus_, _C. versicolor_ and _C. aureus_ (Dutch crocus), the two +former yielding the white, purple and striped, and the latter the yellow +varieties. The crocus succeeds in any fairly good garden soil, and is +usually planted near the edges of beds or borders in the flower garden, +or in broadish patches at intervals along the mixed borders. The corms +should be planted 3 in. below the surface, and as they become crowded +they should be taken up and replanted with a refreshment of the soil, at +least every five or six years. Crocuses have also a pleasing effect when +dotted about on the lawns and grassy banks of the pleasure ground. + +Some of the best of the varieties are:--_Purple_: David Rizzio, Sir J. +Franklin, purpureus grandiflorus. _Striped_: Albion, La Majestueuse, Sir +Walter Scott, Cloth of _Silver_, Mme Mina. _White_: Caroline Chisholm, +Mont Blanc. _Yellow_: Large Dutch. + +The species of crocus are not very readily obtainable, but those who +make a specialty of hardy bulbs ought certainly to search them out and +grow them. They require the same culture as the more familiar garden +varieties; but, as some of them are apt to suffer from excess of +moisture, it is advisable to plant them in prepared soil in a raised +pit, where they are brought nearer to the eye, and where they can be +sheltered when necessary by glazed sashes, which, however, should not be +closed except when the plants are at rest, or during inclement weather +in order to protect the blossoms, especially in the case of winter +flowering species. The autumn blooming kinds include many plants of very +great beauty. The following species are recommended:-- + +Spring flowering:--_Yellow_: _C. aureus_, _aureus_ var. _sulphureus_, +_chrysanthus_, _Olivieri_, _Korolkowi_, _Balansae_, _ancyrensis_, +_Susianus_, _stellaris_. _Lilac_: _C. Imperati_, _Sieberi_, _etruscus_, +_vernus_, _Tomasinianus_, _banaticus_. _White_: _C. biflorus_ and vars., +_candidus_, _vernus_ vars. _Striped_: _C. versicolor_, _reticulatus_. + +Autumn flowering:--_Yellow_: _C. Scharojani_. _Lilac_: _C. asluricus_, +_cancellatus_ var., _cilicicus_, _byzantinus_ (_iridiflorus_), +_longiflorus_, _medius_, _nudiflorus_, _pulchellus_, _Salzmanni_, +_sativus_ vars. _speciosus_, _zonatus_. _White_: _caspius_, +_cancellatus_, _hadrialicus_, _marathonisius_. + +Winter flowering:--_C. hyemaeis_, _laevigatus_, _vitellinus_. + + + + +CROESUS, last king of Lydia, of the Mermnad dynasty, (560-546 B.C.), +succeeded his father Alyattes after a war with his half-brother. He +completed the conquest of Ionia by capturing Ephesus, Miletus and other +places, and extended the Lydian empire as far as the Halys. His wealth, +due to trade, was proverbial, and he used part of it in securing +alliances with the Greek states whose fleets might supplement his own +army. Various legends were told about him by the Greeks, one of the most +famous being that of Solon's visit to him with the lesson it conveyed +of the divine nemesis which waits upon overmuch prosperity (Hdt. i. 29 +seq.; but see SOLON). After the overthrow of the Median empire (549 +B.C.) Croesus found himself confronted by the rising power of Cyrus, and +along with Nabonidos of Babylon took measures to resist it. A coalition +was formed between the Lydian and Babylonian kings, Egypt promised +troops and Sparta its fleet. But the coalition was defeated by the rapid +movements of Cyrus and the treachery of Eurybatus of Ephesus, who fled +to Persia with the gold that had been entrusted to him, and betrayed the +plans of the confederates. Fortified with the Delphic oracles Croesus +marched to the frontier of his empire, but after some initial successes +fortune turned against him and he was forced to retreat to Sardis. Here +he was followed by Cyrus who took the city by storm. We may gather from +the recently discovered poem of Bacchylides (iii. 23-62) that he hoped +to escape his conqueror by burning himself with his wealth on a funeral +pyre, like Saracus, the last king of Assyria, but that he fell into the +hands of Cyrus before he could effect his purpose.[1] A different +version of the story is given (from Lydian sources) by Herodotus +(followed by Xenophon), who makes Cyrus condemn his prisoner to be burnt +alive, a mode of death hardly consistent with the Persian reverence for +fire. Apollo, however, came to the rescue of his pious worshipper, and +the name of Solon uttered by Croesus resulted in his deliverance. +According to Ctesias, who uses Persian sources, and says nothing of the +attempt to burn Croesus, he subsequently became attached to the court of +Cyrus and received the governorship of Barene in Media. Fragments of +columns from the temple of Attemis now in the British Museum have upon +them a dedication by Croesus in Greek. + + See R. Schubert, _De Croeso et Solone fabula_ (1868); M. G. Radet, _La + Lydie et le monde grec au temps des Mermnades_ (1892-1893); A. S. + Murray, _Journ. Hell. Studies_, x. pp. 1-10 (1889); for the + supposition that Croesus did actually perish on his own pyre see G. B. + Grundy, _Great Persian War_, p. 28; Grote, _Hist. of Greece_ (ed. + 1907), p. 104. Cf. CYRUS; LYDIA. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This is probably a Greek legend (cf. the Attic vase of about 500 + B.C. in _Journ. of Hell. Stud._, 1898, p. 268). + + + + +CROFT, SIR HERBERT, Bart. (1751-1816), English author, was born at +Dunster Park, Berkshire, on the 1st of November 1751, son of Herbert +Croft (see below) of Stifford, Essex. He matriculated at University +College, Oxford, in March 1771, and was subsequently entered at +Lincoln's Inn. He was called to the bar, but in 1782 returned to Oxford +with a view to preparing for holy orders. In 1786 he received the +vicarage of Prittlewell, Essex, but he remained at Oxford for some years +accumulating materials for a proposed English dictionary. He was twice +married, and on the day after his second wedding day he was imprisoned +at Exeter for debt. He then retired to Hamburg, and two years later his +library was sold. He had succeeded in 1797 to the title, but not to the +estates, of a distant cousin, Sir John Croft, the fourth baronet. He +returned to England in 1800, but went abroad once more in 1802. He lived +near Amiens at a house owned by Lady Mary Hamilton, said to have been a +daughter of the earl of Leven and Melville. Later he removed to Paris, +where he died on the 26th of April 1816. In some of his numerous +literary enterprises he had the help of Charles Nodier. Croft wrote the +Life of Edward Young inserted in Johnson's _Lives of the Poets_. In 1780 +he published _Love and Madness, a Story too true, in a series of letters +between Parties whose names could perhaps be mentioned were they less +known or less lamented_. This book, which passed through seven editions, +narrates the passion of a clergyman named James Hackman for Martha Ray, +mistress of the earl of Sandwich, who was shot by her lover as she was +leaving Covent Garden in 1779 (see the Case and Memoirs of the late Rev. +Mr James Hackman, 1779). _Love and Madness_ has permanent interest +because Croft inserted, among other miscellaneous matter, information +about Thomas Chatterton gained from letters which he obtained from the +poet's sister, Mrs Newton, under false pretences, and used without +payment. Robert Southey, when about to publish an edition of +Chatterton's works for the benefit of his family, published (November +1799) details of Croft's proceedings in the _Monthly Review_. To this +attack Croft wrote a reply addressed to John Nichols in the _Gentleman's +Magazine_, and afterwards printed separately as _Chatterton and Love and +Madness ..._ (1800). This tract evades the main accusation, and contains +much abuse of Southey. Croft, however, supplied the material for the +exhaustive account of Chatterton in A. Kippis's _Biographia Britannica_ +(vol. iv., 1789). In 1788 he addressed a letter to William Pitt on the +subject of a new dictionary. He criticized Samuel Johnson's efforts, and +in 1790 he claimed to have collected 11,000 words used by excellent +authorities but omitted by Johnson. Two years later he issued proposals +for a revised edition of Johnson's _Dictionary_, but subscribers were +lacking and his 200 vols. of MS. remained unused. Croft was a good +scholar and linguist, and the author of some curious books in French. + + _The Love Letters of Mr H. and Miss R. 1775-1779_ were edited from + Croft's book by Mr Gilbert Burgess (1895). See also John Nichols's + _Illustrations ..._ (1828), v. 202-218. + + + + +CROFT, SIR JAMES (d. 1590), lord deputy of Ireland, belonged to an old +family of Herefordshire, which county he represented in parliament in +1541. He was made governor of Haddington in 1549, and became lord deputy +of Ireland in 1551. There he effected little beyond gaining for himself +the reputation of a conciliatory disposition. Croft was all his life a +double-dealer. He was imprisoned in the Tower for treason in the reign +of Mary, but was released and treated with consideration by Elizabeth +after her accession. He was made governor of Berwick, where he was +visited by John Knox in 1559, and where he busied himself actively on +behalf of the Scottish Protestants, though in 1560 he was suspected, +probably with good reason, of treasonable correspondence with Mary of +Guise, the Catholic regent of Scotland; and for ten years he was out of +public employment. But in 1570 Elizabeth, who showed the greatest +forbearance and favour to Sir James Croft, made him a privy councillor +and controller of her household. He was one of the commissioners for the +trial of Mary queen of Scots, and in 1588 was sent on a diplomatic +mission to arrange peace with the duke of Parma. Croft established +private relations with Parma, for which on his return he was sent to the +Tower. He was released before the end of 1589, and died on the 4th of +September 1590. + +Croft's eldest son, Edward, was put on his trial in 1589 on the curious +charge of having contrived the death of the earl of Leicester by +witchcraft, in revenge for the earl's supposed hostility to Sir James +Croft. Edward Croft was father of Sir Herbert Croft (d. 1622), who +became a Roman Catholic and wrote several controversial pieces in +defence of that faith. His son Herbert Croft (1603-1691), bishop of +Hereford, after being for some time, like his father, a member of the +Roman church, returned to the church of England about 1630, and about +ten years later was chaplain to Charles I., and obtained within a few +years a prebend's stall at Worcester, a canonry of Windsor, and the +deanery of Hereford, all of which preferments he lost during the Civil +War and Commonwealth. By Charles II. he was made bishop of Hereford in +1661. Bishop Croft was the author of many books and pamphlets, several +of them against the Roman Catholics; and one of his works, entitled _The +Naked Truth, or the True State of the Primitive Church_ (London, 1675), +was very celebrated in its day, and gave rise to prolonged controversy. +The bishop died in 1691. His son Herbert was created a baronet in 1671, +and was the ancestor of Sir Herbert Croft (q.v.), the 18th century +writer. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See Richard Bagwell, _Ireland under the Tudors_, vol. + i. (3 vols., London, 1885); David Lloyd, _State Worthies from the + Reformation to the Revolution_ (2 vols., London, 1766); John Strype, + _Annals of the Reformation_ (Oxford, 1824), which contains an account + of the trial of Edward Croft; S. L. Lee's art. "Croft, Sir James," in + _Dict. of National Biography_, vol. xiii.; and for Bishop Croft see + Anthony a Wood, _Athenae Oxonienses_ (ed. Bliss, 1813-1820); John Le + Neve, _Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae_ (ed. by T. D. Hardy, Oxford, 1854). + + + + +CROFT (or CROFTS), WILLIAM (1678-1727), English composer, was born in +1678, at Nether Ettington in Warwickshire. He received his musical +education in the Chapel Royal under Dr Blow. He early obtained the place +of organist of St Anne's, Soho, and in 1700 was admitted a gentleman +extraordinary of the Chapel Royal. In 1707 he was appointed +joint-organist with Blow; and upon the death of the latter in 1708 he +became solo organist, and also master of the children and composer of +the Chapel Royal, besides being made organist of Westminster Abbey. In +1712 he wrote a brief introduction on the history of English church +music to a collection of the words of anthems which he had edited under +the title of _Divine Harmony_. In 1713 he obtained his degree of doctor +of music in the university of Oxford. In 1724 he published an edition of +his choral music in 2 vols. folio, under the name of _Musica Sacra, or +Select Anthems in score, for two, three, four, five, six, seven and +eight voices, to which is added the Burial Service, as it is +occasionally performed in Westminster Abbey_. This handsome work +included a portrait of the composer and was the first of the kind +executed on pewter plates and in score. John Page, in his _Harmonia +Sacra_, published in 1800 in 3 vols. folio, gives seven of Croft's +anthems. Of instrumental music, Croft published six sets of airs for two +violins and a bass, six sonatas for two flutes, six solos for a flute +and bass. He died at Bath on the 14th of August 1727, and was buried in +the north aisle of Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to +his memory by his friend and admirer Humphrey Wyrley Birch. Burney in +his _History of Music_ devotes several pages of his third volume (pp. +603-612) to Dr Croft's life, and criticisms of some of his anthems. +During the earlier period of his life Croft wrote much for the theatre, +including overtures and incidental music for _Courtship a la mode_ +(1700), _The Funeral_ (1702) and _The Lying Lover_ (1703). + + + + +CROFTER, a term used, more particularly in the Highlands and islands of +Scotland, to designate a tenant who rents and cultivates a small holding +of land or "croft." This Old English word, meaning originally an +enclosed field, seems to correspond to the Dutch _kroft_, a field on +high ground or downs. The ultimate origin is unknown. By the Crofters' +Holdings (Scotland) Act 1886, a crofter is defined as the tenant of a +holding who resides on his holding, the annual rent of which does not +exceed L30 in money, and which is situated in a crofting parish. The +wholesale clearances of tenants from their crofts during the 19th +century, in violation of, as the tenants claimed, an implied security of +tenure, has led in the past to much agitation on the part of the +crofters to secure consideration of their grievances. They have been the +subject of royal commissions and of considerable legislation, but the +effect of the Crofters Act of 1886, with subsequent amending acts, has +been to improve their condition markedly, and much of the agitation has +now died out. A history of the legislation dealing with the crofters is +given in the article SCOTLAND. + + + + +CROKER, JOHN WILSON (1780-1857), British statesman and author, was born +at Galway on the 20th of December 1780, being the only son of John +Croker, the surveyor-general of customs and excise in Ireland. He was +educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated in 1800. +Immediately afterwards he was entered at Lincoln's Inn, and in 1802 he +was called to the Irish bar. His interest in the French Revolution led +him to collect a large number of valuable documents on the subject, +which are now in the British Museum. In 1804 he published anonymously +_Familiar Epistles to J. F. Jones, Esquire, on the State of the Irish +Stage_, a series of caustic criticisms in verse on the management of the +Dublin theatres. The book ran through five editions in one year. Equally +successful was the _Intercepted Letter from Canton_ (1805), also +anonymous, a satire on Dublin society. In 1807 he published a pamphlet +on _The State of Ireland, Past and Present_, in which he advocated +Catholic emancipation. + +In the following year he entered parliament as member for Downpatrick, +obtaining the seat on petition, though he had been unsuccessful at the +poll. The acumen displayed in his Irish pamphlet led Spencer Perceval to +recommend him in 1808 to Sir Arthur Wellesley, who had just been +appointed to the command of the British forces in the Peninsula, as his +deputy in the office of chief secretary for Ireland. This connexion led +to a friendship which remained unbroken till Wellington's death. The +notorious case of the duke of York in connexion with his abuse of +military patronage furnished him with an opportunity for distinguishing +himself. The speech which he delivered on the 14th of March 1809, in +answer to the charges of Colonel Wardle, was regarded as the most able +and ingenious defence of the duke that was made in the debate; and +Croker was appointed to the office of secretary to the Admiralty, which +he held without interruption under various administrations for more than +twenty years. He proved an excellent public servant, and made many +improvements which have been of permanent value in the organization of +his office. Among the first acts of his official career was the exposure +of a fellow-official who had misappropriated the public funds to the +extent of L200,000. + +In 1827 he became the representative of the university of Dublin, having +previously sat successively for the boroughs of Athlone, Yarmouth (Isle +of Wight), Bodmin and Aldeburgh. He was a determined opponent of the +Reform Bill, and vowed that he would never sit in a reformed parliament; +his parliamentary career accordingly terminated in 1832. Two years +earlier he had retired from his post at the admiralty on a pension of +L1500 a year. Many of his political speeches were published in pamphlet +form, and they show him to have been a vigorous and effective, though +somewhat unscrupulous and often virulently personal, party debater. +Croker had been an ardent supporter of Peel, but finally broke with him +when he began to advocate the repeal of the Corn Laws. He is said to +have been the first to use (Jan. 1830) the term "conservatives." He was +for many years one of the leading contributors on literary and +historical subjects to the _Quarterly Review_, with which he had been +associated from its foundation. The rancorous spirit in which many of +his articles were written did much to embitter party feeling. It also +reacted unfavourably on Croker's reputation as a worker in the +department of pure literature by bringing political animosities into +literary criticism. He had no sympathy with the younger school of poets +who were in revolt against the artificial methods of the 18th century, +and he was responsible for the famous _Quarterly_ article on Keats. It +is, nevertheless, unjust to judge Croker by the criticisms which +Macaulay brought against his _magnum opus_, his edition of Boswell's +_Life of Johnson_ (1831). With all its defects the work had merits which +Macaulay was of course not concerned to point out, and Croker's +researches have been of the greatest value to subsequent editors. There +is little doubt that Macaulay had personal reasons for his attack on +Croker, who had more than once exposed in the House the fallacies that +lay hidden under the orator's brilliant rhetoric. Croker made no +immediate reply to Macaulay's attack, but when the first two volumes of +the _History_ appeared he took the opportunity of pointing out the +inaccuracies that abounded in the work. Croker was occupied for several +years on an annotated edition of Pope's works. It was left unfinished at +the time of his death, but it was afterwards completed by the Rev. +Whitwell Elwin and Mr W. J. Courthope. He died at St Albans Bank, +Hampton, on the 10th of August 1857. + +Croker was generally supposed to be the original from which Disraeli +drew the character of "Rigby" in _Coningsby_, because he had for many +years had the sole management of the estates of the marquess of +Hertford, the "Lord Monmouth" of the story; but the comparison is a +great injustice to the sterling worth of Croker's character. + + The chief works of Croker not already mentioned were his _Stories for + Children from the History of England_ (1817), which provided the model + for Scott's _Tales of a Grandfather_; _Letters on the Naval War with + America_; _A Reply to the Letters of Malachi Malagrowther_ (1826); + _Military Events of the French Revolution of 1830_ (1831); a + translation of Bassompierre's _Embassy to England_ (1819); and several + lyrical pieces of some merit, such as the _Songs of Trafalgar_ (1806) + and _The Battles of Talavera_ (1809). He also edited the _Suffolk + Papers_ (1823), _Hervey's Memoirs of the Court of George II._ (1817), + the _Letters of Mary Lepel, Lady Hervey_ (1821-1822), and _Walpole's + Letters to Lord Hertford_ (1824). His memoirs, diaries and + correspondence were edited by Louis J. Jennings in 1884 under the + title of _The Croker Papers_ (3 vols.). + + + + + +CROKER, RICHARD (1843- ), American politician, was born at Blackrock, +Ireland, on the 24th of November 1843. He was taken to the United States +by his parents when two years old, and was educated in the public +schools of New York City, where he eventually became a member of +Tammany Hall and active in its politics. He was an alderman from 1868 to +1870, a coroner from 1873 to 1876, a fire commissioner in 1883 and 1887, +and city chamberlain from 1889 to 1890. After the fall of John Kelly he +became the leader of Tammany Hall (q.v.), and for some time almost +completely controlled the organization. His greatest political success +was his bringing about the election of Robert A. van Wyck as first mayor +of greater New York in 1897, and during van Wyck's administration Croker +is popularly supposed to have dominated completely the government of the +city. After Croker's failure to "carry" the city in the presidential +election of 1900 and the defeat of his mayoralty candidate, Edward M. +Shepard, in 1901, he resigned from his position of leadership in +Tammany, and retired to a country life in England and Ireland. In 1907 +he won the Derby with his race-horse Orby. + + + + +CROKER, THOMAS CROFTON (1798-1854), Irish antiquary and humorist, was +born in Cork on the 15th of January 1798. He was apprenticed to a +merchant, but in 1819, through the interest of John Wilson Croker, who +was, however, no relation of his, he became a clerk in the Admiralty. +Moore was indebted to him in the production of his _Irish Melodies_ for +"many curious fragments of ancient poetry." In 1825 he produced his most +popular book, the _Fairy Legends and Traditions of the South of +Ireland_, which he followed up by the publication of his _Legends of the +Lakes_ (1829), his _Adventures of Barney Mahoney_ (1852), and an edition +of the _Popular Songs of Ireland_ (1839). In 1827 he was made a member +of the Irish Academy; in 1839 and 1840 he helped to found the Camden and +Percy Societies, and in 1843 the British Archaeological Association. He +wrote _Narratives Illustrative of the Contests in Ireland in 1641 and +1688_ (1841), for the Camden Society, _Historical Songs of Ireland_, &c. +(1841), for the Percy Society, and several other works. He was also a +member of the Hakluyt and the Antiquarian Society. He died in London on +the 8th of August 1854. + + + + +CROLL, JAMES (1821-1890), Scottish man of science, was born of a peasant +family at Little Whitefield, in the parish of Cargill, in Perthshire, on +the 2nd of January 1821. He was regarded as an unpromising boy, but a +trifling circumstance aroused a passion for reading, and he made great +progress in self-education. He was apprenticed to a wheelwright at +Collace in Perthshire, but being debarred by ill-health from manual +labour, he became successively a shop-keeper and an insurance agent. In +1859 he was made keeper of the Andersonian Museum in Glasgow, a humble +appointment, which, however, gave him congenial occupation. In 1857, +being deeply impressed by the metaphysics of Jonathan Edwards, he had +published an anonymous volume entitled _The Philosophy of Theism_; but +his connexion with the Museum induced him to take up physical science, +and from 1861 onwards he studied with such perseverance that he was +enabled to contribute papers to the _Philosophical Magazine_ and other +journals. For that magazine in 1864 he wrote his celebrated essay "On +the Physical Cause of the Changes of Climate during Geological Epochs." +This led to his receiving an appointment on the Scottish Geological +Survey in 1867, and for thirteen years he took charge of the Edinburgh +Office. In 1875 he summed up his researches upon the ancient condition +of the earth in his _Climate and Time, in their Geological Relations_, +in which he contends that terrestrial revolutions are due in a measure +to cosmical causes. This theory excited warm controversy. Croll's +replies to his opponents are collected in his _Climate and Cosmology_ +(1885). He had been compelled by ill-health to withdraw from the public +service in 1880; yet, working under the greatest difficulties, and +harassed by the inadequacy of his retiring pension, he managed to +produce _Stellar Evolution_, discussing, among other things, the age of +the sun, in 1889; and _The Philosophical Basis of Evolution_, partly a +critique of Herbert Spencer's philosophy, in 1890. He died on the 15th +of December 1890. The soundness of Croll's astronomical theory regarding +the glacial period has since been criticized by E. P. Culverwell in the +_Geological Magazine_ for 1895, and by others; and it is now generally +abandoned. Nevertheless it must be admitted that his character as a +scientific worker under great discouragements was nothing less than +heroic. The hon. degree of LL.D. was conferred on him in 1876 by the +university of St Andrews; and he was elected F.R.S. in the same year. + + An _Autobiographical Sketch of James Croll, with Memoir of his Life + and Work_, was prepared by J. C. Irons, and published in 1896. + + + + +CROLY, GEORGE (1780-1860), British divine and author, son of a Dublin +physician, was born on the 17th of August 1780. He was educated at +Trinity College, Dublin, and after ordination was appointed to a small +curacy in the north of Ireland. About 1810 he came to London, and +occupied himself with literary work. A man of restless energy, he claims +attention by his extraordinary versatility. He wrote dramatic criticisms +for a short-lived periodical called the _New Times_; he was one of the +earliest contributors to _Blackwood's Magazine_; and to the _Literary +Gazette_ he contributed poems, reviews and essays on all kinds of +subjects. In 1819 he married Margaret Helen Begbie. Efforts to secure an +English living for Croly were frustrated, according to the _Gentleman's +Magazine_ (Jan. 1861), because Lord Eldon confounded him with a Roman +Catholic of the same name. Excluding his contributions to the daily and +weekly press his chief works were:--_Paris in 1815_ (1817), a poem in +imitation of _Childe Harold; Catiline_ (1822), a tragedy lacking in +dramatic force; _Salathiel: A Story of the Past, the Present and the +Future_ (1829), a successful romance of the "Wandering Jew" type; _The +Life and Times of his late Majesty George the Fourth_ (1830); _Marston; +or, The Soldier and Statesman_ (1846), a novel of modern life; _The +Modern Orlando_ (1846), a satire which owes something to _Don Juan_; and +some biographies, sermons and theological works. + +Croly was an effective preacher, and continued to hope for preferment +from the Tory leaders, to whom he had rendered considerable services by +his pen; but he eventually received, in 1835, the living of St +Stephen's, Walbrook, London, from a Whig patron, Lord Brougham, with +whose family he was connected. In 1847 he was made afternoon lecturer at +the Foundling hospital, but this appointment proved unfortunate. He died +suddenly on the 24th of November 1860, in London. + + His _Poetical Works_ (2 vols.) were collected in 1830. For a list of + his works see Allibone's _Critical Dictionary of English Literature_ + (1859). + + + + +CROMAGNON RACE, the name given by Paul Broca to a type of mankind +supposed to be represented by remains found by Lartet, Christy and +others, in France in the Cromagnon cave at Les Eyzies, Tayac district, +Dordogne. At the foot of a steep rock near the village this small cave, +nearly filled with debris, was found by workmen in 1868. Towards the top +of the loose strata three human skeletons were unearthed. They were +those of an old man, a young man and a woman, the latter's skull bearing +the mark of a severe wound. The skulls presented such special +characteristics that Broca took them as types of a race. Palaeolithic +man is exclusively long-headed, and the dolichocephalic appearance of +the crania (they had a mean cephalic index of 73.34) supported the view +that the "find" at Les Eyzies was palaeolithic. It is, however, +inaccurate to state that brachycephaly appears at once with the +neolithic age, dolichocephaly even of a pronounced type persisting far +into neolithic times. The Cromagnon race may thus be, as many +anthropologists believe it, early neolithic, a type of man who spread +over and inhabited a large portion of Europe at the close of the +Pleistocene period. Some have sought to find in it the substratum of the +present populations of western Europe. Quatrefages identifies Cromagnon +man with the tall, long-headed, fair Kabyles (Berbers) who still survive +in various parts of Mauritania. He suggests the introduction of the +Cromagnon from Siberia, "arriving in Europe simultaneously with the +great mammals (which were driven by the cold from Siberia), and no doubt +following their route." + + See A. H. Keane's _Ethnology_ (1896); Mortillet, _Le Prehistorique_ + (1900); Sergi, _The Mediterranean Race_ (1901); Lord Avebury, + _Prehistoric Times_, p. 317 of 1900 edition. + + + + +CROMARTY, GEORGE MACKENZIE, 1ST EARL OF (1630-1714), Scottish statesman, +was the eldest son of Sir John Mackenzie, Bart., of Tarbat (d. 1654), +and belonged to the same family as the earls of Seaforth. In 1654 he +joined the rising in Scotland on behalf of Charles II. and after an +exile of six years he returned to his own country and took some part in +public affairs after the Restoration. In 1661 he became a lord of +session as Lord Tarbat, but having been concerned in a vain attempt to +overthrow Charles II.'s secretary, the earl of Lauderdale, he was +dismissed from office in 1664. A period of retirement followed until +1678 when Mackenzie was appointed lord justice general of Scotland; in +1681 he became lord clerk register and a lord of session for the second +time, and from 1682 to 1688 he was the chief minister of Charles II. and +James II. in Scotland, being created viscount of Tarbat in 1685. In +1688, however, he deserted James and soon afterwards made his peace with +William III., his experience being very serviceable to the new +government in settling the affairs of Scotland. From 1692 to 1695 Tarbat +was again lord clerk register, and having served for a short time as a +secretary of state under Queen Anne he was created earl of Cromarty in +1703. He was again lord justice general from 1704 to 1710. He warmly +supported the union between England and Scotland, writing some pamphlets +in favour of this step, and he died on the 17th of August 1714. Cromarty +was a man of much learning, and among his numerous writings may be +mentioned his _Account of the conspiracies by the earls of Gowry and R. +Logan_ (Edinburgh, 1713). + +The earl's grandson George, 3rd earl of Cromarty (c. 1703-1766), +succeeded his father John, the 2nd earl, in February 1731. In 1745 he +joined Charles Edward, the young pretender, and he served with the +Jacobites until April 1746 when he was taken prisoner in +Sutherlandshire. He was tried and sentenced to death, but he obtained a +conditional pardon although his peerage was forfeited. He died on the +28th of September 1766. + +This earl's eldest son was John Mackenzie, Lord Macleod (1727-1789), who +shared his father's fortunes in 1745 and his fate in 1746. Having +pleaded guilty at his trial Macleod was pardoned on condition that he +gave up all his rights in the estates of the earldom, and he left +England and entered the Swedish army. In this service he rose to high +rank and was made Count Cromarty. The count returned to England in 1777 +and was successful in raising, mainly among the Mackenzies, two splendid +battalions of Highlanders, the first of which, now the Highland Light +Infantry, served under him in India. In 1784 he regained the family +estates and he died on the 2nd of April 1789. Macleod wrote an account +of the Jacobite rising of 1745, and also one of a campaign in Bohemia in +which he took part in 1757; both are printed in Sir W. Fraser's _Earls +of Cromartie_ (Edinburgh, 1876). + +Macleod left no children, and his heir was his cousin, Kenneth Mackenzie +(d. 1796), a grandson of the 2nd earl, who also died childless. The +estates then passed to Macleod's sister, Isabel (1725-1801), wife of +George Murray, 6th Lord Elibank. In 1861 Isabel's descendant, Anne +(1829-1888), wife of George, 3rd duke of Sutherland, was created +countess of Cromartie with remainder to her second son Francis +(1852-1893), who became earl of Cromartie in 1888. In 1895, two years +after the death of Francis, his daughter Sibell Lilian (b. 1878) was +granted by letters patent the title of countess of Cromartie. + + + + +CROMARTY, a police burgh and seaport of the county of Ross and Cromarty, +Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1242. It is situated on the southern shore of the +mouth of Cromarty Firth, 5 m. E. by S. of Invergordon on the opposite +coast, with which there is daily communication by steamer, and 9 m. N.E. +of Fortrose, the most convenient railway station. Before the union of +the shires of Ross and Cromarty, it was the county town of +Cromartyshire, and is one of the Wick district group of parliamentary +burghs. Its name is variously derived from the Gaelic _crom_, crooked, +and _bath_, bay, or _ard_, height, meaning either the "crooked bay," or +the "bend between the heights" (the high rocks, or Sutors, which guard +the entrance to the Firth), and gave the title to the earldom of +Cromarty. The principal buildings are the town hall and the Hugh Miller +Institute. The harbour, enclosed by two piers, accommodates the herring +fleet, but the fisheries, the staple industry, have declined. The town, +however, is in growing repute as a midsummer resort. The thatched house +with crow-stepped gables in Church Street, in which Hugh Miller the +geologist was born, still stands, and a statue has been erected to his +memory. To the east of the burgh is Cromarty House, occupying the site +of the old castle of the earls of Ross. It was the birthplace of Sir +Thomas Urquhart, the translator of Rabelais. + +Cromarty, formerly a county in the north of Scotland, was incorporated +with Ross-shire in 1889 under the designation of the county of Ross and +Cromarty. The nucleus of the county consisted of the lands of Cromarty +in the north of the peninsula of the Black Isle. To this were added from +time to time the various estates scattered throughout Ross-shire--the +most considerable of which were the districts around Ullapool and Little +Loch Broom on the Atlantic coast, the area in which Ben Wyvis is +situated, and a tract to the north of Loch Fannich--which had been +acquired by the ancestors of Sir George Mackenzie (1630-1714), +afterwards Viscount Tarbat (1685) and 1st earl of Cromarty (1703). +Desirous of combining these sporadic properties into one shire, Viscount +Tarbat was enabled to procure their annexation to his sheriffdom of +Cromarty in 1685 and 1698, the area of the enlarged county amounting to +nearly 370 sq. m. (See ROSS AND CROMARTY.) + + + + +CROMARTY FIRTH, an arm of the North Sea, belonging to the county of Ross +and Cromarty, Scotland. From the Moray Firth it extends inland in a +westerly and then south-westerly direction for a distance of 19 m. +Excepting at the Bay of Nigg, on the northern shore, and Cromarty Bay, +on the southern, where it is about 5 m. wide (due N. and S.), and at +Alness Bay, where it is 2 m. wide, it has an average width of 1 m. and a +depth varying from 5 to 10 fathoms, forming one of the safest and most +commodious anchorages in the north of Scotland. Besides other streams it +receives the Conon, Peffery, Skiack and Alness, and the principal places +on its shores are Dingwall near the head, Cromarty near the mouth, +Kiltearn, Invergordon and Kilmuir on the north. The entrance is guarded +by two precipitous rocks--the one on the north 400 ft., that on the +south 463 ft. high--called the Sutors from a fancied resemblance to a +couple of shoemakers (_Scotice_, souter), bending over their lasts. +There are ferries at Cromarty, Invergordon and Dingwall. + + + + +CROME, JOHN (1769-1821), English landscape painter, founder and chief +representative of the "Norwich School," often called Old Crome, to +distinguish him from his son, was born at Norwich, on the 21st of +December 1769. His father was a weaver, and could give him only the +scantiest education. His early years were spent in work of the humblest +kind; and at a fit age he became apprentice to a house-painter. To this +step he appears to have been led by an inborn love of art and the desire +to acquaint himself by any means with its materials and processes. +During his apprenticeship he sometimes painted signboards, and devoted +what leisure time he had to sketching from nature. Through the influence +of a rich art-loving friend he was enabled to exchange his occupation of +house-painter for that of drawing-master; and in this he was engaged +throughout his life. He took great delight in a collection of Dutch +pictures to which he had access, and these he carefully studied. About +1790 he was introduced to Sir William Beechey, whose house in London he +frequently visited, and from whom he gathered additional knowledge and +help in his art. In 1805 the Norwich Society of Artists took definite +shape, its origin being traceable a year or two further back. Crome was +its president and the largest contributor to its annual exhibitions. +Among his pupils were James Stark, Vincent, Thirtle and John Bernay +(Barney) Crome (1794-1842), his son. J. S. Cotman, too, a greater artist +than any of these, was associated with him. Crome continued to reside at +Norwich, and with the exception of his short visits to London had little +or no communication with the great artists of his own time. He first +exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1806; but in this and the following +twelve years he exhibited there only fourteen of his works. With very +few exceptions Crome's subjects are taken from the familiar scenery of +his native county. Fidelity to nature was his dominant aim. "The bit of +heath, the boat, and the slow water of the flattish land, trees most of +all--the single tree in elaborate study, the group of trees, and how the +growth of one affects that of another, and the characteristics of +each,"--these, says Frederick Wedmore (_Studies in English Art_), are +the things to which he is most constant. He still remains, says the same +critic, of many trees the greatest draughtsman, and is especially the +master of the oak. His most important works are--"Mousehold Heath, near +Norwich," now in the National Gallery; "Clump of Trees, Hautbois +Common"; "Oak at Poringland"; the "Willow"; "Coast Scene near Yarmouth"; +"Bruges, on the Ostend River"; "Slate Quarries"; the "Italian +Boulevards"; and the "Fishmarket at Boulogne." He executed a good many +etchings, and the great charm of these is in the beautiful and faithful +representation of trees. Crome enjoyed a very limited reputation during +his life, and his pictures were sold at low prices; but since his death +they have been more and more appreciated, and have given him a high +place among English painters of landscape. He died at Norwich on the +22nd of April 1821. His son, J. B. Crome, was his assistant in teaching, +and his best pictures were in the same style, his moonlight effects +being much admired. + + A collection of "Old" Crome's etchings, entitled _Norfolk Picturesque + Scenery_, was published in 1834, and was re-issued with a memoir by + Dawson Turner in 1838, but in this issue the prints were retouched by + other hands. + + + + +CROMER, EVELYN BARING, 1ST EARL (1841- ), British statesman and +diplomatist, was born on the 26th of February 1841, the ninth son of +Henry Baring, M.P., by Cecilia Anne, eldest daughter of Admiral Windham +of Felbrigge Hall, Norfolk. Having joined the Royal Artillery in 1858, +he was appointed in 1861 A.D.C. to Sir Henry Storks, high commissioner +of the Ionian Islands, and acted as secretary to the same chief during +the inquiry into the Jamaica outbreak in 1865. Gazetted captain in 1870, +he went in 1872 as private secretary to his cousin Lord Northbrook, +Viceroy of India, where he remained until 1876, when he became major, +received the C.S.I., and was appointed British commissioner of the +Egyptian public debt office. Up to this period Major Baring had given no +unusual signs of promise, and the appointment of a comparatively untried +major of artillery as the British representative on a Financial Board +composed of representatives of all the great powers was considered a +bold one. Within a very short time it was recognized that the +Englishman, though keeping himself carefully in the background, was +unmistakably the predominant factor on the board. He was mainly +responsible for the searching report, issued in 1878, of the commission +of inquiry that had been instituted into the financial methods of the +Khedive Ismail; and when that able and unscrupulous Oriental had to +submit to an enforced abdication in 1879, it was Major Baring who became +the British controller-general and practical director of the Dual +Control. Had he remained in Egypt, the whole course of Egyptian history +might have been altered, but his services were deemed more necessary in +India, and under Lord Ripon he became financial member of council in +June 1880. He remained there till 1883, leaving an unmistakable mark on +the Indian financial system, and then, having been rewarded by the +K.C.S.I., he was appointed British agent and consul-general in Egypt and +a minister plenipotentiary in the diplomatic service. + +Sir Evelyn Baring was at that time only a man of forty-two, who had +gained a reputation for considerable financial ability, combined with an +abruptness of manner and a certain autocracy of demeanour which, it was +feared, would impede his success in a position which required +considerable tact and diplomacy. It was a friendly colleague who wrote-- + + "The virtues of Patience are known, + But I think that, when put to the touch, + The people of Egypt will own, with a groan, + There's an Evil in Baring too much." + +When he arrived in Cairo in 1883 he found the administration of the +country almost non-existent. Ismail had ruled with all the vices, but +also with all the advantages, of autocracy. Disorder in the finances, +brutality towards the people, had been combined with public tranquillity +and the outer semblance of civilization. Order, at least, reigned from +the Sudan to the Mediterranean, and such trivial military disturbances +as had occurred had been of Ismail's own devising and for his own +purposes. Tewfik, who had succeeded him, had neither the inclination nor +character to be a despot. Within three years his government had been all +but overthrown, and he was only khedive by the grace of British +bayonets. Government by bayonets was not in accord with the views of the +House of Commons, yet Ismail's government by the kourbash could not be +restored. The British government, under Mr Gladstone, desired to +establish in Egypt a sort of constitutional government; and as there +existed no single element of a constitution, they had sent out Lord +Dufferin (the first marquess of Dufferin) to frame one. That gifted +nobleman, in the delightful lucidity of his picturesque report, left +nothing to be desired except the material necessary to convert the +flowing periods into political entities.[1] In the absence of that, the +constitution was still-born, and Sir Evelyn Baring arrived to find, not +indeed a clean slate, but a worn-out papyrus, disfigured by the efforts +of centuries to describe in hieroglyph a method of rule for a docile +people. + +From that date the history of Sir Evelyn Baring, who became Baron Cromer +in 1892, G.C.B. in 1895, viscount in 1897, and earl in 1901, is the +history of Egypt, and requires the barest mention of its salient points +here. From the outset he realized that the task he had to perform could +only be effected piecemeal and in detail, and his very first measure was +one which, though severely criticized at the time, has been justified by +events, and which in any case showed that he shirked no responsibility, +and was capable of adopting heroic methods. He counselled the +abandonment, at least temporarily, by Egypt of its authority in the +Sudan provinces, already challenged by the mahdi. His views were shared +by the British ministry of the day and the policy of abandonment +enforced upon the Egyptian government. At the same time it was decided +that efforts should be made to relieve the Egyptian garrisons in the +Sudan and this resolve led to the mission of General C. G. Gordon (q.v.) +to Khartum. Lord Cromer subsequently told the story of Gordon's mission +at length, making clear the measure of responsibility resting upon him +as British agent. The proposal to employ Gordon came from the British +government and twice Sir Evelyn rejected the suggestion. Finally, +mistrusting his own judgment, for he did not consider Gordon the proper +person for the mission, Baring yielded to pressure from Lord Granville. +Thereafter he gave Gordon all the support possible, and in the critical +matter of the proposed despatch of Zobeir to Khartum, Baring--after a +few days' hesitation--cordially endorsed Gordon's request. The request +was refused by the British government--and the catastrophe which +followed at Khartum rendered inevitable. + +The Sudan crisis being over, for the time, Sir Evelyn Baring set to work +to reorganize Egypt itself. This work he attacked in detail. The very +first essential was to regulate the financial situation; and in Egypt, +where the entire revenue is based on the production of the soil, +irrigation was of the first importance. With the assistance of Sir Colin +Scott Moncrieff, in the public works department, and Sir Edgar Vincent, +as financial adviser, these two great departments were practically put +in order before he gave more than superficial attention to the rest. The +ministry of justice was the next department seriously taken in hand, +with the assistance of Sir John Scott, while the army had been reformed +under Sir Evelyn Wood, who was succeeded by Sir Francis (afterwards +Lord) Grenfell. Education, the ministry of the interior, and gradually +every other department, came to be reorganized, or, more correctly +speaking, formed, under Lord Cromer's carefully persistent direction, +until it may be said to-day that the Egyptian administration can safely +challenge comparison with that of any other state. In the meantime the +rule of the mahdi and his successor, the khalifa, in the temporarily +abandoned provinces of the Sudan, had been weakened by internal +dissensions; the Italians from Massawa, the Belgians from the Congo +State, and the French from their West African possessions, had gradually +approached nearer to the valley of the Nile; and the moment had arrived +at which Egypt must decide either to recover her position in the Sudan +or allow the Upper Nile to fall into hands hostile to Great Britain and +her position in Egypt. Lord Cromer was as quick to recognize the moment +for action and to act as he had fifteen years earlier been prompt to +recognize the necessity of abstention. In March-September 1896 the first +advance was made to Dongola under the Sirdar, Sir Herbert (afterwards +Lord) Kitchener; between July 1897 and April 1898 the advance was pushed +forward to the Atbara; and on the 2nd of September 1898, the battle of +Omdurman finally crushed the power of the khalifa and restored the Sudan +to the rule of Egypt and Great Britain. In the negotiations which +resulted in the Anglo-French Declaration of the 8th of April 1904, +whereby France bound herself not to obstruct in any manner the action of +Great Britain in Egypt and the Egyptian government acquired financial +freedom, Lord Cromer took an active part. He also successfully guarded +the interests of Egypt and Great Britain in 1906 when Turkey attempted +by encroachments in the Sinai Peninsula to obtain a strategic position +on the Suez Canal. To have effected all this in the face of the greatest +difficulties--political, national and international--and at the same +time to have raised the credit of the country from a condition of +bankruptcy to an equality with that of the first European powers, +entitles Lord Cromer to a very high place among the greatest +administrators and statesmen that the British empire has produced. In +April 1907, in consequence of the state of his health, he resigned +office, having held the post of British agent in Egypt for twenty-four +years. In July of the same year parliament granted L50,000 out of the +public funds to Lord Cromer in recognition of his "eminent services" in +Egypt. In 1908 he published, in two volumes, _Modern Egypt_, in which he +gave an impartial narrative of events in Egypt and the Sudan since 1876, +and dealt with the results to Egypt of the British occupation of the +country. Lord Cromer also took part in the political controversies at +home, joining himself to the free-trade wing of the Unionist party. + +Lord Cromer married in 1876 Ethel Stanley, daughter of Sir Rowland +Stanley Errington, eleventh baronet, but was left a widower with two +sons in 1898; and in 1901 he married Lady Katherine Thynne, daughter of +the 4th marquess of Bath. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] In 1892 Lord Dufferin wrote to Lord Cromer: "These institutions + were a good deal ridiculed at the time, but as it was then uncertain + how long we were going to remain, or rather how soon the Turks might + not be reinvested with their ancient supremacy, I desired to erect + some sort of barrier, however feeble, against their intolerable + tyranny." In 1906 Lord Cromer bore public testimony to the good + results of the measures adopted on Lord Dufferin's "statesmanlike + initiative." Such results were, however, only possible in consequence + of the continuance of the British occupation. + + + + +CROMER, a watering-place in the northern parliamentary division of +Norfolk, England, 139 m. N.E. by N. from London by the Great Eastern +railway; served also by the Midland and Great Northern joint line. Pop. +of urban district (1901) 3781. Standing on cliffs of considerable +elevation, the town has repeatedly suffered from ravages of the sea. A +wall and esplanade extend along the bottom of the cliffs, and there is a +fine stretch of sandy beach. There is also a short pier. The church of +St Peter and St Paul is Perpendicular (largely restored) with a lofty +tower. On a site of three acres stands the convalescent home of the +Norfolk and Norwich hospital. There is an excellent golf course. The +herring, cod, lobster and crab fisheries are prosecuted. The village of +Sheringham (pop. of urban district, 2359), lying to the west, is also +frequented by visitors. A so-called Roman camp, on an elevation +overlooking the sea, is actually a modern beacon. + + + + +CROMORNE, also CRUMHORNE[1] (Ger. _Krummhorn_; Fr. _tournebout_), a wind +instrument of wood in which a cylindrical column of air is set in +vibration by a reed. The lower extremity is turned up in a half-circle, +and from this peculiarity it has gained the French name _tournebout_. +The reed of the cromorne, like that of the bassoon, is formed by a +double tongue of cane adapted to the small end of a conical brass tube +or crook, the large end fitting into the main bore of the instrument. It +presents, however, this difference, that it is not, like that of the +bassoon, in contact with the player's lips, but is covered by a cap +pierced in the upper part with a raised slit against which the +performer's lips rest, the air being forced through the opening into the +cap and setting the reed in vibration. The reed itself is therefore not +subject to the pressure of the lips. The compass of the instrument is in +consequence limited to the simple fundamental sounds produced by the +successive opening of the lateral holes. The length of the cromornes is +inconsiderable in proportion to the deep sounds produced by them, which +arises from the fact that these instruments, like all tubes of +cylindrical bore provided with reeds, have the acoustic properties of +the stopped pipes of an organ. That is to say, theoretically they +require only half the length necessary for the open pipes of an organ or +for conical tubes provided with reeds, to produce notes of the same +pitch. Moreover, when, to obtain an harmonic, the column of air is +divided, the cromorne will not give the octave, like the oboe and +bassoon, but the twelfth, corresponding in this peculiarity with the +clarinet and all stopped pipes or bourdons. In order, however, to obtain +an harmonic on the cromorne, the cap would have to be discarded, for a +reed only overblows to give the harmonic overtones when pressed by the +lips. With the ordinary boring of eight lateral holes the cromorne +possesses a limited compass of a ninth. Sometimes, however, deeper +sounds are obtained by the addition of one or more keys. By its +construction the cromorne is one of the oldest wind instruments; it is +evidently derived from the Gr. aulos[2] and the Roman tibia, which +likewise consisted of a simple cylindrical pipe of which the air column +was set in vibration, at first by a double reed, and, we have reason to +believe, later by a single reed (see AULOS and CLARINET). The Phrygian +aulos was sometimes curved (see Tib. ii. i. 85 _Phrygio tibia curva +sono_; Virgil, _Aen._ xi. 737 _curva choros indixit tibia Bacchi_).[3] + + [Illustration: Bass Tournebout.] + + Notwithstanding the successive improvements that were introduced in + the manufacture of wind instruments, the cromorne scarcely ever varied + in the details of its construction. Such as we see it represented in + the treatise by Virdung[4] we find it again about the epoch of its + disappearance.[5] The cromornes existed as a complete family from the + 15th century, consisting, according to Virdung, of four instruments; + Praetorius[6] cites five--the deep bass, the bass, the tenor or alto, + the cantus or soprano and the high soprano, with compass as shown. A + band, or, to use the expression of Praetorius, an "accort" of + cromornes comprised 1 deep bass, 2 bass, 3 tenor, 2 cantus, 1 high + soprano = 9. + + [Illustration: Music notes.] + + Mersenne[7] explains the construction of the cromorne, giving careful + illustrations of the instrument with and without the cap. From him we + learn that these instruments were made in England, where they were + played in concert in sets of four, five and six. Their scheme of + construction and especially the reed and cap is very similar to that + of the chalumeau of the musette (see BAG-PIPE), but its timbre is by + no means so pleasant. Mersenne's cromornes have ten fingerholes, Nos. + 7 and 8 being duplicates for right and left-handed players. They were + probably sometimes used, as was the case with the hautbois de Poitou + (see BAG-PIPE), without the cap, when an extended compass was + required. + + The cromornes were in very general use in Europe from the 14th to the + 17th century, and are to be found in illustrations of pageants, as for + instance in the magnificent collection of woodcuts designed by Hans + Burgmair, a pupil of Albrecht Durer, representing the triumph of the + emperor Maximilian,[8] where a bass and a tenor Krumbhorn player + figure in the procession among countless other musicians. In the + inventory of the wardrobe, &c., belonging to Henry VIII. at + Westminster, made during the reign of Edward VI., we find eighteen + crumhornes (see British Museum, Harleian MS. 1419, ff. 202b and 205). + The cromornes did not always form an orchestra by themselves, but were + also used in concert with other instruments and notably with flutes + and oboes, as in municipal bands and in the private bands of princes. + In 1685 the orchestra of the Neue Kirche at Strassburg comprised two + tournebouts or cromornes, and until the middle of the 18th century + these instruments formed part of the court band known as "Musique de + la Grande Ecurie" in the service of the French kings. They are first + mentioned in the accounts for the year 1662, together with the + tromba-marina, although the instrument was already highly esteemed in + the 16th century. In that year five players of the cromorne were + enrolled among the musicians of the Grande Ecurie du Roi;[9] they + received a yearly salary of 120 livres, which various supplementary + allowances brought up to about 330 livres. In 1729 one of the cromorne + players sold his appointment for 4000 francs. This was a sign of the + failing popularity of the instrument. The duties of the cromorne and + tromba-marina players consisted in playing in the great + _divertissements_ and at court functions and festivals in honour of + royal marriages, births and thanksgivings. + + Cromornes have become of extreme rarity and are not to be found in all + collections. The Paris Conservatoire possesses one large bass cromorne + of the 16th century, the Kgl. Hochschule fur Musik,[10] Berlin, a set + of seven, and the Ambroser Sammlung, Vienna, a cromorne in + E[flat].[11] The museum of the Conservatoire Royal de Musique at + Brussels has the good fortune to possess a complete family which is + said to have belonged to the duke of Ferrara, Alphonso II. d'Este, a + prince who reigned from 1559 to 1597. The soprano (cantus or discant) + has the same compass as above, while those of the alto, the tenor + (furnished with a key) and the bass are as shown. + + [Illustration: Music notes.] + + The bass (see figure), besides having two keys, is distinguished from + the others by two contrivances like small bolts, which slide in + grooves and close the two holes that give the lowest notes of the + instrument. The use of these bolts, placed at the extremity of the + tournebout and out of reach of the fingers of the instrumentalist, + renders necessary the assistance of a person whose sole mission is to + attend to them during the performance. E. van der Straeten[12] + mentions a key belonging to a large cromorne bearing the date 1537, of + which he gives a large drawing. A cromorne appears in a musical scene + with a trumpet in Hermann Finck's _Practica Musica_.[13] + + The "Platerspil," of which Virdung gives a drawing, is only a kind of + cromorne. It is characterized by having, instead of a cap to cover the + reed, a spherical receiver surrounding the reed, to which the tube for + insufflation is adapted. The Platerspiel is also frequently classified + among bagpipes. In the _Cantigas di Sante Maria_,[14] a MS. of the + 13th century preserved in the Escorial, Madrid, two instruments of + this type are represented. One of these has two straight, parallel + pipes, slightly conical; the other is frankly conical with wide bore + turned up at the end. + + Other instruments belonging by their most important characteristics of + cylindrical bore and double reed to the same family as the cromorne, + although the bore was somewhat differently disposed, are the racket + bassoon and the sourdine or sordelline. The latter was introduced into + the orchestra by Cavaliere in his opera _Rappresentazione di anima e + di corpo_, and is described by Giudotto[15] in his edition of the + score as "Flauti overo due tibie all' antica che noi chiamiamo + sordelline," a description which tallies with what has been said above + concerning the aulos and tibia. (V. M. and K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Crumhorne need not be regarded as a corruption of the German, + since the two words of which it is composed were both in use in + medieval England. _Crumb_ = curved; _crumbe_ = hook, bend; _crome_ = + a staff with a hook at the end of it. See Stratmann's _Middle English + Dictionary_ (1891), and Halliwell, _Dictionary of Archaic and + Provincial Words_ (London, 1881). + + [2] See A. Howard, "Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard Studies_, iv. (Boston, + 1893). + + [3] See also A. A. Howard, op. cit., "Phrygian Aulos," pp. 35-38. + + [4] _Musica getutscht und auszgezogen_ (Basel, 1511). + + [5] See Diderot and d'Alembert's _Encyclopedie_ (Paris, 1751-1780), + t. 5, "Lutherie," pl. ix. + + [6] _Organographia_ (Wolfenbuttel, 1618). + + [7] _L'Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636-1637), book v. pp. 289 and + 290. Cf. "Musette," pp. 282-287 and 305. + + [8] See "Triumphzug des Kaisers Maximilian I." Beilage zum II. Band + des _Jahrb. der Sammlungen des Allerhochsten Kaiserhauses_ (Vienna, + 1884-1885), pl. 20. Explanatory text and part i. in Band i. of the + same publication, 1883-1884. A French edition with 135 plates was + also published in Vienna by A. Schmidt, and in London by J. Edwards + (1796). See also Dr August Reissmann, _Illustrierte Geschichte der + deutschen Musik_ (Leipzig, 1881), where a few of the plates are + reproduced. + + [9] See J. Ecorcheville, "Quelques documents sur la musique de la + grande ecurie du roi," _Sammelband d. Intern. Musik. Ges._ Jahrg. + ii., Heft 4 (1901, Leipzig, London, &c.), pp. 630-632. + + [10] Oskar Fleischer, _Fuhrer_ (Berlin, 1892), p. 29, Nos. 400 to + 406. + + [11] For an illustration see Captain C. R. Day, _Descriptive + Catalogue_ (London, 1891), pl. iv. E. and p. 99. + + [12] _Histoire de la musique aux Pays-Bas avant le XIX^e siecle_ + (Brussels, 1867-1888), vol. vii. p. 336, and description, p. 333 et + seq. + + [13] Wittenberg, 1556; reproduced by A. Reissmann, op. cit., pp. 233 + and 226. + + [14] Reproduced in Riano's _Notes on Early Spanish Music_ (London, + 1887), pp. 119-127. + + [15] See Hugo Goldschmidt, "Das Orchester der italienischen Oper im + 17. Jahrh." _Sammelband der Intern. Musikgesellschaft_, Jahrg. ii., + Heft 1 (Leipzig, 1900), p. 24. + + + + +CROMPTON, SAMUEL (1753-1827), English inventor, was born on the 3rd of +December 1753 at Firwood near Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire. While yet a +boy he lost his father, and had to contribute to the family resources by +spinning yarn. The defects of the spinning jenny imbued him with the +idea of devising something better, and for five or six years the effort +absorbed all his spare time and money, including what he earned by +playing the violin at the Bolton theatre. About 1779 he succeeded in +producing a machine which span yarn suitable for use in the manufacture +of muslin, and which was known as the muslin wheel or the +Hall-in-the-Wood wheel (from the name of the house in which he and his +family resided), and later as the spinning mule. After his marriage in +1780 a good demand arose for the yarn which he himself made at +Hall-in-the-Wood, but the prying to which his methods were subjected +drove him, in the absence of means to take out a patent, to the choice +of destroying his machine or making it public. He adopted the latter +alternative on the promise of a number of manufacturers to pay him for +the use of the mule, but all he received was about L60. He then resumed +spinning on his own account, but with indifferent success. In 1800 a sum +of L500 was raised for his benefit by subscription, and when in 1809 +Edmund Cartwright, the inventor of the power-loom obtained L10,000 from +parliament, he determined also to apply for a grant. In 1811 he made a +tour in the manufacturing districts of Lancashire and Scotland to +collect evidence showing how extensively his mule was used, and in 1812 +parliament allowed him L5000. With the aid of this money he embarked in +business, first as a bleacher and then as a cotton merchant and spinner, +but again without success. In 1824 some friends, without his knowledge, +bought him an annuity of L63. He died at Bolton on the 26th of June +1827. + + + + +CROMPTON, an urban district of Lancashire, England, 2(1/2) m. N. of +Oldham, within the parliamentary borough of Oldham. Pop. (1901) 13,427. +At Shaw, a populous village included within it, is a station on the +Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Cotton mills and the collieries of the +neighbourhood employ the large industrial population. + + + + +CROMWELL, HENRY (1628-1674), fourth son of Oliver Cromwell, was born at +Huntingdon on the 20th of January 1628, and served under his father +during the latter part of the Civil War. His active life, however, was +mainly spent in Ireland, whither he took some troops to assist Oliver +early in 1650, and he was one of the Irish representatives in the +Little, or Nominated, Parliament of 1653. In 1654 he was again in +Ireland, and after making certain recommendations to his father, now +lord protector, with regard to the government of that country, he became +major-general of the forces in Ireland and a member of the Irish council +of state, taking up his new duties in July 1655. Nominally Henry was +subordinate to the lord-deputy, Charles Fleetwood, but Fleetwood's +departure for England in September 1655 left him for all practical +purposes the ruler of Ireland. He moderated the lord-deputy's policy of +deporting the Irish, and unlike him he paid some attention to the +interests of the English settlers; moreover, again unlike Fleetwood, he +appears to have held the scales evenly between the different Protestant +sects, and his undoubted popularity in Ireland is attested by Clarendon. +In November 1657 Henry himself was made lord-deputy; but before this +time he had refused a gift of property worth L1500 a year, basing his +refusal on the grounds of the poverty of the country, a poverty which +was not the least of his troubles. In 1657 he advised his father not to +accept the office of king, although in 1634 he had supported a motion to +this effect; and after the dissolution of Cromwell's second parliament +in February 1658 he showed his anxiety that the protector should act in +a moderate and constitutional manner. After Oliver's death Henry hailed +with delight the succession of his brother Richard to the office of +protector, but although he was now appointed lieutenant and governor +general of Ireland, it was only with great reluctance that he remained +in that country. Having rejected proposals to assist in the restoration +of Charles II., Henry was recalled to England in June 1659 just after +his brother's fall; quietly obeying this order he resigned his office at +once. Although he lost some property at the Restoration, he was allowed +after some solicitation to keep the estate he had bought in Ireland. His +concluding years were passed at Spinney Abbey in Cambridgeshire; he was +unmolested by the government, and he died on the 23rd of March 1674. In +1653 Henry married Elizabeth (d. 1687), daughter of Sir Francis Russell, +and he left five sons and two daughters. + + + + +CROMWELL, OLIVER (1599-1658), lord protector of England, was the 5th and +only surviving son of Robert Cromwell of Huntingdon and of Elizabeth +Steward, widow of William Lynn. His paternal grandfather was Sir Henry +Cromwell of Hinchinbrook, a leading personage in Huntingdonshire, and +grandson of Richard Williams, knighted by Henry VIII., nephew of Thomas +Cromwell, earl of Essex, Henry VIII.'s minister, whose name he adopted. +His mother was descended from a family named Styward in Norfolk, which +was not, however, connected in any way, as has been often asserted, with +the royal house of Stuart. Oliver was born on the 25th of April 1599, +was educated under Dr Thomas Beard, a fervent puritan, at the free +school at Huntingdon, and on the 23rd of April 1616 matriculated as a +fellow-commoner at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, then a hotbed of +puritanism, subsequently studying law in London. The royalist anecdotes +relating to his youth, including charges of ill-conduct, do not deserve +credit, the entries in the register of St John's, Huntingdon, noting +Oliver's submission on two occasions to church censure being forgeries; +but it is not improbable that his youth was wild and possibly +dissolute.[1] According to Edmund Waller he was "very well read in the +Greek and Roman story." Burnet declares he had little Latin, but he was +able to converse with the Dutch ambassador in that language. According +to James Heath in his _Flagellum_, "he was more famous for his exercises +in the fields than in the schools, being one of the chief match-makers +and players at football, cudgels, or any other boisterous game or +sport." On the 22nd of August 1620 he married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir +James Bourchier, a city merchant of Tower Hill, and of Felstead in +Essex; and his father having died in 1617 he settled at Huntingdon and +occupied himself in the management of his small estate. In 1628 he was +returned to parliament as member for the borough, and on the 11th of +February 1629 he spoke in support of puritan doctrine, complaining of +the attempt by the king to silence Dr Beard, who had raised his voice +against the "flat popery" inculcated by Dr Alabaster at Paul's Cross. He +was also one of the members who refused to adjourn at the king's command +till Sir John Eliot's resolutions had been passed. + +During the eleven years of government without parliament very little is +recorded of Cromwell. His name is not connected with the resistance to +the levy of ship-money or to the action of the ecclesiastical courts, +but in 1630 he was one of those fined for refusing to take up +knighthood. The same year he was named one of the justices of the peace +for his borough; and on the grant of a new charter showed great zeal in +defending the rights of the commoners, and succeeded in procuring an +alteration in the charter in their favour, exhibiting much warmth of +temper during the dispute and being committed to custody by the privy +council for angry words spoken against the mayor, for which he +afterwards apologized. He also defended the rights of the commoners of +Ely threatened by the "adventurers" who had drained the Great Level, and +he was nicknamed afterwards by a royalist newspaper "Lord of the Fens." +He was again later the champion of the commoners of St Ives in the Long +Parliament against enclosures by the earl of Manchester, obtaining a +commission of the House of Commons to inquire into the case, and drawing +upon himself the severe censure of the chairman, the future Lord +Clarendon, by his "impetuous carriage" and "insolent behaviour," and by +the passionate vehemence he imparted into the business. Bishop Williams, +a kinsman of Cromwell's, relates at this time that he was "a common +spokesman for sectaries, and maintained their part with great +stubbornness"; and his earliest extant letter (in 1635) is an appeal for +subscriptions for a puritan lecturer. There appears to be no foundation +for the statement that he was stopped by an order of council when on the +point of abandoning England for America, though there can be little +doubt that the thoughts of emigration suggested themselves to his mind +at this period. He viewed the "innovations in religion" with abhorrence. +According to Clarendon he told the latter in 1641 that if the Grand +Remonstrance had not passed "he would have sold all he had the next +morning and never have seen England more." In 1631 he converted his +landed property into money, and John Hampden, his cousin, a patentee of +Connecticut in 1632, was on the point of emigrating. Cromwell was +perhaps arrested in his project by his succession in 1636 to the estate +of his uncle Sir Thomas Steward, and to his office of farmer of the +cathedral tithes at Ely, whither he now removed. Meanwhile, like Bunyan +and many other puritans, Cromwell had been passing through a trying +period of mental and religious change and struggle, beginning with deep +melancholy and religious doubt and depression, and ending with "seeing +light" and with enthusiastic and convinced faith, which remained +henceforth the chief characteristic and impulse in his career. + + + Cromwell's first parliamentary efforts. + +He represented Cambridge in the Short and Long Parliaments of 1640, and +at once showed extraordinary zeal and audacity in his opposition to the +government, taking a large share in business and serving on numerous and +important committees. As the cousin of Hampden and St. John he was +intimately associated with the leaders of the parliamentary party. His +sphere of action, however, was not in parliament. He was not an orator, +and though he could express himself forcibly on occasion, his speech was +incoherent and devoid of any of the arts of rhetoric. Clarendon notes on +his first appearance in parliament that "he seemed to have a person in +no degree gracious, no ornament of discourse, none of those talents +which use to reconcile the affections of the standers by; yet as he grew +into place and authority his parts seemed to be renewed." He supported +stoutly the extreme party of opposition to the king, but did not take +the lead except on a few less important occasions, and was apparently +silent in the debates on the Petition of Right, the Grand Remonstrance +and the Militia. His first recorded intervention in debate in the Long +Parliament was on the 9th of November 1640, a few days after the meeting +of the House, when he delivered a petition from the imprisoned John +Lilburne. He was described by Sir Philip Warwick on this occasion:--"I +came into the House one morning well clad and perceived a gentleman +speaking whom I knew not, very ordinarily apparelled; for it was a plain +cloth suit which seemed to have been made by an ill country tailor; his +linen was plain and not very clean; ... his stature was of a good size; +his sword stuck close to his side; his countenance swollen and reddish; +his voice sharp and untunable and his eloquence full of fervour ... I +sincerely profess it much lessened my reverence as to that great council +for he was very much hearkened unto." On the 30th of December he moved +to the second reading of Strode's bill for annual parliaments. His chief +interest from the first, however, lay in the religious question. He +belonged to the Root and Branch party, and spoke in favour of the +petition of the London citizens for the abolition of episcopacy on the +9th of February 1641, and pressed upon the House the Root and Branch +Bill in May. On the 6th of November he carried a motion entrusting the +train-bands south of the Trent to the command of the earl of Essex. On +the 14th of January 1642, after the king's attempt to seize the five +members, he moved for a committee to put the kingdom in a posture of +defence. He contributed L600 to the proposed Irish campaign and L500 for +raising forces in England--large sums from his small estate--and on his +own initiative in July 1642 sent arms of the value of L100 down to +Cambridge, seized the magazine there in August, and prevented the king's +commission of array from being executed in the county, taking these +important steps on his own authority and receiving subsequently +indemnity by vote of the House of Commons. Shortly afterwards he joined +Essex with sixty horse, and was present at Edgehill, where his troop was +one of the few not routed by Rupert's charge, Cromwell himself being +mentioned among those officers who "never stirred from their troops but +fought till the last minute." + + + Beginning of Civil War. + +During the earlier part of the year 1643 the military position of +Charles was greatly superior to that of the parliament. Essex was +inactive near Oxford; in the west Sir Ralph Hopton had won a series of +victories, and in the north Newcastle defeated the Fairfaxes at Adwalton +Moor, and all Yorkshire except Hull was in his hands. It seemed likely +that the whole of the north would be laid open and the royalists be able +to march upon London and join Charles and Hopton there. This stroke, +which would most probably have given the victory to the king, was +prevented by the "Eastern Association," a union of Norfolk, Suffolk, +Essex, Cambridgeshire and Hertfordshire, constituted in December 1642 +and augmented in 1643 by Huntingdonshire and Lincolnshire, of which +Cromwell was the leading spirit. His zeal and energy met everywhere with +conspicuous success. In January 1643 he seized the royalist high sheriff +of Hertfordshire in the act of proclaiming the king's commission of +array at St Albans; in February he was at Cambridge taking measures for +the defence of the town; in March suppressing royalist risings at +Lowestoft and Lynn; in April those of Huntingdon, when he also +recaptured Crowland from the king's party. In May he defeated a greatly +superior royalist force at Grantham, proceeding afterwards to Nottingham +in accordance with Essex's plan of penetrating into Yorkshire to relieve +the Fairfaxes; where, however, difficulties, arising from jealousies +between the officers, and the treachery of John Hotham, whose arrest +Cromwell was instrumental in effecting, obliged him to retire again to +the association, leaving the Fairfaxes to be defeated at Adwalton Moor. +He showed extraordinary energy, resource and military talent in stemming +the advance of the royalists, who now followed up their victories by +advancing into the association; he defeated them at Gainsborough on the +28th of July, and managed a masterly retreat before overwhelming numbers +to Lincoln, while the victory on the 11th of October at Winceby finally +secured the association, and maintained the wedge which prevented the +junction of the royalists in the north with the king in the south. + + + Cromwell's soldiers. + +One great source of Cromwell's strength was the military reforms he had +initiated. At Edgehill he had observed the inferiority of the +parliamentary to the royalist horse, composed as it was of soldiers of +fortune and the dregs of the populace. "Do you think," he had said, +"that the spirits of such base, mean fellows will ever be able to +encounter gentlemen that have honour and courage and resolution in them? +You must get men of a spirit that is likely to go as far as gentlemen +will go or you will be beaten still." The royalists were fighting for a +great cause. To succeed the parliamentary soldiers must also be inspired +by some great principle, and this was now found in religion. Cromwell +chose his own troops, both officers and privates, from the "religious +men," who fought not for pay or for adventure, but for their faith. He +declared, when answering a complaint that a certain captain in his +regiment was a better preacher than fighter, that he who prayed best +would fight best, and that he knew nothing could "give the like courage +and confidence as the knowledge of God in Christ will." The superiority +of these men--more intelligent than the common soldiers, better +disciplined, better trained, better armed, excellent horsemen and +fighting for a great cause--not only over the other parliamentary troops +but over the royalists, was soon observed in battle. According to +Clarendon the latter, though frequently victorious in a charge, could +not rally afterwards, "whereas Cromwell's troops if they prevailed, or +though they were beaten and routed, presently rallied again and stood in +good order till they received new orders"; and the king's military +successes dwindled in proportion to the gradual preponderance of +Cromwell's troops in the parliamentary army. At first these picked men +only existed in Cromwell's own troop, which, however, by frequent +additions became the nucleus of a regiment, and by the time of the New +Model included about 11,000 men. + +In July 1643 Cromwell had been appointed governor of the Isle of Ely; on +the 22nd of January 1644 he became second in command under the earl of +Manchester as lieutenant-general of the Eastern Association, and on the +16th of February 1644 a member of the Committee of Both Kingdoms with +greatly increased influence. In March he took Hillesden House in +Buckinghamshire; in May was at the siege of Lincoln, when he repulsed +Goring's attempt to relieve the town, and subsequently took part in +Manchester's campaign in the north. At Marston Moor (q.v.) on the 2nd of +July he commanded all the horse of the Eastern Association, with some +Scottish troops; and though for a time disabled by a wound in the neck, +he charged and routed Rupert's troops opposed to him, and subsequently +went to the support of the Scots, who were hard pressed by the enemy, +and converted what appeared at one time a defeat into a decisive +victory. It was on this occasion that he earned the nickname of +"Ironsides," applied to him now by Prince Rupert, and afterwards to his +soldiers, "from the impenetrable strength of his troops which could by +no means be broken or divided." + +The movements of Manchester after Marston Moor were marked by great +apathy. He was one of the moderate party who desired an accommodation +with the king, and was opposed to Cromwell's sectaries. He remained at +Lincoln, did nothing to prevent the defeat of Essex's army in the west, +and when he at last advanced south to join Essex's and Waller's troops +his management of the army led to the failure of the attack upon the +king at Newbury on the 27th of October 1644. He delayed supporting the +infantry till too late, and was repulsed; he allowed the royal army to +march past his outposts; and a fortnight afterwards, without any attempt +to prevent it, and greatly to Cromwell's vexation, permitted the moving +of the king's artillery and the relief of Donnington Castle by Prince +Rupert. "If you beat the king ninety-nine times," Manchester urged at +Newbury, "yet he is king still and so will his posterity be after him; +but if the king beat us once we shall all be hanged and our posterity be +made slaves." "My lord," answered Cromwell, "if this be so, why did we +take up arms at first? This is against fighting ever hereafter. If so +let us make peace, be it ever so base." The contention brought to a +crisis the struggle between the moderate Presbyterians and the Scots on +the one side, who decided to maintain the monarchy and fought for an +accommodation and to establish Presbyterianism in England, and on the +other the republicans who would be satisfied with nothing less than the +complete overthrow of the king, and the Independents who regarded the +establishment of Presbyterianism as an evil almost as great as that of +the Church of England. On the 25th of November Cromwell charged +Manchester with "unwillingness to have the war prosecuted to a full +victory"; which Manchester answered by accusing Cromwell of having used +expressions against the nobility, the Scots and Presbyterianism; of +desiring to fill the army of the Eastern Association with Independents +to prevent any accommodation; and of having vowed if he met the king in +battle he would as lief fire his pistol at him as at anybody else. The +lords and the Scots vehemently took Manchester's part; but the Commons +eventually sided with Cromwell, appointed Sir Thomas Fairfax general of +the New Model Army, and passed two self-denying ordinances, the second +of which, ordering all members of both houses to lay down their +commissions within forty days, was accepted by the lords on the 3rd of +April 1645. + + + The battle of Naseby. + +Meanwhile Cromwell had been ordered on the 3rd of March by the House to +take his regiment to the assistance of Waller, under whom he served as +an admirable subordinate. "Although he was blunt," says Waller, "he did +not bear himself with pride or disdain. As an officer he was obedient +and did never dispute my orders or argue upon them." He returned on the +19th of April, and on the 23rd was sent to Oxfordshire to prevent a +junction between Charles and Prince Rupert, in which he succeeded after +some small engagements and the storming of Blechingdon House. His +services were felt to be too valuable to be lost, and on the 10th of May +his command was prolonged for forty days. On the 28th he was sent to Ely +for the defence of the eastern counties against the king's advance; and +on the 10th of June, upon Fairfax's petition, he was named by the +Commons lieutenant-general, joining Fairfax on the 13th with six hundred +horse. At the decisive battle of Naseby (the 14th of June 1645) he +commanded the parliamentary right wing and routed the cavalry of Sir +Marmaduke Langdale, subsequently falling upon and defeating the royalist +centre, and pursuing the fugitives as far as the outskirts of Leicester. +At Langport again, on the 10th of July 1645, his management of the +troops was largely instrumental in gaining the victory. As the king had +no longer a field army, the war after Naseby resolved itself into a +series of sieges which Charles had no means of raising. Cromwell was +present at the sieges of Bridgwater, Bath, Sherborne and Bristol; and +later, in command of four regiments of foot and three of horse, he was +employed in clearing Wiltshire and Hampshire of the royalist garrisons. +He took Devizes and Laycock House, Winchester and Basing House, and +rejoined Fairfax in October at Exeter, and accompanied him to Cornwall, +where he assisted in the defeat of Hopton's forces and in the +suppression of the royalists in the west. On the 9th of January 1646 he +surprised Lord Wentworth's brigade at Bovey Tracey, and was present with +Fairfax at the fall of Exeter on the 9th of April. He then went to +London to give an account of proceedings to the parliament, was thanked +for his services and rewarded with the estate of the marquess of +Worcester. He was present again with Fairfax at the capitulation of +Oxford on the 24th of June, which practically terminated the Civil War, +when he used his influence in favour of granting lenient terms. He then +removed with his family from Ely to Drury Lane, London, and about a year +later to King Street, Westminster. + +The war being now over, the great question of the establishment of +Presbyterianism or Independency had to be decided. Cromwell, without +naming himself an adherent of any denomination, fought vigorously for +Independency as a policy. In 1644 he had remonstrated at the removal by +Crawford of an anabaptist lieutenant-colonel. "The state," he said, "in +choosing men to serve it, takes no notice of their opinions. If they be +willing faithfully to serve it, that satisfies. Take heed of being sharp +... against those to whom you can object little but that they square not +with you in every opinion concerning matters of religion." He had +patronized Lilburne and welcomed all into his regiment, and the +Independents had spread from his troops throughout the whole army. But +while the sectarians were in a vast majority in the army, the parliament +was equally strong in Presbyterianism and opposed to toleration. The +proposed disbandment of the army in February 1647 would have placed the +soldiers entirely in the power of the parliament; while the negotiations +of the king, first with the Scots and then with the parliament, appeared +to hazard all the fruits of victory. The petition from the army to the +parliament for arrears of pay was suppressed and the petitioners +declared enemies of the state. In consequence the army organized a +systematic opposition, and elected representatives styled Agitators or +Agents to urge their claims. + + + Parliament and the army. + +Cromwell, though greatly disliking the policy of the Presbyterians, yet +gave little support at first to the army in resisting parliament. In May +1647 in company with Skippon, Ireton and Fleetwood, he visited the army, +inquired into and reported on the grievances, and endeavoured to +persuade them to submit to the parliament. "If that authority falls to +nothing," he said, "nothing can follow but confusion." The +Presbyterians, however, now engaged in a plan for restoring the king +under their own control, and by the means of a Scottish army, forced on +their policy, and on the 27th of May ordered the immediate disbandment +of the army, without any guarantee for the payment of arrears. A mutiny +was the consequence. The soldiers refused to disband, and on the 3rd of +June Cromwell, whom, it was believed, the parliament intended to arrest, +joined the army. "If he would not forthwith come and lead them," they +had told him, "they would go their own way without him." The supremacy +of the army without a guiding hand meant anarchy, that of the +Presbyterians the outbreak of another civil war. + +Possession of the king's person now became an important consideration. +On the 31st of May 1647 Cromwell had ordered Cornet Joyce to prevent the +king's removal by the parliament or the Scots from Holmby, and Joyce by +his own authority and with the king's consent brought him to Newmarket +to the headquarters of the army. Cromwell soon restored order, and the +representative council, including privates as well as officers chosen to +negotiate with the parliament, was subordinated to the council of war. +The army with Cromwell then advanced towards London. In a letter to the +city, possibly written by Cromwell himself, the officers repudiated any +wish to alter the civil government or upset the establishment of +Presbyterianism, but demanded religious toleration. Subsequently, in the +declaration of the 14th of June, arbitrary power either in the +parliament or in the king was denounced, and demand was made for a +representative parliament, the speedy termination of the actual +assembly, and the recognition of the right to petition. Cromwell used +his influence in restraining the more eager who wished to march on +London immediately, and in avoiding the use of force by which nothing +permanent could be effected, urging that "whatsoever we get by treaty +will be firm and durable. It will be conveyed over to posterity." The +army faction gradually gathered strength in the parliament. Eleven +Presbyterian leaders impeached by the army withdrew of their own accord +on the 26th of June, and the parliament finally yielded. Fairfax was +appointed sole commander-in-chief on the 19th of July, the soldiers +levied to oppose the army were dismissed, and the command of the city +militia was again restored to the committee approved by the army. These +votes, however, were cancelled later, on the 26th of July, under the +pressure of the royalist city mob which invaded the two Houses; but the +two speakers, with eight peers and fifty-seven members of the Commons, +themselves joined the army, which now advanced to London, overawing all +resistance, escorting the fugitive members in triumph to Westminster on +the 6th of August, and obliging the parliament on the 20th to cancel the +last votes, with the threat of a regiment of cavalry drawn up by +Cromwell in Hyde Park. + +Cromwell and the army now turned with hopes of a settlement to Charles. +On the 4th of July Cromwell had had an interview with the king at +Caversham. He was not insensible to Charles's good qualities, was +touched by the paternal affection he showed for his children, and is +said to have declared that Charles "was the uprightest and most +conscientious man of his three kingdoms." The _Heads of the Proposals_, +which, on Charles raising objections, had been modified by the influence +of Cromwell and Ireton, demanded the control of the militia and the +choice of ministers by parliament for ten years, a religious toleration, +and a council of state to which much of the royal control over the army +and foreign policy would be delegated. These proposals without doubt +largely diminished the royal power, and were rejected by Charles with +the hope of maintaining his sovereign rights by "playing a game," to use +his own words, i.e. by negotiating simultaneously with army and +parliament, by inflaming their jealousies and differences, and finally +by these means securing his restoration with his full prerogatives +unimpaired. On the 9th of September Charles refused once mere the +_Newcastle Propositions_ offered him by the parliament, and Cromwell, +together with Ireton and Vane, obtained the passing of a motion for a +new application; but the terms asked by the parliament were higher than +before and included a harsh condition--the exclusion from pardon of all +the king's leading adherents, besides the indefinite establishment of +Presbyterianism and the refusal of toleration to the Roman Catholics and +members of the Church of England. + +Meanwhile the failure to come to terms with Charles and provide a +settlement appeared to threaten a general anarchy. Cromwell's moderate +counsels created distrust in his good faith amongst the soldiers, who +accused him of "prostituting the liberties and persons of all the people +at the foot of the king's interest." The agitators demanded immediate +settlement by force by the army. The extreme republicans, anticipating +Rousseau, put forward the _Agreement of the People_. This was strongly +opposed by Cromwell, who declared the very consideration of it had +dangers, that it would bring upon the country "utter confusion" and +"make England like Switzerland." Universal suffrage he rejected as +tending "very much to anarchy," spoke against the hasty abolition of +either the monarchy or the Lords, and refused entirely to consider the +abstract principles brought into the debate. Political problems were not +to be so resolved, but practically. With Cromwell as with Burke the +question was "whether the spirit of the people of this nation is +prepared to go along with it." The special form of government was not +the important point, but its possibility and its acceptability. The +great problem was to found a stable government, an authority to keep +order. If every man should fight for the best form of government the +state would come to desolation. He reproached the soldiers for their +insubordination against their officers, and the army for its rebellion +against the parliament. He would lay hold of anything "if it had but the +force of authority," rather than have none. Cromwell's influence +prevailed and these extreme proposals were laid aside. + + + Flight of the king. + +Meanwhile all hopes of an accommodation with Charles were dispelled by +his flight on the 11th of November from Hampton Court to Carisbroke +Castle in the Isle of Wight, his object being to negotiate independently +with the Scots, the parliament and the army. His action, however, in the +event, diminished rather than increased his chances of success, owing to +the distrust of his intentions which it inspired. Both the army and the +parliament gave cold replies to his offers to negotiate; and Charles, on +the 27th of December 1647, entered into the _Engagement_ with the Scots +by which he promised the establishment of Presbyterianism for three +years, the suppression of the Independents and their sects, together +with privileges for the Scottish nobles, while the Scots undertook to +invade England and restore him to his throne. This alliance, though the +exact terms were not known to Cromwell--"the attempt to vassalize us to +a foreign nation," to use his own words--convinced him of the +uselessness of any plan for maintaining Charles on the throne; though he +still appears to have clung to monarchy, proposing in January 1648 the +transference of the crown to the prince of Wales. A week after the +signing of the treaty he supported a proposal for the king's deposition, +and the vote of _No Addresses_ was carried. Meanwhile the position of +Charles's opponents had been considerably strengthened by the +suppression of a dangerous rebellion in November 1647 by Cromwell's +intervention, and by the return of troops to obedience. Cromwell's +difficulties, however, were immense. His moderate and trimming attitude +was understood neither by the extreme Independents nor by the +Presbyterians. He made one attempt to reconcile the disputes between the +army and the politicians by a conference, but ended the barren +discussion on the relative merits of aristocracies, monarchies and +democracies, interspersed with Bible texts, by throwing a cushion at the +speaker's head and running downstairs. On the 19th of January 1648 +Cromwell was accused of high treason by Lilburne. Plots were formed for +his assassination. He was overtaken by a dangerous illness, and on the +2nd of March civil war in support of the king broke out. + +Cromwell left London in May to suppress the royalists in Wales, and took +Pembroke Castle on the 11th of July. Meanwhile behind his back the +royalists had risen all over England, the fleet in the Downs had +declared for Charles, and the Scottish army under Hamilton had invaded +the north. Immediately on the fall of Pembroke Cromwell set out to +relieve Lambert, who was slowly retreating before Hamilton's superior +forces; he joined him near Knaresborough on the 12th of August, and +started next day in pursuit of Hamilton in Lancashire, placing himself +at Stonyhurst near Preston, cutting off Hamilton from the north and his +allies, and defeating him in detail on the 17th, 18th and 19th at +Preston and at Warrington. He then marched north into Scotland, +following the forces of Monro, and established a new government of the +Argyle faction at Edinburgh; replying to the Independents who +disapproved of his mild treatment of the Presbyterians, that he desired +"union and right understanding between the godly people, Scots, English, +Jews, Gentiles, Presbyterians, Anabaptists and all; ... a more glorious +work in our eyes than if we had gotten the sacking and plunder of +Edinburgh ... and made a conquest from the Tweed to the Orcades." + + + Cromwell supports the Remonstrance. + +The incident of the Second Civil War and the treaty with the Scots +exasperated Cromwell against the king. On his return to London he found +the parliament again negotiating with Charles, and on the eve of making +a treaty which Charles himself had no intention of keeping and regarded +merely as a means of regaining his power, and which would have thrown +away in one moment all the advantages gained during years of bloodshed +and struggle. Cromwell therefore did not hesitate to join the army in +its opposition to the parliament, and supported the Remonstrance of the +troops (20th of November 1648), which included the demand for the king's +punishment as "the grand author of all our troubles," and justified the +use of force by the army if other means failed. The parliament, however, +continued to negotiate, and accordingly Charles was removed by the army +to Hurst Castle on the 1st of December, the troops occupied London on +the 2nd; while on the 6th and 7th Colonel Pride "purged" the House of +Commons of the Presbyterians. Cromwell was not the originator of this +act, but showed his approval of it by taking his seat among the fifty or +sixty Independent members who remained. + +The disposal of the king was now the great question to be decided. +During the next few weeks Cromwell appears to have made once more +attempts to come to terms with Charles; but the king was inflexible in +his refusal to part with the essential powers of the monarchy, or with +the Church; and at the end of December it was resolved to bring him to +trial. The exact share which Cromwell had in this decision and its +sequel is obscure, and the later accounts of the regicides when on their +trial at the Restoration, ascribing the whole transaction to his +initiation and agency, cannot be altogether accepted. But it is plain +that, once convinced of the necessity for the king's execution, he was +the chief instrument in overcoming all scruples among his judges, and in +resisting the protests and appeals of the Scots. To Algernon Sidney, who +refused to take part in proceedings on the plea that neither the king +nor any man could be tried by such a court, Cromwell replied, "I tell +you, we will cut off his head with the crown upon it." + + + The execution of Charles I. + +The execution of the king took place on the 30th of January 1649. This +event, the turning-point in Cromwell's career, casts a shadow, from one +point of view, over the whole of his future statesmanship. He himself +never repented of the act, regarding it, on the contrary, as "one which +Christians in after times will mention with honour and all tyrants in +the world look at with fear," and as one directly ordained by God. +Opinions, no doubt, will always differ as to the wisdom or authority of +the policy which brought Charles to the scaffold. On the one hand, there +was no law except that of force by which an offence could be attributed +to the sovereign, the anointed king, the source of justice. The +ordinance establishing the special tribunal for the trial was passed by +a remnant of the House of Commons alone, from which all dissentients +were excluded by the army. The tribunal was composed, not of judges--for +all unanimously refused to sit on it--but of fifty-two men drawn from +among the king's enemies. The execution was a military and not a +national act, and at the last scene on the scaffold the triumphant +shouts of the soldiery could not overwhelm the groans and sobs raised by +the populace. Whatever crimes might be charged against Charles, his past +conduct might appear to be condoned by the act of negotiating with him. +On the other hand, the execution seemed to Cromwell the only alternative +to anarchy, or to a return to despotism and the abandonment of all they +had fought for. Cromwell had exhausted every expedient for arriving at +an arrangement with the king by which the royal authority might be +preserved, and the repeated perfidy and inexhaustible shiftiness of +Charles had proved the hopelessness of such attempts. The results +produced by the king's execution were far-reaching and permanent. It is +true that Puritan austerity and the lack of any strong central authority +after Oliver's death produced a reaction which temporarily restored +Charles's dynasty to the throne; but it is not less true that the +execution of the king, at a later time when all over Europe absolute +monarchies "by divine right" were being established on the ruins of the +ancient popular constitutions, was an object lesson to all the world; +and it produced a profound effect, not only in establishing +constitutional monarchy in Great Britain after James II., with the dread +of his father's fate before him, had abdicated by flight, but in giving +the impulse to that revolt against the idea of "the divinity that doth +hedge a king" which culminated in the Revolution of 1789, and of which +the mighty effects are still evident in Europe and beyond. + + + Cromwell in Ireland. + +The king and the monarchy being now destroyed in England, Cromwell had +next to turn his attention to the suppression of royalism in Ireland and +in Scotland. In Ireland Ormonde had succeeded in uniting the English and +the Irish in a league against the supporters of the parliament, and only +a few scattered forts held out for the Commonwealth, while the young +king was every day expected to land and complete the conquest of the +island. Accordingly in March 1649 Cromwell was appointed lord-lieutenant +and commander-in-chief for its reduction. But before starting he was +called upon to suppress disorder at home. He treated the Levellers with +some severity and showed his instinctive dislike to revolutionary +proposals. "Did not that levelling principle," he said, "tend to the +reducing of all to an equality? What was the purport of it but to make +the tenant as liberal a fortune as the landlord, which I think if +obtained would not have lasted long." Equally characteristic was his +treatment of the mutinous army, in which he suppressed a rebellion in +May. He landed at Dublin on the 13th of August. Before his arrival the +Dublin garrison had defeated Ormonde with a loss of 5000 men, and +Cromwell's work was limited to the capture of detached fortresses. On +the 10th of September he stormed Drogheda, and by his order the whole of +its 2800 defenders were put to the sword without quarter. Cromwell, who +was as a rule especially scrupulous in protecting non-combatants from +violence, justified his severity in this case by the cruelties +perpetrated by the Irish in the rebellion of 1641, and as being +necessary on military and political grounds in that it "would tend to +prevent the effusion of blood for the future, which were the +satisfactory grounds of such actions which otherwise cannot but work +remorse and regret." After the fall of Drogheda Cromwell sent a few +troops to relieve Londonderry, and marched himself to Wexford, which he +took on the 11th of October, and where similar scenes of cruelty were +repeated; every captured priest, to use Cromwell's own words, being +immediately "knocked on the head," though the story of the three hundred +women slaughtered in the market-place has no foundation. + +The surrender of Trim, Dundalk and Ross followed, but at Waterford +Cromwell met with a stubborn resistance and the advent of winter obliged +him to raise the siege. Next year Cromwell penetrated into Munster. +Cashel, Cahir and several castles fell in February, and Kilkenny in +March; Clonmel repulsing the assault with great loss, but surrendering +on the 10th of May 1650. Cromwell himself sailed a fortnight later, +leaving the reduction of the island, which was completed in 1652, to +his generals. The re-settlement of the conquered and devastated country +was now organized on the Tudor and Straffordian basis of colonization +from England, conversion to Protestantism, and establishment of law and +order. Cromwell thoroughly approved of the enormous scheme of +confiscation and colonization, causing great privations and sufferings, +which was carried out. The Roman Catholic landowners lost their estates, +all or part according to their degree of guilt, and these were +distributed among Cromwell's soldiers and the creditors of the +government; Cromwell also invited new settlers from home and from New +England, two-thirds of the whole land of Ireland being thus transferred +to new proprietors. The suppression of Roman Catholicism was zealously +pursued by Cromwell; the priests were hunted down and imprisoned or +exiled to Spain or Barbados, the mass was everywhere forbidden, and the +only liberty allowed was that of conscience, the Romanist not being +obliged to attend Protestant services. + +These methods, together with education, "assiduous preaching ... +humanity, good life, equal and honest dealing with men of different +opinion," Cromwell thought, would convert the whole island to +Protestantism. The law was ably and justly administered, and Irish trade +was admitted to the same privileges as English, enjoying the same rights +in foreign and colonial trade; and no attempt was made to subordinate +the interests of the former to the latter, which was the policy adopted +both before and after Cromwell's time, while the union of Irish and +English interests was further recognized by the Irish representation at +Westminster in the parliaments of 1654, 1656 and 1659. These advantages, +however, scarcely benefited at all the Irish Roman Catholics, who were +excluded from political life and from the corporate towns; and +Cromwell's union meant little more than the union of the English colony +in Ireland with England. A just administration, too, did not compensate +for unjust laws or produce contentment; the policy of conversion and +colonization was unsuccessful, the descendants of many of Cromwell's +soldiers becoming merged in the Roman Catholic Irish, and the union with +England, political and commercial, being extinguished at the +Restoration. Cromwell's land settlement--modified by the restoration +under Charles II. of about one-third of the estates to the +royalists--survived, and added to the difficulties with which the +English government was afterwards confronted in Ireland. + + + The battles of Dunbar and Worcester. + +Meanwhile Cromwell had hurried home to deal with the royalists in +Scotland. He urged Fairfax to attack the Scots at once in their own +country and to forestall their invasion; but Fairfax refused and +resigned, and Cromwell was appointed by parliament, on the 26th of June +1650, commander-in-chief of all the forces of the Commonwealth. He +entered Scotland in July, and after a campaign in the neighbourhood of +Edinburgh which proved unsuccessful in drawing out the Scots from their +fortresses, he retreated to Dunbar to await reinforcements from Berwick. +The Scots under Leslie followed him, occupied Doon Hill commanding the +town, and seized the passes between Dunbar and Berwick which Cromwell +had omitted to secure. Cromwell was outmanoeuvred and in a perilous +situation, completely cut off from England and from his supplies except +from the sea. But Leslie descended the hill to complete his triumph, and +Cromwell immediately observed the disadvantages of his antagonist's new +position, cramped by the hill behind and separated from his left wing. A +stubborn struggle on the next day, the 3rd of September, gave Cromwell a +decisive victory. Advancing, he occupied Edinburgh and Leith. At first +it seemed likely that his victories and subsequent remonstrances would +effect a peace with the Scots; but by 1651 Charles II. had succeeded in +forming a new union of royalists and presbyterians, and another campaign +became inevitable. Some delay was caused in beginning operations by +Cromwell's dangerous illness, during which his life was despaired of; +but in June he was confronting Leslie entrenched in the hills near +Stirling, impregnable to attack and refusing an engagement. Cromwell +determined to turn his antagonist's position. He sent 14,000 men into +Fifeshire and marched to Perth, which he captured on the 2nd of August, +thus cutting off Leslie from the north and his supplies. This movement, +however, left open the way to England, and Charles immediately marched +south, in reality thus giving Cromwell the wished-for opportunity of +crushing the royalists finally and decisively. Cromwell followed through +Yorkshire, and uniting with Lambert and Harrison at Evesham proceeded to +attack the royalists at Worcester; where on the 3rd of September after a +fierce struggle the great victory, "the crowning mercy" which terminated +the Civil War, was obtained over Charles. + +Monk completed the subjugation of Scotland by 1654. The settlement here +was made on more moderate lines than in Ireland. The estates of only +twenty-four leaders of the defeated cause were forfeited by Cromwell, +and the national church was left untouched though deprived of all powers +of interference with the civil government, the general assembly being +dissolved in 1653. Large steps were made towards the union of the two +kingdoms by the representation of Scotland in the parliament at +Westminster; free trade between the two countries was established, the +administration of justice greatly improved, vassalage and heritable +jurisdictions abolished, and security and good order maintained by the +council of nine appointed by the Protector. In 1658 the improved +condition of Scotland was the subject of Cromwell's special +congratulation in addressing parliament. But as in Ireland so Cromwell's +policy in Scotland was unpopular and was only upheld by the maintenance +of a large army, necessitating heavy taxation and implying the loss of +the national independence. It also vanished at the Restoration. + +On the 12th of September 1651 Cromwell made his triumphal entry into +London at the conclusion of his victorious campaigns; and parliament +granted him Hampton Court as a residence with L4000 a year. These +triumphs, however, had all been obtained by force of arms; the more +difficult task now awaited Cromwell of governing England by parliament +and by law. As Milton wrote:-- + + "Cromwell! our chief of men, who through a cloud + Not of war only, but detractions rude, + Guided by faith and matchless fortitude, + To peace and truth thy glorious way hast ploughed, + ... Peace hath her victories + No less renowned than war." + + + Cromwell expels the Long Parliament. + +Cromwell's moderation and freedom from imperiousness were acknowledged +even by those least friendly to his principles. Although the idol of his +victorious army, and in a position enabling him to exercise autocratic +power, he laboured unostentatiously for more than a year and a half as a +member of the parliament, whose authority he supported to the best of +his ability. While occupied with work on committees and in +administration he pressed forward several schemes of reform, including a +large measure of law reform prepared by a commission presided over by +Matthew Hale, and the settlement of the church; but very little was +accomplished by the parliament, which seemed to be almost exclusively +taken up with the maintenance and increase of its own powers; and +Cromwell's dissatisfaction, and that of the army which increased every +day, was intensified by the knowledge that the parliament, instead of +dissolving for a new election, was seeking to perpetuate its tenure of +power. At length, in April 1653, a "bill for a new representation" was +discussed, which provided for the retention of their seats by the +existing members without re-election, so that they would also be the +sole judges of the eligibility of the rest. This measure, which placed +the whole powers of the state--executive, legislative, military and +judicial--in the hands of one irresponsible and permanent chamber, "the +horridest arbitrariness that ever was exercised in the world," Cromwell +and the army determined to resist at all costs. On the 15th of April +they proposed that the parliament should appoint a provisional +government and dissolve itself. This compromise was refused by the +parliament, which proceeded on the 20th to press through its last stages +the "bill for a new representation." Cromwell hastened to the House, and +at the last moment, on the bill being put to the vote, whispering to +Harrison, "This is the time; I must do it," he rose, and after alluding +to the former good services of the parliament, proceeded to overwhelm +the members with reproaches. Striding up and down the House in a +passion, he made no attempt to control himself, and turning towards +individuals as he hurled significant epithets at each, he called some +"whoremasters," others "drunkards, corrupt, unjust, scandalous to the +profession of the Gospel." "Perhaps you think," he exclaimed, "that this +is not parliamentary language; I confess it is not, neither are you to +expect any such from me." In reply to a complaint of his violence he +cried, "Come, come, I will put an end to your prating. You are no +parliament, I say you are no parliament. I will put an end to your +sitting." By his directions Harrison then fetched in a small band of +Cromwell's musketeers and compelled the speaker Lenthall to vacate the +chair. Looking at the mace he said, "What shall we do with this bauble?" +and ordered a soldier to take it away. The members then trooped out, +Cromwell crying after them, "It is you that have forced me to this; for +I have sought the Lord night and day that He would rather slay me than +put me upon the doing this work." He then snatched the obnoxious bill +from the clerk, put it under his cloak, and commanding the doors to be +locked went back to Whitehall. In the afternoon he dissolved the council +in spite of John Bradshaw's remonstrances, who said, "Sir, we have heard +what you did at the House this morning...; but you are mistaken to think +that the parliament is dissolved, for no power under heaven can dissolve +them but themselves; therefore take you notice of that." Cromwell had no +patience with formal pedantry of this sort; and in point of strict +legality "The Rump" of the Long Parliament had little better title to +authority than the officers who expelled it from the House. After this +Cromwell had nothing left but the army with which to govern, and +"henceforth his life was a vain attempt to clothe that force in +constitutional forms, and make it seem something else so that it might +become something else."[2] + +By the dissolution of the Long Parliament Cromwell as commander-in-chief +was left the sole authority in the state. He determined immediately to +summon another parliament. This was the "Little" or "Barebones +Parliament," consisting of one hundred and forty persons selected by the +council of officers from among those nominated by the congregations in +each county, which met on the 4th of July 1653. This assembly, however, +soon showed itself impracticable and incapable, and on the 12th of +December the speaker, followed by the more moderate members, marched to +Whitehall and returned their powers to Cromwell, while the rest were +expelled by the army. + +Cromwell, who had no desire to exercise arbitrary power and whose main +object therefore was to devise some constitutional limit to the +authority which circumstances had placed in his hands, now accepted the +written constitution drawn up by some of the officers, called the +_Instrument of Government_, the earliest example of a "fixed government" +based on "fundamentals," or constitutional guarantees, and the only +example of it in English history. Its authors had wished Oliver to +assume the title of king, but this he repeatedly refused; and in the +instrument he was named Protector, a parliament was established, limited +in powers but whose measures were not restricted by the Protector's veto +unless they contravened the constitution, the Protector's executive +power being also limited by the council. The Protector and the council +together were given a life tenure of office, with a large army and a +settled revenue sufficient for public needs in time of peace; while the +clauses relating to religion "are remarkable as laying down for the +first time with authority a principle of toleration,"[3] though this +toleration did not apply to Roman Catholics and Anglicans. On the 16th +of December 1653 Cromwell was installed in his new office, dressed as a +civilian in a plain black coat instead of in scarlet as a general, in +order to demonstrate that military government had given place to civil; +for he approached his task in the same spirit that had prompted his +declaration to the Little Parliament of his wish "to divest the sword of +all power in the Civil administration." + + + The government of the Protector. + +In the interval between his nomination as Protector and the summoning of +his first parliament in September 1654, Cromwell was empowered together +with his council to legislate by ordinances; and eighty-two were issued +in all, dealing with numerous and various reforms and including the +reorganization of the treasury, the settlement of Ireland and Scotland +and the union of the three kingdoms, the relief of poor prisoners, and +the maintenance of the highways. These ordinances in many instances +showed the hand of the true statesman. Cromwell was essentially a +conservative reformer; in his attempts to purge the court of chancery of +its most flagrant abuses, and to settle the ecclesiastical affairs of +the nation, he showed himself anxious to retain as much of the existing +system as could be left untouched without doing positive evil. He was +out-voted by his council on the question of commutation of tithes, and +his enlightened zeal for reforming the "wicked and abominable" sentences +of the criminal law met with complete failure. Most of these ordinances +were subsequently confirmed by parliament, and, "on the whole, this body +of dictatorial legislation, abnormal in form as it is, in substance was +a real, wise and moderate set of reforms."[4] His ordinances for the +"Reformation of Manners," the product of the puritan spirit, had but a +transitory effect. The Long Parliament had ordered a strict observance +of Sunday, punished swearing severely, and made adultery a capital +crime; Cromwell issued further ordinances against duelling, swearing, +race-meetings and cock-fights--the last as tending to the disturbance of +the public peace and the encouragement of "dissolute practices to the +dishonour of God." Cromwell himself was no ascetic and saw no harm in +honest sport. He was exceedingly fond of horses and hunting, leaping +ditches prudently avoided by the foreign ambassadors. Baxter describes +him as full of animal spirits, "naturally of such a vivacity, hilarity +and alacrity as another man is when he hath drunken a cup of wine too +much," and notes his "familiar rustic carriage with his soldiers in +sporting." He was fond of music and of art, and kept statues in Hampton +Court Gardens which scandalized good puritans. He preferred that +Englishmen should be free rather than sober by compulsion. Writing to +the Scottish clergy, and rejecting their claim to suppress dissent in +order to extirpate error, he said, "Your pretended fear lest error +should step in is like the man who would keep all wine out of the +country lest men should be drunk. It will be found an unjust and unwise +jealousy to deprive a man of his natural liberty upon a supposition he +may abuse it. When he doth abuse it, judge." It is probable that very +little of this moral legislation was enforced in practice, though +special efforts were made under the government of the major-generals. +Cromwell expected more results from the effects of education and +culture. A part of the revenue of confiscated church lands was allotted +to the maintenance of schools, and the question of national education +was seriously taken in hand by the Commonwealth. Cromwell was especially +interested in the universities. In 1649 he had been elected D.C.L. at +Oxford, and in 1651 chancellor of the University, an office which he +held till 1657, when he was succeeded by his son Richard. He founded a +new readership in Divinity, and presented Greek MSS. to the Bodleian. He +appointed visitors for the universities and great public schools, and +defended the universities from the attacks of the extreme sectaries who +clamoured for their abolition, even Clarendon allowing that Oxford +"yielded a harvest of extraordinary good and sound knowledge in all +parts of learning." In 1657 he founded a new university at Durham, which +was suppressed at the Restoration. He patronized learning. Milton and +Marvell were his secretaries. He allowed the royalists Hobbes and Cowley +to return to England, and lived in friendship with the poet Waller. + + + Cromwell's church policy. + +Cromwell's religious policy included the maintenance of a national +church, a policy acceptable to the army but much disliked by the Scots, +who wanted the church to control the state, not the state the church. He +improved the incomes of poor livings by revenues derived from episcopal +estates and the fines of delinquents. An important feature of his church +government was the appointment on the 20th of March 1654 of the +"Triers," thirty-eight clerical and lay commissioners, who decided upon +the qualifications of candidates for livings, and without whose +recommendation none could be appointed; while an ordinance of August +1654 provided for the removal of the unfit, the latter class including +besides immoral persons those holding "popish" or blasphemous opinions, +those publicly using the English Prayer Book, and the disaffected to the +government. Religious toleration was granted, but with the important +exception that some harsh measures were enacted against Anglicans and +Roman Catholics, to neither of whom was liberty of worship accorded. The +acts imposing fines for recusancy, repealed in 1650, were later executed +with great severity. In 1655 a proclamation was issued for administering +the laws against the priests and Jesuits, and some executions were +carried out. Complete toleration in fact was only extended to Protestant +nonconformists, who composed the Cromwellian established church, and who +now meted out to their antagonists the same treatment which they +themselves were later to receive under the _Clarendon Code_ of Charles +II. + + + His religious toleration. + +Cromwell himself, however, remained throughout a staunch and constant +upholder of religious toleration. "I had rather that Mahommedanism were +permitted amongst us," he avowed, "than that one of God's children +should be persecuted." Far in advance of his contemporaries on this +question, whenever his personal action is disclosed it is invariably on +the side of forbearance and of moderation. It is probable, from the +absence of evidence to the contrary, that much of this severe +legislation was never executed, and it was without doubt Cromwell's +restraining hand which moderated the narrow persecuting spirit of the +executive. In practice Anglican private worship appears to have been +little interfered with; and although the recusant fines were rigorously +exacted, the same seems to have been the case with the private +celebration of the mass. Bordeaux, the French envoy in England, wrote +that, in spite of the severe laws, the Romanists received better +treatment under the Protectorate than under any other government. +Cromwell's strong personal inclination towards toleration is clearly +seen in his treatment of the Jews and Quakers. He was unable, owing to +the opposition of the divines and of the merchants, to secure the full +recognition of the right to reside in England of the former who had for +some time lived in small numbers and traded unnoticed and untroubled in +the country; but he obtained an opinion from two judges that there was +no law which forbade their return, and he gave them a private assurance +of his protection, with leave to celebrate their private worship and to +possess a cemetery. + +Cromwell's policy in this instance was not overturned at the +Restoration, and the great Jewish immigration into England with all its +important consequences may be held to date practically from these first +concessions made by Cromwell. His personal intervention also alleviated +the condition of the Quakers, much persecuted at this time. In an +interview in 1654 the sincerity and enthusiasm of George Fox had greatly +moved Cromwell and had convinced him of their freedom from dangerous +political schemes. He ordered Fox's liberation, and in November 1657 +issued a general order directing that Quakers should be treated with +leniency, and be discharged from confinement. Doctrines directly +attacking Christianity Cromwell regarded, indeed, as outside toleration +and to be punished by the civil power, but at the same time he mitigated +the severity of the penalty ordained by the law. In general the +toleration enjoyed under Cromwell was probably far larger than at any +period since religion became the contending ground of political parties, +and certainly greater than under his immediate successors. Lilburne and +the anabaptists, and John Rogers and the Fifth Monarchy men, were +prosecuted only on account of their direct attacks upon the government, +and Cromwell in his broad-minded and tolerant statesmanship was himself +in advance of his age and his administration. He believed in the +spiritual and unseen rather than in the outward and visible unity of +Christendom. + + + Foreign policy. + +In foreign policy Cromwell's chief aims appear to have been to support +and extend the Protestant faith, to promote English trade, and to +prevent a Stuart restoration by foreign aid--the religious mission of +England in the world, her commercial interests, and her political +independence being indissolubly connected in his mind. The beginning of +his rule inherited a war with France and Holland; the former consequent +on Cromwell's failure to obtain terms for the Huguenots or the cession +of Dunkirk, and the latter--for which he was not responsible--the result +of commercial rivalry, of disputes concerning the rights of neutrals, of +bitter memories of Dutch misdeeds in the East Indies, and of dynastic +causes arising from the stadtholder, William II. of Orange, having +married Mary, daughter of Charles I. In 1651 the Dutch completed a +treaty with Denmark to injure English trade in the Baltic; to which +England replied the same year by the Navigation Act, which suppressed +the Dutch trade with the English colonies and the Dutch fish trade with +England, and struck at the Dutch carrying trade. War was declared in May +1652 after a fight between Blake and Tromp off Dover, and was continued +with signal victories and defeats on both sides till 1654. The religious +element, however, which predominated in Cromwell's foreign policy +inclined him to peace, and in April of that year terms were arranged by +which England on the whole was decidedly the gainer. The Dutch +acknowledged the supremacy of the English flag in the British seas, +which Tromp had before refused; they accepted the Navigation Act, and +undertook privately to exclude the princes of Orange from the command of +their forces. The Protestant policy was further followed up by treaties +with Sweden and Denmark which secured the passage of the Sound for +English ships on the same conditions as the Dutch, and a treaty with +Portugal which liberated English subjects from the Inquisition and +allowed commerce with the Portuguese colonies. The two great Roman +Catholic powers now both bid for Cromwell's alliance. Cromwell wisely +inclined towards France, for Spain was then a greater menace than France +alike to the Protestant cause and to the growth of British trade in the +western hemisphere; but as no concessions could be gained from either +France or Spain, the year 1654 closed without a treaty being made with +either. In December 1654 Penn and Venables sailed for the West Indies +with orders to attack the Spanish colonies and the French shipping; and +for the first time since the Plantagenets an English fleet appeared in +the Mediterranean, where Blake upheld the supremacy of the English flag, +made a treaty with the dey of Algiers, destroyed the castles and ships +of the dey of Tunis at Porto Farina on the 4th of April 1655, and +liberated the English prisoners captured by the pirates. + +The incident of the massacre of the Protestant Vaudois at this time +decided Cromwell's policy in favour of France. In response to Cromwell's +splendid championship of the persecuted people--which has been well +described as "one of the noblest memories of England"--France undertook +to put pressure upon Savoy, in consequence of which the persecution +ceased for a time; but Cromwell's intervention had less practical effect +than has generally been supposed, though "never was the great conception +of a powerful state having duties along with interests more +magnanimously realized."[5] The treaty of Pinerolo withdrew the edict +ordering the persecutions, but they were soon afterwards renewed, and in +1658 formed the subject of another remonstrance by Cromwell to Louis +XIV. in his last extant public letter before his death. The treaty of +Westminster (24th of October 1655) dealt chiefly with commercial +subjects, and contained a clause promising the expulsion from France of +political exiles. Meanwhile the West Indian expedition had been defeated +at Hispaniola, and war was declared by Spain, who now promised help to +Charles II. for regaining his throne. Cromwell sent powerful English +fleets to watch the coast of Spain and to prevent communications with +the West Indies and America; on the 8th of September 1656 a fleet of +treasure ships was destroyed off Cadiz by Stayner, and on the 20th of +April 1657 Blake performed his last exploit in the destruction of the +whole Spanish fleet of sixteen treasure ships in the harbour of Santa +Cruz in Teneriffe. These naval victories were followed by a further +military alliance with France against Spain, termed the treaty of Paris +(the 23rd of March 1657). Cromwell furnished 6000 men with a fleet to +join in the attack upon Spain in Flanders, and obtained as reward +Mardyke and Dunkirk, the former being captured and handed over on the +3rd of October 1657, and the latter after the battle of the Dunes on the +4th of June 1658, when Cromwell's Ironsides were once more pitted +against English royalists fighting for the Spaniards. + +Such was the character of Cromwell's policy abroad. The inspiring +principle had been the defence and support of Protestantism, the +question with Cromwell being "whether the Christian world should be all +popery." He desired England to be everywhere the protector of the +oppressed and the upholder of "true religion." His policy was in +principle the policy of Elizabeth, of Gustavus Adolphus, and--in the +following generation--of William of Orange. He appreciated, without +over-estimating, the value of England's insular position. "You have +accounted yourselves happy," he said in January 1658, "in being +environed by a great ditch from all the world beside. Truly you will not +be able to keep your ditch nor your shipping unless you turn your ships +and shipping into troops of horse and companies of foot, and fight to +defend yourselves on _terra firma_." He did not regard himself merely as +the trustee of the national resources. These were not to be employed for +the advancement of English interests alone. "God's interest in the +world," he declared, "is more extensive than all the people of these +three nations. God has brought us hither to consider the work we may do +in the world as well as at home." In 1653 he had made the astonishing +proposal to the Dutch that England and Holland should divide the +habitable globe outside Europe between them, that all states maintaining +the Inquisition should be treated as enemies by both the proposed +allies, and that the latter "should send missionaries to all peoples +willing to receive them, to inculcate the truth of Jesus Christ and the +Holy Gospel." Great writers like Milton and Harrington supported +Cromwell's view of the duty of a statesman; the poet Waller acclaimed +Cromwell as "the world's protector"; but the London tradesmen complained +of the loss of their Spanish trade and regarded Holland and not Spain as +the national enemy. But Cromwell's dream of putting himself at the head +of European Protestantism never even approached realization. War broke +out between the Protestant states of Sweden, Denmark, Holland and +Brandenburg, with whom religion was entirely subordinated to individual +aims and interests, and who were far from rising to Cromwell's great +conceptions; while the Vaudois were soon subjected to fresh +persecutions. On the other hand, Cromwell could justly boast "there is +not a nation in Europe but is very willing to ask a good understanding +with you." He raised England to a predominant position among the Powers +of Europe, and anticipated the triumphs of the elder Pitt. "It was hard +to discover," wrote Clarendon, "which feared him most, France, Spain or +the Low Countries." The vigour and success with which he organized the +national resources and upheld the national honour, asserted the British +sovereignty of the seas, defended the oppressed, and caused his name to +be feared and respected in foreign courts where that of Stuart was +despised and neglected, command praise and admiration equally from +contemporaries and from modern critics, from his friends and from his +opponents. "He once more joined us to the continent," wrote Marvell, +while Dryden describes him as teaching the British lion to roar. +"Cromwell's greatness at home," said Clarendon, "was a mere shadow of +his greatness abroad." "It is strange," wrote Pepys in 1667 under a +different regime, "how everybody nowadays reflect upon Oliver and +commend him, what brave things he did, and made all the neighbour +princes fear him." To Cromwell more than to any other British ruler +belongs the credit of having laid the foundation of England's maritime +supremacy and of her over-sea empire. + + + Cromwell and the empire. + +Cromwell's colonial policy aimed definitely at the recognition and +extension of the British empire. By March 1652 the whole of the +territory governed by the Stuarts had submitted to the authority of the +Commonwealth, and the Navigation Act of the 9th of October 1651, by +which colonial goods could only be imported to England in British ships +and all foreign trade to the colonies was restricted to products of the +exporting country, sought to bind the colonies to England and to support +the interests of the shipowners and merchants, and therefore of the +English maritime supremacy, the act being, moreover, memorable as the +first public measure which treated the colonies as a whole and as an +integral part of Great Britain. The hindrance, however, to the general +development of trade which the act involved aroused at once loud +complaints, to which Cromwell turned a deaf ear, continuing to seize +Dutch ships trading in forbidden goods. In the internal administration +of the colonies Cromwell interfered very little, maintaining specially +friendly relations with the New Englanders, and showing no jealousy of +their desire for self-government. The war with France, Holland and Spain +offered opportunities of gaining additional territory. A small +expedition sent by Cromwell in February 1654 to capture New Amsterdam +(New York) from the Dutch was abandoned on the conclusion of peace, and +the fleet turned to attack the French colonies; Major Robert Sedgwick +taking with a handful of men the fort of St John's, Port Royal or +Annapolis, and the French fort on the river Penobscot, the whole +territory from this river to the mouth of the St Lawrence remaining +British territory till its cession in 1667. In December 1654 Cromwell +despatched Penn and Venables with a fleet of thirty-eight ships and 2500 +soldiers to the West Indies, their numbers being raised by recruits at +the islands to 7000 men. The attack on Hispaniola, however, was a +disastrous failure, and though a landing at Jamaica and the capture of +the capital, Santiago de la Vega, was effected, the expedition was +almost annihilated by disease; and Penn and Venables returned to +England, when Cromwell threw them into the Tower. Cromwell, however, +persevered, reminding Fortescue, who was left in command, that the war +was one against the "Roman Babylon," that they were "fighting the Lord's +battles"; and he sent out reinforcements under Sedgwick, offering +inducements to the New Englanders to migrate to Jamaica. In spite of +almost insuperable difficulties the colony took root, trade began, the +fleet lay in wait for the Spanish treasure ships, the settlements of the +Spaniards were raided, and their repeated attempts to retake the island +were successfully resisted. In 1658 Colonel Edward Doyley, the governor, +gained a decisive victory over thirty companies of Spanish foot, and +sent ten of their flags to Cromwell. The Protector, however, did not +live to witness the final triumph of his undertaking, which gave to +England, as he had wished, "the mastery of those seas," ensuring the +English colonies against Spanish attacks, and being maintained and +followed up at the Restoration. + + + Parliamentary difficulties. + + The major-generals. + +Meanwhile, the first parliament of the Protectorate had met in September +1654. A scheme of electoral reform had been carried by which members +were taken from the small and corrupt boroughs and given to the large +hitherto unrepresented towns, and which provided for thirty +representatives from Scotland and from Ireland. Instead, however, of +proceeding with the work of practical legislation, accepting the +Instrument of Government without challenge as the basis of its +authority, the parliament immediately began to discuss and find fault +with the constitution and to debate about "Fundamentals." About a +hundred members who refused to engage not to attempt to change the form +of government were excluded on the 12th of September. The rest sat on, +discussing the constitution, drawing up lists of damnable heresies and +of incontrovertible articles of faith, producing plans for the reduction +of the army and demanding for themselves its control. Incensed by the +dilatory and factious proceedings of the House, Cromwell dismissed the +parliament on the 22nd of January 1655. Various dangerous plots against +his government and person were at this time rife. Vane, Ludlow, Robert +Overton, Harrison and Major Wildman, the head of the Levellers, were all +arrested, while the royalist rising under Penruddock was crushed in +Devonshire. Other attacks upon his authority were met with the same +resort to force. The judges and lawyers began to question the legality +of his ordinances, and to doubt their competency to convict royalist +prisoners of treason. A merchant named Cony refused to pay customs not +imposed by parliament, his counsel declaring their levy by ordinance to +be contrary to Magna Carta, and Chief Justice Rolle resigning in order +to avoid giving judgment. Cromwell was thus inevitably drawn farther +along the path of arbitrary government. He arrested the persons who +refused to pay taxes, and sent Cony's lawyers to the Tower. Hitherto he +had been scrupulously impartial in raising the best men to the judicial +bench, including the illustrious Matthew Hale, but he now appointed +compliant judges, and, alluding to Magna Carta in terms impossible to +transcribe for modern readers, declared that "it should not control his +actions which he knew were for the safety of the Commonwealth." The +country was now divided into twelve districts each governed by a +major-general, to whom was entrusted the duty of maintaining order, +stamping out disaffection and plots, and executing the laws relating to +public morals. They had power to transport royalists and those who could +not produce good characters, and supported themselves by a special tax +of 10% on the incomes of the royalist gentry. Enormous numbers of +ale-houses were closed--a proceeding which excited intense resentment +and was probably no slight cause of the royalist reaction. Still more +serious an encroachment upon the constitution perhaps even than the +institution of the major-generals was Cromwell's tampering with the +municipal franchise by confiscating the charters, depriving the +burgesses, now hostile to his government, of their parliamentary votes, +and limiting the franchise to the corporation; thereby corrupting the +national liberties at their very source, and introducing an evil +precedent only too readily followed by Charles II. and James II. + + + Refusal of the crown. + +It was in these embarrassed and perilous circumstances that Cromwell +summoned a new parliament in the summer of 1656. In spite of the +influence and interference of the major-generals a large number of +members hostile to the government were returned, of whom Cromwell's +council immediately excluded nearly a hundred. The major-generals were +the object of general attack, while the special tax on the royalists was +declared unjust, and the bill for its continuation rejected by a large +majority. An attempt at the assassination of Cromwell by Miles +Sindercombe added to the general feeling of anxiety and unrest. The +military rule excited universal hostility; there was an earnest desire +for a settled and constitutional government, and the revival of the +monarchy in the person of Cromwell appeared the only way of obtaining +it. On the 23rd of February 1657 the _Remonstrance_ offering Cromwell +the crown was moved by Sir Christopher Packe in the parliament and +violently resisted by the officers and the army party, one hundred +officers waiting upon Cromwell on the 27th to petition against his +acceptance of it. On the 25th of March the _Remonstrance_, now termed +the _Petition and Advice_, and including a new scheme of government, was +passed by a majority of 123 to 62 in spite of the opposition of the +officers; and on the 31st it was presented to Cromwell in the Banqueting +House at Whitehall whence Charles I. had stepped out on to the scaffold. +Cromwell replied by requesting a brief delay to ask counsel of God and +his own heart. On the 8th of May about thirty officers presented a +petition to parliament against the revival of the monarchy, and +Fleetwood, Desborough and Lambert threatened to lay down their +commissions. Accordingly Cromwell the same day refused the crown +definitely, greatly to the astonishment both of his followers and his +enemies, who considered his decision a fatal neglect of an opportunity +of consolidating his rule and power. In particular, his acceptance of +the crown would have guaranteed his followers, under the act of Henry +VII., from liability in the future to the charge of high treason for +having given allegiance to himself as a _de facto_ king. Cromwell +himself, however, seems to have regarded the question of title as of +secondary importance, as merely (to use his own words) "a feather in the +hat," "a shining bauble for crowds to gaze at or kneel to." "Your +father," wrote Sir Francis Russell to Henry Cromwell, "hath of late made +more wise men fools than ever; he laughs and is merry, but they hang +down their heads and are pitifully out of countenance." + +On the 25th of May the petition was presented to Cromwell again, with +the title of Protector substituted for that of King, and he now accepted +it. On the 26th of June 1657 he was once more installed as Protector, +this time, however, with regal ceremony in contrast with the simple +formalities observed on the first occasion, the heralds proclaiming his +accession in the same manner as that of the kings. Cromwell's government +seemed now established on the firmer footing of law and national +approval, he himself obtaining the powers though not the title of a +constitutional monarch, with a permanent revenue of L1,300,000 for the +ordinary expenses of the administration, the command of the forces, the +right to nominate his successor and, subject to the approval of +parliament, the members of the council and of the new second chamber now +established, while at the same time the freedom of parliament was +guaranteed in its elections. Difficulties, however, appeared immediately +the parliament got to work. The republicans hostile to the Protectorate, +excluded before, now returned, took the places vacated by strong +supporters of Cromwell who had been removed to the Lords, and attacked +the authority of the new chamber, opened communications with the +disaffected in the city and army, protested against unparliamentary +taxation and arbitrary imprisonment, and demanded again the supremacy of +parliament. In consequence Cromwell summoned both Houses to his presence +on the 4th of February 1658, and having pointed out the perils to which +they were once more exposing the state, dissolved parliament, dismissing +the members with the words, "let God be judge between me and you." + +During the period following the dissolution Cromwell's power appeared +outwardly at least to be at its height. The revolts of royalists and +sectaries against his government had been easily suppressed, and the +various attempts to assassinate him, contemptuously referred to by +Cromwell as "little fiddling things," were anticipated and prevented by +an excellent system of police and spies, and by his bodyguard of 160 +men. The victory at Dunkirk increased his reputation, while Louis XIV. +showed his respect for the ruler of England by the splendid reception +given to the Protector's envoy, Lord Fauconberg, and by a complimentary +mission despatched to England. + +The great career, the incidents of which we have been following, was +now, however, drawing to a close. Cromwell's health had long been +impaired by the hardships of campaigning. Now at the age of 58 he was +already old, and his firm, strong signature had become feeble and +trembling. The responsibilities and anxieties of government unassisted +by parliament, and the continued struggle against the force of anarchy, +weighed upon him and exhausted his physical powers. "It has been +hitherto," Cromwell said, "a matter of, I think, but philosophical +discourse, that a great place, a great authority, is a great burthen. I +know it is." "I can say in the presence of God, in comparison of whom we +are but like poor creeping ants upon the earth, I would have lived under +my woodside to have kept a flock of sheep rather than undertook such a +government as this." "I doubt not to say," declared his steward +Maidston, "it drank up his spirits, of which his natural constitution +afforded a vast stock, and brought him to his grave." + + + Death. + +Domestic bereavements added further causes of grief and of weakened +vitality. On the 6th of February 1658 he lost his favourite daughter, +Elizabeth Claypole, and he was much cast down by the shock of his +bereavement and of her long sufferings. Shortly afterwards he fell ill +of an intermittent fever, but seemed to recover. On the 20th of August +George Fox met him riding at the head of his guards in the park at +Hampton Court, but declared "he looked like a dead man." The next day he +again fell ill and was removed from Hampton Court to Whitehall, where +his condition became worse. The anecdotes believed and circulated by the +royalists that Cromwell died in all the agonies of remorse and fear are +entirely false. On the 31st of August he seemed to rally, and one who +slept in his bedchamber and who heard him praying, declared, "a public +spirit to God's cause did breathe in him to the very last." During the +next few days he grew weaker and resigned himself to death. "I would," +he said, "be willing to be further serviceable to God and his people, +but my work is done." For the first time doubts as to his spiritual +state seemed to have troubled him. "Tell me is it possible to fall from +grace?" he asked the attendant minister. "No, it is not possible," the +latter replied. "Then," said Cromwell, "I am safe, for I know that I was +once in grace." He refused medicine to induce sleep, declaring "it is +not my design to drink or to sleep, but my design is to make what haste +I can to be gone." Towards the morning of the 3rd of September he again +spoke, "using divers holy expressions, implying much inward consolation +and peace," together with "some exceeding self-debasing words, +annihilating and judging himself." He died on the afternoon of the same +day, his day of triumph, the anniversary both of Dunbar and of +Worcester. His body was privately buried in the chapel of Henry VII. in +Westminster Abbey, the public funeral taking place on the 23rd of +November, with great ceremony and on the same scale as that of Philip +II. of Spain, and costing the enormous sum of L60,000. At the +Restoration his body was exhumed, and on the 30th of January 1661, the +anniversary of the execution of Charles I., it was drawn on a sledge +from Holborn to Tyburn, together with the bodies of Ireton and Bradshaw, +accompanied by "the universal outcry and curses of the people." There it +was hanged on a gallows, and in the evening taken down, when the head +was cut off and set up upon Westminster Hall, where it remained till as +late as 1684, the trunk being thrown into a pit underneath the gallows. +According to various legends Cromwell's last burial place is stated to +be Westminster Abbey, Naseby Field or Newburgh Abbey; but there appears +to be no evidence to support them, or to create any reasonable doubt +that the great Protector's dust lies now where it was buried, in the +neighbourhood of the present Connaught Square. + + + Cromwell's military genius. + +As a military commander Cromwell was as prompt as Gustavus, as ardent as +Conde, as exact as Turenne. These, moreover, were soldiers from their +earliest years. Conde's fame was established in his twenty-second year, +Gustavus was twenty-seven and Turenne thirty-three at the beginning of +their careers as commanders-in-chief. Cromwell, on the other hand, was +forty-three when he fought in his first battle. In less than two years +he had taken his rank as one of the great cavalry leaders of history. +His campaigns of 1648 and 1651 placed him still higher as a great +commander. Worcester, his crowning victory, has been indicated by a +German critic as the prototype of Sedan. Yet his early military +education could have consisted at most of the perusal of the _Swedish +Intelligencer_ and the practice of riding. It is not, therefore, strange +that Cromwell's first essays in war were characterised more by energy +than technical skill. It was some time before he realized the spirit of +cavalry tactics, of which he was later so complete a master. At first he +speaks with complacence of a _melee_, and reports that he and his men +"agreed to charge" the enemy. But before long he came to understand, as +no other commander of the age save Gustavus understood it, the value of +true "shock-action." Of Marston Moor he writes, "we never charged but we +routed them"; and thereafter his battles were decided by the shock of +closed squadrons, the fresh impulse of a second and even a third line, +and above all by the unquestioning discipline and complete control over +their horses to which he trained his men. This gave them not merely +greater steadiness, but, what was far more important, the power of +rallying and reforming for a second effort. The Royalist cavalry was +disorganized by victory as often as by defeat, and illustrated on +numerous fields the now discredited maxim that cavalry cannot charge +twice in one day. Cromwell shares with Frederick the Great the credit of +founding the modern cavalry spirit. As a horsemaster he was far superior +to Murat. His marches in the eastern campaign of 1643 show a daily +average at one time of 28 m. as against the 21 of Murat's cavalry in the +celebrated pursuit after Jena. And this result he achieved with men of +less than two years' service, men, too, more heavily equipped and worse +mounted than the veterans of the _Grande Armee_. It has been said that +his battles were decided by shock action; the real emphasis should be +laid upon the word "decided." The swift, unhesitating charge was more +than unusual in the wars of the time, and was possible only because of +the peculiar earnestness of the men who fought the English war. The +professional soldiers of the Continent could rarely be brought to force +a decision; but the English, contending for a cause, were imbued with +the spirit of the modern "nation in arms"; and having taken up arms +wished to decide the quarrel by arms. This feeling was not less +conspicuous in the far-ranging rides, or raids, of the Cromwellian +cavalry. At one time, as in the case of Blechingdon, they would perform +strange exploits worthy of the most daring hussars; at another their +speed and tenacity paralyses armies. Not even Sheridan's horsemen in +1864-65 did their work more effectively than did the English squadrons +in the Preston campaign. Cromwell appreciated this feeling at its exact +worth, and his pre-eminence in the Civil War was due to this highest +gift of a general, the power of feeling the pulse of his army. +Resolution, vigour and clear sight marked his conduct as a +commander-in-chief. He aimed at nothing less than the annihilation of +the enemy's forces, which Clausewitz was the first to define, a hundred +and fifty years later, as the true objective of military operations. Not +merely as exemplifying the tactical envelopment, but also as embodying +the central idea of grand strategy, was Worcester the prototype of +Sedan. The contrast between a campaign of Cromwell's and one of +Turenne's is far more than remarkable, and the observation of a military +critic who maintains that Cromwell's art of war was two centuries in +advance of its time, finds universal acceptance. + +At a time when throughout the rest of Europe armies were manoeuvring +against one another with no more than a formal result, the English and +Scots were fighting decisive battles; and Cromwell's battles were more +decisive than those of any other leader. Until his fiery energy made +itself felt, hardly any army on either side actually suffered rout; but +at Marston Moor and Naseby the troops of the defeated party were +completely dissolved, while at Worcester the royalist army was +annihilated. Dunbar attested his constancy and gave proof that Cromwell +was a master of the tactics of all arms. Preston was an example like +Austerlitz of the two stages of a battle as defined by Napoleon, the +first _flottante_, the second _foudroyante_. + +Cromwell's strategic manoeuvres, if less adroit than those of Turenne or +Montecucculi, were, in accordance with his own genius and the temper of +his army, directed always to forcing a decisive battle. That he was also +capable of strategy of the other type was clear from his conduct of the +Irish War. But his chief work was of a different kind and done on a +different scale. The greatest feat of Turenne was the rescue of one +province in 1674-1675; Cromwell, in 1648 and again in 1651, had +two-thirds of England and half of Scotland for his theatre of war. +Turenne levelled down his methods to suit the ends which he had in view. +The task of Cromwell was far greater. Any comparison between the +generalship of these two great commanders would therefore be misleading, +for want of a common basis. It is when he is contrasted with other +commanders, not of the age of Louis XIV., but of the Civil War, that +Cromwell's greatness is most conspicuous. Whilst others busied +themselves with the application of the accepted rules of the Dutch, the +German, and other formal schools of tactical thought, Cromwell almost +alone saw clearly into the heart of the questions at issue, and evolved +the strategy, the tactics, and the training suited to the work to which +he had set his hand. + + + Cromwell's statesmanship. + +Cromwell's career as a statesman has been already traced in its +different spheres, and an endeavour has been made to show the breadth +and wisdom of his conceptions and at the same time the cause of the +immediate failure of his constructive policy. Whether if Cromwell had +survived he would have succeeded in gradually establishing legal +government is a question which can never be answered. His administration +as it stands in history is undoubtedly open to the charge that after +abolishing the absolutism of the ancient monarchy he substituted for it, +not law and liberty, but a military tyranny far more despotic than the +most arbitrary administration of Charles I. The statement of Vane and +Ludlow, when they refused to acknowledge Cromwell's government, that it +was "in substance a re-establishment of that which we all engaged +against," was true. The levy of ship money and customs by Charles sinks +into insignificance beside Cromwell's wholesale taxation by ordinances; +the inquisitional methods of the major-generals and the unjust and +exceptional taxation of royalists outdid the scandals of the extra-legal +courts of the Stuarts; the shipment of British subjects by Cromwell as +slaves to Barbados has no parallel in the Stuart administration; while +the prying into morals, the encouragement of informers, the attempt to +make the people religious by force, were the counterpart of the Laudian +system, and Cromwell's drastic treatment of the Irish exceeded anything +dreamed of by Strafford. He discovered that parliamentary government +after all was not the easy and plain task that Pym and Vane had +imagined, and Cromwell had in the end no better justification of his +rule than that which Strafford had suggested to Charles I.,--"parliament +refusing (to give support and co-operation in carrying on the +government) you are acquitted before God and man." The fault was no +doubt partly Cromwell's own. He had neither the patience nor the tact +for managing loquacious parliamentary pedants. But the chief +responsibility was not his but theirs. John Morley (_Oliver Cromwell_, +p. 297) has truly observed of the execution of Charles I., that it was +"an act of war, and was just as defensible or just as assailable, and on +the same grounds, as the war itself." The parliamentary party took leave +of legality when they took up arms against the sovereign, and it was +therefore idle to dream of a formally legal sanction for any of their +subsequent revolutionary proceedings. An entirely fresh start had to be +made. A new foundation had to be laid on which a new system of legality +might be reared. It was for this that Cromwell strove. If the Rump or +the Little Parliament had in a business-like spirit assumed and +discharged the functions of a constituent assembly, such a foundation +might have been provided. It was only when five years had passed since +the death of the king without any "settlement of the nation" being +arrived at, that Cromwell at last accepted a constitution drafted by his +military officers, and attempted to impose it on the parliament. And it +was not until the parliament refused to acknowledge the Instrument as +the required starting point for the new legality, that Cromwell in the +last resort took arbitrary power into his hands as the only method +remaining for carrying on the government. For much as he hated +arbitrariness, he hated anarchy still more. While therefore Cromwell's +administration became in practice little different from that of +Strafford, the aims and ideals of the two statesmen had nothing in +common. It is therefore profoundly true, as observed by S. R. Gardiner +(_Cromwell_, p. 315), that "what makes Cromwell's biography so +interesting in his perpetual effort to walk in the paths of legality--an +effort always frustrated by the necessities of the situation. The +man--it is ever so with the noblest--was greater than his work." The +nature of Cromwell's statesmanship is to be seen rather in his struggles +against the retrograde influences and opinions of his time, in the many +political reforms anticipated though not originated or established by +himself, and in his religious, perhaps fanatical, enthusiasm, than in +the outward character of his administration, which, however, in spite of +its despotism shows itself in its inner spirit of justice, patriotism +and self-sacrifice, so immeasurably superior to that of the Stuarts. + + + Personal character. + +Cromwell's personal character has been inevitably the subject of +unceasing controversy. According to Clarendon he was "a brave bad man," +with "all the wickedness against which damnation is pronounced and for +which hell fire is prepared." Yet he cannot deny that "he had some +virtues which have caused the memory of some men in all ages to be +celebrated"; and admits that "he was not a man of blood," and that he +possessed "a wonderful understanding in the natures and humour of men," +and "a great spirit, an admirable circumspection and sagacity and a most +magnanimous resolution." According to contemporary republicans he was a +mere selfish adventurer, sacrificing the national cause "to the idol of +his own ambition." Richard Baxter thought him a good man who fell before +a great temptation. The writers of the next century generally condemned +him as a mixture of knave, fanatic and hypocrite, and in 1839 John +Forster endorsed Landor's verdict that Cromwell lived a hypocrite and +died a traitor. These crude ideas of Cromwell's character were +extinguished by Macaulay's irresistible logic, by the publication of +Cromwell's letters by Carlyle in 1845, which showed Cromwell clearly to +be "not a man of falsehoods, but a man of truth"; and by Gardiner, whom, +however, it is somewhat difficult to follow when he represents Cromwell +as "a typical Englishman." In particular that conception which regarded +"ambition" as the guiding motive in his career has been dispelled by a +more intimate and accurate knowledge of his life; this shows him to have +been very little the creator of his own career, which was largely the +result of circumstances outside his control, the influence of past +events and of the actions of others, the pressure of the national will, +the natural superiority of his own genius. "A man never mounts so high," +Cromwell said to the French ambassador in 1647, "as when he does not +know where he is going." "These issues and events," he said in 1656, +"have not been forecast, but were providences in things." His +"hypocrisy" consists principally in the Biblical language he employed, +which with Cromwell, as with many of his contemporaries, was the most +natural way of expressing his feelings, and in the ascription of every +incident to the direct intervention of God's providence, which was +really Cromwell's sincere belief and conviction. In later times +Cromwell's character and administration have been the subject of almost +too indiscriminate eulogy, which has found tangible shape in the statue +erected to his memory at Westminster in 1899. Here Cromwell's effigy +stands in the midst of the sanctuaries of the law, the church, and the +parliament, the three foundations of the state which he subverted, and +in sight of Whitehall where he destroyed the monarchy in blood. Yet +Cromwell's monument is not altogether misplaced in such surroundings, +for in him are found the true principles of piety, of justice, of +liberty and of governance. + +John Maidston, Cromwell's steward, gives the "character of his person." +"His body was compact and strong, his stature under six foot (I believe +about two inches), his head so shaped as you might see it a storehouse +and a shop both of a vast treasury of natural parts." "His temper +exceeding fiery, as I have known, but the flame of it, ... kept down for +the most part, was soon allayed with those moral endowments he had. He +was naturally compassionate towards objects in distress even to an +effeminate measure; though God had made him a heart wherein was left +little room for fear, ... yet did he exceed in tenderness towards +sufferers. A larger soul I think hath seldom dwelt in a house of clay +than his was. I believe if his story were impartially transmitted and +the unprejudiced world well possessed with it, she would add him to her +nine worthies." By his wife Elizabeth Bourchier, Cromwell had four sons, +Robert (who died in 1639), Oliver (who died in 1644 while serving in his +father's regiment), Richard, who succeeded him as Protector, and Henry. +He also had four daughters. Of these Bridget was the wife successively +of Ireton and Fleetwood, Elizabeth married John Claypole, Mary was wife +of Thomas Belasyse, Lord Fauconberg; and Frances was the wife of Sir +Robert Rich, and secondly of Sir John Russell. The last male descendant +of the Protector was his great-great-grandson, Oliver Cromwell of +Cheshunt, who died in 1821. By the female line, through his children +Henry, Bridget and Frances, the Protector has had numerous descendants, +and is the ancestor of many well-known families.[6] + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A detailed bibliography, with the chief authorities for + particular periods, will be found in the article in the _Dict. of Nat. + Biography_, by C. H. Firth (1888). The following works may be + mentioned: S. R. Gardiner's _Hist. of England_ (1883-1884) and of the + _Great Civil War_ (1886), _Cromwell's Place in History_ (1897), + _Oliver Cromwell_ (1901), and _History of the Commonwealth and + Protectorate_ (1894-1903); _Cromwell_, by C. H. Firth (1900); _Oliver + Cromwell_, by J. Morley (1904); _The Last Years of the Protectorate, + 1656-1658_, 2 vols., by C. H. Firth (1909); _Oliver Cromwell_, by + Fred. Harrison (1903); _Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell_, by + T. Carlyle, ed. by S. C. Lomas, with an introd. by C. H. Firth (the + best edition, rejecting the spurious Squire papers, 1904); _Oliver + Cromwell_, by F. Hoenig (1887); _Oliver Cromwell, the Protector_, by + R. F. D. Palgrave (1890); _Oliver Cromwell ... and the Royalist + Insurrection ... of March 1655_, by the same author (1903); _Oliver + Cromwell_, by Theodore Roosevelt (1900); _Oliver Cromwell_, by R. + Pauli (tr. 1888); _Cromwell, a Speech delivered at the Cromwell + Tercentenary Celebration 1899_, by Lord Rosebery (1900); _The Two + Protectors_, by Sir Richard Tangye (valuable for its illustrations, + 1899); _Life of Sir Henry Vane_, by W. W. Ireland (1905); _Die Politik + des Protectors Oliver Cromwell in der Auffassung und Tatigkeit ... des + Staatssekretars John Thurloe_, by Freiherr v. Bischofshausen (1899); + _Cromwell as a Soldier_, by T. S. Baldock (1899); _Cromwell's Army_, + by C. H. Firth (1902); _The Diplomatic Relations between Cromwell and + Charles X. of Sweden_, by G. Jones (1897); _The Interregnum_, by F. A. + Inderwick (dealing with the legal aspect of Cromwell's rule, 1891); + _Administration of the Royal Navy_, by M. Oppenheim (1896); _History + of the English Church during the Civil Wars_, by W. Shaw (1900); _The + Protestant Interest in Cromwell's Foreign Relations_, by J. N. Bowman + (1900); _Cromwell's Jewish Intelligencies_ (1891), _Crypto-Jews under + the Commonwealth_ (1894), _Menasseh Ben Israel's Mission to Oliver + Cromwell_ (1901), by L. Wolf. (P. C. Y.; C. F. A.; R. J. M.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Life of Sir H. Vane_, by W. W. Ireland, 222. + + [2] C. H. Firth, Cromwell, p. 324. + + [3] John Morley, Oliver Cromwell, p. 393. + + [4] Frederic Harrison, _Oliver Cromwell_, p. 214. + + [5] John Morley, _Oliver Cromwell_, p. 483. + + [6] Frederic Harrison, _Cromwell_, p. 34. + + + + +CROMWELL, RICHARD (1626-1712), lord protector of England, eldest +surviving son of Oliver Cromwell and of Elizabeth Bourchier, was born on +the 4th of October 1626. He served in the parliamentary army, and in +1647 was admitted a member of Lincoln's Inn. In 1649 he married Dorothy, +daughter of Richard Mayor, or Major, of Hursley in Hampshire. He +represented Hampshire in the parliament of 1654, and Cambridge +University in that of 1656, and in November 1655 was appointed one of +the council of trade. But he was not brought forward by his father or +prepared in any way for his future greatness, and lived in the country +occupied with field sports, till after the institution of the second +protectorate in 1657 and the recognition of Oliver's right to name his +successor. On the 18th of July he succeeded his father as chancellor of +the university of Oxford, on the 31st of December he was made a member +of the council of state, and about the same time obtained a regiment and +a seat in Cromwell's House of Lords. He was received generally as his +father's successor, and was nominated by him as such on his death-bed. +He was proclaimed on the 3rd of September 1658, and at first his +accession was acclaimed with general favour both at home and abroad. +Dissensions, however, soon broke out between the military faction and +the civilians. Richard's elevation, not being "general of the army as +his father was," was distasteful to the officers, who desired the +appointment of a commander-in-chief from among themselves, a request +refused by Richard. The officers in the council, moreover, showed +jealousy of the civil members, and to settle these difficulties and to +provide money a parliament was summoned on the 27th of January 1659, +which declared Richard protector, and incurred the hostility of the army +by criticizing severely the arbitrary military government of Oliver's +last two years, and by impeaching one of the major-generals. A council +of the army accordingly established itself in opposition to the +parliament, and demanded on the 6th of April a justification and +confirmation of former proceedings, to which the parliament replied by +forbidding meetings of the army council without the permission of the +protector, and insisting that all officers should take an oath not to +disturb the proceedings in parliament. The army now broke into open +rebellion and assembled at St James's. Richard was completely in their +power; he identified himself with their cause, and the same night +dissolved the parliament. The Long Parliament (which re-assembled on +the 7th of May) and the heads of the army came to an agreement to effect +his dismissal; and in the subsequent events Richard appears to have +played a purely passive part, refusing to make any attempt to keep his +power or to forward a restoration of the monarchy. On the 25th of May +his submission was communicated to the House. He retired into private +life, heavily burdened with debts incurred during his tenure of office +and narrowly escaping arrest even before he quitted Whitehall. In the +summer of 1660 he left England for France, where he lived in seclusion +under the name of John Clarke, subsequently removing elsewhere, either +(for the accounts differ) to Spain, to Italy, or to Geneva. He was long +regarded by the government as a dangerous person, and in 1671 a strict +search was made for him but without avail. He returned to England about +1680 and lived at Cheshunt, in the house of Sergeant Pengelly, where he +died on the 12th of July 1712, being buried in Hursley church in +Hampshire. Richard Cromwell was treated with general contempt by his +contemporaries, and invidiously compared with his great father. +According to Mrs Hutchinson he was "gentle and virtuous but a peasant in +his nature and became not greatness." He was nevertheless a man of +respectable abilities, of an irreproachable private character, and a +good speaker. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See the article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_, and + authorities there cited; Noble's _Memoirs of the Protectoral House of + Cromwell_ (1787); _Memoirs of the Protector ... and of his Sons_, by + O. Cromwell (1820); _The Two Protectors_, by Sir R. Tangye (1899); + _Kebleland and a Short Life of Richard Cromwell_, by W. T. Warren + (1900); _Letters and Speeches of O. Cromwell_, by T. Carlyle (1904); + _Eng. Hist. Review_, xiii. 93 (letters) and xviii. 79; _Cal. of State + Papers, Domestic, Lansdowne MSS._ in British Museum. (P. C. Y.) + + + + +CROMWELL, THOMAS, EARL OF ESSEX (1485?-1540), born probably not later +than 1485 and possibly a year or two earlier, was the only son of Walter +Cromwell, _alias_ Smyth, a brewer, smith and fuller of Putney. His +grandfather, John Cromwell, seems to have belonged to the +Nottinghamshire family, of whom the most distinguished member was Ralph, +Lord Cromwell (1394?-1456), lord treasurer; and he migrated from +Norwell, Co. Notts, to Wimbledon some time before 1461. John's son, +Walter, seems to have acquired the _alias_ Smyth from being apprenticed +to his uncle, William Smyth, "armourer," of Wimbledon. He was of a +turbulent, vicious disposition, perpetually being fined in the +manor-court for drunkenness, for evading the assize of beer, and for +turning more than his proper number of beasts on to Putney Common. Once +he was punished for a sanguinary assault, and his connexion with +Wimbledon ceased in 1514 when he "falsely and fraudulently erased the +evidences and terrures of the lord." Till that time he had flourished +like the bay-tree. + +Under these circumstances the absence of Thomas Cromwell's name from the +Wimbledon manor rolls is almost a presumption of respectability. Perhaps +it would be safer to attribute it to Cromwell's absence from the manor. +He is said to have quarrelled with his father--no great crime +considering the father's character--and fled to Italy, where he served +as a soldier in the French army at the battle of the Garigliano (Dec. +1503). He escaped from the battle-field to Florence, where he was +befriended by the banker Frescobaldi, a debt which he appears to have +repaid with superabundant interest later on. He is next heard of at +Antwerp as a trader, and about 1510 he was induced to accompany a +Bostonian to Rome in quest of some papal indulgences for a Boston gild; +Cromwell secured the boon by the timely present of some choice +sweetmeats to Julius II. In 1512 there is some slight evidence that he +was at Middelburg, and also in London, engaged in business as a merchant +and solicitor. His marriage must have taken place about the same time, +judging from the age of his son Gregory. His wife was Elizabeth Wykes, +daughter of a well-to-do shearman of Putney, whose business Cromwell +carried on in combination with his own. + +For about eight years after 1512 we hear nothing of Cromwell. A letter +to him from Cicely, marchioness of Dorset, in which he is seen in +confidential business relations with her ladyship, is probably earlier +than 1520, and it is possible that Cromwell owed his introduction to +Wolsey to the Dorset family. On the other hand, it is stated that his +cousin, Robert Cromwell, vicar of Battersea under the cardinal, gave +Thomas the stewardship of the archiepiscopal estate of York House. At +any rate he was advising Wolsey on legal points in 1520, and from that +date he occurs frequently not only as mentor to the cardinal, but to +noblemen and others when in difficulties, especially of a financial +character; he made large sums as a money-lender. + +In 1523 Cromwell emerges into public life as a member of parliament. The +official returns for this election are lost and it is not known for what +constituency he sat, but we have a humorous letter from Cromwell +describing its proceedings, and a remarkable speech which he wrote and +perhaps delivered, opposing the reckless war with France and indicating +a sounder policy which was pursued after Wolsey's fall. If, he said, war +was to be waged, it would be better to secure Boulogne than advance on +Paris; if the king went in person and were killed without leaving a male +heir, he hinted there would be civil war; it would be wiser to attempt a +union with Scotland, and in any case the proposed subsidy would be a +fatal drain on the resources of the realm. Neither Henry nor Wolsey was +so foolish as to resent this criticism, and Cromwell lost nothing by it. +He was made a collector of the subsidy he had opposed--a doubtful favour +perhaps--and in 1524 was admitted at Gray's Inn; but he now became the +most confidential servant of the cardinal. In 1525 he was Wolsey's agent +in the dissolution of the smaller monasteries which were designed to +provide the endowments for Wolsey's foundations at Oxford and Ipswich, a +task which gave Cromwell a taste and a facility for similar enterprises +on a greater scale later on. For these foundations Cromwell drew up the +necessary deeds, and he was receiver-general of cardinal's college, +constantly supervising the workmen there and at Ipswich. His ruthless +vigour and his accessibility to bribes earned him such unpopularity that +there were rumours of his projected assassination or imprisonment. All +this constituted a further bond of sympathy between him and his master, +and Cromwell grew in Wolsey's favour until his fall. His wife had died +in 1527 or 1528, and in July 1529 he made his will, in which one of the +chief beneficiaries was his nephew, Richard Williams, alias Cromwell, +the great-grandfather of the protector. + +Wolsey's disgrace reduced Cromwell to such despair that Cavendish once +found him in tears and at his prayers "which had been a strange sight in +him afore." Many of the cardinal's servants had been taken over by the +king, but Cromwell had made himself particularly obnoxious. However, he +rode to court from Esher to "make or mar," as he himself expressed it, +and offered his services to Norfolk. Possibly he had already paved the +way by the pensions and grants which he induced Wolsey to make through +him, out of the lands and revenues of his bishoprics and abbeys, to +nobles and courtiers who were hard pressed to keep up the lavish style +of Henry's court. Cromwell could be most useful to the government in +parliament, and the government, represented by Norfolk, undertook to use +its influence in procuring him a seat, on the natural understanding that +Cromwell should do his best to further government business in the House +of Commons. This was on the 2nd of November 1529; the elections had been +made, and parliament was to meet on the morrow. A seat was, however, +found or made for Cromwell at Taunton. He signalized himself by a +powerful speech in opposition to the bill of attainder against Wolsey +which had already passed the Lords. The bill was thrown out, possibly +with Henry's connivance, though no theory has yet explained its curious +history so completely as the statement of Cavendish and other +contemporaries, that its rejection was due to the arguments of Cromwell. +Doubtless he championed his fallen chief not so much for virtue's sake +as for the impression it would make on others. He did not feel called +upon to accompany Wolsey on his exile from the court. + +Cromwell had now, according to Cardinal Pole, whose story has been too +readily accepted, been converted into an "emissary of Satan" by the +study of Machiavelli's _Prince_. In the one interview which Pole had +with Cromwell, the latter, so Pole wrote ten years later in 1539, +recommended him to read a new Italian book on politics, which Pole says +he afterwards discovered was Machiavelli's _Prince_. But this discovery +was not made for some years: the _Prince_ was not published until 1532, +three years after the conversation; there is evidence that Cromwell was +not acquainted with it until 1537 or 1539, and there is nothing in the +_Prince_ bearing on the precise point under discussion by Pole and +Cromwell. On the other hand, the point is discussed in Castiglione's _Il +Cortegiano_ which had just been published in 1528, and of which Cromwell +promised to lend Bonner a copy in 1530. The _Cortegiano_ is the +antithesis of the _Prince_; and there is little doubt that Pole's +account is the offspring of an imagination heated by his own perusal of +the Prince in 1538, and by Cromwell's ruin of the Pole family at the +same time; until then he had failed to see in Cromwell the Machiavellian +"emissary of Satan." + +Equally fanciful is Pole's ascription of the whole responsibility for +the Reformation to Cromwell's suggestion. It was impossible for Pole to +realize the substantial causes of that perfectly natural development, +and it was his cue to represent Henry as having acted at the diabolic +suggestion of Satan's emissary. In reality the whole programme, the +destruction of the liberties and confiscation of the wealth of the +church by parliamentary agency, had been indicated before Cromwell had +spoken to Henry. The use of Praemunire had been applied to Wolsey; +laymen had supplanted ecclesiastics in the chief offices of state; the +plan of getting a divorce without papal intervention had been the +original idea, which Wolsey had induced the king to abandon, and it had +been revived by Cranmer's suggestion about the universities. The root +idea of the supreme authority of the king had been asserted in Tyndale's +_Obedience of a Christian Man_ published in 1528, which Anne Boleyn +herself had brought to Henry's notice: "this," he said, "is a book for +me and all kings to read," and Campeggio had felt compelled to warn him +against these notions, of which Pole imagines that he had never heard +until they were put into his head by Cromwell late in 1530. In the same +way Cromwell's influence over the government from 1529-1533 has been +grossly exaggerated. It was not till 1531 that he was admitted to the +privy council nor till 1534 that he was made secretary, though he had +been made master of the Jewel-House, clerk of the Hanaper and master of +the Wards in 1532, and chancellor of the exchequer (then a minor office) +in 1533. It is not till 1533 that his name is as much as mentioned in +the correspondence of any foreign ambassador resident in London. This +obscurity has been attributed to deliberate suppression: but no secrecy +was made about Cranmer's suggestion, and it was not Henry's habit to +assume a responsibility which he could devolve upon others. It is said +that Cromwell's life would not have been safe, had he been known as the +author of this policy; but that is not a consideration which would have +appealed to Henry, and he was just as able to protect his minister in +1530 as he was in 1536. Cromwell, in fact, was not the author of that +policy, but he was the most efficient instrument in its execution. + +He was Henry's parliamentary agent, but even in this capacity his power +has been overrated, and he is supposed to have invented those +parliamentary complaints against the clergy, which were transmuted into +the legislation of 1532. But the complaints were old enough; many of +them had been heard in parliament nearly twenty years before, and there +is ample evidence to show that the petition against the clergy +represents the "infinite clamours" of the Commons against the Church, +which the House itself resolved should be "put in writing and delivered +to the king." The actual drafting of the statute, as of all the +Reformation Acts between 1532 and 1539, was largely Cromwell's work; and +the success with which parliament was managed during this period was +also due to him. It was not an easy task, for the House of Commons more +than once rejected government measures, and members were heard to +threaten Henry VIII. with the fate of Richard III.; they even complained +of Cromwell's reporting their proceedings to the king. That was his +business rather than conveying imaginary royal orders to the House. +"They be contented," he wrote in one of these reports, "that deed and +writing shall be treason," but words were only to be misprision: they +refused to include an heir's rebellion or disobedience in the bill "as +rebellion is already treason, and disobedience is no cause of forfeiture +of inheritance." There was, of course, room for manipulation, which +Cromwell extended to parliamentary elections; but parliamentary opinion +was a force of which he had to take account, and not a negligible +quantity. + +From the date of his appointment as secretary in 1534, Cromwell's +biography belongs to the history of England, but it is necessary to +define his personal attitude to the revolution in which he was the +king's most conspicuous agent. He was included by Foxe in his _Book of +Martyrs_ to the Protestant faith: more recent historians regard him as a +sacrilegious ruffian. Now, there were two cardinal principles in the +Protestantism of the 16th century--the supremacy of the temporal +sovereign over the church in matters of government, and the supremacy of +the Scriptures over the Church in matters of faith. There is no room for +doubt as to the sincerity of Cromwell's belief in the first of these two +articles: he paid at his own expense for an English translation of +Marsiglio of Padua's _Defensor Pacis_, the classic medieval advocate of +that doctrine; he had a scheme for governing England by means of +administrative councils nominated by the king to the detriment of +parliament; and he urged upon Henry the adoption of the maxim of the +Roman civil law--_quod principi placuit legis habet vigorem_. He wanted, +in his own words, "one body politic" and no rival to the king's +authority; and he set the divine right of kings against the divine right +of the papacy. There is more doubt about the sincerity of Cromwell's +attachment to the second article; it is true that he set up a Bible in +every parish church, and regarded them as invaluable; and the +correspondents who unbosom themselves to him are all of a Protestant way +of thinking. But Protestantism was the greatest support of absolute +monarchy. Hence its value in Cromwell's eyes. Of religious conviction +there is in him little trace, and still less of the religious +temperament. He was a polished representative of the callous, secular +middle class of that most irreligious age. Sentiment found no place, and +feeling little, in his composition; he used the axe with as little +passion as the surgeon does the knife, and he operated on some of the +best and noblest in the land. He saw that it was wiser to proscribe a +few great opponents than to fall on humbler prey; but he set law above +justice, and law to him was simply the will of the state. + +In 1534 Cromwell was appointed master of the Rolls, and in 1535 +chancellor of Cambridge University and visitor-general of the +monasteries. The policy of the Dissolution has been theoretically +denounced, but practically approved in every civilized state, Catholic +as well as Protestant. Every one has found it necessary, sooner or +later, to curtail or to destroy its monastic foundations; only those +which delayed the task longest have generally lagged farthest behind in +national progress. The need for reform was admitted by a committee of +cardinals appointed by Paul III. in 1535, and it had been begun by +Wolsey. Cromwell was not affected by the iniquities of the monks except +as arguments for the confiscation of their property. He had boasted that +he would make Henry VIII. the richest prince in Christendom; and the +monasteries, with their direct dependence on the pope and their +cosmopolitan organization, were obstacles to that absolute authority of +the national state which was Cromwell's ideal. He had learnt how to +visit monasteries under Wolsey, and the visitation of 1535 was carried +out with ruthless efficiency. During the storm which followed, Henry +took the management of affairs into his own hands, but Cromwell was +rewarded in July 1536 by being knighted, created lord privy seal, Baron +Cromwell, and vicar-general and viceregent of the king in "Spirituals." + +In this last offensive capacity he sent a lay deputy to preside in +Convocation, taking precedence of the bishops and archbishops, and +issued his famous Injunctions of 1536 and 1538; a Bible was to be +provided in every church; the _Paternoster_, Creed and Ten Commandments +were to be recited by the incumbent in English; he was to preach at +least once a quarter, and to start a register of births, marriages and +deaths. During these years the outlook abroad grew threatening because +of the alliance, under papal guarantee, between Charles V. and Francis +I.; and Cromwell sought to counterbalance it by a political and +theological union between England and the Lutheran princes of Germany. +The theological part of the scheme broke down in 1538 when Henry +categorically refused to concede the three reforms demanded by the +Lutheran envoys. This was ominous, and the parliament of 1539, into +which Cromwell tried to introduce a number of personal adherents, proved +thoroughly reactionary. The temporal peers were unanimous in favour of +the Six Articles, the bishops were divided, and the Commons for the most +part agreed with the Lords. Cromwell, however, succeeded in suspending +the execution of the act, and was allowed to proceed with his one +independent essay in foreign policy. The friendship between Francis and +Charles was apparently getting closer; Pole was exhorting them to a +crusade against a king who was worse than the Turk; and anxious eyes +searched the Channel in 1539 for signs of the coming Armada. Under these +circumstances Henry acquiesced in Cromwell's negotiations for a marriage +with Anne of Cleves. Anne, of course, was not a Lutheran, and the state +religion in Cleves was at least as Catholic as Henry's own. But her +sister was married to the elector of Saxony, and her brother had claims +on Guelders, which Charles V. refused to recognize. Guelders was to the +emperor's dominions in the Netherlands what Scotland was to England, and +had often been used by France in the same way, and an alliance between +England, Guelders, Cleves and the Schmalkaldic League would, Cromwell +thought, make Charles's position in the Netherlands almost untenable. +Anne herself was the weak point in the argument; Henry conceived an +invincible repugnance to her from the first; he was restrained from an +immediate breach with his new allies only by fear of Francis and +Charles. In the spring of 1540 he was reassured on that score; no attack +on him from that quarter was impending; there was a rift between the two +Catholic sovereigns, and there was no real need for Anne and her German +friends. + +From that moment Cromwell's fate was sealed; the Lords loathed him as an +upstart even more than they had loathed Wolsey; he had no church to +support him; Norfolk and Gardiner detested him from pique as well as on +principle, and he had no friend in the council save Cranmer. As lay +viceregent he had given umbrage to nearly every churchman, and he had +put all his eggs in the one basket of royal favour, which had now failed +him. Cromwell did not succumb without an effort, and a desperate +struggle ensued in the council. In April the French ambassador wrote +that he was tottering to his fall; a few days later he was created earl +of Essex and lord great chamberlain, and two of his satellites were made +secretaries to the king; he then despatched one bishop to the Tower, and +threatened to send five others to join him. At last Henry struck as +suddenly and remorselessly as a beast of prey; on the 10th of June +Norfolk accused him of treason; the whole council joined in the attack, +and Cromwell was sent to the Tower. A vast number of crimes was laid to +his charge, but not submitted for trial. An act of attainder was passed +against him without a dissentient voice, and after contributing his mite +towards the divorce of Anne, he was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 28th +of July, repudiating all heresy and declaring that he died in the +Catholic faith. + +In estimating Cromwell's character it must be remembered that his father +was a blackguard, and that he himself spent the formative years of his +life in a vile school of morals. A ruffian he doubtless was, as he says, +in his youth, and he was the last man to need the tuition of +Machiavelli. Nevertheless he civilized himself to a certain extent; he +was not a drunkard nor a forger like his father; from personal +immorality he seems to have been singularly free; he was a kind master, +and a stanch friend; and he possessed all the outward graces of the +Renaissance period. He was not vindictive, and his atrocious acts were +done in no private quarrel, but in what he conceived to be the interests +of his master and the state. Where those interests were concerned he +had no heart and no conscience and no religious faith; no man was more +completely blighted by the 16th century worship of the state. + + The authorities for the early life of Cromwell are the Wimbledon manor + rolls, used by Mr John Phillips of Putney in _The Antiquary_ (1880), + vol. ii., and the _Antiquarian Mag._ (1882), vol. ii.; Pole's + _Apologia_, i. 126; Bandello's _Novella_, xxxiv.; Chapuys' letter to + Granvelle, 21 Nov. 1535; and Foxe's _Acts and Mon._ From 1522 see + _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._, vols. iii.-xvi.; Cavendish's + _Life of Wolsey_; Hall's _Chron._; Wriothesley's _Chron._ These and + practically all other available sources have been utilized in R. B. + Merriman's _Life and Letters of Thomas Cromwell_ (2 vols., 1902). For + Cromwell and Machiavelli see Paul van Dyke's _Renascence Portraits_ + (1906), App. (A. F. P.) + + + + +CRONJE, PIET ARNOLDUS (c. 1840- ), Boer general, was born about 1840 in +the Transvaal and in 1881 took part in the first Boer War in the rank of +commandant. He commanded in the siege of the British garrison at +Potchefstroom, though he was unable to force their surrender until after +the conclusion of the general armistice. The Boer leader was at this +time accused of withholding knowledge of this armistice from the +garrison (see POTCHEFSTROOM). He held various official positions in the +years 1881-1899, and commanded the Boer force which compelled the +surrender of the Jameson raiders at Doornkop (Jan. 2, 1896). In the war +of 1899 Cronje was general commanding in the western theatre of war, and +began the siege of Kimberley. He opposed the advance of the British +division under Lord Methuen, and fought, though without success, three +general actions at Belmont, Graspan and Modder River. At Magersfontein, +early in December 1899, he completely repulsed a general attack made +upon his position, and thereby checked for two months the northward +advance of the British column. In the campaign of February 1900, Cronje +opposed Lord Roberts's army on the Magersfontein battleground, but he +was unable to prevent the relief of Kimberley; retreating westward, he +was surrounded near Paardeberg, and, after a most obstinate resistance, +was forced to surrender with the remnant of his army (Feb. 27, 1900). As +a prisoner of war Cronje was sent to St Helena, where he remained until +released after the conclusion of peace (see TRANSVAAL: _History_). + + + + +CROOKES, SIR WILLIAM (1832- ), English chemist and physicist, was born +in London on the 17th of June 1832, and studied chemistry at the Royal +College of Chemistry under A. W. von Hofmann, whose assistant he became +in 1851. Three years later he was appointed an assistant in the +meteorological department of the Radcliffe observatory, Oxford, and in +1855 he obtained a chemical post at Chester. In 1861, while conducting a +spectroscopic examination of the residue left in the manufacture of +sulphuric acid, he observed a bright green line which had not been +noticed previously, and by following up the indication thus given he +succeeded in isolating a new element, thallium, a specimen of which was +shown in public for the first time at the exhibition of 1862. During the +next eight years he carried out a minute investigation of this metal and +its properties. While determining its atomic weight, he thought it +desirable, for the sake of accuracy, to weigh it in a vacuum, and even +in these circumstances he found that the balance behaved in an anomalous +manner, the metal appearing to be heavier when cold than when hot. This +phenomenon he explained as a "repulsion from radiation," and he +expressed his discovery in the statement that in a vessel exhausted of +air a body tends to move away from another body hotter than itself. +Utilizing this principle he constructed the radiometer (q.v.), which he +was at first disposed to regard as a machine that directly transformed +light into motion, but which was afterwards perceived to depend on +thermal action. Thence he was led to his famous researches on the +phenomena produced by the discharge of electricity through highly +exhausted tubes (sometimes known as "Crookes' tubes" in consequence), +and to the development of his theory of "radiant matter" or matter in a +"fourth state," which led up to the modern electronic theory. In 1883 he +began an inquiry into the nature and constitution of the rare earths. By +repeated fractionations he was able to divide yttrium into distinct +portions which gave different spectra when exposed in a high vacuum to +the spark from an induction coil. This result he considered to be due, +not to any removal of impurities, but to an actual splitting-up of the +yttrium molecule into its constituents, and he ventured to draw the +provisional conclusion that the so-called simple bodies are in reality +compound molecules, at the same time suggesting that all the elements +have been produced by a process of evolution from one primordial stuff +or "protyle." A later result of this method of investigation was the +discovery of a new member of the rare earths, monium or victorium, the +spectrum of which is characterized by an isolated group of lines, only +to be detected photographically, high up in the ultra-violet; the +existence of this body was announced in his presidential address to the +British Association at Bristol in 1898. In the same address he called +attention to the conditions of the world's food supply, urging that with +the low yield at present realized per acre the supply of wheat would +within a comparatively short time cease to be equal to the demand caused +by increasing population, and that since nitrogenous manures are +essential for an increase in the yield, the hope of averting starvation, +as regards those races for whom wheat is a staple food, depended on the +ability of the chemist to find an artificial method for fixing the +nitrogen of the air. An authority on precious stones, and especially the +diamond, he succeeded in artificially making some minute specimens of +the latter gem; and on the discovery of radium he was one of the first +to take up the study of its properties, in particular inventing the +spinthariscope, an instrument in which the effects of a trace of radium +salt are manifested by the phosphorescence produced on a zinc sulphide +screen. In addition to many other researches besides those here +mentioned, he wrote or edited various books on chemistry and chemical +technology, including _Select Methods of Chemical Analysis_, which went +through a number of editions; and he also gave a certain amount of time +to the investigation of psychic phenomena, endeavouring to effect some +measure of correlation between them and ordinary physical laws. He was +knighted in 1897, and received the Royal (1875), Davy (1888), and Copley +(1904) medals of the Royal Society, besides filling the offices of +president of the Chemical Society and of the Institution of Electrical +Engineers. He married Ellen, daughter of W. Humphrey, of Darlington, and +their golden wedding was celebrated in 1906. + + + + +CROOKSTON, a city and the county-seat of Polk county, Minnesota, U.S.A., +on the Red Lake river in the Red River valley, about 300 m. N.W. of +Minneapolis, and about 25 m. E. of Grand Forks, North Dakota. Pop. +(1890) 3457; (1900) 5359; (1905, state census) 6794, 2049 being +foreign-born, including 656 from Norway (2 Norwegian weeklies are +published), 613 from Canada, 292 from Sweden; (1910 U.S. census) 7559. +Crookston is served by the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific +railways. It has a Carnegie library, and the St Vincent and Bethesda +hospitals, and is the seat of a Federal Land Office and of a state +agricultural high school (with an experimental farm). Dams on the Red +Lake river provide a fine water-power, and among the city's manufactures +are lumber, leather, flour, farm implements, wagons and bricks. The city +is situated in a fertile farming region, and is a market for grain, +potatoes and other agricultural products, and lumber. Crookston was +settled about 1872, was incorporated in 1879, received its first city +charter in 1883, and adopted a new one in 1906. It was named in honour +of William Crooks, an early settler. + + + + +CROP (a word common in various forms, such as Germ. _Kropf_, to many +Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of +anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in +Fr. as _croupe_, whence the English "crupper"; and in Ital. _groppo_, +whence English "group"), the _ingluvies_, or pouched expansion of a +bird's oesophagus, in which the food remains to undergo a preparatory +process of digestion before being passed into the true stomach. From the +meaning of "top" or "head," as applied to a plant, herb or flower, comes +the common use of the word for the produce of cereals or other +cultivated plants, the wheat-crop, the cotton-crop and the like, and +generally, "the crops"; more particular expressions are the +"white-crop," for such grain crops as barley or wheat, which whiten as +they grow ripe and "green-crop" for such as roots or potatoes which do +not, and also for those which are cut in a green state, like clover (see +AGRICULTURE). Other uses, more or less technical, of the word are, in +leather-dressing, for the whole untrimmed hide; in mining and geology, +for the "outcrop" or appearance at the surface of a vein or stratum and, +particularly in tin mining, of the best part of the ore produced after +dressing. A "hunting-crop" is a short thick stock for a whip, with a +small leather loop at one end, to which a thong may be attached. From +the verb "to crop," i.e. to take off the top of anything, comes "crop" +meaning a closely cut head of hair, found in the name "croppy" given to +the Roundheads at the time of the Great Rebellion, to the Catholics in +Ireland in 1688 by the Orangemen, probably with reference to the +priests' tonsures, and to the Irish rebels of 1798, who cut their hair +short in imitation of the French revolutionaries. + + + + +CROPSEY, JASPER FRANCIS (1823-1900), American landscape painter, was +born at Rossville, Staten Island, New York, on the 18th of February +1823. After practising architecture for several years, he turned his +attention to painting, studying in Italy from 1847 to 1850. In 1851 he +was elected a member of the National Academy of Design. From 1857 to +1863 he had a studio in London, and after his return to America enjoyed +a considerable vogue, particularly as a painter of vivid autumnal +effects, along the lines of the Hudson River school. He was one of the +original members of the American Water Color Society. He continued +actively in this profession until within a few days of his death, at +Hastings-on-Hudson, New York, on the 22nd of June 1900. He made the +architectural designs for the stations of the elevated railways in New +York City. + + + + +CROQUET (from Fr. _croc_, a crook, or crooked stick), a lawn game played +with balls, mallets, hoops and two pegs. The game has been evolved, +according to some writers, from the _paille-maille_ which was played in +Languedoc at least as early as the 13th century. Under the name of _le +jeu de la crosse_, or _la crosserie_, a similar game was at the same +period immensely popular in Normandy, and especially at Avranches, but +the object appears to have been to send the ball as far as possible by +driving it with the mallet (see _Sports et jeux d'adresse_, 1904, p. +203). Pall Mall, a fashionable game in England in the time of the +Stuarts, was played with a ball and a mallet, and with two hoops or a +hoop and a peg, the game being won by the player who ran the hoop or +hoops and touched the peg under certain conditions in the fewest +strokes. Croquet certainly has some resemblance to _paille-maille_, +played with more hoops and more balls. It is said that the game was +brought to Ireland from the south of France, and was first played on +Lord Lonsdale's lawn in 1852, under the auspices of the eldest daughter +of Sir Edmund Macnaghten. It came to England in 1856, or perhaps a few +years earlier, and soon became popular. + +In 1868 the first all-comers' meeting was held at Moreton-in-the-Marsh. +In the same year the All England Croquet Club was formed, the annual +contest for the championship taking place on the grounds of this club at +Wimbledon.[1] But after being for ten years or so the most popular game +for the country house and garden party, croquet was in its turn +practically ousted by lawn tennis, until, with improved implements and a +more scientific form of play, it was revived about 1894-1895. In +1896-1897 was formed the United All England Croquet Association, on the +initiative of Mr Walter H. Peel. Under the name of the Croquet +Association, with more than 2000 members and nearly a hundred affiliated +clubs (1909), this body is the recognized ruling authority on croquet in +the British Islands. Its headquarters are at the Roehampton Club, where +the championship and champion cup competitions are held each year. + +_The Game and its Implements._--The requisites for croquet are a level +grass lawn, six hoops, two posts or pegs, balls, mallets, and hoop-clips +to mark the progress of the players. The usual game is played between +two sides, each having two balls, the side consisting of two players in +partnership, each playing one ball, or of one player playing both balls. +The essential characteristic of croquet is the scientific combination +between two balls in partnership against the other two. The balls are +distinguished by being coloured blue, red, black and yellow, and are +played in that order, blue and black always opposing the other two. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of croquet ground, showing setting of +hoops and pegs, and order of play in accordance with the official Laws +(1909) of the Croquet Association.] + +The ground for match play measures 35 yds. by 28 yds., and should be +carefully marked out with white lines. In each corner a white spot is +marked 1 yd. from each boundary. The hoops are made of round iron, not +less than 1/2 in. and not more than 3/4 in. in diameter, and standing 12 +in. out of the ground. For match play they are 3(3/4) or 4 in. across, +inside measurement. They are set up as in the accompanying diagram, the +numbers and arrows indicating the order and direction in which they must +be passed. Each hoop is run twice, and each peg struck once. The pegs +may be struck from any direction. + +The pegs are 1(1/2) in. in diameter and when fixed stand 18 in. above +the ground. The balls were formerly made of boxwood (earlier still of +beechwood); composition balls are now in general use for tournaments. +They must be 3-5/8 in. in diameter and 15 oz. to 16(1/2) oz. in weight. +It will be seen that for match play the hoops are only 1/8 or at the +most 3/8 in. wider than the diameter of the ball. The mallets may be of +any size and weight, but the head must be made of wood (metal may be +used only for weighting or strengthening purposes), and the ends must be +parallel and similar. Only one mallet may be used in the course of a +game, except in the case of _bona fide_ damage. + +The object of the player is to score the points of the game by striking +his ball through each of the hoops and against each of the pegs in a +fixed order; and the side wins which first succeeds in scoring all the +points with both the balls of the side. A metal clip corresponding in +colour with the player's ball is attached to the hoop or peg which that +ball has next to make in the proper order, as a record of its progress +in the game. No point is scored by passing through a hoop or hitting a +peg except in the proper order. Thus, if a player has in any turn or +turns driven his ball successively through hoops 1, 2, and 3, his clip +is attached to hoop 4, and the next point to be made by him will be +that hoop; and so on till all the points (hoops and pegs) have been +scored. Each player starts in turn from any point in a "baulk" or area 3 +ft. wide along the left-hand half of the "southern" boundary, marked A +on the diagram, of the lawn--till 1906, from a point 1 ft. in front of +the middle of hoop 1. If he fails either to make a point or to +"roquet"[2] (i.e. drive his ball against) another ball in play, his turn +is at an end and the next player in order takes his turn in like manner. +If he succeeds in scoring a point, he is entitled (as in billiards) to +another stroke; he may then either attempt to score another point, or he +may roquet a ball. Having roqueted a ball--provided he has not already +roqueted the same ball in the same turn without having scored a point in +the interval--he is entitled to two further strokes: first he must "take +croquet," i.e. he places his own ball (which from the moment of the +roquet is "dead" or "in hand") in contact with the roqueted ball on any +side of it, and then strikes his own ball with his mallet, being bound +to move or shake both balls perceptibly. If at the beginning of a turn +the striker's ball is in contact with another ball, a "roquet" is held +to have been made and "croquet" must be taken at once. After taking +croquet the striker is entitled to another stroke, with which he may +score another point, or roquet another ball not previously roqueted in +the same turn since a point was scored, or he may play for safety. Thus, +by skilful alternation of making points and roqueting balls, a "break" +may be made in which point after point, and even all the points in the +game (for the ball in play), may be scored in a single turn, in addition +to 3 or 4 points for the partner ball. The chief skill in the game +perhaps consists in playing the stroke called "taking croquet" (but see +below on the "rush"). Expert players can drive both balls together from +one end of the ground to the other, or send one to a distance while +retaining the other, or place each with accuracy in different directions +as desired, the player obtaining position for scoring a point or +roqueting another ball according to the strategical requirements of his +position. Care has, however, to be taken in playing the croquet-stroke +that both balls are absolutely moved or perceptibly shaken, and that +neither of them be driven over the boundary line, for in either event +the player's next stroke is forfeited and his turn brought summarily to +an end. + +There are three distinct methods of holding the mallet among good +players. A comparatively small number still adhere to the once universal +"side stroke," in which the player faces more or less at right angles to +the line of aim, and strikes the ball very much like a golfer, with his +hands close together on the mallet shaft. The majority use "front play," +in which the player faces in the direction in which he proposes to send +the ball. The essential characteristic of this stroke is that eye, hand +and ball should be in the same vertical plane, and the stroke is rather +a swing--the "pendulum stroke"--than a hit. There are two ways of +playing it. The majority of right-handed front players swing the mallet +outside the right foot, holding it with the left hand as a pivot at the +top of the shaft, while the right hand (about 12 in. lower down) applies +the necessary force, though it must always be borne in mind that the +heavy mallet-head, weighing from 3 to 3(1/2) lb. or even more, does the +work by itself, and the nearer the stroke is to a simple swing, like +that of a pendulum, the more likely it is to be accurate. Either the +right or the left foot may be in advance, and should be roughly parallel +to the line of aim, the player's weight being mainly on the rear foot. +Most of the best Irish and some English players swing the mallet between +their feet, using a grip like that of the side player or golfer, with +the hands close together, and often interlocking. It is claimed that the +loss of power caused by the hampered swing--usually compensated by an +extra heavy mallet--is more than counterbalanced by the greater accuracy +in aim. The beginner is well advised to try all these methods, and adopt +that which comes most natural to him. Skirted players, of course, are +unable to use the Irish stroke; and, as one of the most meritorious +features of croquet is that it is the only out-of-door game in which men +and women can compete on terms of real equality, this has been put +forward as a reason for barring it, if it is actually an advantage. + +When a croquet ground is thoroughly smooth and level, the game gives +scope for considerable skill; a great variety of strokes may be played +with the mallet, each having its own well-defined effect on the +behaviour of the balls, while a knowledge of angles is essential. +Skilful tactics are at least as necessary as skilful execution to enable +the player so to dispose the balls on the ground while making a break +that they may most effectively assist him in scoring his points. The +tactics of croquet are in this respect similar to those of billiards, +that the player tries to make what progress he can during his own break, +and to leave the balls "safe" at the end of it; he must also keep in +mind the needs of the other ball of his side by leaving his own ball, or +the last player's ball, or both, within easy roqueting distance or in +useful positions, and that of the next player isolated. Good judgment is +really more valuable than mechanical skill. Croquet is a game of +combination, partners endeavouring to keep together for mutual help, and +to keep their opponents apart. It is important always to leave the next +player in such a position that he will be unable to score a point or +roquet a ball; a break, however profitable, which does not end by doing +this is often fatal. Formerly this might be done by leaving the next +player's ball in such a position that either a hoop or a peg lay between +it and all the other balls ("wiring"), or so near to a hoop or peg that +there was no room for a proper stroke to be taken in the required +direction. Under rule 36 of the _Laws of Croquet_ for 1906, a ball left +in such a position, provided it were within a yard of the obstacle +("close-wired"), might at the striker's option be moved one yard in any +direction. This rule left to the striker whose ball was "wired" more +than a yard from the hoop or peg ("distance-wired") the possibility of +hitting his ball in such a way as to jump the obstacle. The jump-shot +is, however, very bad for the lawn, and in 1907 a further provision was +made by which the player whose ball is left "wired" from all the other +balls by the stroke of an opponent may lift it and play from the "baulk" +area. This practically means that "wiring" is impossible. The most that +can be done is to "close-wire" the next player from two balls and leave +him with a difficult shot at the third. If, however, the next player's +ball has not been moved by the adversary, the adversary is entitled to +wire the balls as best he can. + +The following is a specimen of elementary croquet tactics. If a player +is going up to hoop 5 (diagram 1) in the course of a break, he should +have contrived, if possible, to have a ball waiting for him at that hoop +and another at hoop 6. With the aid of the first he runs hoop 5 and +sends it on to the turning peg, stopping his ball in taking croquet +close to the ball at 6. The corner hoops are the difficult ones, and +after running hoop 6 the assisting ball is croqueted to 1 back, the peg +being struck with the aid of the ball already there, which is again +struck and driven to 2 back. If the player has been able to leave the +fourth ball in the centre of the ground (known as a centre ball), he +hits this after taking croquet, takes croquet, going off it to the ball +at 1 back, and continues the break, leaving the centre ball where it +will be useful for 3 back and 4 back. A first-class player should, +however, be able to make a break with 3 balls almost as easily as with +4. A useful device, especially in a losing game, is to get rid of the +opponent's advanced ball if a "rover" (i.e. one which has run all the +hoops and is for the winning peg) by croqueting it in such a way that it +hits the peg and is thus out of the game. This can be done only by a +ball which is itself also a rover. The opponent has then only one turn +out of every three, and may be rendered practically helpless by leaving +him always in a "safe" position. Inasmuch as a skilful player can cause +an opponent's ball to pass through the last two or even three hoops in +the course of his turn and then peg it out, it is considered prudent to +leave unrun the last three hoops until the partner's ball is well +advanced. There is a perennial agitation in the croquet world for a law +prohibiting the player from pegging out his opponent's ball. Many good +players also think it desirable that the four-ball break should be +restricted or wholly forbidden, e.g. by barring the dead ball. + +To "rush" a ball is to roquet it hard so that it proceeds for a +considerable distance in a desired direction. This stroke requires +absolute accuracy and often considerable force, which must be applied in +such a way as to drive the player's ball evenly; otherwise it is very +liable, especially if the ground be not perfectly smooth, to jump the +object ball. The rush stroke is absolutely essential to good play, as it +enables croquet to be taken (e.g.) close to the required hoop, whereas +to croquet into position from a great distance and also provide a ball +for use after running the hoop is extremely difficult, often impossible. +To "rush" successfully, the striker's ball must lie near the object +ball, preferably, though not necessarily, in the line of the rush. By +means of the rush it is possible to accomplish the complete round with +the assistance of one ball only. To "cut" a ball is to hit it on the +edge and cause it to move at some desired angle. "Rolling croquet" is +made either by hitting near the top of the player's ball which gives it +"follow," or by making the mallet so hit the ball as to keep up a +sustained pressure. The first impact must, however, result in a +distinctly audible single tap; if a prolonged rattle or a second tap is +heard the stroke is foul. The passing stroke is merely an extension of +this. Here the player's ball proceeds a greater distance than the +croqueted ball, but in somewhat the same direction. The "stop stroke" is +made by a short, sharp tap, the mallet being withdrawn immediately after +contact; the player's ball only rolls a short distance, the other going +much farther. The "jump stroke" is made by striking downwards on to the +ball, which can thus be made to jump over another ball, or even a hoop. +"Peeling" (a term derived from Walter H. Peel, a famous advocate of the +policy) is the term applied to the device of putting a partner's or an +opponent's ball through the hoops with a view to ultimately pegging it +out. + +The laws of croquet, and even the arrangement of the hoops, have not +attained complete uniformity wherever the game is played. Croquet +grounds are not always of full size, and some degree of elasticity in +the rules is perhaps necessary to meet local conditions. The laws by +which matches for the championship and all tournaments are governed are +issued annually by the Croquet Association; and though from time to time +trifling amendments may be made, they have probably reached permanence +in essentials. + + See _The Encyclopaedia of Sport; The Complete Croquet Player_ (London, + 1896); the latest _Laws of Croquet_, published annually by the Croquet + Association, and its official organ _The Croquet Gazette_. For the + principles of the game and its history in England, see C. D. Locock, + _Modern Croquet Tactics_ (London, 1907); A. Lillie, _Croquet up to + Date_ (London, 1900). + +_Croquet in the United States: Roque._--Croquet was brought to America +from England soon after its introduction into that country, and enjoyed +a wide popularity as a game for boys and girls before the Civil War (see +Miss Alcott's _Little Women_, cap. 12). American croquet is quite +distinct from the modern English game. It is played on a lawn 60 ft. by +30, and preserves the old-fashioned English arrangement of ten hoops, +including a central "cage" of two hoops. The balls, coloured red, white, +blue and black, are 3(1/4) in. in diameter, and the hoops are from +3(1/2) to 4 in. wide, according to the skill of the players. This game, +however, is not taken seriously in the United States; the _Official +Croquet Guide_ of Mr Charles Jacobus emphasizes "the ease with which the +game can be established," since almost every country home has a grass +plot, and "no elaboration is needed." The scientific game of croquet in +the United States is known as "roque." Under this title a still greater +departure from the English game has been elaborated on quite independent +lines from those of the English Croquet Association since 1882, in which +year the National Roque Association was formed. Roque also suffered from +the popularity of lawn tennis, but since 1897 it has developed almost as +fast as croquet in England. A great national championship tournament is +held in Norwich, Conn., every August, and the game--which is fully as +scientific as modern English croquet--has numerous devotees, especially +in New England. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram of roque ground, showing setting of +arches and stakes and order of play, in accordance with the official +laws (1906) of the National Roque Association.] + +Roque is played, not on grass, but on a prepared surface something like +a cinder tennis-court. The standard ground, as adopted by the National +Association in 1903, is hexagonal in shape, with ten arches (hoops) and +two stakes (pegs) as shown in diagram 2. The length is 60 ft., width 30, +and the "corner pieces" are 6 ft. long. An essential feature of the +ground is that it is surrounded by a raised wooden border, often lined +with india-rubber to facilitate the rebound of the ball, and it is +permissible to play a "carom" (or rebounding shot) off this border; a +skilful player can often thus hit a ball which is wired to a direct +shot. A boundary line is marked 28 in. inside the border, on which a +ball coming to rest outside it must be replaced. The hoops are run in +the order marked on the diagram, so that the game consists of 36 points. +Red and white are always partners against blue and black, and the +essential features and tactics of the game are, _mutatis mutandis_, the +same as in modern English croquet--i.e. the skilful player goes always +for a break and utilizes one or both of the opponent's balls in making +it. The balls are 3(1/4) in. in diameter, of hard rubber or composition, +and the arches are 3-3/8 or 3(1/2) in. wide for first- and second-class +players respectively; they are made of steel 1/2 in. in diameter and +stand about 8 in. out of the ground. The stakes are 1 in. in diameter +and only 1(1/2) in. above the ground. The mallets are much shorter than +those commonly employed in England, the majority of players using only +one hand, though the two-handed "pendulum stroke," played between the +legs, finds an increasingly large number of adherents, on account of the +greater accuracy which it gives. The "jump shot" is a necessary part of +the player's equipment, as dead wiring is allowed; it is supplemented by +the carom off the border or off a stake or arch, and roque players +justly claim that their game is more like billiards than any other +out-of-door game. + +The game of roque is opened by scoring (stringing) for lead from an +imaginary line through the middle wicket (cage), the player whose ball +rests nearest the southern boundary line having the choice of lead and +balls. The balls are then placed on the four corner spots marked A in +diagram, partner balls being diagonally opposite one another, and the +starting ball having the choice of either of the upper corners. The +leader, say red, usually begins by shooting at white; if he misses, a +carom off the border will leave him somewhere near his partner, blue. +White then shoots at red or blue, with probably a similar result. Blue +is then "in," with a certain roquet and the choice of laying for red or +going for an immediate break himself. The general strategy of the game +corresponds to that of croquet, the most important differences being +that "pegging out" is not allowed, and that on the small ground with its +ten arches and two stakes the three-ball break is usually adopted, the +next player or "danger ball" being wired at the earliest opportunity. + + See Spalding's _Official Roque Guide_, edited by Mr Charles Jacobus + (New York, 1906). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] This was largely the work of W. T. Whitmore-Jones (1831-1872), + generally known as W. Jones Whitmore, who subsequently formed the + short-lived National Croquet Club, and was largely responsible for + the first codification of the laws. + + [2] The words "roquet" and "croquet" are pronounced as in French, + with the t mute. + + + + +CRORE (Hindustani _karor_), an Anglo-Indian term for a hundred _lakhs_ +or ten million. It is in common use for statistics of trade and +especially coinage. In the days when the rupee was worth its face value +of 2s., a crore of rupees was exactly worth a million sterling, but now +that the rupee is fixed at 15 to the L1, a crore is only worth L666,666. + + + + +CROSBY, HOWARD (1826-1891), American preacher and teacher, +great-grandson of Judge Joseph Crosby of Massachusetts and of Gen. +William Floyd of New York, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, +was born in New York City on the 27th of February 1826. He graduated in +1844 from the University of the City of New York (now New York +University); became professor of Greek there in 1851, and in 1859 became +professor of Greek in Rutgers College, New Brunswick, New Jersey, where +two years later he was ordained pastor of the first Presbyterian church. +From 1870 to 1881 he was chancellor of the University of the City of New +York; from 1872 to 1881 was one of the American revisers of the English +version of the New Testament; and in 1873 was moderator of the general +assembly of the Presbyterian Church. He took a prominent part in +politics, urged excise reform, opposed "total abstinence," was one of +the founders and was the first president of the New York Society for the +Prevention of Crime, and pleaded for better management of Indian affairs +and for international copyright. Among his publications are _The Lands +of the Moslem_ (1851), _Bible Companion_ (1870), _Jesus: His Life and +Works_ (1871), _True Temperance Reform_ (1879), _True Humanity of +Christ_ (1880), and commentaries on the book of Joshua (1875), Nehemiah +(1877) and the New Testament (1885). + +His son, ERNEST HOWARD CROSBY (1856-1907), was a social reformer, and +was born in New York City on the 4th of November 1856. He graduated at +the University of the City of New York in 1876 and at Columbia Law +School in 1878; served in the New York Assembly in 1887-1889, securing +the passage of a high-licence bill; in 1889-1894 was a judge of the +Mixed Tribunal at Alexandria, Egypt, resigning upon coming under the +influence of Tolstoy; and died in New York City on the 3rd of January +1907. He was the first president (1894) of the Social Reform Club of New +York City, and was president in 1900-1905 of the New York +Anti-Imperialist League; was a leader in settlement work and in +opposition to child labour, and was a disciple of Tolstoy as to +universal peace and non-resistance, and of Henry George in his belief in +the "single tax" principle. His writings, many of which are in the +manner of Walt Whitman, comprise _Plain Talk in Psalm and Parable_ +(1899), _Swords and Ploughshares_ (1902), and _Broadcast_ (1905), all in +verse; an anti-military novel, _Captain Jinks, Hero_ (1902); and essays +on Tolstoy (1904 and 1905) and on Garrison (1905). + + + + +CROSS, and CRUCIFIXION (Lat. _crux_, _crucis_[1]). The meaning +ordinarily attached to the word "cross" is that of a figure composed of +two or more lines which intersect, or touch each other transversely. +Thus, two pieces of wood, or other material, so placed in juxtaposition +to one another, are understood to form a cross. It should be noted, +however, that Lipsius and other writers speak of the single upright +stake to which criminals were bound as a cross, and to such a stake the +name of _crux simplex_ has been applied. The usual conception, however, +of a cross is that of a compound figure. + +Punishment by crucifixion was widely employed in ancient times. It is +known to have been used by nations such as those of Assyria, Egypt, +Persia, by the Greeks, Carthaginians, Macedonians, and from very early +times by the Romans. It has been thought, too, that crucifixion was also +used by the Jews themselves, and that there is an allusion to it (Deut. +xxi. 22, 23) as a punishment to be inflicted. + +Two methods were followed in the infliction of the punishment of +crucifixion. In both of these the criminal was first of all usually +stripped naked, and bound to an upright stake, where he was so cruelly +scourged with an implement, formed of strips of leather having pieces of +iron, or some other hard material, at their ends, that not merely was +the flesh often stripped from the bones, but even the entrails partly +protruded, and the anatomy of the body was disclosed. In this pitiable +state he was reclothed, and, if able to do so, was made to drag the +stake to the place of execution, where he was either fastened to it, or +impaled upon it, and left to die. In this method, where a single stake +was employed, we have the _crux simplex_ of Lipsius. The other method is +that with which we are more familiar, and which is described in the New +Testament account of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. In such a case, +after the scourging at the stake, the criminal was made to carry a +gibbet, formed of two transverse bars of wood, to the place of +execution, and he was then fastened to it by iron nails driven through +the outstretched arms and through the ankles. Sometimes this was done as +the cross lay on the ground, and it was then lifted into position. In +other cases the criminal was made to ascend by a ladder, and was then +fastened to the cross. Probably the feebleness, or state of collapse, +from which the criminal must often have suffered, had much to do in +deciding this. It is not quite clear which of these two plans was +followed in the case of the crucifixion of Christ, but the more general +opinion has been that He was nailed to the cross on the ground, and that +it was then lifted into position. The contrary opinion, has, however, +prevailed to some extent, and there are representations of the +crucifixion which depict Him as mounting a ladder placed against the +cross. Such representations may, however, have been due to a pious +desire, on the part of their authors, to emphasize the voluntary +offering of Himself as the Saviour of the World, rather than as being +intended for actual pictures of the scene itself. It may be noted, +however, that among the "Emblems of the Passion," as they are called, +and which were very favourite devices in the middle ages, the ladder is +not infrequently found in conjunction with the crown of thorns, nails, +spear, &c. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +From its simplicity of form, the cross has been used both as a religious +symbol and as an ornament, from the dawn of man's civilization. Various +objects, dating from periods long anterior to the Christian era, have +been found, marked with crosses of different designs, in almost every +part of the old world. India, Syria, Persia and Egypt have all yielded +numberless examples, while numerous instances, dating from the later +Stone Age to Christian times, have been found in nearly every part of +Europe. The use of the cross as a religious symbol in pre-Christian +times, and among non-Christian peoples, may probably be regarded as +almost universal, and in very many cases it was connected with some form +of nature worship. Two of the forms of the pre-Christian cross which are +perhaps most frequently met with are the tau cross, so named from its +resemblance to the Greek capital letter [Tau], and the _svastika_ or +_fylfot_[2] [svastika], also called "_Gammadion_" owing to its form +being that of four Greek capital letters _gamma_ [Gamma] placed +together. The tau cross is a common Egyptian device, and is indeed +often called the Egyptian cross. The _svastika_ has a very wide range of +distribution, and is found on all kinds of objects. It was used as a +religious emblem in India and China at least ten centuries before the +Christian era, and is met with on Buddhist coins and inscriptions from +various parts of India. A fine sepulchral urn found at Shropham in +Norfolk, and now in the British Museum, has three bands of cruciform +ornaments round it. The two uppermost of these are plain circles, each +of which contains a plain cross; the lowest band is formed of a series +of squares, in each of which is a _svastika_. In the Vatican Museum +there is an Etruscan fibula of gold which is marked with the _svastika_, +but it is a device of such common occurrence on objects of pre-Christian +origin, that it is hardly necessary to specify individual instances. The +cross, as a device in different forms, and often enclosed in a circle, +is of frequent occurrence on coins and medals of pre-Christian date in +France and elsewhere. Indeed, objects marked with pre-Christian crosses +are to be seen in every important museum. + +The death of Christ on a cross necessarily conferred a new significance +on the figure, which had hitherto been associated with a conception of +religion not merely non-Christian, but in its essence often directly +opposed to it. The Christians of early times were wont to trace, in +things around them, hidden prophetical allusions to the truth of their +faith, and such a testimony they seem to have readily recognized in the +use of the cross as a religious emblem by those whose employment of it +betokened a belief most repugnant to their own. The adoption by them of +such forms, for example, as the tau cross and the _svastika_ or _fylfot_ +was no doubt influenced by the idea of the occult Christian significance +which they thought they recognized in those forms, and which they could +use with a special meaning among themselves, without at the same time +arousing the ill-feeling or shocking the sentiment of those among whom +they lived. + +It was not till the time of Constantine that the cross was publicly used +as the symbol of the Christian religion. Till then its employment had +been restricted, and private among the Christians themselves. Under +Constantine it became the acknowledged symbol of Christianity, in the +same way in which, long afterwards, the crescent was adopted as the +symbol of the Mahommedan religion. Constantine's action was no doubt +influenced by the vision which he believed he saw of the cross in the +sky with the accompanying words [Greek: en touto nika], as well as by +the story of the discovery of the true cross by his mother St Helena in +the year 326. The legend is that, when visiting the holy places in +Palestine, St Helena was guided to the site of the crucifixion by an +aged Jew who had inherited traditional knowledge as to its position. +After the ground had been dug to a considerable depth, three crosses +were found, as well as the superscription placed over the Saviour's head +on the cross, and the nails with which he had been crucified. The cross +of the Lord was distinguished from the other two by the working of a +miracle on a crippled woman who was stretched upon it. This finding, or +"invention," of the holy cross by St Helena is commemorated by a +festival on the 3rd of May, called the "Invention of the Holy Cross." +The legend was widely accepted as true, and is related by writers such +as St Ambrose, Rufinus, Sulpicius Severus and others, but it is +discounted by the existence of an older legend, according to which the +true cross was found in the reign of Tiberius, and while St James the +Great was bishop of Jerusalem, by Protonice, the wife of Claudius. + +In recent times an attempt has been made to reconcile the two accounts, +by attributing to St Helena the rediscovery of the true cross, +originally found by Protonice, and which had been buried again on the +spot. A change was made in 1895 in the _Diario Romano_, when the word +_Ritrovamento_ was substituted for that of _Invenzione_, in the name of +the festival of the 3rd of May. After St Helena's discovery a church was +built upon the site, and in it she placed the greater portion of the +cross. The remaining portion she conveyed to Byzantium, and thence +Constantine sent a piece to Rome, where it is said to be still preserved +in the church of S. Croce in Gerusalemme, which was built to receive so +precious a relic. It is exposed for the veneration of the faithful on +Good Friday, 3rd of May, and the third Sunday in Lent, each year. + +Another festival of the holy cross is kept on the 14th of September, and +is known as the "Exaltation of the Holy Cross." It seems to have +originated with the dedication, in the year 335, of the churches built +on the sites of the crucifixion and the holy sepulchre. The observance +of this festival passed from Jerusalem to Constantinople, and thence to +Rome, where it appears to have been introduced in the 7th century. By +some it is thought that the feast of the Exaltation of the Cross had its +origin in Constantine's vision of the cross in the sky in the year 317, +but whether it originated then, or, as is more generally supposed, at +the dedication of the churches at Jerusalem, there is no doubt that it +was afterwards kept with much greater solemnity in consequence of the +recovery of the portion of the cross St Helena had left at Jerusalem, +which had been taken away in the Persian victory, and was restored to +Jerusalem by Heraclitus in 627. Pope Clement VIII. (1592-1604) raised +the festival of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross to the dignity, +liturgically known as that of a Greater Double. + +Before leaving the story of St Helena and the cross, it may be +convenient to allude briefly to the superscription placed over the +Saviour's head, and the nails, which it is said that she found with the +cross. The earlier tradition as to the superscription is obscure, but it +would seem that it ought to be considered part of the relic which +Constantine sent to Rome. By some means it was entirely lost sight of +until the year 1492, when it is said that it was accidentally found in a +vault in the church of S. Croce in Gerusalemme at Rome. Pope Alexander +III. published a bull certifying to the truth of this rediscovery of the +relic, and authenticated its character. + +As regards the nails, a question has arisen whether there were three or +four. In the earliest pictures of the Crucifixion the feet are shown as +separately nailed to the cross, but at a later period they are crossed, +and a single nail fixes them. In the former case there would be four +nails, and in the latter only three. Four is the number generally +accepted, and it is said that one was cast by St Helena into the sea, +during a storm, in order to subdue the waves, another is said (but the +legend cannot be traced far back) to have been beaten out into the iron +circlet of the crown of Lombardy, while the remaining two are reputed to +be preserved among the relics at Milan and Trier respectively. + +The employment of the cross as the Christian symbol has been so manifold +in its variety and application, and the different forms to which the +figure has been adapted and elaborated are so complex, that it is only +possible to deal with the outline of the subject. + +We learn from Tertullian and other early Christian writers of the +constant use which the Christians of those days made of the sign of the +cross. Tertullian (_De Cor. Mil._ cap. iii.) says: "At each journey and +progress, at each coming in and going out, at the putting on of shoes, +at the bath, at meals, at the kindling of lights, at bedtime, at sitting +down, whatsoever occupation engages us, we mark the brow with the sign +of the cross." With so frequent an employment of the sign of the cross +in their domestic life, it would be strange if we did not find that it +was very frequently used in the public worship of the church. The +earliest liturgical forms are comparatively late, and are without +rubrics, but the allusions by different writers in early times to the +ceremonial use of the sign of the cross in the public services are so +numerous, and so much importance was attached to it, that we are left in +no manner of doubt on the point. St Augustine, indeed, speaks of the +sacraments as not duly ministered if the use of the sign of the cross +were absent from their ministration (_Hom. cxviii. in S. Joan._). Of the +later liturgical use of the sign of the cross there is little need to +speak, as a reference to the service books of the Greek and Latin +churches will plainly indicate the frequency of, and the importance +attached to, its employment. Its occasional use is retained by the +Lutherans, and in the Church of England it is authoritatively used at +baptism, and at the "sacring" or anointing of the sovereign at the +coronation. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +Passing from the sign to the material figures of the cross, a very usual +classification distinguishes three main forms: (1) the _crux immissa_, +or _capitata_ [Latin cross] (fig. 3) known also as the Latin cross, or +if each limb is of the same length, + (fig. 4) as the Greek cross; (2) +the _crux decussata_, formed like the letter X, and (3) the _crux +commissa_ or tau cross, already mentioned. It was on a crux immissa that +Christ is believed to have been crucified. The _crux decussata_ is known +as St Andrew's cross, from the tradition that St Andrew was put to death +on a cross of that form. The _crux commissa_ is often called St +Anthony's cross, probably only because it resembles the crutch with +which the great hermit is generally depicted. + +The cross in one form or other appears, appropriately, on the flags and +ensigns of many Christian countries. The English cross of St George is a +plain red cross on a white ground, the Scottish cross of St Andrew is a +plain diagonal white cross on a blue ground, and the Irish cross of St +Patrick is a plain diagonal red cross on a white ground. These three +crosses are combined in the Union Jack (see FLAG). + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.] + +The cross has also been adopted by many orders of knighthood. Perhaps +the best known of these is the cross of the knights of Malta. It is a +white cross of eight points on a black ground (fig. 5) and is the proper +Maltese cross, a name which is often wrongly applied to the cross +_patee_ (fig. 6). The knights of the Garter use the cross of St George, +as do those of the order of St Michael and St George, the knights of the +Thistle use St Andrew's cross, and those of St Patrick the cross of St +Patrick charged with a shamrock leaf. The cross of the Danish order of +the Dannebrog (fig. 7) affords a good example of this use of the cross. +It is in form a white cross patee, superimposed upon a red one of the +same form, and is surmounted by the royal cipher and crown, and has upon +its surface the royal cipher repeated, and the legend, or motto, "_Gud +og Kongen_" = "God and the King." (For crosses of monastic orders see +COSTUME.) + +Akin to the crosses of knightly orders are those which figure as charges +on coats of arms. The science of heraldry evolved a wonderful variety of +cross-forms during the period it held sway in the middle ages. The +different forms of cross used in heraldry are, in fact, so numerous that +it is only the larger works on that subject which attempt to record them +all. For such crosses see HERALDRY. + +In the middle ages the cross form, in one way or another, was +predominant everywhere, and was introduced whenever opportunity offered +itself for doing so. The larger churches were planned on its outline, so +that the ridge line of their roofs proclaimed it far and wide. This was +more particularly followed in the north of Europe, but when it was first +introduced is not quite certain. All the ancient cathedral churches of +England and Wales are cruciform in plan, except Llandaff. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Cross of the Dannebrog.] + +The artistic skill and ingenuity of the medieval designer has produced +cross designs of endless variety, and of singular elegance and beauty. +Some of the most beautiful of these designs are the gable crosses of the +old churches. Fig. 8 shows the west gable cross of Washburn church, +Worcestershire; fig. 9 that of the nave of Castle Acre church, Norfolk; +and fig. 10 the east gable cross of Hethersett church in that county. +They may be taken as good examples of a type of cross which is often of +great beauty, but it is overlooked, owing to its bad position for +observation. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.] + +Other architectural crosses, of great beauty of design, are those which +occur on the grave slabs of the middle ages. Instances of a plainer type +occur in Saxon times, but it was not till after the 11th century that +they were fashioned after the intricate and beautiful designs with which +our ancient churches are, as a rule, so plentifully supplied. Sometimes +these crosses are incised in the slab, and almost as often they are +executed in low relief. The long shaft of the cross is most commonly +plain, but there are a very large number of instances in which this is +not so, and in which branches, with leaf designs, are thrown out at +intervals the entire length of the shaft. In some cases the shaft rises +from a series of steps at its base, and in such a case the name of a +Calvary cross is applied to it. Fig. 11, from Stradsett church, Norfolk, +and fig. 12 from Bosbury church, Herefordshire, are good examples of the +designs at the head of sepulchral crosses. Often, by the side of the +cross, an emblem or symbol is placed, denoting the calling in life of +the person commemorated. Thus a sword is placed to indicate a knight or +soldier, a chalice for a priest, and so forth; but it would be +travelling beyond the scope of this article to enter into a discussion +as to such symbols. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.] + +Of upright standing crosses, the Irish and Iona types are well known, +and their great artistic beauty and elaboration and excellence of +sculpture are universally recognized. These crosses are sometimes spoken +of as "Runic Crosses"; and the interlacing knotwork design with which +many of them are ornamented is also at times spoken of as "Runic." This +is an erroneous application of the word, and has arisen from the fact +that some of these crosses bear inscriptions in Runic characters. +Standing crosses, of different kinds, were commonly set up in every +suitable place during the middle ages, as the mutilated bases and shafts +still remaining readily testify. Such crosses were erected in the centre +of the market place, in the churchyard, on the village green, or as +boundary stones, or marks to guide the traveller. Some, like the Black +Friars cross at Hereford, were preaching stations, others, like the +beautiful Eleanor crosses at Northampton, Geddington and Waltham, were +commemorative in character. Of these latter crosses, which marked the +places where the funeral procession of Queen Eleanor halted, there were +originally ten or more, erected between 1241 and 1294. They were placed +at Lincoln, Northampton, Stony Stratford, Woburn, Dunstable, St Albans, +Waltham and London (Cheapside and Charing Cross). The cross at +Geddington differs in outline from those at Northampton and Waltham, and +it is not recorded on the roll of accounts for the nine others, all of +which are mentioned, but there is no real doubt that it commemorates the +resting of the coffin of the queen in Geddington church on its way from +Harby. These crosses, like the Black Friars cross at Hereford, are +elaborate architectural erections, and very similar to them in this +respect are the beautiful market crosses at Winchester, Chichester, +Salisbury, Devizes, Shepton Mallet, Leighton Buzzard, &c. Of churchyard +crosses, as distinguished from memorial crosses in churchyards, one only +is believed to have escaped in a perfect condition the ravages of time, +and the fanaticism of the past. It stands in the churchyard of Somerby, +in Lincolnshire (Tennyson's birthplace), and is a tall shaft surmounted +by a pedimented tabernacle, on one side of which is the crucifixion, and +on the other the figure of the Virgin and Child. Churchyard crosses may +have been used as occasional preaching stations, for reading the Gospel +in the Palm Sunday procession, and generally for public proclamations, +made usually at the conclusion of the chief Sunday morning service, much +in the same way that market crosses were used on market days as places +for proclamations in the towns. + +Of the ecclesiastical use of the sign of the cross mention has already +been made, and it is desirable to mention briefly one or two instances +of the ecclesiastical use of the cross itself. From a fairly early +period it has been the prerogative of an archbishop or metropolitan, to +have a cross borne before him within the limits of his province. The +question urged between the archbishops of Canterbury and York about the +carrying of their crosses before them, in each other's province, was a +fruitful source of controversy in the middle ages. The archiepiscopal +cross must not be confused with the crozier or pastoral staff. The +latter, which is formed with a crook at the end, is quite distinct, and +is used by archbishops and bishops alike, who bear it with the left hand +in processions, and when blessing the people. The archiepiscopal cross, +on the contrary, is always borne before the archbishop, or during the +vacancy of the archiepiscopal see before the guardian of the +spiritualities _sede vacante_. The bishop of Dol in Brittany, of +ordinary diocesan bishops, alone possessed the privilege of having a +cross borne before him in his diocese. Good illustrations of the +archiepiscopal cross occur on the monumental brasses of Archbishop +Waldeby, of York (1397), at Westminster Abbey, and of Archbishop +Cranley, of Dublin (1417) in New College chapel, Oxford. + +The custom of carrying a cross at the head of an ecclesiastical +procession can be traced back to the end of the 4th century. The cross +was originally taken from the altar, and raised on a pole, and so borne +before the procession. Afterwards a separate cross was provided for +processions, but in poor churches, where this was not the case, the +altar cross continued to be used till quite a late period. A direction +to this effect occurs as late as 1829, in the _Rituel_ published for the +diocese of La Rochelle in that year. In England altar crosses were not +very usual in the middle ages. + +As a personal ornament the cross came into common use, and was usually +worn suspended by a chain from the neck. A cross of this kind, of very +great interest and beauty, was found about 1690, on the breast of Queen +Dagmar, the wife of Waldemar II., king of Denmark (d. 1213). It is of +Byzantine design and workmanship, and is of enamelled gold (fig. 13 +shows both sides of it); on one side is the Crucifixion, and on the +other side the half figure of our Lord in the centre, with the Virgin +and St John the Evangelist on either side, and St Chrysostom and St +Basil above and below. From the way in which such crosses were worn, +hanging over the chest, they are called pectoral crosses. At the present +day a pectoral cross forms part of the recognized insignia of a Roman +Catholic bishop, and is worn by him over his robes, but this official +use of the pectoral cross is not ancient, and no instance is known of it +in England before the Reformation. The custom appears to have taken +rise in the 16th century on the continent. It was not unusual to wear +cruciform reliquaries, as objects of personal adornment, and such a +reliquary was found on the body of St Cuthbert, when his tomb was opened +in 1827, but it was placed under, and not over his episcopal vestments, +and formed no part of his bishop's attire. The custom of wearing a +pectoral cross over ecclesiastical robes has, curiously enough, been +copied from the comparatively modern Roman Catholic usage by the +Lutheran bishops and superintendents in Scandinavia and Prussia; and in +Sweden the cross is now delivered to the new bishop, on his installation +in office, by the archbishop of Upsala, together with the mitre and +crozier. Within the last generation the use of a pectoral cross, worn +over their robes as part of the insignia of the episcopal office, has +been adopted by some bishops of the Church of England, but it has no +ancient sanction or authority. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Dagmar Cross.] + + AUTHORITIES.--Mortillet, _Le Signe de la croix avant le Christianisme_ + (Paris, 1866); Bingham, _Antiquities of the Christian Church_; + Lipsius, _De Cruce Christi_; Lady Eastlake, _History of our Lord_, + vol. ii.; Cutts, _Manual of Sepulchral Slabs and Crosses_; (Anon.) + _Handbook to Christian and Ecclesiastical Rome_, part ii. (London, + 1897); Veldeuer, _History of the Holy Cross_ (reprint, 1863). + (T. M. F.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Derivatives of the Latin _crux_ appear in many forms in European + languages, cf. Ger. _Kreuz_, Fr. _croix_, It. _croce_, &c.; the + English form seems Norse in origin (O.N. _Krosse_, mod. _Kors_). The + O.E. name was _rod_, rood (q.v.). + + [2] The acceptance of this word as the English equivalent for this + peculiar form of the cross rests only, according to the _New English + Dictionary_, on a MS. of about 1500 in the Lansdowne collection, + which gives details for the erection of a memorial stained-glass + window, "... the fylfot in the nedermost pane under ther I knele + ..."; in the sketch given with the instructions a cross occupies the + space indicated. It is a question, therefore, whether "fylfot" is a + name for any device suitable to "fill the foot" of any design, or the + name peculiar to this particular form of cross. The word is not, as + was formerly accepted, a corruption of the O. Eng. _feowerfete_, + four-footed. + + + + +CROSSBILL (Fr. _Bec-croise_, Ger. _Kreuzschnabel_), the name given to a +genus of birds, belonging to the family _Fringillidae_, or finches, from +the unique peculiarity they possess among the whole class of having the +horny sheaths of the bill crossing one another obliquely,[1] whence the +appellation _Loxia_ ([Greek: loxos], _obliquus_), conferred by Gesner on +the group and continued by Linnaeus. At first sight this singular +structure appears so like a deformity that writers have not been wanting +to account it such,[2] ignorant of its being a piece of mechanism most +beautifully adapted to the habits of the bird, enabling it to extract +with the greatest ease, from fir-cones or fleshy fruits, the seeds which +form its usual and almost invariable food. Its mode of using this unique +instrument seems to have been first described by Townson (_Tracts on +Nat. Hist._, p. 116, London, 1799), but only partially, and it was +Yarrell who, in 1829 (_Zool. Journ._, iv. pp. 457-465, pl. xiv. figs. +1-7), explained fully the means whereby the jaws and the muscles which +direct their movements become so effective in riving asunder cones or +apples, while at the proper moment the scoop-like tongue is +instantaneously thrust out and withdrawn, conveying the hitherto +protected seed to the bird's mouth. The articulation of the mandible to +the quadrate-bone is such as to allow of a very considerable amount of +lateral play, and, by a particular arrangement of the muscles which move +the former, it comes to pass that so soon as the bird opens its mouth +the point of the mandible is brought immediately opposite to that of the +maxilla (which itself is movable vertically), instead of crossing or +overlapping it--the usual position when the mouth is closed. The two +points thus meeting, the bill is inserted between the scales or into +the pome, but on opening the mouth still more widely, the lateral motion +of the mandible is once more brought to bear with great force to wrench +aside the portion of the fruit attacked, and then the action of the +tongue completes the operation, which is so rapidly performed as to defy +scrutiny, except on very close inspection. Fortunately the birds soon +become tame in confinement, and a little patience will enable an +attentive observer to satisfy himself as to the process, the result of +which at first seems almost as unaccountable as that of a clever +conjuring trick. + +The common crossbill of the Palaearctic region (_Loxia curvirostra_) is +about the size of a skylark, but more stoutly built. The young (which on +leaving the nest have not the tips of the bill crossed) are of a dull +olive colour with indistinct dark stripes on the lower parts, and the +quills of the wings and tail dusky. After the first moult the difference +between the sexes is shown by the hens inclining to yellowish-green, +while the cocks become diversified by orange-yellow and red, their +plumage finally deepening into a rich crimson-red, varied in places by a +flame-colour. Their glowing hues, are, however, speedily lost by +examples which may be kept in confinement, and are replaced by a dull +orange, or in some cases by a bright golden-yellow, and specimens have, +though rarely, occurred in a wild state exhibiting the same tints. The +cause of these changes is at present obscure, if not unknown, and it +must be admitted that their sequence has been disputed by some excellent +authorities, but the balance of evidence is certainly in favour of the +above statement. Depending mainly for food on the seeds of conifers, the +movements of crossbills are irregular beyond those of most birds, and +they would seem to rove in any direction and at any season in quest of +their staple sustenance. But the pips of apples are also a favourite +dainty, and it is recorded by the old chronicler Matthew Paris (_Hist. +Angl._ MS. fol. 252), that in 1251 the orchards of England were ravaged +by birds, "pomorum grana, & non aliud de eisdem pomis comedentes," +which, from his description, "Habebant autem partes rostri cancellatas, +per quas poma quasi forcipi vel cultello dividebant," could be none +other but crossbills. Notice of a like visitation in 1593 is recorded, +but of late it has become evident that not a year passes without +crossbills being observed in some part or other of England, while in +certain localities in Scotland they seem to breed annually. The nest is +rather rudely constructed, and the eggs, generally four in number, +resemble those of the greenfinch, but are larger in size. This species +ranges throughout the continent of Europe,[3] and occurs in the islands +of the Mediterranean and in the fir-woods of the Atlas. In Asia it would +seem to extend to Kamtschatka and Japan, keeping mainly to the +forest-tracts. + +Three other forms of the genus also inhabit the Old World--two of them +so closely resembling the common bird that their specific validity has +been often questioned. The first of these, of large stature, the +parrot-crossbill (_L. pityopsittacus_), comes occasionally to Great +Britain, presumably from Scandinavia, where it is known to breed. The +second (_L. himalayana_), which is a good deal smaller, is only known +from the Himalaya Mountains. The third, the two-barred crossbill (_L. +taenioptera_), is very distinct, and its proper home seems to be the +most northern forests of the Russian empire, but it has occasionally +occurred in western Europe and even in England. + +The New World has two birds of the genus. The first (_L. americana_), +representing the common British species, but with a smaller bill, and +the males easily recognizable by their more scarlet plumage, ranges from +the northern limit of coniferous trees to the highlands of Mexico, or +even farther. The other (_L. leucoptera_) is the equivalent of the +two-barred crossbill, but smaller. It has twice occurred in England. + (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] This peculiarity is found as an accidental malformation in the + crows (_Corvidae_) and other groups; it is comparable to the + monstrosities seen in rabbits and other members of the order + _Glires_, in which the incisor teeth grow to an inordinate length. + + [2] A medieval legend ascribes the conformation of bill and + coloration of plumage to a divine recognition of the bird's pity, + bestowed on Christ at the crucifixion. + + [3] Dr Malmgren found a small flock on Bear Island (lat. 74(1/2) deg. + N.), but to this barren spot they must have been driven by stress of + weather. + + + + +CROSSEN, or KROSSEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on +the Oder, here crossed by a bridge, at the influx of the Bober, 31 m. +S.E. of Frankfort-on-Oder by rail. Pop. (1900) 7369. Of the churches in +the town three are Protestant and one Roman Catholic. Besides the +modern school (Realprogymnasium), there are a technical school for +viniculture and fruit-growing and a dairy school. There are +manufactories of copper and brass ware, cloth, &c., while in the +surrounding country the chief industries are fruit and grape growing. +There is a brisk shipping trade, mainly in wine, fruit and fish. Crossen +was founded in 1005 and was important during the middle ages as a point +of passage across the Oder. It attained civic rights in 1232, was for a +time the capital of a Silesian duchy, which, on the death of Barbara of +Brandenburg, widow of the last duke, passed to Brandenburg (1482). In +May 1886 the town was devastated by a whirlwind. + + + + +CROSSING, in architecture, the term given to the intersection of the +nave and transept, frequently surmounted by a tower or by a dome on +pendentives. + + + + +CROSSKEY, HENRY WILLIAM (1826-1893), English geologist and Unitarian +minister, was born at Lewes in Sussex, on the 7th of December 1826. +After being trained for the ministry at Manchester New College +(1843-1848), he became pastor of Friargate chapel, Derby, until 1852, +when he accepted charge of a Unitarian congregation in Glasgow. In 1869 +he removed to Birmingham, where until the close of his life he was +pastor of the Church of the Messiah. While in Glasgow his interest was +awakened in geology by the perusal of A. C. Ramsay's _Geology of the +Isle of Arran_, and from 1855 onwards he devoted his leisure to the +pursuit of this science. He became an authority on glacial geology, and +wrote much, especially in conjunction with David Robertson, on the +post-tertiary fossiliferous beds of Scotland (_Trans. Geol. Soc. +Glasgow_). He also prepared for the British Association a valuable +series of Reports (1873-1892) on the erratic Blocks of England, Wales +and Ireland. In conjunction with David Robertson and G. S. Brady he +wrote the _Monograph of the Post Tertiary Entomostraca of Scotland_, &c. +for the Palaeontographical Society (1874); and he edited H. Carvill +Lewis' _Papers and Notes on the Glacial Geology of Great Britain and +Ireland_, issued posthumously (1894). He died at Edgbaston, Birmingham, +on the 1st of October 1893. + + See _H. W. Crosskey: his Life and Work_, by R. A. Armstrong (with + chapter on his geological work by Prof. C. Lapworth, 1895). + + + + +CROSS RIVER, a river of West Africa, over 500 m. long. It rises in 6 +deg. N, 10 deg. 30' E. in the mountains of Cameroon, and flows at first +N.W. In 8 deg. 48' E., 5 deg. 50' N. are a series of rapids; below this +point the river is navigable for shallow-draught boats. At 8 deg. 20' +E., 6 deg. 10' N., its most northern point, the river turns S.W. and +then S., entering the Gulf of Guinea through the Calabar estuary. The +Calabar river, which rises about 5 deg. 30' N., 8 deg. 30' E., has a +course parallel to, and 10 to 20 m. east of, the Cross river. Near its +mouth, on its east bank, is the town of Calabar (q.v.). It enters the +estuary in 4 deg. 45' N. The Cross, Calabar, Kwa and other streams +farther east, which rise on the flanks of the Cameroon Mountains, form a +large delta. The Calabar and Kwa rivers are wholly within the British +protectorate of Southern Nigeria, as is the Cross river from its mouth +to the rapids mentioned. The upper course of the river is in German +territory. + + + + +CROSS-ROADS, BURIAL AT, in former times the method of disposing of +executed criminals and suicides. At the cross-roads a rude cross usually +stood, and this gave rise to the belief that these spots were selected +as the next best burying-places to consecrated ground. The real +explanation is that the ancient Teutonic peoples often built their +altars at the cross-roads, and as human sacrifices, especially of +criminals, formed part of the ritual, these spots came to be regarded as +execution grounds. Hence after the introduction of Christianity, +criminals and suicides were buried at the cross-roads during the night, +in order to assimilate as far as possible their funeral to that of the +pagans. An example of a cross-road execution-ground was the famous +Tyburn in London, which stood on the spot where the Oxford, Edgware and +London roads met. + + + + +CROSS SPRINGER, in architecture, the block from which the diagonal ribs +of a vault spring or start: the top of the springer is known as the +skewback (see ARCH). + + + + +CROTCH, WILLIAM (1775-1847), English musician, was born in Green's Lane, +Norwich, on the 5th of July 1775. His father was a master carpenter. The +child was extraordinarily precocious, and when scarcely more than two +years of age he played upon an organ of his parent's construction +something like the tune of "God save the King." At the age of four he +came to London and gave daily recitals on the organ in the rooms of a +milliner in Piccadilly. The precocity of his musical intuition was +almost equalled by a singularly early aptitude for drawing. In 1786 he +went to Cambridge as assistant to Dr Randall the organist. His oratorio +_The Captivity of Judah_ was played at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, on the +4th of June 1789. He was then only fourteen years of age. His intention +of entering the church carried him to Oxford in 1788, but the superior +attractions of a musical career acquired an increasing influence over +him, and in 1790 he was appointed organist of Christ Church. At the +early age of twenty-two he was appointed professor of music in the +university of Oxford, and there in 1799 he took his degree of doctor in +that art. In 1800 and the four following years he read lectures on music +at Oxford. Next he was appointed lecturer on music to the Royal +Institution, and subsequently, in 1822, principal of the London Royal +Academy of Music. His last years were passed at Taunton in the house of +his son, the Rev. W. R. Crotch, where he died suddenly on the 29th of +December 1847. He published a number of vocal and instrumental +compositions, of which the best is his oratorio _Palestine_, produced in +1812. In 1831 appeared an 8vo volume containing the substance of his +lectures on music, delivered at Oxford and in London. Previously, he had +published three volumes of _Specimens of Various Styles of Music_. Among +his didactic works is _Elements of Musical Composition and +Thorough-Bass_ (London, 1812). The oratorio bearing the title _The +Captivity of Judah_, and produced on the occasion of the installation of +the duke of Wellington as chancellor of the university of Oxford in +1834, is a totally different work from that which he wrote upon the same +subject as a boy of fourteen. He arranged for the pianoforte a number of +Handel's oratorios and operas, besides symphonies and quartetts of +Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. The great expectations excited by his +infant precocity were not fulfilled; for he manifested no extraordinary +genius for musical composition. But he was an industrious student and a +sound artist, and his name remains familiar in English musical history. + + + + +CROTCHET (from the Fr. _croche_, a hook; whence also the Anglicized +"crochet," pronounced as in French, for the knitting-work done with a +hook instead of on pins), properly a small hook, and so used of the +hook-like _setae_ or bristles found in certain worms which burrow in +sand. In music, a "crotchet" is a note of half the value of a minim and +double that of a quaver; it is marked by a round black head and a line +without a tail or hook; the French _croche_ is used of a "quaver" which +has a tail, but in ancient music the _semiminima_, the modern crotchet, +is marked by an open note with a hook. Derived either from an old French +proverbial phrase, _il a des crochues en teste_, or from a meaning of +twist or turn, as in the similar expression "crank," comes the sense of +a whim, fancy or perverse idea, seen also in the adjective "crotchety" +of a fussy unreasonable person. + + + + +CROTONA, CROTO or CROTON (Gr. [Greek: Kroton], mod. Cotrone) a Greek +town on the E. coast of the territory of the Bruttii (mod. _Calabria_), +on a promontory 7 m. N.W. of the Lacinian promontory. It was founded by +a colony of Achaeans led by Myscellus in 710 B.C. Its name was, +according to the legend, that of a local prince who afforded hospitality +to Heracles, but was accidentally killed by him and buried on the spot. +Like Sybaris, it soon became a city of power and wealth. It was +especially celebrated for its successes in the Olympic games from 588 +B.C. onwards, Milo being the most famous of its athletes. Pythagoras +established himself here between 540 and 530 B.C. and formed a society +of 300 disciples (among whom was Milo), who acquired considerable +influence with the supreme council of 1000 by which the city was ruled. +In 510 B.C. Crotona was strong enough to defeat the Sybarites, with whom +it had previously been on friendly terms, and raze their city to the +ground. Shortly afterwards, however, an insurrection took place, by +which the disciples of Pythagoras were driven out, and a democracy +established. The victory of the Locrians and Phlegians over Crotona in +480 B.C. marked the beginning of its decline. It suffered after this +from the attacks of Dionysius I., who became its master for twelve +years, of the Bruttii, and of Agathocles, and even more from the +invasion of Pyrrhus, after which in 277 the Romans obtained possession +of it. Livy states that the walls had a length of 12 m. and that about +half the area within them had at that time ceased to be inhabited. After +the battle of Cannae Crotona revolted from Rome, and Hannibal made it +his winter quarters for three years. It was made a colony by the Romans +at the end of the war (194 B.C.). After that time but little is heard of +it, though Petronius mentions the corrupt morals of its inhabitants; but +it continues to be mentioned down to the Gothic wars. The importance of +the city was mainly due to its harbour, which, though not a good one, +was the only port between Tarentum and Rhegium. The original settlement +occupied the hill above it (143 ft.) and later became the acropolis. Its +healthy situation was famous in antiquity, and to this was ascribed its +superiority in athletics; it was the seat also of a medical school which +in the days of Herodotus was considered the first in Greece. Of the +exact site of the ancient city and its remains practically nothing is +known; a few fragments of the productions of its art preserved in +private hands at Cotrone are described by F. von Duhn in _Notizie degli +scavi_, 1897, 343 seq. (T. As.) + + + + +CROTONIC ACID (C4H6O2). Three acids of this empirical formula are known, +viz. crotonic acid, isocrotonic acid and methacrylic acid; the +constitutional formulae are-- + + HC.CO(2)H, HC.CO2H /CH3 + .. .. CH2:C + HC.CH3 CH3.CH \CO2H. + Crotonic Acid. Isocrotonic Acid. Methacrylic Acid. + +The isomerism of crotonic and isocrotonic acids is to be explained on +the assumption of a different spatial arrangement of the atoms in the +molecule (see STEREOCHEMISTRY). + +Crotonic acid, so named from the fact that it was erroneously supposed +to be a saponification product of croton oil, may be prepared by the +oxidation of croton-aldehyde, CH3.CH:CH.CHO, obtained by dehydrating +aldol, or by treating acetylene successively with sulphuric acid and +water; by boiling allyl cyanide with caustic potash; by the distillation +of [beta]-oxybutyric acid; by heating paraldehyde with malonic acid and +acetic acid to 100 deg. C. (T. Komnenos, _Ann._, 1883, 218, p. 149). + + CH2(COOH)2 + CH3CHO -> CH3CH:C(COOH)2 -> CH3.CH:CH.COOH; + +or by heating pyruvic acid with an excess of acetic anhydride and sodium +acetate to 160-180 deg. C. (B. Homolka, _Ber._, 1885, 18, p. 987). It +crystallizes in needles (from hot water) which melt at 72 deg. C. and +boil at 180-181 deg. C. It is moderately soluble in cold water. It +combines directly with bromine, and, with fuming hydrobromic acid at 100 +deg. C., it gives chiefly [alpha]-brombutyric acid. With hydriodic acid +it gives only [beta]-iodobutyric acid. Potash fusion converts it into +acetic acid; nitric acid oxidizes it to acetic and oxalic acids; chromic +acid mixture to acetaldehyde and acetic acid, and potassium permanganate +to [alpha][beta]-dioxybutyric acid. + +Isocrotonic acid (Quartenylic acid) is obtained from +[beta]-chlorisocrotonic acid, formed when acetoacetic ester is treated +with phosphorus pentachloride and the product poured into water, by the +action of sodium amalgam (A. Geuther). It is an oil, possessing a smell +like that of butyric acid. It boils at 171.9 deg. C., with partial +conversion into crotonic acid; the transformation is complete when the +acid is heated to 170-180 deg. C. in a sealed tube. Potassium +permanganate oxidizes it to [beta][gamma]-dioxybutyric acid. + +Methacrylic acid was first obtained in the form of its ethyl ester by E. +Frankland and B. F. Duppa (_Annalen_, 1865, 136, p. 12) by acting with +phosphorus pentachloride on oxyisobutyric ester (CH3)2.C(OH).COOC2H5. It +is, however, more readily obtained by boiling citra- or +meso-brompyrotartaric acids with alkalis. It crystallizes in prisms, +which are soluble in water, melt at 16 deg. C., and boil at 160.5 deg. +C. When fused with an alkali, it forms propionic acid; with biomine it +yields [alpha][beta]-dibromisobutyric acid. Sodium amalgam reduces it to +isobutyric acid. A polymeric form of methacrylic acid has been described +by F. Engelhorn (_Ann._, 1880, 200, p. 70). + + + + +CROTON OIL (_Crotonis Oleum_), an oil prepared from the seeds of _Croton +Tiglium_, a tree belonging to the natural order Euphorbiaceae, and +native or cultivated in India and the Malay Islands. The tree is from 15 +to 20 ft. in height, and has few and spreading branches, alternate, +oval-oblong leaves, acuminate at the point, and covered when young with +stellate hairs, and terminal racemes of small, downy, greenish-yellow, +monoecious flowers. The male blossoms have five petals and fifteen +stamens; the females have no petals but a large oblong ovary bearing +three bifid styles. The fruit or capsule is obtusely three-cornered, and +about the size of a hazel-nut; it contains three cells each enclosing a +seed. The seeds resemble those of the castor-oil plant; they are about +half an inch long, and two-fifths of an inch broad, and have a +cinnamon-brown, brittle integument; between the two halves of the kernel +lie the large cotyledons and radicle. The ocular distinction between the +two kinds of seeds may be of great practical importance. The most +obvious distinction is that the castor-oil seeds have a polished and +mottled surface. The kernels contain from 50 to 60% of oil, which is +obtained by pressing them, when bruised to a pulp, between hot plates. +Croton oil is a transparent and viscid liquid of a brownish or +pale-yellow tinge, and acrid, peculiar and persistent taste, a +disagreeable odour and acid reaction. It is soluble in volatile oils, +carbon disulphide, and ether, and to some extent in alcohol. It contains +acetic, butyric and valeric acids, with glycerides of acids of the same +series, and a volatile body, C5H8O2, tiglic acid, metameric with angelic +acid, and identical with methylcrotonic acid, CH3.CH:C(CH3)(CO2H). The +odour is due to various volatile acids, which are present to the extent +of about 1%. A substance called crotonal appears to be responsible for +its external, but not its internal, action. The latter is probably due +to crotolinic acid, C9H14O2, which has active purgative properties. The +maximum dose of croton oil is two minims, one-fourth of that quantity +being usually ample. + +Applied to the skin, croton oil acts as a powerful irritant, inducing so +much inflammation that definite pustules are formed. The destruction of +the true skin gives rise to ugly scars which constitute, together with +the pain caused by this application, abundant reason why croton oil +should never be employed externally. Despite the pharmacopoeial liniment +and the practice of a few, it may be said that this employment of croton +oil is now entirely without justification or excuse. + +Taken internally, even in the minute doses already detailed, croton oil +very soon causes much colic and the occurrence of a fluid diarrhoea +which usually recurs several times. It is characteristic of this +purgative that it is a hydragogue even in minimal dose, the fluid +secretions of the bowel being most markedly increased. The drug appears +to act only upon the small intestine. In somewhat larger doses it +produces severe gastro-enteritis. The flow of bile is somewhat +increased. Such effects may all be produced, even up to the discharge of +blood, by the absorption of croton oil from the skin. + +The minuteness of the dose, the certainty of the action, and the large +amount of fluid drained away constitute this the best drug for +administration to an unconscious patient (especially in cases of +apoplexy, when it is desirable to remove fluid from the body), or to +insane patients who refuse to take any drug. One drop of the oil, placed +on the back of the tongue, must inevitably be swallowed by reflex +action. A dose should never be repeated. The characters of this drug +obviously contra-indicate its use in all cases of organic disease or +obstruction of the bowel, in pregnancy, or in cases of constipation in +children or the aged. + + + + +CROUP, a name formerly given to diseases characterized by distress in +breathing accompanied by a metallic cough and some hoarseness of +speech. It is now known that these symptoms are often associated with +diphtheria (q.v.), spasmodic laryngitis (q.v.), and a third disease, +spasmodic croup, to which the term is now alone applied. This occurs +most frequently in children above two years of age; the child goes to +bed quite well, and a few hours later suddenly awakes with great +difficulty in inspiration, the chest wall becomes markedly retracted, +and there is a metallic cough. The child becomes cyanosed, and, to the +inexperienced nurse, seems in an almost moribund condition. In the +course of four or five minutes, normal respiration starts again, and the +attack is over for the time being; but it may recur several times a day. +The seizure may be accompanied by convulsions, and death has occurred +from dyspnoea. The best treatment is to plunge the child into a warm +bath, and sponge the back and chest with cold water. Subsequently this +can be done two or three times a day. Should the cyanosis become very +severe, respiration can be restarted by making the child sick, either +with a dose of ipecacuanha wine, or by forcing one's finger down the +throat. Generally the bowels should be attended to; and the throat +carefully examined for enlarged tonsils or adenoids, which if present +should be treated. + + + + +CROUSAZ, JEAN PIERRE DE (1663-1750), Swiss writer, was born at Lausanne. +He was a many-sided man, whose numerous works on many subjects had a +great vogue in their day, but are now forgotten. He has been described +as an _initiateur plutot qu'un createur_, chiefly because he introduced +at Lausanne the philosophy of Descartes in opposition to the reigning +Aristotelianism, and also as a Calvinist pendant (for he was a pastor) +of the French _abbes_ of the 18th century. He studied at Geneva, Leyden +and Paris, before becoming (1700) professor of philosophy and +mathematics at the academy of Lausanne, of which he was four times +rector before 1724, when the theological disputes connected with the +_Consensus_[1] led him to accept a chair of philosophy and mathematics +at Groningen. In 1726 he was appointed governor to the young prince +Frederick of Hesse-Cassel, and in 1735 returned to Lausanne with a good +pension. In 1737 he was reinstated in his old chair, which he retained +to his death. Gibbon, describing his first stay at Lausanne (1752-1755), +writes in his _Autobiography_, "the logic of de Crousaz had prepared me +to engage with his master Locke and his antagonist Bayle." + + The most important of his works are: _Nouvel Essai de logique_ (1712), + _Geometrie des lignes et des surfaces rectilignes et circulaires_ + (1712), _Traite du beau_ (1714), _Examen du traite de la liberte de + penser d'Antoine Collins_ (1718), _De l'education des enfants_ (1722, + dedicated to the then Princess of Wales), _Examen du pyrrhonisme + ancien et moderne_ (1733, an attack chiefly on Bayle), _Examen de + l'essai de M. Pope sur l'homme_ (1737, an attack on the Leibnitzian + theory of that poem), _Logique_ (6 vols., 1741), _De l'esprit humain_ + (1741), and _Reflexions sur l'ouvrage intitule: La Belle Wolfienne_ + (1743). (W. A. B. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The "Consensus ecclesiarum Helveticarum reformatarum" was a + document drawn up in 1675 and imposed in 1722--as a test of strict + Protestant orthodoxy as to the doctrine of grace--by Bern on its + subjects in Lausanne and Vaux. + + + + +CROW (Dutch, _kraai_, Ger. _Krahe_, Fr. _corbeau_, Lat. _corvus_), a +name most commonly applied in Britain to the bird properly called a rook +(_Corvus frugilegus_), but perhaps originally peculiar to its congener, +nowadays usually distinguished as the black or carrion-crow (_C. +corone_). By ornithologists it is also used in a far wider sense, as +under the title crows, or _Corvidae_, is included a vast number of birds +from almost all parts of the world, and this family is probably the most +highly developed of the whole class _Aves_. Leaving out of account the +best known of these, as the raven, rook, daw, pie and jay, with their +immediate allies, our attention will here be confined to the crows in +general; and then the species of the family to which the appellation is +more strictly applicable may be briefly considered. All authorities +admit that the family is very extensive, and is capable of being parted +into several groups, but scarcely any two agree. Especially must reserve +be exercised as regards the group _Streperinae_, or piping crows, +belonging to the Australian Region, and referred by some writers to the +shrikes (_Laniidae_): and the jays too have been erected into a distinct +family (_Garrulidae_), though it seems hardly possible to separate them +even as a subfamily from the pies (_Pica_ and its neighbours), which +lead almost insensibly to the typical crows (_Corvinae_). Dismissing +these subjects for the present, it will perhaps be most convenient to +treat of the two groups which are represented by the genera +_Pyrrhocorax_ or choughs, and _Corvus_ or true crows in the most limited +sense. + +_Pyrrhocorax_ comprehends at least two very good species, which have +been needlessly divided generically. The best known of them is the +Cornish chough (_P. graculus_), formerly a denizen of the precipitous +cliffs of the south coast of England, of Wales, of the west and north +coasts of Ireland, and some of the Hebrides, but now greatly reduced in +numbers, and only found in such places as are most free from the +intrusion of man or of daws (_Corvus monedula_), which last seem to be +gradually dispossessing it of its sea-girt strongholds, and its present +scarcity is probably in the main due to its persecution by its kindred. +In Britain, indeed, it would appear to be only one of the survivors of a +more ancient fauna, for in other countries where it is found it has been +driven inland, and inhabits the higher mountains of Europe and North +Africa. In the Himalayas a larger form occurs, which has been +specifically distinguished (_P. himalayanus_), but whether justifiably +so may be doubted. The general colour is a glossy black, and it has the +bill and legs bright red. The remaining species (_P. alpinus_) is +altogether a mountaineer, and does not affect a sea-shore life. +Otherwise it frequents much the same kind of localities, but it does not +occur in Britain. The alpine chough is somewhat smaller than its +congener, and is easily distinguished by its shorter and bright yellow +bill. Remains of both have been found in French caverns the deposits in +which were formed during the "Reindeer Age." Commonly placed by +systematists next to _Pyrrhocorax_ is the Australian genus _Corcorax_, +represented by a single species (_C. melanorhamphus_), but this +assignment of the bird, which is chiefly a frequenter of woodlands, +cannot be admitted without hesitation. + +Coming now to what may be literally considered crows, our attention is +mainly directed to the black or carrion-crow (_Corvus corone_) and the +grey, hooded or Royston crow (_C. cornix_). Both these inhabit Europe, +but their range and the time of their appearance are very different. The +former is, speaking generally, a summer visitant to the south-western +part of Europe, and the latter occupies the north-eastern portion--an +irregular line drawn diagonally from about the Firth of Clyde to the +head of the Adriatic roughly marking their respective distribution. But +both are essentially migrants, and hence it follows that when the black +crow, as summer comes to an end, retires southward, the grey crow moves +downward, and in many districts replaces it during winter. Further than +this, it has been incontestably proved that along or near the boundary +where these two birds march they not infrequently interbreed, and it is +believed that the hybrids, which sometimes wholly resemble one or other +of the parents and at other times assume an intermediate plumage, pair +indiscriminately among themselves or with the pure stock. Hence it has +seemed to many ornithologists who have studied the subject, that these +two birds, so long unhesitatingly regarded as distinct species, are only +local races of one and the same dimorphic species. No structural +difference--or indeed any difference except that of range (already +spoken of) and colour--can be detected, and the problem they offer is +one of which the solution is exceedingly interesting if not important to +zoologists in general.[1] Almost omnivorous in their diet, there is +little edible that comes amiss to them, and, except in South America, +they are mostly omnipresent. The fish-crow of North America (_C. +ossifragus_) demands a few words, since it betrays a taste for maritime +habits beyond that of other species, but the crows of Europe are not +averse on occasion to prey cast up by the waters. The house-crow of +India (_C. splendens_) is not very nearly allied to its European +namesakes, from which it can be readily distinguished by its smaller +size and the lustrous tints of its darkest feathers; while its +confidence in the human race has been so long encouraged by its +intercourse with an unarmed and inoffensive population that it becomes a +plague to the European abiding or travelling where it is abundant. +Hardly a station or camp in British India is free from a crowd of +feathered followers of this species, ready to dispute with the kites and +the cooks the very meat at the fire. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] As bearing upon this question may be mentioned the fact that the + crow of Australia (_C. australis_) is divisible into two forms or + races, one having the irides white, the other of a dark colour. It is + stated that they keep apart and do not intermix. + + + + +CROWBERRY, or CRAKEBERRY, the English name for a low-growing heath-like +shrub, found on heaths and rocks in Scotland, Ireland and mountainous +parts of England. It is known botanically as _Empetrum nigrum_, and has +slender, wiry, spreading branches covered with short, narrow, stiff +leaves, the margins of which are recurved so as to form a hollow +cylinder concealing the hairy under face of the leaf--a device to avoid +excessive loss of water from the leaf under the exposed conditions in +which the plant grows. The minute flowers are succeeded by black, +edible, berry-like fruits, one-fourth to one-third of an inch in +diameter. The plant has a wide distribution, occurring in suitable +localities throughout the north temperate zone, and on the Andes of +South America. + + + + +CROWD, CROUTH, CROWTH (Welsh _crwth_; Fr. _crout_; Ger. _Chrotta_, +_Hrotta_), a medieval stringed instrument derived from the lyre, +characterized by a sound-chest having a vaulted back and an open space +left at each side of the strings to allow the hand to pass through in +order to stop the strings on the finger-board. The Welsh crwth, which +survived until the end of the 18th century, is best represented by a +specimen of that date preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum, and +described and illustrated by Carl Engel.[1] The instrument consists of a +rectangular sound-chest 22 in. long, 9(1/2) in. wide and 2 in. deep; the +body is scooped out of a single block, the flat belly being glued on. +Right through the sound-chest on each side of the finger-board is the +characteristic open space left for the hand to pass through. There are +two circular sound-holes; the left foot of the flat bridge, which lies +obliquely across the belly, passes through the left sound-hole and rests +inside on the back of the instrument. Six catgut strings fastened to a +tail-piece are wound round pegs at the top of the crwth; four of these +strings lie over the sound-board and bridge, and are set in vibration by +means of a bow, while the two others, used as drones and stretched +across the left-hand aperture, are twanged by the thumb of the left +hand. The shape and shallowness of the bridge make it impossible to +sound a single string with the bow; the arrangement of the strings +suggests that they were intended to be sounded in pairs. The instrument +is tuned thus: [Music notes]. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Welsh Crwth, 18th century.] + + At the beginning of the 19th century, William Bingley[2] heard a Welsh + peasant playing national airs on a crwth strung as follows:--[Music + notes]. Sir John Hawkins[3] relates that in his time there was still a + Welshman living in Anglesea who understood how to play the crwth + according to traditional usage. Edward Jones[4] and Daines + Barrington[5] both give an account of the Welsh crwth of the 18th + century which agrees substantially with Engel's; the illustration + communicated by Daines Barrington shows the strings of the crwth drawn + through holes at the top, and fastened on the back, as on the Persian + rebab and other Oriental stringed instruments. On these somewhat + scanty authentic records of the instrument, several historians of + music have based an illogical claim that the crwth, or rather chrotta + or rotta, mentioned by Venantius Fortunatus as a British instrument, + was the Welsh crwth as it was known in the 18th century, and was the + earliest bowed instrument, and therefore the ancestor of the violin. + The lines of Fortunatus, who was bishop of Poictiers during the second + half of the 6th century, ran thus:--[6] + + "Romanusque lyra, plaudat tibi Barbarus harpa, + Graecus Achilliaca, chrotta Britanna canat." + + The bow is not mentioned by Fortunatus, and there is no ground + whatever for believing that the Welsh crwth was played with a bow in + the 6th century, or indeed for several centuries after. The stringing + of the Welsh crwth with the two drone strings still twanged, the form + of the body without incurvations, the flat bridge which rendered + bowing, even in the most highly developed specimens of the 18th + century, a difficult task, together with what is known of the early + history of the chrotta and rotta derived from the lyre and cithara and + like them twanged by fingers or plectrum, all make the claim + untenable. Carl Engel was probably the first to expose the fallacy in + his work on the violin.[7] + + British lexicographers all agree in deriving the words crwth, crowd + and other forms of the name, from some word meaning a bulging + protuberant bellying form, while in German the etymology of the word + _Chrotta_ is given as _Chrota_ or _Chreta_, the O.H.G. for _Krote_ = + toad, _Schildkrote_ = tortoise. This word _Chrotta_ was undoubtedly + the German equivalent term for the lyre of Hermes, having as back a + tortoise-shell, [Greek: chelys] in Greek and _testudo_ in Latin. + Chrotta was also spelt _hrotta_, and it is easy to see how this became + rotta. A thoughtful and suggestive treatment of the whole subject will + be found in Engel's work, to which reference has been made. Just as + the lyre and cithara, which appeared to be similar to the casual + observer, and are indeed still confused at the present day, were + instruments differing essentially in construction[8]; so there were, + during the early middle ages, while lyre and cithara were still in + transition, two types of chrotta or rotta. (1) The rotta or improved + cithara had a body either rectangular with the corners rounded, or + guitar-shaped with incurvations, back and sound-board being nearly or + quite flat, joined as in the cithara by ribs or sides. This rotta must + be reckoned among the early ancestors of the violin before the advent + of the bow; it was known both as rotta and cithara, and with a neck + added it became the guitar-fiddle. (2) The tortoise or lyre chrotta + consisted of a protuberant, very convex back cut out of a block of + wood, to which was glued a flat sound-board, at first like the lyre, + without intermediary ribs. This instrument became the crwth, and there + was no further development. The first step in the transition of both + lyre and cithara was the incorporation of arms and cross-bar into the + body, the same outline being preserved; the second step was the + addition of a finger-board against which the strings were stopped, + thus increasing the compass while restricting the number of strings to + three or four; the third step, observed only in the rotta-cithara, + consisted in the addition of a neck,[9] as in the guitar. The crwth, + crowd, crouth did not undergo this third transition even when the bow + was used to set the strings in vibration. + + [Illustration: Drawn from a plate in Auguste de Bastard's _Peintures + et ornements de la bible de Charles le Chauve_. + + FIG. 2.--Early Crwth, 9th century.] + + The earliest representation of the crwth yet discovered dates from the + Carolingian period. In the miniatures of the Bible of Charles the + Bald,[10] in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, one of the musicians + of King David is seen stopping strings on the finger-board with his + left hand and plucking them with the right (fig. 2); this crwth has + only three strings, and may be the crwth _trithant_ of Wales. A second + example occurs in the Bible of St Paul,[11] another of the magnificent + MSS. prepared for Charles the Bald, and preserved during the middle + ages in the monastery of St Paul _extra muros_ in Rome (now deposited + in that of St Calixtus in Rome). Other representations are in the + miniatures of the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries. To Edward Heron-Allen + (_De fidiculis opuscula_, viii., 1895) is due the discovery of a + representation of the Welsh crwth, showing the form still retained in + the 18th cent. On the seal of Roger Wade (1316) is a crwth differing + but little from the specimen in the Victoria and Albert Museum. The + 14th-century instrument had four strings instead of six, and the foot + of the bridge does not appear to pass through the sound-hole--a detail + which may have escaped the notice of the artist who cut the seal. The + original seal lies in the muniment room at Berkeley Castle in + Gloucestershire attached to a defeasance of a bond between the + _crowder_ and his debtor Warren de l'Isle, and a cast (see fig. 3) is + preserved at the British Museum. The British Museum also possesses two + interesting MSS. which concern the crwth: one of these (Add. MS. 14939 + ff. 4 and 27) contains an extract made by Lewis Morris in 1742 from an + ancient Welsh MS. of "Instructions supposed to be wrote for the + Crowd"; the other (Add. MS. 15036 ff. 65b and 66) consists of tracings + from a 16th-century Welsh MS. copied in 1610 of a bagpipe, a harp and + a _krythe_, together with the names of those who played the last at + the Eisteddfod. The drawing is crude, and shows an instrument similar + to Roger Wade's crowd, but having three strings instead of four. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Crowd on a 14th-century Seal.] + + The genealogical tree of the violin given below shows the relative + positions of both kinds of rotta and chrotta. + + Egyptian lyre-kissar Assyrian ketharah + | | + | +----------+---------+ + Greek lyre or chelys | | + | Greek cithara Persian cithara + Roman testudo | | + | Roman fidicula Arab cuitra, guitra + +-------------+-------------+--------+ | or cuitara + | | | | | | + Latin Old High Germ. Anglo-Saxon Welsh Cithara in | + chrotta, Chrota or crowd crwth transition, Moorish guitarra + rotta, rote Chreta or rotta + | + +-------------------------------------+----------------+ + | | | + Spanish viguela or Guitarra Latina Fidel, fidula, + vihuela de arco or vihuela de mano fyella, fythele, + | | &c. + | | | + | Spanish guitar | + +-------+---------+---------------+ | + | | | | + Italian viola French vielle Guitar-fiddle Fiddle + | or viole + Violin + + The Welsh crwth was therefore obviously not an exclusively Welsh + instrument, but only a late 18th-century survival in Wales of an + archaic instrument once generally popular in Europe but long obsolete. + An interesting article on the subject in German by J. F. W. Wewertem + will be found in _Monatshefte fur Musik_ (Berlin, 1881), Nos. 7-12, p. + 151, &c. (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See _Early History of the Violin Family_ (London, 1883), pp. + 24-36. + + [2] See _A Tour round North Wales_ (London, 1804), vol. ii. p. 332. + + [3] _History of Music_ (London, 1766), vol. ii. bk. iii. ch. iii., + description and illustration. + + [4] _Musical and Poetical Relicks of Welsh Bards_ (London, 1794), + illustration of crwth, also reproduced by Carl Engel; see note above. + + [5] _Archaeologia_, vol. iii. (London, 1775). + + [6] Venantius Fortunatus, Poemata, lib. vii. cap. 8, p. 245; see + Migne's _Patrologia Sacra_, vol. 88. + + [7] _Op. cit._ chapters "Crwth," "Chrotta," "Rotta." + + [8] See Kathleen Schlesinger, _Orchestral Instruments_, part ii., + "The Precursors of the Violin Family" (London, 1909), pp. 14 to 23, + with illustrations. + + [9] See also Kathleen Schlesinger, op. cit. ch. vii., "The Cithara in + Transition," pp. 111-135 with illustrations. + + [10] See Auguste de Bastard, _Peintures et ornements des MSS. de + France_, and _Peintures, ornements, &c., de la bible de Charles le + Chauve_, in facsimile (Paris, 1883). + + [11] See J. O. Westwood, _Photographic Facsimile of the Bible of St + Paul_ (London, 1876). + + + + +CROWE, EYRE EVANS (1799-1868), English journalist and historian, was +born about the year 1799. He commenced his work as a writer for the +London newspaper press in connexion with the _Morning Chronicle_, and he +afterwards became a leading contributor to the _Examiner_ and the _Daily +News_. Of the latter journal he was principal editor for some time +previous to his death. The department he specially cultivated was that +of continental history and foreign politics. He published _Lives of +Foreign Statesmen_ (1830), _The Greek and the Turk_ (1853), and _Reigns +of Louis XVIII. and Charles X._ (1854). These were followed by his most +important work, the _History of France_ (5 vols., 1858-1868). It was +founded upon original sources, in order to consult which the author +resided for a considerable time in Paris. He died in London on the 25th +of February 1868. + + + + +CROWE, SIR JOSEPH ARCHER (1828-1896), English consular official and art +critic, son of Eyre Crowe, was born in London on the 25th of October +1828. At an early age he showed considerable aptitude for painting and +entered the studio of Delaroche in Paris, where his father was +correspondent of the _Morning Chronicle_. During the Crimean War he was +the correspondent of the _Illustrated London News_, and during the +Austro-Italian War represented _The Times_ in Vienna. He was British +consul-general in Leipzig from 1860 to 1872, and in Dusseldorf from 1872 +to 1880, when he was appointed commercial attache in Berlin, being +transferred in a like capacity to Paris in 1882. In 1883 he was +secretary to the Danube Conference in London; in 1889 plenipotentiary at +the Samoa Conference in Berlin; and in 1890 British envoy at the +Telegraph Congress in Paris, in which year he was made K.C.M.G. During a +sojourn in Italy, 1846-1847, he cemented a lifelong friendship with the +Italian critic Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle (1820-1897), and together +they produced several historical works on art of classic importance, +notably _Early Flemish Painters_ (London, 1857); _A New History of +Painting in Italy from the Second to the Sixteenth Century_ (London, +1864-1871, 5 vols.). In 1895 Crowe published _Reminiscences of +Thirty-Five Years of My Life_. He died at Schloss Gamburg in Bavaria on +the 6th of September 1896. + + Crowe and Cavalcaselle's great _History of Painting_ was under + revision by Crowe up to the time of his death, and then by S. A. + Strong (d. 1904) and Langton Douglas, who in 1903 brought out vols. i. + and ii. of Murray's new six-volume edition, the 3rd vol., edited by + Langton Douglas, appearing in 1909. A reprint of the original edition, + brought up to date by annotations by Edward Huttons, was published by + Dent in 3 vols. in 1909. + + + + +CROW INDIANS, or ABSAROKAS (the name for a species of hawk), a tribe of +North American Indians of Siouan stock. They are now settled to the +number of some 1800 on a reservation in southern Montana to the south of +the Yellowstone river. Their original range included this reservation +and extended eastward and southward, and no part of the country for +hundreds of miles around was safe from their raids. They have ever been +known as marauders and horse-stealers, and, though they have generally +been cunning enough to avoid open war with the whites, they have robbed +them whenever opportunity served. Physically they are tall and athletic, +with very dark complexions. + + + + +CROWLAND, or CROYLAND, a market-town in the S. Kesteven or Stamford +parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England; in a low fen district +on the river Welland, 8 m. N.E. of Peterborough, and 4 m. from Postland +station on the March-Spalding line of the Great Northern and Great +Eastern railways, and Peakirk on the Great Northern. Pop. (1901) 2747. A +monastery was founded here in 716 by King Aethelbald, in honour of St +Guthlac of Mercia (d. 714), a young nobleman who became a hermit and +lived here, and, it was said, had foretold Aethelbald's accession to the +throne. The site of St Guthlac's cell, not far from the abbey, is known +as Anchor (anchorite's) Church Hill. After the abbey had suffered from +the Danish incursions in 870, and had been burnt in that year and in +1091, a fine Norman abbey was raised in 1113. Remains of this building +appear in the ruined nave and tower arch, but the most splendid fragment +is the west front, of Early English date, with Perpendicular +restoration. The west tower is principally in this style. The north +aisle is restored and used as the parish church. Among the abbots was +Ingulphus (1085-1109), to whom was formerly attributed the _Historia +Monasterii Croylandensis_. A curious triangular bridge remains, +apparently of the 14th century, but referred originally to the middle of +the 9th century, which spanned three streams now covered, and affords +three footways which meet at an apex in the middle. + +The town of Crowland grew up round the abbey. By a charter dated 716, +Aethelbald granted the isle of Crowland, free from all secular services, +to the abbey with a gift of money, and leave to build and enclose the +town. The privileges thus obtained were confirmed by numerous royal +charters extending over a period of nearly 800 years. Under Abbot +Aegelric the fens were tilled, the monastery grew rich, and the town +increased in size, enormous tracts of land being held by the abbey at +the Domesday Survey. The town was nearly destroyed by fire (1469-1476), +but the abbey tenants were given money to rebuild it. By virtue of his +office the abbot had a seat in parliament, but the town was never a +parliamentary borough. Abbot Ralph Mershe in 1257 obtained a grant of a +market every Wednesday, confirmed by Henry IV. in 1421, but it was +afterwards moved to Thorney. The annual fair of St Bartholomew, which +originally lasted twelve days, was first mentioned in Henry III.'s +confirmatory charter of 1227. The dissolution of the monastery in 1539 +was fatal to the progress of the town, which had prospered under the +thrifty rule of the monks, and it rapidly sank into the position of an +unimportant village. The abbey lands were granted by Edward VI. to Lord +Clinton, from whose family they passed in 1671 to the Orby family. The +inhabitants formerly carried on considerable trade in fish and wild +fowl. + + See R. Gough, _History and Antiquities of Croyland_ (Bibl. Top. Brit. + iii. No. 11) (London, 1783); W. G. Searle, _Ingulf and the Historia + Croylandensis_ (Camb. Antiq. Soc., No. 27); Dugdale, _Monasticon_, ii. + 91 (London, 1846; Cambridge, 1894). + + + + +CROWLEY, ROBERT (1518?-1588), English religious and social reformer, was +born in Gloucestershire, and educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, of +which he was successively demy and fellow. Coming to London, he set up a +printing-office in Ely Rents, Holborn, where he printed many of his own +writings. As a typographer, his most notable production was an edition +of _Pierce Plowman_ in 1550, and some of the earliest Welsh printed +books came from his press. As an author, his first venture seems to have +been his "Information and Petition against the Oppressors of the poor +Commons of this realm," which internal evidence shows to have been +addressed to the parliament of 1547. It contains a vigorous plea for a +further religious reformation, but is more remarkable for its attack on +the "more than Turkish tyranny" of the landlords and capitalists of that +day. While repudiating communism, Crowley was a Christian Socialist, and +warmly approved the efforts of Protector Somerset to stop enclosures. In +his _Way to Wealth_, published in 1550, he laments the failure of the +Protector's policy, and attributes it to the organized resistance of the +richer classes. In the same year he published (in verse) _The Voice of +the last Trumpet blown by the seventh Angel_; it is a rebuke in twelve +"lessons" to twelve different classes of people; and a similar +production was his _One-and-Thirty Epigrams_ (1550). These, with +_Pleasure and Pain_ (1551), were edited for the Early English Text +Society in 1872 (Extra Ser. xv.). The dozen or more other works which +Crowley published are more distinctly theological: indeed, the failure +of the temporal policy he advocated seems to have led Crowley to take +orders, and he was ordained deacon by Ridley on the 29th of September +1551. During Mary's reign he was among the exiles at Frankfort. At +Elizabeth's accession he became a popular preacher, was made archdeacon +of Hereford in 1559, and prebendary of St Paul's in 1563, and was +incumbent first of St Peter's the Poor in London, and then of St Giles' +without Cripplegate. He refused to minister in the "conjuring garments +of popery," and in 1566 was deprived and imprisoned for resisting the +use of the surplice by his choir. He stated his case in "A brief +Discourse against the Outward Apparel and Ministering Garments of the +Popish Church," a tract "memorable," says Canon Dixon, "as the first +distinct utterance of Nonconformity." He continued to preach +occasionally, and in 1576 was presented to the living of St Lawrence +Jewry. Nor had he abandoned his connexion with the book trade, and in +1578 he was admitted a freeman of the Stationers' Company. He died on +the 18th of June 1588, and was buried in St Giles'. The most important +of his works not hitherto mentioned is his continuation of Languet and +Cooper's _Epitome of Chronicles_ (1559). + + See J. M. Cowper's _Pref. to the Select Works of Crowley_ (1872); + Strype's Works; Gough's _General Index to Parker Soc. Publ._; + Machyn's _Diary_; Macray's _Reg. Magdalen College_; Newcourt's _Rep. + Eccles. Lond._; Hennessy's _Nov. Rep. Eccl._ (1898); Le Neve's _Fasti + Eccl. Angl._; Pocock's Burnet; Pollard's _England under Somerset_; R. + W. Dixon's _Church History_. (A. F. P.) + + + + +CROWN, an English silver coin of the value of five shillings, hence +often used to express the sum of five shillings. It was originally of +gold and was first coined in the reign of Henry VIII. Edward VI. +introduced silver crowns and half-crowns, and down to the reign of +Charles II. crowns and half-crowns and sometimes double crowns were +struck both in gold and silver. In the reign of Edward VI. also was +introduced the practice of dating coins and marking them with their +current value. The "Oxford crown" struck in the reign of Charles I. was +designed by Rawlins (see NUMISMATICS: _Medieval_). Since the reign of +Charles II. the crown has been struck in silver only. At one time during +the 19th century it was proposed to abandon the issue of the crown, and +from 1861 until 1887 none was struck, but since the second issue in 1887 +it has been freely in circulation again. + + + + +CROWN and CORONET, an official or symbolical ornament worn on or round +the head. The crown (Lat. _corona_) at first had no regal significance. +It was a garland, or wreath, of leaves or flowers, conferred on the +winners in the athletic games. Afterwards it was often made of gold, and +among the Romans was bestowed as a recognition of honourable service +performed or distinction won, and on occasion it took such a form as to +correspond with, or indicate the character of, the service rendered. The +_corona obsidionalis_ was formed of grass and flowers plucked on the +spot and given to the general who conquered a city. The _corona civica_, +made of oak leaves with acorns, was bestowed on the soldier who in +battle saved the life of a Roman citizen. The mural crown (_corona +muralis_) was the decoration of the soldier who was the first to scale +the walls of a besieged city, and was usually a circlet of gold adorned +with a series of turrets. The naval crown (_corona navalis_), decorated +in like manner with a series of miniature prows of ships, was the reward +of him who gained a notable victory at sea. These latter crowns form +charges in English heraldry (see HERALDRY). + +Many other forms of crown were used by the Romans, as the conqueror's +triumphal crown of laurel, the myrtle crown, and the convivial, bridal, +funeral and other crowns. Some of the emperors wore crowns on occasion, +as Caligula and Domitian, at the games, and stellate or spike crowns are +depicted on the heads of several of the emperors on their coins, but no +idea of imperial sovereignty was indicated thereby. The Roman people, +who had accepted imperial rule as a fact, were very jealous of the +employment of its emblem on the part of their rulers. That emblem was +the diadem, and although the diadem and crown are frequently confused +with each other they were quite distinct, and it is well to bear this in +mind. The diadem, which was of eastern origin, was a fillet or band of +linen or silk, richly embroidered, and was worn tied round the forehead. +Selden (_Titles of Honour_, chap. viii. sect. 8) says that the diadem +and crown "have been from ancient times confounded, yet the diadem +strictly was a very different thing from what a crown now is or was, and +it was no other then than only a fillet of silk, linen, or some such +thing." It is desirable to remember the distinction, for, although +diadem and crown are now used as synonymous terms, the two were +originally quite distinct. The confusion between them has, perhaps, come +about from the fact that the modern crown seems to be rather an +evolution from the diadem than the lineal descendant of the older +crowns. The linen or silk diadem was eventually exchanged for a flexible +band of gold, which was worn in its place round the forehead. The +further development of the crown from this was readily effected by the +addition of an upper row of ornament. Thus the medieval and modern +crowns may be considered as radiated diadems, and so the diadem and +crown have become, as it were, merged in one another. + +Among the historical crowns of Europe, the Iron Crown of Lombardy, now +preserved at Monza, claims notice. It is a band of iron, enclosed in a +circlet formed of six plates of gold, hinged one to the other, and +richly jewelled and enamelled. It is regarded with great reverence, +owing to a legend that the inner band of iron has been hammered out of +one of the nails of the true cross. The crown is so small, the diameter +being only 6 in., and the circlet only 2(1/2) in. in width, that doubts +have been felt as to whether it was originally intended to be worn on +the head or was merely meant to be a votive crown. The legend as to the +iron being that of one of the nails of the cross is rejected by Muratori +and others, and cannot be traced far back. How it arose or how any +credence came to be reposed in the legend, it is difficult to surmise. +Another historical crown is that of Charlemagne, preserved at Vienna. It +is composed of a series of four larger and four smaller plaques of gold, +rounded at the tops and set together alternately. The larger plaques are +richly ornamented with emeralds and sapphires, and the smaller plaques +have each an enamelled figure of Our Lord, David, Solomon, and Hezekiah +respectively. A jewelled cross rises from the large front plaque, and an +arch bearing the name of the emperor Conrad springs across from the back +of this cross to the back of the crown. + +At Madrid there is preserved the crown of Svintilla, king of the +Visigoths, 621-631. It is a circlet of thick gold set with pearls, +sapphires and other stones. It has been given as a votive offering at +some period to a church, as was often the custom. Attached to its upper +rim are the chains whereby to suspend it, and from the lower rim hang +letters of red-coloured glass or paste which read +SVINTILANVS REX +OFFERET. Two other Visigothic crowns are also preserved with it in the +Armeria Real. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The Papal Tiara (without the _infulae_).] + +[Illustration: Figs. 2-4 from Meyer's _Konversations Lexikon_. + +FIG. 2.--Crown of the Holy Roman Empire.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Crown of the German Empire.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Crown of the Austrian Empire.] + +In 1858 a most remarkable discovery was made near Toledo, of eight gold +crowns of the 7th century, fashioned lavishly with barbaric splendour. +They are now in the Cluny Museum at Paris, having been purchased for +L4000, the intrinsic value of the gold, without reckoning that of the +jewels and precious stones, being not less than L600. The largest and +most magnificent is the crown of Reccesvinto, king of the Visigoths from +653 to 675. It is composed of a circlet of pure gold set with pearls and +precious stones in great profusion, which gives it a most sumptuous +appearance. It is 9 in. in diameter and more than 1/2 in. in thickness, +the width of the circlet being 4 in. It has also been given as a votive +offering to a church, and has the chains to hang it by attached to the +upper rim, while from the lower rim depend pearls, sapphires and a +series of richly jewelled letters 2 in. each in depth, which read ++RECCESVINTHVS REX OFFERET. The second of these crowns in size is +generally thought to be that of the queen of Reccesvinto. It has no +legend, but merely a cross hanging from it. The six others are smaller, +and are all most richly ornamented. They are believed to have been the +crowns of Reccesvinto's children. From one of them hangs a legend which +relates that they were an offering to a church, which has been +identified with much probability as that of Sorbas, a small town in the +province of Almeria. It has been surmised that in the disturbances which +soon afterwards followed they were buried out of sight for safety, where +they were eventually discovered absolutely unharmed centuries +afterwards. For a detailed description of these most remarkable crowns +the reader must be referred to a paper by the late Mr Albert Way +(_Archaeological Journal_, xvi. 253). Mr Way, in the article alluded to, +says of the custom of offering crowns to churches that frequent notices +of the usage may be found in the lives of the Roman pontiffs by +Anastasius. "They are usually described as having been placed over the +altar, and in many instances mention is made of jewelled crosses of gold +appended within such crowns as an accessory ornament.... The crowns +suspended in churches suggested doubtless the sumptuous pensile +luminaries, frequently designated from a very early period as _coronae_, +in which the form of the royal circlet was preserved in much larger +proportions, as exemplified by the remarkable _corona_ still to be seen +suspended in the cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle over the crypt in which +the body of Charlemagne was deposited." + +Of modern continental crowns the imperial crown of Austria (fig. 4) may +be mentioned. It is composed of a circlet of gold, adorned with precious +stones and pearls, heightened with fleurs-de-lys, and is raised above +the circlet in the form of a cap which is opened in the middle, so that +the lower part is crescent-shaped; across this opening from front to +back rises an arched fillet, enriched with pearls and surmounted by an +orb, on which is a cross of pearls. + +The papal _tiara_ (a Greek word, of Persian origin, for a form of +ancient Persian popular head-dress, standing high erect, and worn +encircled by a diadem by the kings), the triple crown worn by the popes, +has taken various forms since the 9th century. It is important to +remember that the tiaras in old Italian pictures are inventions of the +artists and not copied from actual examples. In its present shape, +dating substantially from the Renaissance, it is a peaked head-covering +not unlike a closed mitre (q.v.), round which are placed one above the +other three circlets or open crowns.[1] Two bands, or _infulae_, as they +are called, hang from it as in the case of a mitre. The tiara is the +crown of the pope as a temporal sovereign (see TIARA). + +Pictorial representations in early manuscripts, and the rude effigies on +their coins, are not very helpful in deciding as to the form of crown +worn by the Anglo-Saxon and Danish kings of England before the Norman +Conquest. In some cases it would appear as if the diadem studded with +pearls had been worn, and in others something more of the character of a +crown. We reach surer ground after the Conquest, for then the great +seals, monumental effigies, and coins become more and more serviceable +in determining the forms the crown took. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 10. + +Royal Crowns. William I. to Henry IV.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 15. + +Royal Crowns. Henry V. to Charles I.] + +The crown of William the Conqueror and his immediate successors seems to +have been a plain circlet with four uprights, which terminated in +trefoils (fig. 5), but Henry I. enriched the circlet with pearls or gems +(fig. 6), and on his great seal the trefoils have something of the +character of fleurs-de-lys. The effigy of Richard I. at Fontevrault +shows a development of the crown; the trefoil heads are expanded, and +are chased and jewelled. The crown of John is shown on his effigy at +Worcester, though unfortunately it is rather badly mutilated. It shows, +however, that the upper ornament was of fleurons set with jewels. Fig. 7 +shows generally this development of the crown in a restored form. The +crown on the effigy of Henry III. at Westminster had a beaded row below +the circlet, which is narrow and plain, and from it rises a series of +plain trefoils with slightly raised points between them. The tomb was +opened in 1774, and on the king's head was found an imitation crown of +tin or latten gilt, with trefoils rising from its upper edge. This, +although only made of base metal for the king's burial, may nevertheless +be taken as exhibiting the form of the royal crown at the time, and it +may be usefully compared with that on the effigy of the king, which was +made in Edward I.'s reign (fig. 8). Edward I. used a crown of very +similar design. In the crown of Edward II. we have perhaps the most +graceful and elegant of all the forms which the English medieval crown +assumed (fig. 9), and it seems to have continued without any marked +alteration during the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II. The crown on +the head of the effigy of Henry IV. at Canterbury evidently represents +one of great magnificence, both of design and ornament. What is perhaps +lost of the grace of form of the crown of Edward II. is made up for by a +profusion of adornment and ornamentation unsurpassed at any later period +(fig. 10). The circlet is much wider and is richly chased and jewelled, +and from it rise eight large leaves, the intervening spaces being filled +with fleurs-de-lys of definite outline. It will be noted that this crown +is, like its predecessors, what is known as an open crown, without any +arches rising from the circlet, but in the accounts of the coronation of +Henry IV. by Froissart and Waurin it is distinctly stated that the crown +was arched in the form of a cross. This is the earliest mention of an +arched crown, which is not represented on the great seal till that of +Edward IV. in 1461. The crown, as shown on Henry IV.'s effigy, very +probably represents the celebrated "Harry crown" which was afterwards +broken up and employed as surety for the loan required by Henry V. when +he was about to embark on his expedition to France. Fig. 11 shows the +crown of Henry V. The crown of Henry VI. seems to have had three +arches, and there is the same number shown on the crown of Henry VII., +which ensigns the hawthorn bush badge of that king. The crown of Edward +IV. (fig. 12) shows two arches, and a crown similarly arched appears on +the great seal of Richard III. Crowns, both open and arched, are +represented in sculpture and paintings until the end of the reign of +Edward IV., and the royal arms are occasionally ensigned by an open +crown as late as the reign of Henry VIII. The crown of Henry VII. on his +effigy in Westminster Abbey shows a circlet surmounted by four crosses +and four fleurs-de-lys alternately, and has two arches rising from it. A +similar crown appears on the great seal of Henry VIII. The crown of +Henry VII. (fig. 13), which ensigns the royal arms above the south door +of King's College chapel, Cambridge, has the motto of the order of the +Garter round the circlet. Fig. 14 shows the form of crown used by Edward +VI., but a tendency (not shown in the illustration) began of flattening +the arches of the crown, and on some of the coins of Elizabeth the +arches are not merely flattened, but are depressed in the centre, much +after the character of the arches of the crown on many of the silver +coins of the 19th century prior to 1887. The crowns of James I. and +Charles I. had four arches, springing from the alternate crosses and +fleurs-de-lys of the circlet (fig. 15). The crown which strangely enough +surmounts the shield with the arms of the Commonwealth on the coins of +Oliver Cromwell (as distinguished from those of the Commonwealth itself, +which have no crown) is a royal crown with alternate crosses and +fleurs-de-lys round the circlet, and is surmounted by three arches, +which, though somewhat flattened, are not bent. On them rests the orb +and cross. The crown used by Charles II. (fig. 16) shows the arches +depressed in the centre, a feature of the royal crown which seems to +have been continued henceforward till 1887, when the pointed form of the +arches was resumed, in consonance with an idea that such a form +indicated an imperial rather than a regal crown, Queen Victoria having +been proclaimed empress of India in 1877. In the foregoing account the +changes of the form of the crowns of the kings have been briefly +noticed. Those crowns were the personal crowns, worn by the different +kings on various state occasions, but they were all crowned before the +Commonwealth with the ancient crown of St Edward, and the queens consort +with that of Queen Edith. There were, in fact, two sets of regalia, the +one used for the coronations and kept at Westminster, and the other that +used on other occasions by the kings and kept in the Tower. The crowns +of this latter set were the personal crowns made to fit the different +wearers, and are those which have been briefly described. The crown of +St Edward, with which the sovereigns were crowned, had a narrow circlet +from which rose alternately four crosses and four fleurs-de-lys, and +from the crosses sprang two arches, which at their crossing supported an +orb and cross. These arches must have been a later addition, and +possibly were first added for the coronation of Henry IV. (_vide +supra_). Queen Edith's crown had a plain circlet with, so far as can be +determined, four crosses of pearls or gems on it, and a large cross +patee rising from it in front, and arches of jewels or pearls +terminating in a large pearl at the top. A valuation of these ancient +crowns was made at the time of the Commonwealth prior to their +destruction. From this valuation we learn that St Edward's crown was of +gold filigree or "wirework" as it is called, and was set with stones, +and was valued at L248. Queen Edith's crown was found to be only of +silver-gilt, with counterfeit pearls, sapphires and other stones, and +was only valued at L16. At the Restoration an endeavour was made to +reproduce as well as possible the old crowns and regalia according to +their ancient form, and a new crown of St Edward was made on the lines +of the old one for the coronation of Charles II. The framework of this +crown, bereft of its jewels, is in the possession of Lady Amherst of +Hackney. The crowns of James II., William III. and Anne generally +resembled it in form (fig. 16). The later crowns of the Georges and +William IV. are represented in general form in fig. 17. Although the +marginal note in the coronation order of Queen Victoria indicates "K. +Edward's crown" as that with which the late queen was to be crowned, it +was actually the state or imperial crown worn by the sovereign when +leaving the church after the ceremony that was used. It had been altered +for the coronation, and the arches were formed of oak leaves (fig. 18). +Fig. 19 shows Queen Victoria's crown with raised arches and without the +inner cap of estate, which since the reign of Henry VII. has been +degraded into forming a lining to the crowns of the sovereigns and the +coronets of the peers. Fig. 20 shows the coronation crown of King Edward +VII. The crown of Scotland, preserved with the Scottish regalia at +Edinburgh, is believed to be composed of the original circlet worn by +King Robert the Bruce. James V. made additions to it in 1535, and in +general characteristics it much resembles an English crown of that date. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 19. + +Recent Forms of the English Crown.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 18.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 20. + +Coronation Crowns of Queen Victoria and King Edward VII.] + +The kings of arms in England, Scotland and Ireland wear crowns, the +ornamentation of which round the upper rim of the circlet is composed of +a row of acanthus or oak leaves. Round the circlet is the singularly +inappropriate text from Psalm li., "_Miserere mei Deus secundum magnam +misericordiam tuam_." The form of these crowns seems to have been +settled in the reign of Charles II. Before that period they varied at +different times, according to representations given of them in grants of +arms, &c. + +This brings us to the crowns of lesser dignity, known for that reason as +coronets, and worn by the five orders of peers. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 22.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 23. + +Coronets of Dukes, Marquesses and Earls.] + +The use of crowns by dukes originated in 1362, when Edward III. created +his sons Lionel and John dukes of Clarence and Lancaster respectively. +This was done by investing them with a sword, a cap of maintenance or +estate, and with a circlet of gold set with precious stones, which was +imposed on the head. Previous to this dukes had been invested at their +creation by the girding on of a sword only. In 1387 Richard II. created +Richard de Vere marquess of Dublin, and invested him by girding on a +sword, and by placing a golden circlet on his head. The golden circlet +was confined to dukes and marquesses till 1444, when Henry VI. created +Henry Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, premier earl, and the letters patent +effecting this concede that the earl and his heirs shall wear a golden +circlet on the head on feast days, even in the royal presence. As to the +form of these circlets we have no clear knowledge. The dignity of a +viscount was first created by Henry VI. in 1439, but nothing is said of +any insignia pertaining to that dignity. It is believed that a circlet +of gold with an upper rim of pearls was first conferred on a viscount by +James I., who conceded it to Robert Cecil, Viscount Cranborne. However, +in 1625-1626 it is definitely recorded that the viscounts carried their +coronets in their hands in the coronation procession from Westminster +Hall to the Abbey church. The use of a coronet by the barons dates from +the coronation of Charles II., and by letters patent of the 7th of +August 1661 their coronet is described as a circle of gold with six +pearls on it. + +[Illustration: FIG. 24.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 25. + +Coronets of Viscounts and Barons.] + +At the present day the coronet of a duke (fig. 21) is formed of a +circlet of gold, from which rise eight strawberry leaves. The coronet of +a marquess (fig. 22) differs from that of a duke in having only four +strawberry leaves, the intervening spaces being occupied by four low +points which are surmounted by pearls. The coronet of an earl (fig. 23) +differs again by having eight tall rays on each of which is set a pearl, +the intervening spaces being occupied by strawberry leaves one-fourth of +the height of the rays. The coronet of a viscount (fig. 24) has sixteen +small pearls fixed to the golden circlet, and the coronet of a baron +(fig. 25) has six large pearls similarly arranged. + + AUTHORITIES.--L. G. Wickham Legg, _English Coronation Records_ + (London, 1901); _The Ancestor_, Nos. i. and ii. (London, 1902); + Stothard, _The Monumental Effigies of Great Britain_ (London, 1817). + (T. M. F.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A coloured drawing, done in the first half of the 18th century, + of the magnificent tiara made by the celebrated goldsmith, Caradosso, + for Julius II., is in the Print-Room, British Museum. It was + re-fashioned by Pius VI., but went with other treasure as part of the + indemnity to Napoleon. The splendid emerald at the summit, which was + engraved with the arms of Gregory XIII., was restored by Napoleon and + now adorns another papal tiara at Rome. In this drawing the three + crowns (a feature introduced at the beginning of the 14th century) + are represented by three bands of X-shaped ornament in enamelled + gold. + + + + +CROWN DEBT, in English law, a debt due to the crown. By various +statutes--the first dating from the reign of Henry VIII. (1541)--the +crown has priority for its debts before all other creditors. At common +law the crown always had a lien on the lands and goods of debtors by +record, which could be enforced even when they had passed into the hands +of other persons. The difficulty of ascertaining whether lands were +subject to a crown lien or not was often very great, and a remedy was +provided by the Judgments Act 1839, and the Crown Suits Act 1865. Now +by the Land Charges Act 1900, no debt due to the crown operates as a +charge on land until a writ of execution for the purpose of enforcing it +has been registered under the Land Charges Registration and Searches Act +1888. By the Act of 1541 specialty debts were put practically on the +same footing as debts by record. Simple contract debts due to the crown +also become specialty debts, and the rights of the crown are enforced by +a summary process called an _extent_ (see WRIT). + + + + +CROWNE, JOHN (d. c. 1703), British dramatist, was a native of Nova +Scotia. His father "Colonel" William Crowne, accompanied the earl of +Arundel on a diplomatic mission to Vienna in 1637, and wrote an account +of his journey. He emigrated to Nova Scotia where he received a grant of +land from Cromwell, but the French took possession of his property, and +the home government did nothing to uphold his rights. When the son came +to England his poverty compelled him to act as gentleman usher to an +Independent lady of quality, and his enemies asserted that his father +had been an Independent minister. He began his literary career with a +romance, _Pandion and Amphigenia, or the History of the coy Lady of +Thessalia_ (1665). In 1671 he produced a romantic play, _Juliana, or the +Princess of Poland_, which has, in spite of its title, no pretensions to +rank as an historical drama. The earl of Rochester procured for him, +apparently with the sole object of annoying Dryden by infringing on his +rights as poet-laureate, a commission to supply a masque for performance +at court. _Calisto_ gained him the favour of Charles II., but Rochester +proved a fickle patron, and his favour was completely alienated by the +success of Crowne's heroic play in two parts, _The Destruction of +Jerusalem by Titus Vespasian_ (1677). This piece contained a thinly +disguised satire on the Puritan party in the description of the +Pharisees, and about 1683 he produced a distinctly political play, _The +City Politiques_, satirizing the Whig party and containing characters +which were readily recognized as portraits of Titus Oates and others. +This made him many enemies, and he petitioned the king for a small place +that would release him from the necessity of writing for the stage. The +king exacted one more comedy, which should, he suggested, be based on +the _No pued esser_ of Moreto. This had already been unsuccessfully +adapted, as Crowne discovered later, by Sir Thomas St Serfe, but in +Crowne's hands it developed into _Sir Courtly Nice, It Cannot Be_ +(1685), a comedy which kept its place as a stock piece for nearly a +century. Unfortunately Charles II. died before the play was completed, +and Crowne was disappointed of his reward. He continued to write plays, +and it is stated that he was still living in 1703, but nothing is known +of his later life. + +Crowne was a fertile writer of plays with an historical setting, in +which heroic love was, in the fashion of the French romances, made the +leading motive. The prosaic level of his style saved him as a rule from +the rant to be found in so many contemporary heroic plays, but these +pieces are of no particular interest. He was much more successful in +comedy of the kind that depicts "humours." + + _The History of Charles the Eighth of France, or The Invasion of + Naples by the French_ (1672) was dedicated to Rochester. In _Timon_, + generally supposed to have been written by the earl, a line from this + piece--"whilst sporting waves smil'd on the rising sun"--was held up + to ridicule. _The Ambitious Statesman, or The Loyal Favourite_ (1679), + one of the most extravagant of his heroic efforts, deals with the + history of Bernard d'Armagnac, Constable of France, after the battle + of Agincourt; _Thyestes, A Tragedy_ (1681), spares none of the horrors + of the Senecan tragedy, although an incongruous love story is + interpolated; _Darius, King of Persia_ (1688), _Regulus_ (acted 1692, + pr. 1694) and _Caligula_ (1698) complete the list of his tragedies. + _The Country Wit: A Comedy_ (acted 1675, pr. 1693), derived in part + from Moliere's _Le Sicilien, ou l'amour peintre_, is remembered for + the leading character, Sir Mannerly Shallow; _The English Frier; or + The Town Sparks_ (acted 1689, pr. 1690), perhaps suggested by + Moliere's _Tartuffe_, ridicules the court Catholics, and in Father + Finical caricatures Father Petre; and _The Married Beau; or The + Curious Impertinent_ (1694), is based on the _Curioso Impertinente_ in + Don Quixote. He also produced a version of Racine's _Andromaque_, an + adaptation from Shakespeare's Henry VI., and an unsuccessful comedy, + _Justice Busy_. + + See _The Dramatic Works of John Crowne_ (4 vols., 1873), edited by + James Maidment and W. H. Logan for the _Dramatists of the + Restoration_. + + + + + +CROWN LAND, in the United Kingdom, land belonging to the crown, the +hereditary revenues of which were surrendered to parliament in the reign +of George III. + +In Anglo-Saxon times the property of the king consisted of (a) his +private estate, (b) the demesne of the crown, comprising palaces, &c., +and (c) rights over the folkland of the kingdom. By the time of the +Norman Conquest the three became merged into the estate of the crown, +that is, land annexed to the crown, held by the king as king. The king, +also, ceased to hold as a private owner,[1] but he had full power of +disposal by grant of the crown lands, which were increased from time to +time by confiscation, escheat, forfeiture, &c. The history of the crown +lands to the reign of William III. was one of continuous alienation to +favourites. Their wholesale distribution by William III. necessitated +the intervention of parliament, and in the reign of Queen Anne an act +was passed limiting the right of alienation of crown lands to a period +of not more than thirty-one years or three lives. The revenue from the +crown lands was also made to constitute part of the civil list. At the +beginning of his reign George III. surrendered his interest in the crown +lands in return for a fixed "civil list" (q.v.). The control and +management of the crown lands is now regulated by the Crown Lands Act +1829 and various amending acts. Under these acts their management is +entrusted to the commissioners of Woods, Forests and Land Revenues, who +have certain statutory powers as to leasing, selling, exchanging, &c. + +In theory, also, state lands in the British colonies are supposed to be +vested in the crown, and they are called crown lands; actually, however, +the various colonial legislatures have full control over them and power +of disposal. The term "crown-lands," in Austria, is applied to the +various provinces into which that country is divided. (See AUSTRIA.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The duchy of Lancaster, which was the private property of Henry + IV. before he ascended the throne, was assured to him and his heirs + by a special act of parliament. In the first year of Henry VII. it + was united to the crown, but as a separate property. + + + + +CROWN POINT, a village of Essex county, New York, U.S.A., in a township +of the same name, about 90 m. N.E. of Albany and about 10 m. N. of +Ticonderoga, on the W. shore of Lake Champlain. Pop. of the township +(1890) 3135; (1900) 2112; (1905) 1890; (1910) 1690; of the village, +about 1000. The village is served by the Delaware & Hudson Railway and +by the Champlain Canal. Among the manufactures are lumber and +woodenware. Graphite has been found in the western part of the township, +and spar is mined. In 1609 Champlain fought near here the engagement +with the Iroquois Indians which marked the beginning of the long enmity +between the Five (later Six) Nations and the French. Subsequently Dutch +and English traders trafficked in the vicinity, the latter maintaining +here for many years a regular trading-post. In 1731 the French built +here Fort Frederic, the first military post at Crown Point, and the +place was subsequently for many years of considerable strategic +importance, owing to its situation on Lake Champlain, which with Lake +George furnished a comparatively easy route from Canada to New York. +Twice during the French and Indian War, in 1755 and again in 1756, +English and colonial expeditions were sent against it in vain; it +remained in French hands until 1759, when, after Lord Jeffrey Amherst's +occupation of Ticonderoga, the garrison joined that of the latter place +and retreated to Canada. Crown Point was then occupied by Amherst, who +during the winter of 1759-1760 began the construction, about a quarter +of a mile from the old Fort Frederic, of a large fort, which was +garrisoned but was never completed; the ruins of this fort (not of Fort +Frederic) still remain. At the outbreak of the War of Independence, on +the 11th of May 1775, the fort, whose garrison then consisted of only a +dozen men, was captured by Colonel Seth Warner and a force of "Green +Mountain Boys," sent from Ticonderoga by Ethan Allen; and it remained in +American hands save for a brief period in 1777, when it was occupied by +a detachment of Burgoyne's invading army. + + + + +CROWTHER, SAMUEL ADJAI (1809?-1891), African missionary-bishop, was born +at Ochugu in the Yoruba country, West Africa, and was sold into slavery +in 1821. Next year he was rescued, with many other captives, by H.M. +ship "Myrmidon," and was landed at Sierra Leone. Educated there in a +missionary school, he was baptized on the 11th of December 1825. In time +he became a teacher at Furah Bay, and afterwards an energetic missionary +on the Niger. He came to England in 1842, entered the Church Missionary +College at Islington, and in June 1843 was ordained by Bishop Blomfield. +Returning to Africa, he laboured with great success amongst his own +people and afterwards at Abeokuta. Here he devoted himself to the +preparation of school-books, and the translation of the Bible and +Prayer-Book into Yoruba and other dialects. He also established a trade +in cotton, and improved the native agriculture. In 1857 he commenced the +third expedition up the Niger, and after labouring with varied success, +returned to England and was consecrated, on St Peter's Day 1864, first +bishop of the Niger territories. Before long a commencement was made of +the missions to the delta of the Niger, and between 1866 and 1884 +congregations of Christians were formed at Bonny, Brass and New Calabar, +but the progress made was slow and subject to many impediments. In 1888 +the tide of persecution turned, and several chiefs embraced +Christianity, and on Crowther's return from another visit to England, +the large iron church known as "St Stephen's cathedral" was opened. +Crowther died of paralysis on the 31st of December 1891, having +displayed as a missionary for many years untiring industry, great +practical wisdom, and deep piety. + + + + +CROYDON, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Surrey, +England, suburban to London, 10 m. S. of London Bridge. Pop. (1891) +102,695; (1901) 133,895. The borough embraces a great residential +district. Several railway stations give it communication with all parts +of the metropolis, the principal railways serving it being the London, +Brighton & South Coast and the South-Eastern & Chatham. It stands near +the sources of the river Wandle, under Banstead Downs, and is a place of +great antiquity. The original site, farther west than the present town, +is mentioned in Domesday Book. The derivation indicated is from the O. +Fr. _croie dune_, chalk hill. The supposition that here was the Roman +station of _Noviomagus_ is rejected. The site is remarkable for the +number of springs which issue from the soil. One of these, called the +"Bourne," bursts forth a short way above the town at irregular intervals +of one to ten years or more; and after running a torrent for two or +three months, as quickly vanishes. Until its course was diverted it +caused destructive floods. This phenomenon seems to arise from rains +which, falling on the chalk hills, sink into the porous soil and +reappear after a time from crevices at lower levels. The manor of +Croydon was presented by William the Conqueror to Archbishop Lanfranc, +who is believed to have founded the archiepiscopal palace there, which +was the occasional residence of his successors till about 1750, and of +which the chapel and hall remain. Addington Park, 3(1/2) m. from Croydon, +was purchased for the residence, in 1807, of the archbishop of +Canterbury, but was sold in consequence of Archbishop Temple's decision +to reside at the palace, Canterbury. The neighbouring church, which is +Norman and Early English, contains several memorials of archbishops. +Near the park a group of tumuli and a circular encampment are seen. +Croydon is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Canterbury. The +parish church of St John the Baptist appears to have been built in the +14th and 15th centuries, but to have contained remains of an older +building. The church was restored or rebuilt in the 16th century, and +again restored by Sir Gilbert Scott in 1857-1859. It was destroyed by +fire, with the exception of the tower, on the 5th of January 1867, and +was at once rebuilt by Scott on the old lines. In 1596 Archbishop +Whitgift founded the hospital or almshouse which bears his name, and +remains in its picturesque brick buildings surrounding two quadrangles. +His grammar school was housed in new buildings in 1871, and is a +flourishing day school. The principal public building of Croydon is that +erected by the corporation for municipal business; it included +court-rooms and the public library. At Addiscombe in the neighbourhood +was formerly a mansion dating from 1702, and acquired by the East India +Company in 1809 for a Military College, which on the abolition of the +Company became the Royal Military College for the East Indian Army, and +was closed in 1862. Croydon was formed into a municipal borough in 1883, +a parliamentary borough, returning one member, in 1885, and a county +borough in 1888. The corporation consists of a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 +councillors. Area, 9012 acres. + + + + +CROZAT, PIERRE (1661-1740), French art collector, was born at Toulouse, +one of a family who were prominent French financiers and collectors. He +became treasurer to the king in Paris, and gradually acquired a +magnificent collection of pictures and _objets d'art_. Between 1729 and +1742 a finely illustrated work was published in two volumes, known as +the _Cabinet Crozat_, including the finest pictures in French +collections. Most of his own treasures descended to his nephews, Louis +Francois (d. 1750), Joseph Antoine (d. 1750), and Louis Antoine (d. +1770), and were augmented by them, being dispersed after their deaths; +the collection of Louis Antoine Crozat went to St Petersburg. + + + + +CROZET ISLANDS, an uninhabited group in the Indian Ocean, in 46 deg.-47 +deg. S. and 51 deg. E. They are mountainous, with summits from 4000 to +5000 ft. high, and are disposed in two divisions--Penguin or +Inaccessible, Hog, Possession and East Islands; and the Twelve Apostles. +Like Kerguelen, and other clusters in these southern waters, they appear +to be of igneous formation; but owing to the bleak climate and their +inaccessible character they are seldom visited, and have never been +explored since their discovery in 1772 by Marion-Dufresne, after one of +whose officers they are named. Possession, the highest, has a snowy peak +said to exceed 5000 ft. Hog Island takes its name from the animals which +were here let loose by an English captain many years ago, but have since +disappeared. Rabbits burrow in the heaps of scoria on the slopes of the +mountains. + + + + +CROZIER, WILLIAM (1855- ), American artillerist and inventor, born at +Carrollton, Carroll county, Ohio, on the 19th of February 1855, was the +son of Robert Crozier (1827-1895), chief justice of Kansas in 1863-1866, +and a United States senator from that state from December 1873 to +February 1874. He graduated at West Point in 1876, was appointed a 2nd +lieutenant in the 4th Artillery, and served on the Western frontier for +three years against the Sioux and Bannock Indians. From 1879 to 1884 he +was instructor in mathematics at West Point, and was superintendent of +the Watertown (Massachusetts) Arsenal from 1884 to 1887. In 1888 he was +sent by the war department to study recent developments in artillery in +Europe, and upon his return he was placed in full charge of the +construction of gun carriages for the army, and with General Adelbert R. +Buffington (1837- ), the chief of ordnance, he invented the +Buffington-Crozier disappearing gun carriage (1896). He also invented a +wire-wound gun, and perfected many appliances connected with heavy and +field ordnance. In 1890 he attained the rank of captain. During the +Spanish-American War he was inspector-general for the Atlantic and Gulf +coast defences. In 1899 he was one of the American delegates to the +Peace Conference at the Hague. He later served in the Philippine Islands +on the staffs of Generals John C. Bates and Theodore Schwan, and in 1900 +was chief of ordnance on the staff of General A. R. Chaffee during the +Pekin Relief Expedition. In November 1901 he was appointed +brigadier-general and succeeded General Buffington as chief of ordnance +of the United States army. His _Notes on the Construction of Ordnance_, +published by the war department, are used as text-books in the schools +for officers, and he is also the author of other important publications +on military subjects. + + + + +CROZIER, or pastoral staff, one of the insignia of a bishop, and +probably derived from the _lituus_ of the Roman augurs. It is +crook-headed, and borne by bishops and archbishops alike (see PASTORAL +STAFF). The word "crozier" or "crosier" represents the O. Fr. _crocier_, +Med. Lat. _crociarius_, the bearer of the episcopal crook (Med. Lat. +_crocea_, _croccia_, &c., Fr. _croc_). The English representative of +_crocea_ was _crose_, later _crosse_, which, becoming confused with +"cross" (q.v.), was replaced by "crozier-staff" or "crozier's staff," +and then, at the beginning of the 16th century, by "crozier" (see J. T. +Taylor, _Archaeologia_, Iii., "On the Use of the Terms Crosier, Pastoral +Staff and Cross"). + + + + +CRUCIAL (from Lat. _crux_, a cross), that which has the form of a cross, +as the "crucial ligaments" of the knee-joint, which cross each other, +connecting the femur and the tibia. From Francis Bacon's expression +_instantia crucis_ (taken, as he says, from the finger-post or _crux_ at +cross-roads) for a phenomenon which decides between two causes which +have each similar analogies in its favour, comes the use of "crucial" +for that which decides between two alternatives, hence, generally, as a +synonym for "critical." The word is also used, with a reference to the +use of a "crucible," of something which tests and tries. + + + + +CRUCIFERAE, or Crucifer family, a natural order of flowering plants, +which derives its name from the cruciform arrangement of the four petals +of the flower. It is an order of herbaceous plants, many of which, such +as wallflower, stock, mustard, cabbage, radish and others, are +well-known garden or field-plants. Many of the plants are annuals; among +these are some of the commonest weeds of cultivation, shepherd's purse +(_Capsella Bursa-pastoris_), charlock (_Brassica Sinapis_), and such +common plants as hedge mustard (_Sisymbrium officinale_), +Jack-by-the-hedge (_S. Alliaria_ or _Alliaria officinalis_). Others are +biennials producing a number of leaves on a very short stem in the first +year, and in the second sending up a flowering shoot at the expense of +the nourishment stored in the thick tap-root during the previous +season. Under cultivation this root becomes much enlarged, as in turnip, +swede and others. Wallflower (_Cheiranthus Cheiri_) (fig. 1) is a +perennial. The leaves when borne on an elongated stem are arranged +alternately and have no stipules. The flowers are arranged in racemes +without bracts; during the life of the flower its stalk continues to +grow so that the open flowers of an inflorescence stand on a level (that +is, are corymbose). The flowers are regular, with four free sepals +arranged in two pairs at right angles, four petals arranged crosswise in +one series, and two sets of stamens, an outer with two members and an +inner with four, in two pairs placed in the middle line of the flower +and at right angles to the outer series. The four inner stamens are +longer than the two outer; and the stamens are hence collectively +described as tetradynamous. The pistil, which is above the rest of the +members of the flower, consists of two carpels joined at their edges to +form the ovary, which becomes two-celled by subsequent ingrowth of a +septum from these united edges; a row of ovules springs from each edge. +The fruit is a pod or siliqua splitting by two valves from below upwards +and leaving the placentas with the seeds attached to the _replum_ or +framework of the septum. The seeds are filled with the large embryo, the +two cotyledons of which are variously folded. In germination the +cotyledons come above ground and form the first green leaves of the +plant. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Wallflower (_Cheiranthus Cheiri_), reduced. 1, +Flower in vertical section. 2, Horizontal plan of arrangement of flower +in _Barbarea_.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Cruciferae._ Floral Diagram (_Brassica_).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--_Cardamine pratensis._ Flower with Perianth +removed. (After Baillon.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Cruciferous Fruits. (After Baillon.) + + A, _Cheiranthus Cheiri._ + B, _Lepidium sativum._ + C, _Capsella Bursa-pastoris._ + D, _Lunaria biennis_, showing the septum after the carpels have fallen + away. + E, _Crambe maritima._] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Seeds of _Cruciferae_ cut across to show the +radicle and cotyledons. (After Baillon.) + + A, _Cheiranthus Cheiri._ + B, _Sisymbrium Alliaria._ + +Figures 2-5 are from Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission +of Gustav Fischer.] + +Pollination is effected by aid of insects. The petals are generally +white or yellow, more rarely lilac or some other colour, and between the +bases of the stamens are honey-glands. Some or all of the anthers become +twisted so that insects in probing for honey will touch the anthers with +one side of their head and the capitate stigma with the other. Owing, +however, to the close proximity of stigma and anthers, very slight +irregularity in the movements of the visiting insect will cause +self-pollination, which may also occur by the dropping of pollen from +the anthers of the larger stamens on to the stigma. + +Cruciferae is a large order containing nearly 200 genera and about 1200 +species. It has a world-wide distribution, but finds its chief +development in the temperate and frigid zones, especially of the +northern hemisphere, and as Alpine plants. In the subdivision of the +order into tribes use is made of differences in the form of the fruit +and the manner of folding of the embryo. When the fruit is several times +longer than broad it is known as a siliqua, as in stock or wallflower; +when about as long as broad, a silicula, as in shepherd's purse. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Honesty (_Lunaria biennis_), showing Flower and +Fruit. Reduced.] + +The order is well represented in Britain--among others by _Nasturtium_ +(_N. officinale_, water-cress), _Arabis_ (rock-cress), _Cardamine_ +(bitter-cress), _Sisymbrium_ (hedge mustard, &c.; _S. Irio_ is London +rocket, so-called because it sprang up after the fire of 1666), +_Brassica_ (cabbage and mustard), _Diplotaxis_ (rocket), _Cochlearia_ +(scurvy-grass), _Capsella_ (shepherd's purse), _Lepidium_ (cress), +_Thlaspi_ (penny-cress), _Cakile_ (sea rocket), _Raphanus_ (radish), and +others. Of economic importance are species of _Brassica_, including +mustard (_B. nigra_), white mustard, used when young in salads (_B. +alba_), cabbage (q.v.) and its numerous forms derived from _B. +oleracea_, turnip (_B. campestris_), and swede (_B. Napus_), _Raphanus +sativus_ (radish), _Cochlearia Armoracia_ (horse-radish), _Nasturtium +officinale_ (water-cress), _Lepidium sativum_ (garden cress). _Isatis_ +affords a blue dye, woad. Many of the genera are known as ornamental +garden plants; such are _Cheiranthus_ (wallflower), _Matthiola_ (stock), +_Iberis_ (candy-tuft), _Alyssum_ (Alison), _Hesperis_ (dame's violet), +Lunaria (honesty) (fig. 6), _Aubrietia_ and others. + + + + +CRUDEN, ALEXANDER (1701-1770), author of the well-known concordance +(q.v.) to the English Bible, was born at Aberdeen on the 31st of May +1701. He was educated at the grammar school, Aberdeen, and studied at +Marischal College, intending to enter the ministry. He took the degree +of master of arts, but soon after began to show signs of insanity owing +to a disappointment in love. After a term of confinement he recovered +and removed to London. In 1722 he had an engagement as private tutor to +the son of a country squire living at Eton Hall, Southgate, and also +held a similar post at Ware. Years afterwards, in an application for the +title of bookseller to the queen, he stated that he had been for some +years corrector for the press in Wild Court. This probably refers to +this time. In 1729 he was employed by the 10th earl of Derby as a reader +and secretary, but was discharged on the 7th of July for his ignorance +of French pronunciation. He then lodged in a house in Soho frequented +exclusively by Frenchmen, and took lessons in the language in the hope +of getting back his post with the earl, but when he went to Knowsley in +Lancashire, the earl would not see him. He returned to London and opened +a bookseller's shop in the Royal Exchange. In April 1735 he obtained the +title of bookseller to the queen by recommendation of the lord mayor and +most of the Whig aldermen. The post was an unremunerative sinecure. In +1737 he finished his concordance, which, he says, was the work of +several years. It was presented to the queen on the 3rd of November +1737, a fortnight before her death. + +Although Cruden's biblical labours have made his name a household word +among English-speaking people, he was disappointed in his hopes of +immediate profit, and his mind again became unhinged. In spite of his +earnest and self-denying piety, and his exceptional intellectual powers, +he developed idiosyncrasies, and his life was marred by a harmless but +ridiculous egotism, which so nearly bordered on insanity that his +friends sometimes thought it necessary to have him confined. He paid +unwelcome addresses to a widow, and was confined in a madhouse in +Bethnal Green. On his release he published a pamphlet dedicated to Lord +H. (probably Harrington, secretary of state) entitled _The London +Citizen exceedingly injured, or a British Inquisition Displayed_. He +also published an account of his trial, dedicated to the king. In +December 1740 he writes to Sir H. Sloane saying he has been employed +since July as Latin usher in a boarding-school at Enfield. He then found +work as a proof-reader, and several editions of Greek and Latin classics +are said to have owed their accuracy to his care. He superintended the +printing of one of Matthew Henry's commentaries, and in 1750 printed a +small _Compendium of the Holy Bible_ (an abstract of the contents of +each chapter), and also reprinted a larger edition of the _Concordance_. + +About this time he adopted the title of "Alexander the Corrector," and +assumed the office of correcting the morals of the nation, especially +with regard to swearing and Sunday observance. For this office he +believed himself divinely commissioned, but he petitioned parliament for +a formal appointment in this capacity. In April 1755 he printed a letter +to the speaker and other members of the House of Commons, and about the +same time an "Address to the King and Parliament." He was in the habit +of carrying a sponge, with which he effaced all inscriptions which he +thought contrary to good morals. In September 1753, through being +involved in a street brawl, he was confined in an asylum in Chelsea for +seventeen days at the instance of his sister, Mrs Wild. He brought an +unsuccessful action against his friends, and seriously proposed that +they should go into confinement as an atonement. He published an account +of this second restraint in "The Adventures of Alexander the Corrector." +He made attempts to present to the king in person an account of his +trial, and to obtain the honour of knighthood, one of his predicted +honours. In 1754 he was nominated as parliamentary candidate for the +city of London, but did not go to the poll. In 1755 he paid unwelcome +addresses to the daughter of Sir Thomas Abney, of Newington (1640-1722), +and then published his letters and the history of his repulse in the +third part of his "Adventures." In June and July 1755 he visited Oxford +and Cambridge. He was treated with the respect due to his learning by +officials and residents in both universities, but experienced some +boisterous fooling at the hands of the undergraduates. At Cambridge he +was knighted with mock ceremonies. There he appointed "deputy +correctors" to represent him in the university. He also visited Eton, +Windsor, Tonbridge and Westminster schools, where he appointed four boys +to be his deputies. (An _Admonition to Cambridge_ is preserved among +letters from J. Neville of Emmanuel to Dr Cox Macro, in the British +Museum.) _The Corrector's Earnest Address to the Inhabitants of Great +Britain_, published in 1756, was occasioned by the earthquake at Lisbon. +In 1762 he saved an ignorant seaman, Richard Potter, from the gallows, +and in 1763 published a pamphlet recording the history of the case. +Against John Wilkes, whom he hated, he wrote a small pamphlet, and used +to delete with his sponge the number 45 wherever he found it, this being +the offensive number of the _North Briton_. In 1769 he lectured in +Aberdeen as "Corrector," and distributed copies of the fourth +commandment and various religious tracts. The wit that made his +eccentricities palatable is illustrated by the story of how he gave to a +conceited young minister whose appearance displeased him _A Mother's +Catechism dedicated to the young and ignorant_. The _Scripture +Dictionary_, compiled about this time, was printed in Aberdeen in two +volumes shortly after his death. Alexander Chalmers, who in his boyhood +heard Cruden lecture in Aberdeen and wrote his biography, says that a +verbal index to Milton, which accompanied the edition of Thomas Newton, +bishop of Bristol, in 1769, was Cruden's. + +The second edition of the Bible _Concordance_ was published in 1761, and +presented to the king in person on the 21st of December. The third +appeared in 1769. Both contain a pleasing portrait of the author. He is +said to have gained L800 by these two editions. He returned to London +from Aberdeen, and died suddenly while praying in his lodgings in Camden +Passage, Islington, on the 1st of November 1770. He was buried in the +ground of a Protestant dissenting congregation in Dead Man's Place, +Southwark. He bequeathed a portion of his savings for a L5 bursary at +Aberdeen, which preserves his name on the list of benefactors of the +university. (D. Mn.) + + + + +CRUDEN, a village and parish on the E. coast of Aberdeenshire, Scotland. +Pop. of parish (1901) 3444. It is situated at the head of Cruden Bay, +29(3/4) m. N.N.E. of Aberdeen by the Great North of Scotland railway +company's branch line from Ellon to Boddam. The golf-course of 18 holes +is one of the best in Scotland, and there is a sandy beach, with good +bathing. There is some good fishing at Port Erroll, also called Ward of +Cruden. Prehistoric remains have been found in the parish, and near +Ardendraught, not far from the shore, Malcolm II. is said to have +defeated Canute in 1014. The Water of Cruden, which rises a few miles to +the west, flows through the village into the North Sea. Slains Castle, a +seat of the earl of Erroll, lies to the north of Cruden, but must not be +confounded with the old castle of Slains, about 5 m. to the south-west, +near the point where, according to tradition, the "St Catherine" of the +Spanish Armada foundered in 1588. The Bullers of Buchan are within 2 m. +walk of Cruden. + + + + +CRUELTY (through the O. Fr. _crualte_, mod. _cruaute_, from the Lat. +_crudelitas_), the intentional infliction of pain or suffering. It is +only necessary to deal here with the legal relations involved. Statutory +provision for the prevention of cruelty to those who are unable to +protect themselves has been particularly marked in the 19th century. The +increase of legislation for the protection of children, lunatics and +animals is a proof of the growing humanitarianism of the age. There was +at one time a tendency among jurists to question whether, for instance, +the prevention of cruelty to animals was not a recognition of a certain +quasi-right in animals, or whether it was merely that such exhibitions +as bull- and bear-baiting, cock-fights, &c., were demoralizing to the +public generally. The true fact seems to be that the first introduction +of such legislation was undoubtedly due to the desire for the promotion +of humanity, but that the principle, for the recognition of which the +time was not yet ripe, had to be excused in the eyes of the public by +the plea that cruelty had a demoralizing effect upon spectators (see A. +V. Dicey, _Law and Opinion in England_, p. 188; T. E. Holland, +_Jurisprudence_, 10th ed., p. 372). + +_Cruelty to Animals._--The English common law has never taken cognizance +of the commission of acts of cruelty upon animals, and direct +legislation upon the subject, dating from the 19th century, was due in a +great measure to public agitation, supported by the Royal Society for +the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (founded in 1824). Various acts +were passed in 1822 (known as Martin's Act), 1835 and 1837, and these +were amended and consolidated by the Cruelty to Animals Acts 1849 and +1854, which, with the Wild Animals in Captivity Protection Act 1900, are +the main acts upon the subject. There are also, in addition, many other +acts that impose certain liabilities in respect of animals and +indirectly prevent cruelty. The Cruelty to Animals Acts 1849 and 1854 +render liable to prosecution and fine practically any act of cruelty to +an animal; such acts as dubbing a cock, cropping the ears of a dog or +dishorning cattle, are offences. The latter practice, however, is +allowed both in Scotland and Ireland, the courts having held that the +advantages to be obtained from dishorning outweigh the pain caused by +the operation. The word "animal" is defined as meaning "any domestic +animal" of whatever kind or species, and whether a quadruped or not. The +act of 1849 also forbids bull- and bear-baiting, or fighting between any +kinds of animals; requires the provision of food and water to animals +impounded; lays down regulations as to the treatment of animals sent for +slaughter, and imposes a penalty for improperly conveying animals. The +Wild Animals in Captivity Protection Act 1900 extends to wild animals in +captivity that protection which the acts of 1849 and 1854 conferred on +domestic animals, making exception of any act done or any omission in +the preparation of animals for the food of man or for sport. The word +"animal" in the act includes bird, beast, fish or reptile. The Dogs Act +1865 rendered owners of dogs liable for injuries to cattle and sheep; +the Dogs Act 1906 extended the owner's liability for injury done to any +cattle by a dog, and further, where a dog is proved to have injured +cattle or chased sheep it may be treated as a dangerous dog and must be +kept under proper control or be destroyed. The Drugging of Animals Act +1876 imposes a penalty on giving poisonous drugs to any domestic animal +unlawfully. The Cruelty to Animals Act 1876 was passed for the purpose +of regulating the practice of vivisection (q.v.). The Ground Game Act +1880, prohibits night shooting, or the use of spring traps above ground +or poison. The Injured Animals Act 1907 enables police constables to +cause any animal when mortally or seriously injured to be slaughtered. +The Diseases of Animals Act 1894 and orders under it are for the purpose +of securing animals from unnecessary suffering, as well as from disease. +Finally, the Wild Birds Protection Acts 1880 to 1904, with various game +acts (see GAME LAWS), extend the protection of the law to wild birds. +The acts establish a close time for wild birds and impose penalties for +shooting or taking them within that time; prohibit the exposing or +offering for sale within certain dates any wild bird recently killed or +taken unless bought or received from some person residing out of the +United Kingdom; the taking or destroying of wild birds' eggs, the +setting of pole traps, and the taking of a wild bird by means of a hook +or other similar instrument. + +For the law relating to the prevention of cruelty to children see +CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO; for cruelty in the sense of such conduct as +entitles a husband or wife to judicial separation see DIVORCE. + (T. A. I.) + + + + +CRUIKSHANK, GEORGE (1792-1878), English artist, caricaturist and +illustrator, was born in London on the 27th of September 1792. By +natural disposition and collateral circumstances he may be accepted as +the type of the born humoristic artist predestined for this special form +of art. His grandfather had taken up the arts, and his father, Isaac +Cruikshank, followed the painter's profession. Amidst these surroundings +the children were born and brought up, their first playthings the +materials of the arts their father practised. George followed the family +traditions with amazing facility, easily surpassing his compeers as an +etcher. When the father died, about 1811, George, still in his teens, +was already a successful and popular artist. All his acquisitions were +native gifts, and of home-growth; outside training, or the serious +apprenticeship to art, were dispensed with, under the necessity of +working for immediate profit. This lack of academic training the artist +at times found cause to regret, and at some intervals he made exertions +to cultivate the knowledge obtainable by studying from the antique and +drawing from life at the schools. From boyhood he was accustomed to turn +his artistic talents to ready account, disposing of designs and etchings +to the printsellers, and helping his father in forwarding his plates. +Before he was twenty his spirited style and talent had secured popular +recognition; the contemporary of Gillray, Rowlandson, Alken, Heath, +Dighton, and the established caricaturists of that generation, he +developed great proficiency as an etcher. Gillray's matured and trained +skill had some influence upon his executive powers, and when the older +caricaturist passed away in 1815, George Cruikshank had already taken +his place as a satirist. Prolific and dexterous beyond his competitors, +for a generation he delineated Tories, Whigs and Radicals with fine +impartiality. Satirical capital came to him from every public +event,--wars abroad, the enemies of England (for he was always fervidly +patriotic), the camp, the court, the senate, the Church; low life, high +life; the humours of the people, the follies of the great. In this +wonderful gallery the student may grasp the popular side of most +questions which for the time being engaged public attention. George +Cruikshank's technical and manipulative skill as an etcher was such that +Ruskin and the best judges have placed his productions in the foremost +rank; in this respect his works have been compared favourably with the +masterpieces of etching. He died at 263 Hampstead Road on the 1st of +February 1878. His remains rest in St Paul's cathedral. + +A vast number of Cruikshank's spirited cartoons were published as +separate caricatures, all coloured by hand; others formed series, or +were contributed to satirical magazines, the _Satirist_, _Town Talk_, +_The Scourge_ (1811-1816) and the like ephemeral publications. In +conjunction with William Hone's scathing tracts, G. Cruikshank produced +political satires to illustrate the series of facetiae and miscellanies, +like _The Political House that Jack Built_ (1819). + +Of a more genially humoristic order are his well-known book +illustrations, now so deservedly esteemed for their inimitable fun and +frolic, among other qualities, such as the weird and terrible, in which +he excelled. Early in this series came _The Humorist_ (1819-1821) and +_Life in Paris_ (1822). The well-known series of _Life in London_, +conjointly produced by the brothers I. R. and G. Cruikshank, has enjoyed +a prolonged reputation, and is still sought after by collectors. Grimm's +_Collection of German Popular Stories_ (1824-1826), in two series, with +22 inimitable etchings, are in themselves sufficient to account for G. +Cruikshank's reputation. To the first fourteen volumes (1837-1843) of +_Bentley's Miscellany_ Cruikshank contributed 126 of his best plates, +etched on steel, including the famous illustrations to _Oliver Twist_, +_Jack Sheppard_, _Guy Fawkes_ and _The Ingoldsby Legends_. For W. +Harrison Ainsworth, Cruikshank illustrated _Rookwood_ (1836) and _The +Tower of London_ (1840); the first six volumes of _Ainsworth's Magazine_ +(1842-1844) were illustrated by him with several of his finest suites of +etchings. For C. Lever's _Arthur O'Leary_ he supplied 10 full-page +etchings (1844), and 20 spirited graphic etchings for Maxwell's lurid +_History of the Irish Rebellion in 1798_ (1845). Of his own +speculations, mention must be made of _George Cruikshank's Omnibus_ +(1841) and _George Cruikshank's Table Book_ (1845), as well as his +_Comic Almanack_ (1835-1853). _The Life of Sir John Falstaff_ contained +20 full-page etchings (1857-1858). These are a few leading items amongst +the thousands of illustrations emanating from that fertile imagination. +As an enthusiastic teetotal advocate, G. Cruikshank produced a long +series of pictures and illustrations, pictorial pamphlets and tracts; +the best known of these are _The Bottle_, 8 plates (1847), with its +sequel, _The Drunkard's Children_, 8 plates (1848), with the ambitious +work, _The Worship of Bacchus_, published by subscription after the +artist's oil painting, now in the National Gallery, London, to which it +was presented by his numerous admirers. + + See _Cruikshank's Water-Colours_, with introduction by Joseph Grego + (London, 1903). (J. Go.*) + + + + +CRUNDEN, JOHN (d. 1828), English architectural and mobiliary designer. +Most of his early inspiration was drawn from Chippendale and his school, +but he fell later under the influence of a bastard classicism. He +produced a very large number of designs which were published in numerous +volumes; among the most ambitious were ornamental centres for ceilings +in which he introduced cupids with bows and arrows, Fame sounding her +trumpet, and such like motives. Sport and natural history supplied him +with many other themes, and one of his ceilings is a hunting scene +representing a "kill." His principal works were _Designs for Ceilings_; +_Convenient and Ornamental Architecture_; _The Carpenter's Companion for +Chinese Railings, Gates_, &c. (1770); _The Joiner and Cabinet-maker's +Darling_, or _Sixty Designs for Gothic, Chinese, Mosaic and Ornamental +Frets_ (1765); and _The Chimney Piece Maker's Daily Assistant_ (1776). +Much of his work was either absurd or valueless. + + + + +CRUSADES, the name given to the series of wars for delivering the Holy +Land from the Mahommedans, so-called from the cross worn as a badge by +the crusaders. By analogy the term "crusade" is also given to any +campaign undertaken in the same spirit. + +1. _The Meaning of the Crusades._--The Crusades may be regarded partly +as the _decumanus fluctus_ in the surge of religious revival, which had +begun in western Europe during the 10th, and had mounted high during the +11th century; partly as a chapter, and a most important chapter, in the +history of the interaction of East and West. Contemporaries regarded +them in the former of these two aspects, as "holy wars" and "pilgrims' +progresses" towards Christ's Sepulchre; the reflective eye of history +must perhaps regard them more exclusively from the latter point of view. +Considered as holy wars the Crusades must be interpreted by the ideas +of an age which was dominated by the spirit of otherworldliness, and +accordingly ruled by the clerical power which represented the other +world. They are a _novum salutis genus_--a new path to Heaven, to tread +which counted "for full and complete satisfaction" _pro omni +poenitentia_ and gave "forgiveness of sins" (_peccaminum remissio_)[1]; +they are, again, the "foreign policy" of the papacy, directing its +faithful subjects to the great war of Christianity against the infidel. +As such a _novum salutis genus_, the Crusades connect themselves with +the history of the penitentiary system; as the foreign policy of the +Church they belong to that clerical purification and direction of feudal +society and its instincts, which appears in the institution of "God's +Truce" and in chivalry itself. The penitentiary system, according to +which the priest enforced a code of moral law in the confessional by the +sanction of penance--penance which must be performed as a condition of +admission to the sacrament of the Eucharist--had been from early times a +great instrument in the civilization of the raw Germanic races. Penance +might consist in fasting; it might consist in flagellation; it might +consist in pilgrimage. The penitentiary pilgrimage, which seems to have +been practised as early as A.D. 700, was twice blessed; not only was it +an act of atonement in itself, like fasting and flagellation; it also +gained for the pilgrim the merit of having stood on holy ground. Under +the influence of the Cluniac revival, which began in the 10th century, +pilgrimages became increasingly frequent; and the goal of pilgrimage was +often Jerusalem. Pilgrims who were travelling to Jerusalem joined +themselves in companies for security, and marched under arms; the +pilgrims of 1064, who were headed by the archbishop of Mainz, numbered +some 7000 men. When the First Crusade finally came, what was it but a +penitentiary pilgrimage under arms--with the one additional object of +conquering the goal of pilgrimage? That the Pilgrims' Progress should +thus have turned into a Holy War is a fact readily explicable, when we +turn to consider the attempts made by the Church, during the 11th +century, to purify, or at any rate to direct, the feudal instinct for +private war (_Fehde_). Since the close of the 10th century diocesan +councils in France had been busily acting as legislatures, and enacting +"forms of peace" for the maintenance of God's Peace or Truce (_Pax Dei_ +or _Treuga Dei_). In each diocese there had arisen a judicature +(_judices pacis_) to decide when the form had been broken; and an +executive, or _communitas pacis_, had been formed to enforce the +decisions of the judicature. But it was an easier thing to consecrate +the fighting instinct than to curb it; and the institution of chivalry +represents such a clerical consecration, for ideal ends and noble +purposes, of the martial impulses which the Church had hitherto +endeavoured to check. In the same way the Crusades themselves may be +regarded as a stage in the clerical reformation of the fighting laymen. +As chivalry directed the layman to defend what was right, so the +preaching of the Crusades directed him to attack what was wrong--the +possession by "infidels" of the Sepulchre of Christ. The Crusades are +the offensive side of chivalry: chivalry is their parent--as it is also +their child. The knight who joined the Crusades might thus still indulge +the bellicose side of his genius--under the aegis and at the bidding of +the Church; and in so doing he would also attain what the spiritual side +of his nature ardently sought--a perfect salvation and remission of +sins. He might butcher all day, till he waded ankle-deep in blood, and +then at nightfall kneel, sobbing for very joy, at the altar of the +Sepulchre--for was he not red from the winepress of the Lord? One can +readily understand the popularity of the Crusades, when one reflects +that they permitted men to get to the other world by fighting hard on +earth, and allowed them to gain the fruits of asceticism by the ways of +hedonism. Nor was the Church merely able, through the Crusades, to +direct the martial instincts of a feudal society; it was also able to +pursue the object of its own immediate policy, and to attempt the +universal diffusion of Christianity, even at the edge of the sword, over +the whole of the known world. + +Thus was renewed, on a greater scale, that ancient feud of East and +West, which has never died. For a thousand years, from the Hegira in 622 +to the siege of Vienna in 1683, the peril of a Mahommedan conquest of +Europe was almost continually present. From this point of view, the +Crusades appear as a reaction of the West against the pressure of the +East--a reaction which carried the West into the East, and founded a +Latin and Christian kingdom on the shores of Asia. They protected Europe +from the new revival of Mahommedanism under the Turks; they gave it a +time of rest in which the Western civilization of the middle ages +developed. But the relation of East and West during the Crusades was not +merely hostile or negative. The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem was the +meeting-place of two civilizations: on its soil the East learned from +the West, and--perhaps still more--the West learned from the East. The +culture developed in the West during the 13th century was not only +permitted to develop by the protection of the Crusades, it grew upon +materials which the Crusades enabled it to import from the East. Yet the +debt of Europe to the Crusades in this last respect has perhaps been +unduly emphasized. Sicily was still more the meeting-place of East and +West than the kingdom of Jerusalem; and the Arabs of Spain gave more to +the culture of Europe than the Arabs of Syria. + +2. _Historical Causes of the Crusades._--Within fifteen years of the +Hegira Jerusalem fell before the arms of Omar (637), and it continued to +remain in the hands of Mahommedan rulers till the end of the First +Crusade. For centuries, however, a lively intercourse was maintained +between the Latin Church in Jerusalem, which the clemency of the Arab +conquerors tolerated, and the Christians of the West. Charlemagne in +particular was closely connected with Jerusalem: the patriarch sent him +the keys of the city and a standard in 800; and in 807 Harun al-Rashid +recognized this symbolical cession, and acknowledged Charlemagne as +protector of Jerusalem and owner of the church of the Sepulchre. +Charlemagne founded a hospital and a library in the Holy City; and later +legend, when it made him the first of crusaders and the conqueror of the +Holy Land, was not without some basis of fact. The connexion lasted +during the 9th century; kings like Alfred of England and Louis of +Germany sent contributions to Jerusalem, while the Church of Jerusalem +acquired estates in the West. During the 10th century this intercourse +still continued; but in the 11th century interruptions began to come. +The fanaticism of the caliph Hakim destroyed the church of the Sepulchre +and ended the Frankish protectorate (1010); and the patronage of the +Holy Places, a source of strife between the Greek and the Latin Churches +as late as the beginning of the Crimean War, passed to the Byzantine +empire in 1021. This latter change in itself made pilgrimages from the +West increasingly difficult: the Byzantines, especially after the schism +of 1054, did not seek to smooth the way of the pilgrim, and Victor II. +had to complain to the empress Theodora of the exactions practised by +her officials. But still worse for the Latins was the capture of +Jerusalem by the Seljukian Turks in 1071. Without being intolerant, the +Turks were a rougher and ruder race than the Arabs of Egypt whom they +displaced; while the wars between the Fatimites of Egypt and the +Abbasids of Bagdad, whose cause was represented by the Seljuks, made +Syria (one of the natural battle-grounds of history) into a troubled and +unquiet region. The native Christians suffered; the pilgrims of the West +found their way made still more difficult, and that at a time when +greater numbers than ever were thronging to the East. Western Christians +could not but feel hampered and checked in their natural movement +towards the fountain-head of their religion, and it was natural that +they should ultimately endeavour to clear the way. In much the same way, +at a later date and in a lesser sphere, the closing of the trade-routes +by the advance of the Ottoman Turks led traders to endeavour to find new +channels, and issued in the rounding of the Cape of Good Hope and the +discovery of America. Nor, indeed, must it be forgotten that the search +for new and more direct connexions with the routes of Oriental trade is +one of the motives underlying the Crusades themselves, and leading to +what may be called the 13th-century discovery of Asia. + +It was thus natural, for these reasons, that the conquest of the Holy +Land should gradually become an object for the ambition of Western +Christianity--an object which the papacy, eager to realize its dream of +a universal Church subject to its sway, would naturally cherish and +attempt to advance. Two causes combined to make this object still more +natural and more definite. On the one hand, the reconquest of lost +territories from the Mahommedans by Christian powers had been proceeding +steadily for more than a hundred years before the First Crusade; on the +other hand, the position of the Eastern empire after 1071 was a clear +and definite summons to the Christian West, and proved, in the event, +the immediate occasion of the holy war. As early as 970 the recovery of +the territories lost to Mahommedanism in the East had been begun by +emperors like Nicephoras Phocas and John Zimisces: they had pushed their +conquests, if only for a time, as far as Antioch and Edessa, and the +temporary occupation of Jerusalem is attributed to the East Roman arms. +At the opposite end of the Mediterranean, in Spain, the Omayyad +caliphate was verging to its fall: the long Spanish crusade against the +Moor had begun; and in 1018 Roger de Toeni was already leading Normans +into Catalonia to the aid of the native Spaniard. In the centre of the +Mediterranean the fight between Christian and Mahommedan had been long, +but was finally inclining in favour of the Christian. The Arabs had +begun the conquest of Sicily from the East Roman empire in 827, and they +had attacked the mainland of Italy as early as 840. The popes had put +themselves at the head of Italian resistance: in 848 Leo IV. is already +promising a sure and certain hope of salvation to those who die in +defence of the cross; and by 916, with the capture of the Arab fortress +on the Garigliano, Italy was safe. Then came the reconquest of the +Mediterranean islands near Italy. The Pisans conquered Sardinia at the +instigation of Benedict VIII. about 1016; and, in a thirty years' war +which lasted from 1060 to 1090, the Normans, under a banner blessed by +Pope Alexander II., wrested Sicily from the Arabs. The Norman conquest +of Sicily may with justice be called a crusade before the Crusades; and +it cannot but have given some impulse to that later attempt to wrest +Syria from the Mahommedans, in which the virtual leader was Bohemund, a +scion of the same house which had conquered Sicily. But while the +Christians of the West were thus winning fresh ground from the +Mahommedans, in the course of the 11th century, the East Roman empire +had now to bear the brunt of a Mahommedan revival under the Seljuks--a +revival which, while it crushed for a time the Greeks, only acted as a +new incentive to the Latins to carry their arms to the East. The +Seljukian Turks, first the mercenaries and then the masters of the +caliph, had given new life to the decadent caliphate of Bagdad. Under +the rule of their sultans, who assumed the role of mayors of the palace +in Bagdad about the middle of the 11th century, they pushed westwards +towards the caliphate of Egypt and the East Roman empire. While they +wrested Jerusalem from the former (1071), in the same year they +inflicted a crushing defeat on the Eastern emperor at Manzikert. The +result of the defeat was the loss of almost the whole of Asia Minor; the +dominions of the Turks extended to the sea of Marmora. An appeal for +assistance, such as was often to be heard again in succeeding centuries, +was sent by Michael VII. of Constantinople to Gregory VII. in 1073. +Gregory listened to the appeal; he projected--not, indeed, as has often +been said, a crusade,[2] but a great expedition, which should recover +Asia Minor for the Eastern empire, in return for a union of the Eastern +with the Western Church. In 1074 Gregory actually assembled a +considerable army; but his disagreement with Robert Guiscard, followed +by the outbreak of the war of investitures, hindered the realization of +his plans, and the only result was a precedent and a suggestion for the +events of 1095. The appeal of Michael VII. was re-echoed by Alexius +Comnenus himself. Brave and sage as he was, he could hardly cope at one +and the same time with the hostility of the Normans on the west, of the +Petchenegs (Patzinaks) on the north, and of the Seljuks on the east and +south. Already in 1087 and 1088 he had appealed to Baldwin of Flanders, +verbally and by letter,[3] for troops; and Baldwin had answered the +appeal. The same appeal was made, more than once, to Urban II.; and the +answer was the First Crusade. The First Crusade was not, indeed, what +Alexius had asked or expected to receive. He had appealed for +reinforcements to recover Asia Minor; he received hundreds of thousands +of troops, independent of him, and intending to conquer Jerusalem for +themselves, though they might incidentally recover Asia Minor for the +Eastern empire on their way. Alexius may almost be compared to a +magician, who has uttered a charm to summon a ministering spirit, and is +surrounded on the instant by legions of demons. In truth the appeal of +Alexius had set free forces in the West which were independent of, and +even ultimately hostile to, the interests of the Eastern empire. + +The primary force, which thus transmuted an appeal for reinforcements +into a holy war for the conquest of Palestine, was the Church. The +creative thought of the middle ages is clerical thought. It is the +Church which creates the Carolingian empire, because the clergy thinks +in terms of empire. It is the Church which creates the First Crusade, +because the clergy believes in penitentiary pilgrimages, and the war +against the Seljuks can be turned into a pilgrimage to the Sepulchre; +because, again, it wishes to direct the fighting instinct of the laity, +and the consecrating name of Jerusalem provides an unimpeachable +channel; above all, because the papacy desires a perfect and universal +Church, and a perfect and universal Church must rule in the Holy Land. +But it would be a mistake to regard the Crusades (as it would be a +mistake to regard the Carolingian empire) as a _pure_ creation of the +Church, or as _merely_ due to the policy of a theocracy directing men to +the holy war which is the only war possible for a theocracy. It would be +almost truer, though only half the truth, to say that the clergy gave +the name of Crusade to sanctify interests and ambitions which, while set +on other ends than those of the Church, happened to coincide in their +choice of means. There was, for instance, the ambition of the adventurer +prince, the younger son, eager to carve a principality in the far East, +of whom Bohemund is the type; there was the interest of Italian towns, +anxious to acquire the products of the East more directly and cheaply, +by erecting their own emporia in the eastern Mediterranean. The former +was the driving force which made the First Crusade successful, where +later Crusades, without its stimulus, for the most part failed; the +latter was the one staunch ally which alone enabled Baldwin I. and +Baldwin II. to create the kingdom of Jerusalem. So far as the Crusades +led to permanent material results in the East, they did so in virtue of +these two forces. Unregulated enthusiasm might of itself have achieved +little or nothing; enthusiasm caught and guided by the astute Norman, +and the no less astute Venetian or Genoese, could not but achieve +tangible results. The principality or the emporium, it is true, would +supply motives to the prince and the merchant only; and it may be urged +that to the mass of the crusaders the religious motive was all in all. +In this way we may return to the view that the First Crusade, at any +rate, was _un fait ecclesiastique_. It is indeed true that to thousands +the hope of acquiring spiritual merit must have been a great motive; it +is also true, as the records of crusading sermons show, that there was a +strong element of "revivalism" in the Crusades, and that thousands were +hurried into taking the cross by a gust of that uncontrollable +enthusiasm which is excited by revivalist meetings to-day. But it must +also be admitted that there were motives of this world to attract the +masses to the Crusades. Famine and pestilence at home drove men to +emigrate hopefully to the golden East. In 1094 there was pestilence from +Flanders to Bohemia: in 1095 there was famine in Lorraine. _Francigenis +occidentalibus facile persuaderi poterat sua rura relinquere; nam +Gallias per annos aliquot nunc seditio civilis, nunc fames, nunc +mortalitas nimis afflixerat._[4] No wonder that a stream of emigration +set towards the East, such as would in modern times flow towards a newly +discovered gold-field--a stream carrying in its turbid waters much +refuse, tramps and bankrupts, camp-followers and hucksters, fugitive +monks and escaped villeins, and marked by the same motley grouping, the +same fever of life, the same alternations of affluence and beggary, +which mark the rush for a gold-field to-day. + +Such were the forces set in movement by Urban II., when, after holding a +synod at Piacenza (March, 1095), and receiving there fresh appeals from +Alexius, he moved to Clermont, in the S.E. of France, and there on the +26th of November delivered the great speech which was followed by the +First Crusade. In this speech he appealed, indeed, for help for the +Greeks, _auxilio ... saepe acclamato indigis_ (Fulcher i. c. i.); but +the gist of his speech was the need of Jerusalem. Let the truce of God +be observed at home; and let the arms of Christians be directed to the +winning of Jerusalem in an expedition which should count for full and +complete penance. Like Gregory, Urban had thus sought for aid for the +Eastern empire; unlike Gregory, who had only mentioned the Holy +Sepulchre in a single letter, and then casually, he had struck the note +of Jerusalem. The instant cries of _Deus vult_ which answered the note +showed that Urban had struck aright. Thousands at once took the cross; +the first was Bishop Adhemar of Puy, whom Urban named his legate and +made leader of the First Crusade (for the holy war, according to Urban's +original conception, must needs be led by a clerk). Fixing the 15th of +August 1096 as the time for the departure of the crusaders, and +Constantinople as the general rendezvous, Urban returned from France to +Italy. It is noticeable that it was on French soil that the seed had +been sown.[5] Preached on French soil by a pope of French descent, the +Crusades began--and they continued--as essentially a French (or perhaps +better Norman-French) enterprise; and the kingdom which they established +in the East was essentially a French kingdom, in its speech and its +customs, its virtues and its vices. It was natural that France should be +the home of the Crusades. She was already the home of the Cluniac +movement, the centre from which radiated the truce of God, the chosen +place of chivalry; she could supply a host of feudal nobles, somewhat +loosely tied to their place in society, and ready to break loose for a +great enterprise; she had suffered from battle and murder, pestilence +and famine, from which any escape was welcome. To the Normans +particularly the Crusades had an intimate appeal. They appealed to the +old Norse instinct for wandering--an instinct which, as it had long +before sent the Norseman eastward to find his El Dorado of Micklegarth, +could now find a natural outlet in the expedition to Jerusalem: they +appealed to the Norman religiosity, which had made them a people of +pilgrims, the allies of the papacy, and, in England and Sicily, +crusaders before the Crusades: finally, they appealed to that desire to +gain fresh territory, upon which Malaterra remarks as characteristic of +Norman princes.[6] No wonder, then, that the crusading armies were +recruited in France, or that they were led by men of the stock of the +d'Hautevilles. Meanwhile newly-conquered England had its own problems to +solve; and Germany, torn by civil war, and not naturally quick to +kindle, could only deride the "delirium" of the crusader.[7] + +3. _Course of the First Crusade._--The First Crusade falls naturally +into two parts. One of these may be called the Crusade of the people: +the other may be termed the Crusade of the princes. Of these the +people's Crusade--prior in order of time, if only secondary in point of +importance--may naturally be studied first. The sermon of Urban II. at +Clermont became the staple for wandering preachers, among whom Peter the +Hermit distinguished himself by his fiery zeal.[8] Riding on an ass from +place to place through France and along the Rhine, he carried away by +his eloquence thousands of the poor. Some three or four months before +the term fixed by Urban II., in April and May 1096, five divisions of +_pauperes_ had already collected. Three of these, led by Fulcher of +Orleans, Gottschalk and William the Carpenter respectively, failed to +reach even Constantinople. The armies of Fulcher and Gottschalk were +destroyed by the Hungarians in just revenge for their excesses (June); +the third, after joining in a wild _Judenhetze_ in the towns of the +valley of the Rhine, during which some 10,000 Jews perished as the +first-fruits of crusading zeal, was scattered to the winds in Hungary +(August). Two other divisions, however, reached Constantinople in +safety. The first of these, under Walter the Penniless, passed through +Hungary in May, and reached Constantinople, where it halted to wait for +the Hermit, in the middle of July. The second, led by Peter himself, +passed safely through Hungary, but suffered severely in Bulgaria, and +only attained Constantinople with sadly diminished numbers at the end of +July. These two divisions (which in spite of good treatment by Alexius +began to commit excesses against the Greeks) united and crossed the +Bosporus in August, Peter himself remaining in Constantinople. By the +end of October they had perished utterly at the hands of the Seljuks; a +heap of whitening bones also remained to testify to the later crusaders, +when they passed in the spring of 1097, of the fate of the people's +Crusade. + +Meanwhile the knights had already begun to assemble in March 1096. In +small bands, and by divers ways, they streamed gradually southward and +eastward, in a steady flow, throughout 1096. But three large divisions, +under three considerable leaders, were pre-eminent among the rest. +Godfrey of Bouillon, with his brother Baldwin, led the crusaders of +Lorraine along "the road of Charles the Great," through Hungary, to +Constantinople, where he arrived on the 23rd of December. Raymund of +Toulouse (the first prince to join the crusading movement) along with +Bishop Adhemar, the papal commissary, led the Provencals down the coast +of Illyria, and then due east to Constantinople, arriving towards the +end of April 1097. Bohemund of Otranto, the destined leader of the +Crusade, with his nephew Tancred, led a fine force of Normans by sea to +Durazzo, and thence by land to Constantinople, which he reached about +the same time as Raymund. To the same great rendezvous other leaders +also gathered, some of higher rank than Godfrey or Raymund or Bohemund, +but none destined to exercise an equal influence on the fate of the +Crusade. Hugh of Vermandois, younger brother of Philip I. of France, had +reached Constantinople in November 1096, in a species of honourable +captivity, and had done Alexius homage; Robert of Normandy and Stephen +of Blois, to whom Urban II. had given St Peter's banner at Lucca, only +arrived--the last of the crusaders--in May 1097 (their original +companion in arms, Count Robert of Flanders, having left them to winter +at Bari, and crossed to Constantinople before the end of 1096). + +Thus was gathered at Constantinople, in the spring of 1097, a great +host, which Fulcher computes at 600,000 men (I. c. iv.), Urban II. at +300,000, and which was probably some 150,000 strong.[9] Before we follow +this host into Asia, we may pause to inquire into the various factors +which would determine its course, or condition its activity. On the +Western side, and among the crusaders themselves, there were two factors +of importance, already mentioned above--the aims of the adventurer +prince, and the interests of the Italian merchant; while on the Eastern +side there are again two--the policy of the Greeks, and the condition of +the Mahommedan East. We have already seen that among the princes who +joined the First Crusade there were some who were rather _politiques_ +than _devots_, and who aimed at the acquisition of temporal profit as +well as of spiritual merit. Of these the type--and, it may almost be +said, the inspirer of the rest--was Bohemund. From the first he had an +Eastern principality in his mind's eye; and if we may judge from the +follower of Bohemund who wrote the _Gesta Francorum_, there had already +been some talk at Constantinople of Antioch as the seat of this +principality. Bohemund's policy seems to have inspired Baldwin, the +brother of Godfrey of Bouillon to emulation; on the one hand he strove +to thwart the endeavours of Tancred, the nephew of Bohemund, to begin +the foundation of the Eastern principality for his uncle by conquering +Cilicia, and, on the other, he founded a principality for himself in +Edessa. Raymond of Provence, the third and last of the great +_politiques_ of the First Crusade, was, like Baldwin, envious of +Bohemund; and jealousy drove him first to attempt to wrest Antioch from +Bohemund, and then to found a principality of Tripoli to the south of +Antioch, which would check the growth of his power. The political +motives of these three princes, and the interaction of their different +policies, was thus a great factor in determining the course and the +results of the First Crusade. The influence of the Italian towns did not +make itself greatly felt till after the end of the First Crusade, when +it made possible the foundation of a kingdom in Jerusalem, in addition +to the three principalities established by Bohemund, Baldwin and +Raymond; but during the course of the Crusade itself the Italian ships +which hugged the shores of Syria were able to supply the crusaders with +provisions and munition of war, and to render help in the sieges of +Antioch and Jerusalem.[10] Sea-power had thus some influence in +determining the victory of the crusaders. + +In the East the conditions were, on the whole, favourable to the +crusaders. The one difficulty--and it was serious--was the attitude +adopted by Alexius. Confronted by crusaders where he had asked for +auxiliaries, Alexius had two alternative policies presented to his +choice. He might, in the first place, have frankly admitted that the +crusaders were independent allies, and treating them as equals, he might +have waged war in concert with them, and divided the conquests achieved +in the war. A boundary line might have been drawn somewhere to the N.W. +of Antioch; and the crusaders might have been left to acquire what they +could to the south and east of that line. Unhappily, clinging to the +conviction that all the lands which the crusaders would traverse were +the "lost provinces" of his empire, he induced the crusaders to do him +homage, so that, whatever they conquered, they would conquer in his +name, and whatever they held, they would hold by his grant and as his +vassals. Thus Hugh of Vermandois became the man of Alexius in November +1096; Godfrey of Bouillon was induced, not without difficulty, to do +homage in January 1097; and in April and May the other leaders, +including Bohemund and the obstinate Raymond himself, followed his +example. The policy of Alexius was destined to produce evil results, +both for the Eastern empire and for the crusading movement. The West had +already its grievances against the East: the Greek emperors had taken +advantage of their protectorate of the Holy Places to lay charges on +the pilgrims, against which the Papacy had already been forced to +remonstrate; nor were the Italian towns, with the exception of favoured +Venice, disposed to be friendly to the great monopolist city of +Constantinople. The old dissension of the Eastern and Western Churches +had blazed out afresh in 1054; and the policy of Alexius only added new +rancours to an old grudge, which culminated in the Latin conquest of +Constantinople in 1204. On the other hand, the success of the crusading +movement was imperilled, both now and afterwards, by the jealousy of the +Comneni. Always hostile to the principality, which Bohemund established +in spite of his oath, they helped by their hostility to cause the loss +of Edessa in 1144, and thus to hasten the disintegration of the Latin +kingdom of Jerusalem. Yet one must remember, in justice to Alexius, the +gravity of the problem by which he was confronted; nor was the conduct +of the crusaders themselves such that he could readily make them his +brethren in arms. + +The condition of Asia Minor and Syria in 1097 was almost altogether such +as to favour the success of the crusaders. The Seljukian sultans had +only achieved a military occupation of the country which they had +conquered. There were Seljukian garrisons in towns like Nicaea and +Antioch, ready to offer an obstinate resistance to the crusaders; and +here and there in the country there were Seljukian armies, either +cantoned or nomadic. But the inhabitants of the towns were often hostile +to the garrisons, and over wide tracts of country there were no forces +at all. Accordingly, when the crusaders had captured the town at Nicaea, +and defeated the Seljukian field-army at Dorylaeum their way lay clear +before them through Asia Minor. Not only so, but they could count, at +the very least, on a benevolent neutrality from the native population; +while from the Armenian principalities in the S.E. of Asia Minor, which +survived unsubdued in the general deluge of Seljukian conquest, they +could expect active assistance (the hope of which will explain the +north-easterly line of march which they followed after leaving +Heraclea). But the purely military character of the Seljukian occupation +helped the crusaders in yet another way. Strong generals were needed in +the separate divisions of the empire, and these, as has always been the +case in Eastern empires, made themselves independent in their spheres of +command, because there was no organization to keep them together under a +single control. On the death of Malik Shah, the last of the great +Seljukian emperors (1092), the empire dissolved. A new sultan, +Barkiyaroq or Barkiarok, ruled in Bagdad (1094-1104); but in Asia Minor +Kilij Arslan held sway as the independent sultan of Konia (Iconium), +while the whole of Syria was also practically independent. Not only was +Syria thus weakened by being detached from the body of the Seljukian +empire; it was divided by dissensions within, and assailed by the +Fatimite caliph of Egypt from without. In 1095 two brothers, Ridwan and +Dekak, ruled in Aleppo and Damascus respectively; but they were at war +with one another, and Yagi-sian, the ruler of Antioch, was a party to +their dissensions. Ridwan and Yagi-sian were only stopped in an attack +on Damascus by news of the approach of the crusaders, which led the +latter to throw himself hastily into Antioch, in the autumn of 1097. +Meanwhile the Fatimites were not slow to take advantage of these +dissensions. A great religious difference divided the Fatimite caliph of +Cairo, the head of the Shiite sect, from the Abbasid caliph of Bagdad, +who was the head of the Sunnites. The difference may be compared to the +dissension between the Greek and the Latin Churches; but it had perhaps +more of the nature of a political difference. In any case, it hampered +the Mahommedans as much as the jealousy between Alexius and the Latins +hampered the progress of the Crusade. The crusading princes were well +enough aware of the gulf which divided the caliph of Cairo from the +Sunnite princes of Syria; and they sought by envoys to put themselves +into connexion with him, hoping by his aid to gain Jerusalem (which was +then ruled for the Turks by Sokman, the son of the amir Ortok).[11] But +the caliph preferred to act for himself, and took advantage of the wars +of the Syrian princes, and of the terror inspired by the advance of the +crusaders to conquer Jerusalem (August 1098). But though the leaders of +the First Crusade did not succeed in utilizing the dissensions of the +Mahommedans as fully as they desired, it still remains true that these +dissensions very largely explain their success. It was the disunion of +the Syrian amirs, and the division between the Abbasids and the +Fatimites, that made possible the conquest of the Holy City and the +foundation of the kingdom of Jerusalem. When a power arose in Mosul, +about 1130, which was able to unify Syria--when, again, in the hands of +Saladin, unified Syria was in turn united to Egypt--the cause of Latin +Christianity in the East was doomed. + +We are now in a position to follow the history of the First Crusade. By +the beginning of May 1097 the crusaders were crossing the Bosporus, and +entering the dominions of Kilij Arslan. Their first operation was the +siege of Nicaea, defended by a Seljuk garrison, but eventually captured, +with the aid of Alexius, after a month's siege (June 18). Alexius took +possession of the town; and though he rewarded the crusading princes +richly, some discontent was excited by his action. After the capture of +Nicaea, the field-army of Kilij Arslan had to be met. In a long and +obstinate encounter, it was defeated at Dorylaeum (July 1); and the +crusaders marched unmolested in a south-easterly direction to Heraclea. +Here Tancred, followed by Baldwin, turned into Cilicia, and began to +take possession of the Cilician towns, and especially of Tarsus--thus +beginning, it would seem, the creation of the Norman principality of +Antioch. The main army turned to the N.E., in the direction of Caesarea +(in order to bring itself into touch with the Armenian princes of this +district), and then marched southward again to Antioch. At Marash, half +way between Caesarea and Antioch, Baldwin, who had meanwhile wrested +Tarsus from Tancred, rejoined the ranks; but he soon left the main body +again, and struck eastward towards Edessa, to found a principality +there. At the end of October the crusaders came into position before +Antioch, which was held by Yagi-sian, and began the siege of the city, +which lasted from October 21, 1097, to June 3, 1098. The great figure in +the siege was naturally Bohemund (who had also been the hero of +Dorylaeum). He repelled attempts at relief made by Dekak (Dec. 31, 1097) +and Ridwan (Feb. 9, 1098); he put the besiegers in touch with the +Genoese ships lying in the harbour of St Simeon, the port of Antioch +(March 1098)--a move which at once served to remedy the want of +provisions from which the crusaders suffered, and secured materials for +the building of castles, with which Bohemund sought--in the Norman +fashion--to overawe the besieged city. But it was finally by the +treachery of one of Yagi-sian's commanders, the amir Firuz, that +Bohemund was able to effect its capture. The other leaders had, however, +to promise him possession of the city, before he would bring his +negotiations with Firuz to a conclusion; and the matter was so long +protracted that an army of relief under Kerbogha of Mosul was only at a +distance of three days' march, when the city was taken (June 3, 1098). +The besiegers were no sooner in the city, than they were besieged in +their turn by Kerbogha; and the twenty-five days which followed were the +worst period of stress and strain which the crusaders had to encounter. +Under the pressure of this strain "spiritualistic" phenomena began to +appear. It was in the ranks of the Provencals, where the religiosity of +Count Raymund seems to have extended to his followers, that these +phenomena appeared; and they culminated in the discovery of the Holy +Lance, which had pierced the side of the Saviour. The excitement +communicated itself to the whole army; and the nervous strength which it +gave enabled the crusaders to meet and defeat Kerbogha in the open +(June 28), but not before many of their number, including even Count +Stephen of Blois, had deserted and fled. + +With the discovery of the Lance, which became as it were a Provencal +asset, Count Raymund assumes a new importance. Mingled with the +religiosity of his nature there was much obstinacy and self-seeking; and +when Kerbogha was finally repelled, he began to dispute the possession +of Antioch with Bohemund, pleading in excuse his oath to Alexius. The +struggle lasted for some months, and helped to delay the further +progress of the crusaders. Raymund, indeed, left Antioch in November, +and moved S.E. to Marra; but his men still held two positions in +Antioch, from which they were not dislodged by Bohemund till January +1099. Expelled from Antioch, the obstinate Raymund endeavoured to +recompense himself in the south (where indeed he subsequently created +the county of Tripoli); and from February to May 1099 he occupied +himself with the siege of Arca, to the N.E. of Tripoli. It was during +the siege of Arca that Peter Bartholomew, to whom the vision of the Holy +Lance had first appeared, was subjected, with no definite result, to the +ordeal of fire--the hard-headed Normans doubting the genuine character +of any Provencal vision, the more when, as in this case, it turned to +the political advantage of the Provencals. The siege was long +protracted; the mass of the pilgrims were anxious to proceed to +Jerusalem, and, as the altered tone of the author of the _Gesta_ +sufficiently indicates, thoroughly weary of the obstinate political +bickerings of Raymund and Bohemund. Here Godfrey of Bouillon finally +came to the front, and placing himself at the head of the discontented +pilgrims, he forced Raymund to accept the offers of the amir of Tripoli, +to desist from the siege, and to march to Jerusalem (in the middle of +May 1099). Bohemund remained in Antioch: the other leaders pressed +forward, and following the coast route, arrived before Jerusalem in the +beginning of June. After a little more than a month's siege, the city +was finally captured (July 15). The slaughter was terrible; the blood of +the conquered ran down the streets, until men splashed in blood as they +rode. At nightfall, "sobbing for excess of joy," the crusaders came to +the Sepulchre from their treading of the winepress, and put their +blood-stained hands together in prayer. So, on that day of July, the +First Crusade came to an end. + +It remained to determine the future government of Jerusalem; and here +the eternal problem of the relations of Church and State emerged. It +might seem natural that the Holy City, conquered in a holy war by an +army of which the pope had made a churchman, Bishop Adhemar, the leader, +should be left to the government of the Church. But Adhemar had died in +August 1098 (whence, in large part, the confusion and bickerings which +followed in the end of 1098 and the beginning of 1099); nor were there +any churchmen left of sufficient dignity or weight to secure the triumph +of the ecclesiastical cause. In the meeting of the crusaders on the 22nd +of July, some few voices were raised in support of the view that a +"spiritual vicar" should first be chosen in the place of the late +patriarch of Jerusalem (who had just died in Cyprus), before the +election of any lay ruler was taken in hand. But the voices were not +heard; and the princes proceeded at once to elect a lay ruler. Raymund +of Provence refused to accept their nomination, nominally on the pious +ground that he did not wish to reign where Christ had suffered on the +cross; though one may suspect that the establishment of a principality +in Tripoli--in which he had been interrupted by the pressure of the +pilgrims--was still the first object of his ambition. The refusal of +Raymund meant the choice of Godfrey of Bouillon, who had, as we have +seen, become prominent since the siege of Arca; and Godfrey accordingly +became--not king, but "advocate of the Holy Sepulchre," while a few days +afterwards Arnulf, the chaplain of Robert of Normandy, and one of the +sceptics in the matter of the Holy Lance, became "vicar" of the vacant +patriarchate. Godfrey's first business was to repel an Egyptian attack, +which he accomplished successfully at Ascalon, with the aid of the other +crusaders (August 12). At the end of August the other crusaders +returned,[12] and Godfrey was left with a small army of 2000 men, and +the support of Tancred, now prince of Galilee, to rule in some four +isolated districts--Jaffa, Jerusalem, Ramlah and Haifa. At the end of +the year came Bohemund and Godfrey's brother Baldwin (now count of +Edessa) on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The result of Bohemund's visit was +new trouble for Godfrey. Bohemund procured the election of Dagobert, the +archbishop of Pisa, to the vacant patriarchate, disliking Arnulf, and +perhaps hoping to find in the new patriarch a political supporter. +Bohemund and Godfrey together became Dagobert's vassals; and in the +spring Godfrey even seems to have entered into an agreement with the +patriarch to cede Jerusalem and Jaffa into his hands, in the event of +acquiring other lands or towns, especially Cairo, or dying without +direct heirs. When Godfrey died in July 1100 (after successful forays +against the Mahommedans which took him as far as Damascus), it might +seem as if a theocracy were after all to be established in Jerusalem, in +spite of the events of 1099. + +4. _The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem under the First Three Kings,[13] +1100-1143._--The theocracy, however, was not destined to be established. +Godfrey had died without direct heirs; but in far Edessa there was his +brother Baldwin, ready to take his place. Dagobert had at first +consented to the dying Godfrey's wish that Baldwin should be his +successor; but when Godfrey died he saw an opportunity too precious to +be missed, and opposed Baldwin, counting on the support of Bohemund, to +whom he sent an appeal for assistance.[14] But a party in Jerusalem, +headed by the late "vicar" Arnulf, opposed itself to the hierarchical +pretensions of Dagobert and the Norman influence by which they were +backed; and this party, representing the Lotharingian laity, carried the +day. Baldwin was summoned from Edessa; and when he arrived, towards the +end of the year, he was crowned king by Dagobert himself. Thus was +founded, on Christmas day 1100, the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem; and thus +was the possibility of a theocracy finally annihilated. A feudal kingdom +of Frankish seigneurs was to be planted on the soil of Palestine, +instead of a _dominium temporale_ of the patriarch like that of the pope +in central Italy. Nor were any great difficulties with the Church to +hamper the growth of this kingdom. For two years, indeed, a struggle +raged between Baldwin I. and Dagobert: Baldwin accused the patriarch of +treachery, and attempted to force him to contribute to the defence of +the kingdom. But in 1102 the struggle ceased with the deposition of the +patriarch and the victory of the king; and though it was renewed for a +time by the patriarch Stephen in the reign of Baldwin II. (1128-1130), +the new struggle was of short duration, and was soon ended by Stephen's +death. + +The establishment of a kingdom in Jerusalem in 1100 was a blow, not only +to the Church but to the Normans of Antioch. At the end of 1099 any +contemporary observer must have believed that the capital of Latin +Christianity in the East was destined to be Antioch. Antioch lay in one +of the most fertile regions of the East; Bohemund was almost, if not +quite, the greatest genius of his generation; and when he visited +Jerusalem at the end of 1099, he led an army of 25,000 men--and those +men, at any rate in large part, Normans. What could Godfrey avail +against such a force? Yet the principality of Godfrey was destined to +higher things than that of Bohemund. Jerusalem, like Rome, had the +shadow of a mighty name to lend prestige to its ruler; and as residence +in Rome was one great reason of the strength of the medieval papacy, so +was residence in Jerusalem a reason for the ultimate supremacy of the +Lotharingian kings. Jerusalem attracted the flow of pilgrims from the +West as Antioch never could; and though the great majority of the +pilgrims were only birds of passage, there were always many who stayed +in the East. There was thus a steady immigration into the kingdom, to +strengthen its armies and recruit with new blood the vigour of its +inhabitants. Still more important perhaps was the fact that the ports of +the kingdom attracted the Italian towns; and it was therefore to the +kingdom that they lent the strength of their armies and the skill of +their siege-artillery--in return, it is true, for concessions of +privileges so considerable as to weaken the resources of the kingdom +they helped to create. While Jerusalem possessed these advantages, +Antioch was not without its defects. It had to meet--or perhaps it would +be more true to say, it brought upon itself--the hostility of strong +Mahommedan powers in the vicinity. As early as 1100 Bohemund was +captured in battle by Danishmend of Sivas; and it was his captivity, +depriving the patriarch as it did of Norman assistance, which allowed +the uncontested accession of Baldwin I. Again, in 1104, the Normans, +while attempting to capture Harran, were badly defeated on the river +Balikh, near Rakka; and this defeat may be said to have been fatal to +the chance of a great Norman principality.[15] But the hostility of +Alexius, aided and abetted by the jealousy of Raymund of Toulouse, was +almost equally fatal. Alexius claimed Antioch; was it not the old +possession of his empire, and had not Bohemund done him homage? Raymund +was ready to defend the claims of Alexius; was not Bohemund a successful +rival? Thus it came about that Alexius and Raymund became allies; and by +the aid of Alexius Raymund established, from 1102 onwards, the +principality which, with the capture of Tripoli in 1109, became the +principality of Tripoli, and barred the advance of Antioch to the south. +Meanwhile the armies of Alexius not only prevented any farther advance +to the N.W., but conquered the Cilician towns (1104). No wonder that +Bohemund flung himself in revenge on the Eastern empire in 1108--only, +however, to meet with a humiliating defeat at Durazzo. + +Thus it was that Baldwin waxed while Bohemund waned. The growth of +Baldwin's kingdom, as it was suggested above, owed more to the interests +of Italian traders than it did to crusading zeal. In 1100, indeed, it +might appear that a new Crusade from the West, which the capture of +Antioch in 1098 had begun, and the conquest of Jerusalem in 1099 had +finally set in motion, was destined to achieve great things for the +nascent kingdom. Thousands had joined this new Crusade, which should +deal the final blow to Mahommedanism: among the rest came the first of +the troubadours, William IX., Count of Poitiers, to gather copy for his +muse, and even some, like Stephen of Blois and Hugh of Vermandois, who +had joined the First Crusade, but had failed to reach Jerusalem. The new +crusaders cherished high plans; they would free Bohemund and capture +Bagdad. But each of the three sections of their army was routed in turn +in Asia Minor by the princes of Sivas, Aleppo and Harran, in the middle +of 1101; and only a few escaped to report the crushing disaster. Baldwin +I. had thus no assistance to expect from the West, save that of the +Italian towns. From an early date Italian ships had followed the +crusaders. There were Genoese ships in St Simeon's harbour in the spring +of 1098 and at Jaffa in 1099; in 1099 Dagobert, the archbishop of Pisa, +led a fleet from his city to the Holy Land; and in 1100 there came to +Jaffa a Venetian fleet of 200 sail, whose leaders promised Venetian +assistance in return for freedom from tolls and a third of each town +they helped to conquer. But it was the Genoese who helped Baldwin I. +most. The Venetians already enjoyed, since 1080, a favoured position in +Constantinople, and had the less reason to find a new emporium in the +East; while Pisa connected itself, through Dagobert, with Antioch[16] +rather than with Jerusalem, and was further, in 1111, invested by +Alexius with privileges, which made an outlet in the Holy Land no longer +necessary. But the Genoese, who had helped with provisions and +siege-tackle in the capture of Antioch and of Jerusalem, had both a +stronger claim on the crusaders, and a greater interest in acquiring an +eastern emporium. An alliance was accordingly struck in 1101 (Fulcher +II. c. vii.), by which the Genoese promised their assistance, in return +for a third of all booty, a quarter in each town captured, and a grant +of freedom from tolls. In this way Baldwin I. was able to take Arsuf and +Caesarea in 1101 and Acre in 1104. But Genoese aid was given to others +beside Baldwin (it enabled Raymund to capture Byblus in 1104, and his +successor, William, to win Tripoli in 1109); while, on the other hand, +Baldwin enjoyed other aid besides that of the Genoese. In 1110, for +example, he was enabled to capture Sidon by the aid of Sigurd of Norway, +the Jorsalafari, who came to the Holy Land with a fleet of 55 ships, +starting in 1107, and in a three years' "wandering," after the old Norse +fashion, fighting the Moors in Spain, and fraternizing with the Normans +in Sicily. At a later date, in the reign of Baldwin II., Venice also +gave her aid to the kings of Jerusalem. Irritated by the concessions +made by Alexius to the Pisans in 1111, and furious at the revocation of +her own privileges by John Comnenus in 1118, the republic naturally +sought a new outlet in the Holy Land. A Venetian fleet of 120 sail came +in 1123, and after aiding in the repulse of an attack, which the +Egyptians had taken advantage of Baldwin II.'s captivity to deliver, +they helped the regent Eustace to capture Tyre (1124), in return for +considerable privileges--freedom from toils throughout the kingdom, a +quarter in Jerusalem, baths and ovens in Acre, and in Tyre one-third of +the city and its suburbs, with their own court of justice and their own +church. After thus gaining a new footing in Tyre, the Venetians could +afford to attack the islands of the Aegean as they returned, in revenge +for the loss of their privileges in Constantinople; but the hostility +between Venice and the Eastern empire was soon afterwards appeased, when +John Comnenus restored the old privileges of the Venetians. The +Venetians, however, maintained their position in Palestine; and their +quarters remained, along with those of the Genoese, as privileged +commercial franchises in an otherwise feudal state. + +In this way the kingdom of Jerusalem expanded until it came to embrace a +territory stretching along the coast from Beirut (captured in 1110[17]) +to el-Arish on the confines of Egypt--a territory whose strength lay not +in Judaea, like the ancient kingdom of David, but, somewhat +paradoxically (though commercial motives explain the paradox), in +Phoenicia and the land of the Philistines. With all its length, the +territory had but little breadth: towards the north it was bounded by +the amirate of Damascus; in the centre, it spread little, if at all, +beyond the Jordan; and it was only in the south that it had any real +extension. Here there were two considerable annexes. To the south of the +Dead Sea stretched a tongue of land, reaching to Aila, at the head of +the eastern arm of the Red Sea. This had been won by Baldwin I., by way +of revenge for the attacks of the Egyptians on his kingdom; and here, as +early as 1116, he had built the fort of Monreal, half way between Aila +and the Dead Sea. To the east of the Dead Sea, again, lay a second strip +of territory, in which the great fortress was Krak (Kerak) of the +Desert, planted somewhere about 1140 by the royal butler, Paganus, in +the reign of Fulk of Jerusalem. These extensions in the south and east +had also, it is easy to see, a commercial motive. They gave the kingdom +a connexion of its own with the Red Sea and its shipping; and they +enabled the Franks to control the routes of the caravans, especially +the route from Damascus to Egypt and the Red Sea. Thus, it would appear, +the whole of the expansion of the Latin kingdom (which may be said to +have attained its height in 1131, at the death of Baldwin II.) may be +shown to have been dictated, at any rate in large part, by economic +motives; and thus, too, it would seem that two of the most powerful +motives which sway the mind of man--the religious motive and the desire +for gain--conspired to elevate the kingdom of Jerusalem (at once the +country of Christ, and a natural centre of trade) to a position of +supremacy in Latin Syria. During this process of growth the kingdom +stood in relation to two sects of powers--the three Frankish +principalities in northern Syria, and the Mahommedan powers both of the +Euphrates and the Nile--whose action affected its growth and character. + +Of the three Frankish principalities, Edessa, founded in 1098 by Baldwin +I. himself, was a natural fief of Jerusalem. Baldwin de Burgh, the +future Baldwin II., ruled in Edessa as the vassal of Baldwin I. from +1100 to 1118; and thereafter the county was held in succession by the +two Joscelins of Tell-bashir until the conquest of Edessa by Zengi in +1144. Lying to the east of the Euphrates, at once in close contact with +the Armenians, and in near proximity to the great route of trade which +came up the Euphrates to Rakka, and thence diverged to Antioch and +Damascus, the county of Edessa had an eventful if brief life. The county +of Tripoli, the second of these principalities, had also come under the +aegis of Jerusalem at an early date. Founded by Raymund of Toulouse, +between 1102 and 1105, with the favour of Alexius and the alliance of +the Genoese, it did not acquire its capital of Tripoli till 1109. Even +before the conquest of Tripoli, there had been dissensions between +William, the nephew and successor of Raymund, and Bertrand, Raymund's +eldest son, which it had needed the interference of Baldwin I. to +compose; and it was only by the aid of the king that the town of Tripoli +had been taken. At an early date therefore the county of Tripoli had +already come under the influence of the kingdom. Meanwhile the +principality of Antioch, ruled by Tancred, after the departure of +Bohemund (1104-1112), and then by Roger his kinsman (1112-1119), was, +during the reign of Baldwin I., busily engaged in disputes both with its +Christian neighbours at Edessa and Tripoli, and with the Mahommedan +princes of Mardin and Mosul. On the death of Roger in 1119, the +principality came under the regency of Baldwin II. of Jerusalem, until +1126, when Bohemund II. came of age. Bohemund had married a daughter of +Baldwin; and on his death in 1130 Baldwin II. had once more become the +guardian of Antioch. From his reign therefore Antioch may be regarded as +a dependency of Jerusalem; and thus the end of Baldwin's reign (1131) +may be said to mark the time when the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem stands +complete, with its own boundaries stretching from Beirut in the north to +el-Arish and Aila in the south, and with the three Frankish powers of +the north admitting its suzerainty. + +The Latin power thus established and organized in the East had to face +in the north a number of Mahommedan amirs, in the south the caliph of +Egypt. The disunion between the Mahommedans of northern Syria and the +Fatimites of Egypt, and the political disintegration of the former, were +both favourable to the success of the Franks; but they had nevertheless +to maintain their ground vigorously both in the north and the south +against almost incessant attacks. The hostility of the decadent +caliphate of Cairo was the less dangerous; and though Baldwin I. had at +the beginning of his reign to meet annual attacks from Egypt, by the end +he had pushed his power to the Red Sea, and in the very year of his +death (1118) he had penetrated along the north coast of Egypt as far as +Farama (Pelusium). The plan of conquering Egypt had indeed presented +itself to the Franks from the first, as it continued to attract them to +the end; and it is significant that Godfrey himself, in 1100, promised +Jerusalem to the patriarch, "as soon as he should have conquered some +other great city, and especially Cairo." But the real menace to the +Latin kingdom lay in northern Syria; and here a power was eventually +destined to rise, which outstripped the kings of Jerusalem in the race +for Cairo, and then--with the northern and southern boundaries of +Jerusalem in its control--was able to crush the kingdom as it were +between the two arms of a vice. Until 1127, however, the Mahommedans of +northern Syria were disunited among themselves. The beginning of the +12th century was the age of the atabegs (regents or stadtholders). The +atabegs formed a number of dynasties, which displaced the descendants of +the Seljukian amirs in their various principalities. These dynasties +were founded by emancipated mamelukes, who had held high office at court +and in camp under powerful amirs, and who, on their death, first became +stadtholders for their descendants, and then usurped the throne of their +masters. There was an atabeg dynasty in Damascus founded by Tughtigin +(1103-1128): there was another to the N.E., that of the Ortokids, +represented by Sokman, who established himself at Kaifa in Diarbekr +about 1101, and by his brother Ilghazi, who received Mardin from Sokman +about 1108, and added to it Aleppo in 1117.[18] But the greatest of the +atabegs were those of Mosul on the Tigris--Maudud, who died in 1113; +Aksunkur, his successor; and finally, greatest of all, Zengi himself, +who ruled in Mosul from 1127 onwards. + +Before the accession of Zengi, there had been constant fighting, which +had led, however, to no definite result, between the various Mahommedan +princes and the Franks of northern Syria. The constant pressure of +Tancred of Antioch and Baldwin de Burgh of Edessa led to a series of +retaliations between 1110 and 1115; Edessa was attacked in 1110, 1111, +1112 and 1114; and in 1113 Maudud of Mosul had even penetrated as far as +the vicinity of Acre and Jerusalem.[19] But the dissensions of the +Mahommedans made their attacks unavailing; in 1115, for instance, we +find Antioch actually aided by Ilghazi and Tughtigin against Aksunkur of +Mosul. Again, in the reign of Baldwin II., there was steady fighting in +the north; Roger of Antioch was defeated by Ilghazi at Balat in 1119, +and Baldwin II. himself was captured by Balak, the successor of Ilghazi, +in 1123, but on the whole the Franks held the upper hand. Baldwin +conquered part of the territory of Aleppo (in 1121 and the following +years), and extorted a tribute from Damascus (1126). But when Zengi +established himself in Mosul in 1127, the tide gradually began to turn. +He created for himself a great and united principality, comprising not +only Mosul, but also Aleppo,[20] Harran, Nisibin and other districts; +and in 1130, Alice, the widow of Bohemund II., sought his alliance in +order to maintain herself in power at Antioch. In the beginning of the +reign of Fulk of Jerusalem (1131-1143) the progress of Zengi was steady. +He conquered in 1135 several fortresses in the east of the principality +of Antioch, and in this year and the next pressed the count of Tripoli +hard; while in 1137 he defeated Fulk at Barin, and forced the king to +capitulate and surrender the town. If Fulk had been left alone to wage +the struggle against Zengi, and if Zengi had enjoyed a clear field +against the Franks, the fall of the kingdom of Jerusalem might have come +far sooner than it did.[21] But there were two powers which aided Fulk, +and impeded the progress of Zengi--the amirate of Damascus and the +emperors of Constantinople. The position of Damascus is a position of +crucial importance from 1130 to 1154. Lying between Mosul and Jerusalem, +and important both strategically and from its position on the great +route of commerce from the Euphrates to Egypt, Damascus became the +arbiter of Syrian politics. During the greater part of the period +between 1130 and 1154 the policy of Damascus was guided by the vizier +Muin-eddin Anar, who ruled on behalf of the descendants of the atabeg +Tughtigin. He saw the importance of finding an ally against the ambition +of Zengi, who had already attacked Damascus in 1130. The natural ally +was Jerusalem. As early as 1133 the alliance of the two powers had been +concluded; and in 1140 the alliance was solemnly renewed between Fulk +and the vizier. Henceforth this alliance was a dominant factor in +politics. One of the great mistakes made by the Franks was the breach of +the alliance in 1147--a breach which was widened by the attack directed +against Damascus during the Second Crusade; and the conquest of Damascus +by Nureddin in 1154 was ultimately fatal to the Latin kingdom, removing +as it did the one possible ally of the Franks, and opening the way to +Egypt for the atabegs of Mosul. + +The alliance of the emperors of Constantinople was of far more dubious +value to the kings of Jerusalem. We have already seen that it was the +theory of the Eastern emperors--a theory which logically followed from +the homage of the crusaders to Alexius--that the conquests of the +crusaders belonged to their empire, and were held by the crusading +princes as fiefs. We have seen that the action of Bohemund at Antioch +was the negation of this theory, and that Alexius in consequence helped +Raymund to establish himself in Tripoli as a thorn in the side of +Bohemund, and sent an army and a fleet which wrested from the Normans +the towns of Cilicia (1104). The defeat of Bohemund at Durazzo in 1108 +had resulted in a treaty, which made Antioch a fief of Alexius; but +Tancred (who in 1107 had recovered Cilicia from the Greeks) refused to +fulfil the terms of the treaty, and Alexius (who attempted--but in +vain--to induce Baldwin I. to join an alliance against Tancred in 1112) +was forced to leave Antioch independent. Thus, although Alexius had been +able, in the wake of the crusading armies, to recover a large belt of +land round the whole coast of Asia Minor,--the interior remaining +subject to the sultans of Konia (Iconium) and the princes of Sivas,--he +left the territories to the east of the western boundary of Cilicia in +the hands of the Latins when he died in 1118. Not for 20 years after his +death did the Eastern empire make any attempt to gain Cilicia or wrest +homage from Antioch. But in 1137 John Comnenus appeared, instigated by +the opportunity of dissensions in Antioch, and received its long-denied +homage, as well as that of Tripoli; while in the following year he +entered into hostilities with Zengi, without, however, achieving any +considerable result. In 1142 he returned again, anxious to create a +principality in Cilicia and Antioch for his younger son Manuel. The +people of Antioch refused to submit; a projected visit to Jerusalem, +during which John was to unite with Fulk in a great alliance against the +Moslem, fell through; and in the spring of 1143 the emperor died in +Cilicia, with nothing accomplished. On the whole, the interference of +the Comneni, if it checked Zengi for the moment in 1138, may be said to +have ultimately weakened and distracted the Franks, and to have helped +to cause the loss of Edessa (1144), which marks the turning-point in the +history of the kingdom of Jerusalem. + +5. _Organization of the Kingdom._--Before we turn to describe the Second +Crusade, which the loss of Edessa provoked, and to trace the fall of the +kingdom, which the Second Crusade rather hastened than hindered, we may +pause at this point to consider the organization of the Frankish +colonies in Syria. The first question which arises is that of the +relation of the kingdom of Jerusalem to the three counties or +principalities of Antioch, Tripoli and Edessa, which acknowledged their +dependence upon it. The degree of this dependence was always a matter of +dispute. The rights of the king of Jerusalem chiefly appear when there +is a vacancy or a minority in one of the principalities, or when there +is dissension either inside one of the principalities or between two of +the princes. On the death of one of the princes without heirs of full +age, the kings of Jerusalem were entitled to act as regents, as Baldwin +II. did twice at Antioch, in 1119 and 1130; but the kings regarded this +right of regency as a burden rather than a privilege, and it is indeed +characteristic of the relation of the king to the three princes, that it +imposes upon him duties without any corresponding rights. It is his duty +to act as regent; it is his duty to compose the dissensions in the +principality of Antioch, and to repress the violences of the prince +towards his patriarch (1154); it is his duty to reconcile Antioch with +Edessa, when the two fall to fighting. The princes on their side acted +independently: if they joined the king with their armies, it was as +equals doing a favour; and they sometimes refused to join until they +were coerced. They made their own treaties with the Mahommedans, or +attacked them in spite of the king's treaties; they dated their +documents by the year of their own reign, and they had each their +separate laws or assizes. There was, in a word, co-ordination rather +than subordination; nor did the kings ever attempt to embark on a policy +of centralization. + +The relation of the king to his own barons within his immediate kingdom +of Jerusalem is not unlike the relation of the king to the three +princes. In Norman England the king insisted on his rights; in Frankish +Jerusalem the barons insisted on his duties. The circumstances of the +foundation of the kingdom explain its characteristics. As the crusaders +advanced to Jerusalem, says Raymund of Agiles (c. xxxiii.), it was their +rule that the first-comer had the right to each castle or town, provided +that he hoisted his standard and planted a garrison there. The feudal +nobility was thus the first to establish itself, and the king only came +after its institution--the reverse of Norman England, where the king +first conquered the country, and then plotted it out among his nobles. +The predominance of the nobility in this way became as characteristic of +feudalism in the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem as the supremacy of the +crown was of contemporary feudalism in England; and that predominance +expressed itself in the position and powers of the high court, in which +the ultimate sovereignty resided. The kingdom of Jerusalem consisted of +a society of peers, in which the king might be _primus_, but in which he +was none the less subject to a punctilious law, regulating his position +equally with that of every member of the society. In such a society the +election of the head by the members may seem natural; and in the case of +Godfrey and the first two Baldwins this was the case. But the conception +of the equality of the king and his peers in the long run led to +hereditary monarchy; for if the king held his kingdom as a fief, like +other nobles, the laws of descent which applied to a fief applied to the +kingdom, and those laws demanded heredity. Yet the high court, which +decided all problems of descent, would naturally intervene if a problem +of descent arose, as it frequently did, in the kingdom; and thus the +barons had the right of deciding between different claimants, and also +of formally "approving" each new successor to the throne. The conception +of the kingdom as a fief not only subjected it to the jurisdiction of +the high court; it involved the more disastrous result that the kingdom, +like other fiefs, might be carried by an heiress to her husband; and the +proximate causes of the collapse of the kingdom in 1187 depend on this +fact and the dissensions which it occasioned. + +Thus conceived as the holder of a great fief, the king had only the +rights of _suzerain_ over the four great baronies and the twelve minor +fiefs of his kingdom. He had not those rights of sovereign which the +Norman kings of England inherited from their Anglo-Saxon predecessors, +or the Capetian kings of France from the Carolings; nor was he able +therefore to come into direct touch with each of his subjects, which +William I., in virtue of his sovereign rights, was able to attain by the +Salisbury oath of 1086. Amalric I. indeed, by his _assise sur la +ligece_, attempted to reach the vassals of his vassals; he admitted +arriere-vassaux to the _haute cour_, and encouraged them to carry their +cases to it in the first instance. But this is the only attempt at that +policy of _immediatisation_ which in contemporary England was carried to +far greater lengths; and even this attempt was unsuccessful. No alliance +was actually formed between the king and the mesne nobility against the +immediate baronage. The body of the tenants-in-chief continued to limit +the power of the crown: their consent was necessary to legislation, and +grants of fiefs could not be made without their permission. Nor was the +crown only limited in this way. The _duties_ of the king towards his +tenants are prominent in the _assises_. The king's oath to his men binds +him to respect and maintain their rights, which are as prominent as are +his duties; and if the men feel that the royal oath has not been kept, +they may lawfully refuse military service (_gager le roi_), and may even +rise in authorized and legal rebellion. The system of military service +and the organization of justice corresponded to the part which the +monarchy was thus constrained to play. The vassal was bound to pay +military service, not, as in western Europe, for a limited period of +forty days, but for the whole year--the Holy Land being, as it were, in +a perpetual state of siege. On the other hand, the vassal was not bound +to render service, unless he were _paid_ for his service; and it was +only famine, or Saracen devastation, which freed the king from the +obligation of paying his men. The king was also bound to insure the +horses of his men by a system called the _restor_: if a vassal lost his +horse otherwise than by his own fault, it must be replaced by the +treasury (which was termed, as it also was in Norman Sicily, the +_secretum_).[22] But the king had another force in addition to the +feudal levy--a paid force of _soudoyers_,[23] holding fiefs, not of +land, but of pay (_fiefs de soudee_). Along with this paid cavalry went +another branch of the army, the Turcopuli, a body of light cavalry, +recruited from the Syrians and Mahommedans, and using the tactics of the +Arabs; while an infantry was found among the Armenians, the best +soldiers of the East, and the Maronites, who furnished the kingdom with +archers. To all these various forces must be added the knights and +native levies of the great orders, whose masters were practically +independent sovereigns like the princes of Antioch and Tripoli;[24] and +with these the total levy of the kingdom may be reckoned at some 25,000 +men. But the strength of the kingdom lay less perhaps in the army than +in the magnificent fortresses which the nobility, and especially the two +orders, had built; and the most visible relic of the crusades to-day is +the towering ruins of a fortress like Krak (Kerak) des Chevaliers, the +fortress of the Knights of St John in the principality of Tripoli. These +fortresses, garrisoned not by the king, as in Norman England, but by +their possessors, would only strengthen the power of the feudatories, +and help to dissipate the kingdom into a number of local units. + +In the organization of its system of justice the kingdom showed its most +characteristic features. Two great central courts sat in Jerusalem to do +justice--the high court of the nobles, and the court of burgesses for +the rest of the Franks. (1) The high court was the supreme source of +justice for the military class; and in its composition and procedure the +same limitation of the crown, which appears in regard to military +service, is again evident. The high court is not a _curia regis_, but a +_curia baronum_, in which the theory of _judicium parium_ is fully +realized. If the king presides in the court, the motive of its action is +none the less the preservation of the rights of the nobles, and not, as +in England, the extension of the rights of the crown. It is a court of +the king's peers: it tries cases of dispute between the king and his +peers--with regard, for instance, to military service--and it settles +the descent of the title of king. (2) The court of burgesses was almost +equally sovereign within its sphere. While the body of the noblesse +formed the high court, the court of the burgesses was composed of twelve +legists (probably named by the king) under the presidency of the +_vicomte_--a knight also named by the king, who was a great financial as +well as a judicial officer. The province of the court included all acts +and contracts between burgesses, and extended to criminal cases in which +burgesses were involved. Like the high court, the court of burgesses had +also its assizes[25]--a body of unwritten legal custom. The independent +position of the burgesses, who thus assumed a position of equality by +the side of the feudal class, is one of the peculiarities of the kingdom +of Jerusalem. It may be explained by reference to the peculiar +conditions of the kingdom. Burgesses and nobles, however different in +status, were both of the same Frankish stock, and both occupied the same +superior position with regard to the native Syrians. The commercial +motive, again, had been one of the great motives of the crusade; and the +class which was impelled by that motive would be both large and, in view +of the quality of the Eastern goods in which it dealt, exceptionally +prosperous. Finally, when one remembers how, during the First Crusade, +the _pedites_ had marched side by side with the _principes_, and how, +from the beginning of 1099, they had practically risen in revolt against +the selfish ambitions of princes like Count Raymund, it becomes easy to +understand the independent position which the burgesses assumed in the +organization of the kingdom. Burgesses could buy and possess property in +towns, which knights were forbidden to acquire; and though they could +not intermarry with the feudal classes, it was easy and regular for a +burgess to thrive to knighthood. Like the nobles, again, the burgesses +had the right of confirming royal grants and of taking part in +legislation; and they may be said to have formed--socially, politically +and judicially--an independent and powerful estate. Yet (with the +exception of Antioch, Tripoli and Acre in the course of the 13th +century) the Frankish towns never developed a communal government: the +domain of their development was private law and commercial life. + +Locally, the consideration of the system of justice administered in the +kingdom involves some account of three things--the organization of the +fiefs, the position of the Italian traders in their quarters, and the +privileges of the Church. Each fief was organized like the kingdom. In +each there was a court for the noblesse, and a court (or courts) for the +bourgeoisie. There were some thirty-seven _cours de bourgeoisie_ +(several of the fiefs having more than one), each of which was under the +presidency of a _vicomte_, while all were independent of the court of +burgesses at Jerusalem. Of the feudal courts there were some twenty-two. +Each of these followed the procedure and the law of the high court; but +each was independent of the high court, and formed a sovereign court +without any appeal. On the other hand, the revolution wrought by Amalric +I. in the status of the _arriere-vassaux_, which made them members of +the high court, allowed them to carry their cases to Jerusalem in the +first instance, if they desired. Apart from this, the characteristic of +seignorial justice is its independence and its freedom from the central +court; though, when we reflect that the central court is a court of +seigneurs, this characteristic is seen to be the logical result of the +whole system. Midway between the seignorial _cours de bourgeoisie_ and +the privileged jurisdictions of the Italian quarter, there were two +kinds of courts of a commercial character--the _cours de la fonde_ in +towns where trade was busy, and the _cours de la chaine_ in the +sea-ports. The former courts, under their bailiffs, gradually absorbed +the separate courts which the Syrians had at first been permitted to +enjoy under their own _reis_; and the bailiff with his 6 assessors (4 +Syrians and 2 Franks) thus came to judge both commercial cases and cases +in which Syrians were involved. The _cours de la chaine_, whose +institution is assigned to Amalric I. (1162-1174), had a civil +jurisdiction in admiralty cases, and, like the _cours de la fonde_, they +were composed of a bailiff and his assessors. Distinct from all these +courts, if similar in its sphere, is the court which the Italian quarter +generally enjoyed in each town under its own consuls--a court privileged +to try all but the graver cases, like murder, theft and forgery. The +court was part of the general immunity which made these quarters +_imperia in imperio_: their exemptions from tolls and from financial +contributions is parallel to their judicial privileges. Regulated by +their mother-town, both in their trade and their government, these +Italian quarters outlasted the collapse of the kingdom, and continued to +exist under Mahommedan rulers. The Church had its separate courts, as in +the West; but their province was perhaps greater than elsewhere. The +church courts could not indeed decide cases of perjury; but, on the +other hand, they tried all matters in which clerical property was +concerned, and all cases of dispute between husband and wife. In other +spheres the immunities and exemptions of the Church offered a far more +serious problem, and especially in the sphere of finance. Perhaps the +supreme defect of the kingdom of Jerusalem was its want of any financial +basis. It is true that the king had a revenue, collected by the vicomte +and paid into the _secretum_ or treasury--a revenue composed of tolls on +the caravans and customs from the ports, of the profits of monopolies +and the proceeds of justice, of poll-taxes on Jews and Mahommedans, and +of the tributes paid by Mahommedan powers. But his expenditure was +large: he had to pay his feudatories; and he had to provide fiefs in +money and kind to those who had not fiefs of land. The contributions +sent to the Holy Land by the monarchs of western Europe, as commutations +in lieu of personal participation in crusades, might help; the fatal +policy of razzias against the neighbouring Mahommedan powers might +procure temporary resources; but what was really necessary was a wide +measure of native taxation, such as was once, and once only, attempted +in 1183. To any such measure the privileges of the Italian quarters, and +still more those of the Church, were inimical. In spite of provisions +somewhat parallel to those of the English statute of mortmain, the +clergy continued to acquire fresh lands at the same time that they +refused to contribute to the defence of the kingdom, and rigorously +exacted the full quota of tithe from every source which they could tap, +and even from booty captured in war. The richest proprietor in the Holy +Land,[26] but practically immune from any charges on its property, the +Church helped, unconsciously, to ruin the kingdom which it should have +supported above all others. It refused to throw its weight into the +scale, and to strengthen the hands of the king against an over-mighty +nobility. On the other hand, it must be admitted that the Church did +not, after the first struggle between Dagobert and Baldwin I., actively +oppose by any hierarchical pretensions the authority of the crown. The +assizes may speak of patriarch and king as conjoint seigneurs in +Jerusalem; but as a matter of fact the king could secure the nomination +of his own patriarch, and after Dagobert the patriarchs are, with the +temporary exception of Stephen in 1128, the confidants and supporters of +the kings. It was the two great orders of the Templars and the +Hospitallers which were, in reality, most dangerous to the kingdom. +Honeycombed as it was by immunities--of seigneurs, of Italian quarters, +of the clergy--the kingdom was most seriously impaired by these +overweening immunists, who, half-lay and half-clerical, took advantage +of their ambiguous position to escape from the duties of either +character. They built up great estates, especially in the principality +of Tripoli; they quarrelled with one another, until their dissensions +prevented any vigorous action; they struggled against the claims of the +clergy to tithes and to rights of jurisdiction; they negotiated with the +Mahommedans as separate powers; they conducted themselves towards the +kings as independent sovereigns. Yet their aid was as necessary as their +influence was noxious. Continually recruited from the West, they +retained the vigour which the native Franks of Palestine gradually lost; +and their corporate strength gave a weight to their arms which made them +indispensable. + +In describing the organization of the kingdom, we have also been +describing the causes of its fall. It fell because it had not the +financial or political strength to survive. "Les vices du gouvernement +avaient ete plus puissants que les vertus des gouvernants." But the +vices were not only vices of the government: they were also vices, +partly inevitable, partly moral, in the governing race itself. The +climate was no doubt responsible for much. The Franks of northern Europe +attempted to live a life that suited a northern climate under a southern +sun. They rode incessantly to battle over burning sands, in full +armour--chain mail, long shield and heavy casque--as if they were on +their native French soil. The ruling population was already spread too +thin for the work which it had to do; and exhausted by its efforts, it +gradually became extinct. A constant immigration from the West, bringing +new blood and recruiting the stock, could alone have maintained its +vigour; and such immigration never came. Little driblets of men might +indeed be added to the numbers of the Franks; but the great bodies of +crusaders either perished in Asia Minor, as in 1101 and 1147, or found +themselves thwarted and distrusted by the native Franks. It was indeed +one of the misfortunes of the kingdom that its inhabitants could never +welcome the reinforcements which came to their aid.[27] The barons +suspected the crusaders of ulterior motives, and of designing to get new +principalities for themselves. In any case the native Frank, accustomed +to commercial intercourse and diplomatic negotiations with the +Mahommedans, could hardly share the unreasoning passion to make a dash +for the "infidel." As with the barons, so with the burgesses: they +profited too much by their intercourse with the Mahommedans to abandon +readily the way of peaceful commerce, and they were far more ready to +hinder than to help any martial enterprise. Left to itself, the native +population lost physical and moral vigour. The barons alternated between +the extravagances of Western chivalry and the attractions of Eastern +luxury: they returned from the field to divans with frescoed walls and +floors of mosaic, Persian rugs and embroidered silk hangings. Their +houses, at any rate those in the towns, had thus the characteristics of +Moorish villas; and in them they lived a Moorish life. Their sideboards +were covered with the copper and silver work of Eastern smiths and the +confectioneries of Damascus. They dressed in flowing robes of silk, and +their women wore oriental gauzes covered with sequins. Into these divans +where figures of this kind moved to the music of Saracen instruments, +there entered an inevitable voluptuousness and corruption of manners. +The hardships of war and the excesses of peace shortened the lives of +the men; the kingdom of Jerusalem had eleven kings within a century. +While the men died, the women, living in comparative indolence, lived +longer lives. They became regents to their young children; and the +experience of all medieval minorities reiterates the lesson--woe to the +land where the king is a child and the regent a woman. Still worse was +the frequent remarriage of widowed princesses and heiresses. By the +assizes of the high court, the widow, on the death of her husband, took +half of the estate for herself, and half in guardianship for her +children. _Liberae ire cum terra_, widows carried their estates or +titles to three or four husbands; and as in 15th-century England, the +influence of the heiress was fatal to the peace of the country. At +Antioch, for instance, after the death of Bohemund II. in 1130, his +widow Alice headed a party in favour of the marriage of the heiress +Constance to Manuel of Constantinople, and did not scruple to enter into +negotiations with Zengi of Mosul. Her policy failed; and Constance +successively married Raymund of Antioch and Raynald of Chatillon. The +result was the renewed enmity of the Greek empire, while the French +adventurers who won the prize ruined the prospects of the Franks by +their conduct. In the kingdom matters were almost worse. There was +hardly any regular succession to the throne; and Jerusalem, as Stubbs +writes, "suffered from the weakness of hereditary right and the +jealousies of the elective system" at one and the same time. With the +frequent remarriages of the heiresses of the kingdom, relationships grew +confused and family quarrels frequent; and when Sibylla carried the +crown to Guy de Lusignan, a newcomer disliked by all the relatives of +the crown, she sealed the fate of the kingdom. + +It may be doubted--though it seems a harsh verdict to pass on a kingdom +founded by religious zeal on holy soil--whether the kingdom possessed +that moral basis which alone can give a right of survival to any +institution or organization. The crusading states had been founded by +adventurers who thirsted for gain; and the primitive appetite did not +lose its edge with the progress of time. We cannot be certain, indeed, +how far the Frankish lords oppressed their Syrian tenants: the stories +of such oppression have been discredited; while if we may trust the +evidence of a Mahommedan traveller, Ibn Jubair, the lot of the +Mahommedan who lived on Frankish manors was better than it had been +under their native lords.[28] But the habits of the Franks were none the +less habits of lawless greed: they swooped down from their castles, as +Raynald of Chatillon did from Krak of the Desert, to capture Saracens +and hold them to ransom or to plunder caravans. The lust of unlawful +gain had infected the Frankish blood, as it seems to have infected +England during the Hundred Years' War; and in either case nemesis +infallibly came. The Moslems might have endured a state of "infidels"; +they could not endure a state of brigands. + +6. _The History of the Kingdom and the Crusades from the Loss of Edessa +in 1144 to the Fall of Jerusalem in 1187._--The years 1143-1144 are in +many ways the turning point in the history of the Latin East. In 1143 +began the reign of the first native king;[29] and about this date may be +placed the final organization of the kingdom, witnessed by the +completion of its body of customary law. At the same date, however, the +decline of the kingdom also begins; the fall of Edessa is the beginning +of the end. In 1143 John Comnenus and Fulk had just died, and Zengi, +seeing his way clear, threw himself on the great Christian outpost, +against which the tides of Mahommedan attack had so often vainly surged, +and finally entered on Christmas Day 1144. Two years later Zengi died; +but he left an able successor in his son, Nureddin, and an attempt to +recover Edessa was successfully repelled in November 1146. Not only so, +but in the spring of 1147 the Franks were unwise enough to allow the +hope of gaining two small towns to induce them to break the vital +alliance with Damascus. Thus, in itself, the position of affairs in the +Holy Land in 1147 was certainly ominous; and the kingdom might well seem +dependent for its safety on such aid as it might receive from the West. + +Early in 1145 news had come from Antioch to Eugenius III. of the fall of +Edessa, and at the end of the year he had sent an encyclical to +France--the natural soil, as we have seen, of crusading zeal. The +response was instantaneous: the king of France himself, who bore on his +conscience the burden of an unpunished massacre by his troops at Vitry +in 1142,[30] took the crusading vow on the Christmas day of 1145. But +the greatest success was attained when St Bernard--no great believer in +pilgrimages, and naturally disposed to doubt the policy of a second +Crusade--was induced by the pope to become the preacher of the new +movement. To the crusading king of France St Bernard added the king of +Germany, when, in Christmas week of 1146, he induced Conrad III. to take +the vow by his sermon in the cathedral of Spires. Thus was begun the +Second Crusade,[31] under auspices still more favourable than those +which attended the beginning of the First, seeing that kings now took +the place of knights, while the new crusaders would no longer be +penetrating into the wilds, but would find a friendly basis of +operations ready to their hands in Frankish Syria. But the more +favourable the auspices, the greater proved the failure. Already at the +final meeting at Etampes, in 1147, difficulties arose. Manuel Comnenus +demanded that all conquests made by the crusaders should be his fiefs; +and the question was debated whether the crusaders should follow the +land route through Hungary, along the old road of Charlemagne, or should +go by sea to the Holy Land. In this question the envoys of Manuel and of +Roger of Sicily, who were engaged in hostilities with one another, took +opposite sides. Conrad, related by marriage to Manuel, decided in favour +of the land route, which Manuel desired because it brought the Crusade +more under his direction, and because, if the route by sea were +followed, Roger of Sicily might be able to divert the crusading ships +against Constantinople. As it was, a struggle raged between Roger and +Manuel during the whole progress of the Crusade, which greatly +contributed towards its failure, preventing, as it did, any assistance +from the Eastern empire. Nor was there any real unity among the +crusaders themselves. The crusaders of northern Germany never went to +the Holy Land at all; they were allowed the crusaders' privileges for +attacking the Wends to the east of the Elbe--a fact which at once +attests the cleavage between northern and southern Germany (intensified +of late years by the war of investitures), and anticipates the age of +the Teutonic knights and their long Crusade on the Baltic. The crusaders +of the Low Countries and of England took the sea route, and attacked and +captured Lisbon on their way, thus helping to found the kingdom of +Portugal, and achieving the one real success which was gained by the +Second Crusade.[32] Among the great army of crusaders who actually +marched to Jerusalem there was little real unity. Conrad and Louis VII. +started separately, and at different times, in order to avoid +dissensions between their armies; and when they reached Asia Minor +(after encountering some difficulties in Greek territory) they still +acted separately. Eager to win the first spoils, the German crusaders, +who were in advance of the French, attempted a raid into the sultanate +of Iconium; but after a stern fight at Dorylaeum they were forced to +retreat (October 1147), and for the most part perished by the way. Louis +VII., who now appeared, was induced by this failure to take the long and +circuitous route by the west coast of Asia Minor; but even so he had +lost the majority of his troops when he reached the Holy Land in 1148. +Here he joined Conrad (who had come by sea from Constantinople) and +Baldwin III., and after some deliberation the three sovereigns resolved +to attack Damascus. The attack was impolitic: Damascus was the one ally +which could help the Franks to stem the advance of Nureddin. It proved +as futile as it was impolitic; for the vizier of Damascus, +Muin-eddin-Anar, was able to sow dissension between the native Franks +and the crusaders; and by bribes and promises of tribute he succeeded in +inducing the former to make the siege an absolute failure, at the end of +only four days (July 28th, 1148). The Second Crusade now collapsed. +Conrad returned to Constantinople in the autumn of 1148, and Louis VII. +returned by sea to France in the spring of 1149. The only effects of +this great movement were effects prejudicial to the ends towards which +it was directed. The position of the Franks in the Holy Land was not +improved by the attack on Damascus; while the ignominious failure of a +Crusade led by two kings brought the whole crusading movement into +discredit in western Europe, and it was utterly in vain that Suger and +St Bernard attempted to gather a fresh Crusade in 1150. + +The result of the failure of the Second Crusade was the renewal of +Nureddin's attacks. The rest of the county of Edessa, including +Tell-bashir on the west, was now conquered (1150); while Raymund of +Antioch was defeated and killed (in 1149), and several towns in the east +of his principality were captured. Baldwin III. attempted to make head +against these troubles, partly by renewing the old alliance with +Damascus, partly by drawing closer to Manuel of Constantinople. For the +next twenty years, during the reigns of Baldwin and his brother Amalric +I., there is indeed a close connexion between the kingdom of Jerusalem +and the East Roman empire. Baldwin and Amalric both married into the +Comnenian house, while Manuel married Mary of Antioch, the daughter of +Raymund. In the north Manuel enjoyed the homage of Antioch, which his +father had gained in 1137, and the nominal possession of Tell-bashir, +which had been ceded to him by Baldwin III.: in the south he joined with +Amalric I. in the attempt to acquire Egypt (1168-1171). In this way he +acquired a certain ascendancy over the Latin kings: Baldwin III. rode +behind him at Antioch in 1159 without any of the insignia of royalty, +and in an inscription at Bethlehem of 1172 Amalric I. had the name of +the emperor written above his own.[33] The patronage of Constantinople, +to which Jerusalem was thus practically surrendered, contributed to some +slight extent in maintaining the kingdom against Nureddin. But there +were dissensions within, both between Baldwin and his mother, Melisinda, +who sought to protract her regency unduly, and between contending +parties in Antioch, where the hand of Constance, Raymund's widow, was a +desirable prize[34]; while from without the horns of the crescent were +slowly closing in on the kingdom. Nureddin pursued in his policy the +tactics which the Mahommedans used against the Franks in battle: he +sought to envelop their territories on every side. In 1154 fell +Damascus, and the crescent closed perceptibly in the north: the most +valuable ally of the kingdom was lost, and the way seemed clear from +Aleppo (the peculiar seat of Nureddin's power) into Egypt. On the other +hand, in 1153 Baldwin III. had taken Ascalon, which for fifty years had +mocked the efforts of successive kings, and by this stroke he might +appear to have closed for Nureddin the route to Egypt, and to have +opened a path for its conquest by the Franks. For the future, events +hinged on the situation of affairs in Egypt, and in Egypt the fate of +the kingdom of Jerusalem was finally decided (see EGYPT: _History_, +"Mahommedan Period"). There was a race for the possession of the country +between Nureddin's lieutenant Shirguh or Shirkuh and Amalric I., the +brother and successor of Baldwin III.; and in the race Shirkuh proved +the winner. + +Since the days of Godfrey and Baldwin I., Egypt had been a goal of +Latin ambition, and the capture of Ascalon must obviously have given +form and strength to the projects for its conquest. Plans of attack were +sketched: routes were traced: distances were measured; and finally in +1163 there came the impulse from within which turned these plans into +action. The Shiite caliphs of Egypt were by this time the playthings of +contending viziers, as the Sunnite caliphs of Bagdad had long been the +puppets of Turkish sultans or amirs; and in 1164 Amalric I. and Nureddin +were fighting in Egypt in support of two rival viziers, Dirgham and +Shawar. For Nureddin the fight meant the acquisition of an heretical +country for the true faith of the Sunnite, and the final enveloping of +the Latin kingdom:[35] for Amalric it meant the escape from Nureddin's +net, and a more direct and lucrative contact with Eastern trade. Into +the vicissitudes of the fight it is not necessary here to enter; but in +the issue Nureddin won, in spite of the support which Manuel gave to +Amalric. Nureddin's Kurdish lieutenant, Shirguh, succeeded in +establishing in power the vizier whom he favoured, and finally in +becoming vizier himself (January 1169); and when he died, his nephew +Saladin (Sala-ed-din) succeeded to his position (March 1169), and made +himself, on the death of the caliph in 1171, sole ruler in Egypt. Thus +the Shiite caliphate became extinct: in the mosques of Cairo the name of +the caliph of Bagdad was now used; and the long-disunited Mahommedans at +last faced the Christians as a solid body. But nevertheless the kingdom +of Jerusalem continued almost unmenaced, and practically undiminished, +for the next sixteen years. If a religious union had been effected +between Egypt and northern Syria, political disunion still remained; and +the Franks were safe as long as it lasted. Saladin acted as the peer of +Nureddin rather than as his subject; and the jealousy between the two +kept both inactive till the death of Nureddin in 1174. Nureddin only +left a minor in his place: Amalric, who died in the same year, left a +son (Baldwin IV.) who was not only a minor but also a leper; and thus +the stage seemed cleared for Saladin. He was confronted, however, by +Raymund, count of Tripoli, the one man of ability among the decadent +Franks, who acted as guardian of the kingdom; while he was also occupied +in trying to win for himself the Syrian possessions of Nureddin. The +task engaged his attention for nine years. Damascus he acquired as early +as 1174; but Raymund supported the heir of Nureddin in his capital at +Aleppo, and it was not until 1183 that Saladin entered the city, and +finally brought Egypt and northern Syria under a single rule. + +The hour of peril for the Latin kingdom had now at last struck. It had +done little to prepare itself for that hour. Repeated appeals had been +sent to the West from the beginning of the Egyptian affair (1163) +onwards; while in 1184-1185 a great mission, on which the patriarch of +Jerusalem and the masters of the Templars and the Hospitallers were all +present, came to France and England, and offered the crown of Jerusalem +to Philip Augustus and Henry II. in turn, in order to secure their +presence in the Holy Land.[36] The only result of these appeals was the +rise of a regular system of taxation in France and England, _ad +sustentationem Jerosolimitanae terrae_, which starts about 1185 (though +there had already been isolated taxes in 1147 and 1166), and which has +been described as the beginning of modern taxation. In the East itself, +with the exception of the tax of 1183,[37] nothing was done that was +good, and two things were done which were evil. Sibylla married her +second husband, Guy de Lusignan, in 1180--a marriage destined to be the +cause of many dissensions; for Sibylla, the eldest daughter of Amalric +I., carried to her husband--a French adventurer--a presumptive title to +the crown, which would never be admitted without dispute. In 1186 Guy +eventually became king, after the death of Baldwin V. (Sibylla's son by +her first marriage); but his coronation was in violation of the promise +given to Raymund of Tripoli (that in the event of the death of Baldwin +V. without issue the succession should be determined by the pope, the +emperor and the kings of France and England), and Guy, with a weak +title, was unable to exercise any real control over the kingdom. At this +point another French adventurer, who had already made himself somewhat +of a name in Antioch, gave the final blow to the kingdom. Raynald of +Chatillon, the second husband of Constance of Antioch, after languishing +in captivity from 1159 to 1176, had been granted the seignory of Krak, +to the east and south of the Dead Sea. From this point of vantage he +began depredations on the Red Sea (1182), building a fleet, and seeking +to attack Medina and Mecca--a policy which may be interpreted either as +mere buccaneering, or as a calculated attempt to deal a blow at +Mahommedanism in its very centre. Driven from the Red Sea by Saladin, he +turned from buccaneering to brigandage, and infested the great +trade-route from Damascus to Egypt, which passed close by his seignory. +In 1186 he attacked a caravan in which the sister of Saladin was +travelling, thus violating a four years' truce, which, after some two +years' skirmishing, Saladin and Raymund of Tripoli had made in the +previous year owing to the general prevalence of famine.[38] The +coronation of one French adventurer and the conduct of another, whom the +first was unable to control, meant the ruin of the kingdom; and Saladin +at last delivered in full force his long-deferred attack. The Crusade +was now at last answered by the counter-Crusade--the _jihad_; for though +for many years past Saladin had, in his attempt to acquire all the +inheritance of Nureddin, left Palestine unmenaced and intact, his +ultimate aim was always the holy war and the recovery of Jerusalem. The +acquisition of Aleppo could only make that supreme object more readily +attainable; and so Saladin had spent his time in acquiring Aleppo, but +only in order that he might ultimately "attain the goal of his desires, +and set the mosque of Asha free, to which Allah once led in the night +his servant Mahomet." Thus it was on a kingdom of crusaders who had lost +the crusading spirit that a new Crusade swept down; and Saladin's army +in 1187 had the spirit and the fire of the Latin crusaders of 1099. The +tables were turned; and fighting on their own soil for the recovery of +what was to them too a holy place, the Mahommedans easily carried the +day. At Tiberias a little squadron of the brethren of the two Orders +went down before Saladin's cavalry in May; at Hattin the levy _en masse_ +of the kingdom, some 20,000 strong, foolishly marching over a sandy +plain under the heat of a July sun, was utterly defeated; and after a +fortnight's siege Jerusalem capitulated (October 2nd, 1187). In the +kingdom itself nothing was left to the Latins by the end of 1189 except +the city of Tyre; and to the north of the kingdom they only held Antioch +and Tripoli, with the Hospitallers' fortress at Margat. The fingers of +the clock had been pushed back; once more things were as they had been +at the time of the First Crusade; once more the West must arm itself for +the holy war and the recovery of Jerusalem--but now it must face a +united Mahommedan world, where in 1096 it had found political and +religious dissension, and it must attempt its vastly heavier task +without the morning freshness of a new religious impulse, and with +something of the weariness of a hundred years of struggle upon its +shoulders. + +7. _The Forty Years' Crusade for the Recovery of Jerusalem, +1189-1229._--The forty years from 1189 to 1229 form a period of +incessant crusading, occupied by Crusades of every kind. There are the +Third, Fifth and Sixth Crusades against the "infidel" Mahommedans +encamped in the Holy Land; there is the Albigensian Crusade against the +heretic Cathars; there is the Fourth Crusade, directed in the issue +against the schismatic Greeks; lastly, there are the Crusades waged by +the papacy against revolted Christians--John of England and Frederick +II. Our concern lies with the first kind of Crusade, and with the other +three only so far as they bear on the first, and as they illustrate the +immense widening which the term "Crusade" now underwent--a widening +accompanied by its inevitable corollary of shallowness of motive and +degradation of impulse. + +_The Third Crusade, 1189-1192._--Conrad of Montferrat was, as much as +any one man, responsible for the Third Crusade. Compelled to leave the +court of Constantinople, which he had been serving, he had sailed for +the Holy Land and reached Tyre about three weeks after the battle of +Hattin. He had saved Tyre; and from it he sent his appeals to the West. +Not the least effective of these appeals was a great poster which he had +circulated in Europe, and which represented the Holy Sepulchre denied by +the horses of the Mahommedans. Meanwhile the papacy, as soon as the news +reached Rome, despatched encyclicals throughout Europe; and soon a new +Crusade was in full swing. But the Third Crusade, unlike the First, does +not spring from the papacy, which was passing through one of its epochs +of depression; it springs from the lay power, which, represented by the +three strong monarchies of Germany, England and France, was at this time +dominant in Europe. In Germany it was the solemn national diet of Mainz +(Easter 1188) which "swore the expedition" to the Holy Land; in France +and England the agreement of the two kings decided upon a joint Crusade. +The very means which Philip Augustus and Henry II. took, in order to +further the Crusade, show its lay aspect. A scheme of taxation--the +Saladin tithe--was imposed on all who did not take the cross; and this +taxation, while on the one hand it drove many to take the cross in order +to escape its incidence, on the other hand provided a necessary +financial basis for military operations.[39] The lay basis of the Third +Crusade made it, in one sense, the greatest of all Crusades, in which +all the three great monarchs of western Europe participated; but it also +made it a failure, for the kings of France and England, changing +_caelum_, _non animum_, carried their political rivalries into the +movement, in which it had been agreed that they should be sunk. +Spiritually, therefore, the Third Crusade is inferior to the First, +however imposing it may be in its material aspects. Yet it must be +admitted that the idea of a spiritual regeneration accompanied the +crusading movement of 1188. Europe had sinned in the face of God; +otherwise Jerusalem would never have fallen; and the idea of a spiritual +reform from within, as the necessary corollary and accompaniment of the +expedition of Christianity without, breathes in some of the papal +letters, just as, during the conciliar movement, the _causa +reformationis_ was blended with the _causa unionis_. + +We may conceive of the Third Crusade under the figure of a number of +converging lines, all seeking to reach a common centre. That centre is +Acre. The siege of Acre, as arduous and heroic in many of its episodes +as the siege of Troy, had been begun in the summer of 1189 by Guy de +Lusignan, who, captured by Saladin at the battle of Hattin, and released +on parole, had at once broken his word and returned to the attack. The +army which was besieging Acre was soon joined by various contingents; +for Acre, after all, was the vital point, and its capture would open the +way to Jerusalem. Two of these contingents alone concern us here--the +German and the Anglo-French. Frederick I. of Germany, using a diplomacy +which corresponds to the lay character of the Third Crusade, had sought +to prepare his way by embassies to the king of Hungary, the Eastern +emperor and the sultan of Iconium. Starting from Regensburg in May 1189, +the German army marched quietly through Hungary; but difficulties arose, +as they had arisen in 1147, as soon as the frontiers of the Eastern +empire were reached. The emperor Isaac Angelus had not only the old +grudge of all Eastern emperors against the "upstart" emperor of the +West; he had also allied himself with Saladin, in order to acquire for +his empire the patronage of the Holy Places and religious supremacy in +the Levant. The difficulties between Frederick and Isaac Angelus became +acute: in November 1189 Frederick wrote to his son Henry, asking him to +induce the pope to preach a Crusade against the schismatic Greeks. But +terms were at last arranged, and by the end of March 1190 the Germans +had all crossed to the shores of Asia Minor. Taking a route midway +between the eastern route of the crusaders of 1097 and the western route +of Louis VII. in 1148, Frederick marched by Philadelphia and Iconium, +not without dust and heat, until he reached the river Salof, in Armenian +territory. Here, with the burden of the day now past, the fine old +crusader--he had joined before in the Second Crusade, forty years +ago--perished by accident in the river; and of all his fine army only a +thousand men won their way through, under his son, Frederick of Swabia, +to join the ranks before Acre (October 1190). The Anglo-French +detachment achieved a far greater immediate success. War had indeed +disturbed the original agreement of Gisors between Philip Augustus and +Henry II., but a new agreement was made between Henry's successor, +Richard I., and the French king at Nonancourt (December 1189), by which +the two monarchs were to meet at Vezelay next year, and then follow the +sea route to the Holy Land together. They met, and by different routes +they both reached Sicily, where they wintered together (1190-1191). The +enforced inactivity of a whole winter was the mother of disputes and bad +blood; and when Philip sailed for the Holy Land, at the end of March +1191, the failure of the Crusade was already decided. Richard soon +followed; but while Philip sailed straight for Acre, Richard occupied +himself by the way in conquering Cyprus--partly out of knight-errantry, +and in order to avenge an insult offered to his betrothed wife +Berengaria by the despot of the island, partly perhaps out of policy, +and in order to provide a basis of supplies and of operations for the +armies attempting to recover Palestine. In any case, he is the founder +of the Latin kingdom of Cyprus (for he afterwards sold his new +acquisition to Guy de Lusignan, who established a dynasty in the +island); and thereby he made possible the survival of the institutions +and assizes of Jerusalem, which were continued in Cyprus until it was +conquered by the Ottoman Turks. From Cyprus Richard sailed to Acre, +arriving on the 8th of June, and in little more than a month he was +able, in virtue of the large reinforcements he brought, and in spite of +dissensions in the Christian camp which he helped to foment, to bring +the two years' siege to a successful issue (July 12th, 1191). It was +indeed time; the privations of the besiegers during the previous winter +had been terrible; and the position of affairs had only been made worse +by the dissensions between Guy de Lusignan and Conrad of Montferrat, who +had begun to claim the crown in return for his services, and had, on the +death of Sibylla, the wife of Guy, reinforced his claim by a marriage +with her younger sister, Isabella. In these dissensions it was +inevitable that Philip Augustus and Richard I., already discordant, +should take contrary sides; and while Richard naturally sided with Guy +de Lusignan, who came from his own county of Poitou, Philip as naturally +sided with Conrad. At the end of July it was decided that Guy should +remain king for his life, and Conrad should be his successor; but as +three days afterwards Philip Augustus began his return to France +(pleading ill-health, but in reality eager to gain possession of +Flanders), the settlement availed little for the success of the Crusade. +Richard stayed in the Holy Land for another year, during which he won a +battle at Arsuf and refortified Jaffa. But far more important than any +hostilities are the negotiations which, for the whole year, Richard +conducted with Saladin. They show the lay aspect of the Third Crusade; +they anticipate the Crusade of Frederick II.--for Richard was attempting +to secure the same concessions which Frederick secured by the same means +which he used. They show again the closer approximation and better +understanding with the Mahommedans, which marks this Crusade. Nothing is +more striking in these respects than Richard's proposal that Saladin's +brother should marry his own sister Johanna and receive Jerusalem and +the contiguous towns on the coast. In the event, a peace was made for +three years (September 2nd, 1192), by which Lydda and Ramlah were to be +equally divided, Ascalon was to be destroyed, and small bodies of +crusaders were to be allowed to visit the Holy Sepulchre. Meanwhile +Conrad of Montferrat, at the very instant when his superior ability had +finally forced Richard to recognize him as king, had been assassinated +(April 1192): Guy de Lusignan had bought Cyprus from Richard, and had +sailed away to establish himself there;[40] and Henry of Champagne, +Richard's nephew, had been called to the throne of Jerusalem, and had +given himself a title by marrying Conrad's widow, Isabella. In this +condition Richard left the Holy Land, when he began his eventful return, +in October 1192. The Crusade had failed--failed because a leaderless +army, torn by political dissensions and fighting on a foreign soil, +could not succeed against forces united by religious zeal under the +banner of a leader like Saladin. Yet it had at any rate saved for the +Christians the principality of Antioch, the county of Tripoli, and some +of the coast towns of the kingdom;[41] and if it had failed to +accomplish its object, it had left behind, none the less, many important +results. The difficulties which had arisen between Isaac Angelus and +Frederick Barbarossa contain the germs of the Fourth Crusade; the +negotiations between Richard and Saladin contain the germs of the Sixth. +National rivalries had been accentuated and national differences brought +into prominence by the meeting of the nations in a common enterprise; +while, on the other hand, Mahommedans and Christians had fraternized as +they had never done before during the progress of a Crusade. But what +the Third Crusade showed most clearly was that the crusading movement +was being lost to the papacy, and becoming part of the demesne of the +secular state--organized by the state on its own basis of taxation, and +conducted by the state according to its own method of negotiation. This +after all is the great change; and even the genius of an Innocent III. +"could not make undone what had once been done." On the contrary, the +thing once done would go further; and the state would take up the name +of Crusade in order to cover, and under such cover to achieve, its own +objects and ambitions, as in the future it was destined again and again +to do. + +_The Fourth Crusade, 1202-1204._--The history of the Fourth Crusade is a +history of the predominance of the lay motive, of the attempt of the +papacy to escape from that predominance, and to establish its old +direction of the Crusade, and of the complete failure of its attempt. +Until the accession of Innocent III. in 1198 the lay motive was supreme; +and its representative was Henry VI.--the greatest politician of his +day, and in many ways the greatest emperor since Charlemagne. In 1195 +Amalric, the brother of Guy de Lusignan, and his successor in Cyprus, +sought the title of king from Henry and did homage; and at the same time +Leo of Lesser Armenia, in order to escape from dependence on the Eastern +empire, took the same course. Henry thus gained a basis in the Levant; +while the death of Saladin in 1193, followed by a civil war between his +brother, Malik-al-Adil, and his sons for the possession of his +dominions, weakened the position of the Mahommedans. As emperor, Henry +was eager to resume the imperial Crusade which had been stopped by his +father's death; while both as Frederick's successor and as heir to the +Norman kings of Sicily, who had again and again waged war against the +Eastern empire, he had an account to settle with the rulers of +Constantinople. The project of a Crusade and of an attack on +Constantinople wove themselves into a single thread, in a way which very +definitely anticipates the Fourth Crusade of 1202-1204. In 1195 Henry +took the cross; some time before, he had already sent to Isaac Angelus +to demand compensation for the injuries done to Frederick I., along with +the cession of all territories ever conquered by the Norman kings of +Sicily, and a fleet to co-operate with the new Crusade. In the same +year, however, Isaac was dethroned by his brother, Alexius III.; but +Henry married Isaac's daughter Irene to his brother, Philip of Swabia, +and thus attempted to give the Hohenstaufen a new title and a valid +claim against the usurper Alexius. Thus armed he pushed forward the +preparations for the Crusade in Germany--a Crusade whose first object +would have been an attack on Alexius III.; but in the middle of his +preparations he died in Sicily in the autumn of 1197, and the Crusade +collapsed. Some results were, however, achieved by a body of German +crusaders which had sailed in advance of Henry; by its influence Amalric +of Cyprus succeeded Henry of Champagne, who died in 1197, as king of +Jerusalem, and a vassal of the emperor thus became ruler in the Holy +Land; while the Teutonic order, which had begun as a hospital during the +siege of Acre (1190-1191), now received its organization. Some of the +coast towns, too, were recovered by the German crusaders, especially +Beirut; and in 1198 the new king Amalric II. was able to make a truce +with Malik-al-Adil for the next five years. + +"The true heir of Henry VI.," Ranke has said, "is Innocent III.," and +nowhere is this more true than in respect of the crusading movement. +Throughout the course of his crowded and magnificent pontificate, +Innocent III. made the Crusade his ultimate object, and attempted to +bring it back to its old religious basis and under its old papal +direction. By the spring of 1200, owing to Innocent's exertions, a new +Crusade was in full progress, especially in France, where Fulk of +Neuilly played the part once played by Peter the Hermit. Like the First +Crusade, the Fourth Crusade also--in its personnel, but not its +direction--was a French enterprise; and its leading members were French +feudatories like Theobald of Champagne (who was chosen leader of the +Crusade), Baldwin of Flanders (the future emperor of Constantinople), +and the count of Blois. The objective, which these three original chiefs +of the Fourth Crusade proposed to themselves, was Egypt.[42] Since 1163 +the importance of acquiring Egypt had, as we have seen, been definitely +understood, and in the summer of 1192 Richard I. had been advised by +his counsellors that Cairo and not Jerusalem was the true point of +attack; while in 1200 there was the additional reason for preferring an +attack on Egypt, that the truce in the Holy Land between Amalric II. and +Malik-al-Adil had still three years to run. It is Egypt therefore--to +which, it must be remembered, the centre of Mahommedan power had now +been virtually shifted, and to which motives of trade impelled the +Italian towns (since from it they could easily reach the Red Sea, and +the commerce of the Indian Ocean)--it is Egypt which is henceforth the +normal goal of the Crusades. This is one of the many facts which +differentiate the Crusades of the 13th from those of the preceding +century. But, with Syria in the hands of the Mahommedans, the attack on +Egypt must necessarily be directed by sea; and thus the Crusade +henceforth becomes--what the Third Crusade, here as elsewhere the +turning-point in crusading history, had already in part been--a maritime +enterprise. Accordingly, early in 1201, envoys from each of the three +chiefs of the Fourth Crusade (among whom was Villehardouin, the +historian of the Crusade) came to Venice to negotiate for a passage to +Egypt. An agreement was made between the doge and the envoys, by which +transport and active help were to be given by Venice in return for +85,000 marks and the cession of half of the conquests made by the +crusaders. But the Fourth Crusade was not to be plain sailing to Egypt. +It became involved in a maelstrom of conflicting political motives, by +which it was swept to Constantinople. Here we must distinguish between +cause and occasion. There were three great causes which made for an +attack on Constantinople by the West. There was first of all the old +crusading grudge against the Eastern empire, and its fatal policy of +regarding the whole of the Levant as its lost provinces, to be restored +as soon as conquered, or at any rate held in fee, by the Western +crusaders--a policy which led the Eastern emperors either to give +niggardly aid or to pursue obstructive tactics, and caused them to be +blamed for the failure of the Crusades in 1101, and 1149, and in 1190. +It is significant of the final result of these things that already in +1147 Roger of Sicily, engaged in war with Manuel, had proposed the +sea-route for the Second Crusade, perhaps with some intention of +diverting it against Constantinople; and in the winter of 1189-1190 +Barbarossa, as we have seen, had actually thought and spoken of an +attack on Constantinople. In the second place, there was the commercial +grudge of Venice, which had only been given large privileges by the +Eastern empire to desire still larger, and had, moreover, been annoyed +not only by alterations or revocations of those privileges, such as the +usurper Alexius III. had but recently attempted, but also by the +temporary destruction of their colony in Constantinople in 1171. Lastly, +and perhaps most of all, there is the old Norman blood-feud with +Constantinople, as old as the old Norse seeking for Micklegarth, and +keen and deadly ever since the Norman conquest of the Greek themes in +South Italy (1041 onwards). The heirs of the Norman kings were the +Hohenstaufen; and we have already seen Henry VI. planning a Crusade +which would primarily have been directed against Constantinople. It is +this Hohenstaufen policy which becomes the primary occasion of the +diversion of the Fourth Crusade. Philip of Swabia, engaged in a struggle +with the papacy, found Innocent III. planning a Guelph Crusade, which +should be under the direction of the church; and to this Guelph project +he opposed the Ghibelline plan of Henry VI., with such success that he +transmuted the Fourth Crusade into a political expedition against +Constantinople. To such a policy of transmutation he was urged by two +things. On the one hand, the death of the count of Champagne (May 1201) +had induced the crusaders to elect as their leader Boniface of +Montferrat, the brother of Conrad; and Boniface was the cousin of +Philip, and interested in Constantinople, where not only Conrad, but +another brother as well, had served, and suffered for their service at +the hands of their masters. On the other hand Alexius, the son of the +dethroned Isaac Angelus, was related to Philip through his marriage with +Irene; and Alexius had escaped to the German court to urge the +restoration of his father. On Christmas day 1201, Philip, Alexius and +Boniface all met at Hagenau[43] and formulated (one may suppose) a plan +for the diversion of the Crusade. Events played into their hands. When +the crusaders gathered at Venice in the autumn of 1202, it was found +impossible to get together the 85,000 marks promised to Venice. The +Venetians--already, perhaps, indoctrinated in the Hohenstaufen +plan--indicated to the leaders a way of meeting the difficulty: they had +only to lend their services to the republic for certain ends which it +desired to compass, and the debt was settled. The conquest of Zara, a +port on the Adriatic claimed by the Venetians from the king of Hungary, +was the only object overtly mentioned; but the idea of the expedition to +Constantinople was in the air, and the crusaders knew what was +ultimately expected. It took time and effort to bring them round to the +diversion: the pope--naturally enough--set his face sternly against the +project, the more as the usurper, Alexius III., was in negotiation with +him in order to win his support against the Hohenstaufen, and Innocent +hoped to find, as Alexius promised, a support and a reinforcement for +the Crusade in an alliance with the Greek empire. But they came round +none the less, in spite of Innocent's renewed prohibitions. In November +1202 Zara was taken; and at Zara the fatal decision was made. The young +Alexius joined the army; and in spite of the opposition of stern +crusaders like Simon de Montfort, who sailed away ultimately to +Palestine, he succeeded by large promises in inducing the army to follow +in his train to Constantinople. By the middle of July 1203 +Constantinople was reached, the usurper was in flight, and Isaac Angelus +was restored to his throne. But when the time came for Alexius to fulfil +his promises, the difficulty which had arisen at Venice in the autumn of +1202 repeated itself. Alexius's resources were insufficient, and he had +to beg the crusaders to wait at Constantinople for a year in order that +he might have time. They waited; but the closer contact of a prolonged +stay only brought into fuller play the essential antipathy of the Greek +and the Latin. Continual friction developed at last into the open fire +of war; and in March 1204 the crusaders resolved to storm +Constantinople, and to divide among themselves the Eastern empire. In +April Constantinople was captured; in May Baldwin of Flanders became the +first Latin emperor of Constantinople. Venice had her own reward; a +Venetian, Thomas Morosini, became patriarch; and the doge of Venice +added "a quarter and a half" of the Eastern empire--chiefly the coasts +and the islands--to the sphere of his sway. If Venetian cupidity had not +originally deflected the Crusade (and it was the view of contemporary +writers that Venice had committed her first treason against Christianity +by diverting the Crusade from Egypt in order to get commercial +concessions from Malik-al-Adil,[44]) yet it had at any rate profited +exceedingly from that deflection; and the Hohenstaufen and their protege +Alexius only reaped dust and ashes. For, however Ghibelline might be the +original intention, the result was not commensurate with the subtlety of +the design, and the power of the pope was rather increased than +diminished by the event of the Crusade. The crusaders appealed to +Innocent to ratify the subjugation of a schismatic people, and the union +of the Eastern and Western Churches; and Innocent, dazzled by the magic +of the _fait accompli_, not unwillingly acquiesced. He might soothe +himself by reflecting that the basis for the Crusade, which he had hoped +to find in Alexius III., was still more securely offered by Baldwin; he +could not but feel with pride that he had become "as it were pope and +apostolicus of a second world." Yet the result of the Fourth Crusade was +on the whole disastrous both for the papacy and for the crusading +movement. The pope had been forced to see the helm of the Crusades +wrenched from his grasp; and the Albigensian Crusade against the +heretics of southern France was soon afterwards to show that the example +could be followed, and that the land-hunger of the north French baronage +could exploit a Crusade as successfully as ever did Hohenstaufen policy +leagued with Venetian cupidity. The Crusade lost its _elan_ when it +became a move in a political game. If the Third Crusade had been +directed by the lay power towards the true spiritual end of all +Crusades, the Fourth was directed by the lay power to its own lay ends; +and the political and commercial motives, winch were deeply implicit +even in the First Crusade, had now become dominantly explicit. In a +simpler and more immediate sense, the capture of Constantinople was +detrimental to the movement from which it sprang. The precarious empire +which had been founded in 1204 drained away all the vigorous adventurers +of the West for its support for many years to come, and the Holy Land +was starved to feed a land less holy, but equally greedy of men.[45] No +basis for the Crusades was ever to be found in the Latin empire of the +East; and Innocent, after vainly hoping for the new Crusade which was to +emerge from Constantinople, was by 1208 compelled to return to the old +idea of a Crusade proceeding simply and immediately from the West to the +East. + +_The Fifth Crusade, 1218-1221._--The glow and the glamour of the +Crusades disappear save for the pathetic sunset splendours of St Louis, +as Dandolo dies, and gallant Villehardouin drops his pen. But before St +Louis sailed for Damietta there intervened the miserable failure of one +Crusade, and the secular and diplomatic success of another. The Fifth +Crusade is the last which is started in that pontificate of +Crusades--the pontificate of Innocent III. It owed its origin to his +feverish zeal for the recovery of Jerusalem, rather than to any pressing +need in the Holy Land. Here there reigned, during the forty years of the +loss of Jerusalem, an almost unbroken peace. Malik-al-Adil, the brother +of Saladin, had by 1200 succeeded to his brother's possessions not only +in Egypt but also in Syria, and he granted the Christians a series of +truces (1198-1203, 1204-1210, 1211-1217). While the Holy Land was thus +at peace, crusaders were also being drawn elsewhere by the needs of the +Latin empire of Constantinople, or the attractions of the Albigensian +Crusade.[46] But Innocent could never consent to forget Jerusalem, as +long as his right hand retained its cunning. The pathos of the +Children's Crusade of 1212 only nerved him to fresh efforts. A shepherd +boy named Stephen had appeared in France, and had induced thousands to +follow his guidance: with his boyish army he rode on a wagon southward +to Marseilles, promising to lead his followers dry-shod through the +seas. In Germany a child from Cologne, named Nicolas, gathered some +20,000 young crusaders by the like promises, and led them into Italy. +Stephen's army was kidnapped by slave-dealers and sold into Egypt; while +Nicolas's expedition left nothing behind it but an after-echo in the +legend of the Pied Piper of Hamelin. But for Innocent these outbursts of +the revivalist element, which always accompanied the Crusades, had their +moral: "the very children put us to shame," he wrote; "while we sleep +they go forth gladly to conquer the Holy Land." In the fourth Lateran +council of 1215 Innocent found his opportunity to rekindle the +flickering fires. Before this great gathering of all Christian Europe he +proclaimed a Crusade for the year 1217, and in common deliberation it +was resolved that a truce of God should reign for the next four years, +while for the same time all trade with the Levant should cease. Here +were two things attempted--neither, indeed, for the first +time[47]--which 14th century pamphleteers on the subject of the Crusades +unanimously advocate as the necessary conditions of success; there was +to be peace in Europe and a commercial war with Egypt. This +statesmanlike beginning of a Crusade, preached, as no Crusade had ever +been preached before, in a general council of all Europe, presaged well +for its success. In Germany (where Frederick II. himself took the cross +in this same year) a large body of crusaders gathered together: in 1217 +the south-east sent the duke of Austria and the king of Hungary to the +Holy Land; while in 1218 an army from the north-west joined at Acre the +forces of the previous year. Egypt had already been indicated by +Innocent III. in 1215 as the goal of attack, and it was accordingly +resolved to begin the Crusade by the siege of Damietta, on the eastern +delta of the Nile. The original leader of the Crusade was John of +Brienne, king of Jerusalem (who had succeeded Amalric II., marrying +Maria, the daughter of Amalric's wife Isabella by her former husband, +Conrad of Montferrat); but after the end of 1218 the cardinal legate +Pelagius, fortified by papal letters, claimed the command. In spite of +dissensions between the cardinal and the king, and in spite of the +offers of Malik-al-Kamil (who succeeded Malik-al-Adil at the end of +1218), the crusaders finally carried the siege to a successful +conclusion by the end of 1219. The capture of Damietta was a +considerable feat of arms, but nothing was done to clinch the advantage +which had been won, and the whole of the year 1220 was spent by the +crusaders in Damietta, partly in consolidating their immediate position, +and partly in waiting for the arrival of Frederick II., who had promised +to appear in 1221. In 1221 Hermann of Salza, the master of the Teutonic +order, along with the duke of Bavaria, appeared in the camp before +Damietta; and as it seemed useless to wait any longer for Frederick +II.,[48] the cardinal, in spite of the opposition of King John, gave the +signal for the march on Cairo. The army reached a fortress erected by +the sultan in 1219 (afterwards, from 1221, the town of Mansura), and +encamped there at the end of July. Here the sultan reiterated terms +which he had already offered several times before--the cession of most +of the kingdom of Jerusalem, the surrender of the cross (captured by +Saladin in 1187), and the restoration of all prisoners. King John urged +the acceptance of these terms. The legate insisted on a large indemnity +in addition: the negotiations failed, and the sultan prepared for war. +The crusaders were driven back towards Damietta; and at the end of +August 1221 Pelagius had to make a treaty with Malik-al-Kamil, by which +he gained a free retreat and the surrender of the Holy Cross at the +price of the restoration of Damietta. The treaty was to last for eight +years, and could only be broken on the coming of a king or emperor to +the East. In pursuance of its terms the crusaders evacuated Egypt, and +the Fifth Crusade was at an end. It is difficult to decide whether to +blame the legate or the emperor more for its failure. If Frederick had +only come in person, a single month of his presence might have meant +everything: if Pelagius had only listened to King John, the sultan was +ready to concede practically everything which was at issue. Unhappily +Frederick preferred to put his Sicilian house in order, and the legate +preferred to listen to the Italians, who had their own commercial +reasons for wishing to establish a strong position in Egypt, and to the +Templars and Hospitallers, who did not feel satisfied by the terms +offered by the sultan, because he wished to retain in his hands the two +fortresses of Krak and Monreal. + +_The Sixth Crusade_ (1228-1229) succeeded as signally as the Fifth +Crusade had failed; but the circumstances under which it took place and +the means by which it was conducted made its success still more +disastrous than the failure of 1221. The last Crusade had, after all, +been under papal control: if Richard I. had directed the Third Crusade, +and the policy of the Hohenstaufen and the Venetians had directed the +Fourth, it was a papal legate who had steered the Fifth to its ultimate +fate. The Crusade of Frederick II. in 1228-1229 finds its analogy in the +projected Crusade of Henry VI.; it is essentially lay. It is unique in +the annals of the Crusades. Alone of all Crusades (though the Fourth +Crusade offers some analogy) it was not blessed but cursed by the +papacy: alone of all the Crusades it was conducted without a single act +of hostility against the Mahommedan. St Louis, the true type of the +religious crusader, once said that a layman ought only to argue with a +blasphemer against Christian law by running his sword into the bowels of +the blasphemer as far as it would go:[49] Frederick II. talked amicably +with all unbelievers, if one may trust Arabic accounts, and he achieved +by mere negotiation the recovery of Jerusalem, for which men had vainly +striven with the sword for the forty years since 1187. It was in 1215 +that the leader of this strange Crusade had first taken the vow; it was +twelve years afterwards when he finally attempted to carry the vow into +effective execution. Again and again he had excused himself to the pope, +and been excused by the pope, because the exigencies of his policy in +Germany or Sicily tied his hands. After the failure of the Fifth +Crusade--for which these delays were in part responsible--Honorius III. +had attempted to bind him more intimately to the Holy Land by arranging +a marriage with Isabella, the daughter of John of Brienne, and the +heiress of the kingdom of Jerusalem. In 1225 Frederick married Isabella, +and immediately after the marriage he assumed the title of king in right +of his wife, and exacted homage from the vassals of the kingdom.[50] It +was thus as king of Jerusalem that Frederick began his Crusade in the +autumn of 1227. Scarcely, however, had he sailed from Brindisi when he +fell sick of a fever which had been raging for some time among the ranks +of his army, while they waited for the crossing. He sailed back to +Otranto in order to recover his health, but the new pope, Gregory IX., +launched in hot anger the bolt of excommunication, in the belief that +Frederick was malingering once more. None the less the emperor sailed on +his Crusade in the summer of 1228, affording to astonished Europe the +spectacle of an excommunicated crusader, and leaving his territories to +be invaded by papal soldiers, whom Gregory IX. professed to regard as +crusaders against a non-Christian king, and for whom he accordingly +levied a tithe from the churches of Europe. The paradox of Frederick's +Crusade is indeed astonishing. Here was a crusader against whom a +Crusade was proclaimed in his own territories; and when he arrived in +the Holy Land he found little obedience and many insults from all but +his own immediate followers. Yet by adroit use of his powers of +diplomacy, and by playing upon the dissensions which raged between the +descendants of Saladin's brother (Malik-al-Adil), he was able, without +striking a blow, to conclude a treaty with the sultan of Egypt which +gave him all that Richard I. had vainly attempted to secure by arduous +fighting and patient negotiations. By the treaty of the 18th of February +1229, which was to last for ten years, the sultan conceded to Frederick, +in addition to the coast towns already in the possession of the +Christians, Nazareth, Bethlehem and Jerusalem, with a strip of territory +connecting Jerusalem with the port of Acre. As king of Jerusalem +Frederick was now able to enter his capital: as one under +excommunication, he had to see an interdict immediately fall on the +city, and it was with his own hands--for no churchman could perform the +office--that he had to take his crown from the altar of the church of +the Sepulchre, and crown himself king of his new kingdom. He stayed in +the Holy Land little more than a month after his coronation; and leaving +in May he soon overcame the papal armies in Italy, and secured +absolution from Gregory IX. (August 1229). By his treaty with the sultan +he had secured for Christianity the last fifteen years of its possession +of Jerusalem (1229-1244): no man since Frederick II. has ever recovered +the holy places for the religion which holds them most holy. Yet the +church might ask, with some justice, whether the means he had used were +excused by the end which he had attained. After all, there was nothing +of the holy war about the Sixth Crusade: there was simply huckstering, +as in an Eastern bazaar, between a free-thinking, semi-oriental king of +Sicily and an Egyptian sultan. It was indeed in the spirit of a king of +Sicily, and not in the spirit--though it was in the role--of a king of +Jerusalem, that Frederick had acted. It was from his Sicilian +predecessors, who had made trade treaties with Egypt, that he had +learned to make even the Crusade a matter of treaty. The Norman line of +Sicilian kings might be extinct; their policy lived after them in their +Hohenstaufen successors, and that policy, as it had helped to divert the +Fourth Crusade to the old Norman objective of Constantinople, helped +still more to give the Sixth Crusade its secular, diplomatic, +non-religious aspect. + +Forty years of struggle ended in fifteen years' possession of Jerusalem. +During those fifteen years the kingdom of Jerusalem was agitated by a +struggle between the native barons, championing the principle that +sovereignty resided in the collective baronage, and taking their stand +on the assizes, and Frederick II., claiming sovereignty for himself, and +opposing to the assizes the feudal law of Sicily. It is a struggle +between the king and the _haute cour_: it is a struggle between the +aristocratic feudalism of the Franks and the monarchical feudalism of +the Normans. Already in Cyprus, in the summer of 1228, Frederick II. had +insisted on the right of wardship which he enjoyed as overlord of the +island,[51] and he had appointed a commission of five barons to exercise +his rights. In 1229 this commission was overthrown by John of Ibelin, +lord of Beirut, against whom it had taken proceedings. John of Beirut, +like many of the Cypriot barons, was also a baron of the kingdom of +Jerusalem; and resistance in the one kingdom could only produce +difficulties in the other. Difficulties quickly arose when Frederick, in +1231, sent Marshal Richard to Syria as his legate. This in itself was a +serious matter; according to the assizes, the barons maintained, the +king must either personally reside in the kingdom, or, in the event of +his absence, be replaced by a regency. The position became more +difficult, when the legate took steps against John of Beirut without any +authorization from the high court. A gild was formed at Acre--the gild +of St Adrian--which, if nominally religious in its origin, soon came to +represent the political opposition to Frederick, as was significantly +proved by its reception of the rebellious John of Beirut as a member +(1232). The opposition was successful: by 1233 Frederick had lost all +hold on Cyprus, and only retained Tyre in his own kingdom of Jerusalem. +In 1236 he had to promise to recognize fully the laws of the kingdom: +and when, in 1239, he was again excommunicated by Gregory IX., and a new +quarrel of papacy and empire began, he soon lost the last vestiges of +his power. Till 1243 the party of Frederick had been successful in +retaining Tyre, and the baronial demand for a regency had remained +without effect; but in that year the opposition, headed by the great +family of Ibelin, succeeded, under cover of asserting the rights of +Alice of Cyprus to the regency, in securing possession of Tyre, and the +kingdom of Jerusalem thus fell back into the power of the baronage. The +very next year (1244) Jerusalem was finally and for ever lost. Its loss +was the natural corollary of these dissensions. The treaty of Frederick +with Malik-al-Kamil (d. 1238) had now expired, and new succours and new +measures were needed for the Holy Land. Theobald of Champagne had taken +the cross as early as 1230, and 1239 he sailed to Acre in spite of the +express prohibition of the pope, who, having quarrelled with Frederick +II., was eager to divert any succour from Jerusalem itself, so long as +Jerusalem belonged to his enemy. Theobald was followed (1240-1241) by +Richard of Cornwall, the brother of Henry III., who, like his +predecessor, had to sail in the teeth of papal prohibitions; but neither +of the two achieved any permanent result, except the fortification of +Ascalon. It was, however, by their own folly that the Franks lost +Jerusalem in 1244. They consented to ally themselves with the ruler of +Damascus against the sultan of Egypt; but in the battle of Gaza they +were deserted by their allies and heavily defeated by Bibars, the +Egyptian general and future Mameluke sultan of Egypt. Jerusalem, which +had already been plundered and destroyed earlier in the year by +Chorasmians (Khwarizmians), was the prize of victory, and Ascalon also +fell in 1247. + +8. _The Crusades of St Louis._--As the loss of Jerusalem in 1187 +produced the Third Crusade, so its loss in 1244 produced the Seventh: as +the preaching of the Fifth Crusade had taken place in the Lateran +council of 1215, so that of the Seventh Crusade began in the council of +Lyons of 1245. But the preaching of the Crusade by Innocent IV. at Lyons +was a curious thing. On the one hand he repeated the provisions of the +Fourth Lateran council on behalf of the Crusade to the Holy Land; on the +other hand he preached a Crusade against Frederick II., and promised to +all who would join the full benefits of absolution and remission of +sins. While the papacy thus bent its energies to the destruction of the +Crusades in their genuine sense, and preferred to use for its own +political objects what was meant for Jerusalem, a layman took up the +derelict cause with all the religious zeal which any pope had ever +displayed. Paradoxically enough, it was now the turn for the papacy to +exploit the name of Crusade for political ends, as the laity had done +before; and it was left to the laity to champion the spiritual meaning +of the Crusade even against the papacy.[52] It was at the end of the +year in which Jerusalem had fallen that St Louis had taken the cross, +and by all the means in his power he attempted to ensure the success of +his projected Crusade. He sought to mediate, though with no success, +between the pope and the emperor; he descended to a whimsical piety, and +took his courtiers by guile in distributing to them, at Christmas, +clothing on which a cross had been secretly stitched. He started in 1248 +with a gallant company, which contained his three brothers and the sieur +de Joinville, his biographer; and after wintering in Cyprus he directed +his army in the spring of 1249 against Egypt. The objective was +unexpected: it may have been chosen by St Louis, because he knew how +seriously the power of the sultan was undermined by the Mamelukes, who +were in the very next year to depose the Ayyubite dynasty, which had +reigned since 1171, and to substitute one of their number as sultan. +Damietta was taken without a blow, and the march for Cairo was begun, as +it had been begun by the legate Pelagius in 1221. Again the invading +army halted before Mansura (December 1249); again it had to retreat. +The retreat became a rout. St Louis was captured, and a treaty was made +by which he had to consent to evacuate Damietta and pay a ransom of +800,000 pieces of gold. Eventually St Louis was released on surrendering +Damietta and paying one-half of his ransom, and by the middle of May +1230 he reached Acre, having abandoned the Egyptian expedition. For the +next four years he stayed in the Holy Land, seeking to do what he could +for the establishing of the kingdom of Jerusalem. He was able to do but +little. The struggle of papacy and empire paralysed Europe, and even in +France itself there were few ready to answer the calls for help which St +Louis sent home from Acre. The one answer was the Shepherds' Crusade, or +Crusade of the Pastoureaux--"a religious Jacquerie," as it has been +called by Dean Milman. It had some of the features of the Children's +Crusade of 1212. That, too, had begun with a shepherd boy: the leader of +the Pastoureaux, like the leader of the children, promised to lead his +followers dry-shod through the seas; and tradition even said that this +leader, "the master of Hungary," as he was called, was the Stephen of +the Children's Crusade. But the anti-clerical feeling and action of the +Shepherds was new and ominous; and moved by its enormities the +government suppressed the new movement ruthlessly. None came to the aid +of St Louis; and in 1254, on the death of his mother Blanche, the +regent, he had to return to France. + +The final collapse of the kingdom of Jerusalem had been really +determined by the battle of Gaza in 1244, and by the deposition of the +Ayyubite dynasty by the Mamelukes. The Ayyubites had always been, on the +whole, chivalrous and tolerant: Saladin and his successors, +Malik-al-Adil and Malik-al-Kamil, had none of them shown an implacable +enmity to the Christians. The Mamelukes, who are analogous to the +janissaries of the Ottoman Turks, were made of sterner and more +fanatical stuff; and Bibars, the greatest of these Mamelukes, who had +commanded at Gaza in 1244, had been one of the leaders in 1250, and was +destined to become sultan in 1260, was the sternest and most fanatical +of them all. The Christians were, however, able to maintain a footing in +Syria for forty years after St Louis' departure, not by reason of their +own strength, but owing to two powers which checked the advance of the +Mamelukes. The first of these was Damascus. The kingdom of Jerusalem, as +we have seen, had profited by the alliance of Damascus as early as 1130, +when the fear of the atabegs of Mosul had first drawn the two together; +and when Damascus had been acquired by the rule of Mosul, the hostility +between the house of Nureddin in Damascus and Saladin in Egypt had still +for a time preserved the kingdom (from 1171 onwards). Saladin had united +Egypt and Damascus; but after his death dissensions broke out among the +members of his family,[53] which more than once led to wars between +Damascus and Cairo. It has already been noticed that such a war between +the sons of Malik-al-Adil accounts in large measure for the success of +the Sixth Crusade; and it has been seen that the battle of Gaza was an +act in the long drama of strife between Egypt and northern Syria. The +revolution in Egypt in 1250 separated Damascus from Cairo more +trenchantly than they had ever been separated since 1171: while a +Mameluke ruled in Cairo, Malik-al-Nasir of Aleppo was elected as sultan +by the emirs of Damascus. But an entirely new and far more important +factor in the affairs of the Levant was the extension of the empire of +the Mongols during the 13th century. That empire had been founded by +Jenghiz Khan in the first quarter of the century; it stretched from +Peking on the east to the Euphrates and the Dnieper on the west. Two +things gave the Mongols an influence on the history of the Holy Land and +the fate of the Crusades. In the first place, the south-western division +of the empire, comprising Persia and Armenia, and governed about 1250 by +the Khan Hulaku or Hulagu, was inevitably brought into relations, which +were naturally hostile, with the Mahommedan powers of Syria and Egypt. +In the second place, the Mongols of the 13th century were not as yet, in +any great numbers, Mahommedans; the official religion was "Shamanism," +but in the Mongol army there were many Christians, the results of early +Nestorian missions to the far East. This last fact in particular caused +western Europe to dream of an alliance with the great khan "Prester +John," who should aid in the reconquest of Jerusalem and the final +conversion to Christianity of the whole continent of Asia. The Crusades +thus widen out, towards their close, into a general scheme for the +christianization of all the known world.[54] About 1220 James of Vitry +was already hoping that 4000 knights would, with the assistance of the +Mongols, recover Jerusalem; but it is in 1245 that the first definite +sign of an alliance with the Mongols appears. In that year Innocent IV. +sent a Franciscan friar, Joannes de Piano Carpini, to the Mongols of +southern Russia, and despatched a Dominican mission to Persia. Nothing +came of either of these missions; but through them Europe first began to +know the interior of Asia, for Carpini was conducted by the Mongols as +far as Karakorum, the capital of the great khan, on the borders of +China. Again in 1252 St Louis (who had already begun to negotiate with +the Mongols in the winter of 1248-1249) sent the friar William of +Rubruquis to the court of the great khan; but again nothing came of the +mission save an increase of geographical knowledge. It was in the year +1260 when it first seemed likely that any results definitely affecting +the course of the Crusades would flow from the action of the Mongols. In +that year Hulagu, the khan of Persia, invaded Syria and captured +Damascus. His general, a Christian named Kitboga, marched southwards to +attack the Mamelukes of Egypt, but he was beaten by Bibars (who in the +same year became sultan of Egypt), and Damascus fell into the hands of +the Mamelukes. Once more, in spite of Mongol intervention, Damascus and +Cairo were united, as they had been united in the hands of Saladin; once +more they were united in the hands of a devout Mahommedan, who was +resolved to extirpate the Christians from Syria. + +While these things were taking place around them, the Christians of the +kingdom of Jerusalem only hastened their own fall by internal +dissensions which repeated the history of the period preceding 1187. In +part the war of Guelph and Ghibelline fought itself out in the East; and +while one party demanded a regency, as in 1243, another argued for the +recognition of Conrad, the son of Frederick II., as king. In part, +again, a commercial war raged between Venice and Genoa, which attracted +into its orbit all the various feuds and animosities of the Levant +(1257). Beaten in the war, the Genoese avenged themselves for their +defeat by an alliance with the Palaeologi, which led to the loss of +Constantinople by the Latins (1261), and to the collapse of the Latin +empire after sixty years of infirm and precarious existence. On a +kingdom thus divided against itself, and deprived of allies, the arm of +Bibars soon fell with crushing weight. The sultan, who had risen from a +Mongolian slave to become a second Saladin, and who combined the +physique and audacity of a Danton with the tenacity and religiosity of a +Philip II., dealt blow after blow to the Franks of the East. In 1265 +fell Caesarea and Arsuf; in 1268 Antioch was taken, and the principality +of Bohemund and Tancred ceased to exist.[55] In the years which followed +on the loss of Antioch several attempts were made in the West to meet +the progress of the new conqueror. In 1269 James the Conqueror of +Aragon, at the bidding of the pope, turned from the long Spanish Crusade +to a Crusade in the East in order to atone for his offences against the +law matrimonial. An opportune storm, however, gave the king an excuse +for returning home, as Frederick II. had done in 1227; and though his +followers reached Acre, they hardly dared venture outside its walls, and +returned home promptly in the beginning of 1270. More serious were the +plans and the attempts of Charles of Anjou and Louis IX., in which the +Crusades may be said to have finally ended, save for sundry disjointed +epilogues in the 14th and 15th centuries. + +Charles of Anjou had succeeded, as a result of the long "crusade" waged +by the papacy against the Hohenstaufen from the council of Lyons to the +battle of Tagliacozzo (1245-1268), in establishing himself in the +kingdom of Sicily. With the kingdom of Frederick II. and Henry VI. he +also took over their policy--the "forward" policy in the East which had +also been followed by the old Norman kings. On the one hand he aimed at +the conquest of Constantinople as Henry VI. had done before; and by the +treaty of Viterbo of 1267 he secured from the last Latin emperor of the +East, Baldwin II., a right of eventual succession. On the other hand, +like Frederick II., he aimed at uniting the kingdom of Jerusalem with +that of Sicily; and here, too, he was able to provide himself with a +title. On the death of Conradin, Hugh of Cyprus had been recognized in +the East as king of Jerusalem (1269); but his pretensions were opposed +by Mary of Antioch, a granddaughter of Amalric II., who was prepared to +bequeath her claims to Charles of Anjou, and was therefore naturally +supported by him. But the policy of Charles, which thus prepared the way +for a Crusade similar to those of 1197 and 1202, was crossed by that of +his brother Louis IX. Already in 1267 St Louis had taken the cross a +second time, moved by the news of Bibars' conquests; and though the +French baronage, including even Joinville himself, refused to follow the +lead of their king, Prince Edward of England imitated his example. Louis +had been led to think that the bey of Tunis might be converted, and in +that hope he resolved to begin this eighth and last of the Crusades by +an expedition to Tunis. Charles, as anxious to attack Constantinople as +he was reluctant to attack Tunis, with which Sicily had long had +commercial relations, was forced to abandon his own plans and to join in +those of his brother.[56] St Louis had barely landed in Tunis when he +sickened and died, murmuring "Jerusalem, Jerusalem" (August 1270); but +Charles, who appeared immediately after his brother's death, was able to +conduct the Crusade to a successful conclusion. Negotiating in the +spirit of a Frederick II., and acting not as a Crusader but as a king of +Sicily, he not only wrested a large indemnity from the bey for himself +and the new king of France, but also secured a large annual tribute for +his Sicilian exchequer. So ended the Eighth Crusade--much as the Sixth +had done--to the profound disgust of many of the crusaders, including +Prince Edward of England, who only arrived on the eve of the conclusion +of the treaty. Baulked of any opportunity of joining in the main +Crusade, Edward, after wintering in Sicily, conducted a Crusade of his +own to Acre in the spring of 1271. For over a year he stayed in the Holy +Land, making little sallies from Acre, and negotiating with the +Mongols, but achieving no permanent results. He returned home at the end +of 1272, the last of the western crusaders; and thus all the attempts of +St Louis and Charles of Anjou, of James of Aragon and Edward of England +left Bibars still in possession of all his conquests. + +Two projects of Crusades were started before the final expulsion of the +Latins from Syria. In 1274, at the council of Lyons, Gregory X., who had +been the companion of Edward in the Holy Land, preached the Crusade to +an assembly which contained envoys from the Mongol khan and Michael +Palaeologus as well as from many western princes. All the princes of +western Europe took the cross; not only so, but Gregory was successful +in uniting the Eastern and Western churches for the moment, and in +securing for the new Crusade the aid of the Palaeologi, now thoroughly +alarmed by the plans of Charles of Anjou. Thus was a papal Crusade +begun, backed by an alliance with Constantinople, and thus were the +plans of Charles of Anjou temporarily thwarted. But in 1276 Gregory X. +died, and all his plans died with him; there was to be no union of the +monarchs of the West with the emperor of the East in a common Crusade. +Charles was able to resume his plans. In 1277 Mary of Antioch ceded to +him her claims, and he was able to establish himself in Acre; in 1278 he +took possession of the principality of Achaea. With these bases at his +disposal he began to prepare a new Crusade, to be directed primarily +(like that of Henry VI. in 1197, and like his own projected Crusade of +1270) against Constantinople. Once more his plans were crossed finally +and fatally: the Sicilian Vespers, and the coronation of Peter of Aragon +as Sicilian king (1282), gave him troubles at home which occupied him +for the rest of his days. This was the last serious attempt at a Crusade +on behalf of the dying kingdom of Jerusalem which was made in the West; +and its collapse was quickly followed by the final extinction of the +kingdom. A precarious peace had reigned in the Holy Land since 1272, +when Bibars had granted a truce of ten years; but the fall of the great +power of Charles of Anjou set free Kala'un the successor of Bibars' son +(who reigned little more than two years), to complete the work of the +great sultan. In 1289 Kala'un took Tripoli, and the county of Tripoli +was extinguished; in 1290 he died while preparing to besiege Acre, which +was captured after a brave defence by his son and successor Khalil in +1291. Thus the kingdom of Jerusalem came to an end. The Franks evacuated +Syria altogether, leaving behind them only the ruins of their castles to +bear witness, to this very day, of the Crusades they had waged and the +kingdom they had founded and lost. + +9. _The Ghost of the Crusades._--The loss of Acre failed to stimulate +the powers of Europe to any new effort. France, always the natural home +of the Crusades, was too fully occupied, first by war with England and +then by a struggle with the papacy, to turn her energies towards the +East. But it is often the case that theory develops as practice fails; +and as the theory of the Holy Roman Empire was never more vigorous than +in the days of its decrepitude, so it was with the Crusades. +Particularly in the first quarter of the 14th century, writers were busy +in explaining the causes of the failures of past Crusades, and in laying +down the lines along which a new Crusade must proceed. Several causes +are recognized by these writers as accounting for the failure of the +Crusades. Some of them lay the blame on the papacy; and it is true that +the papacy had contributed towards the decay of the Crusades when it had +allowed its own particular interests to overbear the general welfare of +Christianity, and had dignified with the name and the benefits of a +Crusade its own political war against the Hohenstaufen. Others again +find in the princes of Europe the authors of the ruin of the Crusades; +they too had preferred their own national or dynastic interests to the +cause of a common Christianity. They had indeed, as has been already +noticed, done even more; they had used the name of Crusade, from the +days of Henry VI. onwards, as a cover and an excuse for secular +ambitions of their own; and in this way they had certainly helped, in +very large measure, to discourage the old religious zeal for the Holy +War. Other writers, again, blame the commercial cupidity of the Italian +towns; of what avail, they asked with no little justice, was the +Crusade, when Venice and Genoa destroyed the naval bases necessary for +its success by their internecine quarrels in the Levant (as in 1257), +or--still worse--entered into commercial treaties with the common enemy +against whom the Crusades were directed? On the very eve of the Fifth +Crusade, Venice had concluded a commercial treaty with Malik-al-Kamil of +Egypt; just before the fall of Acre the Genoese, the king of Aragon and +the king of Sicily had all concluded advantageous treaties with the +sultan Kala'un. A fourth cause, on which many writers dwelt, +particularly at the time when the suppression of the Templars was in +question, was the dissensions between the two orders of Templars and +Hospitallers, and the selfish policy of merely pursuing their own +interest which was followed by both in common. But one might enumerate +_ad infinitum_ the causes of the failure of the Crusades. It is +simplest, as it is truest, to say that the Crusades did not fail--they +simply ceased; and they ceased because they were no longer in joint with +the times. The moral character of Europe in 1300 was no longer the moral +character of Europe in 1100; and the Crusades, which had been the active +and objective embodiment of the other worldly Europe of 1100, were alien +to the secular, legal, scholastic Europe of 1300. While Edward I. was +seeking to found a united kingdom in Great Britain; while the Habsburgs +were entrenching themselves in Austria; above all, while Philippe le Bel +and his legists were consolidating the French monarchy on an absolutist +basis, there could be little thought of the holy war. These were +hard-headed men of affairs--men who would not lightly embark on joyous +ventures, or seek for an ideal San Grail; nor were the popes, doomed to +the Babylonian captivity for seventy long years at Avignon, able to call +down the spark from on high which should consume all earthly ambitions +in one great act of sacrifice. + +But it is long before the death of any institution is recognized; and it +was inevitable that men should busy themselves in trying to rekindle the +dead embers into new life. Pierre Dubois, in a pamphlet "_De +recuperatione Sanctae Terrae_," addressed to Edward I. in 1307, +advocates a general council of Europe to maintain peace and prevent the +dissensions which--as, for instance, in 1192--had helped to cause the +failure of past Crusades. Along with this advocacy of internationalism +goes a plea for the disendowment of the Church, in order to provide an +adequate financial basis for the future Crusade. Other proposals, made +by men well acquainted with the East, are more definitely practical and +less political in their intention. A blockade of Egypt by an +international fleet, an alliance with the Mongols, the union of the two +great orders--these are the three staple heads of these proposals. +Something, indeed, was attempted, if little was actually done, under +each of these three heads. The plan of an international fleet to coerce +the Mahommedan is even to this day ineffective; but the Hospitallers, +who acquired a new basis by the conquest of Rhodes in 1310, used their +fleet to enforce a partial and, on the whole, ineffective blockade of +the coast of the Levant. The union of the two orders, already suggested +at the council of Lyons in 1245, was nominally achieved by the council +of Vienne in 1311; but the so-called "union" was in reality the +suppression of the Templars, and the confiscation of all their resources +by the cupidity of Philippe le Bel. The alliance with the Mongols +remained, from the first to the last, something of a chimera; and the +last visionary hope vanished when the Mongols finally embraced +Mahommedanism, as, by the end of the 14th century, they had almost +universally done. + +Isolated enterprises somewhat of the character of a Crusade, but hardly +serious enough to be dignified by that name, recur during the 14th +century. The French kings are all crusaders--in name--until the +beginning of the Hundred Years' War; but the only crusader who ever +carried war in Palestine and sought to shake the hold of the Mamelukes +on the Holy Land was Peter I., king of Cyprus from 1359 to 1369. Peter +founded the order of the Sword for the delivery of Jerusalem; and +instigated by his chancellor, P. de Mezieres (one of the last of the +theorists who speculated and wrote on the Crusades), he attempted to +revive the old crusading spirit throughout the west of Europe. The +mission which he undertook with his chancellor for this purpose +(1362-1365) only produced a crop of promises or excuses from sovereigns +like Edward III. or the Emperor Charles IV.; and Peter was forced to +begin the Crusade with such volunteers as he could collect for himself. +In the autumn of 1365 he sacked Alexandria; in 1367 he ravaged the coast +of Syria, and inflicted serious damages on the sultan of Egypt. But in +1369 he was assassinated, and the last romantic figure of the Crusades +died, leaving only the legacy of his memory to his chancellor de +Mezieres, who for nearly forty years longer continued to be the preacher +of the Crusades to Europe, advocating--what always continued to be the +"dream of the old pilgrim"--a new order of knights of the Passion of +Christ for the recovery and defence of Jerusalem. De Mezieres was the +last to advocate seriously, as Peter I. was the last to attempt, a +Crusade after the old fashion--an offensive war against Egypt for the +recovery of the Holy Sepulchre.[57] From 1350 onwards the Crusade +assumes a new aspect; it becomes defensive, and it is directed against +the Ottoman Turks, a tribe of Turcomans who had established themselves +in the sultanate of Iconium at the end of the 13th century, during the +confusion and displacement of peoples which attended the Mongol +invasions. As early as 1308 the Ottoman Turks had begun to settle in +Europe; by 1350 they had organized their terrible army of janissaries. +They threatened at once the debris of the old Latin empire in Greece and +the archipelago, and the relics of the Byzantine empire round +Constantinople; they menaced the Hospitallers in Rhodes and the +Lusignans in Cyprus. It was natural that the popes should endeavour to +form a coalition between the various Christian powers which were +threatened by the Turks; and Venice, anxious to preserve her possessions +in the Aegean, zealously seconded their efforts. In 1344 a Crusade, in +which Venice, the Cypriots, and the Hospitallers all joined, ended in +the conquest of Smyrna; in 1345 another Crusade, led by Humbert, dauphin +of Vienne, ended in failure. The Turks continued their progress; in 1363 +they captured Philippopolis, and in 1365 they entered Adrianople; the +whole Balkan peninsula was threatened, and even Hungary itself seemed +doomed. Already in 1365 Urban VI. sought to unite the king of Hungary +and the king of Cyprus in a common Crusade against the Turks; but it was +not till 1396 that an attempt was at last made to supplement by a land +Crusade the naval Crusades of 1344 and 1345. Master of Servia and of +Bulgaria, as well as of Asia Minor, the sultan Bayezid was now +threatening Constantinople itself. To arrest his progress, a Crusade, +preached by Boniface IX., led by John the Fearless of Burgundy, and +joined chiefly by French knights, was directed down the valley of the +Danube into the Balkans; but the old faults stigmatized by de Mezieres, +_divisio_ and _propria voluntas_, were the ruin of the crusading army, +and at the battle of Nicopolis it was signally defeated. Not the Western +Crusades but an Eastern rival, Timur (Tamerlane), king of Transoxiana +and conqueror of southern Russia and India, was destined to arrest the +progress of Bayezid; and from the battle of Angora (1402) till the days +of Murad II. (1422) the Ottoman power was paralysed. Under Murad, +however, it rose to its old height. To meet the new danger a new union +of the churches of the East and the West was attempted. As in 1074 +Gregory VII. had dreamed of such a union, to be followed by a joint +attack of East and West on the Seljuks, so in 1439, at the council of +Florence, a new union of the two churches was again attempted and +temporarily secured, in order that a united Christendom might face the +new Turkish danger.[58] The logical result of the union was the Crusade +of 1443. An army of cosmopolitan adventurers, led by the Cardinal +Caesarini, joined the forces of Wladislaus of Poland and John Hunyadi +of Transylvania, and succeeded in forcing on Murad II. a truce of ten +years at Szegedin in 1444. But the crusaders broke the truce, to which +Caesarini had never consented; and, attempting to better what was +already good enough, they were defeated at Varna. Here the last Crusade +ended; and nine years afterwards, in 1453, Mahommed II., the successor +of Murad, captured Constantinople. It was in vain that the popes sought +to gather a new Crusade for its recovery; Pius II., who had vowed to +join the crusade in person, only reached Ancona in 1464 to find the +crusaders deserting and to die. Yet the ghost of the Crusades still +lingered. It became a convention of diplomacy, designed to cover any +particularly sharp piece of policy which needed some excuse; and the +treaty of Granada, formed between Louis XII. and Ferdinand of Aragon for +the partition of Naples in 1500, was excused as a thing necessary in the +interests of the Crusades. In a more noble fashion the Crusade survived +in the minds of the navigators; "Vasco da Gama, Christopher Columbus, +Albuquerque, and many others dreamed, and not insincerely, that they +were labouring for the deliverance of the Holy Land, and they bore the +Cross on their breasts."[59] "Don Henrique's scheme," it has been said, +"represents the final effort of the crusading spirit; and the naval +campaigns against the Moslem in the Indian seas, in which it culminated, +forty years after Don Henrique's death, may be described as the last +Crusade."[60] + +10. _Results of the Crusades._--In one vital respect the result of the +Crusades may be written down as failure. They ended, not in the +occupation of the East by the Christian West, but in the conquest of the +West by the Mahommedan East. The Crusades began with the Seljukian Turk +planted at Nicaea; they ended with the Ottoman Turk entrenched by the +Danube. Nothing is more striking in history than the recession of +Christianity in the East after the 13th century. In the 13th century the +whole of Europe was Christian; part of Asia Minor still belonged to +Greek Christianity, and there was a Christian kingdom in Palestine. Nor +was this all. A wide missionary activity had begun in the 13th +century--an activity which was the product of the Crusades and the +contact with the Moslem which they brought, but which yet helped to +check the Crusades, substituting as it did peaceful and spiritual +conquests of souls for the violence and materialism of even a Holy War. +The Eastern mission had been begun by St Francis, who had visited and +attempted to convert the sultan of Egypt during the Fifth Crusade +(1220); within a hundred years the little seed had grown into a great +tree. A great field for missionary enterprise opened itself in the +Mongol empire, in which, as has already been mentioned, there were many +Christians to be found; and by 1350 this field had been so well worked +that Christian missions and Christian bishops were established from +Persia to Peking, and from the Dnieper to Tibet itself. But a Mahommedan +reaction came, thanks in large measure to the zeal of Timur; and central +Asia was lost to Christianity. Everywhere in the 15th century, in Europe +and in Asia, the crescent was victorious over the cross; and Crusade and +mission, whether one regards them as complementary or inimical, perished +together.[61] + +But the history of the Crusades must be viewed rather as a chapter in +the history of civilization in the West itself, than as an extension of +Western dominion or religion to the East. It is a chapter very difficult +to write, for while on the one hand an ingenious and speculative +historian may refer to the influence of the Crusades almost everything +which was thought or done between 1100 and 1300, a cautious writer who +seeks to find documentary evidence for every assertion may be rather +inclined to attribute to that influence little or nothing.[62] The +dissolution of feudalism, the development of towns, the growth of +scholasticism, all these and much more have been ascribed to the +Crusades, when in truth they were concomitants rather than results, or +at any rate, if in part the results of the Crusades, were in far larger +part the results of other things. At most, therefore, it may be admitted +that the Crusades _contributed_ to the dissolution of feudalism by +putting property on the market and disturbing the validity of titles; +that they aided the development of towns by vastly increasing the volume +of trade; and that they furthered the growth of scholasticism by +bringing the West into contact with the mind of the East. If we seek the +peculiar and definite results of the Crusades, we must turn to narrower +issues. In the first place, the Crusades represent the attempt of a +feudal system, bound under the law of primogeniture to dispose of its +younger sons. They are attempts at feudal colonization; and as such they +resulted in a number of colonies--the kingdom of Jerusalem, the kingdom +of Cyprus, the Latin empire of Constantinople. They resulted too in a +number of "chartered companies"--that is to say, the three military +orders, which, beginning as charitable societies, developed into +military clubs, and developed again from military clubs into chartered +companies, possessed of banks, navies and considerable territories. In +the second place, as has already been noticed, the Crusades represent +the attempt of Western commerce to find new and more easy routes to the +wealth of the East; and in this respect they led to various results. On +the one hand they led to the establishment of emporia in the East--for +instance, Acre, and after the fall of Acre Famagusta, both in their day +great centres of Levantine trade. On the other hand, the commodities +which poured into Venice and Genoa from the East had to find a route for +their diffusion through Europe. The great route was that which led from +Venice over the Brenner and up the Rhine to Bruges; and this route +became the long red line of municipal development, along which--in +Lombardy, Germany and Flanders--the great towns of the middle ages +sprang to life. Partly as a result of this trade, ever pushing its way +farther east, and partly as a result of the Asiatic missions, which were +themselves an accompaniment and effect of the Crusades, a third great +result of the Crusades came to light in the 13th century--the discovery +of the interior of Asia, and an immense accession to the sphere of +geography. When one remembers that missionaries like Piano Carpini, and +traders like the Venetian Polos, either penetrated by land from Acre to +Peking, or circumnavigated southern Asia from Basra to Canton, one +realizes that there was, about 1300, a discovery of Asia as new and +tremendous as the discovery of America by Columbus two centuries later. +At the same time the old knowledge of nearer Asia was immensely +deepened. It has already been noticed how military reconnaissances of +the routes to Egypt came to be made; but more important were the +guide-books, of which a great number were written to guide the pilgrims +from one sacred spot of Bible history to another. There were medieval +Baedekers in abundance for the use of the annual flow of tourists, who +were carried every Easter by the vessels of the Italian towns or of the +Orders to visit the Holy Land and to bathe in Jordan, to gather palms, +and to see the miracle of fire at the Sepulchre. + +Colonization, trade, geography--these then are three things closely +connected with the history of the Crusades. The development of the art +of war, and the growth of a systematic taxation, are two debts which +medieval Europe also owed to the Crusades. Partly by contact with the +Byzantines, partly by conflict with the Mahommedans, the Franks learned +new methods both of building and of attacking fortifications. The +concentric castle, with its rings of walls, began to displace the old +keep and bailey with their single wall, as the crusaders brought back +news from the East.[63] The art of the sapper and miner, the use of +siege instruments like the mangonel, and the employment of various +"fires" as missiles, were all known among the Mahommedans; and in all +these respects the Franks learned from their enemies. The common use of +armorial bearings, and the practice of the tournament, may be Oriental +in their origin; the latter has its affinities with the equestrian +exercises of the Jerid, and the former, though of prehistoric antiquity, +may have received a new impulse from contact with the Arabs. The +military development which sprang from the Crusades is thus largely a +matter of borrowing; the financial development is independent and +indigenous in the West. As early as 1147 Louis VII. had imposed a tax in +the interests of the Crusades; and that tax had been repeated by Louis, +and imitated by Henry II. in 1166, while it had been still further +extended in the Saladin tithe of 1188. The taxation of 1166 is important +as the first to fall on "moveables"; the whole scheme of taxation may be +regarded as the beginning of a modern system of taxation. But it was not +only to the lay power that the Crusades gave an excuse for taxation; the +papacy also profited. Tithes for the Crusades were first imposed on the +clergy by Innocent III. at the Lateran council of 1215; and clerical +taxation was thus part of the whole statesmanlike project of the Fifth +Crusade as it was sketched by the great pope. Henceforth tithes for the +Crusades are regular; under Gregory IX. they become a great part of the +papal resources in the Crusade against the Hohenstaufen; and in the 16th +century they are still a normal part of the government of the Church. + +[Illustration: Map of Syria in the 12th cetury, before the conquests of +Saladin.] + +In many other ways the Europe over which the Crusades had passed was +different from the Europe of the 11th century. In the first place, many +political changes had been wrought, largely under its influence. Always +in large part French, the Crusades had on the whole contributed to exalt +the prestige of France, until it stood at the end of the 13th century +the most considerable power in Europe. It was France which had colonized +the Levant; it was the French tongue which was used in the Levant; and +the results of the ancient and continuous connexion with the East are +still to be traced to-day. Of the other great powers of Europe, England +and Germany had been little changed by the Crusades, save that Germany +had been extended towards the East by the conquests of the Teutonic +Order; but the Eastern empire had been profoundly modified, and the +papacy had suffered a great change. The Eastern empire had been for a +time annihilated by the movement which in 1095 it had helped to evoke; +and if it rose from its ashes in 1261 for two centuries of renewed life, +it was never more than the shadow of its old self, with little hold on +Asia Minor and less on Greece and the Archipelago, which the Latins +still continued to occupy until they were finally conquered by the +Ottoman Turks. The papacy, on the other hand, had grown as a result of +the Crusades. Popes had preached them; popes had financed them; popes +had sent their legates to lead them. Through them the popes had deposed +the emperors of the West from their headship of the world, partly +because through the Crusades the popes were able to direct the common +Christianity of Europe in a foreign policy of their own without +consultation with the emperor, partly because in the 13th century they +were ultimately able to direct the Crusade itself against the empire. +Yet while they had magnified, the Crusades had also corrupted the +papacy. They became an instrument in its hands which it used to its own +undoing. It cried Crusade when there was no Crusade; and the long +Crusade against the Hohenstaufen, if it gave the papacy an apparent +victory, only served in the long run to lower its prestige in the eyes +of Europe. When we turn from the sphere of politics to the history of +civilization and culture, we find the effects of the Crusades as deeply +impressed, if not so definitely marked. The Crusades had sprung from the +policy of a theocratic government counting on the motive of +otherworldliness; they had helped in their course to overthrow that +motive, and with it the government which it had made possible. In part +they had provided a field in which the layman could prove that he too +was a priest; in part they had brought the West into a living and +continuous contact with a new faith and a new civilization. They had +torn men loose from the ancestral custom of home to walk in new ways and +see new things and hear new thoughts; and some broadening of view, some +lessening in the intensity of the old one-sidedness, was the inevitable +result. It is not so much that the West came into contact with a +particular civilization in the East, or borrowed from that civilization; +it is simply that the West came into contact with something unlike +itself, yet in many ways as high as, if not higher than, itself. The +spirit of _Nathan der Weise_ may not have been exactly the spirit +engendered by the Crusades; and yet it is not without reason that +Lessing stages the fable which teaches toleration in the Latin kingdom +of Jerusalem. In any case the accusations made against the Templars at +the time of their suppression prove that there was, at any rate in the +ranks of those who knew the East, too little of absolute orthodoxy. +While a new spirit which compares and tolerates thus sprang from the +Crusades, the large sphere of new knowledge and experience which they +gave brought new material at once for scientific thought and poetic +imagination. Not only was geography more studied; the Crusades gave a +great impulse to the writing of history, and produced, besides +innumerable other works, the greatest historical work of the middle +ages--the _Historia transmarina_ of William of Tyre. Mathematics +received an impulse, largely, it is true, from the Arabs of Spain, but +also from the East; Leonardo Fibonacci, the first Christian algebraist, +had travelled in Syria and Egypt. The study of Oriental languages began +in connexion with the Christian missions of the East; Raymond Lull, the +indefatigable missionary, induced the council of Vienne to decide on the +creation of six schools of Oriental languages in Europe (1311). But the +new field of poetic literature afforded by the Crusades is still more +striking than this development of science. New poems in abundance dealt +with the history of the Crusades, either in a faithful narrative, like +that of the _Chanson_ of Ambroise, which narrates the Third Crusade, or +in a free and poetical spirit, such as breathes in the _Chanson +d'Antioche_. Nor was this all. The Crusades afforded new details which +might be inserted into old matters, and a new spirit which might be +infused into old subjects; and a crusading complexion thus came to be +put upon old tales like those of Arthur and Charlemagne. By the side of +these greater things it may seem little, and yet, just because it is +little, it is all the more significant that the Crusades should have +familiarized Europe with new plants, new fruits, new manufactures, new +colours, and new fashions in dress. Sugar and maize; lemons, apricots +and melons; cotton, muslin and damask; lilac and purple (azure and gules +are words derived from the Arabic); the use of powder and of glass +mirrors, and also of the rosary itself--all these things came to Europe +from the East and as a result of the Crusades. To this day there are +many Arabic words in the vocabulary of the languages of western Europe +which are a standing witness of the Crusades--words relating to trade +and seafaring, like tariff and corvette, or words for musical +instruments, like lute or the Elizabethan word "naker." + + +GENEALOGY OF THE KINGS OF JERUSALEM + + Godfrey, Baldwin I., Baldwin II., + advocatus 1099-1100. brother of Godfrey, nephew of Godfrey + king 1100-1118. and Baldwin I., + and king 1118-1131. + | + +--------------------+--+ + | | + Fulk of Anjou, = Melisinda Alice = Bohemund II. + king 1131-1143. | of Antioch + | (q.v.) + | + +------------+---------------------------------------+ + | | + Baldwin III., Amalric I., + king 1143-1162. king 1162-1174. + | + +-----------+----------------------------------------------+ + | | | + Baldwin IV., Sibylla = (1) William of (2) Guy de Lusignan, | + king 1174-1183. Montferrat; king 1186-1192. | + | | + Baldwin V., | + king 1183-1186. | + | + +-------------------------------------------------------------+ + | + Isabella = (1) Humfred (2) Conrad of (3) Henry of (4) Amalric II., + of Turon. Montferrat, Champagne, brother of Guy + acknowledged king 1192-1197. de Lusignan, + king in 1192. | king 1197-1205 + | | (also king of + +----------------+ | Cyprus). + | | | + Mary, = John of Brienne, | | + queen under | king 1210-1225. | | + a regency | | | + from 1205- | | | + 1210. | | | + +-----------------+ | | + | | | + Isabella = Frederick II., | | + | emperor of the West | | + | and king of Jerusalem | | + | 1225-1250. | | + | | | + Conrad IV., king | | + of Germany and | | + of Jerusalem 1250-1255. | | + | | | + Conradin, king | | + 1254-1268. | | + | | + +---------------------------------------------+ | + | +---------------------------------+ + | | + Alice = Hugh I. of Cyprus, Melisinda = Bohemund IV. + | son of Amalric II. | + | by his first wife. Mary of Antioch, + | who died 1277, + | leaving her claims + | to Charles of Anjou + | (king of Sicily). + | + +--+------------------------------------------+ + | | + Henry I. of Cyprus = Plaisance of Antioch. Isabella = John de Lusignan. + | | + Hugh II. of Cyprus. | + Hugh (III. of Cyprus and) + I. of Jerusalem, + 1269-1284. + | + +--------------------------+---+ + | | + John I., Henry (III. of Cyprus and) + king of Cyprus, II. of Jerusalem, + 1284-1285. king from 1285 to the + fall of the kingdom in + 1291. + + +When all is said, the Crusades remain a wonderful and perpetually +astonishing act in the great drama of human life. They touched the +summits of daring and devotion, if they also sank into the deep abysms +of shame. Motives of self-interest may have lurked in them--otherworldly +motives of buying salvation for a little price, or worldly motives of +achieving riches and acquiring lands. Yet it would be treason to the +majesty of man's incessant struggle towards an ideal good, if one were +to deny that in and through the Crusades men strove for righteousness' +sake to extend the kingdom of God upon earth. Therefore the tears and +the blood that were shed were not unavailing; the heroism and the +chivalry were not wasted. Humanity is the richer for the memory of those +millions of men, who followed the pillar of cloud and fire in the sure +and certain hope of an eternal reward. The ages were not dark in which +Christianity could gather itself together in a common cause, and carry +the flag of its faith to the grave of its Redeemer; nor can we but give +thanks for their memory, even if for us religion is of the spirit, and +Jerusalem in the heart of every man who believes in Christ. + + LITERATURE.--In dealing with the literature of the Crusades, it is + perhaps better, though ideally less scientific, to begin with + chronicles and narratives rather than with documents. One of the + results of the Crusades, as has just been suggested above, was a great + increase in the writing of history. Crusaders themselves kept diaries + or _itineraria_; while home-keeping ecclesiastics in the West--monks + like Robert of Reims, abbots like Guibert of Nogent, archbishops like + Balderich of Dol--found a fertile subject for their pens in the + history of the Crusades. The history of a series of actions like the + Crusades must primarily be based on these accounts, and more + particularly on the former: narratives must precede documents where + one is dealing, not with the continuous life of an organized kingdom, + but with a number of enterprises--especially when those enterprises + have been, as in this case, excellently narrated by contemporary + writers. + + I. _Chronicles and Narratives of the Crusades_--(1) Collections. The + authorities for the Crusades have been collected in Bongars, _Gesta + Dei per Francos_ (Hanover, 1611) (incomplete); Michaud, _Bibliotheque + des croisades_ (Paris, 1829) (containing translations of select + passages in the authorities); the _Recueil des historiens des + croisades_, published by the Academie des Inscriptions (Paris, 1841 + onwards) (the best general collection, containing many of the Latin, + Greek, Arabic and Armenian authorities, and also the text of the + assizes; but sometimes poorly edited and still incomplete); and the + publications of the Societe de l'Orient Latin (founded in 1875), + especially the _Archives_, of which two volumes were published in 1881 + and 1884, and the volumes of the _Revue_, published yearly from 1893 + to 1902, and containing not only new texts, but articles and reviews + of books which are of great service. (2) Particular authorities. The + Crusades--a movement which engaged all Europe and brought the East + into contact with the West--must necessarily be studied not only in + the Latin authorities of Europe and of Palestine, but also in + Byzantine, Armenian and Arabic writers. There are thus some four or + five different points of view to be considered. + + The _First Crusade_, far more than any other, became the theme of a + multitude of writings, whose different degrees of value it is + all-important to distinguish. Until about 1840 the authority followed + for its history was naturally the great work of William of Tyre. For + the First Crusade William had followed Albert of Aix; and he had + consequently depicted Peter the Hermit as the prime mover in the + Crusade. But about 1840 Ranke suggested, and von Sybel in his + _Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges_ proved, that Albert of Aix was + _not_ a good authority, and that consequently William of Tyre must be + set aside for the history of the First Crusade, and other and more + contemporary authorities used. In writing his account of the First + Crusade, von Sybel accordingly based himself on the three contemporary + Western authorities--the _Gesta Francorum_, Raymond of Agiles, and + Fulcher. His view of the value of Albert of Aix, and his account of + the First Crusade, have been generally followed (Kugler alone having + attempted, to some extent, to rehabilitate Albert of Aix); and thus + von Sybel's work may be said to mark a revolution in the history of + the First Crusade, when its legendary features were stripped away, and + its real progress was first properly discovered. + + Taking the Western authorities for the First Crusade separately, one + may divide them, in the light of von Sybel's work, into four + kinds--the accounts of eye-witnesses; later compilations based on + these accounts; semi-legendary and legendary narratives; and lastly, + in a class by itself, the "History" of William of Tyre, who is rather + a scientific historian than a chronicler. + + (a) The three chief eye-witnesses are the anonymous author of the + _Gesta Francorum_, Raymund of Agiles, and Fulcher. The anonymous + author of the _Gesta_ (see Hagenmeyer's edition, Heidelberg, 1890) was + a Norman of South Italy, who followed Bohemund, and accordingly + depicts the progress of the First Crusade from a Norman point of view. + He was a layman, marching and fighting in the ranks; and thus he is + additionally valuable as representing the opinion of the ordinary + crusader. Finally he was an eye-witness throughout, and absolutely + contemporary, in the sense that he wrote his account of each great + event practically at the time of the event. He is the primary + authority for the First Crusade. Raymund of Agiles, a Provencal clerk + and a follower of Raymund of Toulouse, writes his _Historia Francorum + qui ceperunt Jerusalem_ from the Provencal point of view. He gives an + ecclesiastic's account of the First Crusade, and is specially full on + the spiritualistic phenomena which accompanied and followed the + finding of the Holy Lance. His book might almost be called the + "Visions of Peter Bartholomew and others," and it is written in the + plain matter-of-fact manner of Defoe's narratives. He too was an + eye-witness throughout, and thoroughly honest; and his account ranks + second to the _Gesta_. Fulcher of Chartres originally followed Robert + of Normandy, but in October 1097 he joined Baldwin of Lorraine in his + expedition to Edessa, and afterwards followed his fortunes. His + _Historia Hierosolymitana_, which extends to 1127, and embraces not + only the history of the First Crusade, but also that of the foundation + of the kingdom of Jerusalem, is written on the whole from a + Lotharingian point of view, and is thus a natural complement to the + accounts of the Anonymus and Raymund. His account of the First Crusade + itself is poor (he was absent at Edessa during its course), but + otherwise he is an excellent authority. A kindly old pedant, Fulcher + interlards his history with much discourse on geography, zoology and + sacred history. Besides these three chief eye-witnesses we may also + mention the _Annales Genuenses_ by the Genoese consul Caffarus,[64] + and the _Annales Pisani_ of Bernardus Marago, useful as giving the + mercantile and Italian side of the Crusade; the _Hierosolymita_ of + Ekkehard, the German abbot of Aura, who first came to Jerusalem about + 1101 (partly based on the _Gesta_, but also of independent value: see + Hagenmeyer's edition, Tubingen, 1877); and Raoul of Caen's _Gesta + Tancredi_, composed on the basis of information supplied by Tancred + himself. The last two works, if not actually the works of + eye-witnesses, are at any rate first-hand, and belong to the category + of primary writers rather than to that of later compilations. Finally, + to contemporary writers we may add contemporary letters, especially + those written by Stephen of Blois and Anselm of Ribemont, and the + three letters sent to the West by the crusading princes during the + First Crusade (see Hagenmeyer, _Epistulae et Chartae_, &c., Innsbruck, + 1901).[65] + + (b) The later compilations are chiefly based on the _Gesta_, whose + uncouth style many writers set themselves to mend. In the first place, + there is the _Historia de Hierosolymitano itinere_ of Tudebod, which + according to Besly, writing in 1641, is the original from which the + _Gesta_ was a mere plagiarism--an absolute inversion of the truth, as + von Sybel first proved two centuries later. Secondly, besides the + plagiarist Tudebod, there are the artistic _redacteurs_ of the + _Gesta_, who confess their indebtedness, but plead the bad style of + their original--Guibert of Nogent, Balderich of Dol, Robert of Reims + (all c. 1120-1130), and Fulco, the author of a Virgilian poem on the + Crusades, continued by Gilo (_ob. c._ 1142). Of these, the monk Robert + was more popular in the middle ages than either the pompous abbot + Guibert or the quiet garden-loving archbishop of Dol. + + (c) The growth of a legend, or perhaps better, a saga of the First + Crusade began, according to von Sybel, even during the Crusade itself. + The basis of this growth is partly the story-telling instinct innate + in all men, which loves to heighten an effect, sharpen a point or + increase a contrast--the instinct which breathes in Icelandic sagas + like that of _Burnt Njal_; partly the instinct of idolization, if it + may be so called, which leads to the perversion into impossible + greatness of an approved character, and has created, in this instance, + the legendary figures of Peter the Hermit and Godfrey of Bouillon + (qq.v.); partly the religious impulse, which counted nothing wonderful + in a holy war, and imported miraculous elements even into the sober + pages of the _Gesta_. These instincts and impulses would be at work + already among the soldiers during the Crusade, producing a saga all + the more readily, as there were poets in the camp; for we know that a + certain Richard, who joined the First Crusade, sang its exploits in + verse, while still more famous is the princely troubadour, William of + Aquitaine, who joined the Crusade of 1100. If we are to follow von + Sybel rather than Kugler, this saga of the First Crusade found one of + its earliest expressions (c. 1120) in the prose work of Albert of Aix + (_Historia Hierosolymitana_)--genuine saga in its inconsistencies, + its errors of chronology and topography, its poetical colour, and its + living descriptions of battles. Kugler, however, regards Albert as a + copyist, somewhat in the manner of Tudebod, of an unknown writer of + value, who belonged to the Lotharingian ranks during the Crusade, and + settled in the kingdom of Jerusalem afterwards (see Kugler, _Albert + von Aachen_, Stuttgart, 1885).[66] In the _Chanson des chetifs_ and + the _Chanson d'Antioche_ the legend of the Crusades more certainly + finds its expression. The former, composed at Antioch about 1130, + contained an idolization of the Hermit: the latter is a poem written + about 1180 by Graindor of Douai, who used as his basis the verses of + the crusader Richard (see the edition of P. Paris, 1848). It shows the + growth of the legend that Graindor regards the vision of the Hermit as + responsible for the Crusade, and makes the Crusade led by him precede, + and indeed occasion by its failure, the meeting at Clermont (which is + dated in May instead of November). Into the legendary overgrowth of + the First Crusade we cannot here enter any further[67]; but it is + perhaps worth while to mention that the French legend of the Third + Crusade equally perverted the truth, making Richard I. return home in + disgrace, while Philip Augustus stays, captures Damascus and mortally + wounds Saladin (cf. G. Paris, _L'Estoire de la guerre sainte_, Paris, + 1897; Introduction). + + (d) William of Tyre is the scientific historian and rationalizer, + weaving into a harmonious account, which was followed by historians + for centuries, the sober accounts of eye-witnesses and the picturesque + details of the saga--with somewhat of a bias towards the latter in + regard to the First Crusade. He was a native of Palestine, born about + 1130, and educated in the West. On his return he was happy in winning + the good opinion of Amalric I.; he was made first canon and then + archdeacon of Tyre, and tutor of the future Baldwin IV. (1170); while + on Baldwin's accession he became chancellor of the kingdom and + archbishop of Tyre (1174-1175). He was a man often employed on + missions and negotiations, and as chancellor he had in his care the + archives of the kingdom. His temper was naturally that of a trimmer; + and he had thus many qualifications for the writing of well-informed + and unbiassed history. He knew Greek and Arabic; and he was well + acquainted with the affairs of Constantinople, to which he went at + least twice on political business, and with the history of the + Mahommedan powers, on which he had written a work (now lost) at the + command of Amalric. It was Amalric also who set him to write the + history of the Crusades which we still possess (in twenty-two books, + with a fragment of a twenty-third)--the _Historia rerum in partibus + transmarinis gestarum_. He wrote the book at different times between + 1170 and 1183, when it abruptly ends, and its author as abruptly + disappears from sight. The book falls into two parts, the first (books + i.-xv.) derivative, the second (books xvi.-xxiii.) original. In the + second part he had his own knowledge of events and the information of + his contemporaries as his source: in the first he used the same + authorities which we still possess--the _Gesta_, Fulcher, and Albert + of Aix--in somewhat of an eclectic spirit, choosing now here, now + there, according as he could best weave a pleasant narrative, but not + according to any real critical principle. His book thus begins to be a + real authority only from the date of the Second Crusade onwards; but + the perfection of his form (for he is one of the greatest stylists of + the middle ages) and the prestige of his position conspired to make + his book the one authority for the whole history of the first century + of the Crusades. Nor was he (apart from his reception of legendary + elements into his narrative) unworthy of the honour in which he was + held; for he is really a great historian, in the form of his matter + and in his conception of his subject--diligent, impartial, + well-informed and interesting, if somewhat rhetorical in style and + vague in chronology. + + [During the middle ages his work was current in a French translation, + known as the _Chronique d'outre-mer_, or the _Livre_ or _Roman + d'Eracles_ (so called from the reference at the beginning to the + emperor Heraclius). This translation also contained a continuation by + various hands down to 1277; while besides the continuation embedded in + the _Livre d'Eracles_, there are separate continuations, of the nature + of independent works, by Ernoul and Bernard the Treasurer. These + latter cover the period from 1183 to 1228; and of the two Ernoul's + account seems primary, while that of Bernard is in large part a mere + copy of Ernoul. But the whole subject of the continuators of William + of Tyre is dubious.] + + To the Western authorities for the First Crusade must be added the + Eastern--Byzantine, Arabic and Armenian. Of these the Byzantine + authority, the _Alexiad_ of Anna Comnena, is most important, partly + from the position of the authoress, partly from the many points of + contact between the Byzantine empire and the crusaders. Anna's + narrative both furnishes a useful corrective of the prejudiced + Western accounts of Alexius, and serves to bring Bohemund forward into + his proper prominence. The Armenian view of the First Crusade and of + Baldwin's principality of Edessa is presented in the _Armenian + Chronicle_ of Matthew of Edessa. There is little in Arabic bearing on + the First Crusade: the Arabic authorities only begin to be of value + with the rise of the atabegs of Mosul (c. 1127). But Kemal-ud-din's + _History of Aleppo_ (composed in the 13th century) contains some + details on the history of the First Crusade; and the _Vie d'Ousama_ + (the autobiography of a sheik at Caesarea in northern Syria, edited + and paraphrased by Derenbourg in the _Publications de l'Ecole des + langues orientales vivantes_) presents the point of view of an Arab + whose life covered the first century of the Crusades (1095-1188). + + For the _Second Crusade_ the primary authority in the West is the work + of Odo de Deuil, _De profectione Ludovici VII regis Francorum in + Orientem_. Odo was a monk attached by Suger to Louis VII. during the + Second Crusade; and he wrote home to Suger during the Crusade seven + short letters, afterwards pieced together in a single work. The _Gesta + Friderici Primi_ of Otto of Freising (who joined in the Second + Crusade) gives some details from the German point of view (i. c. 44 + sqq.). The former is supplemented by the letters of Louis VII. to + Suger; the latter by the letters of Conrad III. to Wibald, abbot of + Stablo and Corvey. The Byzantine point of view is presented in the + [Greek: 'Epitome] of Cinnamus, the private secretary of Manuel, who + continued the _Alexiad_ of Anna Comnena in a work describing the + reigns of John and Manuel. It is from the Second Crusade that William + of Tyre, representing the attitude of the Franks of Jerusalem, begins + to be a primary authority; while on the Mahommedan side a considerable + authority emerges in Ibn Athir. His history of the Atabegs was written + about 1200, and it presents in a light favourable to Zengi and + Nureddin, but unfavourable to Saladin (who thrust Nureddin's + descendants aside), the history of the great Mahommedan power which + finally crushed the kingdom of Jerusalem.[68] + + Side by side with Beha-ud-din's life of Saladin, Ibn Athir's work is + the most considerable historical record written by the Arabs. + Generally speaking the Arabic writings are late in point of date, and + cold and jejune in style; while it must also be remembered that they + are set religious works written to defend Islam. On the other hand + they are generally written by men of affairs--governors, secretaries + or ambassadors; and a fatalistic temper leads their authors to a + certain impartial recording of everything, good or evil, which seems + of moment. + + The _Third Crusade_ was narrated in the West from very different + points of view by Anglo-Norman, French and German authorities. The + primary Anglo-Norman authority is the _Carmen Ambrosii_, or, as it is + called by M. Gaston Paris, _L'Estoire de la guerre sainte_. This is an + octosyllabic poem in French verse, written by Ambroise, a Norman + _trouvere_ who followed Richard I. to the Holy Land. The poem first + came to be known by scholars about 1873, and has been edited by M. + Gaston Paris (Paris, 1897). The _Itinerarium Peregrinorum_, a work in + ornate Latin prose, is (except for the first book) a translation of + the _Carmen_ masquerading under the guise of an independent work. + There seems no doubt that it is a piece of plagiary, and that its + writer, Richard, "canon of the Holy Trinity" in London, stands to the + _Carmen_ as Tudebod to the _Gesta_, or Albert of Aix to his supposed + original. The Third Crusade is also described from the English point + of view by all contemporary writers of history in England, e.g. Ralph + of Coggeshall, who used information gained from crusaders, and William + of Newburgh, who had access to a work by Richard I.'s chaplain Anselm, + which is now lost.[69] The French side is presented in Rigord's _Gesta + Philippi Augusti_ and in the _Gesta_ (an abridgment and continuation + of Rigord) and the _Philippeis_ of William the Breton. The two French + writers represent Richard as a faithless vassal: in the German + writers--Tagino, dean of Passau, who wrote a _Descriptio_ of + Barbarossa's Crusade (1189-1190); and Ansbert, an Austrian clerk, who + wrote _De expeditione Friderici Imperatoris_ (1187-1196)--Richard + appears rather as a monster of pride and arrogance. From the Arabic + point of view the life of Richard's rival, Saladin, is described by + Beha-ud-din, a high official under Saladin, who writes a panegyric on + his master, somewhat confused in chronology and partial in its + sympathies, but nevertheless of great value. The various continuations + of William of Tyre above mentioned represent the opinion of the native + Franks (which is hostile to Richard I.); while in Nicetas, who wrote a + history of the Eastern empire from 1118 to 1206, we have a Byzantine + authority who, as Professor Bury remarks, "differs from Anna and + Cinnamus in his tone towards the crusaders, to whom he is surprisingly + fair." + + For the _Fourth Crusade_ the primary authority is Villehardouin's _La + Conquete de Constantinople_, an official apology for the diversion of + the Crusade written by one of its leaders, and concealing the arcana + under an appearance of frank naivete. His work is usefully + supplemented by the narrative (_La Prise de Constantinople_) of + Robert de Clary, a knight from Picardy, who presents the non-official + view of the Crusade, as it appeared to an ordinary soldier. The + [Greek: Chronikon ton en Rhomania] (composed in Greek verse some time + after 1300, apparently by an author of mixed Frankish and Greek + parentage, and translated into French at an early date under the title + "The Book of the Conquest of Constantinople and the Empire of + Rumania") narrates in a prologue the events of the Fourth (as indeed + also of the First) Crusade. The _Chronicle of the Morea_ (as this work + is generally called) is written from the Frankish point of view, in + spite of its Greek verse; and the Byzantine point of view must be + sought in Nicetas.[70] + + The history of the later Crusades, from the Fifth to the Eighth, + enters into the continuations of William of Tyre above mentioned; + while the _Historia orientalis_ of Jacques de Vitry, who had taken + part in the Fifth Crusade, and died in 1240, embraces the history of + events till 1218 (the third book being a later addition). The _Secreta + fidelium Crucis_ of Marino Sanudo, a history of the Crusades written + by a Venetian noble between 1306 and 1321, is also of value, + particularly for the Crusade of Frederick II. The minor authorities + for the Fifth Crusade have been collected by Rohricht, in the + publications of the Societe de l'Orient Latin for 1879 and 1882; the + ten valuable letters of Oliver, bishop of Paderborn, and the _Historia + Damiettina_, based on these letters, have also been edited by Rohricht + in the _Westdeutsche Zeitschrift fur Geschichte und Kunst_ (1891). The + Sixth Crusade, that of Frederick II., is described in the chronicle of + Richard of San Germano, a notary of the emperor, and in other Western + authorities, e.g. Roger of Wendover. For the Crusades of St Louis the + chief authorities are Joinville's life of his master (whom he + accompanied to Egypt on the Seventh Crusade), and de Nangis' _Gesta + Ludovici regis_. Several works were written on the capture of Acre in + 1291, especially the _Excidium urbis Acconensis_, a treatise which + emerges to throw light, after many years of darkness, on the last + hours of the kingdom. The Oriental point of view for the 13th century + appears in Jelaleddin's history of the Ayyubite sultans of Egypt, + written towards the end of the 13th century; in Maqrizi's history of + Egypt, written in the middle of the 15th century; and in the + compendium of the history of the human race by Abulfeda (+1332); while + the omniscient Abulfaragius (whom Rey calls the Eastern St Thomas) + wrote, in the latter half of the 13th century, a chronicle of + universal history in Syriac, which he also issued, in an Arabic + recension, as a _Compendious History of the Dynasties_. + + II. The documents bearing on the history of the Crusades and the Latin + kingdom of Jerusalem are various. Under the head of charters come the + _Regesta regni Hierosolymitani_, published by Rohricht, Innsbruck, + 1893 (with an Additamentum in 1904); the _Cartulaire generale des + Hospitaliers_, by Delaville Leroulx (Paris, 1894 onwards); and the + _Cartulaire de l'eglise du St Sepulcre_, by de Roziere (Paris, 1849). + Under the head of laws come the assizes of the Kingdom, edited by + Beugnot in the _Recueil des historiens des croisades_; and the assizes + of Antioch, printed at Venice in 1876. G. Schlumberger has written on + the coins and seals of the Latin East in various publications; while + Rey has written an _Etude sur les monuments de l'architecture + militaire_ (Paris, 1871). The genealogy of the Levant is given in _Le + Livre des lignages d'outre-mer_ (published along with the assizes). + + BIBLIOGRAPHIES.--The best modern account of the original authorities + for the Crusades is that of A. Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de + France_, vols. ii. and iii. W. Wattenbach's _Deutschlands + Geschichtsquellen_ gives an account of Albert of Aix (vol. ii., ed. + 1894, pp. 170-180) and of Ekkehard of Aura (ibid. pp. 189-198). Von + Sybel's _Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges_ contains a full study of + the authorities for the First Crusade; while the prefaces to + Hagenmeyer's editions of the _Gesta_ and of Ekkehard are also + valuable. Gaston Dodu, in the work mentioned below, begins by a brief + account of the original authorities, which is chiefly of value so far + as it deals with William of Tyre and the history of the assizes; and + H. Prutz has also a short account of some of the historians of the + Crusades (_Kulturgeschichte_, pp. 453-469). Finally reference may be + made to the works of Kugler and Klimke above mentioned, and to J. F. + Michaud's _Bibliographie des croisades_ (Paris, 1822). + + _Modern Writers._--The various works of R. Rohricht present the + soundest, if not the brightest, account of the Crusades. There is a + _Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzugs_ (Innsbruck, 1901), a _Geschichte des + Konigreichs Jerusalem_ (ibid. 1898) and a _Geschichte der Kreuzzuge in + Umris_ (ibid. 1898). For the First Crusade von Sybel's work and + Chalandon's _Alexis I^er Comnene_ may also be mentioned; for the + Fourth A. Luchaire's volume on _Innocent III: La Question d'Orient_; + while for the whole of the Crusades Norden's _Papstum und Byzanz_ is + of value. B. Kugler's _Geschichte der Kreuzzuge_ (in Oncken's series) + still remains a suggestive and valuable work; and L. Brehier's + _L'Eglise et l'orient au moyen age_ (Paris, 1907) contains not only an + up-to-date account of the Crusades, but also a full and useful + bibliography, which should be consulted for fuller information. On + points of chronology, and on the relations between the crusaders and + their Mahommedan neighbours, W. B. Stevenson's _The Crusaders in the + East_ (Cambridge, 1907) is very valuable. On the constitutional and + social history of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem Dodu's _Histoire des + institutions du royaume latin de Jerusalem_ is very useful; E. G. + Rey's _Les Colonies franques en Syrie_ contains many interesting + details; and Prutz's _Kulturgeschichte der Kreuzzuge_ contains both an + account of the Latin East and an attempt to sketch the effects of the + Crusades on the progress of civilization. The works of Gmelin and J. + Delaville-Leroulx on the Templars and Hospitallers respectively are + worth consulting; while for Eastern affairs the English reader may be + referred to G. Lestrange's _Palestine under the Moslem_, and to + Stanley Lane-Poole's _Life of Saladin_ and his _Mahommedan Dynasties_ + (the latter a valuable work of reference). (E. Br.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Fulcher of Chartres, 1, i. For what follows, with regard to the + Church's conversion of _guerra_ into the Holy War, cf. especially the + passage--"Procedant contra infideles ad pugnam jam incipi dignam ... + qui abusive _privatum certamen_ contra fideles consuescebant + distendere quondam." + + [2] Tradition credits a pope still earlier than Gregory VII. with the + idea of a crusade. Silvester II. is said to have preached a general + expedition for the recovery of Jerusalem; and the same preaching is + attributed to Sergius IV. in 1011. But the supposed letter of + Silvester is a later forgery; and in 1000 the way of the Christian to + Jerusalem was still free and open. + + [3] The comte de Riant impugned the authenticity of Alexius' letter + to the count of Flanders. It is very probable that the versions of + this letter which we possess, and which are to be found only in later + writings like Guibert de Nogent, are apocryphal; Alexius can hardly + have held out the bait of the beauty of Greek women, or have written + that he preferred to fall under the yoke of the Latins rather than + that of the Turks. But it is also probable that these apocryphal + versions are based on a genuine original. + + [4] Ekkehard, _Chronica_, p. 213. + + [5] The _Chanson de Roland_, which cannot be posterior to the First + Crusade--for the poem never alludes to it--already contains the idea + of the Holy War against Islam. The idea of the crusade had thus + already ripened in French poetry, before Urban preached his sermon. + + [6] Book i. c. iii. (in Muratori, _S.R.I._, v. 550). + + [7] Ekkehard, _Chronica_, 214. + + [8] Later legend ascribed the origin of the First Crusade to the + preaching of Peter the Hermit. The legend has been followed by modern + historians; but in point of fact Peter is a figure of secondary + importance.(See PETER THE HERMIT.) + + [9] Godfrey's army numbered some 30,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry + (Rohricht, _Erst. Kreuzz._ 61): Urban II. reckons Bohemund's knights + as 7000 in number (_ibid._ 71, n. 7). + + [10] The Genoese had been invited by Urban II. in September 1096 "to + go with their gallies to Eastern parts in order to set free the path + to the Lord's Sepulchre." + + [11] Thus already on the First Crusade the path of negotiation is + attempted simultaneously with the Holy War. On the Third Crusade, and + above all on the Sixth, this path was still more seriously attempted. + It is interesting, too, to notice the part which the laity already + plays in directing the course of the Crusade. From the first the + Crusade, however clerical in its conception, was largely secular in + its conduct; and thus, somewhat paradoxically, a religious enterprise + aided the growth of the secular motive, and contributed to the escape + of the laity from that tendency towards a papal theocracy, which was + evident in the pontificate of Gregory VII. + + [12] Before he left, Raymund had played in Jerusalem the same part of + dog in the manger which he had also played at Antioch, and had given + Godfrey considerable trouble. See the articles, GODFREY OF BOUILLON + and RAYMUND OF TOULOUSE. + + [13] For an account of the kings of Jerusalem see the articles on the + five BALDWINS, on the two AMALRICS, on FULK and JOHN OF BRIENNE and + on the LUSIGNAN (family). + + [14] The genuineness of the letter (on which, by the way, depends the + story of Godfrey's agreement with Dagobert) has been impeached by + Prutz and Kugler, and doubted by Rohricht. It is accepted by von + Sybel and Hagenmeyer. + + [15] Yet the north always continued to be more populous than the + south; and the Latins maintained themselves in Antioch and Tripoli a + century after the loss of Jerusalem. The land was richer in the + north: it was protected by its connexion with Cyprus and Armenia: it + was more remote from Egypt--the basis of Mahommedan power from the + reign of Saladin onwards. + + [16] Pisa naturally connected itself with Antioch, because Antioch + was hostile to Constantinople, and Pisa cherished the same hostility, + since Alexius I. had in 1080 given preferential treatment to Venice, + the enemy of Pisa. + + [17] This is the year in which the kingdom may be regarded as + definitely founded. The period of conquest practically ends at this + date, though isolated gains were afterwards made. The year 1110 is + additionally important by reason of the accession of Maudud al Mosul, + which marks the beginning of a Moslem reaction. + + [18] Ilghazi died in 1122. His successor was Balak, who ruled from + 1122 to 1124, and succeeded in capturing in 1123 Baldwin II. of + Jerusalem. The union of Mardin and Aleppo under the sway of these two + amirs, connecting as it did Mesopotamia with Syria, marks an + important stage in the revival of Mahommedan power (Stevenson, + _Crusades in the East_, p. 109). + + [19] Maudud (the brother of the sultan Mahommed) may be regarded as + the first to begin the _jihad_, or counter-crusade, and his attack + expedition of 1113, which carried him so far into the heart of + Palestine, may be considered as the first act of the _jihad_ + (Stevenson, op. cit. pp. 87, 96). + + [20] Aleppo had passed from the rule of Timurtash (son of Ilghazi and + successor of Balak) into the possession of Aksunkur, 1125. + + [21] Stevenson, however, believes that Zengi was _not_ animated by + the idea of recovering Jerusalem. He thinks that his principal aim + was simply the formation of a compact Mahommedan state, which was, + indeed, in the issue destined to be the instrument of the _jihad_, + but was not so intended by Zengi (op. cit. pp. 123-124). + + [22] There are certain connexions and analogies between the kingdom + of Sicily and that of Jerusalem during the twelfth century. In either + case there is an importation of Western feudalism into a country + originally possessed of Byzantine institutions, but affected by an + Arabic occupation. The subject deserves investigation. + + [23] The holders of fiefs (_sodeers_) both held fiefs of land and + received pay; the paid force of _soudoyers_ only received pay. An + instance of the latter is furnished by John of Margat, a vassal of + the seignory of Arsuf. He has 200 bezants along with a quantity of + wheat, barley, lentils and oil; and in return he must march with four + horses (Rey, _Les Colonies franques en Syrie_, p. 24). + + [24] For the history of the orders see the articles on the TEMPLARS; + ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM, KNIGHTS OF; KNIGHTS, and the TEUTONIC ORDER. + The Templars were founded about the year 1118 by a Burgundian knight, + Hugh de Paganis; the Hospitallers sprang from a foundation in + Jerusalem erected by merchants of Amalfi before the First Crusade, + and were reorganized under Gerard le Puy, master until 1120. The + Teutonic knights date from the Third Crusade. + + [25] As was noticed above, there were apparently separate assizes for + the three principalities, in addition to the assizes of the kingdom. + The assizes of Antioch have been discovered and published. The + assizes of the kingdom itself are twofold--the assizes of the high + court and the assizes of the court of burgesses. (1) The assizes of + the high court are preserved for us in works by legists--John of + Ibelin, Philip of Novara and Geoffrey of Tort--composed in the 13th + century. We possess, in other words, _law-books_ (like Bracton's + treatise _De legibus_), but not _laws_--and law-books made after the + loss of the kingdom to which the laws belonged. There are two vexed + questions with regard to these law-books. (a) The first concerns the + origin and character of the laws which the law-books profess to + expound. According to the story of the legists who wrote these + books--e.g. John of Ibelin--the laws of the kingdom were laid down by + Godfrey, who is thus regarded as the great [Greek: nomothetes] of the + kingdom. These laws (progressively modified, it is admitted) were + kept in Jerusalem, under the name of "Letters of the Sepulchre," + until 1187. In that year they were lost; and the legists tell us that + they are attempting to reconstruct _par oir dire_ the gist of the + lost archetype. The story of the legists is now generally rejected. + Godfrey never legislated: the customs of the kingdom gradually grew, + and were gradually defined, especially under kings like Baldwin III. + and Amalric I. If there was thus only a customary and unwritten law + (and William of Tyre definitely speaks of a _jus consuetudinarium_ + under Baldwin III., _quo regnum regebatur_), then the "Letters of the + Sepulchre" are a myth--or rather, if they ever existed, they existed + not as a code of written law, but, perhaps, as a register of fiefs, + like the Sicilian _Defetarii_. Thus the story of the legists shrinks + down to the regular myth of the primitive legislator, used to give an + air of respectability to law-books, which really record an unwritten + custom. The fact is that until the 13th century the Franks lived + _consuetudinibus antiquis et jure non scripto_. They preferred an + unwritten law, as Prutz suggests, partly because it suited the + barristers (who often belonged to the baronage, for the Frankish + nobles were "great pleaders in court and out of court"), and partly + because the high court was left unbound so long as there was no + written code. In the 13th century it became necessary for the legists + to codify, as it were, the unwritten law, because the upheavals of + the times necessitated the fixing of some rules in writing, and + especially because it was necessary to oppose a definite custom of + the kingdom to Frederick II., who sought, as king of Jerusalem, to + take advantage of the want of a written law, to substitute his own + conceptions of law in the teeth of the high court. (b) The second + difficulty concerns the text of the law-books themselves. The text of + Ibelin became a _textus receptus_--but it also became overlaid by + glosses, for it was used as authoritative in the kingdom of Cyprus + after the loss of the kingdom of Jerusalem, and it needed expounding. + Recensions and revisions were twice made, in 1368 and 1531; but how + far the true Ibelin was recovered, and what additions or alterations + were made at these two dates, we cannot tell. We can only say that we + have the text of Ibelin which was used in Cyprus in the later middle + ages. At the same time, if our text is thus late, it must be + remembered that its content gives us the earliest and purest + exposition of French feudalism, and describes for us the organization + of a kingdom, where all rights and duties were connected with the + fief, and the monarch was only a suzerain of feudatories. (2) The + assizes of the court of burgesses became the basis of a treatise at + an earlier date than the assizes of the high court. The date of the + redaction (which was probably made by some learned burgess) may well + have been the reign of Baldwin III., as Kugler suggests: he was the + first native king, and a king learned in the law; but Beugnot would + refer the assizes to the years immediately preceding Saladin's + capture of Jerusalem. These assizes do not, of course, appear in + Ibelin, who was only concerned with the feudal law of the high court. + They were used, like the assizes of the high court, in Cyprus; and, + like the other assizes, they were made the subject of investigation + in 1531, with the object of discovering a good text. The law which is + expounded in these assizes is a mixture of Frankish law with the + Graeco-Roman law of the Eastern empire which prevailed among the + native population of Syria. + + In regard to both assizes, it is most important to bear in mind that + we possess not laws, but law-books or custumals--records made by + lawyers for their fellows of what they conceived to be the law, and + supported by legal arguments and citations of cases. But, as Prutz + remarks, Philip of Novara _lehrt nicht die Wissenschaft des Rechts, + sondern die des Unrechts_: he does not explain the law so much as the + ways of getting round it. + + [26] For instance, the abbey of Mount Sion had large possessions, not + only in the Holy Land (at Ascalon, Jaffa, Acre, Tyre, Caesarea and + Tarsus), but also in Sicily, Calabria, Lombardy, Spain and France (at + Orleans, Bourges and Poitiers). + + [27] One must remember that these reinforcements would often consist + of desperate characters. It was one of the misfortunes of Palestine + that it served as a Botany Bay, to which the criminals of the West + were transported for penance. The natives, already prone to the + immorality which must infect a mixed population living under a hot + sun, the immorality which still infects a place like Aden, were not + improved by the addition of convicts. + + [28] The manorial system in the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem was a + continuation of the village system as it had existed under the Arabs. + In each village (_casale)_ the _rustici_ were grouped in families + (_foci_): the tenants paid from 1/4 to 1\3 of the crop, besides a + poll-tax and labour-dues. The villages were mostly inhabited by + Syrians: it was rarely that Franks settled down as tillers of the + soil. Prutz regards the manorial system as oppressive. Absentee + landlords, he thinks, rack-rented the soil (p. 167), while the + "inhuman severity" of their treatment of villeins led to a + progressive decay of agriculture, destroyed the economic basis of the + Latin kingdom, and led the natives to welcome the invasion of Saladin + (pp. 327-331). + + The French writers Rey and Dodu are more kind to the Franks; and the + testimony of contemporary Arabic writers, who seem favourably + impressed by the treatment of their subjects by the Franks, bears out + their view, while the tone of the assizes is admittedly favourable to + the Syrians. One must not forget that there was a brisk native + manufacture of carpets, pottery, ironwork, gold-work and soap; or + that the Syrians of the towns had a definite legal position. + + [29] After 1143 one may therefore speak of the period of the + Epigoni--the native Franks, ready to view the Moslems as joint + occupants of Syria, and to imitate the dress and habits of their + neighbours. + + [30] Doubt has been cast on the view that a troubled conscience drove + Louis to take the cross; and his action has been ascribed to simple + religious zeal (cf. Lavisse, _Histoire de France_, iii. 12). + + [31] We speak of First, Second and Third Crusades, but, more exactly, + the Crusades were one continuous process. Scarcely a year passed in + which new bands did not come to the Holy Land. We have already + noticed the great if disastrous Crusade of 1100-1101, and the + Venetian Crusade of 1123-1124; and we may also refer to the Crusade + of Henry the Lion in 1172, and to that of Edward I. in 1271-1272--all + famous Crusades, which are not reckoned in the usual numbering. + Crusades appear to have been dignified by numbers when they followed + some crushing disaster--the loss of Edessa in 1144, or the fall of + Jerusalem in 1187--and were led by kings and emperors; or when, like + the Fourth and Fifth Crusades, they achieved some conspicuous success + or failure. But it is important to bear in mind the continuity of the + Crusades--the constant flow of new forces eastward and back again + westward; for this alone explains why the Crusades formed a great + epoch in civilization, familiarizing, as they did, the West with the + East. + + [32] This body of crusaders ultimately reached the Holy Land, where + it joined Conrad (who had lost his own original forces), and helped + in the fruitless siege of Damascus. The services which it rendered to + Portugal were repeated by later crusaders. Crusaders from the Low + Countries, England and the Scandinavian north took the coast route + round western Europe; and it was natural that, landing for provisions + and water, they should be asked, and should consent, to lend their + aid to the natives against the Moors. Such aid is recorded to have + been given on the Third and the Fifth Crusades. + + [33] Manuel was an ambitious sovereign, apparently aiming at a + world-monarchy, such as was afterwards attempted from the other side + by Henry VI. As Henry VI. had designs on Constantinople and the + Eastern empire, so Manuel cherished the ambition of acquiring Italy + and the Western empire, and he negotiated with Alexander III. to that + end in 1167 and 1169: cf. the life of Alexander III. in Muratori, _S. + R. I._ iii. 460. + + [34] The prize was won by Raynald of Chatillon (q.v.). + + [35] Nureddin, unlike his father, was definitely animated by a + religious motive: he fought first and foremost against the Latins + (and not, like his father, against Moslem states), and he did so as a + matter of religious duty. + + [36] Henry II., as an Angevin, was the natural heir of the kingdom of + Jerusalem on the extinction of the line descended from Fulk of Anjou. + This explains the part played by Richard I. in deciding the question + of the succession during the Third Crusade. + + [37] The taxation levied in the West was also attempted in the East, + and in 1183 a universal tax was levied in the kingdom of Jerusalem, + at the rate of 1% on movables and 2% on rents and revenues. Cf. Dr A. + Cartellieri, _Philipp II. August_, ii. pp. 3-18 and p. 85. + + [38] Stevenson argues (op. cit. p. 240) that this truce was already + practically dissolved before Raynald struck, and that Raynald's + "action may reasonably be viewed as the practical outcome of the + feeling of a party." + + [39] The "economic" motive for taking the cross was strengthened by + the papal regulations in favour of debtors who joined the Crusade. + Thousands must have joined the Third Crusade in order to escape + paying either their taxes or the interest on their debts; and the + atmosphere of the gold-digger's camp (or of the cave of Adullam) must + have begun more than ever to characterize the crusading armies. + + [40] The Crusades in their course established a number of new states + or kingdoms. The First Crusade established the kingdom of Jerusalem + (1100); the Third, the kingdom of Cyprus (1195); the Fourth, the + Latin empire of Constantinople (1204); while the long Crusade of the + Teutonic knights on the coast of the Baltic led to the rise of a new + state east of the Vistula. The kingdom of Lesser Armenia, established + in 1195, may also be regarded as a result of the Crusades. The + history of the kingdom of Jerusalem is part of the history of the + Crusades: the history of the other kingdoms or states touches the + history of the Crusades less vitally. But the history of Cyprus is + particularly important--and for two reasons. In the first place, + Cyprus was a natural and excellent basis of operations; it sent + provisions to the crusaders in 1191, and again at the siege of + Damietta in 1219, while its advantages as a strategic basis were + proved by the exploits of Peter of Cyprus in the 14th century. In the + second place, as the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem fell, its + institutions and assizes were transplanted bodily to Cyprus, where + they survived until the island was conquered by the Ottoman Turks. + But the monarchy was stronger in Cyprus than in Jerusalem: the fiefs + were distributed by the monarch, and were smaller in extent; while + the feudatories had neither the collective powers of the haute cour + of Jerusalem, nor the individual privileges (such as jurisdiction + over the bourgeoisie), which had been enjoyed by the feudatories of + the old kingdom. Till 1489 the kingdom of Cyprus survived as an + independent monarchy, and its capital, Famagusta, was an important + centre of trade after the loss of the coast-towns in the kingdom of + Jerusalem. In 1489 it was acquired by Venice, which claimed the + island on the death of the last king, having adopted his widow (a + Venetian lady named Catarina Cornaro) as a daughter of the republic. + On the history of Cyprus, see Stubbs, _Lectures on Medieval and + Modern History_, 156-208. The history of the kingdom of Armenia is + closely connected with that of Cyprus. The Armenians in the + south-east of Asia Minor borrowed feudal institutions from the Franks + and the feudal vocabulary itself. The kingdom was involved in a + struggle with Antioch in the early part of the 13th century. Later, + it allied itself with the Mongols and fought against the Mamelukes, + to whom, however, it finally succumbed in 1375. + + [41] The kingdom of Jerusalem is thus from 1192 to its final fall a + strip of coast, to which it is the object of kings and crusaders to + annex Jerusalem and a line of communication connecting it with the + coast. This was practically the aim of Richard I.'s negotiations; and + this was what Frederick II. for a time secured. + + [42] M. Luchaire, in the volume of his biography of Innocent III. + called _La Question d'Orient_, shows how, in spite of the pope, the + Fourth Crusade was in its very beginnings a lay enterprise. The + crusading barons of France chose their own leader, and determined + their own route, without consulting Innocent. + + [43] As a matter of fact, there is some doubt whether Alexius arrived + in Germany before the spring of 1202. But there seems to be little + doubt of Philip's complicity in the diversion of the Fourth Crusade + to Constantinople (cf. M. Luchaire, _La Question d'Orient_, pp. + 84-86). + + [44] It is true that in 1208 Venice received commercial concessions + from the court of Cairo. But this _ex post facto_ argument is the + sole proof of this view; and it is quite insufficient to prove the + accusation. Venice is _not_ the primary agent in the deflection of + the Fourth Crusade. + + [45] Already under Innocent III. the benefits of the Crusade were + promised to those who went to the assistance of the Latin empire of + the East. + + [46] In 1208 Innocent excommunicated Raymund VI. of Toulouse on + account of the murder of a papal legate who was attempting to + suppress Manichaeism, and offered all Catholics the right to occupy + and guard his territories. Thus was begun the First Crusade against + heresy. Raymund at once submitted to the pope, but the Crusade + continued none the less, because, as Luchaire says, "the baronage of + the north and centre of France had finished their preparations," and + were resolved to annex the rich lands of the south. In this way + land-hunger exploited the Albigensian, as political and commercial + motives had helped to exploit the Fourth Crusade; and in the former, + as in the latter, Innocent had reluctantly to consent to the results + of the secular motives which had infected a spiritual enterprise. The + Albigensian Crusades, however, belong to French history; and it can + only be noted here that their ultimate result was the absorption of + the fertile lands, and the extinction of the peculiar civilization, + of southern France by the northern monarchy. (See the article + ALBIGENSES.) + + [47] A canon of the third Lateran council (1179) forbade traffic with + the Saracens in munitions of war; and this canon had been renewed by + Innocent in the beginning of his pontificate. + + [48] He had promised the pope, at his coronation in 1220, to begin + his Crusade in August 1221. But he declared himself exhausted by the + expenses of his coronation; and Honorius III. consented to defer his + Crusade until March 1222. The letter of the pope informing Pelagius + of this delay is dated the 20th of June: it would probably reach his + hands _after_ his departure from Damietta; and thus the Cardinal gave + the signal for the march, when, as he thought, the emperor's coming + was imminent. + + [49] Joinville, ch. x. + + [50] John of Brienne had only ruled in right of his wife Mary. On her + death (1212) John might be regarded as only ruling "by the courtesy + of the kingdom" until her daughter Isabella was married, when the + husband would succeed. That, at any rate, was the view Frederick II. + took. + + [51] Amalric I. of Cyprus had done homage to Henry VI., from whom he + had received the title of king (1195). + + [52] It may be argued that the Crusade against a revolted Christian + like Frederick II. was not misplaced, and that the pope had a true + sense of religious values when he attacked Frederick. The answer is + partly that men like St Louis _did_ think that the Crusade was + misplaced, and partly that Frederick was really attacked _not_ as a + revolted Christian, but as the would-be unifier of Italy, the enemy + of the states of the church. + + [53] The following table of the Ayyubite rulers serves to illustrate + the text:-- + + Shadhy. + | + +----+----+ + | | + Shirguh. Ayyub (both generals in the army of the Atabegs of Mosul). + | + +---------+---------------+ + | | + Saladin Malik-al-Adil I. + + 1193 + 1218. + | + +----------------+---+--------------+---------------------+ + | | | | + Malik-al-Kamil, Malik-al-Muazzam, Malik-al-Ashraf, Malik-al-Salih Isma'il + Sultan of Egypt Sultan of Damascus ruler of Khelat, sultan of Damascus, + + 1238. + 1227. and after 1227 1237-1244. From + | | of Damascus, him Damascus passed + | | + 1237. to Malik-al-Salih + | Malik-al-Nasir Ayyub of Egypt at + | of Kerak the battle of Gaza. + | + +--+--------------------+ + | | + Malik-al-Adil II. Malik-al-Salih Najm + deposed 1240. al-din Ayyub, sultan + of Egypt, and after + 1244 of Damascus, + + 1249. + | + +-----------+ + | + Turanshah, deposed 1250, and + succeeded by the Mameluke Aibek. + + [54] Though Europe indulged in dreams of Mongol aid, the eventual + results of the extension of the Mongol Empire were prejudicial to the + Latin East. The sultans of Egypt were stirred to fresh activity by + the attacks of the Mongols; and as Syria became the battleground of + the two, the Latin principalities of Syria were fated to fall as the + prize of victory to one or other of the combatants. + + [55] Of the four Latin principalities of the East, Edessa was the + first to fall, being extinguished between 1144 and 1150. Antioch fell + in 1268; Tripoli in 1289; and the kingdom itself may be said to end + with the capture of Acre, 1291. + + [56] Michael Palaeologus had actually appealed to Louis IX. against + Charles of Anjou, who in 1270 had actively begun preparations for the + attack on Constantinople. + + [57] The dream of a Crusade to Jerusalem survived de Mezieres; a + society which read "romaunts" of the Crusades, could not but dream + the dream. Henry V., whose father had fought with the Teutonic + knights on the Baltic, dreamed of a voyage to Jerusalem. + + [58] The union of 1274, conceded by the Palaeologi at the council of + Lyons in order to defeat the plans of Charles of Anjou, had only been + temporary. + + [59] Brehier, _L'Eglise el l'Orient_, p. 347. + + [60] _Cambridge Modern History_, i. 11. It is perhaps worth remarking + that something of the old crusading spirit seems still to linger in + the movement of Russia towards Constantinople. + + [61] While from this point of view the Crusades appear as a failure, + it must not be forgotten that elsewhere than in the East Crusades did + attain some success. A Crusade won for Christianity the coast of the + eastern Baltic (see TEUTONIC ORDER); and the centuries of the Spanish + Crusade ended in the conquest of the whole of Spain for Christianity. + + [62] Authors like Heeren (_Versuch einer Entwickelung der Folgen der + Kreuzzuge_) and Michaud (in the last volume of his _Histoire des + croisades_) fall into the error of assigning all things to the + Crusades. Even Prutz, in his _Kulturgeschichte der Kreuzzuge_, + over-estimates the influence of the Crusades as a chapter in the + history of civilization. He depreciates unduly the Western + civilization of the early middle ages, and exalts the civilization of + the Arabs; and starting from these two premises, he concludes that + modern civilization is the offspring of the Crusades, which first + brought East and West together. + + [63] It is difficult to decide how far Arabic models influenced + ecclesiastical architecture in the West as a result of the Crusades. + Greater freedom of moulding and the use of trefoil and cinquefoil may + be, but need not be, explained in this way. The pointed arch owes + nothing to the Arabs; it is already used in England in early Norman + work. Generally, one may say that Western architecture is independent + of the East. + + [64] His somewhat legendary treatise, _De liberatione civitatum + Orientis_, was only composed about 1155. + + [65] There is also an _Inventaire critique_ of these letters by the + comte de Riant (Paris, 1880). + + [66] Von Sybel's view must be modified by that of Kugler, to which a + scholar like Hagenmeyer has to some extent given his adhesion (cf. + his edition of the _Gesta_, pp. 62-68). Hagenmeyer inclines to + believe in an original author, distinct from Albert the copyist; and + he thinks that this original author (whether or no he was present + during the Crusade) used the _Gesta_ and also Fulcher, though he had + probably also "_eigene Notizen und Aufzeichnungen_." + + [67] See Pigonneau, _Le Cycle de la croisade_, &c. (Paris, 1877); and + Hagenmeyer, _Peter der Eremite_ (Leipzig, 1879). + + [68] On the bibliography of the Second Crusade see Kugler, _Studien + zur Geschichte des zweiten Kreuzzuges_ (Stuttgart, 1866). + + [69] Of these writers see Archer's _Crusade of Richard I._, Appendix + (in Nutt's series of Histories from Contemporary Writers). + + [70] The bibliography of the Fourth Crusade is discussed in Klimke, + _Die Quellen zur Geschichte des vierten Kreuzzuges_ (Breslau, 1875). + + + + +CRUSENSTOLPE, MAGNUS JAKOB (1795-1865), Swedish historian, early became +famous both as a political and a historical writer. His first important +work was a _History of the Early Years of the Life of King Gustavus IV. +Adolphus_, which was followed by a series of monographs and by some +politico-historical novels, of which _The House of Holstein-Gottorp in +Sweden_ is considered the best. He obtained a great influence over King +Charles XIV. (Bernadotte), who during the years 1830-1833 gave him his +fullest confidence, and sanctioned the official character of +Crusenstolpe's newspaper _Faderneslandet_. In the last-mentioned year, +however, the historian suddenly became the king's bitterest enemy, and +used his acrid pen on all occasions in attacking him. In 1838 he was +condemned, for one of these angry utterances, to be imprisoned three +years in the castle of Waxholm. He continued his literary labours until +his death in 1865. Few Swedish writers have wielded so pure and so +incisive a style as Crusenstolpe, but his historical work is vitiated by +political and personal bias. + + + + +CRUSIUS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST (1715-1775), German philosopher and +theologian, was born on the 10th of January 1715 at Lenau near Merseburg +in Saxony. He was educated at Leipzig, and became professor of theology +there in 1750, and principal of the university in 1773. He died on the +18th of October 1775. Crusius first came into notice as an opponent of +the philosophy of Leibnitz and Wolff from the standpoint of religious +orthodoxy. He attacked it mainly on the score of the moral evils that +must flow from any system of determinism, and exerted himself in +particular to vindicate the freedom of the will. The most important +works of this period of his life are _Entwurf der nothwendigen +Vernunftwahrheiten_ (1745), and _Weg zur Gewissheit und Zuverlassigkeit +der menschlichen Erkenntniss_ (1747). Though diffusely written, and +neither brilliant nor profound, Crusius' philosophical books had a great +but short-lived popularity. His criticism of Wolff, which is generally +based on sound sense, had much influence upon Kant at the time when his +system was forming; and his ethical doctrines are mentioned with respect +in the _Kritik of Practical Reason_. Crusius's later life was devoted to +theology. In this capacity his sincere piety and amiable character +gained him great influence, and he led the party in the university which +became known as the "Crusianer" as opposed to the "Ernestianer," the +followers of J. A. Ernesti. The two professors adopted opposite methods +of exegesis. Ernesti wished to subject the Scripture to the same laws of +exposition as are applied to other ancient books; Crusius held firmly to +orthodox ecclesiastical tradition. Crusius's chief theological works are +_Hypomnemata ad theologiam propheticam_ (1764-1778), and _Kurzer Entwurf +der Moraltheologie_ (1772-1773). He sets his face against innovation in +such matters as the accepted authorship of canonical writings, verbal +inspiration, and the treatment of persons and events in the Old +Testament as types of the New. His views, unscholarly and uncritical as +they seem to us now, have had influence on later evangelical students of +the Old Testament, such as E. W. Hengstenberg and F. Delitzsch. + + There is a full notice of Crusius in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine + Encyclopadie_. Consult also J. E. Erdmann's _History of Philosophy_; + A. Marquardt, _Kant und Crusius_; and art. in Herzog-Hauck, + _Realencyklopadie_ (1898). (H. St.) + + + + +CRUSTACEA, a very large division of the animal kingdom, comprising the +familiar crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimps and prawns, the sandhoppers +and woodlice, the strangely modified barnacles and the minute +water-fleas. Besides these the group also includes a multitude of +related forms which, from their aquatic habits and generally +inconspicuous size, and from the fact that they are commonly neither +edible nor noxious, are little known except to naturalists and are +undistinguished by any popular names. Collectively, they are ranked as +one of the classes forming the sub-phylum ARTHROPODA, and their +distinguishing characters are discussed under that heading. It will be +sufficient here to define them as Arthropoda for the most part of +aquatic habits, having typically two pairs of antenniform appendages in +front of the mouth and at least three pairs of post-oral limbs acting as +jaws. + +As a matter of fact, however, the range of structural variation within +the group is so wide, and the modifications due to parasitism and other +causes are so profound, that it is almost impossible to frame a +definition which shall be applicable to all the members of the class. In +certain parasites, for instance, the adults have lost every trace not +only of Crustacean but even of Arthropodous structure, and the only clue +to their zoological position is that afforded by the study of their +development. In point of size also the Crustacea vary within very wide +limits. Certain water-fleas (Cladocera) fall short of one-hundredth of +an inch in total length; the giant Japanese crab (_Macrocheira_) can +span over 10 ft. between its outstretched claws. + +The habits of the Crustacea are no less diversified than their +structure. Most of them inhabit the sea, but representatives of all the +chief groups are found in fresh water (though the Cirripedia have hardly +gained a footing there), and this is the chief home of the primitive +Phyllopoda. A terrestrial habitat is less common, but the +widely-distributed land Isopoda or woodlice and the land-crabs of +tropical regions have solved the problem of adaptation to a subaerial +life. + +Swimming is perhaps the commonest mode of locomotion, but numerous forms +have taken to creeping or walking, and the robber-crab (_Birgus latro_) +of the Indo-Pacific islands even climbs palm-trees. None has the power +of flight, though certain pelagic Copepoda are said to leap from the +surface of the sea like flying-fish. Apart from the numerous parasitic +forms, the only Crustacea which have adopted a strictly sedentary habit +of life are the Cirripedia, and here, as elsewhere, profound +modifications of structure have resulted, leading ultimately to a +partial assumption of the radial type of symmetry which is so often +associated with a sedentary life. + +Many, perhaps the majority, of the Crustacea are omnivorous or +carrion-feeders, but many are actively predatory in their habits, and +are provided with more or less complex and efficient instruments for +capturing their prey, and there are also many plant-eaters. Besides the +sedentary Cirripedia, numbers of the smaller forms, especially among the +Entomostraca, subsist on floating particles of organic matter swept +within reach of the jaws by the movements of the other limbs. + +Symbiotic association with other animals, in varying degrees of +interdependence, is frequent. Sometimes the one partner affords the +other merely a convenient means of transport, as in the case of the +barnacles which grow on, or of the gulf-weed crab which clings to, the +carapace of marine turtles. From this we may pass through various grades +of "commensalism," like that of the hermit-crab with its protective +anemones, to the cases of actual parasitism. The parasitic habit is most +common among the Copepoda and Isopoda, where it leads to complex +modifications of structure and life-history. Perhaps the most complete +degeneration is found in the Rhizocephala, which are parasitic on other +Crustacea. In these the adult consists of a simple saccular body +containing the reproductive organs and attached by root-like filaments +which ramify throughout the body of the host and serve for the +absorption of nourishment (fig. 1). + +Many of the larger species of Crustacea are used as food by man, the +most valuable being the lobster, which is caught in large quantities on +both sides of the North Atlantic. Perhaps the most important of all +Crustacea, however, with respect to the part which they play in the +economy of nature, are the minute pelagic Copepoda, of which +incalculable myriads form an important constituent of the "plankton" in +all the seas of the globe. It is on the plankton that a great part of +the higher animal life of the sea ultimately depends for food. The +Copepoda live upon the diatoms and other important microscopic vegetable +life at the surface of the sea, and in their turn serve as food for +fishes and other larger forms and thus, indirectly, for man himself. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. + + A, Group of _Peltogaster socialis_ on the abdomen of a small + hermit-crab; in one of them the fasciculately ramified roots, r, in + the liver of the crab are shown (Fritz Muller). + B, Young of _Sacculina purpurea_ with its roots. (Fritz Muller.)] + +_Historical Sketch._--In common with most branches of natural history, +the science of Carcinology may be traced back to its beginnings in the +writings of Aristotle. It received additions of varying importance at +the hands of medieval and later naturalists, and first began to assume +systematic form under the influence of Linnaeus. The application of the +morphological method to the Crustacea may perhaps be dated from the work +of J. C. Fabricius towards the end of the 18th century. + +In the first quarter of the 19th century important advances in +classification were made by P. A. Latreille, W. E. Leach and others, and +J. Vaughan Thompson demonstrated the existence of metamorphosis in the +development of the higher Crustacea. A new epoch may be said to begin +with H. Milne-Edwards' classical _Histoire naturelle des crustaces_ +(1834-1840). It is noteworthy that even at this late date the Cirripedia +(Thyrostraca) were still excluded from the Crustacea, though Darwin's +Monograph (1851-1854) was soon to make them known with a wealth of +anatomical and systematic detail such as was available, at that time, +for few other groups of Crustacea. About the same period three authors +call for special mention, W. de Haan, J. D. Dana and H. Kroyer. The new +impulse given to biological research by the publication of the _Origin +of Species_ bore fruit in Fritz Muller's _Fur Darwin_, in which an +attempt was made to reconstruct the phylogenetic history of the class. +The same line of work was followed in the long series of important +memoirs from the pen of K. F. W. Claus, and noteworthy contributions +were made, among many others, by A. Dohrn, Ray Lankester and Huxley. In +more recent years the long and constantly increasing list of writers on +Crustacea contains no name more honoured than that of the veteran G. O. +Sars of Christiania. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Abdominal Somite of a Lobster, separated and +viewed from in front. t, tergum; s, sternum; pl, pleuron.] + + + _Morphology._ + + _External Structure: Body._--As in all Arthropoda the body consists of + a series of segments or somites which may be free or more or less + coalesced together. In its simplest form the exoskeleton of a typical + somite is a ring of chitin defined from the rings in front and behind + by areas of thinner integument forming moveable joints, and having a + pair of appendages articulated to its ventral surface on either side + of the middle line. Frequently, however, this exoskeletal somite may + be differentiated into various regions. A dorsal and a ventral plate + are often distinguished, known respectively as the tergum and the + sternum, and the tergum may overhang the insertion of the limb on each + side as a free plate called the pleuron. The name epimeron is + sometimes applied to what is here called the pleuron, but the word has + been used in widely different senses and it seems better to abandon + it. The typical form of a somite is well seen, for example, in the + segments which make up the abdomen or "tail" of a lobster or crayfish + (fig. 2). The posterior terminal segment of the body, on which the + opening of the anus is situated, never bears appendages. The nature of + this segment, which is known as the "anal segment" or telson (fig. 3, + T), has been much discussed, some authorities holding that it is a + true somite, homologous with those which precede it. Others have + regarded it as representing the fusion of a number of somites, and + others again as a "median appendage" or as a pair of appendages fused. + Its morphological nature, however, is clearly shown by its + development. In the larval development of the more primitive + Crustacea, the number of somites, at first small, increases by the + successive appearance of new somites between the last-formed somite + and the terminal region which bears the anus. The "growing point" of + the trunk is, in fact, situated in front of this region, and, when the + full number of somites has been reached, the unsegmented part + remaining forms the telson of the adult. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--The Separated Somites and Appendages of the + Common Lobster (_Homarus gammarus_). + + C, carapace covering the cephalothorax. + Ab, abdominal somites. + T, telson, having the uropods or appendages of the last abdominal + somite spread out on either side of it, forming the "tail-fan." + l, labrum, or upper lip. + m, metastoma, or lower lip. + 1, eyes. + 2, antennule (the arrow points to the opening of the so-called + auditory organ). + 3, antenna. + 4, mandible. + 5, maxillula (or first maxilla). + 6, maxilla (second maxilla). + 7-9, first, second and third maxillipeds. + ex, exopodite. + ep, epipodite. + g, gill. + 10, sixth thoracic limb (second walking-leg) of female. + 11, last thoracic limb of male. In 10 and 11 the arrows indicate the + genital apertures. + 13, sterna of the thoracic somites, from within. + 14, third abdominal somite, with appendages or "swimmerets."] + + In no Crustacean, however, do all the somites of the body remain + distinct. Coalescence, or suppression of segmentation ("lipomerism"), + may involve more or less extensive regions. This is especially the + case in the anterior part of the body, where, in correlation with the + "adaptational shifting of the oral aperture" (see ARTHROPODA), a + varying number of somites unite to form the "cephalon" or head. Apart + from the possible existence of an ocular somite corresponding to the + eyes (the morphological nature of which is discussed below), the + smallest number of head-somites so united in any Crustacean is five. + Even where a large number of the somites have fused, there is + generally a marked change in the character of the appendages after the + fifth pair, and since the integumental fold which forms the carapace + seems to originate from this point, it is usual to take the fifth + somite as the morphological limit of the cephalon throughout the + class. It is quite probable, however, that in the primitive ancestors + of existing Crustacea a still smaller number of somites formed the + head. The three pairs of appendages present in the "nauplius" larva + show certain peculiarities of structure and development which seem to + place them in a different category from the other limbs, and there is + some ground for regarding the three corresponding somites as + constituting a "primary cephalon." For practical purposes, however, it + is convenient to include the two following somites also as cephalic. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Diagram of an Amphipod. (After Spence Bate and + Westwood.) + + C, cephalon. + Th, thorax. (Only seven of the eight thoracic somites are visible, + the first being fused with the cephalon.) + Ab, abdomen. + + The numbers appended to the somites do not correspond to the + enumeration adopted in the text. 21 is the telson.] + + A remarkable feature found only in the Stomatopoda is the reappearance + of segmentation in the anterior part of the cephalic region. Whether + the movably articulated segments which bear the eye-stalks and the + antennules in this aberrant group correspond to the primitive head + somites or not, their distinctness is certainly a secondarily acquired + character, for it is not found in the larvae, nor in any of the more + primitive groups of Malacostraca. + + The body proper is usually divisible into two regions to which the + names _thorax_ and _abdomen_ are applied. Throughout the whole of the + Malacostraca the thorax consists of eight and the abdomen of six + somites (fig. 4), and the two regions are sharply distinguished by the + character of their appendages. In the various groups of the + Entomostraca, on the other hand, the terms thorax and abdomen, though + conveniently employed for purposes of systematic description, do not + imply any homology with the regions so named in the Malacostraca. + Sometimes they are applied, as in the Copepoda, to the limb-bearing + and limbless regions of the trunk, while in other cases, as in the + Phyllopoda, they denote, respectively, the regions in front of and + behind the genital apertures. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Phyllopoda and Phyllocarida. + + 1, _Ceratiocaris papilio_, U. Silurian, Lanark. + 2, _Nebalia bipes_(one side of carapace removed). + 3, _Lepidurus Angassi_: a, dorsal aspect; b, ventral aspect of head + showing the labrum and mouth-parts. + 4, larva of _Apus cancriformis_. + 5, _Branchipus stagnalis_: a, adult female; b, first larval stage + (Nauplius); c, second larval stage. + 6, Nauplius of _Artemia salina_.] + + A character which recurs in the most diverse groups of the Crustacea, + and which is probably to be regarded as a primitive attribute of the + class, is the possession of a carapace or shell, arising as a dorsal + fold of the integument from the posterior margin of the head-region. + In its most primitive form, as seen in the _Apodidae_ (fig. 5, 3) and + in _Nebalia_ (fig. 5, 2), this shell-fold remains free from the trunk, + which it envelops more or less completely. It may assume the form of a + bivalve shell entirely enclosing the body and limbs, as in many + Phyllopoda (fig. 6) and in the Ostracoda. In the Cirripedia it forms + a fleshy "mantle" strengthened by shelly plates or valves which may + assume a very complex structure. In many cases, however, the + shell-fold coalesces with some of the succeeding somites. In the + Decapoda (fig. 3), this coalescence affects only the dorsal region of + the thoracic somites, and the lateral portions of the carapace + overhang on each side, enclosing a pair of chambers within which lie + the gills. The arrangement is similar in Schizopoda and Stomatopoda + (fig. 7), except that the coalescence does not usually involve the + posterior thoracic somites, several of which remain free, though they + may be overlapped by the carapace. + + [Illustration: From Morse's _Zoology_. + + FIG. 6.--_Estheria_, sp.; D from Dubuque, Iowa; (e) the eye. L from + Lynn, Massachusetts (nat. size). S presents a highly magnified section + of one of the valves to show the successive moults. B an enlarged + portion of the edge of the shell along the back, showing the overlap + of each growth.] + + In the Isopoda and Amphipoda, where, as a rule, all the thoracic + somites except the first are distinct (fig. 4), there seems at first + sight to be no shell-fold. A comparison with the related Tanaidacea + (fig. 8) and Cumacea (or Sympoda), however, leads to the conclusion + that the coalescence of the first thoracic somite with the cephalon + really involves a vestigial shell-fold, and, indeed, traces of this + are said to be observed in the embryonic development of some Isopoda. + It seems likely that a similar explanation is to be applied to the + coalescence of one or two trunk-somites with the head in the Copepoda, + and, if this be so, the only Crustacea remaining in which no trace of + a shell-fold is found in the adult are the Anostracous Phyllopoda such + as Branchipus (fig. 5, 5). + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--_Squilla mantis_ (Stomatopoda), showing the + last four thoracic (leg-bearing) somites free from the carapace.] + + _General Morphology of Appendages._--Amid the great variety of forms + assumed by the appendages of the Crustacea, it is possible to trace, + more or less plainly, the modifications of a fundamental type + consisting of a peduncle, the protopodite, bearing two branches, the + endopodite and exopodite. This simple biramous form is shown in the + swimming-feet of the Copepoda and Branchiura, the "cirri" of the + Cirripedia, and the abdominal appendages of the Malacostraca (fig. 3, + 14). It is also found in the earliest and most primitive form of + larva, known as the _Nauplius_. As a rule the protopodite is composed + of two segments, though one may be reduced or suppressed and + occasionally three may be present. In many cases, one of the branches, + generally the endopodite, is more strongly developed than the other. + Thus, in the thoracic limbs of the Malacostraca, the endopodite + generally forms a walking-leg while the exopodite becomes a + swimming-branch or may disappear altogether. Very often the basal + segment of the protopodite bears, on the outer side, a lamellar + appendage (more rarely, two), the epipodite, which may function as a + gill. In the appendages near the mouth one or both of the protopodal + segments may bear inwardly-turned processes, assisting in mastication + and known as gnathobases. The frequent occurrence of epipodites and + gnathobases tends to show that the primitive type of appendage was + more complex than the simple biramous limb, and some authorities have + regarded the leaf-like appendages of the Phyllopoda as nearer the + original form from which the various modifications found in other + groups have been derived. In a Phyllopod such as _Apus_ the limbs of + the trunk consist of a flattened, unsegmented or obscurely segmented + axis or corm having a series of lobes or processes known as endites + and exites on its inner and outer margins respectively. In all the + Phyllopoda the number of endites is six, and the proximal one is more + or less distinctly specialized as a gnathobase, working against its + fellow of the opposite side in seizing food and transferring it to the + mouth. The Phyllopoda are the only Crustacea in which distinct and + functional gnathobasic processes are found on appendages far removed + from the mouth. The two distal endites are regarded as corresponding + to the endopodite and exopodite of the higher Crustacea, the axis or + corm of the Phyllopod limb representing the protopodite. The number of + exites is less constant, but, in _Apus_, two are present, the proximal + branchial in function and the distal forming a stiffer plate which + probably aids in swimming. It is not altogether easy to recognize the + homologies of the endites and exites even within the order Phyllopoda, + and the identification of the two distal endites as corresponding to + the endopodite and exopodite of higher Crustacea is not free from + difficulty. It is highly probable, however, that the biramous limb is + a simplification of a more complex primitive type, to which the + Phyllopod limb is a more or less close approximation. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Tanais dubius_ (?) Kr. [female], showing the + orifice of entrance (x) into the cavity overarched by the carapace in + which an appendage of the maxilliped (f) plays. On four feet (i, k, l, + m) are the rudiments of the lamellae which subsequently form the + brood-cavity. (Fritz Muller.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--A, _Balanus_ (young), side view with cirri + protruded. B, Upper surface of same; valves closed. C, Highly + magnified view of one of the cirri. (Morse.)] + + The modifications which this original type undergoes are usually more + or less plainly correlated with the functions which the appendages + have to discharge. Thus, when acting as swimming organs, the + appendages, or their rami, are more or less flattened, or oar-like, + and often have the margins fringed with long plumose hairs. When used + for walking, one of the rami, usually the inner, is stout and + cylindrical, terminating in a claw, and having the segments united by + definite hinge-joints. The jaws have the gnathobasic endites developed + at the expense of the rest of the limb, the endopodite and exopodite + persisting only as sensory "palps" or disappearing altogether. When + specialized as bearers of sensory (olfactory or tactile) organs, the + rami are generally elongated, many-jointed and flagelliform. This + modification is usually only found in the antennules and antennae, but + it may exceptionally be found in the appendages of the trunk, as, for + instance, in the thoracic legs of some Decapods (e.g. + _Mastigocheirus_). Very often one or other of the appendages may be + modified for prehension, the seizing of prey or the holding of a mate. + In this case, the claw-like terminal segment may be simply flexed + against the preceding in the same way as the blade of a penknife shuts + up against the handle. The penultimate segment is often broadened, so + that the terminal claw shuts against a transverse edge (fig. 4), or, + finally, the penultimate segment may be produced into a thumb-like + process opposed to the movable terminal segment or finger, forming a + perfect chela or forceps, as, for instance, in the large claws of a + crab or lobster. This chelate condition may be assumed by almost any + of the appendages, and sometimes it appears in different appendages in + closely related forms, so that no very great phylogenetic importance + can in most cases be attached to it. A peculiar modification is found + in the trunk-limbs of the Cirripedia (fig. 9), in which both rami are + multiarticulate and filiform and fringed with long bristles. When + protruded from the opening of the shell these "cirri" are spread out + to form a casting-net for the capture of minute floating prey. + + Gills or branchiae may be developed by parts of an appendage becoming + thin-walled and vascular and either expanded into a thin lamella or + ramified. Some of the special modifications of branchiae are referred + to below. + + _Special Morphology of Appendages._--In many Crustacea the eyes are + borne on stalks which are movably articulated with the head and which + may be divided into two or three segments. The view is commonly held + that these eye-stalks are really limbs, homologous with the other + appendages. In spite of much discussion, however, it cannot be said + that this point has been finally settled. The evidence of embryology + is decidedly against the view that the eye-stalks are limbs. They are + absent in the earliest and most primitive larval forms (nauplius), + and appear only late in the course of development, after many of the + trunk-limbs are fully formed. In the development of the Phyllopod + _Branchipus_, the eyes are at first sessile, and the lateral lobes of + the head on which they are set grow out and become movably + articulated, forming the peduncles. The most important evidence in + favour of their appendicular nature is afforded by the phenomena of + regeneration. When the eye-stalk is removed from a living lobster or + prawn, it is found that under certain conditions a many-jointed + appendage like the flagellum of an antennule or antenna may grow in + its place. It is open to question, however, how far the evidence from + such "heteromorphic regeneration" can be regarded as conclusive on the + points of homology. The fact that in certain rare cases among insects + a leg may apparently be replaced by a wing tends to show that under + exceptional conditions similar forms may be assumed by non-homologous + parts. + + The antennules (or first antennae) are almost universally regarded as + true appendages, though they differ from all the other appendages in + the fact that they are always innervated from the "brain" (or preoral + ganglia), and that they are uniramous in the nauplius larva and in all + the Entomostracan orders. As regards their innervation an apparent + exception is found in the case of _Apus_, where the nerves to the + antennules arise, behind the brain, from the oesophageal commissures, + but this is, no doubt, a secondary condition, and the nerve-fibres + have been traced forwards to centres within the brain. In the + Malacostraca, the antennules are often biramous, but there is + considerable doubt as to whether the two branches represent the + endopodite and exopodite of the other limbs, and three branches are + found in the Stomatopoda and in some Caridea. In the great majority of + Crustacea the antennules are purely sensory in function and carry + numerous "olfactory" hairs. They may, however, be natatory as in many + Ostracoda and Copepoda, or prehensile, as in some Copepoda. The most + peculiar modification, perhaps, is that found in the Cirripedia + (Thyrostraca), in the larvae of which the antennules develop into + organs of attachment, bearing the openings of the cement-glands, and + becoming, in the adult, involved in the attachment of the animal to + its support. + + The antennae (second antennae) are of special interest on account of + the clear evidence that, although preoral in position in all adult + Crustacea, they were originally postoral appendages. In the nauplius + larva they lie rather at the sides than in front of the mouth, and + their basal portion carries a hook-like masticatory process which + assists the similar processes of the mandibles in seizing food. In the + primitive Phyllopoda, and less distinctly in some other orders, the + nerves supplying the antennae arise, not from the brain, but from the + circum-oesophageal commissures, and even in those cases where the + nerves and the ganglia in which they are rooted have been moved + forwards to the brain, the transverse commissure of the ganglia can + still be traced, running behind the oesophagus. + + The functions of the antennae are more varied than is the case with + the antennules. In many Entomostraca (Phyllopoda, Cladocera, + Ostracoda, Copepoda) they are important, and sometimes the only, + organs of locomotion. In some male Phyllopoda they form complex + "claspers" for holding the female. They are frequently organs of + attachment in parasitic Copepoda, and they may be completely pediform + in the Ostracoda. In the Malacostraca they are chiefly sensory, the + endopodite forming a long flagellum, while the exopodite may form a + lamellar "scale," probably useful as a balancer in swimming, or may + disappear altogether. A very curious function sometimes discharged by + the antennules or antennae of Decapods is that of forming a + respiratory siphon in sand-burrowing species. + + The mandibles, like the antennae, have, in the nauplius, the form of + biramous swimming limbs, with a masticatory process originating from + the proximal part of the protopodite. This form is retained, with + little alteration in some adult Copepoda, where the biramous "palp" + still aids in locomotion. A somewhat similar structure is found also + in some Ostracoda. In most cases, however, the palp loses its + exopodite and it often disappears altogether, while the coxal segment + forms the body of the mandible, with a masticatory edge variously + armed with teeth and spines. In a few Ostracoda, by a rare exception, + the masticatory process is reduced or suppressed, and the palp alone + remains, forming a pediform appendage used in locomotion as well as in + the prehension of food. In parasitic blood-sucking forms the mandibles + often have the shape of piercing stylets, and are enclosed in a + tubular proboscis formed by the union of the upper lip (labrum) with + the lower lip (hypostome or paragnatha). + + The maxillulae and maxillae (or, as they are often termed, first and + second maxillae) are nearly always flattened leaf-like appendages, + having gnathobasic lobes or endites borne by the segments of the + protopodite. The endopodite, when present, is unsegmented or composed + of few segments and forms the "palp," and outwardly-directed lobes + representing the exopodite and epipodites may also be present. These + limbs undergo great modification in the different groups. The + maxillulae are sometimes closely connected with the "paragnatha" or + lobes of the lower lip, when these are present, and it has been + suggested that the paragnatha are really the basal endites which have + become partly separated from the rest of the appendage. + + The limbs of the post-cephalic series show little differentiation + among themselves in many Entomostraca. In the Phyllopoda they are for + the most part all alike, though one or two of the anterior pairs may + be specialized as sensory (_Apus_) or grasping (_Estheriidae_) organs. + In the Cirripedia (Thyrostraca) the six pairs of biramous cirriform + limbs differ only slightly from each other, and in many Copepoda this + is also the case. In other Entomostraca considerable differentiation + may take place, but the series is never divided into definite + "tagmata" or groups of similarly modified appendages. It is highly + characteristic of the Malacostraca, however, that the trunk-limbs are + divided into two sharply defined tagmata corresponding to the thoracic + and abdominal regions respectively, the limit between the two being + marked by the position of the male genital openings. The thoracic + limbs have the endopodites converted, as a rule, into more or less + efficient walking-legs, and the exopodites are often lost, while the + abdominal limbs more generally preserve the biramous form and are, in + the more primitive types, natatory. These tagmata may again be + subdivided into groups preserving a more or less marked individuality. + For example, in the Amphipoda (fig. 4) the abdominal appendages are + constantly divided into an anterior group of three natatory + "swimmerets" and a posterior group of three limbs used chiefly in + jumping or in burrowing. In nearly all Malacostraca the last pair of + abdominal appendages (uropods) differ from the others, and in the more + primitive groups they form, with the telson, a lamellar "tail-fan" + (fig. 3, T), used in springing backwards through the water. In the + thoracic series it is usual for one or more of the anterior pairs to + be pressed into the service of the mouth, forming "foot-jaws" or + maxillipeds. In the Decapoda three pairs are thus modified, and in the + Tanaidacea, Isopoda and Amphipoda only one. In the Schizopoda and + Cumacea the line of division is less sharp, and the varying number of + so-called maxillipeds recognized by different authors gives rise to + some confusion of terminology in systematic literature. + + _Gills._--In many of the smaller Entomostraca (Copepoda and most + Ostracoda) no special gills are present, and respiration is carried on + by the general surface of the body and limbs. When present, the + branchiae are generally differentiations of parts of the appendages, + most often the epipodites, as in the Phyllopoda. In the Cirripedia, + however, they are vascular processes from the inner surface of the + mantle or shell-fold, and in some Ostracoda they are outgrowths from + the sides of the body. In the primitive Malacostraca the gills were + probably, as in the Phyllopoda and in _Nebalia_, the modified + epipodites of the thoracic limbs, and this is the condition found in + some Schizopoda. In the Cumacea and Tanaidacea only the first thoracic + limb has a branchial epipodite. In the Amphipoda, the gills though + arising from the inner side of the bases of the thoracic legs are + probably also epipodial in nature. In the Isopoda the respiratory + function has been taken over by the abdominal appendages, both rami or + only the inner becoming thin or flattened. In the Decapoda the + branchial system is more complex. The gills are inserted at the base + of the thoracic limbs, and lie within a pair of branchial chambers + covered by the carapace. Three series are distinguished, + _podobranchiae_, attached to the proximal segments of the appendages, + _pleurobranchiae_, springing from the body-wall, and an intermediate + series, _arthrobranchiae_, inserted on the articular membrane of the + joint between the limb and the body. The podobranchiae are clearly + epipodites, or, more correctly, parts of the epipodites, and it is + probable that the arthro- and pleurobranchiae are also epipodial in + origin and have migrated from the proximal segment of the limbs on to + the adjacent body-wall. + + Adaptations for aerial respiration are found in some of the + land-crabs, where the lining membrane of the gill-chamber is beset + with vascular papillae and acts as a lung. In some of the terrestrial + Isopoda or woodlice (Oniscoidea) the abdominal appendages have + ramified tubular invaginations of the integument, filled with air and + resembling the tracheae of insects. + + _Internal Structure: Alimentary System._--In almost all Crustacea the + food-canal runs straight through the body, except at its anterior end, + where it curves downwards to the ventrally-placed mouth. In a few + cases its course is slightly sinuous or twisted, but the only cases in + which it is actually coiled upon itself are found in the Cladocera of + the family _Lynceidae_ (_Alonidae_) and in a single + recently-discovered genus of Cumacea (Sympoda). As in all Arthropoda, + it is composed of three divisions, a fore-gut or stomodaeum, + ectodermal in origin and lined by an inturning of the chitinous + cuticle, a mid-gut formed by endoderm and without a cuticular lining, + and a hind-gut or proctodaeum, which, like the fore-gut, is ectodermal + and is lined by cuticle. The relative proportions of these three + divisions vary considerably, and the extreme abbreviation of the + mid-gut found in the common crayfish (_Astacus_) is by no means + typical of the class. Even in the closely-related lobster (_Homarus_) + the mid-gut may be 2 or 3 in. long. + + In a few Entomostraca (some Phyllopoda and Ostracoda) the chitinous + lining of the fore-gut develops spines and hairs which help to + triturate and strain the food, and among the Ostracods there is + occasionally (_Bairdia_) a more elaborate armature of toothed plates + moved by muscles. It is among the Malacostraca, however, and + especially in the Decapoda, that the "gastric mill" reaches its + greatest perfection. In most Decapods the "stomach" or dilated portion + of the fore-gut is divided into two chambers, a large anterior + "cardiac" and a smaller posterior "pyloric." In the narrow opening + between these, three teeth (fig. 10) are set, one dorsally and one on + each side. These teeth are connected with a framework of movably + articulated ossicles developed as thickened and calcified portions of + the lining cuticle of the stomach and moved by special muscles in such + a way as to bring the three teeth together in the middle line. The + walls of the pyloric chamber bear a series of pads and ridges beset + with hairs and so disposed as to form a straining apparatus. + + The mid-gut is essentially the digestive and absorptive region of the + alimentary canal, and its surface is, in most cases, increased by + pouch-like or tubular outgrowths which not only serve as glands for + the secretion of the digestive juices, but may also become filled by + the more fluid portion of the partially digested food and facilitate + its absorption. These outgrowths vary much in their arrangement in the + different groups. Most commonly there is a pair of lateral caeca, + which may be more or less ramified and may form a massive + "hepato-pancreas" or "liver." + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Gastric Teeth of Crab and Lobster. + + 1a, Stomach of common crab, _Cancer pagurus_, laid open, showing b, + b, b, some of the calcareous plates inserted in its muscular coat; + g, g, the lateral teeth, which when in use are brought in contact + with the sides of the median tooth m; c, c, the muscular coat. + 1b' and 1b", The gastric teeth enlarged to show their grinding + surfaces. + 2, Gastric teeth of common lobster, _Homarus vulgaris_. + 3a and 3b, Two crustacean teeth (of _Dithyrocaris_) from the + Carboniferous series of Renfrewshire (these, however, may be the + toothed edges of the mandibles).] + + The whole length of the alimentary canal is provided, as a rule, with + muscular fibres, both circular and longitudinal, running in its walls, + and, in addition, there may be muscle-bands running between the gut + and the body-wall. In the region of the oesophagus these muscles are + more strongly developed to perform the movements of deglutition, and, + where a gastric mill is present, both intrinsic and extrinsic muscles + co-operate in producing the movements of its various parts. The + hind-gut is also provided with sphincter and dilator muscles, and + these may produce rhythmic expansion and contraction, causing an + inflow and outflow of water through the anus, which has been supposed + to aid in respiration. + + In the parasitic Rhizocephala and in a few Copepoda (_Monstrillidae_) + the alimentary canal is absent or vestigial throughout life. + + _Circulatory System._--As in the other Arthropoda, the circulatory + system in Crustacea is largely lacunar, the blood flowing in spaces or + channels without definite walls. These spaces make up the apparent + body-cavity, the true body-cavity or coelom having been, for the most + part, obliterated by the great expansion of the blood-containing + spaces. The heart is of the usual Arthropodous type, lying in a more + or less well-defined pericardial blood-sinus, with which it + communicates by valvular openings or ostia. In the details of the + system, however, great differences exist within the limits of the + class. There is every reason to believe that, in the primitive + Arthropoda, the heart was tubular in form, extending the whole length + of the body, and having a pair of ostia in each somite. This + arrangement is retained in some of the Phyllopoda, but even in that + group a progressive abbreviation of the heart, with a diminution in + the number of the ostia, can be traced, leading to the condition found + in the closely related Cladocera, where the heart is a subglobular + sac, with only a single pair of ostia. In the Malacostraca, an + elongated heart with numerous segmentally arranged ostia is found only + in the aberrant group of Stomatopoda and in the transitional + Phyllocarida. In the other Malacostraca the heart is generally + abbreviated, and even where, as in the Amphipoda, it is elongated and + tubular, the ostia are restricted in number, three pairs only being + usually present. In many Entomostraca the heart is absent, and it is + impossible to speak of a "circulation" in the proper sense of the + term, the blood being merely driven hither and thither by the + movements of the body and limbs and of the alimentary canal. + + A very remarkable condition of the blood-system, unique, as far as is + yet known among the Arthropoda, is found in a few genera of parasitic + Copepoda (_Lernanthropus_, _Mytilicola_). In these there is a closed + system of vessels, not communicating with the body-cavity, and + containing a coloured fluid. There is no heart. The morphological + nature of this system is unknown. + + _Excretory System._--The most important excretory or renal organs of + the Crustacea are two pairs of glands lying at the base of the + antennae and of the second maxillae respectively. The two are probably + never functional together in the same animal, though one may replace + the other in the course of development. Thus, in the Phyllopoda, the + antennal gland develops early and is functional during a great part of + the larval life, but it ultimately atrophies, and in the adult (as in + most Entomostraca) the maxillary gland is the functional excretory + organ. In the Decapoda, where the antennal gland alone is + well-developed in the adult, the maxillary gland sometimes precedes it + in the larva. The structure of both glands is essentially the same. + There is a more or less convoluted tube with glandular walls connected + internally with a closed "end-sac" and opening to the exterior by + means of a thin-walled duct. Development shows that the glandular tube + is mesoblastic in origin and is of the nature of a coelomoduct, while + the end-sac is to be regarded as a vestigial portion of the coelom. In + the Branchiopoda the maxillary gland is lodged in the thickness of the + shell-fold (when this is present), and, from this circumstance, it + often receives the somewhat misleading name of "shell-gland." In the + Decapoda the antennal gland is largely developed and is known as the + "green gland." The external duct of this gland is often dilated into a + bladder, and may sometimes send out diverticula, forming a complex + system of sinuses ramifying through the body. The green gland and the + structures associated with it in Decapods were at one time regarded as + constituting an auditory apparatus. + + In addition to these two pairs of glands, which are in all probability + the survivors of a series of segmentally arranged coelomoducts present + in the primitive Arthropoda, other excretory organs have been + described in various Crustacea. Although the excretory function of + these has been demonstrated by physiological methods, however, their + morphological relations are not clear. In some cases they consist of + masses of mesodermal cells, within which the excretory products appear + to be stored up instead of being expelled from the body. + + _Nervous System._--The central nervous system is constructed on the + same general plan as in the other Arthropoda, consisting of a + supra-oesophageal ganglionic mass or brain, united by + circum-oesophageal connectives with a double ventral chain of + segmentally arranged ganglia. In the primitive Phyllopoda the ventral + chain retains the ladder-like arrangement found in some Annelids and + lower worms, the two halves being widely separated and the pairs of + ganglia connected together across the middle line by double transverse + commissures. In the higher groups the two halves of the chain are more + or less closely approximated and coalesced, and, in addition, a + concentration of the ganglia in a longitudinal direction takes place, + leading ultimately, in many cases, to the formation of an unsegmented + ganglionic mass representing the whole of the ventral chain. This is + seen, for example, in the Brachyura among the Decapoda. The brain, or + supra-oesophageal ganglion, shows various degrees of complexity. In + the Phyllopoda it consists mainly of two pairs of ganglionic centres, + giving origin respectively to the optic and antennular nerves. The + centres for the antennal nerves form ganglionic swellings on the + oesophageal connectives. In the higher forms, as already mentioned, + the antennal ganglia have become shifted forwards and coalesced with + the brain. In the higher Decapoda, numerous additional centres are + developed in the brain and its structure becomes extremely complex. + + _Eyes._--The eyes of Crustacea are of two kinds, the unpaired, median + or "nauplius" eye, and the paired compound eyes. The former is + generally present in the earliest larval stages (nauplius), and in + some Entomostraca (e.g. Copepoda) it forms the sole organ of vision in + the adult. In the Malacostraca it is absent in the adult, or persists + only in a vestigial condition, as in some Decapoda and Schizopoda. It + is typically tripartite, consisting of three cup-shaped masses of + pigment, the cavity of each cup being filled with columnar retinal + cells. At their inner ends (towards the pigment) these cells contain + rod-like structures, while their outer ends are connected with the + nerve-fibres. In some cases three separate nerves arise from the front + of the brain, one going to each of the three divisions of the eye. In + the Copepoda the median eye may undergo considerable elaboration, and + refracting lenses and other accessory structures may be developed in + connexion with it. + + The compound eyes are very similar in the details of their structure + (see ARTHROPODA) to those of insects (Hexapoda). They consist of a + varying number of ommatidia or visual elements, covered by a + transparent region of the external cuticle forming the cornea. In most + cases this cornea is divided into lenticular facets corresponding to + the underlying ommatidia. + + As has been already stated, the compound eyes are often set on movable + peduncles. It is probable that this is the primitive condition from + which the sessile eyes of other forms have been derived. In the + Malacostraca the sessile eyed groups are certainly less primitive than + some of those with stalked eyes, and among the Entomostraca also there + is some evidence pointing in the same direction. + + Although typically paired, the compound eyes may occasionally coalesce + in the middle line into a single organ. This is the case in the + Cladocera, the Cumacea and a few Amphipoda. + + Mention should also be made of the partial or complete atrophy of the + eyes in many Crustacea which live in darkness, either in the deep sea + or in subterranean habitats. In these cases the peduncles may persist + and may even be modified into spinous organs of defence. + + _Other Sense-Organs._--As in Arthropoda, the hairs or setae on the + surface of the body are important organs of sense and are variously + modified for special sensory functions. Many, perhaps all, of them + are tactile. They are movably articulated at the base where they are + inserted in pits formed by a thinning away of the cuticle, and each is + supplied by a nerve-fibril. When feathered or provided with secondary + barbs the setae will respond to movements or vibrations in the + surrounding water, and have been supposed to have an auditory + function. In certain divisions of the Malacostraca more specialized + organs are found which have been regarded as auditory. In the majority + of the Decapoda there is a saccular invagination of the integument in + the basal segment of the antennular peduncle having on its inner + surface "auditory" setae of the type just described. The sac is open + to the exterior in most of the Macrura, but completely closed in the + Brachyura. In the former case it contains numerous grains of sand + which are introduced by the animal itself after each moult and which + are supposed to act as otoliths. Where the sac is completely closed it + generally contains no solid particles, but in a few Macrura a single + otolith secreted by the walls of the sac is present. In the _Mysidae_ + among the Schizopoda a pair of similar otocysts are found in the + endopodites of the last pair of appendages (uropods). These contain + each a single concretionary otolith. + + Recent observations, however, make it very doubtful whether aquatic + Crustacea can hear at all, in the proper sense of the term, and it has + been shown that one function, at least, of the so-called otocysts is + connected with the equilibration of the body. They are more properly + termed statocysts. + + Another modification of sensory setae is supposed to be associated + with the sense of smell. In nearly all Crustacea the antennules and + often also the antennae bear groups of hair-like filaments in which + the chitinous cuticle is extremely delicate and which do not taper to + a point but end bluntly. These are known as olfactory filaments or + aesthetascs. They are very often more strongly developed in the male + sex, and are supposed to guide the males in pursuit of the females. + + _Glands._--In addition to the digestive and excretory glands already + mentioned, various glandular structures occur in the different groups + of Crustacea. The most important of these belong to the category of + dermal glands, and may be scattered over the surface of the body and + limbs, or grouped at certain points for the discharge of special + functions. Such glands occurring on the upper and lower lips or on the + walls of the oesophagus have been regarded as salivary. In some + Amphipoda the secretion of glands on the body and limbs is used in the + construction of tubular cases in which the animals live. In some + freshwater Copepoda the secretion of the dermal glands forms a + gelatinous envelope, by means of which the animals are able to survive + desiccation. In certain Copepoda and Ostracoda glands of the same type + produce a phosphorescent substance, and others, in certain Amphipoda + and Branchiura, are believed to have a poisonous function. Possibly + related to the same group of structures are the greatly-developed + cement-glands of the Cirripedia, which serve to attach the animals to + their support. + + _Phosphorescent Organs._--Many Crustacea belonging to very different + groups (Ostracoda, Copepoda, Schizopoda, Decapoda) possess the power + of emitting light. In the Ostracoda and Copepoda the phosphorescence, + as already mentioned, is due to glands which produce a luminous + secretion, and this is the case also in certain members of the + Schizopoda and Decapoda. In other cases in the last two groups, + however, the light-producing organs found on the body and limbs have a + complex and remarkable structure, and were formerly described as + accessory eyes. Each consists of a globular capsule pierced at one or + two points for the entrance of nerves which end in a central + cup-shaped "striated body." This body appears to be the source of + light, and has behind it a reflector formed of concentric lamellae, + while, in front, in some cases, there is a refracting lens. The whole + organ can be rotated by special muscles. Organs of this type are best + known in the _Euphausiidae_ among the Schizopoda, but a modified form + is found in some of the lower Decapods. + + _Reproductive System._--In the great majority of Crustacea the sexes + are separate. Apart from certain doubtful and possibly abnormal + instances among Phyllopoda and Amphipoda, the only exceptions are the + sessile Cirripedia and some parasitic Isopoda (_Cymothoidae_), where + hermaphroditism is the rule. Parthenogenesis is prevalent in the + Branchiopoda and Ostracoda, often in more or less definite seasonal + alternation with sexual reproduction. Where the sexes are distinct, a + more or less marked dimorphism often exists. The male is very often + provided with clasping organs for seizing the female. These may be + formed by the modification of almost any of the appendages, often the + antennules or antennae or some of the thoracic limbs, or even the + mandibular palps (some Ostracoda). In addition, some of the appendages + in the neighbourhood of the genital apertures may be modified for the + purpose of transferring the genital products to the female, as, for + instance, the first and second abdominal limbs in the Decapoda. In the + higher Decapoda the male is generally larger than the female and has + stronger chelae. On the other hand, in other groups the male is often + smaller than the female. In the parasitic Copepoda and Isopoda the + disparity in size is carried to an extreme degree, and the minute male + is attached, like a parasite, to the enormously larger female. + + The Cirripedia present some examples of sexual relationships which are + only paralleled, in the animal kingdom, among the parasitic + Myzostomida. While the great majority are simple hermaphrodites, + capable of cross and self fertilization, it was discovered by Darwin + that, in certain species, minute degraded males exist, attached within + the mantle-cavity of the ordinary individuals. Since these dwarf males + pair, not with females, but with hermaphrodites, Darwin termed them + "complemental" males. In other species the large individuals have + become purely female by atrophy of the male organs, and are entirely + dependent on the dwarf males for fertilization. In spite of the + opinion of some distinguished zoologists to the contrary, it seems + most probable that the separation of the sexes is in this case a + secondary condition, derived from hermaphroditism through the + intermediate stage represented by the species having complemental + males. + + The gonads, as in other Arthropoda, are hollow saccular organs, the + cavity communicating with the efferent ducts. They are primitively + paired, but often coalesce with each other more or less completely. + The ducts are present only as a single pair, except in one genus of + parasitic Isopoda (_Hemioniscus_), where two pairs of oviducts are + found. Various accessory structures may be connected with the efferent + ducts in both sexes. The oviducts may have diverticula serving as + receptacles for the spermatozoa (in cases where internal impregnation + takes place), and may be provided with glands secreting envelopes or + shells around the eggs. The male ducts often have glandular walls, + secreting capsules or spermatophores within which the spermatozoa are + packed for transference to the female. The terminal part of the male + ducts may be protrusible and act as an intromittent organ, or this + function may be discharged by some of the appendages, as, for + instance, in the Brachyura. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Side view of Crab, the abdomen extended and + carrying a mass of eggs beneath it; e, eggs. (After Morse.)] + + The position of the genital apertures varies very greatly in the + different groups of the class. They are farthest forward in the case + of the female organs of the Cirripedia, where the openings are on the + first thoracic (fourth postoral) somite. The most posterior position + is occupied by the genital apertures of certain Phyllopoda + (_Polyartemia_), which lie behind the nineteenth trunk-somite. It is + characteristic of the Malacostraca that the position of the genital + apertures is constantly different in the two sexes, the female + openings being on the sixth, and those of the male on the eighth + thoracic somite. + + Very few Crustacea are viviparous in the sense that the eggs are + retained within the body until hatching takes place (some Phyllopoda), + but, on the other hand, the great majority carry the eggs in some way + or other after their extrusion. In some Phyllopoda (_Apus_) egg-sacs + are formed by modification of certain of the thoracic feet. The eggs + are retained between the valves of the shell in some Phyllopoda and in + the Cladocera and Ostracoda, and they lie in the mantle cavity in the + Cirripedia. In the Copepoda they are agglutinated together into masses + attached to the body of the female. Among the Malacostraca some + Schizopoda, the Cumacea, Tanaidacea, Isopoda and Amphipoda (sometimes + grouped all together as Peracarida) have a marsupium or brood-pouch + formed by overlapping plates attached to the bases of some of the + thoracic legs. In most of the Decapoda the eggs are carried by the + female, attached to the abdominal appendages (fig. 11). A few cases + are known in which the developing embryos are nourished by a special + secretion while in the brood-chamber of the mother (Cladocera, + terrestrial Isopoda). + + + _Embryology._ + + The majority of the Crustacea are hatched from the egg in a form + differing more or less from that of the adult, and pass through a + series of free-swimming larval stages. There are many cases, however, + in which the metamorphosis is suppressed, and the newly-hatched young + resemble the parent in general structure. The relative size of the + eggs and the amount of nutritive yolk which they contain are generally + much greater in those forms which have a direct development. + + The details of the early embryonic stages vary considerably within the + limits of the class. They are of interest, however, rather from the + point of view of general embryology than from that of the special + student of the Crustacea, and cannot be fully dealt with here. + + Segmentation is usually of the superficial or centrolecithal type. The + hypoblast is formed either by a definite invagination or by the + immigration of isolated cells, known as vitellophags, which wander + through the yolk and later become associated into a definite + mesenteron, or by some combination of these two methods. The + blastopore generally occupies a position corresponding to the + posterior end of the body. The mesoblast of the cephalic (naupliar) + region probably arises in connexion with the lips of the blastopore + and consists of loosely-connected cells or mesenchyme. In the region + of the trunk, in many cases, paired mesoblastic bands are formed, + growing in length by the division of teloblastic cells at the + posterior end, and becoming segmented into somites. The existence of + true coelom-sacs is somewhat doubtful. The rudiments of the first + three pairs of appendages commonly appear simultaneously, and, even in + forms with embryonic development, they show differences in their mode + of appearance from the succeeding somites. Further, a definite + cuticular membrane is frequently formed and shed at this stage, which + corresponds to the nauplius-stage of larval development. + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Nauplius of a Prawn (_Penaeus_). (Fritz + Muller).] + + The larval metamorphoses of the Crustacea have attracted much + attention, and have been the subject of much discussion in view of + their bearing on the phylogenetic history of the group. In those + Crustacea in which the series of larval stages is most complete, the + starting-point is the form already mentioned under the name of + _nauplius_. The typical nauplius (fig. 12) has an oval unsegmented + body and three pairs of limbs corresponding to the antennules, + antennae and mandibles of the adult. The antennules are uniramous, the + others biramous, and all three pairs are used in swimming. The + antennae have a spiniform or hooked masticatory process at the base, + and share with the mandibles, which have a similar process, the + function of seizing and masticating the food. The mouth is overhung by + a large labrum or upper lip, and the integument of the dorsal surface + of the body forms a more or less definite dorsal shield. The paired + eyes are, as yet, wanting, but the unpaired eye is large and + conspicuous. A pair of frontal papillae or filaments, probably + sensory, are commonly present. + + A nauplius larva differing only in details from the typical form just + described is found in the majority of the Phyllopoda, Copepoda and + Cirripedia, and in a more modified form, in some Ostracoda. Among the + Malacostraca the nauplius is less commonly found, but it occurs in the + _Euphausiidae_ among the Schizopoda and in a few of the more primitive + Decapoda (_Penaeidea_) (fig. 12). In most of the Crustacea which hatch + at a later stage there is, as already mentioned, more or less clear + evidence of an embryonic nauplius stage. It seems certain, therefore, + that the possession of a nauplius larva must be regarded as a very + primitive character of the Crustacean stock. + + As development proceeds, the body of the nauplius elongates, and + indications of segmentation begin to appear in its posterior part. At + successive moults the somites increase in number, new somites being + added behind those already differentiated, from a formative zone in + front of the telsonic region. Very commonly the posterior end of the + body becomes forked, two processes growing out at the sides of the + anus and often persisting in the adult as the "caudal furca." The + appendages posterior to the mandibles appear as buds on the ventral + surface of the somites, and in the most primitive cases they become + differentiated, like the somites which bear them, in regular order + from before backwards. The limb-buds early become bilobed and grow out + into typical biramous appendages which gradually assume the characters + found in the adult. With the elongation of the body, the dorsal shield + begins to project posteriorly as a shell-fold, which may increase in + size to envelop more or less of the body or may disappear altogether. + The rudiments of the paired eyes appear under the integument at the + sides of the head, but only become pedunculated at a comparatively + late stage. + + The course of development here outlined, in which the nauplius + gradually passes into the adult form by the successive addition of + somites and appendages in regular order, agrees so well with the + process observed in the development of the typical Annelida that we + must regard it as being the most primitive method. It is most closely + followed by the Phyllopods such as _Apus_ or _Branchipus_, and by some + Copepoda. + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Early Stages of _Balanus_. (After Spence + Bate.) + + A, Nauplius. e, Eye. + B, _Cypris_-larva with a bivalve shell and just before becoming + attached (represented feet upwards for comparison with E, where it + is attached). + C, After becoming attached, side views. + D, Later stage, viewed from above. + E, Side view, later stage and with cirri extended. + + The dots indicate the actual size.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Zoea of Common Shore-Crab in its second stage. + (Spence Bate.) + + r, Rostral spine. + s, Dorsal spine. + m, Maxillipeds. + t, Buds of thoracic feet. + a, Abdomen.] + + In most Crustacea, however, this primitive scheme is more or less + modified. The earlier stages may be suppressed or passed through + within the egg (or within the maternal brood-chamber), so that the + larva, on hatching, has reached a stage more advanced than the + nauplius. Further, the gradual appearance and differentiation of the + successive somites and appendages may be accelerated, so that + comparatively great advances take place at a single moult. In the + Cirripedia, for example, the latest nauplius stage (fig. 13, A) gives + rise directly to the so-called _Cypris_-larva (fig. 13, B), differing + widely from the nauplius in form, and possessing all the appendages of + the adult. Another very common modification of the primitive method of + development is found in the accelerated appearance of certain somites + or appendages, disturbing the regular order of development. This + modification is especially found in the Malacostraca. Even in those + which have most fully retained the primitive order of development, as + in the _Penaeidea_ and _Euphausiidae_, the last pair of abdominal + appendages make their appearance in advance of those immediately in + front of them. The same process, carried further, leads to the very + peculiar larva known as the _Zoea_, in the typical form of which, + found in the Brachyura (fig. 14), the posterior five or six thoracic + somites have their development greatly retarded, and are still + represented by a short unsegmented region of the body at a time when + the abdominal somites are fully formed and even carry appendages. The + _Zoea_ was formerly regarded as a recapitulation of an ancestral form, + but there can be no doubt that its peculiarities are the result of + secondary modification. It is most typically developed in the most + specialized Decapoda, the Brachyura, while the more primitive groups + of Malacostraca, the _Euphausiidae_, _Penaeidea_ and Stomatopoda, + retain the primitive order of appearance of the somites, and, for the + most part, of the limbs. At the same time, the tendency to a + retardation in the development of the posterior thoracic somites is + very general in Malacostracan larvae, and may perhaps be correlated + with the fact that in the primitive Phyllocarida the whole thoracic + region is very short and the limbs closely crowded together. + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Nauplius of _Tetraclita porosa_ after the + first moult. + + (Fritz Muller.)] + + Besides the nauplius and the zoea there are many other types of + Crustacean larvae, distinguished by special names, though, as their + occurrence is restricted within the limits of the smaller systematic + groups, they are of less general interest. We need only mention the + _Mysis_-stage (better termed Schizopod-stage) found in many Macrura + (as, for example, the lobster), which differs from the adult in having + large natatory exopodites on the thoracic legs. + + Most of the larval forms swim freely at the surface of the sea, and + many show special adaptations to this habit of life. As in many other + "pelagic" organisms, spines and processes from the surface of the body + are often developed, which are probably less important as defensive + organs than as aids to flotation. This is well seen in the nauplius of + many Cirripedia (fig. 15) and in nearly all zoeae. Perhaps the most + striking example is the zoea-like larva of the _Sergestidae_, known as + _Elaphocaris_, which has an extraordinary armature of ramified spines. + The same purpose is probably served by the extreme flattening of the + body in the membranous _Phyllosoma_-larva of the rock-lobsters and + their allies (Loricata). + + +_Past History._ + +Although fossil remains of Crustacea are abundant, from the most ancient +fossiliferous rocks down to the most recent, their study has hitherto +contributed little to a precise knowledge of the phylogenetic history of +the class. This is partly due to the fact that many important forms must +have escaped fossilization altogether owing to their small size and +delicate structure, while very many of those actually preserved are +known only from the carapace or shell, the limbs being absent or +represented only by indecipherable fragments. Further, many important +groups were already differentiated when the geological record began. The +Phyllopoda, Ostracoda and Cirripedia (Thyrostraca) are represented in +Cambrian or Silurian rocks by forms which seem to have resembled closely +those now existing, so that palaeontology can have little light to throw +on the mode of origin of these groups. With the Malacostraca the case is +little better. There is considerable reason for believing that the +_Ceratiocaridae_, which are found from the Cambrian onwards, were allied +to the existing _Nebalia_, and may possibly include the forerunners of +the true Malacostraca, but nothing is definitely known of their +appendages. In Palaeozoic formations, from the Upper Devonian onwards, +numbers of shrimp-like forms are found which have been referred to the +Schizopoda and the Decapoda, but here again the scanty information which +may be gleaned as to the structure of the limbs rarely permits of +definite conclusions as to their affinities. The recent discovery in the +Tasmanian "schizopod" _Anaspides_, of what is believed to be a living +representative of the Carboniferous and Permian _Syncarida_, has, +however, afforded a clue to the affinities of some of these +problematical forms. + +True Decapods are first met with in Mesozoic rocks, the first to appear +being the _Penaeidea_, a primitive group comprising the _Penaeidae_ and +_Sergestidae_, which occur in the Jurassic and perhaps in the Trias. +Some of the earliest are referred to the existing genus _Penaeus_. The +Stenopidea, another primitive group, differing from the Penaeidea in the +character of the gills, appear in the Trias and Jurassic. The Caridea or +true prawns and shrimps appear later, in the Upper Jurassic, some of +them presenting primitive characteristics in the retention of swimming +exopodites on the walking-legs. The Eryonidea (fig. 16, 3), a group +related to the Loricata but of a more generalized type, are specially +interesting since the few existing deep-sea forms appear to be only +surviving remnants of what was, in the Mesozoic period, a dominant +group. The Mesozoic _Glyphaeidae_ have been supposed to stand in the +direct line of descent of the modern rock-lobsters and their allies +(Loricata). Some of the Loricata have persisted with little change from +the Cretaceous period to the present day. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16. + + 1, _Dromilites Lamarckii_, Desm.; London Clay, Sheppey. + 2, _Palaeocorystes Stokesii_, Gault; Folkestone. + 3, _Eryon arctiformis_, Schl.; Lithographic stone, Solenhofen. + 4, _Mecocheirus longimanus_, Schl.; Lithographic stone, Solenhofen. + 5, _Cypridea tuberculata_, Sby.; (Ostracoda); Weald, Sussex. + 6, _Loricula pulchella_, Sby (Cirripedia); L. Chalk, Sussex.] + +The Anomura are hardly known as fossils. The Brachyura, on the other +hand, are well represented (fig 16, 1, 2). The earliest forms, from the +Lower Oolite and later, belonging chiefly to the extinct family +_Prosoponidae_, have been shown to have close relations with the most +generalized of existing Brachyura, the deep-sea _Homolodromiidae_, and +to link the Brachyura to the Homarine (lobster-like) Macrura. + +A few Isopoda are known from Secondary rocks, but their systematic +position is doubtful and they throw no light on the evolution of the +group. The Amphipoda are not definitely known to occur till Tertiary +times. Stomatopoda of a very modern-looking type, and even their larvae, +occur in Jurassic rocks. + +In the dearth of trustworthy evidence as to the actual forerunners of +existing Crustacea, we are compelled to rely wholly on the data afforded +by comparative anatomy and embryology in attempting to reconstruct the +probable phylogeny of the class. It is unnecessary to insist on the +purely speculative character of the conclusions to be reached in this +way, so long as they cannot be checked by the results of palaeontology, +but, when this is recognized, such speculation is not only legitimate +but necessary as a basis on which to build a natural classification. + +The first attempts to reconstruct the genealogical history of the +Crustacea started from the assumption that the "theory of +recapitulation" could be applied to their larval history. The various +larval forms, especially the nauplius and zoea, were supposed to +reproduce, more or less closely, the actual structure of ancestral +types. So far as the zoea was concerned, this assumption was soon shown +to be erroneous, and the secondary nature of this type of larva is now +generally admitted. As regards the nauplius, however, the constancy of +its general character in the most widely diverse groups of Crustacea +strongly suggests that it is a very ancient type, and the view has been +advocated that the Crustacea must have arisen from an unsegmented +nauplius-like ancestor. + +The objections to this view, however, are considerable. The resemblances +between the Crustacea and the Annelid worms, in such characters as the +structure of the nervous system and the mode of growth of the somites, +can hardly be ignored. Several structures which must be attributed, to +the common stock of the Crustacea, such as the paired eyes and the +shell-fold, are not present in the nauplius. The opinion now most +generally held is that the primitive Crustacean type is most nearly +approached by certain Phyllopods such as _Apus_. The large number and +the uniformity of the trunk somites and their appendages, and the +structure of the nervous system and of the heart in _Apus_, are +Annelidan characters which can hardly be without significance. It is +probable also, as already mentioned, that the leaf-like appendages of +the Phyllopoda are of a primitive type, and attempts have been made to +refer their structure to that of the Annelid parapodium. In many +respects, however, the Phyllopoda, and especially _Apus_, have diverged +considerably from the primitive Crustacean type. All the cephalic +appendages are much reduced, the mandibles have no palps, and the +maxillulae are vestigial. In these respects some of the Copepoda have +retained characters which we must regard as much more primitive. In +those Copepods in which the palps of the mandibles as well as the +antennae are biramous and natatory, the first three pairs of appendages +retain throughout life, with little modification, the shape and function +which they have in the nauplius stage, and must, in all likelihood, be +regarded as approximating to those of the primitive Crustacea. In other +respects, however, such as the absence of paired eyes and of a +shell-fold, as well as in the characters of the post-oral limbs, the +Copepoda are undoubtedly specialized. + +In order to reconstruct the hypothetical ancestral Crustacean, +therefore, it is necessary to combine the characters of several of the +existing groups. It may be supposed to have approximated, in general +form, to _Apus_, with an elongated body composed of numerous similar +somites and terminating in a caudal furca; with the post-oral appendages +all similar and all bearing gnathobasic processes; and with a carapace +originating as a shell-fold from the maxillary somite. The eyes were +probably stalked, the antennae and mandibles biramous and natatory, and +both armed with masticatory processes. It is likely that the trunk-limbs +were also biramous, with additional endites and exites. Whether any of +the obscure fossils generally referred to the Phyllopoda or Phyllocarida +may have approximated to this hypothetical form it is impossible to say. +It is to be noted, however, that the Trilobita, which, according to the +classification here adopted, are dealt with under Arachnida, are not +very far removed, except in such characters as the absence of a +shell-fold and of eye-stalks, from the primitive Crustacean here +sketched. + +On this view, the nauplius, while no longer regarded as reproducing an +ancestral type, does not altogether lose its phylogenetic significance. +It is an ancestral _larval_ form, corresponding perhaps to the stages +immediately succeeding the trochophore in the development of Annelids, +but with some of the later-acquired Crustacean characters superposed +upon it. While little importance is to be given to such characters as +the unsegmented body, the small number of limbs and the absence of a +shell-fold and of paired eyes, it has, on the other hand, preserved +archaic features in the form of the limbs and the masticatory function +of the antenna. + +The probable course of evolution of the different groups of Crustacea +from this hypothetical ancestral form can only be touched on here. The +Phyllopoda must have branched off very early and from them to the +Cladocera the way is clear. The Ostracoda might have been derived from +the same stock were it not that they retain the mandibular palp which +all the Phyllopods have lost. The Copepoda must have separated +themselves very early, though perhaps some of their characters may be +persistently larval rather than phylogenetically primitive. The +Cirripedia are so specialized both as larvae and as adults that it is +hard to say in what direction their origin is to be sought. + +For the Malacostraca, it is generally admitted that the Leptostraca +(_Nebalia_, &c.) provide a connecting-link with the base of the +Phyllopod stem. Nearest to them come the Schizopoda, a primitive group +from which two lines of descent can be traced, the one leading from the +Mysidacea (_Mysidae_ + _Lophogastridae_) to the Cumacea and the +sessile-eyed groups Isopoda and Amphipoda, the other from the +Euphausiacea (_Euphausiidae_) to the Decapoda. + + +_Classification._ + +The modern classification of Crustacea may be said to have been founded +by P. A. Latreille, who, in the beginning of the 19th century, divided +the class into Entomostraca and Malacostraca. The latter division, +characterized by the possession of 19 somites and pairs of appendages +(apart from the eyes), by the division of the appendages into two +tagmata corresponding to cephalothorax and abdomen, and by the constancy +in position of the generative apertures, differing in the two sexes, is +unquestionably a natural group. The Entomostraca, however, are certainly +a heterogeneous assemblage, defined only by negative characters, and the +name is retained only for the sake of convenience, just as it is often +useful to speak of a still more heterogeneous and unnatural assemblage +of animals as Invertebrata. The barnacles and their allies, forming the +group Cirripedia or Thyrostraca, sometimes treated as a separate +sub-class, are distinguished by being sessile in the adult state, the +larval antennules serving as organs of attachment, and the antennae +being lost. An account of them will be found in the article THYROSTRACA. +The remaining groups are dealt with under the headings ENTOMOSTRACA and +MALACOSTRACA, the annectent group Leptostraca being included in the +former. + +It may be useful to give here a synopsis of the classification adopted +in this encyclopaedia, noting that, for convenience of treatment, it has +been thought necessary to adopt a grouping not always expressive of the +most recent views of affinity. + + Class _Crustacea_. + Sub-class _Entomostraca_. + Order _Branchiopoda_. + Sub-orders _Phyllopoda_. + _Cladocera_. + _Branchiura_. + Orders _Ostracoda_. + _Copepoda_. + Sub-classses _Thyrostraca_ (_Cirripedia_). + _Leptostraca_. + _Malacostraca_. + Order _Decapoda_. + Sub-orders _Brachyura_. + _Macrura_. + Orders _Schizopoda_ (including _Anaspides_). + _Stomatopoda_. + _Sympoda_ (Cumacea). + _Isopoda_ (including _Tanaidacea_). + _Amphipoda_. + + (W. T. Ca.) + + + + +CRUSTUMERIUM, an ancient town of Latium, on the edge of the Sabine +territory, near the headwaters of the Allia, not far from the Tiber. It +appears several times in the early history of Rome, but was conquered in +500 B.C. according to Livy ii. 19, the _tribus Crustumina_ [or +_Clustumina_] being formed in 471 B.C. Pliny mentions it among the lost +cities of Latium, but the name clung to the district, the fertility of +which remained famous. No remains of it exist, and its exact site is +uncertain. + + See T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, iii. 50. + + + + +CRUVEILHIER, JEAN (1791-1874), French anatomist, was born at Limoges in +1791, and was educated at the university of Paris, where in 1825 he +became professor of anatomy. In 1836 he became the first occupant of the +recently founded chair of pathological anatomy. He died at Jussac in +1874. His chief works are _Anatomie descriptive_ (1834-1836); _Anatomie +pathologique du corps humain_ (1829-1842), with many coloured plates; +_Traite d'anatomie pathologique generale_ (1849-1864); _Anatomie du +systeme nerveux de l'homme_ (1845); _Traite d'anatomie descriptive_ +(1851). + + + + +CRUZ E SILVA, ANTONIO DINIZ DA (1731-1799), Portuguese heroic-comic +poet, was the son of a Lisbon carpenter who emigrated to Brazil shortly +before the poet's birth, leaving his wife to support and educate her +young family by the earnings of her needle. Diniz studied Latin and +philosophy with the Oratorians, and in 1747 matriculated at Coimbra +University, where he wrote his first versus about 1750. In 1753 he took +his degree in law, and returning to the capital, devoted much of the +next six years to literary work. In 1756 he became one of the founders +and drew up the statues of the _Arcadia Lusitana_, a literary society +whose aims were the instruction of its members, the cultivation of the +art of poetry, and the restoration of good taste. The fault was not his +if these ends were not attained, for, taking contemporary French authors +as his models, he contributed much, both in prose and verse, to its +proceedings, until he left in February 1760 to take up the position of +_juiz de fora_ at Castello de Vide. On returning to Lisbon for a short +visit, he found the _Arcadia_ a prey to the internal dissensions that +caused its dissolution in 1774, but succeeded in composing them and in +1764 he went to Elvas to act as auditor of one of the regiments +stationed there. During a ten years' residence, his wide reading and +witty conversation gained him the friendship of the governor of that +fortress and the admiration of a circle comprising all that was +cultivated in Elvas. As in most cathedral and garrison towns, the +clerical and military elements dominated society, and here were mutually +antagonistic, because of the enmity between their respective leaders, +the bishop and the governor. Moreover, Elvas, being a remote provincial +centre, abounded in curious and grotesque types. Diniz, who was a keen +observer, noted these, and, treasuring them in his memory, reproduced +them, with their vanities, intrigues and ignorance, in his masterpiece, +_Hyssope_. In 1768 a quarrel arose between the bishop, a proud, +pretentious prelate, and the dean, as to the right of the former to +receive holy water from the latter at a private side door of the +cathedral, instead of at the principal entrance. The matter being one of +principle, neither party would yield what he considered his rights, and +it led to a lawsuit, and divided the town into two sections, which +eagerly debated the arguments on both sides and enjoyed the ridiculous +incidents which accompanied the dispute. Ultimately the dean died, and +was succeeded by his nephew, who appealed to the crown with success and +the bishop lost his pretension. The _Hyssope_ arose out of and deals +with this affair. It was dictated in seventeen days, in the years +1770-1772, and, in its final redaction, consists of eight cantos of +blank verse. The pressure of absolutism left open only one form of +expression, satire, and in this poem Diniz produced an original work +which ridicules the clergy and the prevailing Gallomania, and contains +episodes full of humour. It has been compared with Boileau's _Lutrin_, +because both are founded on a petty ecclesiastical quarrel, but here the +resemblance ends, and the poem of Diniz is the superior in everything +except matrification. + +Returning to Lisbon in 1774, Diniz endeavoured once more to resuscitate +the _Arcadia_, but his long absence had withdrawn its chief support, its +most talented members Garcao (q.v.) and Quita were no more, and he only +assisted at its demise. In April 1776 he was appointed _disembargador_ +of the court of Relacao in Rio de Janeiro and given the habit of Aviz. +He lived in Brazil, devouting his leisure to a study of its natural +history and mineralogy, until 1789, when he went back to Lisbon to take +up the post of _disembargador_ of the Relacao of Oporto; in July 1790 he +was promoted, and became _disembargador_ of the Casa da Supplicacao. In +this year he was sent again to Brazil to assist in trying the leaders of +the Republican conspiracy in Minas, in which Gonzaga (q.v.) and the +other men of letters were involved, and in December 1792 he became +chancellor of the Relacao in Rio. Six years later he was named +councillor of the _Conselho Ultramarino_, but did not live to return +home, dying in Rio on the 5th of October 1799. + +Diniz possessed a poetic temperament, but his love of imitating the +classics, whose spirit he failed to understand, fettered his muse, and +he seems never to have perceived that mythological comparisons and +pastoral allegories were poor substitutes for the expression of natural +feeling. The conventionalism of his art prejudiced its sincerity, and, +inwardly cherishing the belief that poetry was unworthy of the dignity +of a judge, he never gave his real talents a chance to display +themselves. His Anacreontic odes, dithyrambs and idylls earned the +admiration of contemporaries, but his Pindaric odes lack fire, his +sonnets are weak, and his idylls have neither the truth nor the +simplicity of Quita's work. As a rule Diniz's versification is weak and +his verses lack harmony, though the diction is beyond cavil. + + His poems were published in 6 vols. (Lisbon, 1807-1817). The best + edition of _Hyssope_, to which Diniz owes his lasting fame, is that of + J. R. Coelho (Lisbon, 1879), with an exhaustive introductory study on + his life and writings. A French prose version of the poem by + Boissonade has gone through two editions (Paris, 1828 and 1867), and + English translations of selections have been printed in the _Foreign + Quarterly Review_, and in the _Manchester Quarterly_ (April 1896). + + See also Dr Theophilo Braga, _A. Arcadia Lusitana_ (Oporto, 1899). + (E. Pr.) + + + + +CRYOLITE, a mineral discovered in Greenland by the Danes in 1794, and +found to be a compound of fluorine, sodium and aluminium. From its +general appearance, and from the fact that it melts readily, even in a +candle-flame, it was regarded by the Eskimos as a peculiar kind of ice; +from this fact it acquired the name of cryolite (from Gr. [Greek: +kryos], frost, and [Greek: lithos], stone). Cryolite occurs in +colourless or snow-white cleavable masses, often tinted brown or red +with iron oxide, and occasionally passing into a black variety. It is +usually translucent, becoming nearly transparent on immersion in water. +The mineral cleaves in three rectangular directions, and the crystals +occasionally found in the crevices have a cubic habit, but it has been +proved, after much discussion, that they belong to the anorthic system. +The hardness is 2.5, and the specific gravity 3. Cryolite has the +formula Na3AlF6, or 3NaF.AlF3, corresponding to fluorine 54.4, sodium +32.8, and aluminium 12.8%. It colours a flame yellow, through the +presence of sodium, and when heated with sulphuric acid it evolves +hydrofluoric acid. + +Cryolite occurs almost exclusively at Ivigtut (sometimes written +Evigtok) on the Arksut Fjord in S.W. Greenland. There it forms a large +deposit, in a granitic vein running through gneiss, and is accompanied +by quartz, siderite, galena, blende, chalcopyrite, &c. It is also +associated with a group of kindred minerals, some of which are evidently +products of alteration of the cryolite, known as pachnolite, +thomsenolite, ralstonite, gearksutite, arksutite, &c. Cryolite likewise +occurs, though only to a limited extent, at Miyask, in the Ilmen +Mountains; at Pike's Peak, Colorado, and in the Yellowstone Park. + +Cryolite is a mineral of much economic importance. It has been +extensively used as a source of metallic aluminium, and as a flux in +smelting the metal. It is largely employed in the manufacture of certain +sodium salts, as suggested by Julius Thomsen, of Copenhagen, in 1849; +and it has been used for the production of certain kinds of porcelain +and glass, remarkable for its toughness, and for enamelled ware. + +Although cryolite is known as "ice-stone" (_Eisstein_), it is not to be +confused with "ice-spar" (_Eisspath_), which is a vitreous kind of +felspar termed "glassy felspar" or rhyacolite. (F. W. R.*) + + + + +CRYPT (Lat. _crypta_, from the Gr. [Greek: kryptein], to hide), a vault +or subterranean chamber, especially under churches. In classical +phraseology "crypta" was employed for any vaulted building, either +partially or entirely below the level of the ground. It is used for a +sewer (_crypta Suburae_, Juvenal, _Sat._ v. 106); for the "carceres," or +vaulted stalls for the horses and chariots in a circus (Sidon. Apoll. +_Carm._ xxiii. 319); for the close porticoes or arcades, more fully +known as "cryptoporticus," attached by the Romans to their suburban +villas for the sake of coolness, and to the theatres as places of +exercise or rehearsal for the performers (Plin. _Epist._ ii. 15, v. 6, +vii. 21; Sueton. _Calig._ 58; Sidon. Apoll, lib. ii. epist. 2); and for +underground receptacles for agricultural produce (Vitruv. vi. 8, Varro, +_De re rust._ i. 57). Tunnels, or galleries excavated in the living +rock, were also called _cryptae_. Thus the tunnel to the north of +Naples, through which the road passes to Puteoli, familiar to tourists +as the "Grotto of Posilipo," was originally designated _crypta +Neapolitana_ (Seneca, Epist. 57). In early Christian times _crypta_ was +appropriately employed for the galleries of a catacomb, or for the +catacomb itself. Jerome calls them by this name when describing his +visits to them as a schoolboy, and the term is used by Prudentius (see +CATACOMBS). + +A crypt, as a portion of a church, had its origin in the subterranean +chapels known as "confessiones," erected around the tomb of a martyr, or +the place of his martyrdom. This is the origin of the spacious crypts, +some of which may be called subterranean churches, of the Roman churches +of S. Prisca, S. Prassede, S. Martino ai Monti, S. Lorenzo fuori le +Mura, and above all of St Peter's--the crypt being thus the germ of the +church or basilica subsequently erected above the hallowed spot. When +the martyr's tomb was sunk in the surface of the ground, and not placed +in a catacomb chapel, the original memorial-shrine would be only +partially below the surface, and consequently the part of the church +erected over it, which was always that containing the altar, would be +elevated some height above the ground, and be approached by flights of +steps. This fashion of raising the chancel or altar end of a church on a +crypt was widely imitated long after the reason for adopting it ceased, +and even where it never existed. The crypt under the altar at the +basilica of St Maria Maggiore in Rome is merely imitative, and the same +may be said of many of the crypts of the early churches in England. The +original Saxon cathedral of Canterbury had a crypt beneath the eastern +apse, containing the so-called body of St Dunstan, and other relics, +"fabricated," according to Eadmer, "in the likeness of the confessionary +of St Peter at Rome" (see BASILICA). St Wilfrid constructed crypts still +existing beneath the churches erected by him in the latter part of the +7th century at Hexham and Ripon. These are peculiarly interesting from +their similarity in form and arrangement to the catacomb chapels with +which Wilfrid must have become familiar during his residence in Rome. +The cathedral, begun by Aethelwold and finished by Alphege at Winchester, +at the end of the 10th century, had spacious crypts "supporting the holy +altar and the venerable relics of the saints" (Wulstan, _Life of St +Aethelwold_), and they appear to have been common in the earlier churches +in England. The arrangement was adopted by the Norman builders of the +11th and 12th centuries, and though far from universal is found in many +of the cathedrals of that date. The object of the construction of these +crypts was twofold,--to give the altar sufficient elevation to enable +those below to witness the sacred mysteries, and to provide a place of +burial for those holy men whose relics were the church's most precious +possession. But the crypt was "a foreign fashion," derived, as has been +said, from Rome, "which failed to take root in England, and indeed +elsewhere barely outlasted the Romanesque period" (_Essays on +Cathedrals_, ed. Howson, p. 331). + +Of the crypts beneath English Norman cathedrals, that under the choir of +Canterbury (q.v.) is by far the largest and most elaborate in its +arrangements. It is, in fact, a subterranean church of vast size and +considerable altitude. The whole crypt was dedicated to the Virgin Mary, +and contained two chapels especially dedicated to her,--the central one +beneath the high altar, enclosed with rich Gothic screen-work, and one +under the south transept. This latter chapel was appropriated by Queen +Elizabeth to the use of the French Huguenot refugees who had settled at +Canterbury in the time of Edward VI. There were also in this crypt a +large number of altars and chapels of other saints, some of whose +hallowed bodies were buried here. At the extreme east end, beneath the +Trinity chapel, the body of St Thomas (Becket) was buried the day after +his martyrdom, and lay there till his translation, July 7, 1220. + +The cathedrals of Winchester, Worcester and Gloucester have crypts of +slightly earlier date (they may all be placed between 1080 and 1100), +but of similar character, though less elaborate. They all contain +piscinas and other evidences of the existence of altars in considerable +numbers. They are all apsidal. The most picturesque is that of +Worcester, the work of Bishop Wulfstan (1084), which is remarkable for +the multiplicity of small pillars supporting its radiating vaults. +Instead of having the air of a sepulchral vault like those of Winchester +and Gloucester, this crypt is, in Professor Willis's words, "a complex +and beautiful temple." Archbishop Roger's crypt at York, belonging to +the next century (1154-1181), was filled up with earth when the present +choir was built at the end of the 14th century, and its existence +forgotten till its disinterment after the fire of 1829. The choir and +presbytery at Rochester are supported by an extensive crypt, of which +the western portion is Gundulf's work (1076-1107), but the eastern part, +which displays slender cylindrical and octagonal shafts, with light +vaulting springing from them, is of the same period as the +superstructure, the first years of the 13th century. This crypt, and +that beneath the Early English Lady chapel at Hereford, are the latest +English existing cathedral crypts. That at Hereford was rendered +necessary by the fall of the ground, and is an exceptional case. Later +than any of these crypts was that of St Paul's, London. This was a +really large and magnificent church of Decorated date, with a vaulted +roof of rich and intricate character resting on a forest of clustered +columns. Part of it served as the parish church of St Faith. A still +more exquisite work of the Decorated period is the crypt of St Stephen's +chapel at Westminster, than which it is difficult to conceive anything +more perfect in design or more elaborate in ornamentation. Having +happily escaped the conflagration of the Houses of Parliament in +1834--before which it was degraded to the purpose of the speaker's state +dining-room--it has been restored to its former sumptuousness of +decoration, and is now one of the most beautiful architectural gems in +England. + +Of Scottish cathedrals the only one that possesses a crypt is the +cathedral of Glasgow, rendered celebrated by Sir Walter Scott in his +novel of _Rob Roy_ (ch. xx.). At the supposed date of the tale, and +indeed till a comparatively recent period, this crypt was used as a +place of worship by one of the three congregations among which the +cathedral was partitioned, and was known as "the Laigh or Barony Kirk." +It extends beneath the choir transepts and chapter-house; in consequence +of the steep declivity on which the cathedral stands it is of unusual +height and lightsomeness. It belongs to the 13th century, its style +corresponding to Early English, and is simply constructional, the +building being adapted to the locality. In architectural beauty it is +quite unequalled by any crypt in the United Kingdom, and can hardly +anywhere be surpassed. It is an unusually rich example of the style, the +clustered piers and groining being exquisite in design and admirable in +execution. The bosses of the roof and capitals of the piers are very +elaborate, and the doors are much enriched with foliage. "There is a +solidity in its architecture, a richness in its vaulting, and a variety +of perspective in the spacing of its pillars, which make it one of the +most perfect pieces of architecture in these kingdoms" (Fergusson). + +In the centre of the main alley stands the mutilated effigy of St Mungo, +the patron saint of Glasgow, and at the south-east corner is a well +called after the same saint. + +Crypts under parish churches are not very uncommon in England, but they +are usually small and not characterized by any architectural beauty. A +few of the earlier crypts, however, deserve notice. One of the earliest +and most remarkable is that of the church of Lastingham near Pickering +in Yorkshire, on the site of the monastery founded in 648 by Cedd, +bishop of the East Saxons. The existing crypt, though exceedingly rude +in structure, is of considerably later date than Bishop Cedd, forming +part of the church erected by Abbot Stephen of Whitby in 1080, when he +had been driven inland by the incursions of the northern pirates. This +crypt is remarkable from its extending under the nave as well as the +chancel of the upper church, the plan of which it accurately reproduces, +with the exception of the westernmost bay. It forms a nave with side +aisles of three bays, and an apsidal chancel, lighted by narrow deeply +splayed slits. The roof of quadripartite vaulting is supported by four +very dwarf thick cylindrical columns, the capitals of which and of the +responds are clumsy imitations of classical work with rude volutes. +Still more curious is the crypt beneath the chancel of the church of +Repton in Derbyshire. This also consists of a centre and side aisles, +divided by three arches on either side. The architectural character, +however, is very different from that at Lastingham, and is in some +respects almost unique, the piers being slender, and some of them of a +singular spiral form, with a bead running in the sunken part of the +spiral. Another very extensive and curious Norman crypt is that beneath +the chancel of St Peter's-in-the-East at Oxford. This is five bays in +length, the quadripartite vaulting being supported by eight low, +somewhat slender, cylindrical columns with capitals bearing grotesque +animal and human subjects. Its dimensions are 36 by 20 ft. and 10 ft. in +height. This crypt has been commonly attributed to Grymboldt in the 9th +century; but it is really not very early Norman. Under the church of St +Mary-le-Bow in London there is an interesting Norman crypt not very +dissimilar in character to that last described. Of a later date is the +remarkably fine Early English crypt groined in stone, beneath the +chancel of Hythe in Kent, containing a remarkable collection of skulls +and bones, the history of which is quite uncertain. There is also a +Decorated crypt beneath the chancel at Wimborne minster, and one of the +same date beneath the southern chancel aisle at Grantham. + +Among the more remarkable French crypts may be mentioned those of the +cathedrals of Auxerre, said to date from the original foundation in +1085; of Bayeux, attributed to Odo, bishop of that see, uterine brother +of William the Conqueror, where twelve columns with rude capitals +support a vaulted roof; of Chartres, running under the choir and its +aisles, frequently assigned to Bishop Fulbert in 1029, but more probably +coeval with the superstructure; and of Bourges, where the crypt is in +the Pointed style, extending beneath the choir. The church of the Holy +Trinity attached to Queen Matilda's foundation--the "Abbaye aux Dames" +at Caen--has a Norman crypt where the thirty-four pillars are as closely +set as those at Worcester. The church of St Eutropius at Saintes has +also a crypt of the 11th century, of very large dimensions, which +deserves special notice; the capitals of the columns exhibit very +curious carvings. Earlier than any already mentioned is that of St +Gervase of Rouen, considered by E. A. Freeman "the oldest ecclesiastical +work to be seen north of the Alps." It is apsidal, and in its walls are +layers of Roman brick. It is said to contain the remains of two of the +earliest apostles of Gaul--St Mello and St Avitian. There are numerous +crypts in Germany. One at Gottingen may be mentioned, where cylindrical +shafts with capitals of singular design support "vaulting of great +elegance and lightness" (Fergusson), the curves being those of a +horseshoe arch. The crypts of the cathedrals or churches at Halberstadt, +Hildesheim and Naumburg also deserve to be noticed; that of Lubeck may +be rather called a lower choir. It is 20 ft. high and vaulted. + +The Italian crypts, when found, as a rule reproduce the "confessio" of +the primitive churches. That beneath the chancel of S. Michele at Pavia +is an excellent typical example, probably dating from the 10th century. +It is apsidal and vaulted, and is seven bays in length. That at S. Zeno +at Verona (c. 1138) is still more remarkable; its vaulted roof is +upborne by forty columns, with curiously carved capitals. It is +approached from the west by a double flight of steps and contains many +ancient monuments. S. Miniato at Florence, begun in 1013, has a very +spacious crypt at the east end, forming virtually a second choir. It is +seven bays in length and vaulted. The most remarkable crypt in Italy, +however, is perhaps that of St Mark's, Venice. The plan of this is +almost a Greek cross. Four rows of nine columns each run from end to +end, and two rows of three each occupy the arms of the cross, supporting +low stunted arches on which rests the pavement of the church above. This +also constitutes a lower church, containing a _chorus cantorum_ formed +by a low stone screen, not unlike that of S. Clemente at Rome (see +BASILICA), enclosing a massive stone altar with four low columns. This +crypt is reasonably supposed to belong to the church founded by the doge +P. Orseolo in 977. There are also crypts deserving notice at the +cathedrals of Brescia, Fiesole and Modena, and the churches of S. +Ambrogio and S. Eustorgio at Milan. The former was unfortunately +modernized by St Charles Borromeo. The crypt at Assisi is really a +second church at a lower level, and being built on the steep side of a +hill is well lighted. The whole fabric is a beautiful specimen of +Italian Gothic, and both the lower and upper churches are covered with +rich frescoes. + +Domestic crypts are of frequent occurrence. Medieval houses had as a +rule their chief rooms raised above the level of the ground upon vaulted +substructures, which were used as cellars and storerooms. These were +sometimes partially underground, sometimes entirely above it. The +underground vaults often remain when all the superstructure has been +swept away, and from their Gothic character are frequently mistaken for +ecclesiastical buildings. The older English towns are full of crypts of +this character, now used as cellars. They occur in Oxford and Rochester, +are very abundant in the older parts of Bristol, and, according to J. H. +Parker, "nearly the whole city of Chester is built upon a series of them +with the Rows or passages made on the top of the vaults" (_Domestic +Architecture_, iii. 91). The crypt of Gerard's Hall in London, destroyed +in the construction of New Cannon Street, figured by Parker (_Dom. +Arch._ ii. 185), was a beautiful example of the lower storey of the +residence of a wealthy merchant of the time of Edward I. It was divided +down the middle by a row of four slender cylindrical columns supporting +a very graceful vault. The finest example of a secular crypt now +remaining in England is that beneath the Guildhall of London. The date +of this is early in the 15th century--1411. It is a large and lofty +apartment, divided into four alleys by two rows of clustered shafts +supporting a rich lierne vault with ribs of considerable intricacy. +There is a fine vaulted crypt of the same date and of similar character +beneath St Mary's Hall, the Guildhall of the city of Coventry. (E. V.) + + + + +CRYPTEIA (Gr. [Greek: kryptein], to hide), a kind of secret police in +ancient Sparta, founded, according to Aristotle, by Lycurgus; there is, +however, no real evidence as to the date of its origin. The institution +was under the supervision of the ephors, who, on entering office, +annually proclaimed war against the helots (serf-class) and thus +absolved from the guilt of murder any Spartan who should slay a helot. +It was instituted primarily as a precaution against the ever-present +danger of a helot revolt, and secondarily perhaps as a training for +young Spartans, who were sent out by the ephors to keep watch on the +helots and assassinate any who might appear dangerous. Plato (_Laws_, i. +p. 633) emphasizes the former aspect, but there can be little doubt +that, at all events after the revolt of 464 (see Cimon), its more +sinister purpose was predominant, as we may gather from the secret +massacre of 2000 helots who, on the invitation of the ephors, claimed to +have rendered distinguished service (Thuc. iv. 80). + + See HELOTS; EPHOR; also A. H. J. Greenidge, _Handbook of Gk. Const. + Hist._ (London, 1896); G. Gilbert, _Gk. Const. Antiq._ (Eng. trans., + London, 1895). + + + + +CRYPTOBRANCHUS, a genus of thoroughly aquatic, but lung-breathing tailed +Batrachia, of the family _Amphiumidae_, characterized by a heavy, +flattened build, a very porous tubercular skin, with a frilled fold +along each side, short stout limbs with four very short fingers and five +very short toes, and minute eyes without lids. The vertebrae are +biconcave, and although the gills are lost in the adult, ossified +gill-arches, two to four in number, persist. A strong series of vomerine +teeth extends across the palate. Three species of this genus are known. +One is the well-known fossil of Oeningen first described as _Homo +diluvii testis_ and shown by Cuvier to be nearly related to the gigantic +salamander of Japan, _Cryptobranchus maximus_, which has since been +found to inhabit China also; the third is the hellbender, mud-puppy or +water-dog of North America, _C. alleghaniensis_, also known under the +name of _Menopoma_. Both the fossil _C. scheuchzeri_ and _C. maximus_ +grow to a length of over 5 ft. and are by far the largest Urodeles +known, whilst _C. alleghaniensis_ reaches the respectable length of 18 +in. + +The eggs are laid in rosary-like strings. They have been found, in +Japan, deposited in deep holes in the water, where they form large +clumps (70 to 80 eggs) round which the female coils herself. The +gigantic salamander has also bred in the Amsterdam zoological gardens, +the eggs numbering upwards of 500; the male, it is stated, took charge +of the eggs, and for the ten weeks which elapsed before the release of +the last larva, he kept close to them, at times crawling among the +coiled mass of egg-strings or lifting them up, evidently for the purpose +of aeration. The larva on leaving the egg is about an inch long, +provided with three branched external gills on each side, and showing +mere rudiments of the four limbs. + + + + +CRYPTOGRAPHY (from Gr. [Greek: kryptos], hidden, and [Greek: graphein], +to write), or writing in cipher, called also steganography (from Gr. +[Greek: stegane], a covering), the art of writing in such a way as to be +incomprehensible except to those who possess the key to the system +employed. The unravelling of the writing is called deciphering. +Cryptography having become a distinct art, Bacon (Lord Verulam) classed +it (under the name _ciphers_) as a part of grammar. Secret modes of +communication have been in use from the earliest times. The +Lacedemonians had a method called the _scytale_, from the staff ([Greek: +skytale]) employed in constructing and deciphering the message. When the +Spartan ephors wished to forward their orders to their commanders +abroad, they wound slantwise a narrow strip of parchment upon the +[Greek: skytale] so that the edges met close together, and the message +was then added in such a way that the centre of the line of writing was +on the edges of the parchment. When unwound the scroll consisted of +broken letters; and in that condition it was despatched to its +destination, the general to whose hands it came deciphering it by means +of a [Greek: skytale] exactly corresponding to that used by the ephors. +Polybius has enumerated other methods of cryptography. + +The art was in use also amongst the Romans. Upon the revival of letters +methods of secret correspondence were introduced into private business, +diplomacy, plots, &c.; and as the study of this art has always presented +attractions to the ingenious, a curious body of literature has been the +result. + +John Trithemius (d. 1516), the abbot of Spanheim, was the first +important writer on cryptography. His _Polygraphia_, published in 1518, +has passed through many editions, and has supplied the basis upon which +subsequent writers have worked. It was begun at the desire of the duke +of Bavaria; but Trithemius did not at first intend to publish it, on the +ground that it would be injurious to public interests. A +_Steganographia_ published at Lyons (? 1551) and later at Frankfort +(1606), is also attributed to him. The next treatises of importance were +those of Giovanni Battista della Porta, the Neapolitan mathematician, +who wrote _De furtivis litterarum notis_, 1563; and of Blaise de +Vigenere, whose _Traite des chiffres_ appeared in Paris, 1587. Bacon +proposed an ingenious system of cryptography on the plan of what is +called the double cipher; but while thus lending to the art the +influence of his great name, he gave an intimation as to the general +opinion formed of it and as to the classes of men who used it. For when +prosecuting the earl of Somerset in the matter of the poisoning of +Overbury, he urged it as an aggravation of the crime that the earl and +Overbury "had cyphers and jargons for the king and queen and all the +great men,--things seldom used but either by princes and their +ambassadors and ministers, or by such as work or practise against or, at +least, upon princes." + +Other eminent Englishmen were afterwards connected with the art. John +Wilkins, subsequently bishop of Chester, published in 1641 an anonymous +treatise entitled _Mercury, or The Secret and Swift Messenger_,--a small +but comprehensive work on the subject, and a timely gift to the +diplomatists and leaders of the Civil War. The deciphering of many of +the royalist papers of that period, such as the letters that fell into +the hands of the parliament at the battle of Naseby, has by Henry Stubbe +been charged on the celebrated mathematician Dr John Wallis (_Athen. +Oxon._ iii. 1072), whose connexion with the subject of cipher-writing is +referred to by himself in the Oxford edition of his mathematical works, +1689, p. 659; as also by John Davys. Dr Wallis elsewhere states that +this art, formerly scarcely known to any but the secretaries of princes, +&c., had grown very common and familiar during the civil commotions, "so +that now there is scarce a person of quality but is more or less +acquainted with it, and doth, as there is occasion, make use of it." +Subsequent writers on the subject are John Falconer (_Cryptomenysis +patefacta_), 1685; John Davys (_An Essay on the Art of Decyphering: in +which is inserted a Discourse of Dr Wallis_), 1737; Philip Thicknesse +(_A Treatise on the Art of Decyphering and of Writing in Cypher_), 1772; +William Blair (the writer of the comprehensive article "Cipher" in +Rees's _Cyclopaedia_), 1819; and G. von Marten (Cours _diplomatique_), +1801 (a fourth edition of which appeared in 1851). Perhaps the best +modern work on this subject is the _Kryptographik_ of J. L. Kluber +(Tubingen, 1809), who was drawn into the investigation by inclination +and official circumstances. In this work the different methods of +cryptography are classified. Amongst others of lesser merit who have +treated of this art may be named Gustavus Selenus (i.e. Augustus, duke +of Brunswick), 1624; Cospi, translated by Niceron in 1641; the marquis +of Worchester, 1659; Kircher, 1663; Schott, 1665; Ludwig Heinrich +Hiller, 1682; Comiers; 1690; Baring, 1737; Conrad, 1739, &c. See also a +paper on _Elizabethan Cipher-books_ by A. J. Butler in the +Bibliographical Society's _Transactions_, London, 1901. + +Schemes of cryptography are endless in their variety. Bacon lays down +the following as the "virtues" to be looked for in them:--"that they be +not laborious to write and read; that they be impossible to decipher; +and, in some cases, that they be without suspicion." These principles +are more or less disregarded by all the modes that have been advanced, +including that of Bacon himself, which has been unduly extolled by his +admirers as "one of the most ingenious methods of writing in cypher, and +the most difficult to be decyphered, of any yet contrived" (Thicknesse, +p. 13). + +The simplest and commonest of all the ciphers is that in which the +writer selects in place of the proper letters certain other letters in +regular advance. This method of transposition was used by Julius Caesar. +He, "per quartam elementorum literam," wrote _d_ for _a_, _e_ for _b_, +and so on. There are instances of this arrangement in the Jewish rabbis, +and even in the sacred writers. An illustration of it occurs in Jeremiah +(xxv. 26), where the prophet, to conceal the meaning of his prediction +from all but the initiated, writes _Sheshak_ instead of Babel (Babylon), +the place meant; i.e. in place of using the second and twelfth letters +of the Hebrew alphabet (_b_, _b_, _l_) from the beginning, he wrote the +second and twelfth (_sh_, _sh_, _k_) from the end. To this kind of +cipher-writing Buxtorf gives the name Athbash (from _a_ the first letter +of the Hebrew alphabet, and _th_ the last; _b_ the second from the +beginning, and _h_ the second from the end). Another Jewish cabalism of +like nature was called Albam; of which an example is in Isaiah vii. 6, +where Tabeal is written for Remaliah. In its adaptation to English this +method of transposition, of which there are many modifications, is +comparatively easy to decipher. A rough key may be derived from an +examination of the respective quantities of letters in a type-founder's +bill, or a printer's "case." The decipherer's first business is to +classify the letters of the secret message in the order of their +frequency. The letter that occurs oftenest is _e_; and the next in order +of frequency is _t_. The following groups come after these, separated +from each other by degrees of decreasing recurrence:--_a_, _o_, _n_, +_i_; _r_, _s_, _h_; _d_, _l_; _c_, _w_, _u_, _m_; _f_, _y_, _g_, _p_, +_b_; _v_, _k_; _x_, _q_, _j_, _z_. All the single letters must be _a_, +_I_ or _O_. Letters occurring together are _ee_, _oo_, _ff_, _ll_, _ss_, +&c. The commonest words of two letters are (roughly arranged in the +order of their frequency) _of_, _to_, _in_, _it_, _is_, _be_, _he_, +_by_, _or_, _as_, _at_, _an_, _so_, &c. The commonest words of three +letters are _the_ and _and_ (in great excess), _for_, _are_, _but_, +_all_, _not_, &c.; and of four letters--_that_, _with_, _from_, _have_, +_this_, _they_, &c. Familiarity with the composition of the language +will suggest numerous other points that are of value to the decipherer. +He may obtain other hints from Poe's tale called _The Gold Bug_. As to +messages in the continental languages constructed upon this system of +transposition, rules for deciphering may be derived from Breithaupt's +_Ars decifratoria_ (1737), and other treatises. + +Bacon remarks that though ciphers were commonly in letters and alphabets +yet they might be in words. Upon this basis codes have been constructed, +classified words taken from dictionaries being made to represent +complete ideas. In recent years such codes have been adapted by +merchants and others to communications by telegraph, and have served the +purpose not only of keeping business affairs private, but also of +reducing the excessive cost of telegraphic messages to distant markets. +Obviously this class of ciphers presents greater difficulties to the +skill of the decipherer. + +Figures and other characters have been also used as letters; and with +them ranges of numerals have been combined as the representatives of +syllables, parts of words, words themselves, and complete phrases. Under +this head must be placed the despatches of Giovanni Michael, the +Venetian ambassador to England in the reign of Queen Mary, documents +which have only of late years been deciphered. Many of the private +letters and papers from the pen of Charles I. and his queen, who were +adepts in the use of ciphers, are of the same description. One of that +monarch's letters, a document of considerable interest, consisting +entirely of numerals purposely complicated, was in 1858 deciphered by +Professor Wheatstone, the inventor of the ingenious crypto-machine, and +printed by the Philobiblon Society. Other letters of the like character +have been published in the _First Report of the Royal Commission on +Historical Manuscripts_ (1870). In the second and subsequent reports of +the same commission several keys to ciphers have been catalogued, which +seem to refer themselves to the methods of cryptography under notice. In +this connexion also should be mentioned the "characters," which the +diarist Pepys drew up when clerk to Sir George Downing and secretary to +the earl of Sandwich and to the admiralty, and which are frequently +mentioned in his journal. Pepys describes one of them as "a great large +character," over which he spent much time, but which was at length +finished, 25th April 1660; "it being," says he, "very handsomely done +and a very good one in itself, but that not truly alphabetical." + +Shorthand marks and other arbitrary characters have also been largely +imported into cryptographic systems to represent both letters and words, +but more commonly the latter. This plan is said to have been first put +into use by the old Roman poet Ennius. It formed the basis of the method +of Cicero's freedman, Tiro, who seems to have systematized the labours +of his predecessors. A large quantity of these characters have been +engraved in Gruter's _Inscriptiones_. The correspondence of Charlemagne +was in part made up of marks of this nature. In Rees's _Cyclopaedia_ +specimens were engraved of the cipher used by Cardinal Wolsey at the +court of Vienna in 1524, of that used by Sir Thomas Smith at Paris in +1563, and of that of Sir Edward Stafford in 1586; in all of which +arbitrary marks are introduced. The first English system of +shorthand--Bright's _Characterie_, 1588--almost belongs to the same +category of ciphers. A favourite system of Charles I., used by him +during the year 1646, was one made up of an alphabet of twenty-four +letters, which were represented by four simple strokes varied in length, +slope and position. This alphabet is engraved in Clive's _Linear System +of Shorthand_ (1830), having been found amongst the royal manuscripts in +the British Museum. An interest attaches to this cipher from the fact +that it was employed in the well-known letter addressed by the king to +the earl of Glamorgan, in which the former made concessions to the Roman +Catholics of Ireland. + +Complications have been introduced into ciphers by the employment of +"dummy" letters,--"nulls and insignificants," as Bacon terms them. Other +devices have been introduced to perplex the decipherer, such as spelling +words backwards, making false divisions between words, &c. The greatest +security against the decipherer has been found in the use of elaborate +tables of letters, arranged in the form of the multiplication table, the +message being constructed by the aid of preconcerted key-words. Details +of the working of these ciphers may be found in the treatises named in +this article. The deciphering of them is one of the most difficult of +tasks. A method of this kind is explained in the Latin and English lives +of Dr John Barwick, whose correspondence with Hyde, afterwards earl of +Clarendon, was carried on in cryptography. In a letter dated 20th +February 1659/60, Hyde, alluding to the skill of his political opponents +in deciphering, says that "nobody needs to fear them, if they write +carefully in good cyphers." In his next he allays his correspondent's +apprehensiveness as to the deciphering of their letters. + + "I confess to you, as I am sure no copy could be gotten of any of my + cyphers from hence, so I did not think it probable that they could be + got on your side the water. But I was as confident, till you tell me + you believe it, that the devil himself cannot decypher a letter that + is well written, or find that 100 stands for Sir H. Vane. I have heard + of many of the pretenders to that skill, and have spoken with some of + them, but have found them all to be mountebanks; nor did I ever hear + that more of the King's letters that were found at Naseby, than those + which they found decyphered, or found the cyphers in which they were + writ, were decyphered. And I very well remember that in the volume + they published there was much left in cypher which could not be + understood, and which I believe they would have explained if it had + been in their power." + +An excellent modification of the key-word principle was constructed by +Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort. + +Ciphers have been constructed on the principle of altering the places of +the letters without changing their powers. The message is first written +Chinese-wise, upward and downward, and the letters are then combined in +given rows from left to right. In the celebrated cipher used by the earl +of Argyll when plotting against James II., he altered the positions of +the words. Sentences of an indifferent nature were constructed, but the +real meaning of the message was to be gathered from words, placed at +certain intervals. This method, which is connected with the name of +Cardan, is sometimes called the trellis or cardboard cipher. + +The wheel-cipher, which is an Italian invention, the string-cipher, the +circle-cipher and many others are fully explained, with the necessary +diagrams, in the authorities named above--more particularly by Kluber in +his _Kryptographik_. (J. E. B.) + + + + +CRYPTOMERIA, or JAPANESE CEDAR, a genus of conifers, containing a single +species, _C. japonica_, native of China and Japan, which was introduced +into Great Britain by the Royal Horticultural Society in 1844. It is +described as one of the finest trees in Japan, reaching a height of 100 +or more feet, usually divested of branches along the lower part of the +trunk and crowned with a conical head. The narrow, pointed leaves are +spirally arranged and persist for four or five years; the cones are +small, globose and borne at the ends of the branchlets, the scales are +thickened at the extremity and divided into sharply pointed lobes, three +to five seeds are borne on each scale. _Cryptomeria_ is extensively used +in Japan for reafforesting denuded lands, as it is a valuable timber +tree; it is also planted to form avenues along the public roads. In +Veitch's _Manual of Coniferae_ (ed. 2, 1900, p. 265) reference is made +to "an avenue of Cryptomerias 7 m. in extent near Lake Hakone" in which +"the trees are more than 100 ft. high, with perfectly straight trunks +crowned with conical heads of foliage." Professor C. S. Sargent, in his +_Forest Flora of Japan_, says, "Japan owes much of the beauty of its +groves and gardens to the _Cryptomeria_. Nowhere is there a more solemn +and impressive group of trees than that which surrounds the temples and +tombs at Nikko where they rise to a height of 100 to 125 ft.; it is a +stately tree with no rival except in the sequoias of California." Many +curious varieties have been obtained by Japanese horticulturists, +including some dwarf shrubby forms not exceeding a few feet in height. +When grown in Great Britain _Cryptomeria_ requires a deep, well-drained +soil with plenty of moisture, and protection from cold winds. + + + + +CRYPTO-PORTICUS (Gr. [Greek: kryptos], concealed, and Lat. _porticus_), +an architectural term for a concealed or covered passage, generally +underground, though lighted and ventilated from the open air. One of the +best-known examples is the crypto-porticus under the palaces of the +Caesars in Rome. In Hadrian's villa in Rome they formed the principal +private intercommunication between the several buildings. + + + + +CRYSTAL-GAZING, or SCRYING, the term commonly applied to the induction +of visual hallucinations by concentrating the gaze on any clear deep, +such as a crystal or a ball of polished rock crystal. Some persons do +not even find a clear deep necessary, and are content to gaze at the +palm of the hand, for example, when hallucinatory pictures, as they +declare, emerge. Among objects used are a pool of ink in the hand +(Egypt), the liver of an animal (tribes of the North-West Indian +frontier), a hole filled with water (Polynesia), quartz crystals (the +Apaches and the Euahlayi tribe of New South Wales), a smooth slab of +polished black stone (the Huille-che of South America), water in a +vessel (Zulus and Siberians), a crystal (the Incas), a mirror (classical +Greece and the middle ages), the finger-nail, a sword-blade, a +ring-stone, a glass of sherry, in fact almost anything. Much depends on +what the "seer" is accustomed to use, and some persons who can "scry" in +a glass ball or a glass water-bottle cannot "scry" in ink. + +The practice of inducing pictorial hallucinations by such methods as +these has been traced among the natives of North and South America, +Asia, Australia, Africa, among the Maoris, who sometimes use a drop of +blood, and in Polynesia, and is thus practically of world-wide +diffusion. This fact was not observed (that is, the collections of +examples were not made) till recently, when experiments in private +non-spiritualist circles drew attention to crystal-gazing, a practice +always popular among peasants, and known historically to have survived +through classical and medieval times, and, as in the famous case of Dr +Dee, after the Reformation. + +The early church condemned _specularii_ (mirror-gazers), and Aubrey and +the _Memoirs_ of Saint-Simon contain "scrying" anecdotes of the 17th and +18th centuries, while Sir Walter Scott's story, _My Aunt Margaret's +Mirror_, is based on a tradition of about 1750 in a noble Scottish +family. The practice, in all times and countries, was used for purposes +of divination. The gazer detected unknown criminals, or described remote +events, or even professed to foretell things future. Sometimes the +supposed magician or medicine man himself did the scrying; occasionally +he enabled his client to see for himself; often a child was selected as +the scryer. The process was usually explained as the result of the +action of a spirit, angel or devil, and many unessential formulae, +invocations, "calls," written charms with cabbalistic signs, and +fumigations, were employed. These things may have had some effect by way +of suggestion; the scryer may have been brought by them into an +appropriate frame of mind; but, as a whole, they are tedious and +superfluous. + +A person can either induce the pictorial hallucinations (he may discover +his capacity by accident, like George Sand, as she tells in her +_Memoirs_--and other cases are known), or he cannot induce them, though +he stare till his eyes water. It is almost universally found, in cases +of successful experiment, that the glass ball, for example, takes a +milky or misty aspect, that it then grows black, reflections +disappearing, and that then the pictures emerge. Some people arrive at +seeing the glass ball milky or misty, and can go no further. Others see +pictures of persons or landscapes, only in black and white, and +motionless. Others see in the glass coloured figures of men, women and +animals in motion; while in rarer cases the ball disappears from view, +and the scryer finds himself apparently looking at an actual scene. In a +few attested cases two persons have shared the same vision. In +experiments with magnifying glasses, and through spars, the ordinary +effects of magnifying and of alteration of view are sometimes produced; +sometimes they are not. The evidence, of course, is necessarily only +that of the scryers themselves, but repeated experiments by persons of +probity, and unfamiliar with the topic, combined with the world-wide +existence of the practice, prove that hallucinatory pictures are really +induced. + +It has not been found possible to determine, before experiment, whether +any given man or woman will prove capable of the hallucinatory +experiences. Many subjects with strong powers of "visualization," or +seeing things "in the mind's eye," cannot scry; others are successful in +various degrees. We might expect persons who have experienced +spontaneous visual hallucinations, of the kind vulgarly styled "ghosts" +or "wraiths," to succeed in inducing pictures in a glass ball. As a +matter of fact such persons sometimes can and sometimes cannot see +pictures in the way of crystal-gazing; while many who can see in the +crystal have had no spontaneous hallucinations. It is useless to make +experiments with hysterical and visionary people, "whose word no man +relies on"; they may have the hallucinatory experiences, but they would +say that they had in any case. + +The nearest analogy to crystal visions, as described, is the common +experience of "hypnagogic illusions" (cf. Alfred Maury. _Les Reves et le +sommeil_). With closed eyes, between sleeping and waking, many people +see faces, landscapes and other things flash upon their view, pictures +often brilliant, but of very brief duration and rapid mutation. +Sometimes the subject opens his eyes to get rid of an unpleasant vision +of this kind. People who cannot scry may have these hypnagogic +illusions, and, so far, may partly understand the experience of the +scryer who is wide awake. But the visions of the scryer often endure for +a considerable time. He or she may put the glass down and converse, and +may find the picture still there when the ball is taken up again. New +figures may join the figure first seen, as when one enters a room. In +these respects, and in the awakeness of the scryer, crystal pictures +differ from hypnagogic illusions. In other ways the experiences +coincide, the pictures are either fanciful, like illustrations of some +unread history or romance, or are revivals of remembered places and +faces. + +Occasionally, in hypnagogic illusions, the observer can see the picture +develop rapidly out of a blot of light or colour, beheld by the closed +eyes. One or two scryers think that they, too, can trace the picture as +it develops on the suggestion of some passage of light, colour or shadow +in the glass or crystal. But, as a rule, the scryer cannot detect any +process of development from such _points de mire_; though this may be +the actual process. + +On the whole there seems little doubt that successful crystal-gazing is +the exertion of a not uncommon though far from universal faculty, like +those of "chromatic audition"--the vivid association of certain sounds +with certain colours--and the mental seeing of figures arranged in +coloured diagrams (Galton, _Inquiry into Human Faculty_, pp. 114-154). +The experience of hypnagogic illusions also seems far more rare than +ordinary dreaming in sleep. Unfortunately, while these phenomena have +been carefully studied by officially scientific characters, in England +orthodox _savants_ have disdained to observe crystal-gazing, while in +France psychologists have too commonly experimented with subjects +professionally hysterical and quite untrustworthy. Our remarks are +therefore based mainly on considerable personal study of "scrying" among +normal British subjects of both sexes, to whom the topic was previously +unknown. + +The superstitious associations of crystal-gazing, as of hypnotism, +appear to bar the way to official scientific investigation, and the +fluctuating proficiency of the seers, who cannot command success, or +determine the causes and conditions of success and failure, tends in the +same direction. The existence, too, of paid professionals who lead +astray silly women, encourages the natural scientific contempt for the +study of the faculty. + +The seeing of the pictures, as far as we have spoken of it, appears to +be a thing unusual, but in no way abnormal, any more than dreams or +hypnagogic illusions are abnormal. Crystal pictures, however, are +commonly dismissed as mere results of "imagination," a theory which, of +course, is of no real assistance to psychology. Persons of recognized +"imaginativeness," such as novelists and artists, do not seem more or +less capable of the hallucinatory experiences than their sober +neighbours; while persons not otherwise recognizably "imaginative" (we +could quote a singularly accurate historian) are capable of the +experiences. It is unfortunate, as it awakens prejudice, but in the +present writer's opinion it is true, that crystal-gazing sometimes is +rewarded with results which may be styled "supra-normal." In addition to +the presentation of revived memories, and of "objectivation of ideas or +images consciously or unconsciously in the mind of the percipient," +there occur "visions, possibly telepathic or clairvoyant, implying +acquirement of knowledge by supra-normal means."[1] + +A number of examples occurring during experiments made by the present +writer and by his acquaintances in 1897 were carefully recorded and +attested by the signatures of all concerned The cases, or rather a +selection of the cases, are printed in A. Lang's book, _The Making of +Religion_ (2nd ed., London, 1902, pp. 87-104). Others are chronicled in +A. Lang's Introduction to Mr N. W. Thomas's work, _Crystal Gazing_ +(1905). The experiments took this form: any person might ask the scryer +(a lady who had never previously heard of crystal-gazing) "to see what +he was thinking of." The scryer, who was a stranger in a place which she +had not visited before, gave, in a long series of cases, a description +of the person or place on which the inquirer's thoughts were fixed. The +descriptions, though three or four entire failures occurred, were of +remarkable accuracy as a rule, and contained facts and incidents unknown +to the inquirers, but confirmed as accurate. In fact, some Oriental +scenes and descriptions of incidents were corroborated by a letter from +India which arrived just after the experiment; and the same thing +happened when the events described were occurring in places less remote. +On one occasion a curious set of incidents were described, which +happened to be vividly present to the mind of a sceptical stranger who +chanced to be in the room during the experiment; events unknown to the +inquirer in this instance. As an example of the minuteness of +description, an inquirer, thinking of a brother in India, an officer in +the army, whose hair had suffered in an encounter with a tiger, had +described to her an officer in undress uniform, with bald scars through +the hair on his temples, such as he really bore. The number and +proportion of successes was too high to admit of explanation by chance +coincidence, but success was not invariable. On one occasion the scryer +could see nothing, "the crystal preserved its natural diaphaneity," as +Dr Dee says; and there were failures with two or three inquirers. On the +other hand no record was kept in several cases of success. + +Whoever can believe that the successes were numerous and that +descriptions were given correctly--not only of facts present to the +minds of inquirers, and of other persons present who were not +consciously taking a share in the experiments, but also of facts +necessarily unknown to all concerned--must of course be most impressed +by the latter kind of success. If the process commonly styled +"telepathy" exists (see TELEPATHY), that may account for the scryer's +power of seeing facts which are in the mind of the inquirer. But when +the scryers see details of various sorts, which are unknown to the +inquirer, but are verified on inquiry, then telepathy perhaps fails to +provide an explanation. We seem to be confronted with actual +clairvoyance (q.v.), or _vue a distance_. It would be vain to form +hypotheses as to the conditions or faculties which make _vue a distance_ +possible. This way lie metaphysics, with Hegel's theory of the Sensitive +Soul, or Myers' theory of the Subliminal Self. "The intuitive soul," +says Hegel, "oversteps the conditions of time and space; it beholds +things remote, things long past, and things to come."[2] + +What we need, if any progress is to be made in knowledge of the subject, +is not a metaphysical hypothesis, but a large, carefully tested, and +well-recorded collection of examples, made by _savants_ of recognized +standing. At present we are where we were in electrical science, when +Newton produced curious sparks while rubbing glass with paper. By way of +facts, we have only a large body of unattested anecdotes of supra-normal +successes in crystal-gazing, in many lands and ages; and the scanty +records of modern amateur investigators, like the present writer. Even +from these, if the honesty of all concerned be granted (and even clever +dishonesty could not have produced many of the results), it would appear +that we are investigating a strange and important human faculty. The +writer is acquainted with no experiments in which it was attempted to +discern the future (except in trivial cases as to events on the turf, +when chance coincidence might explain the successes), and only with two +or three cases in which there was an attempt to help historical science +and discern the past by aid of psychical methods. The results were +interesting and difficult to explain, but the experiments were few. +Ordinary scryers of fancy pictures are common enough, but scryers +capable of apparently supra-normal successes are apparently rare. +Perhaps something depends on the inquirer as well as the scryer. + +The method of scrying, as generally practised, is simple. It is usual to +place a glass ball on a dark ground, to sit with the back to the light, +to focus the gaze on the ball (disregarding reflections, if these cannot +be excluded), and to await results. Perhaps from five to ten minutes is +a long enough time for the experiment. The scryer may let his +consciousness play freely, but should not be disturbed by lookers-on. As +a rule, if a person has the faculty he "sees" at the first attempt; if +he fails in the first three or four efforts he need not persevere. +Solitude is advisable at first, but few people can find time amounting +to ten minutes for solitary studies of this sort, so busy and so +gregarious is mankind. The writer has no experience of trance, sleep or +auto-hypnotization produced in such experiments; scryers have always +seemed to retain their full normal consciousness. As regards scepticism +concerning the faculty we may quote what Mr Galton says about the +faculty of visualization: "Scientific men as a class have feeble power +of visual reproduction.... They had a mental deficiency of which they +were unconscious, and, naturally enough, supposed that those who +affirmed _they_ were possessed of it were romancing." + + AUTHORITIES.--A useful essay is that of "Miss X" (Miss Goodrich Freer) + in the _Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research_, v. The + history of crystal-gazing is here traced, and many examples of the + author's own experiments are recorded. A. Lang's _The Making of + Religion_, ch. v., contains anthropological examples and a series of + experiments. In N. W. Thomas's _Crystal Gazing_ the history and + anthropology of the subject are investigated, with modern instances. + For Egypt, see Lane's _Modern Egyptians_, and the _Journal_ of Sir + Walter Scott, xi. 419-421, with _Quarterly Review_, No. 117, pp. + 196-208. These Egyptian experiments of 1830 were vitiated by their + method, the scryer being asked to see and describe a given person, + named. He ought not, of course, to be told more than that he is to + descry the inquirer's thoughts, and there ought never to be physical + contact, as in holding hands, between the inquirer and the scryer + during the experiment. There is a chapter on crystal-gazing in _Les + Nevroses et les idees fixes_ of Dr Janet (1898). His statements are + sometimes demonstrably inaccurate (see _Making of Religion_, Appendix + C). A curious passage on the subject, by Ibn Khaldun, an Arabian + medieval _savant_, is quoted by Mr Thomas from the printed Extracts of + MSS. in the Bibliotheque Nationale. There is also a chapter on + crystal-gazing in Myers' _Human Personality_. (A. L.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research_, v. 486. + + [2] "Philosophie der Geistes," Hegel's _Werke_, vii. 179, 406, 408 + (Berlin, 1845). Cf. Wallace's translation (Oxford, 1894). + + + + +CRYSTALLITE. In media which, on account of their viscosity, offer +considerable resistance to those molecular movements which are necessary +for the building and growth of crystals, rudimentary or imperfect forms +of crystallization very frequently occur. Such media are the volcanic +rocks when they are rapidly cooled, producing various kinds of +pitchstone, obsidian, &c. When examined under the microscope these rocks +consist largely of a perfectly amorphous or glassy base, through which +are scattered great numbers of very minute crystals (microliths), and +other bodies, termed crystallites, which seem to be stages in the +formation of crystals. Crystallites may also be produced by allowing a +solution of sulphur in carbon disulphide mixed with Canada balsam to +evaporate slowly, and their development may be watched on a microscopic +slide. Small globules appear (globulites), spherical and non-crystalline +(so far as can be ascertained). They may coalesce or may arrange +themselves into rows like strings of beads--margarites--(Gr. [Greek: +margarites], a pearl) or into groups with a somewhat radiate +arrangement--globospherites. Occasionally they take elongated +shapes--longulites and baculites (Lat. _baculus_, a staff). The largest +may become crystalline, changing suddenly into polyhedral bodies with +evident double refraction and the optical properties belonging to +crystals. Others become long and thread-like--trichites (Gr. [Greek: +thrix, trichos], hair)--and these are often curved, and a group of them +may be implanted on the surface of a small crystal. All these forms are +found in vitreous igneous rocks. H. P. J. Vogelsang, who was the first +to direct much attention to them, believes that the globulites are +preliminary stages in the formation of crystals. + +Microliths, as distinguished from crystallites, have crystalline +properties, and evidently belong to definite minerals or salts. When +sufficiently large they are often recognizable, but usually they are so +small, so opaque, or so densely crowded together that this is +impossible. In igneous rocks they are usually felspar, augite, +enstatite, and iron oxides, and are found in abundance only where there +is much uncrystallized glassy base; in contact-altered sediments, slags, +&c., microlithic forms of garnet, spinel, sillimanite, cordierite, +various lime silicates, and many other substances have been observed. +Their form varies greatly, e.g. thin fibres (sillimanite, augite), short +prisms or rods (felspar, enstatite, cordierite), or equidimensional +grains (augite, spinel, magnetite). Occasionally they are perfectly +shaped though minute crystals; more frequently they appear rounded +(magnetite, &c.), or have brush-like terminations (augite, felspar, +&c.). The larger microliths may contain enclosures of glass, and it is +very common to find that the prisms have hollow, funnel-shaped ends, +which are filled with vitreous material. These microliths, under the +influence of crystalline forces, may rank themselves side by side to +make up skeleton crystals and networks, or feathery and arborescent +forms, which obey more or less closely the laws of crystallization of +the substance to which they belong. They bear a very close resemblance +to the arborescent frost flowers seen on window panes in winter, and to +the stellate snow crystals. In magnetite the growths follow three axes +at right angles to one another; in augite this is nearly, though not +exactly, the case; in hornblende an angle of 57 deg. may frequently be +observed, corresponding to the prism angle of the fully-developed +crystal. The interstices of the network may be partly filled up by a +later growth. In other cases the crystalline arrangement of the +microliths is less perfect, and branching, arborescent or feathery +groupings are produced (e.g. felspar, augite, hornblende). Spherulites +may be regarded as radiate aggregates of such microliths (mostly felspar +mixed with quartz or tridymite). If larger porphyritic crystals occur in +the rock, the microliths of the vitreous base frequently grow outwards +from their faces; in some cases a definite parallelism exists between +the two, but more frequently the early crystal has served merely as a +centre, or nucleus, from which the microliths and spherulites have +spread in all directions. (J. S. F.) + + + + +CRYSTALLIZATION, the art of obtaining a substance in the form of +crystals; it is an important process in chemistry since it permits the +purification of a substance, or the separation of the constituents of a +mixture. Generally a substance is more soluble in a solvent at a high +temperature than at a low, and consequently, if a boiling concentrated +solution be allowed to cool, the substance will separate in virtue of +the diminished solubility, and the slower the cooling the larger and +more perfect will be the crystals formed. If, as sometimes appears, such +a solution refuses to crystallize, the expedient of inoculating the +solution with a minute crystal of the same substance, or with a similar +substance, may be adopted; shaking the solution, or the addition of a +drop of another solvent, may also occasion the desired result. +"Fractional crystallization" consists in repeatedly crystallizing a salt +so as to separate the substances of different solubilities. Examples are +especially presented in the study of the rare-earths. Other conditions +under which crystals are formed are given in the article +CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. + + + + +CRYSTALLOGRAPHY (from the Gr. [Greek: krystallos], ice, and [Greek: +graphein], to write), the science of the forms, properties and structure +of crystals. Homogeneous solid matter, the physical and chemical +properties of which are the same about every point, may be either +amorphous or crystalline. In amorphous matter all the properties are the +same in every direction in the mass; but in crystalline matter certain +of the physical properties vary with the direction. The essential +properties of crystalline matter are of two kinds, viz. the general +properties, such as density, specific heat, melting-point and chemical +composition, which do not vary with the direction; and the directional +properties, such as cohesion and elasticity, various optical, thermal +and electrical properties, as well as external form. By reason of the +homogeneity of crystalline matter the directional properties are the +same in all parallel directions in the mass, and there may be a certain +symmetrical repetition of the directions along which the properties are +the same. + +When the crystallization of matter takes place under conditions free +from outside influences the peculiarities of internal structure are +expressed in the external form of the mass, and there results a solid +body bounded by plane surfaces intersecting in straight edges, the +directions of which bear an intimate relation to the internal structure. +Such a polyhedron ([Greek: polys], many, [Greek: hedra], base or face) +is known as a crystal. An example of this is sugar-candy, of which a +single isolated crystal may have grown freely in a solution of sugar. +Matter presenting well-defined and regular crystal forms, either as a +single crystal or as a group of individual crystals, is said to be +crystallized. If, on the other hand, crystallization has taken place +about several centres in a confined space, the development of plane +surfaces may be prevented, and a crystalline aggregate of differently +orientated crystal-individuals results. Examples of this are afforded by +loaf sugar and statuary marble. + +After a brief historical sketch, the more salient principles of the +subject will be discussed under the following sections:-- + + I. CRYSTALLINE FORM. + (a) Symmetry of Crystals. + (b) Simple Forms and Combinations of Forms. + (c) Law of Rational Indices. + (d) Zones. + (e) Projection and Drawing of Crystals. + (f) Crystal Systems and Classes. + 1. Cubic System. + 2. Tetragonal System. + 3. Orthorhombic System. + 4. Monoclinic System. + 5. Anorthic System. + 6. Hexagonal System + (g) Regular Grouping of Crystals (Twinning, &c.). + (h) Irregularities of Growth of Crystals: Characters of Faces. + (i) Theories of Crystal Structure. + + II. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CRYSTALS. + (a) Elasticity and Cohesion (Cleavage, Etching, &c.). + (b) Optical Properties (Interference figures, Pleochroism, + &c.). + (c) Thermal Properties. + (d) Magnetic and Electrical Properties. + + III. RELATIONS BETWEEN CRYSTALLINE FORM AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. + +Most chemical elements and compounds are capable of assuming the +crystalline condition. Crystallization may take place when solid matter +separates from solution (e.g. sugar, salt, alum), from a fused mass +(e.g. sulphur, bismuth, felspar), or from a vapour (e.g. iodine, +camphor, haematite; in the last case by the interaction of ferric +chloride and steam). Crystalline growth may also take place in solid +amorphous matter, for example, in the devitrification of glass, and the +slow change in metals when subjected to alternating stresses. Beautiful +crystals of many substances may be obtained in the laboratory by one or +other of these methods, but the most perfectly developed and largest +crystals are those of mineral substances found in nature, where +crystallization has continued during long periods of time. For this +reason the physical science of crystallography has developed side by +side with that of mineralogy. Really, however, there is just the same +connexion between crystallography and chemistry as between +crystallography and mineralogy, but only in recent years has the +importance of determining the crystallographic properties of +artificially prepared compounds been recognized. + +_History._--The word "crystal" is from the Gr. [Greek: krystallos], +meaning clear ice (Lat. _crystallum_), a name which was also applied to +the clear transparent quartz ("rock-crystal") from the Alps, under the +belief that it had been formed from water by intense cold. It was not +until about the 17th century that the word was extended to other bodies, +either those found in nature or obtained by the evaporation of a saline +solution, which resembled rock-crystal in being bounded by plane +surfaces, and often also in their clearness and transparency. + +The first important step in the study of crystals was made by Nicolaus +Steno, the famous Danish physician, afterwards bishop of Titiopolis, who +in his treatise _De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento_ +(Florence, 1669; English translation, 1671) gave the results of his +observations on crystals of quartz. He found that although the faces of +different crystals vary considerably in shape and relative size, yet the +angles between similar pairs of faces are always the same. He further +pointed out that the crystals must have grown in a liquid by the +addition of layers of material upon the faces of a nucleus, this nucleus +having the form of a regular six-sided prism terminated at each end by a +six-sided pyramid. The thickness of the layers, though the same over +each face, was not necessarily the same on different faces, but depended +on the position of the faces with respect to the surrounding liquid; +hence the faces of the crystal, though variable in shape and size, +remained parallel to those of the nucleus, and the angles between them +constant. Robert Hooke in his _Micrographia_ (London, 1665) had +previously noticed the regularity of the minute quartz crystals found +lining the cavities of flints, and had suggested that they were built up +of spheroids. About the same time the double refraction and perfect +rhomboidal cleavage of crystals of calcite or Iceland-spar were studied +by Erasmus Bartholinus (_Experimenta crystalli Islandici +disdiaclastici_, Copenhagen, 1669) and Christiaan Huygens (_Traite de la +lumiere_, Leiden, 1690); the latter supposed, as did Hooke, that the +crystals were built up of spheroids. In 1695 Anton van Leeuwenhoek +observed under the microscope that different forms of crystals grow from +the solutions of different salts. Andreas Libavius had indeed much +earlier, in 1597, pointed out that the salts present in mineral waters +could be ascertained by an examination of the shapes of the crystals +left on evaporation of the water; and Domenico Guglielmini (_Riflessioni +filosofiche dedotte dalle figure de' sali_, Padova, 1706) asserted that +the crystals of each salt had a shape of their own with the plane angles +of the faces always the same. + +The earliest treatise on crystallography is the _Prodromus +Crystallographiae_ of M. A. Cappeller, published at Lucerne in 1723. +Crystals were mentioned in works on mineralogy and chemistry; for +instance, C. Linnaeus in his _Systema Naturae_ (1735) described some +forty common forms of crystals amongst minerals. It was not, however, +until the end of the 18th century that any real advances were made, and +the French crystallographers Rome de l'Isle and the abbe Hauy are +rightly considered as the founders of the science. J. B. L. de Rome de +l'Isle (_Essai de cristallographie_, Paris, 1772; _Cristallographie, ou +description des formes propres a tous les corps du regne mineral_, +Paris, 1783) made the important discovery that the various shapes of +crystals of the same natural or artificial substance are all intimately +related to each other; and further, by measuring the angles between the +faces of crystals with the goniometer (q.v.), he established the +fundamental principle that these angles are always the same for the same +kind of substance and are characteristic of it. Replacing by single +planes or groups of planes all the similar edges or solid angles of a +figure called the "primitive form" he derived other related forms. Six +kinds of primitive forms were distinguished, namely, the cube, the +regular octahedron, the regular tetrahedron, a rhombohedron, an +octahedron with a rhombic base, and a double six-sided pyramid. Only in +the last three can there be any variation in the angles: for example, +the primitive octahedron of alum, nitre and sugar were determined by +Rome de l'Isle to have angles of 110 deg., 120 deg. and 100 deg. +respectively. Rene Just Hauy in his _Essai d'une theorie sur la +structure des crystaux_ (Paris, 1784; see also his Treatises on +Mineralogy and Crystallography, 1801, 1822) supported and extended these +views, but took for his primitive forms the figures obtained by +splitting crystals in their directions of easy fracture of "cleavage," +which are aways the same in the same kind of substance. Thus he found +that all crystals of calcite, whatever their external form (see, for +example, figs. 1-6 in the article CALCITE), could be reduced by cleavage +to a rhombohedron with interfacial angles of 75 deg. Further, by +stacking together a number of small rhombohedra of uniform size he was +able, as had been previously done by J. G. Gahn in 1773, to reconstruct +the various forms of calcite crystals. Fig. 1 shows a scalenohedron +([Greek: skalenos], uneven) built up in this manner of rhombohedra; and +fig. 2 a regular octahedron built up of cubic elements, such as are +given by the cleavage of galena and rock-salt. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Scalenohedron built up of Rhombohedra.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Octahedron built up of Cubes.] + +The external surfaces of such a structure, with their step-like +arrangement, correspond to the plane faces of the crystal, and the +bricks may be considered so small as not to be separately visible. By +making the steps one, two or three bricks in width and one, two or three +bricks in height the various secondary faces on the crystal are related +to the primitive form or "cleavage nucleus" by a law of whole numbers, +and the angles between them can be arrived at by mathematical +calculation. By measuring with the goniometer the inclinations of the +secondary faces to those of the primitive form Hauy found that the +secondary forms are always related to the primitive form on crystals of +numerous substances in the manner indicated, and that the width and the +height of a step are always in a simple ratio, rarely exceeding that of +1 : 6. This laid the foundation of the important "law of rational +indices" of the faces of crystals. + +The German crystallographer C. S. Weiss (_De indagando formarum +crystallinarum charactere geometrico principali dissertatio_, Leipzig, +1809; _Ubersichtliche Darstellung der verschiedenen naturlichen +Abtheilungen der Krystallisations-Systeme_, Denkschrift der Berliner +Akad. der Wissensch., 1814-1815) attacked the problem of crystalline +form from a purely geometrical point of view, without reference to +primitive forms or any theory of structure. The faces of crystals were +considered by their intercepts on co-ordinate axes, which were drawn +joining the opposite corners of certain forms; and in this way the +various primitive forms of Hauy were grouped into four classes, +corresponding to the four systems described below under the names cubic, +tetragonal, hexagonal and orthorhombic. The same result was arrived at +independently by F. Mohs, who further, in 1822, asserted the existence +of two additional systems with oblique axes. These two systems (the +monoclinic and anorthic) were, however, considered by Weiss to be only +hemihedral or tetartohedral modifications of the orthorhombic system, +and they were not definitely established until 1835, when the optical +characters of the crystals were found to be distinct. A system of +notation to express the relation of each face of a crystal to the +co-ordinate axes of reference was devised by Weiss, and other notations +were proposed by F. Mohs, A. Levy (1825), C. F. Naumann (1826), and W. +H. Miller (_Treatise on Crystallography_, Cambridge, 1839). For +simplicity and utility in calculation the Millerian notation, which was +first suggested by W. Whewell in 1825, surpasses all others and is now +generally adopted, though those of Levy and Naumann are still in use. + +Although the peculiar optical properties of Iceland-spar had been much +studied ever since 1669, it was not until much later that any connexion +was traced between the optical characters of crystals and their external +form. In 1818 Sir David Brewster found that crystals could be divided +optically into three classes, viz. isotropic, uniaxial and biaxial, and +that these classes corresponded with Weiss's four systems (crystals +belonging to the cubic system being isotropic, those of the tetragonal +and hexagonal being uniaxial, and the orthorhombic being biaxial). +Optically biaxial crystals were afterwards shown by J. F. W. Herschel +and F. E. Neumann in 1822 and 1835 to be of three kinds, corresponding +with the orthorhombic, monoclinic and anorthic systems. It was, +however, noticed by Brewster himself that there are many apparent +exceptions, and the "optical anomalies" of crystals have been the +subject of much study. The intimate relations existing between various +other physical properties of crystals and their external form have +subsequently been gradually traced. + +The symmetry of crystals, though recognized by Rome de l'Isle and Hauy, +in that they replaced all similar edges and corners of their primitive +forms by similar secondary planes, was not made use of in defining the +six systems of crystallization, which depended solely on the lengths and +inclinations of the axes of reference. It was, however, necessary to +recognize that in each system there are certain forms which are only +partially symmetrical, and these were described as hemihedral and +tetartohedral forms (i.e. [Greek: hemi-], half-faced, and [Greek: +tetartos], quarter-faced forms). + +As a consequence of Hauy's law of rational intercepts, or, as it is more +often called, the law of rational indices, it was proved by J. F. C. +Hessel in 1830 that thirty-two types of symmetry are possible in +crystals. Hessel's work remained overlooked for sixty years, but the +same important result was independently arrived at by the same method by +A. Gadolin in 1867. At the present day, crystals are considered as +belonging to one or other of thirty-two classes, corresponding with +these thirty-two types of symmetry, and are grouped in six systems. More +recently, theories of crystal structure have attracted attention, and +have been studied as purely geometrical problems of the homogeneous +partitioning of space. + + The historical development of the subject is treated more fully in the + article CRYSTALLOGRAPHY in the 9th edition of this work. Reference may + also be made to C. M. Marx, _Geschichte der Crystallkunde_ (Karlsruhe + and Baden, 1825); W. Whewell, _History of the Inductive Sciences_, + vol. iii. (3rd ed., London, 1857); F. von Kobell, _Geschichte der + Mineralogie von 1650-1860_ (Munchen, 1864); L. Fletcher, _An + Introduction to the Study of Minerals_ (British Museum Guide-Book); L. + Fletcher, _Recent Progress in Mineralogy and Crystallography_ + [1832-1894] (Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1894). + + +I. CRYSTALLINE FORM + +The fundamental laws governing the form of crystals are:-- + +1. Law of the Constancy of Angle. + +2. Law of Symmetry. + +3. Law of Rational Intercepts or Indices. + +According to the first law, the angles between corresponding faces of +all crystals of the same chemical substance are always the same and are +characteristic of the substance. + + (a) _Symmetry of Crystals._ + +Crystals may, or may not, be symmetrical with respect to a point, a line +or axis, and a plane; these "elements of symmetry" are spoken of as a +centre of symmetry, an axis of symmetry, and a plane of symmetry +respectively. + +_Centre of Symmetry._--Crystals which are centro-symmetrical have their +faces arranged in parallel pairs; and the two parallel faces, situated +on opposite sides of the centre (O in fig. 3) are alike in surface +characters, such as lustre, striations, and figures of corrosion. An +octahedron (fig. 3) is bounded by four pairs of parallel faces. Crystals +belonging to many of the hemihedral and tetartohedral classes of the six +systems of crystallization are devoid of a centre of symmetry. + +_Axes of Symmetry._--Consider the vertical axis joining the opposite +corners a3 and a'3 of an octahedron (fig. 3) and passing through its +centre O: by rotating the crystal about this axis through a right angle +(90 deg.) it reaches a position such that the orientation of its faces +is the same as before the rotation; the face a'1a'2a'3, for example, +coming into the position of a1a'2a3. During a complete rotation of 360 +deg. (= 90 deg. X 4), the crystal occupies four such interchangeable +positions. Such an axis of symmetry is known as a tetrad axis of +symmetry. Other tetrad axes of the octahedron are a2a'2 and a1a1. + +An axis of symmetry of another kind is that which passing through the +centre O is normal to a face of the octahedron. By rotating the crystal +about such an axis Op (fig. 3) through an angle of 120 deg. those faces +which are not perpendicular to the axis occupy interchangeable +positions; for example, the face a1a3a2 comes into the position of +a'2a1a'3, and a'2a1a'3 to a3a'2a'1. During a complete rotation of 360 +deg. (= 120 deg. X 3) the crystal occupies similar positions three +times. This is a triad axis of symmetry; and there being four pairs of +parallel faces on an octahedron, there are four triad axes (only one of +which is drawn in the figure). + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4. + +Axes and Planes of Symmetry of an Octahedron.] + +An axis passing through the centre O and the middle points d of two +opposite edges of the octahedron (fig. 4), i.e. parallel to the edges of +the octahedron, is a dyad axis of symmetry. About this axis there may be +rotation of 180 deg., and only twice in a complete revolution of 360 +deg. (= 180 deg. X 2) is the crystal brought into interchangeable +positions. There being six pairs of parallel edges on an octahedron, +there are consequently six dyad axes of symmetry. + +A regular octahedron thus possesses thirteen axes of symmetry (of three +kinds), and there are the same number in the cube. Fig. 5 shows the +three tetrad (or tetragonal) axes (aa), four triad (or trigonal) axes +(pp), and six dyad (diad or diagonal) axes (dd). + +Although not represented in the cubic system, there is still another +kind of axis of symmetry possible in crystals. This is the hexad axis or +hexagonal axis, for which the angle of rotation is 60 deg., or one-sixth +of 360 deg. There can be only one hexad axis of symmetry in any crystal +(see figs. 77-80). + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Axes of Symmetry of a Cube.] + +_Planes of Symmetry._--A regular octahedron can be divided into two +equal and similar halves by a plane passing through the corners +a1a3a'1a'3 and the centre O (fig. 3). One-half is the mirror reflection +of the other in this plane, which is called a plane of symmetry. +Corresponding planes on either side of a plane of symmetry are inclined +to it at equal angles. The octahedron can also be divided by similar +planes of symmetry passing through the corners a1a2a'1a'2 and +a2a3a'2a'3. These three similar planes of symmetry are called the cubic +planes of symmetry, since they are parallel to the faces of the cube +(compare figs. 6-8, showing combinations of the octahedron and the +cube). + +A regular octahedron can also be divided symmetrically into two equal +and similar portions by a plane passing through the corners a3 and a'3, +the middle points d of the edges a1a'2 and a'1a2, and the centre O (fig. +4). This is called a dodecahedral plane of symmetry, being parallel to +the face of the rhombic dodecahedron which truncates the edge a1a2 +(compare fig. 14, showing a combination of the octahedron and rhombic +dodecahedron). Another similar plane of symmetry is that passing through +the corners a3a'3 and the middle points of the edges a1a2 and a'1a'2, +and altogether there are six dodecahedral planes of symmetry, two +through each of the corners a1, a2, a3 of the octahedron. + +A regular octahedron and a cube are thus each symmetrical with respect +to the following elements of symmetry: a centre of symmetry, thirteen +axes of symmetry (of three kinds), and nine planes of symmetry (of two +kinds). This degree of symmetry, which is the type corresponding to one +of the classes of the cubic system, is the highest possible in crystals. +As will be pointed out below, it is possible, however, for both the +octahedron and the cube to be associated with fewer elements of symmetry +than those just enumerated. + + (b) _Simple Forms and Combinations of Forms._ + +A single face a1a2a3 (figs. 3 and 4) may be repeated by certain of the +elements of symmetry to give the whole eight faces of the octahedron. +Thus, by rotation about the vertical tetrad axis a3a'3 the four upper +faces are obtained; and by rotation of these about one or other of the +horizontal tetrad axes the eight faces are derived. Or again, the same +repetition of the faces may be arrived at by reflection across the three +cubic planes of symmetry. (By reflection across the six dodecahedral +planes of symmetry a tetrahedron only would result, but if this is +associated with a centre of symmetry we obtain the octahedron.) Such a +set of similar faces, obtained by symmetrical repetition, constitutes a +"simple form." An octahedron thus consists of eight similar faces, and a +cube is bounded by six faces all of which have the same surface +characters, and parallel to each of which all the properties of the +crystal are identical. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Cube in combination with Octahedron.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Cubo-octahedron.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Octahedron in combination with Cube.] + +Examples of simple forms amongst crystallized substances are octahedra +of alum and spinel and cubes of salt and fluorspar. More usually, +however, two or more forms are present on a crystal, and we then have a +combination of forms, or simply a "combination." Figs. 6, 7 and 8 +represent combinations of the octahedron and the cube; in the first the +faces of the cube predominate, and in the third those of the octahedron; +fig. 7 with the two forms equally developed is called a cubo-octahedron. +Each of these combined forms has all the elements of symmetry proper to +the simple forms. + +The simple forms, though referable to the same type of symmetry and axes +of reference, are quite independent, and cannot be derived one from the +other by symmetrical repetition, but, after the manner of Rome de +l'Isle, they may be derived by replacing edges or corners by a face +equally inclined to the faces forming the edges or corners; this is +known as "truncation" (Lat. _truncare_, to cut off). Thus in fig. 6 the +corners of the cube are symmetrically replaced or truncated by the faces +of the octahedron, and in fig. 8 those of the octahedron are truncated +by the cube. + + (c) _Law of Rational Intercepts._ + +For axes of reference, OX, OY, OZ (fig. 9), take any three edges formed +by the intersection of three faces of a crystal. These axes are called +the crystallographic axes, and the planes in which they lie the axial +planes. A fourth face on the crystal intersecting these three axes in +the points A, B, C is taken as the parametral plane, and the lengths OA +: OB : OC are the parameters of the crystal. Any other face on the +crystal may be referred to these axes and parameters by the ratio of +the intercepts + + OA OB OC + -- : -- : --. + h k l + +Thus for a face parallel to the plane A Be the intercepts are in the +ratio OA : OB : Oe, or + + OA OB OC + -- : -- : -- + 1 1 2 + +and for a plane fgC' they are Of : Og : OC' or + + OA OB OC' + -- : -- : ---. + 2 3 1 + +Now the important relation existing between the faces of a crystal is +that the denominators h, k and l are always rational whole numbers, +rarely exceeding 6, and usually 0, 1, 2 or 3. Written in the form (hkl), +h referring to the axis OX, k to OY, and l to OZ, they are spoken of as +the indices (Millerian indices) of the face. Thus of a face parallel to +the plane ABC the indices are (111), of A Be they are (112), and of fgC' +(231'). The indices are thus inversely proportional to the intercepts, +and the law of rational intercepts is often spoken of as the "law of +rational indices." + +The angular position of a face is thus completely fixed by its indices; +and knowing the angles between the axial planes and the parametral plane +all the angles of a crystal can be calculated when the indices of the +faces are known. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Crystallographic axes of reference.] + +Although any set of edges formed by the intersection of three planes may +be chosen for the crystallographic axes, it is in practice usual to +select certain edges related to the symmetry of the crystal, and usually +coincident with axes of symmetry; for then the indices will be simpler +and all faces of the same simple form will have a similar set of +indices. The angles between the axes and the ratio of the lengths of the +parameters OA: OB: OC (usually given as a: b: c) are spoken of as the +"elements" of a crystal, and are constant for and characteristic of all +crystals of the same substance. + +The six systems of crystal forms, to be enumerated below, are defined by +the relative inclinations of the crystallographic axes and the lengths +of the parameters. In the cubic system, for example, the three +crystallographic axes are taken parallel to the three tetrad axes of +symmetry, i.e. parallel to the edges of the cube (fig. 5) or joining the +opposite corners of the octahedron (fig. 3), and they are therefore all +at right angles; the parametral plane (111) is a face of the octahedron, +and the parameters are all of equal length. The indices of the eight +faces of the octahedron will then be (111), (1'11), (11'1), (1'1'1), +(111'), (1'11'), (11'1'), (1'1'1'). The symbol {111} indicates all the +faces belonging to this simple form. The indices of the six faces of the +cube are (100), (010), (001), (1'00), (01'0), (001'); here each face is +parallel to two axes, i.e. intercepts them at infinity, so that the +corresponding indices are zero. + + (d) _Zones._ + +An important consequence of the law of rational intercepts is the +arrangement of the faces of a crystal in zones. All faces, whether they +belong to one or more simple forms, which intersect in parallel edges +are said to lie in the same zone. A line drawn through the centre O of +the crystal parallel to these edges is called a zone-axis, and a plane +perpendicular to this axis is called a zone-plane. On a cube, for +example, there are three zones each containing four faces, the zone-axes +being coincident with the three tetrad axes of symmetry. In the crystal +of zircon (fig. 88) the eight prism-faces a, m, &c. constitute a zone, +denoted by [a, m, a', &c.], with the vertical tetrad axis of symmetry +as zone-axis. Again the faces [a, x, p, e', p', x"', a"] lie in +another zone, as may be seen by the parallel edges of intersection of +the faces in figs. 87 and 88; three other similar zones may be traced on +the same crystal. + +The direction of the line of intersection (i.e. zone-axis) of any two +planes (hkl) and (h1k1l1) is given by the zone-indices [uvw], where u = +kl1 - lk1, v = lh1 - hl1, and w = hk1 - kh1, these being obtained from +the face-indices by cross multiplication as follows:-- + + h k l h k l + X X X + h1 k1 l1 h1 k1 l1. + +Any other face (h2k2l2) lying in this zone must satisfy the equation + + h2u + k2v + l2w = 0. + +This important relation connecting the indices of a face lying in a zone +with the zone-indices is known as Weiss's zone-law, having been first +enunciated by C. S. Weiss. It may be pointed out that the indices of a +face may be arrived at by adding together the indices of faces on either +side of it and in the same zone; thus, (311) in fig. 12 lies at the +intersections of the three zones [210, 101], [201, 110] and [211, 100], +and is obtained by adding together each set of indices. + + (e) _Projection and Drawing of Crystals._ + +The shapes and relative sizes of the faces of a crystal being as a rule +accidental, depending only on the distance of the faces from the centre +of the crystal and not on their angular relations, it is often more +convenient to consider only the directions of the normals to the faces. +For this purpose projections are drawn, with the aid of which the zonal +relations of a crystal are more readily studied and calculations are +simplified. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Stereographic Projection of a Cubic Crystal.] + +The kind of projection most extensively used is the "stereographic +projection." The crystal is considered to be placed inside a sphere from +the centre of which normals are drawn to all the faces of the crystal. +The points at which these normals intersect the surface of the sphere +are called the poles of the faces, and by these poles the positions of +the faces are fixed. The poles of all faces in the same zone on the +crystal will lie on a great circle of the sphere, which are therefore +called zone-circles. The calculation of the angles between the normals +of faces and between zone-circles is then performed by the ordinary +methods of spherical trigonometry. The stereographic projection, +however, represents the poles and zone-circles on a plane surface and +not on a spherical surface. This is achieved by drawing lines joining +all the poles of the faces with the north or south pole of the sphere +and finding their points of intersection with the plane of the +equatorial great circle, or primitive circle, of the sphere, the +projection being represented on this plane. In fig. 10 is shown the +stereographic projection, or stereogram, of a cubic crystal; a^1, a^2, +&c. are the poles of the faces of the cube. o^1, o^2, &c. those of the +octahedron, and d^1, d^2, &c. those of the rhombic dodecahedron. The +straight lines and circular arcs are the projections on the equatorial +plane of the great circles in which the nine planes of symmetry +intersect the sphere. A drawing of a crystal showing a combination of +the cube, octahedron and rhombic dodecahedron is shown in fig. 11, in +which the faces are lettered the same as the corresponding poles in the +projection. From the zone-circles in the projection and the parallel +edges in the drawing the zonal relations of the faces are readily seen: +thus [a^1o^1d^5], [a^1d^1a^5], [a^5o^1d^2], &c. are zones. A +stereographic projection of a rhombohedral crystal is given in fig. 72. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Clinographic Drawing of a Cubic Crystal.] + +Another kind of projection in common use is the "gnomonic projection" +(fig. 12). Here the plane of projection is tangent to the sphere, and +normals to all the faces are drawn from the centre of the sphere to +intersect the plane of projection. In this case all zones are +represented by straight lines. Fig. 12 is the gnomonic projection of a +cubic crystal, the plane of projection being tangent to the sphere at +the pole of an octahedral face (111), which is therefore in the centre +of the projection. The indices of the several poles are given in the +figure. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Gnomonic Projection of a Cubic Crystal.] + +In drawing crystals the simple plans and elevations of descriptive +geometry (e.g. the plans in the lower part of figs. 87 and 88) have +sometimes the advantage of showing the symmetry of a crystal, but they +give no idea of solidity. For instance, a cube would be represented +merely by a square, and an octahedron by a square with lines joining the +opposite corners. True perspective drawings are never used in the +representation of crystals, since for showing the zonal relations it is +important to preserve the parallelism of the edges. If, however, the +eye, or point of vision, is regarded as being at an infinite distance +from the object all the rays will be parallel, and edges which are +parallel on the crystal will be represented by parallel lines in the +drawing. The plane of the drawing, in which the parallel rays joining +the corners of the crystals and the eye intersect, may be either +perpendicular or oblique to the rays; in the former case we have an +"orthographic" ([Greek: orthos], straight; [Greek: graphein], to draw) +drawing, and in the latter a "clinographic" ([Greek: klinein], to +incline) drawing. Clinographic drawings are most frequently used for +representing crystals. In representing, for example, a cubic crystal +(fig. 11) a cube face a^5 is first placed parallel to the plane on which +the crystal is to be projected and with one set of edges vertical; the +crystal is then turned through a small angle about a vertical axis until +a second cube face a^2 comes into view, and the eye is then raised so +that a third cube face a^1 may be seen. + + (f) _Crystal Systems and Classes._ + +According to the mutual inclinations of the crystallographic axes of +reference and the lengths intercepted on them by the parametral plane, +all crystals fall into one or other of six groups or systems, in each of +which there are several classes depending on the degree of symmetry. In +the brief description which follows of these six systems and thirty-two +classes of crystals we shall proceed from those in which the symmetry is +most complex to those in which it is simplest. + + + 1. CUBIC SYSTEM + + (Isometric; Regular; Octahedral; Tesseral). + + In this system the three crystallographic axes of reference are all at + right angles to each other and are equal in length. They are parallel + to the edges of the cube, and in the different classes coincide either + with tetrad or dyad axes of symmetry. Five classes are included in + this system, in all of which there are, besides other elements of + symmetry, four triad axes. + + In crystals of this system the angle between any two faces P and Q + with the indices (hkl) and (pqr) is given by the equation + + hp + kq + lr + COS PQ = ---------------------------------------- + [root] [(h^2 +k^2 +l^2) (p^2 +q^2 +r^2)]. + + The angles between faces with the same indices are thus the same in + all substances which crystallize in the cubic system: in other systems + the angles vary with the substance and are characteristic of it. + + HOLOSYMMETRIC CLASS + + (Holohedral ([Greek: holos], whole); Hexakis-octahedral). + + Crystals of this class possess the full number of elements of symmetry + already mentioned above for the octahedron and the cube, viz. three + cubic planes of symmetry, six dodecahedral planes, three tetrad axes + of symmetry, four triad axes, six dyad axes, and a centre of symmetry. + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Rhombic Dodecahedron.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Combination of Rhombic Dodecahedron and + Octahedron.] + + There are seven kinds of simple forms, viz.:-- + + Cube (fig. 5). This is bounded by six square faces parallel to the + cubic planes of symmetry; it is known also as the hexahedron. The + angles between the faces are 90 deg., and the indices of the form are + {100}. Salt, fluorspar and galena crystallize in simple cubes. + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Triakis-octahedron.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Combination of Triakis-octahedron and Cube.] + + Octahedron (fig. 3). Bounded by eight equilateral triangular faces + perpendicular to the triad axes of symmetry. The angles between the + faces are 70 deg. 32' and 109 deg. 28', and the indices are {111}. + Spinel, magnetite and gold crystallize in simple octahedra. + Combinations of the cube and octahedron are shown in figs. 6-8. + + Rhombic dodecahedron (fig. 13). Bounded by twelve rhomb-shaped faces + parallel to the six dodecahedral planes of symmetry. The angles + between the normals to adjacent faces are 60 deg., and between other + pairs of faces 90 deg.; the indices are {110}. Garnet frequently + crystallizes in this form. Fig. 14 shows the rhombic dodecahedron in + combination with the octahedron. + + [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Icositetrahedron.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Combination of Icositetrahedron and Cube.] + + In these three simple forms of the cubic system (which are shown in + combination in fig. 11) the angles between the faces and the indices + are fixed and are the same in all crystals; in the four remaining + simple forms they are variable. + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Combination of Icositetrahedron and + Octahedron.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Combination of Icositetrahedron {211} and + Rhombic Dodecahedron.] + + Triakis-octahedron (three-faced octahedron) (fig. 15). This solid is + bounded by twenty-four isosceles triangles, and may be considered as + an octahedron with a low triangular pyramid on each of its faces. As + the inclinations of the faces may vary there is a series of these + forms with the indices {221}, {331}, {332}, &c. or in general {hhk}. + + [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Tetrakis-hexahedron.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Tetrakis-hexahedron.] + + Icositetrahedron (fig. 17). Bounded by twenty-four trapezoidal faces, + and hence sometimes called a "trapezohedron." The indices are {211}, + {311}, {322}, &c., or in general {hkk}. Analcite, leucite and garnet + often crystallize in the simple form {211}. Combinations are shown in + figs. 18-20. The plane A Be in fig. 9 is one face (112) of an + icositetrahedron; the indices of the remaining faces in this octant + being (211) and (121). + + [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Combination of Tetrakis-hexahedron and Cube.] + + Tetrakis-hexahedron (four-faced cube) (figs. 21 and 22). Like the + triakis-octahedron this solid is also bounded by twenty-four isosceles + triangles, but here grouped in fours over the cubic faces. The two + figures show how, with different inclinations of the faces, the form + may vary, approximating in fig. 21 to the cube and in fig. 22 to the + rhombic dodecahedron. The angles over the edges lettered A are + different from the angles over the edges lettered C. Each face is + parallel to one of the crystallographic axes and intercepts the two + others in different lengths; the indices are therefore {210}, {310}, + {320}, &c., in general {hko}. Fluorspar sometimes crystallizes in the + simple form {310}; more usually, however, in combination with the cube + (fig. 23). + + Hexakis-octahedron (fig. 24). Here each face of the octahedron is + replaced by six scalene triangles, so that altogether there are + forty-eight faces. This is the greatest number of faces possible for + any simple form in crystals. The faces are all oblique to the planes + and axes of symmetry, and they intercept the three crystallographic + axes in different lengths, hence the indices are all unequal, being in + general {hkl}, or in particular cases {321}, {421}, {432}, &c. Such a + form is known as the "general form" of the class. The interfacial + angles over the three edges of each triangle are all different. These + forms usually exist only in combination with other cubic forms (for + example, fig. 25), but {421} has been observed as a simple form on + fluorspar. + + [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Hexakis-octahedron.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Combination of Hexakis-octahedron and Cube.] + + Several examples of substances which crystallize in this class have + been mentioned above under the different forms; many others might be + cited--for instance, the metals iron, copper, silver, gold, platinum, + lead, mercury, and the non-metallic elements silicon and phosphorus. + + TETRAHEDRAL CLASS + + (Tetrahedral-hemihedral; Hexakis-tetrahedral). + + In this class there is no centre of symmetry nor cubic planes of + symmetry; the three tetrad axes become dyad axes of symmetry, and the + four triad axes are polar, i.e. they are associated with different + faces at their two ends. The other elements of symmetry (six + dodecahedral planes and six dyad axes) are the same as in the last + class. + + [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Tetrahedron.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Deltoid Dodecahedron.] + + Of the seven simple forms, the cube, rhombic dodecahedron and + tetrakis-hexahedron are geometrically the same as before, though on + actual crystals the faces will have different surface characters. For + instance, the cube faces will be striated parallel to only one of the + diagonals (fig. 90), and etched figures on this face will be + symmetrical with respect to two lines, instead of four as in the last + class. The remaining simple forms have, however, only half the number + of faces as the corresponding form in the last class, and are spoken + of as "hemihedral with inclined faces." + + [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Triakis-tetrahedron.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 29.--Hexakis-tetrahedron.] + + Tetrahedron (fig. 26). This is bounded by four equilateral triangles + and is identical with the regular tetrahedron of geometry. The angles + between the normals to the faces are 109 deg. 28'. It may be derived + from the octahedron by suppressing the alternate faces. + + Deltoid[1] dodecahedron (fig. 27). This is the hemihedral form of the + triakis-octahedron; it has the indices {hhk} and is bounded by twelve + trapezoidal faces. + + Triakis-tetrahedron (fig. 28). The hemihedral form {hkk} of the + icositetrahedron; it is bounded by twelve isosceles triangles arranged + in threes over the tetrahedron faces. + + [Illustration: FIG. 30.--Combination of two Tetrahedra.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 31.--Combination of Tetrahedron and Cube.] + + Hexakis-tetrahedron (fig. 29). The hemihedral form {hkl} of the + hexakis-octahedron; it is bounded by twenty-four scalene triangles and + is the general form of the class. + + [Illustration: FIG. 32.--Combination of Tetrahedron, Cube and Rhombic + Dodecahedron.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 33.--Combination of Tetrahedron and Rhombic + Dodecahedron.] + + Corresponding to each of these hemihedral forms there is another + geometrically similar form, differing, however, not only in + orientation, but also in actual crystals in the characters of the + faces. Thus from the octahedron there may be derived two tetrahedra + with the indices {111} and {1'11}, which may be distinguished as + positive and negative respectively. Fig. 30 shows a combination of + these two tetrahedra, and represents a crystal of blende, in which the + four larger faces are dull and striated, whilst the four smaller are + bright and smooth. Figs. 31-33 illustrate other tetrahedral + combinations. + + Tetrahedrite, blende, diamond, boracite and pharmacosiderite are + substances which crystallize in this class. + + PYRITOHEDRAL[2] CLASS + + (Parallel-faced hemihedral; Dyakis-dodecahedral). + + Crystals of this class possess three cubic planes of symmetry but no + dodecahedral planes. There are only three dyad axes of symmetry, which + coincide with the crystallographic axes; in addition there are three + triad axes and a centre of symmetry. + + [Illustration: FIG. 34. Pentagonal Dodecahedron.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 35. Dyakis-dodecahedron.] + + Here the cube, octahedron, rhombic dodecahedron, triakis-octahedron + and icositetrahedron are geometrically the same as in the first class. + The characters of the faces will, however, be different; thus the cube + faces will be striated parallel to one edge only (fig. 89), and + triangular markings on the octahedron faces will be placed obliquely + to the edges. The remaining simple forms are "hemihedral with parallel + faces," and from the corresponding holohedral forms two hemihedral + forms, a positive and a negative, may be derived. + + Pentagonal dodecahedron (fig. 34). This is bounded by twelve + pentagonal faces, but these are not regular pentagons, and the angles + over the three sets of different edges are different. The regular + dodecahedron of geometry, contained by twelve regular pentagons, is + not a possible form in crystals. The indices are {hko}: as a simple + form {210} is of very common occurrence in pyrites. + + Dyakis-dodecahedron (fig. 35). This is the hemihedral form of the + hexakis-octahedron and has the indices {hkl}; it is bounded by + twenty-four faces. As a simple form {321} is met with in pyrites. + + [Illustration: FIG. 36.--Combination of Pentagonal Dodecahedron and + Cube.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 37.--Combination of Pentagonal Dodecahedron and + Octahedron.] + + Combinations (figs. 36-39) of these forms with the cube and the + octahedron are common in pyrites. Fig. 37 resembles in general + appearance the regular icosahedron of geometry, but only eight of the + faces are equilateral triangles. Cobaltite, smaltite and other + sulphides and sulpharsenides of the pyrites group of minerals + crystallize in these forms. The alums also belong to this class; from + an aqueous solution they crystallize as simple octahedra, sometimes + with subordinate faces of the cube and rhombic dodecahedron, but from + an acid solution as octahedra combined with the pentagonal + dodecahedron {210}. + + [Illustration: FIG. 38.--Combination of Pentagonal Dodecahedron, Cube + and Octahedron.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 39.--Combination of Pentagonal Dodecahedron e + {210}, Dyakis-dodecahedron f {321}, and Octahedron d {111}.] + + PLAGIHEDRAL[3] CLASS + + (Plagihedral-hemihedral; Pentagonal icositetrahedral; Gyroidal[4]). + + In this class there are the full number of axes of symmetry (three + tetrad, four triad and six dyad), but no planes of symmetry and no + centre of symmetry. + + [Illustration: FIG. 40.--Pentagonal Icositetrahedron.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 41.--Tetrahedral Pentagonal Dodecahedron.] + + Pentagonal icositetrahedron (fig. 40). This is the only simple form in + this class which differs geometrically from those of the holosymmetric + class. By suppressing either one or other set of alternate faces of + the hexakis-octahedron two pentagonal icositetrahedra {hkl} and {khl} + are derived. These are each bounded by twenty-four irregular + pentagons, and although similar to each other they are respectively + right- and left-handed, one being the mirror image of the other; such + similar but nonsuperposable forms are said to be enantiomorphous + ([Greek: enantios], opposite, and [Greek: morphe], form), and crystals + showing such forms sometimes rotate the plane of polarization of + plane-polarized light. Faces of a pentagonal icositetrahedron with + high indices have been very rarely observed on crystals of cuprite, + potassium chloride and ammonium chloride, but none of these are + circular polarizing. + + TETARTOHEDRAL CLASS + + (Tetrahedral pentagonal dodecahedral). + + Here, in addition to four polar triad axes, the only other elements of + symmetry are three dyad axes, which coincide with the crystallographic + axes. Six of the simple forms, the cube, tetrahedron, rhombic + dodecahedron, deltoid dodecahedron, triakis-tetrahedron and pentagonal + dodecahedron, are geometrically the same in this class as in either + the tetrahedral or pyritohedral classes. The general form is the + Tetrahedral pentagonal dodecahedron (fig. 41). This is bounded by + twelve irregular pentagons, and is a tetartohedral or quarter-faced + form of the hexakis-octahedron. Four such forms may be derived, the + indices of which are {hkl}, {khl}, {h'kl} and {k'hl}; the first pair + are enantiomorphous with respect to one another, and so are the last + pair. Barium nitrate, lead nitrate, sodium chlorate and sodium bromate + crystallize in this class, as also do the minerals ullmannite (NiSbS) + and langbeinite (K2Mg2(SO4)3). + + + 2. TETRAGONAL SYSTEM + + (Pyramidal; Quadratic; Dimetric). + + In this system the three crystallographic axes are all at right + angles, but while two are equal in length and interchangeable the + third is of a different length. The unequal axis is spoken of as the + principal axis or morphological axis of the crystal, and it is always + placed in a vertical position; in five of the seven classes of this + system it coincides with the single tetrad axis of symmetry. + + [Illustration: FIG. 42.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 43. + + Tetragonal Bipyramids.] + + The parameters are a : a : c, where a refers to the two equal + horizontal axes, and c to the vertical axis; c may be either shorter + (as in fig. 42) or longer (fig. 43) than a. The ratio a : c is spoken + of as the axial ratio of a crystal, and it is dependent on the angles + between the faces. In all crystals of the same substance this ratio is + constant, and is characteristic of the substance; for other substances + crystallizing in the tetragonal system it will be different. For + example, in cassiterite it is given as a : c = 1 : 0.67232 or simply + as c = 0.67232, a being unity; and in anatase as c = 1.7771. + + HOLOSYMMETRIC CLASS + + (Holohedral; Ditetragonal bipyramidal). + + Crystals of this class are symmetrical with respect to five planes, + which are of three kinds; one is perpendicular to the principal axis, + and the other four intersect in it; of the latter, two are + perpendicular to the equal crystallographic axes, while the two others + bisect the angles between them. There are five axes of symmetry, one + tetrad and two pairs of dyad, each perpendicular to a plane of + symmetry. Finally, there is a centre of symmetry. + + There are seven kinds of simple forms, viz.:-- + + Tetragonal bipyramid of the first order (figs. 42 and 43). This is + bounded by eight equal isosceles triangles. Equal lengths are + intercepted on the two horizontal axes, and the indices are {111}, + {221}, {112}, &c., or in general {hhl}. The parametral plane with the + intercepts a : a : c is a face of the bipyramid {111}. + + [Illustration: FIG. 44.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 45. + + Tetragonal Bipyramids of the first and second orders.] + + Tetragonal bipyramid of the second order. This is also bounded by + eight equal isosceles triangles, but differs from the last form in its + position, four of the faces being parallel to each of the horizontal + axes; the indices are therefore {101}, {201}, {102}, &c., or {hol}. + + Fig. 44 shows the relation between the tetragonal bipyramids of the + first and second orders when the indices are {111} and {101} + respectively: ABB is the face (111), and ACC is (101). A combination + of these two forms is shown in fig. 45. + + Ditetragonal bipyramid (fig. 46). This is the general form; it is + bounded by sixteen scalene triangles, and all the indices are unequal, + being {321}, &c., or {hkl}. + + [Illustration: FIG. 46.--Ditetragonal Bipyramid.] + + Tetragonal prism of the first order. The four faces intersect the + horizontal axes in equal lengths and are parallel to the principal + axis; the indices are therefore {110}. This form does not enclose + space, and is therefore called an "open form" to distinguish it from a + "closed form" like the tetragonal bipyramids and all the forms of the + cubic system. An open form can exist only in combination with other + forms; thus fig. 47 is a combination of the tetragonal prism {110} + with the basal pinacoid {001}. If the faces (110) and (001) are of + equal size such a figure will be geometrically a cube, since all the + angles are right angles; the variety of apophyllite known as tesselite + crystallizes in this form. + + Tetragonal prism of the second order. This has the same number of + faces as the last prism, but differs in position; each face being + parallel to the vertical axis and one of the horizontal axes; the + indices are {100}. + + Ditetragonal prism. This consists of eight faces all parallel to the + principal axis and intercepting the horizontal axes in different + lengths; the indices are {210}, {320}, &c., or {hko}. + + Basal pinacoid (from [Greek: pinax], a tablet). This consists of a + single pair of parallel faces perpendicular to the principal axis. It + is therefore an open form and can exist only in combination (fig. 47). + + [Illustration: FIG. 47. Combination of Tetragonal Prism and Basal + Pinacoid.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 48.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 49. + + Combinations of Tetragonal Prisms and Pyramids.] + + Combinations of holohedral tetragonal forms are shown in figs. 47-49; + fig. 48 is a combination of a bipyramid of the first order with one of + the second order and the prism of the first order; fig. 49 a + combination of a bipyramid of the first order with a ditetragonal + bipyramid and the prism of the second order. Compare also figs. 87 and + 88. + + Examples of substances which crystallize in this class are + cassiterite, rutile, anatase, zircon, thorite, vesuvianite, + apophyllite, phosgenite, also boron, tin, mercuric iodide. + + SCALENOHEDRAL CLASS + + (Bisphenoidal-hemihedral). + + Here there are only three dyad axes and two planes of symmetry, the + former coinciding with the crystallographic axes and the latter + bisecting the angles between the horizontal pair. The dyad axis of + symmetry, which in this class coincides with the principal axis of the + crystal, has certain of the characters of a tetrad axis, and is + sometimes called a tetrad axis of "alternating symmetry"; a face on + the upper half of the crystal if rotated through 90 deg. about this + axis and reflected across the equatorial plane falls into the position + of a face on the lower half of the crystal. This kind of symmetry, + with simultaneous rotation about an axis and reflection across a + plane, is also called "composite symmetry." + + In this class all except two of the simple forms are geometrically the + same as in the holosymmetric class. + + Bisphenoid ([Greek: sphen], a wedge) (fig. 50). This is a double + wedge-shaped solid bounded by four equal isosceles triangles; it has + the indices {111}, {211}, {112}, &c., or in general {hhl}. By + suppressing either one or other set of alternate faces of the + tetragonal bipyramid of the first order (fig. 42) two bisphenoids are + derived, in the same way that two tetrahedra are derived from the + regular octahedron. + + Tetragonal scalenohedron or ditetragonal bisphenoid (fig. 51). This is + bounded by eight scalene triangles and has the indices {hkl}. It may + be considered as the hemihedral form of the ditetragonal bipyramid. + + [Illustration: FIG. 50.--Tetragonal Bisphenoids.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 51.--Tetragonal Scalenohedron.] + + The crystal of chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) represented in fig. 52 is a + combination of two bisphenoids (P and P'), two bipyramids of the + second order (b and c), and the basal pinacoid (a). Stannite + (Cu2FeSnS4), acid potassium phosphate (H2KPO4), mercuric cyanide, and + urea (CO(NH2)2) also crystallize in this class. + + BIPYRAMIDAL CLASS + + (Parallel-faced hemihedral). + + The elements of symmetry are a tetrad axis with a plane perpendicular + to it, and a centre of symmetry. The simple forms are the same here as + in the holosymmetric class, except the prism {hko}, which has only + four faces, and the bipyramid {hkl}, which has eight faces and is + distinguished as a "tetragonal pyramid of the third order." + + [Illustration: FIG. 52.--Crystal of Chalcopyrite.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 53.--Crystal of Fergusonite.] + + Fig. 53 shows a combination of a tetragonal prism of the first order + with a tetragonal bipyramid of the third order and the basal pinacoid, + and represents a crystal of fergusonite. Scheelite (q.v.), scapolite + (q.v.), and erythrite (C4H10O4) also crystallize in this class. + + PYRAMIDAL CLASS + + (Hemimorphic-tetartohedral). + + Here the only element of symmetry is the tetrad axis. The pyramids of + the first {hhl}, second {hol} and third {hkl} orders have each only + four faces at one or other end of the crystal, and are hemimorphic. + All the simple forms are thus open forms. + + Examples are wulfenite (PbMoO4) and barium antimonyl dextro-tartrate + (Ba(SbO)2(C4H4O6).H2O). + + DITETRAGONAL PYRAMIDAL CLASS + + (Hemimorphic-hemihedral). + + Here there are two pairs of vertical planes of symmetry intersecting + in the tetrad axis. The pyramids {hhl} and {hol} and the bipyramid + {hkl} are all hemimorphic. + + Examples are iodosuccimide (C4H4O2NI), silver fluoride (AgF.H2O), and + penta-erythrite (C5H12O4). No examples are known amongst minerals. + + TRAPEZOHEDRAL CLASS + + (Trapezohedral-hemihedral). + + Here there are the full number of axes of symmetry, but no planes or + centre of symmetry. The general form {hkl} is bounded by eight + trapezoidal faces and is the tetragonal trapezohedron. + + Examples are nickel sulphate (NiSO4.6H2O), guanidine carbonate + ((CH5N3)2H2CO3), strychnine sulphate ((C21H22N2O2)2.H2SO4.6H2O). + + BISPHENOIDAL CLASS + + (Bisphenoidal-tetartohedral). + + Here there is only a single dyad axis of symmetry, which coincides + with the principal axis. All the forms, except the prisms and basal + pinacoid, are sphenoids. Crystals possessing this type of symmetry + have not yet been observed. + + + 3. ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM + + (Rhombic; Prismatic; Trimetric). + + In this system the three crystallographic axes are all at right + angles, but they are of different lengths and not interchangeable. The + parameters, or axial ratios, are a: b: c, these referring to the axes + OX, OY and OZ respectively. The choice of a vertical axis, OZ = c, is + arbitrary, and it is customary to place the longer of the two + horizontal axes from left to right (OY = b) and take it as unity: this + is called the "macro-axis" or "macro-diagonal" (from [Greek: makros], + long), whilst the shorter horizontal axis (OX = a) is called the + "brachy-axis" or "brachy-diagonal" (from [Greek: brachus], short). The + axial ratios are constant for crystals of any one substance and are + characteristic of it; for example, in barytes (BaSO4), a: b: c = + 0.8152 : 1 : 1.3136; in anglesite (PbSO4), a: b: c = 0.7852: 1 : + 1.2894; in cerussite (PbCO3), a : b : c = 0.6100 : 1 : 0.7230. + + There are three symmetry-classes in this system:-- + + HOLOHEDRAL CLASS + + (Holohedral; Bipyramidal). + + Here there are three dissimilar dyad axes of symmetry, each coinciding + with a crystallographic axis; perpendicular to them are three + dissimilar planes of symmetry; there is also a centre of symmetry. + There are seven kinds of simple forms:-- + + [Illustration: FIG. 54.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 55. + + Orthorhombic Bipyramids.] + + Bipyramid (figs. 54 and 55). This is the general form and is bounded + by eight scalene triangles; the indices are {111}, {211}, {221}, + {112}, {321}, {123}, &c., or in general {hkl}. The crystallographic + axes join opposite corners of these pyramids and in the fundamental + bipyramid {111} the parametral plane has the intercepts a: b: c. This + is the only closed form in this class; the others are open forms and + can exist only in combination. Sulphur often crystallizes in simple + bipyramids. + + Prism. This consists of four faces parallel to the vertical axis and + intercepting the horizontal axes in the lengths a and b or in any + multiples of these; the indices are therefore {110}, {210}, {120} or + {hko}. + + [Illustration: FIG. 56.--Macro-prism and Brachy-pinacoid.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 57.--Brachy-prism and Macro-pinacoid.] + + Macro-prism. This consists of four faces parallel to the macro-axis, + and has the indices {101}, {201} ... or {hol}. + + Brachy-prism. This consists of four faces parallel to the brachy-axis, + and has the indices {011}, {021} ... {okl}. The macro- and + brachy-prisms are often called "domes." + + Basal pinacoid, consisting of a pair of parallel faces perpendicular + to the vertical axis; the indices are {001}. The macro-pinacoid {100} + and the brachy-pinacoid {010} each consist of a pair of parallel faces + respectively parallel to the macro- and the brachy-axis. + + Figs. 56-58 show combinations of these six open forms, and fig. 59 a + combination of the macro-pinacoid (a), brachy-pinacoid (b), a prism + (m), a macro-prism (d), a brachy-prism (k), and a bipyramid (u). + + [Illustration: FIG. 58.--Prism and Basal Pinacoid.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 59.--Crystal of Hypersthene. + + Holohedral Orthorhombic Combinations.] + + Examples of substances crystallizing in this class are extremely + numerous; amongst minerals are sulphur, stibnite, cerussite, + chrysoberyl, topaz, olivine, nitre, barytes, columbite and many + others; and amongst artificial products iodine, potassium + permanganate, potassium sulphate, benzene, barium formate, &c. + + PYRAMIDAL CLASS + + (Hemimorphic). + + Here there is only one dyad axis in which two planes of symmetry + intersect. The crystals are usually so placed that the dyad axis + coincides with the vertical crystallographic axis, and the planes of + symmetry are also vertical. + + The pyramid {hkl} has only four faces at one end or other of the + crystal. The macro-prism and the brachy-prism of the last class are + here represented by the macro-dome and brachy-dome respectively, so + called because of the resemblance of the pair of equally sloped faces + to the roof of a house. The form {001} is a single plane at the top of + the crystal, and is called a "pedion"; the parallel pedion {001'}, if + present at the lower end of the crystal, constitutes a different form. + The prisms {hko} and the macro- and brachy-pinacoids are geometrically + the same in this class as in the last. Crystals of this class are + therefore differently developed at the two ends and are said to be + "hemimorphic." + + [Illustration: FIG. 60.--Crystal of Hemimorphite.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 61.--Orthorhombic Bisphenoid.] + + Fig. 60 shows a crystal of the mineral hemimorphite (H2Zn2SiO5) which + is a combination of the brachy-pinacoid {010} and a prism, with the + pedion (001), two brachy-domes and two macro-domes at the upper end, + and a pyramid at the lower end. Examples of other substances belonging + to this class are struvite (NH4MgPO4.6H2O), bertrandite (H2Be4Si2O9), + resorcin, and picric acid. + + BISPHENOIDAL CLASS + + (Hemihedral). + + Here there are three dyad axes, but no planes of symmetry and no + centre of symmetry. The general form {hkl} is a bisphenoid (fig. 61) + bounded by four scalene triangles. The other simple forms are + geometrically the same as in the holosymmetric class. + + Examples: epsomite (Epsom salts, MgSO4.7H2O), goslarite (ZnSO4.7H2O), + silver nitrate, sodium potassium dextro-tartrate (seignette salt, + NaKC4H4O6.4H2O), potassium antimonyl dextro-tartrate (tartar-emetic, + K(SbO)C4H4O6), and asparagine (C4H8N2O8.H2O). + + + 4. MONOCLINIC[5] SYSTEM + + (Oblique; Monosymmetric). + + In this system two of the angles between the crystallographic axes are + right angles, but the third angle is oblique, and the axes are of + unequal lengths. The axis which is perpendicular to the other two is + taken as OY = b (fig. 62) and is called the ortho-axis or + ortho-diagonal. The choice of the other two axes is arbitrary; the + vertical axis (OZ = c) is usually taken parallel to the edges of a + prominently developed prismatic zone, and the clino-axis or + clino-diagonal (OX = a) parallel to the zone-axis of some other + prominent zone on the crystal. The acute angle between the axes OX and + OZ is usually denoted as [beta], and it is necessary to know its + magnitude, in addition to the axial ratios a : b : c, before the + crystal is completely determined. As in other systems, except the + cubic, these elements, a : b : c and [beta], are characteristic of the + substance. Thus for gypsum a : b : c = 0.6899 : 1 : 0.4124; [beta] = + 80 deg. 42'; for orthoclase a : b : c = 0.6585 : 1 : 0.5554; [beta] = + 63 deg. 57'; and for cane-sugar a : b : c = 1.2595 : 1 : 0.8782; + [beta] = 76 deg. 30'. + + HOLOSYMMETRIC CLASS + + (Holohedral; Prismatic). + + Here there is a single plane of symmetry perpendicular to which is a + dyad axis; there is also a centre of symmetry. The dyad axis coincides + with the ortho-axis OY, and the vertical axis OZ and the clino-axis OX + lie in the plane of symmetry. + + [Illustration: FIG. 62.--Monoclinic Axes and Hemi-pyramid.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 63.--Crystal of Augite.] + + All the forms are open, being either pinacoids or prisms; the former + consisting of a pair of parallel faces, and the latter of four faces + intersecting in parallel edges and with a rhombic cross-section. The + pair of faces parallel to the plane of symmetry is distinguished as + the "clino-pinacoid" and has the indices {010}. The other pinacoids + are all perpendicular to the plane of symmetry (and parallel to the + ortho-axis); the one parallel to the vertical axis is called the + "ortho-pinacoid" {100}, whilst that parallel to the clino-axis is the + "basal pinacoid" {001}; pinacoids not parallel to the arbitrarily + chosen clino- and vertical axes may have the indices {101}, {201}, + {102} ... {hol} or {1'01}, {2'01}, {1'02} ... {h'ol}, according to + whether they lie in the obtuse or the acute axial angle. Of the + prisms, those with edges (zone-axis) parallel to the clino-axis, and + having indices {011}, {021}, {012} ... {okl}, are called + "clino-prisms"; those with edges parallel to the vertical axis, and + with the indices {110}, {210}, {120} ... {hko}, are called simply + "prisms." Prisms with edges parallel to neither of the axes OX and OY + have the indices {111}, {221}, {211}, {321} ... {hkl} or {1'11} ... + {h'kl}, and are usually called "hemi-pyramids" (fig. 62); they are + distinguished as negative or positive according to whether they lie in + the obtuse or the acute axial angle [beta]. + + Fig. 63 represents a crystal of augite bounded by the clino-pinacoid + (l), the ortho-pinacoid (r), a prism (M), and a hemi-pyramid (s). + + The substances which crystallize in this class are extremely numerous: + amongst minerals are gypsum, orthoclase, the amphiboles, pyroxenes and + micas, epidote, monazite, realgar, borax, mirabilite (Na2SO4.10 H2O), + melanterite (FeSO4.7H2O) and many others; amongst artificial products + are monoclinic sulphur, barium chloride (BaCl2.2H2O), potassium + chlorate, potassium ferrocyanide (K4Fe(CN)6.3H2O), oxalic acid + (C2O4H2.2H2O), sodium acetate (NaC2H3O2.3H2O) and naphthalene. + + HEMIMORPHIC CLASS + + (Sphenoidal). + + In this class the only element of symmetry is a single dyad axis, + which is polar in character, being dissimilar at the two ends. + + The form {010} perpendicular to the axis of symmetry consists of a + single plane or pedion; the parallel face is dissimilar in character + and belongs to the pedion {01'0}. The pinacoids {100}, {001}, {hol} + and {h'ol} parallel to the axis of symmetry are geometrically the + same in this class as in the holosymmetric class. The remaining forms + consist each of only two planes on the same side of the axial plane + XOZ and equally inclined to the dyad axis (e.g. in fig. 62 the two + planes XYZ and X'YZ'); such a wedge-shaped form is sometimes called a + sphenoid. + + [Illustration: FIG. 64.--Enantiomorphous Crystals of Tartaric Acid.] + + Fig. 64 shows two crystals of tartaric acid, a a right-handed crystal + of dextro-tartaric acid, and b a left-handed crystal of laevo-tartaric + acid. The two crystals are enantiomorphous, i.e. although they have + the same interfacial angles they are not superposable, one being the + mirror image of the other. Other examples are potassium + dextro-tartrate, cane-sugar, milk-sugar, quercite, lithium sulphate + (Li2SO4.H2O); amongst minerals the only example is the hydrocarbon + fichtelite (C5H8). + + CLINOHEDRAL CLASS + + (Hemihedral; Domatic). + + Crystals of this class are symmetrical only with respect to a single + plane. The only form which is here geometrically the same as in the + holosymmetric class is the clino-pinacoid {010}. The forms + perpendicular to the plane of symmetry are all pedions, consisting of + single planes with the indices {100}, {1'00}, {001}, {001'}, {hol}, + &c. The remaining forms, {hko}, {okl} and {hkl}, are domes or + "gonioids" ([Greek: gonia], an angle, and [Greek: eidos], form), + consisting of two planes equally inclined to the plane of symmetry. + + Examples are potassium tetrathionate (K2S4O6), hydrogen trisodium + hypophosphate (HNa3P2O6.9H2O); and amongst minerals, clinohedrite + (H2ZnCaSiO4) and scolectite. + + + 5. ANORTHIC SYSTEM + + (Triclinic). + + In the anorthic (from [Greek: an], privative, and [Greek: orthos], + right) or triclinic system none of the three crystallographic axes are + at right angles, and they are all of unequal lengths. In addition to + the parameters a : b : c, it is necessary to know the angles, [alpha], + [beta], and [gamma], between the axes. In anorthite, for example, + these elements are a : b : c = 0.6347 : 1 : 0.5501; [alpha] = 93 deg. + 13', [beta] = 115 deg. 55', [gamma] = 91 deg. 12'. + + HOLOSYMMETRIC CLASS + + (Holohedral; Pinacoidal). + + Here there is only a centre of symmetry. All the forms are pinacoids, + each consisting of only two parallel faces. The indices of the three + pinacoids parallel to the axial planes are {100}, {010} and {001}; + those of pinacoids parallel to only one axis are {hko}, {hol} and + {okl}; and the general form is {hkl}. + + [Illustration: FIG. 65.--Crystal of Axinite.] + + Several minerals crystallize in this class; for example, the + plagioclastic felspars, microcline, axinite (fig. 65), cyanite, + amblygonite, chalcanthite (CuSO4.5H2O), sassolite (H3BO3); among + artificial substances are potassium bichromate, racemic acid + (C4H6O6.2H2O), dibrom-para-nitrophenol, &c. + + ASYMMETRIC CLASS + + (Hemihedral, Pediad). + + Crystals of this class are devoid of any elements of symmetry. All the + forms are pedions, each consisting of a single plane; they are thus + hemihedral with respect to crystals of the last class. Although there + is a total absence of symmetry, yet the faces are arranged in zones on + the crystals. + + Examples are calcium thiosulphate (CaS2O3.6H2O) and hydrogen strontium + dextro-tartrate ((C4H4O6H)2Sr.5H2O); there is no example amongst + minerals. + + + 6. HEXAGONAL SYSTEM + + Crystals of this system are characterized by the presence of a single + axis of either triad or hexad symmetry, which is spoken of as the + "principal" or "morphological" axis. Those with a triad axis are + grouped together in the rhombohedral or trigonal division, and those + with a hexad axis in the hexagonal division. By some authors these two + divisions are treated as separate systems; or again the rhombohedral + forms may be considered as hemihedral developments of the hexagonal. + On the other hand, hexagonal forms may be considered as a combination + of two rhombohedral forms. + + Owing to the peculiarities of symmetry associated with a single triad + or hexad axis, the crystallographic axes of reference are different in + this system from those used in the five other systems of crystals. Two + methods of axial representation are in common use; rhombohedral axes + being usually used for crystals of the rhombohedral division, and + hexagonal axes for those of the hexagonal division; though sometimes + either one or the other set is employed in both divisions. + + Rhomobohedral axes are taken parallel to the three sets of edges of a + rhombohedron (fig. 66). They are inclined to one another at equal + oblique angles, and they are all equally inclined to the principal + axis; further, they are all of equal length and are interchangeable. + With such a set of axes there can be no statement of an axial ratio, + but the angle between the axes (or some other angle which may be + calculated from this) may be given as a constant of the substance. + Thus in calcite the rhombohedral angle (the angle between two faces of + the fundamental rhombohedron) is 74 deg. 55', or the angle between the + normal to a face of this rhombohedron and the principal axis is 44 + deg. 36(1/2)'. + + Hexagonal axes are four in number, viz. a vertical axis coinciding + with the principal axis of the crystal, and three horizontal axes + inclined to one another at 60 deg. in a plane perpendicular to the + principal axis. The three horizontal axes, which are taken either + parallel or perpendicular to the faces of a hexagonal prism (fig. 71) + or the edge of a hexagonal bipyramid (fig. 70), are equal in length + (a) but the vertical axis is of a different length (c). The indices of + planes referred to such a set of axes are four in number; they are + written as {hikl}, the first three (h + i + k = 0) referring to the + horizontal axes and the last to the vertical axis. The ratio a : c of + the parameters, or the axial ratio, is characteristic of all the + crystals of the same substance. Thus for beryl (including emerald) a : + c = 1 : 0.4989 (often written c = 0.4989); for zinc c = 1.3564. + + + _Rhombohedral Division._ + + In the rhomobohedral or trigonal division of the hexagonal system + there are seven symmetry-classes, all of which possess a single triad + axis of symmetry. + + HOLOSYMMETRIC CLASS + + (Holohedral; Ditrigonal scalenohedral). + + In this class, which presents the commonest type of symmetry of the + hexagonal system, the triad axis is associated with three similar + planes of symmetry inclined to one another at 60 deg. and intersecting + in the triad axis; there are also three similar dyad axes, each + perpendicular to a plane of symmetry, and a centre of symmetry. The + seven simple forms are:-- + + [Illustration: FIG. 66.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 67. + + Direct and Inverse Rhombohedra.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 68.--Scalenohedron.] + + Rhombohedron (figs. 66 and 67), consisting of six rhomb-shaped faces + with the edges all of equal lengths: the faces are perpendicular to + the planes of symmetry. There are two sets of rhombohedra, + distinguished respectively as direct and inverse; those of one set + (fig. 66) are brought into the orientation of the other set (fig. 67) + by a rotation of 60 deg. or 180 deg. about the principal axis. For the + fundamental rhombohedron, parallel to the edges of which are the + crystallographic axes of reference, the indices are {100}. Other + rhombohedra may have the indices {211}, {41'1'}, {110}, {221'}, + {111'}, &c., or in general {hkk}. (Compare fig. 72; for figures of + other rhombohedra see CALCITE.) + + Scalenohedron (fig. 68), bounded by twelve scalene triangles, and with + the general indices {hkl}. The zig-zag lateral edges coincide with the + similar edges of a rhombohedron, as shown in fig. 69; if the indices + of the inscribed rhombohedron be {100}, the indices of the + scalenohedron represented in the figure are {201'}. The scalenohedron + {201'} is a characteristic form of calcite, which for this reason is + sometimes called "dog-tooth-spar." The angles over the three edges of + a face of a scalenohedron are all different; the angles over three + alternate polar edges are more obtuse than over the other three polar + edges. Like the two sets of rhombohedra, there are also direct and + inverse scalenohedra, which may be similar in form and angles, but + different in orientation and indices. + + Hexagonal bipyramid (fig. 70), bounded by twelve isosceles triangles + each of which are equally inclined to two planes of symmetry. The + indices are {210}, {412'}, &c., or in general (_hkl_), where h - 2k + + l = 0. + + [Illustration: FIG. 69.--Scalenohedron with inscribed Rhombohedron.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 70.--Hexagonal Bipyramid.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 71.--Hexagonal Prism and Basal Pinacoid.] + + Hexagonal prism of the first order (21'1'), consisting of six faces + parallel to the principal axis and perpendicular to the planes of + symmetry; the angles between (the normals to) the faces are 60 deg. + + Hexagonal prism of the second order (101'), consisting of six faces + parallel to the principal axis and parallel to the planes of symmetry. + The faces of this prism are inclined to 30 deg. to those of the last + prism. + + Dihexagonal prism, consisting of twelve faces parallel to the + principal axis and inclined to the planes of symmetry. There are two + sets of angles between the faces. The indices are {32'1'}, {53'2'} ... + {hk'l}, where h + k + l = 0. + + Basal pinacoid {111}, consisting of a pair of parallel faces + perpendicular to the principal axis. + + [Illustration: FIG. 72.--Stereographic Projection of a Holosymmetric + Rhombohedral Crystal.] + + Fig. 71 shows a combination of a hexagonal prism (m) with the basal + pinacoid (c). For figures of other combinations see CALCITE and + CORUNDUM. The relation between rhombohedral forms and their indices + are best studied with the aid of a stereographic projection (fig. 72); + in this figure the thicker lines are the projections of the three + planes of symmetry, and on these lie the poles of the rhombohedra (six + of which are indicated). + + Numerous substances, both natural and artificial, crystallize in this + class; for example, calcite, chalybite, calamine, corundum (ruby and + sapphire), haematite, chabazite; the elements arsenic, antimony, + bismuth, selenium, tellurium and perhaps graphite; also ice, sodium + nitrate, thymol, &c. + + DITRIGONAL PYRAMIDAL CLASS + + (Hemimorphic-hemihedral). + + Here there are three similar planes of symmetry intersecting in the + triad axis; there are no dyad axes and no centre of symmetry. The + triad axis is uniterminal and polar, and the crystals are differently + developed at the two ends; crystals of this class are therefore + pyro-electric. The forms are all open forms:-- + + [Illustration: FIG. 73.--Crystal of Tourmaline.] + + Trigonal pyramid {hkk}, consisting of the three faces which correspond + to the three upper or the three lower faces of a rhombohedron of the + holosymmetric class. + + Ditrigonal pyramid {hkl}, of six faces, corresponding to the six upper + or lower faces of the scalenohedron. + + Hexagonal pyramid (hkl) where (h - 2k + l = 0), of six faces, + corresponding to the six upper or lower faces of the hexagonal + bipyramid. + + Trigonal prism {21'1'} or {2'11}, two forms each consisting of three + faces parallel to principal axis and perpendicular to the planes of + symmetry. + + Hexagonal prism {101'}, which is geometrically the same as in the last + class. + + Ditrigonal prism {hk'l'} (where h + k + l = 0), of six faces parallel + to the principal axis, and with two sets of angles between them. + + Basal pedion (111) or (1'1'1'), each consisting of a single plane + perpendicular to the principal axis. + + Fig. 73 represents a crystal of tourmaline with the trigonal prism + (21'1'), hexagonal prism (101'), and a trigonal pyramid at each end. + Other substances crystallizing in this class are pyrargyrite, + proustite, iodyrite (AgI), greenockite, zincite, spangolite, sodium + lithium sulphate, tolylphenylketone. + + TRAPEZOHEDRAL CLASS + + (Trapezohedral-hemihedral). + + Here there are three similar dyad axes inclined to one another at 60 + deg. and perpendicular to the triad axis. There are no planes or + centre of symmetry. The dyad axes are uniterminal, and are + pyro-electric axes. Crystals of most substances of this class rotate + the plane of polarization of a beam of light. + + FIG. 74.--Trigonal Trapezohedron. + + FIG. 75.--Trigonal Bipyramid. + + In this class the rhombohedra {hkk}, the hexagonal prism {21'1'}, and + the basal pinacoid {111} are geometrically the same as in the + holosymmetric class; the trigonal prism {101'} and the ditrigonal + prisms are as in the ditrigonal pyramidal class. The remaining simple + forms are:-- + + Trigonal trapezohedron (fig. 74), bounded by six trapezoidal faces. + There are two complementary and enantiomorphous trapezohedra, {hkl} + and {hlk}, derivable from the scalenohedron. + + Trigonal bipyramid (fig. 75), bounded by six isosceles triangles; the + indices are {hkl}, where h - 2k + l = 0, as in the hexagonal + bipyramid. + + The only minerals crystallizing in this class are quartz (q.v.) and + cinnabar, both of which rotate the plane of a beam of polarized light + transmitted along the triad axis. Other examples are dithionates of + lead (PbS2O6.4H2O), calcium and strontium, and of potassium (K2S2O6), + benzil, matico-stearoptene. + + RHOMBOHEDRAL CLASS + + (Parallel-faced hemihedral). + + The only elements of symmetry are the triad axis and a centre of + symmetry. The general form {hkl} is a rhombohedron, and is a + hemihedral form, with parallel faces, of the scalenohedron. The form + {hkl}, where h - 2k + l = 0, is also a rhombohedron, being the + hemihedral form of the hexagonal bipyramid. The dihexagonal prism + {hk'l'} of the holosymmetric class becomes here a hexagonal prism. The + rhombohedra (hkk), hexagonal prisms {21'1'} and {101'}, and the basal + pinacoid {111} are geometrically the same in this class as in the + holosymmetric class. + + Fig. 76 represents a crystal of dioptase with the fundamental + rhombohedron r {100} and the hexagonal prism of the second order m + {101'} combined with the rhombohedron s {031'}. + + Examples of minerals which crystallize in this class are phenacite, + dioptase, willemite, dolomite, ilmenite and pyrophanite: amongst + artificial substances is ammonium periodate ((NH4)4I2O9.3H2O). + + TRIGONAL PYRAMIDAL CLASS + + (Hemimorphic-tetartohedral). + + Here there is only the triad axis of symmetry, which is uniterminal. + The general form {hkl} is a trigonal pyramid consisting of three faces + at one end of the crystal. All other forms, in which the faces are + neither parallel nor perpendicular to the triad axis, are trigonal + pyramids. All the prisms are trigonal prisms; and perpendicular to + these are two pedions. + + [Illustration: FIG. 76.--Crystal of Dioptase.] + + The only substance known to crystallize in this class is sodium + periodate (NaIO4.3H2O), the crystals of which are circularly + polarizing. + + TRIGONAL BIPYRAMIDAL CLASS + + Here there is a plane of symmetry perpendicular to the triad axis. The + trigonal pyramids of the last class are here trigonal bipyramids (fig. + 75); the prisms are all trigonal prisms, and parallel to the plane of + symmetry is the basal pinacoid. No example is known for this class. + + DITRIGONAL BIPYRAMIDAL CLASS + + Here there are three similar planes of symmetry intersecting in the + triad axis, and perpendicular to them is a fourth plane of symmetry; + at the intersection of the three vertical planes with the horizontal + plane are three similar dyad axes; there is no centre of symmetry. + + The general form is bounded by twelve scalene triangles and is a + ditrigonal bipyramid. Like the general form of the last class, this + has two sets of indices {hkl, p'q'r'}, (hkl) for faces above the + equatorial plane of symmetry and (p'q'r') for faces below: with + hexagonal axes there would be only one set of indices. The hexagonal + bipyramids, the hexagonal prism {101'} and the basal pinacoid {111} + are geometrically the same in this class as in the holosymmetric + class. The trigonal prism {21'1'} and ditrigonal prisms {hkl} are the + same as in the ditrigonal pyramidal class. + + The only representative of this type of symmetry is the mineral + benitoite (q.v.). + + [Illustration: FIG. 77.--Dihexagonal Bipyramid.] + + + _Hexagonal Division._ + + In crystals of this division of the hexagonal system the principal + axis is a hexad axis of symmetry. Hexagonal axes of reference are + used: if rhombohedral axes be used many of the simple forms will have + two sets of indices. + + HOLOSYMMETRIC CLASS + + (Holohedral; Dihexagonal bipyramidal). + + Intersecting in the hexad axis are six planes of symmetry of two + kinds, and perpendicular to them is an equatorial plane of symmetry. + Perpendicular to the hexad axis are six dyad axes of two kinds and + each perpendicular to a vertical plane of symmetry. The seven simple + forms are:-- + + Dihexagonal bipyramid, bounded by twenty-four scalene triangles (fig. + 77; v in fig. 80). The indices are {213'1}, &c., or in general {hikl}. + This form may be considered as a combination of two scalenohedra, a + direct and an inverse. + + [Illustration: FIG. 78. FIG. 79. FIG. 80. + + Combinations of Hexagonal forms.] + + Hexagonal bipyramid of the first order, bounded by twelve isosceles + triangles (fig. 70; p and u in fig. 80); indices {101'1}, {202'1} ... + (hoh'l). The hexagonal bipyramid so common in quartz is geometrically + similar to this form, but it really is a combination of two + rhombohedra, a direct and an inverse, the faces of which differ in + surface characters and often also in size. + + Hexagonal bipyramid of the second order, bounded by twelve faces (s in + figs. 79 and 80); indices {112'1}, {112'2} ... {h.h.2'h'.l}. + + Dihexagonal prism, consisting of twelve faces parallel to the hexad + axis and inclined to the vertical planes of symmetry; indices {hiko}. + + Hexagonal prism of the first order {1010}, consisting of six faces + parallel to the hexad axis and perpendicular to one set of three + vertical planes of symmetry (m in figs. 71, 78-80). + + Hexagonal prism of the second order {112'0}, consisting of six faces + also parallel to the hexad axis, but perpendicular to the other set of + three vertical planes of symmetry (a in fig. 78). + + Basal pinacoid {0001}, consisting of a pair of parallel planes + perpendicular to the hexad axis (c in figs. 71, 78-80). + + Beryl (emerald), connellite, zinc, magnesium and beryllium crystallize + in this class. + + BIPYRAMIDAL CLASS + + (Parallel-faced hemihedral). + + Here there is a plane of symmetry perpendicular to the hexad axis; + there is also a centre of symmetry. All the closed forms are hexagonal + bipyramids; the open forms are hexagonal prisms or the basal pinacoid. + The general form {hikl} is hemihedral with parallel faces with respect + to the general form of the holosymmetric class. + + Apatite (q.v.), pyromorphite, mimetite and vanadinite possess this + degree of symmetry. + + DIHEXAGONAL PYRAMIDAL CLASS + + (Hemimorphic-hemihedral). + + Six planes of symmetry of two kinds intersect in the hexad axis. The + hexad axis is uniterminal and all the forms are open forms. The + general form {hikl} consists of twelve faces at one end of the + crystal, and is a dihexagonal pyramid. The hexagonal pyramids {hoh'l} + and (h.h.2'h'.l) each consist of six faces at one end of the crystal. + The prisms are geometrically the same as in the holosymmetric class. + Perpendicular to the hexad axis are the pedions (0001) and (0001'). + + Iodyrite (AgI), greenockite (CdS), wurtzite (ZnS) and zincite (ZnO) + are often placed in this class, but they more probably belong to the + hemimorphic-hemihedral class of the rhombohedral division of this + system. + + TRAPEZOHEDRAL CLASS + + (Trapezohedral-hemihedral). + + Six dyad axes of two kinds are perpendicular to the hexad axis. The + general form {hikl} is the hexagonal trapezohedron bounded by twelve + trapezoidal faces. The other simple forms are geometrically the same + as in the holosymmetric class. Barium-anti-monyldextro-tartrate + + potassium nitrate (Ba(SbO)2(C4H4O6)2.KNO3) and the corresponding lead + salt crystallize in this class. + + HEXAGONAL PYRAMIDAL CLASS + + (Hemimorphic-tetartohedral). + + No other element is here associated with the hexad axis, which is + uniterminal. The pyramids all consist of six faces at one end of the + crystal, and prisms are all hexagonal prisms; perpendicular to the + hexad axis are the pedions. + + Lithium potassium sulphate, strontium-antimonyl dextro-tartrate, and + lead-antimonyl dextro-tartrate are examples of this type of symmetry. + The mineral nepheline is placed in this class because of the absence + of symmetry in the etched figures on the prism faces (fig. 92). + + (g) _Regular Grouping of Crystals._ + +Crystals of the same kind when occurring together may sometimes be +grouped in parallel position and so give rise to special structures, of +which the dendritic (from [Greek: dendrou], a tree) or branch-like +aggregations of native copper or of magnetite and the fibrous structures +of many minerals furnish examples. Sometimes, owing to changes in the +surrounding conditions, the crystal may continue its growth with a +different external form or colour, e.g. sceptre-quartz. + +Regular intergrowths of crystals of totally different substances such as +staurolite with cyanite, rutile with haematite, blende with +chalcopyrite, calcite with sodium nitrate, are not uncommon. In these +cases certain planes and edges of the two crystals are parallel. (See O. +Mugge, "Die regelmassigen Verwachsungen von Mineralien verschiedener +Art," _Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie_, 1903, vol. xvi. pp. 335-475). + +But by far the most important kind of regular conjunction of crystals is +that known as "twinning." Here two crystals or individuals of the same +kind have grown together in a certain symmetrical manner, such that one +portion of the twin may be brought into the position of the other by +reflection across a plane or by rotation about an axis. The plane of +reflection is called the twin-plane, and is parallel to one of the +faces, or to a possible face, of the crystal: the axis of rotation, +called the twin-axis, is parallel to one of the edges or perpendicular +to a face of the crystal. + +[Illustration: FIG. 81.--Twinned Crystal of Gypsum.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 82.--Simple Crystal of Gypsum.] + +In the twinned crystal of gypsum represented in fig. 81 the two portions +are symmetrical with respect to a plane parallel to the ortho-pinacoid +(100), i.e. a vertical plane perpendicular to the face b. Or we may +consider the simple crystal (fig. 82) to be cut in half by this plane +and one portion to be rotated through 180 deg. about the normal to the +same plane. Such a crystal (fig. 81) is therefore described as being +twinned on the plane (100). + +An octahedron (fig. 83) twinned on an octahedral face (111) has the two +portions symmetrical with respect to a plane parallel to this face (the +large triangular face in the figure); and either portion may be brought +into the position of the other by a rotation through 180 deg. about the +triad axis of symmetry which is perpendicular to this face. This kind of +twinning is especially frequent in crystals of spinel, and is +consequently often referred to as the "spinel twin-law." + +In these two examples the surface of the union, or composition-plane, of +the two portions is a regular surface coinciding with the twin-plane; +such twins are called "juxtaposition-twins." In other juxtaposed twins +the plane of composition is, however, not necessarily the twin-plane. +Another type of twin is the "interpenetration twin," an example of which +is shown in fig. 84. Here one cube may be brought into the position of +the other by a rotation of 180 deg. about a triad axis, or by reflection +across the octahedral plane which is perpendicular to this axis; the +twin-plane is therefore (111). + +[Illustration: FIG. 83.--Spinel-twin.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 84.--Interpenetrating Twinned Cubes.] + +Since in many cases twinned crystals may be explained by the rotation of +one portion through two right angles, R. J. Hauy introduced the term +"hemitrope" (from the Gr. [Greek: hemi]-, half, and [Greek: tropos], a +turn); the word "macle" had been earlier used by Rome d'Isle. There are, +however, some rare types of twins which cannot be explained by rotation +about an axis, but only by reflection across a plane; these are known as +"symmetric twins," a good example of which is furnished by one of the +twin-laws of chalcopyrite. + +Twinned crystals may often be recognized by the presence of re-entrant +angles between the faces of the two portions, as may be seen from the +above figures. In some twinned crystals (e.g. quartz) there are, +however, no re-entrant angles. On the other hand, two crystals +accidentally grown together without any symmetrical relation between +them will usually show some re-entrant angles, but this must not be +taken to indicate the presence of twinning. + +Twinning may be several times repeated on the same plane or on other +similar planes of the crystal, giving rise to triplets, quartets and +other complex groupings. When often repeated on the same plane, the +twinning is said to be "polysynthetic," and gives rise to a laminated +structure in the crystal. Sometimes such a crystal (e.g. of corundum or +pyroxene) may be readily broken in this direction, which is thus a +"plane of parting," often closely resembling a true cleavage in +character. In calcite and some other substances this lamellar twinning +may be produced artificially by pressure (see below, Sect. II. (a), +_Glide-plane_). + +Another curious result of twinning is the production of forms which +apparently display a higher degree of symmetry than that actually +possessed by the substance. Twins of this kind are known as +"mimetic-twins or pseudo-symmetric twins." Two hemihedral or hemimorphic +crystals (e.g. of diamond or of hemimorphite) are often united in +twinned position to produce a group with apparently the same degree of +symmetry as the holosymmetric class of the same system. Or again, a +substance crystallizing in, say, the orthorhombic system (e.g. +aragonite) may, by twinning, give rise to pseudo-hexagonal forms: and +pseudo-cubic forms often result by the complex twinning of crystals +(e.g. stannite, phillipsite, &c.) belonging to other systems. Many of +the so-called "optical anomalies" of crystals may be explained by this +pseudo-symmetric twinning. + + (h) _Irregularities of Growth of Crystals; Character of Faces._ + +Only rarely do actual crystals present the symmetrical appearance shown +in the figures given above, in which similar faces are all represented +as of equal size. It frequently happens that the crystal is so placed +with respect to the liquid in which it grows that there will be a more +rapid deposition of material on one part than on another; for instance, +if the crystal be attached to some other solid it cannot grow in that +direction. Only when a crystal is freely suspended in the mother-liquid +and material for growth is supplied at the same rate on all sides does +an equably developed form result. + +[Illustration: FIG. 85.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 86. + +Misshappen Octahedra.] + +Two misshapen or distorted octahedra are represented in figs. 85 and 86; +the former is elongated in the direction of one of the edges of the +octahedron, and the latter is flattened parallel to one pair of faces. +It will be noticed in these figures that the edges in which the faces +intersect have the same directions as before, though here there are +additional edges not present in fig. 3. The angles (70 deg. 32' or 109 +deg. 28') between the faces also remain the same; and the faces have the +same inclinations to the axes and planes of symmetry as in the equably +developed form. Although from a geometrical point of view these figures +are no longer symmetrical with respect to the axes and planes of +symmetry, yet crystallographically they are just as symmetrical as the +ideally developed form, and, however much their irregularity of +development, they still are regular (cubic) octahedra of +crystallography. A remarkable case of irregular development is presented +by the mineral cuprite, which is often found as well-developed +octahedra; but in the variety known as chalcotrichite it occurs as a +matted aggregate of delicate hairs, each of which is an individual +crystal enormously elongated in the direction of an edge or diagonal of +the cube. + +The symmetry of actual crystals is sometimes so obscured by +irregularities of growth that it can only be determined by measurement +of the angles. An extreme case, where several of the planes have not +been developed at all, is illustrated in fig. 87, which shows the actual +shape of a crystal of zircon from Ceylon; the ideally developed form +(fig. 88) is placed at the side for comparison, and the parallelism of +the edges between corresponding faces will be noticed. This crystal is a +combination of five simple forms, viz. two tetragonal prisms (a and m,) +two tetragonal bipyramids (e and p), and one ditetragonal bipyramid (x, +with 16 faces). + +[Illustration: FIG. 87.--Actual Crystal.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 88.--Ideal Development. + +Crystal of Zircon (clinographic drawings and plans).] + +The actual form, or "habit," of crystals may vary widely in different +crystals of the same substance, these differences depending largely on +the conditions under which the growth has taken place. The material may +have crystallized from a fused mass or from a solution; and in the +latter case the solvent may be of different kinds and contain other +substances in solution, or the temperature may vary. Calcite (q.v.) +affords a good example of a substance crystallizing in widely different +habits, but all crystals are referable to the same type of symmetry and +may be reduced to the same fundamental form. + +When crystals are aggregated together, and so interfere with each +other's growth, special structures and external shapes often result, +which are sometimes characteristic of certain substances, especially +amongst minerals. + +Incipient crystals, the development of which has been arrested owing to +unfavourable conditions of growth, are known as crystallites (q.v.). +They are met with in imperfectly crystallized substances and in glassy +rocks (obsidian and pitchstone), or may be obtained artificially from a +solution of sulphur in carbon disulphide rendered viscous by the +addition of Canada-balsam. To the various forms H. Vogelsang gave, in +1875, the names "globulites," "margarites" (from [Greek: margarites], a +pearl), "longulites," &c. At a more advanced stage of growth these +bodies react on polarized light, thus possessing the internal structure +of true crystals; they are then called "microlites." These have the form +of minute rods, needles or hairs, and are aggregated into feathery and +spherulitic forms or skeletal crystals. They are common constituents of +microcrystalline igneous rocks, and often occur as inclusions in larger +crystals of other substances. + +Inclusions of foreign matter, accidentally caught up during growth, are +frequently present in crystals. Inclusions of other minerals are +specially frequent and conspicuous in crystals of quartz, and crystals +of calcite may contain as much as 60% of included sand. Cavities, either +with rounded boundaries or with the same shape ("negative crystals") as +the surrounding crystal, are often to be seen; they may be empty or +enclose a liquid with a movable bubble of gas. + +The faces of crystals are rarely perfectly plane and smooth, but are +usually striated, studded with small angular elevations, pitted or +cavernous, and sometimes curved or twisted. These irregularities, +however, conform with the symmetry of the crystal, and much may be +learnt by their study. The parallel grooves or furrows, called "striae," +are the result of oscillatory combination between adjacent faces, narrow +strips of first one face and then another being alternately developed. +Sometimes the striae on crystal-faces are due to repeated lamellar +twinning, as in the plagioclase felspars. The directions of the +striations are very characteristic features of many crystals: e.g. the +faces of the hexagonal prism of quartz are always striated horizontally, +whilst in beryl they are striated vertically. Cubes of pyrites (fig. 89) +are striated parallel to one edge, the striae on adjacent faces being at +right angles, and due to oscillatory combination of the cube and the +pentagonal dodecahedron (compare fig. 36); whilst cubes of blende (fig. +90) are striated parallel to one diagonal of each face, i.e. parallel to +the tetrahedron faces (compare fig. 31). These striated cubes thus +possess different degrees of symmetry and belong to different +symmetry-classes. Oscillatory combination of faces gives rise also to +curved surfaces. Crystals with twisted surfaces (see DOLOMITE) are, +however, built up of smaller crystals arranged in nearly parallel +position. Sometimes a face is entirely replaced by small faces of other +forms, giving rise to a drusy surface; an example of this is shown by +some octahedral crystals of fluorspar (fig. 2) which are built up of +minute cubes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 89.--Striated Cube of Pyrites.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 90.--Striated Cube of Blende.] + +The faces of crystals are sometimes partly or completely replaced by +smooth bright surfaces inclined at only a few minutes of arc from the +true position of the face; such surfaces are called "vicinal faces," and +their indices can be expressed only by very high numbers. In apparently +perfectly developed crystals of alum the octahedral face, with the +simple indices (111), is usually replaced by faces of very low +triakis-octahedra, with indices such as (251.251.250); the angles +measured on such crystals will therefore deviate slightly from the true +octahedral angle. Vicinal faces of this character are formed during the +growth of crystals, and have been studied by H. A. Miers (_Phil. +Trans._, 1903, Ser. A. vol. 202). Other faces with high indices, viz. +"prerosion faces" and the minute faces forming the sides of etched +figures (see below), as well as rounded edges and other surface +irregularities, may, however, result from the corrosion of a crystal +subsequent to its growth. The pitted and cavernous faces of artificially +grown crystals of sodium chloride and of bismuth are, on the other hand, +a result of rapid growth, more material being supplied at the edges and +corners of the crystal than at the centres of the faces. + + (i) _Theories of Crystal Structure._ + +The ultimate aim of crystallographic research is to determine the +internal structure of crystals from both physical and chemical data. The +problem is essentially twofold: in the first place it is necessary to +formulate a theory as to the disposition of the molecules, which +conforms with the observed types of symmetry--this is really a +mathematical problem; in the second place, it is necessary to determine +the orientation of the atoms (or groups of atoms) composing the +molecules with regard to the crystal axes--this involves a knowledge of +the atomic structure of the molecule. As appendages to the second part +of our problem, there have to be considered: (1) the possibility of the +existence of the same substance in two or more distinct crystalline +forms--polymorphism, and (2) the relations between the chemical +structure of compounds which affect nearly identical or related crystal +habits--isomorphism and morphotropy. Here we shall discuss the modern +theory of crystal structure; the relations between chemical composition +and crystallographical form are discussed in Part III. of this article; +reference should also be made to the article CHEMISTRY: _Physical_. + + + Hauy. + +The earliest theory of crystal structure of any moment is that of Hauy, +in which, as explained above, he conceived a crystal as composed of +elements bounded by the cleavage planes of the crystal, the elements +being arranged contiguously and along parallel lines. There is, however, +no reason to suppose that matter is continuous throughout a crystalline +body; in fact, it has been shown that space does separate the molecules, +and we may therefore replace the contiguous elements of Hauy by +particles equidistantly distributed along parallel lines; by this +artifice we retain the reticulated or net-like structure, but avoid the +continuity of matter which characterizes Hauy's theory; the permanence +of crystal form being due to equilibrium between the intermolecular (and +interatomic) forces. The crystal is thus conjectured as a +"space-lattice," composed of three sets of parallel planes which enclose +parallelopipeda, at the corners of which are placed the constituent +molecules (or groups of molecules) of the crystal. + + + Frankenheim; Bravais. + +The geometrical theory of crystal structure (i.e. the determination of +the varieties of crystal symmetry) is thus reduced to the mathematical +problem: "in how many ways can space be partitioned?" M. L. Frankenheim, +in 1835, determined this number as fifteen, but A. Bravais, in 1850, +proved the identity of two of Frankenheim's forms, and showed how the +remaining fourteen coalesced by pairs, so that really these forms only +corresponded to seven distinct systems and fourteen classes of crystal +symmetry. These systems, however, only represented holohedral forms, +leaving the hemihedral and tetartohedral classes to be explained. +Bravais attempted an explanation by attributing differences in the +symmetry of the crystal elements, or, what comes to the same thing, he +assumed the crystals to exhibit polar differences along any member of +the lattice; for instance, assume the particles to be (say) pear-shaped, +then the sharp ends point in one direction, the blunt ends in the +opposite direction. + + + Sohncke. + +A different view was adopted by L. Sohncke in 1879, who, by developing +certain considerations published by Camille Jordan in 1869 on the +possible types of regular repetition in space of identical parts, showed +that the lattice-structure of Bravais was unnecessary, it being +sufficient that each molecule of an indefinitely extended crystal, +represented by its "point" (or centre of gravity), was identically +situated with respect to the molecules surrounding it. The problem then +resolves itself into the determination of the number of "point-systems" +possible; Sohncke derived sixty-five such arrangements, which may also +be obtained from the fourteen space-lattices of Bravais, by +interpenetrating any one space-lattice with one or more identical +lattices, with the condition that the resulting structure should conform +with the homogeneity characteristic of crystals. But the sixty-five +arrangements derived by Sohncke, of which Bravais' lattices are +particular cases, did not complete the solution, for certain of the +known types of crystal symmetry still remained unrepresented. These +missing forms are characterized as being enantiomorphs consequently, +with the introduction of this principle of repetition over a plane, i.e. +mirror images. E. S. Fedorov (1890), A. Schoenflies (1891), and W. +Barlow (1894), independently and by different methods, showed how +Sohncke's theory of regular point-systems explained the whole thirty-two +classes of crystal symmetry, 230 distinct types of crystal structure +falling into these classes. + +By considering the atoms instead of the centres of gravity of the +molecules, Sohncke (_Zeits. Kryst. Min._, 1888, 14, p. 431) has +generalized his theory, and propounded the structure of a crystal in the +following terms: "A crystal consists of a finite number of +interpenetrating regular point-systems, which all possess like and +like-directed coincidence movements. Each separate point-system is +occupied by similar material particles, but these may be different for +the different interpenetrating partial systems which form the complex +system." Or we may quote the words of P. von Groth (_British Assoc. +Rep._, 1904): "A crystal--considered as indefinitely extended--consists +of n interpenetrating regular point-systems, each of which is formed of +similar atoms; each of these point-systems is built up from a number of +interpenetrating space-lattices, each of the latter being formed from +similar atoms occupying parallel positions. All the space-lattices of +the combined system are geometrically identical, or are characterized by +the same elementary parallelopipedon." + + A complete resume, with references to the literature, will be found in + "Report on the Development of the Geometrical Theories of Crystal + Structure, 1666-1901" (_British Assoc. Rep._, 1901). + + +II. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CRYSTALS. + +Many of the physical properties of crystals vary with the direction in +the material, but are the same in certain directions; these directions +obeying the same laws of symmetry as do the faces on the exterior of the +crystal. The symmetry of the internal structure of crystals is thus the +same as the symmetry of their external form. + + (a) _Elasticity and Cohesion._ + +The elastic constants of crystals are determined by similar methods to +those employed with amorphous substances, only the bars and plates +experimented upon must be cut from the crystal with known orientations. +The "elasticity surface" expressing the coefficients in various +directions within the crystal has a configuration symmetrical with +respect to the same planes and axes of symmetry as the crystal itself. +In calcite, for instance, the figure has roughly the shape of a rounded +rhombohedron with depressed faces and is symmetrical about three +vertical planes. In the case of homogeneous elastic deformation, +produced by pressure on all sides, the effect on the crystal is the same +as that due to changes of temperature; and the surfaces expressing the +compression coefficients in different directions have the same higher +degree of symmetry, being either a sphere, spheroid or ellipsoid. When +strained beyond the limits of elasticity, crystalline matter may suffer +permanent deformation in one or other of two ways, or may be broken +along cleavage surfaces or with an irregular fracture. In the case of +plastic deformation, e.g. in a crystal of ice, the crystalline particles +are displaced but without any change in their orientation. Crystals of +some substances (e.g. para-azoxyanisol) have such a high degree of +plasticity that they are deformed even by their surface tension, and the +crystals take the form of drops of doubly refracting liquid which are +known as "liquid crystals." (See O. Lehmann, _Flussige Kristalle_, +Leipzig, 1904; F. R. Schenck, _Kristallinische Flussigkeiten und +flussige Krystalle_, Leipzig, 1905.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 91.--Glide-plane of Calcite.] + +In the second, and more usual kind of permanent deformation without +fracture, the particles glide along certain planes into a new (twinned) +position of equilibrium. If a knife blade be pressed into the edge of a +cleavage rhombohedron of calcite (at b, fig. 91) the portion abcde of +the crystal will take up the position a'b'cde. The obtuse solid angle at +a becomes acute (a'), whilst the acute angle at b becomes obtuse (b'); +and the new surface a'ce is as bright and smooth as before. This result +has been effected by the particles in successive layers gliding or +rotating over each other, without separation, along planes parallel to +cde. This plane, which truncates the edge of the rhombohedron and has +the indices (110), is called a "glide-plane." The new portion is in +twinned position with respect to the rest of the crystal, being a +reflection of it across the plane cde, which is therefore a plane of +twinning. This secondary twinning is often to be observed as a repeated +lamination in the grains of calcite composing a crystalline limestone, +or marble, which has been subjected to earth movements. Planes of +gliding have been observed in many minerals (pyroxene, corundum, &c.) +and their crystals may often be readily broken along these directions, +which are thus "planes of parting" or "pseudo-cleavage." The +characteristic transverse striae, invariably present on the cleavage +surfaces of stibnite and cyanite are due to secondary twinning along +glide-planes, and have resulted from the bending of the crystals. + +One of the most important characters of crystals is that of "cleavage"; +there being certain plane directions across which the cohesion is a +minimum, and along which the crystal may be readily split or cleaved. +These directions are always parallel to a possible face on the crystal +and usually one prominently developed and with simple indices, it being +a face in which the crystal molecules are most closely packed. The +directions of cleavage are symmetrically repeated according to the +degree of symmetry possessed by the crystal. Thus in the cubic system, +crystals of salt and galena cleave in three directions parallel to the +faces of the cube {100}, diamond and fluorspar cleave in four directions +parallel to the octahedral faces {111}, and blende in six directions +parallel to the faces of the rhombic dodecahedron {110}. In crystals of +other systems there will be only a single direction of cleavage if this +is parallel to the faces of a pinacoid; e.g. the basal pinacoid in +tetragonal (as in apophyllite) and hexagonal crystals; or parallel (as +in gypsum) or perpendicular (as in mica and cane-sugar) to the plane of +symmetry in monoclinic crystals. Calcite cleaves in three directions +parallel to the faces of the primitive rhombohedron. Barytes, which +crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, has two sets of cleavages, viz. +a single cleavage parallel to the basal pinacoid {001} and also two +directions parallel to the faces of the prism {110}. In all of the +examples just quoted the cleavage is described as perfect, since +cleavage flakes with very smooth and bright surfaces may be readily +detached from the crystals. Different substances, however, vary widely +in their character of cleavage; in some it can only be described as good +or distinct, whilst in others, e.g. quartz and alum, there is little or +no tendency to split along certain directions and the surfaces of +fracture are very uneven. Cleavage is therefore a character of +considerable determinative value, especially for the purpose of +distinguishing different minerals. + +Another result of the presence in crystals of directions of minimum +cohesion are the "percussion figures," which are produced on a +crystal-face when this is struck with a sharp point. A percussion figure +consists of linear cracks radiating from the point of impact, which in +their number and orientation agree with the symmetry of the face. Thus +on a cube face of a crystal of salt the rays of the percussion figure +are parallel to the diagonals of the face, whilst on an octahedral face +a three-rayed star is developed. By pressing a blunt point into a +crystal face a somewhat similar figure, known as a "pressure figure," is +produced. Percussion and pressure figures are readily developed in +cleavage sheets of mica (q.v.). + +Closely allied to cohesion is the character of "hardness," which is +often defined, and measured by, the resistance which a crystal face +offers to scratching. That hardness is a character depending largely on +crystalline structure is well illustrated by the two crystalline +modifications of carbon: graphite is one of the softest of minerals, +whilst diamond is the hardest of all. The hardness of crystals of +different substances thus varies widely, and with minerals it is a +character of considerable determinative value; for this purpose a scale +of hardness is employed (see MINERALOGY). Various attempts have been +made with the view of obtaining accurate determinations of degrees of +hardness, but with varying results; an instrument used for this purpose +is called a sclerometer (from [Greek: skleros], hard). It may, however, +be readily demonstrated that the degree of hardness on a crystal face +varies with the direction, and that a curve expressing these relations +possesses the same geometrical symmetry as the face itself. The mineral +cyanite is remarkable in having widely different degrees of hardness on +different faces of its crystals and in different directions on the same +face. + +Another result of the differences of cohesion in different directions is +that crystals are corroded, or acted upon by chemical solvents, at +different rates in different directions. This is strikingly shown when a +sphere cut from a crystal, say of calcite or quartz, is immersed in +acid; after some time the resulting form is bounded by surfaces +approximating to crystal faces, and has the same symmetry as that of the +crystal from which the sphere was cut. When a crystal bounded by faces +is immersed in a solvent the edges and corners become rounded and +"prerosion faces" developed in their place; the faces become marked all +over with minute pits or shallow depressions, and as these are extended +by further solution they give place to small elevations on the corroded +face. The sides of the pits and elevations are bounded by small faces +which have the character of vicinal faces. These markings are known as +"etched figures" or "corrosion figures," and they are extremely +important aids in determining the symmetry of crystals. Etched figures +are sometimes beautifully developed on the faces of natural crystals, +e.g. of diamond, and they may be readily produced artificially with +suitable solvents. + +[Illustration: FIG. 92.--Nepheline.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 93.--Calcite.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 94.--Beryl. + +Etched Figures on Hexagonal Prisms.] + +As an example, the etched figures on the faces of a hexagonal prism and +the basal plane are illustrated in figs. 92-94 for three of the several +symmetry-classes of the hexagonal system. The classes chosen are those +in which nepheline, calcite and beryl (emerald) crystallize, and these +minerals often have the simple form of crystal represented in the +figures. In nepheline (fig. 92) the only element of symmetry is a hexad +axis; the etched figures on the prism are therefore unsymmetrical, +though similar on all the faces; the hexagonal markings on the basal +plane have none of their edges parallel to the edges of the face; +further the crystals being hemimorphic, the etched figures on the basal +planes at the two ends will be different in character. The facial +development of crystals of nepheline give no indication of this type of +symmetry, and the mineral has been referred to this class solely on the +evidence afforded by the etched figures. In calcite there is a triad +axis of symmetry parallel to the prism edges, three dyad axes each +perpendicular to a pair of prism edges and three planes of symmetry +perpendicular to the prism faces; the etched figures shown in fig. 93 +will be seen to conform to all these elements of symmetry. There being +in calcite also a centre of symmetry, the equilateral triangles on the +basal plane at the lower end of the crystal will be the same in form as +those at the top, but they will occupy a reversed position. In beryl, +which crystallizes in the holosymmetric class of the hexagonal system, +the etched figures (fig. 94) display the fullest possible degree of +symmetry; those on the prism faces are all similar and are each +symmetrical with respect to two lines, and the hexagonal markings on the +basal planes at both ends of the crystal are symmetrically placed with +respect to six lines. A detailed account of the etched figures of +crystals is given by H. Baumhauer, _Die Resultate der Atzmethode in der +krystallographischen Forschung_ (Leipzig, 1894). + + (b) _Optical Properties._ + +The complex optical characters of crystals are not only of considerable +interest theoretically, but are of the greatest practical importance. In +the absence of external crystalline form, as with a faceted gem-stone, +or with the minerals constituting a rock (thin, transparent sections of +which are examined in the polarizing microscope), the mineral species +may often be readily identified by the determination of some of the +optical characters. + +According to their action on transmitted plane-polarized light (see +POLARIZATION OF LIGHT) all crystals may be referred to one or other of +the five groups enumerated below. These groups correspond with the six +systems of crystallization (in the second group two systems being +included together). The several symmetry-classes of each system are +optically the same, except in the rare cases of substances which are +circularly polarizing. + +(1) Optically isotropic crystals--corresponding with the cubic system. + +(2) Optically uniaxial crystals--corresponding with the tetragonal and +hexagonal systems. + +(3) Optically biaxial crystals in which the three principal optical +directions coincide with the three crystallographic axes--corresponding +with the orthorhombic system. + +(4) Optically biaxial crystals in which only one of the three principal +optical directions coincides with a crystallographic axis--corresponding +with the monoclinic system. + +(5) Optically biaxial crystals in which there is no fixed and definite +relation between the optical and crystallographic +directions--corresponding with the anorthic system. + +_Optically Isotropic Crystals._--These belong to the cubic system, and +like all other optically isotropic (from [Greek: isos], like, and +[Greek: tropos], character) bodies have only one index of refraction for +light of each colour. They have no action on polarized light (except in +crystals which are circularly polarizing); and when examined in the +polariscope or polarizing microscope they remain dark between crossed +nicols, and cannot therefore be distinguished optically from amorphous +substances, such as glass and opal. + +_Optically Uniaxial Crystals._--These belong to the tetragonal and +hexagonal (including rhombohedral) systems, and between crystals of +these systems there is no optical distinction. Such crystals are +anisotropic or doubly refracting (see REFRACTION: _Double_); but for +light travelling through them in a certain, single direction they are +singly refracting. This direction, which is called the optic axis, is +the same for light of all colours and at all temperatures; it coincides +in direction with the principal crystallographic axis, which in +tetragonal crystals is a tetrad (or dyad) axis of symmetry, and in the +hexagonal system a triad or hexad axis. + +For light of each colour there are two indices of refraction; namely, +the ordinary index ([omega]) corresponding with the ordinary ray, which +vibrates perpendicular to the optic axis; and the extraordinary index +([epsilon]) corresponding with the extraordinary ray, which vibrates +parallel to the optic axis. If the ordinary index of refraction be +greater than the extraordinary index, the crystal is said to be +optically negative, whilst if less the crystal is optically positive. +The difference between the two indices is a measure of the strength of +the double refraction or birefringence. Thus in calcite, for sodium (D) +light, [omega] = 1.6585 and [epsilon] = 1.4863; hence this substance is +optically negative with a relatively high double refraction of [omega] - +[epsilon] = 0.1722. In quartz [omega] = 1.5442, [epsilon] = 1.5533 and +[epsilon] - [omega] = 0.0091; this mineral is therefore optically +positive with low double refraction. The indices of refraction vary, not +only for light of different colours, but also slightly with the +temperature. + +The optical characters of uniaxial crystals are symmetrical not only +with respect to the full number of planes and axes of symmetry of +tetragonal and hexagonal crystals, but also with respect to all vertical +planes, i.e. all planes containing the optic axis. A surface expressing +the optical relations of such crystals is thus an ellipsoid of +revolution about the optic axis. (In cubic crystals the corresponding +surface is a sphere.) In the "optical indicatrix" (L. Fletcher, _The +Optical Indicatrix and the Transmission of Light in Crystals_, London, +1892), the length of the principal axis, or axis of rotation, is +proportional to the index of refraction, (i.e. inversely proportional to +the velocity) of the extraordinary rays, which vibrate along this axis +and are transmitted in directions perpendicular thereto; the equatorial +diameters are proportional to the index of refraction of the ordinary +rays, which vibrate perpendicular to the optic axis. For positive +uniaxial crystals the indicatrix is thus a prolate spheroid +(egg-shaped), and for negative crystals an oblate spheroid +(orange-shaped). + +In "Fresnel's ellipsoid" the axis of rotation is proportional to the +velocity of the extraordinary ray, and the equatorial diameters +proportional to the velocity of the ordinary ray; it is therefore an +oblate spheroid for positive crystals, and a prolate spheroid for +negative crystals. The "ray-surface," or "wave-surface," which +represents the distances traversed by the rays during a given interval +of time in various directions from a point of origin within the crystal, +consists in uniaxial crystals of two sheets; namely, a sphere, +corresponding to the ordinary rays, and an ellipsoid of revolution, +corresponding to the extraordinary rays. The difference in form of the +ray-surface for positive and negative crystals is shown in figs. 95 and +96. + +[Illustration: FIG. 95.--Section of the Ray-Surface of a Positive +Uniaxial Crystal.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 96.--Section of the Ray-Surface of a Negative +Uniaxial Crystal.] + +When a uniaxial crystal is examined in a polariscope or polarizing +microscope between crossed nicols (i.e. with the principal planes of the +polarizer or analyser at right angles, and so producing a dark field of +view) its behaviour differs according to the direction in which the +light travels through the crystal, to the position of the crystal with +respect to the principal planes of the nicols, and further, whether +convergent or parallel polarized light be employed. A tetragonal or +hexagonal crystal viewed, in parallel light, through the basal plane, +i.e. along the principal axis, will remain dark as it is rotated between +crossed nicols, and will thus not differ in its behaviour from a cubic +crystal or other isotropic body. If, however, the crystal be viewed in +any other direction, for example, through a prism face, it will, except +in certain positions, have an action on the polarized light. A +plane-polarized ray entering the crystal will be resolved into two +polarized rays with the directions of vibration parallel to the +vibration-directions in the crystal. These two rays on leaving the +crystal will be combined again in the analyser, and a portion of the +light transmitted through the instrument; the crystal will then show up +brightly against the dark field. Further, owing to interference of these +two rays in the analyser, the light will be brilliantly coloured, +especially if the crystal be thin, or if a thin section of a crystal be +examined. The particular colour seen will depend on the strength of the +double refraction, the orientation of the crystal or section, and upon +its thickness. If now, the crystal be rotated with the stage of the +microscope, the nicols remaining fixed in position, the light +transmitted through the instrument will vary in intensity, and in +certain positions will be cut out altogether. The latter happens when +the vibration-directions of the crystal are parallel to the +vibration-directions of the nicols (these being indicated by cross-wires +in the microscope). The crystal, now being dark, is said to be in +position of extinction; and as it is turned through a complete rotation +of 360 deg. it will extinguish four times. If a prism face be viewed +through, it will be seen that, when the crystal is in a position of +extinction, the cross-wires of the microscope are parallel to the edges +of the prism: the crystal is then said to give "straight extinction." + +In convergent light, between crossed nicols, a very different phenomenon +is to be observed when a uniaxial crystal, or section of such a crystal, +is placed with its optic axis coincident with the axis of the +microscope. The rays of light, being convergent, do not travel in the +direction of the optic axis and are therefore doubly refracted in the +crystal; in the analyser the vibrations will be reduced to the same +plane and there will be interference of the two sets of rays. The result +is an "interference figure" (fig. 97), which consists of a number of +brilliantly coloured concentric rings, each showing the colours of the +spectrum of white light; intersecting the rings is a black cross, the +arms of which are parallel to the principal planes of the nicols. If +monochromatic light be used instead of white light, the rings will be +alternately light and dark. The number and distance apart of the rings +depend on the strength of the double refraction and on the thickness of +the crystal. By observing the effect produced on such a uniaxial +interference figure when a "quarter undulation (or wave-length) +mica-plate" is superposed on the crystal, it may be at once decided +whether the crystal is optically positive or negative. Such a simple +test may, for example, be applied for distinguishing certain faceted +gem-stones: thus zircon and phenacite are optically positive, whilst +corundum (ruby and sapphire) and beryl (emerald) are optically negative. + +[Illustration: FIG. 97.--Interference Figure of a Uniaxial Crystal.] + +_Optically Biaxial Crystals._--In these crystals there are three +principal indices of refraction, denoted by [alpha], [beta] and [gamma]; +of these [gamma] is the greatest and [alpha] the least ([gamma] > [beta] +> [alpha]). The three principal vibration-directions, corresponding to +these indices, are at right angles to each other, and are the directions +of the three rectangular axes of the optical indicatrix. The indicatrix +(fig. 98) is an ellipsoid with the lengths of its axes proportional to +the refractive indices; OC = [gamma], OB = [beta], OA = [alpha], where +OC > OB > OA. The figure is symmetrical with respect to the principal +planes OAB, OAC, OBC. + +In Fresnel's ellipsoid the three rectangular axes are proportional to +1/[alpha], 1/[beta], and 1/[gamma], and are usually denoted by a, b and +c respectively, where a > b > c: these have often been called "axes of +optical elasticity," a term now generally discarded. + +[Illustration: FIG. 98.--Optical Indicatrix of a Biaxial Crystal.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 99.--Ray-Surface of a Biaxial Crystal.] + +The ray-surface (represented in fig. 99 by its sections in the three +principal planes) is derived from the indicatrix in the following +manner. A ray of light entering the crystal and travelling in the +direction OA is resolved into polarized rays vibrating parallel to OB +and OC, and therefore propagated with the velocities 1/[beta] and +1/[gamma] respectively: distances Ob and Oc (fig. 99) proportional to +these velocities are marked off in the direction OA. Similarly, rays +travelling along OC have the velocities 1/[alpha] and 1/[beta], and +those along OB the velocities 1/[alpha] and 1/[gamma]. In the two +directions Op1 and Op2 (fig. 98), perpendicular to the two circular +sections P1P1 and P2P2 of the indicatrix, the two rays will be +transmitted with the same velocity 1/[beta]. These two directions are +called the optic axes ("primary optic axis"), though they have not all +the properties which are associated with the optic axis of a uniaxial +crystal. They have very nearly the same direction as the lines Os1 and +Os2 in fig. 99, which are distinguished as the "secondary optic axes." +In most crystals the primary and secondary optic axes are inclined to +each other at not more than a few minutes, so that for practical +purposes there is no distinction between them. + +The angle between Op1 and Op2 is called the "optic axial angle"; and the +plane OAC in which they lie is called the "optic axial plane." The +angles between the optic axes are bisected by the vibration-directions +OA and OC; the one which bisects the acute angle being called the +"acute bisectrix" or "first mean line," and the other the "obtuse +bisectrix" or "second mean line." When the acute bisectrix coincides +with the greatest axis OC of the indicatrix, i.e. the +vibration-direction corresponding with the refractive index [gamma] (as +in figs. 98 and 99), the crystal is described as being optically +positive; and when the acute bisectrix coincides with OA, the +vibration-direction for the index [alpha], the crystal is negative. The +distinction between positive and negative biaxial crystals thus depends +on the relative magnitude of the three principal indices of refraction; +in positive crystals [beta] is nearer to [alpha] than to [gamma], whilst +in negative crystals the reverse is the case. Thus in topaz, which is +optically positive, the refractive indices for sodium light are [alpha] += 1.6120, [beta] = 1.6150, [gamma] = 1.6224; and for orthoclase which is +optically negative, [alpha] = 1.5190, [beta] = 1.5237, [gamma] = 1.5260. +The difference [gamma] - [alpha] represents the strength of the double +refraction. + +Since the refractive indices vary both with the colour of the light and +with the temperature, there will be for each colour and temperature +slight differences in the form of both the indicatrix and the +ray-surface: consequently there will be variations in the positions of +the optic axes and in the size of the optic axial angle. This phenomenon +is known as the "dispersion of the optic axes." When the axial angle is +greater for red light than for blue the character of the dispersion is +expressed by [rho] > [upsilon], and when less by [rho] < [upsilon]. In +some crystals, e.g. brookite, the optic axes for red light and for blue +light may be, at certain temperatures, in planes at right angles. + +[Illustration: FIG. 100.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 101. + +Interference Figures of a Biaxial Crystal.] + +The type of interference figure exhibited by a biaxial crystal in +convergent polarized light between crossed nicols is represented in +figs. 100 and 101. The crystal must be viewed along the acute bisectrix, +and for this purpose it is often necessary to cut a plate from the +crystal perpendicular to this direction: sometimes, however, as in mica +and topaz, a cleavage flake will be perpendicular to the acute +bisectrix. When seen in white light, there are around each optic axis a +series of brilliantly coloured ovals, which at the centre join to form +an 8-shaped loop, whilst further from the centre the curvature of the +rings is approximately that of lemniscates. In the position shown in +fig. 100 the vibration-directions in the crystal are parallel to those +of the nicols, and the figure is intersected by two black bands or +"brushes" forming a cross. When, however, the crystal is rotated with +the stage of the microscope the cross breaks up into the two branches of +a hyperbola, and when the vibration-directions of the crystal are +inclined at 45 deg. to those of the nicols the figure is that shown in +fig. 101. The points of emergence of the optic axes are at the middle of +the hyperbolic brushes when the crystal is in the diagonal position: the +size of the optic axial angle can therefore be directly measured with +considerable accuracy. + +In orthorhombic crystals the three principal vibration-directions +coincide with the three crystallographic axes, and have therefore fixed +positions in the crystal, which are the same for light of all colours +and at all temperatures. The optical orientation of an orthorhombic +crystal is completely defined by stating to which crystallographic +planes the optic axial plane and the acute bisectrix are respectively +parallel and perpendicular. Examined in parallel light between crossed +nicols, such a crystal extinguishes parallel to the crystallographic +axes, which are often parallel to the edges of a face or section; there +is thus usually "straight extinction." The interference figure seen in +convergent polarized light is symmetrical about two lines at right +angles. + +In monoclinic crystals only one vibration-direction has a fixed position +within the crystal, being parallel to the ortho-axis (i.e. perpendicular +to the plane of symmetry or the plane (010)). The other two +vibration-directions lie in the plane (010), but they may vary in +position for light of different colours and at different temperatures. +In addition to dispersion of the optic axes there may thus, in crystals +of this system, be also "dispersion of the bisectrices." The latter may +be of one or other of three kinds, according to which of the three +vibration-directions coincides with the ortho-axis of the crystal. When +the acute bisectrix is fixed in position, the optic axial planes for +different colours may be crossed, and the interference figure will then +be symmetrical with respect to a point only ("crossed dispersion"). When +the obtuse bisectrix is fixed, the axial planes may be inclined to one +another, and the interference figure is symmetrical only about a line +which is perpendicular to the axial planes ("horizontal dispersion"). +Finally, when the vibration-direction corresponding to the refractive +index [beta], or the "third mean line," has a fixed position, the optic +axial plane lies in the plane (010), but the acute bisectrix may vary in +position in this plane; the interference figure will then be symmetrical +only about a line joining the optic axes ("inclined dispersion"). +Examples of substances exhibiting these three kinds of dispersion are +borax, orthoclase and gypsum respectively. In orthoclase and gypsum, +however, the optic axial angle gradually diminishes as the crystals are +heated, and after passing through a uniaxial position they open out in a +plane at right angles to the one they previously occupied; the character +of the dispersion thus becomes reversed in the two examples quoted. When +examined in parallel light between crossed nicols monoclinic crystals +will give straight extinction only in faces and sections which are +perpendicular to the plane of symmetry (or the plane (010)); in all +other faces and sections the extinction-directions will be inclined to +the edges of the crystal. The angles between these directions and edges +are readily measured, and, being dependent on the optical orientation of +the crystal, they are often characteristic constants of the substance +(see, e.g., PLAGIOCLASE). + +In anorthic crystals there is no relation between the optical and +crystallographic directions, and the exact determination of the optical +orientation is often a matter of considerable difficulty. The character +of the dispersion of the bisectrices and optic axes is still more +complex than in monoclinic crystals, and the interference figures are +devoid of symmetry. + +_Absorption of Light in Crystals: Pleochroism._--In crystals other than +those of the cubic system, rays of light with different +vibration-directions will, as a rule, be differently absorbed; and the +polarized rays on emerging from the crystal may be of different +intensities and (if the observation be made in white light and the +crystal is coloured) differently coloured. Thus, in tourmaline the +ordinary ray, which vibrates perpendicular to the principal axis, is +almost completely absorbed, whilst the extraordinary ray is allowed to +pass through the crystal. A plate of tourmaline cut parallel to the +principal axis may therefore be used for producing a beam of polarized +light, and two such plates placed in crossed position form the polarizer +or analyser of "tourmaline tongs," with the aid of which the +interference figures of crystals may be simply shown. Uniaxial +(tetragonal and hexagonal) crystals when showing perceptible differences +in colour for the ordinary and extraordinary rays are said to be +"dichroic." In biaxial (orthorhombic, monoclinic and anorthic) crystals, +rays vibrating along each of the three principal vibration-directions +may be differently absorbed, and, in coloured crystals, differently +coloured; such crystals are therefore said to be "trichroic" or in +general "pleochroic" (from [Greek: pleon], more, and [Greek: chroa], +colour). The directions of maximum absorption in biaxial crystals have, +however, no necessary relation with the axes of the indicatrix, unless +these have fixed crystallographic directions, as in the orthorhombic +system and the ortho-axis in the monoclinic. In epidote it has been +shown that the two directions of maximum absorption which lie in the +plane of symmetry are not even at right angles. + +[Illustration: FIG. 102.--Dichroscope.] + +The pleochroism of some crystals is so strong that when they are viewed +through in different directions they exhibit marked differences in +colour. Thus a crystal of the mineral iolite (called also dichroite +because of its strong pleochroism) will be seen to be dark blue, pale +blue or pale yellow according to which of three perpendicular directions +it is viewed. The "face colours" seen directly in this way result, +however, from the mixture of two "axial colours" belonging to rays +vibrating in two directions. In order to see the axial colours +separately the crystal must be examined with a dichroscope, or in a +polarizing microscope from which the analyser has been removed. The +dichroscope, or dichroiscope (fig. 102), consists of a cleavage +rhombohedron of calcite (Iceland-spar) p, on the ends of which glass +prisms w are cemented: the lens l is focused on a small square aperture +o in the tube of the instrument. The eye of the observer placed at e +will see two images of the square aperture, and if a pleochroic crystal +be placed in front of this aperture the two images will be differently +coloured. On rotating this crystal with respect to the instrument the +maximum difference in the colours will be obtained when the +vibration-directions in the crystal coincide with those in the calcite. +Such a simple instrument is especially useful for the examination of +faceted gem-stones, even when they are mounted in their settings. A +single glance suffices to distinguish between a ruby and a +"spinel-ruby," since the former is dichroic and the latter isotropic and +therefore not dichroic. + +The characteristic absorption bands in the spectrum of white light which +has been transmitted through certain crystals, particularly those of +salts of the cerium metals, will, of course, be different according to +the direction of vibration of the rays. + +_Circular Polarization in Crystals._--Like the solutions of certain +optically active organic substances, such as sugar and tartaric acid, +some optically isotropic and uniaxial crystals possess the property of +rotating the plane of polarization of a beam of light. In uniaxial +(tetragonal and hexagonal) crystals it is only for light transmitted in +the direction of the optic axis that there is rotatory action, but in +isotropic (cubic) crystals all directions are the same in this respect. +Examples of circularly polarizing cubic crystals are sodium chlorate, +sodium bromate, and sodium uranyl acetate; amongst tetragonal crystals +are strychnine sulphate and guanidine carbonate; amongst rhombohedral +are quartz (q.v.) and cinnabar (q.v.) (these being the only two mineral +substances in which the phenomenon has been observed), dithionates of +potassium, lead, calcium and strontium, and sodium periodate; and +amongst hexagonal crystals is potassium lithium sulphate. Crystals of +all these substances belong to one or other of the several +symmetry-classes in which there are neither planes nor centre of +symmetry, but only axes of symmetry. They crystallize in two +complementary hemihedral forms, which are respectively right-handed and +left-handed, i.e. enantiomorphous forms. Some other substances which +crystallize in enantiomorphous forms are, however, only "optically +active" when in solution (e.g. sugar and tartaric acid); and there are +many other substances presenting this peculiarity of crystalline form +which are not circularly polarizing either when crystallized or when in +solution. Further, in the examples quoted above, the rotatory power is +lost when the crystals are dissolved (except in the case of strychnine +sulphate, which is only feebly active in solution). The rotatory power +is thus due to different causes in the two cases, in the one depending +on a spiral arrangement of the crystal particles, and in the other on +the structure of the molecules themselves. + +The circular polarization of crystals may be imitated by a pile of mica +plates, each plate being turned through a small angle on the one below, +thus giving a spiral arrangement to the pile. + +_"Optical Anomalies" of Crystals._--When, in 1818, Sir David Brewster +established the important relations existing between the optical +properties of crystals and their external form, he at the same time +noticed many apparent exceptions. For example, he observed that crystals +of leucite and boracite, which are cubic in external form, are always +doubly refracting and optically biaxial, but with a complex internal +structure; and that cubic crystals of garnet and analcite sometimes +exhibit the same phenomena. Also some tetragonal and hexagonal crystals, +e.g. apophyllite, vesuvianite, beryl, &c., which should normally be +optically uniaxial, sometimes consist of several biaxial portions +arranged in sectors or in a quite irregular manner. Such exceptions to +the general rule have given rise to much discussion. They have often +been considered to be due to internal strains in the crystals, set up as +a result of cooling or by earth pressures, since similar phenomena are +observed in chilled and compressed glasses and in dried gelatine. In +many cases, however, as shown by E. Mallard, in 1876, the higher degree +of symmetry exhibited by the external form of the crystals is the result +of mimetic twinning, as in the pseudo-cubic crystals of leucite (q.v.) +and boracite (q.v.). In other instances, substances not usually regarded +as cubic, e.g. the monoclinic phillipsite (q.v.), may by repeated +twinning give rise to pseudo-cubic forms. In some cases it is probable +that the substance originally crystallized in one modification at a +higher temperature, and when the temperature fell it became transformed +into a dimorphous modification, though still preserving the external +form of the original crystal (see BORACITE). A summary of the literature +is given by R. Brauns, _Die optischen Anomalien der Krystalle_ (Leipzig, +1891). + + (c) _Thermal Properties._ + +[Illustration: FIG. 103.--Conductivity of Heat in Quartz.] + +The thermal properties of crystals present certain points in common with +the optical properties. Heat rays are transmitted and doubly refracted +like light rays; and surfaces expressing the conductivity and dilatation +in different directions possess the same degree of symmetry and are +related in the same way to the crystallographic axes as the ellipsoids +expressing the optical relations. That crystals conduct heat at +different rates in different directions is well illustrated by the +following experiment. Two plates (fig. 103) cut from a crystal of +quartz, one parallel to the principal axis and the other perpendicular +to it, are coated with a thin layer of wax, and a hot wire is applied to +a point on the surface. On the transverse section the wax will be melted +in a circle, and on the longitudinal section (or on the natural prism +faces) in an ellipse. The isothermal surface in a uniaxial crystal is +therefore a spheroid; in cubic crystals it is a sphere; and in biaxial +crystals an ellipsoid, the three axes of which coincide, in orthorhombic +crystals, with the crystallographic axes. + +With change of temperature cubic crystals expand equally in all +directions, and the angles between the faces are the same at all +temperatures. In uniaxial crystals there are two principal coefficients +of expansion; the one measured in the direction of the principal axis +may be either greater or less than that measured in directions +perpendicular to this axis. A sphere cut from a uniaxial crystal at one +temperature will be a spheroid at another temperature. In biaxial +crystals there are different coefficients of expansion along three +rectangular axes, and a sphere at one temperature will be an ellipsoid +at another. A result of this is that for all crystals, except those +belonging to the cubic system, the angles between the faces will vary, +though only slightly, with changes of temperature. E. Mitscherlich found +that the rhombohedral angle of calcite decreases 8' 37" as the crystal +is raised in temperature from 0 deg. to 100 deg. C. + +As already mentioned, the optical properties of crystals vary +considerably with the temperature. Such characters as specific heat and +melting-point, which do not vary with the direction, are the same in +crystals as in amorphous substances. + + (d) _Magnetic and Electrical Properties._ + +Crystals, like other bodies, are either paramagnetic or diamagnetic, +i.e. they are either attracted or repelled by the pole of a magnet. In +crystals other than those belonging to the cubic system, however, the +relative strength of the induced magnetization is different in different +directions within the mass. A sphere cut from a tetragonal or hexagonal +(uniaxial) crystal will if freely suspended in a magnetic field (between +the poles of a strong electro-magnet) take up a position such that the +principal axis of the crystal is either parallel or perpendicular to the +lines of force, or to a line joining the two poles of the magnet. Which +of these two directions is taken by the axis depends on whether the +crystal is paramagnetic or diamagnetic, and on whether the principal +axis is the direction of maximum or minimum magnetization. The surface +expressing the magnetic character in different directions is in uniaxial +crystals a spheroid; in cubic crystals it is a sphere. In orthorhombic, +monoclinic and anorthic crystals there are three principal axes of +magnetic induction, and the surface is an ellipsoid, which is related to +the symmetry of the crystal in the same way as the ellipsoids expressing +the thermal and optical properties. + +Similarly, the dielectric constants of a non-conducting crystal may be +expressed by a sphere, spheroid or ellipsoid. A sphere cut from a +crystal will when suspended in an electro-magnetic field set itself so +that the axis of maximum induction is parallel to the lines of force. + +The electrical conductivity of crystals also varies with the direction, +and bears the same relation to the symmetry as the thermal conductivity. +In a rhombohedral crystal of haematite the electrical conductivity along +the principal axis is only half as great as in directions perpendicular +to this axis; whilst in a crystal of bismuth, which is also +rhombohedral, the conductivities along and perpendicular to the axis are +as 1.6 : 1. + +Conducting crystals are thermo-electric: when placed against another +conducting substance and the contact heated there will be a flow of +electricity from one body to the other if the circuit be closed. The +thermo-electric force depends not only on the nature of the substance, +but also on the direction within the crystal, and may in general be +expressed by an ellipsoid. A remarkable case is, however, presented by +minerals of the pyrites group: some crystals of pyrites are more +strongly thermo-electrically positive than antimony, and others more +negative than bismuth, so that the two when placed together give a +stronger thermo-electric couple than do antimony and bismuth. In the +thermo-electrically positive crystals of pyrites the faces of the +pentagonal dodecahedron are striated parallel to the cubic edges, whilst +in the rarer negative crystals the faces are striated perpendicular to +these edges. Sometimes both sets of striae are present on the same face, +and the corresponding areas are then thermo-electrically positive and +negative. + +The most interesting relation between the symmetry of crystals and their +electrical properties is that presented by the pyro-electrical phenomena +of certain crystals. This is a phenomenon which may be readily observed, +and one which often aids in the determination of the symmetry of +crystals. It is exhibited by crystals in which there is no centre of +symmetry, and the axes of symmetry are uniterminal or polar in +character, being associated with different faces on the crystal at their +two ends. When a non-conducting crystal possessing this hemimorphic type +of symmetry is subjected to changes of temperature a charge of positive +electricity will be developed on the faces in the region of one end of +the uniterminal axis, whilst the faces at the opposite end will be +negatively charged. With rising temperature the pole which becomes +positively charged is called the "analogous pole," and that negatively +charged the "antilogous pole": with falling temperature the charges are +reversed. The phenomenon was first observed in crystals of tourmaline, +the principal axis of which is a uniterminal triad axis of symmetry. In +crystals of quartz there are three uniterminal dyad axes of symmetry +perpendicular to the principal triad axis (which is here similar at its +two ends): the dyad axes emerge at the edges of the hexagonal prism, +alternate edges of which become positively and negatively charged on +change of temperature. In boracite there are four uniterminal triad +axes, and the faces of the two tetrahedra perpendicular to them will +bear opposite charges. Other examples of pyro-electric crystals are the +orthorhombic mineral hemimorphite (called also, for this reason, +"electric calamine") and the monoclinic tartaric acid and cane-sugar, +each of which possesses a uniterminal dyad axis of symmetry. In some +exceptional cases, e.g. axinite, prehnite, &c., there is no apparent +relation between the distribution of the pyro-electric charges and the +symmetry of the crystals. + +The distribution of the electric charges may be made visible by the +following simple method, which may be applied even with minute crystals +observed under the microscope. A finely powdered mixture of red-lead and +sulphur is dusted through a sieve over the cooling crystal. In passing +through the sieve the particles of red-lead and sulphur become +electrified by mutual friction, the former positively and the latter +negatively. The red-lead is therefore attracted to the negatively +charged parts of the crystal and the sulphur to those positively +charged, and the distribution of the charges over the whole crystal +becomes mapped out in the two colours red and yellow. + +Since, when a crystal changes in temperature, it also expands or +contracts, a similar distribution of "piezo-electric" (from [Greek: +piezein], to press) charges are developed when a crystal is subjected to +changes of pressure in the direction of a uniterminal axis of symmetry. +Thus increasing pressure along the principal axis of a tourmaline +crystal produces the same electric charges as decreasing temperature. + + +III. RELATIONS BETWEEN CRYSTALLINE FORM AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. + +That the general and physical characters of a chemical substance are +profoundly modified by crystalline structure is strikingly illustrated +by the two crystalline modifications of the element carbon--namely, +diamond and graphite. The former crystallizes in the cubic system, +possesses four directions of perfect cleavage, is extremely hard and +transparent, is a non-conductor of heat and electricity, and has a +specific gravity of 3.5; whilst graphite crystallizes in the hexagonal +system, cleaves in a single direction, is very soft and opaque, is a +good conductor of heat and electricity, and has a specific gravity of +2.2. Such substances, which are identical in chemical composition, but +different in crystalline form and consequently in their physical +properties, are said to be "dimorphous." Numerous examples of dimorphous +substances are known; for instance, calcium carbonate occurs in nature +either as calcite or as aragonite, the former being rhombohedral and the +latter orthorhombic; mercuric iodide crystallizes from solution as red +tetragonal crystals, and by sublimation as yellow orthorhombic crystals. +Some substances crystallize in three different modifications, and these +are said to be "trimorphous"; for example, titanium dioxide is met with +as the minerals rutile, anatase and brookite (q.v.). In general, or in +cases where more than three crystalline modifications are known (e.g. in +sulphur no less than six have been described), the term "polymorphism" +is applied. + +On the other hand, substances which are chemically quite distinct may +exhibit similarity of crystalline form. For example, the minerals +iodyrite (AgI), greenockite (CdS), and zincite (ZnO) are practically +identical in crystalline form; calcite (CaCO3) and sodium nitrate +(NaNO3); celestite (SrSO)4 and marcasite (FeS2); epidote and azurite; +and many others, some of which are no doubt only accidental +coincidences. Such substances are said to be "homoeomorphous" (Gr. +[Greek: homoios], like, and [Greek: morphe], form). + +Similarity of crystalline form in substances which are chemically +related is frequently met with and is a relation of much importance: +such substances are described as being "isomorphous." Amongst minerals +there are many examples of isomorphous groups, e.g. the rhombohedral +carbonates, garnet (q.v.), plagioclase (q.v.); and amongst crystals of +artificially prepared salts isomorphism is equally common, e.g. the +sulphates and selenates of potassium, rubidium and caesium. The +rhombohedral carbonates have the general formula R"CO3, where R" +represents calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, zinc, cobalt or lead, +and the different minerals (calcite, ankerite, magnesite, chalybite, +rhodochrosite and calamine (q.v.)) of the group are not only similar in +crystalline form, cleavage, optical and other characters, but the angles +between corresponding faces do not differ by more than 1 deg. or 2 deg. +Further, equivalent amounts of the different chemical elements +represented by R" are mutually replaceable, and two or more of these +elements may be present together in the same crystal, which is then +spoken of as a "mixed crystal" or isomorphous mixture. + +In another isomorphous series of carbonates with the same general +formula R"CO3, where R" represents calcium, strontium, barium, lead or +zinc, the crystals are orthorhombic in form, and are thus dimorphous +with those of the previous group (e.g. calcite and aragonite, the other +members being only represented by isomorphous replacements). Such a +relation is known as "isodimorphism." An even better example of this is +presented by the arsenic and antimony trioxides, each of which occurs as +two distinct minerals:-- + + As2O3, Arsenolite (cubic); Claudetite (monoclinic). + Sb2O3, Senarmontite (cubic); Valentinite (orthorhombic). + +Claudetite and valentinite though crystallizing in different systems +have the same cleavages and very nearly the same angles, and are +strictly isomorphous. + +Substances which form isodimorphous groups also frequently crystallize +as double salts. For instance, amongst the carbonates quoted above are +the minerals dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) and barytocalcite (CaBa(CO3)2). +Crystals of barytocalcite (q.v.) are monoclinic; and those of dolomite +(q.v.), though closely related to calcite in angles and cleavage, +possess a different degree of symmetry, and the specific gravity is not +such as would result by a simple isomorphous mixture of the two +carbonates. A similar case is presented by artificial crystals of silver +nitrate and potassium nitrate. Somewhat analogous to double salts are +the molecular compounds formed by the introduction of "water of +crystallization," "alcohol of crystallization," &c. Thus sodium sulphate +may crystallize alone or with either seven or ten molecules of water, +giving rise to three crystallographically distinct substances. + +A relation of another kind is the alteration in crystalline form +resulting from the replacement in the chemical molecule of one or more +atoms by atoms or radicles of a different kind. This is known as a +"morphotropic" relation (Gr. [Greek: morphe], form, [Greek: tropos], +habit). Thus when some of the hydrogen atoms of benzene are replaced by +(OH) and (NO2) groups the orthorhombic system of crystallization remains +the same as before, and the crystallographic axis a is not much +affected, but the axis c varies considerably:-- + + a : b : c + Benzene, C6H6 0.891 : 1 : 0.799 + Resorcin, C6H4(OH)2 0.910 : 1 : 0.540 + Picric acid, C6H2(OH)(NO2)3 0.937 : 1 : 0.974 + +A striking example of morphotropy is shown by the humite (q.v.) group of +minerals: successive additions of the group Mg2SiO4 to the molecule +produce successive increases in the length of the vertical +crystallographic axis. + +In some instances the replacement of one atom by another produces little +or no influence on the crystalline form; this happens in complex +molecules of high molecular weight, the "mass effect" of which has a +controlling influence on the isomorphism. An example of this is seen in +the replacement of sodium or potassium by lead in the alunite (q.v.) +group of minerals, or again in such a complex mineral as tourmaline, +which, though varying widely in chemical composition, exhibits no +variation in crystalline form. + +For the purpose of comparing the crystalline forms of isomorphous and +morphotropic substances it is usual to quote the angles or the axial +ratios of the crystal, as in the table of benzene derivatives quoted +above. A more accurate comparison is, however, given by the "topic +axes," which are calculated from the axial ratios and the molecular +volume; they express the relative distances apart of the crystal +molecules in the axial directions. + +The two isomerides of substances, such as tartaric acid, which in +solution rotate the plane of polarized light either to the right or to +the left, crystallize in related but enantiomorphous forms. + + REFERENCES.--An introduction to crystallography is given in most + text-books of mineralogy, e.g. those of H. A. Miers and of E. S. Dana + (see MINERALOGY). The standard work treating of the subject generally + is that of P. Groth, _Physikalische Kristallographie_ (4th ed., + Leipzig, 1905). A condensed summary is given by A. J. Moses, _The + Characters of Crystals_ (New York, 1899). + + For geometrical crystallography, dealing exclusively with the external + form of crystals, reference may be made to N. Story-Maskelyne, + _Crystallography, a Treatise on the Morphology of Crystals_ (Oxford, + 1895) and W. J. Lewis, _A Treatise on Crystallography_ (Cambridge, + 1899). Theories of crystal structure are discussed by L. Sohncke, + _Entwickelung einer Theorie der Krystallstruktur_ (Leipzig, 1879); A. + Schoenflies, _Krystallsysteme und Krystallstructur_ (Leipzig, 1891); + and H. Hilton, _Mathematical Crystallography and the Theory of Groups + of Movements_ (Oxford, 1903). + + The physical properties of crystals are treated by T. Liebisch, + _Physikalische Krystallographie_ (Leipzig, 1891), and in a more + elementary form in his _Grundriss der physikalischen Krystallographie_ + (Leipzig, 1896); E. Mallard, _Traite de cristallographie, + Cristallographie physique_ (Paris, 1884); C. Soret, _Elements de + cristallographie physique_ (Geneva and Paris, 1893). + + For an account of the relations between crystalline form and chemical + composition, see A. Arzruni, _Physikalische Chemie der Krystalle_ + (Braunschweig, 1893); A. Fock, _An Introduction to Chemical + Crystallography_, translated by W. J. Pope (Oxford, 1895); P. Groth, + _An Introduction to Chemical Crystallography_, translated by H. + Marshall (London, 1906); A. E. H. Tutton, _Crystalline Structure and + Chemical Constitution_, 1910. Descriptive works giving the + crystallographic constants of different substances are C. F. + Rammelsberg, _Handbuch der krystallographisch-physikalischen Chemie_ + (Leipzig, 1881-1882); P. Groth, _Chemische Krystallographie_ (Leipzig, + 1906); and of minerals the treatises of J. D. Dana and C. Hintze. + (L. J. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] From the Greek letter [delta], [Delta]; in general, a + triangular-shaped object; also an alternative name for a trapezoid. + + [2] Named after pyrites, which crystallizes in a typical form of this + class. + + [3] From [Greek: plagios], placed sideways, referring to the absence + of planes and centre of symmetry. + + [4] From [Greek: gyros], a ring or spiral, and [Greek: eidos], form. + + [5] From [Greek: monos], single, and [Greek: klinein], to incline, + since one axis is inclined to the plane of the other two axes, which + are at right angles. + + + + +CRYSTAL PALACE, THE, a well-known English resort, standing high up in +grounds just outside the southern boundary of the county of London, in +the neighbourhood of Sydenham. The building, chiefly of iron and glass, +is flanked by two towers and is visible from far over the metropolis. It +measures 1608 ft. in length by 384 ft. across the transepts, and was +opened in its present site in 1854. The materials, however, were mainly +those of the hall set up in Hyde Park for the Great Exhibition of 1851. +The designer was Sir Joseph Paxton. In the palace there are various +permanent exhibitions, while special exhibitions are held from time to +time, also concerts, winter pantomimes and other entertainments. In the +extensive grounds there is accommodation for all kinds of games: the +final tie of the Association Football Cup and other important football +matches are played here, and there are also displays of fireworks and +other attractions. + + + + +CSENGERY, ANTON (1822-1880), Hungarian publicist, and a historical +writer of great influence on his time, was born at Nagyvarad on the 2nd +of June 1822. He took, at an early date, a very active part in the +literary and political movements immediately preceding the Hungarian +Revolution of 1848. He and Baron Sigismund Kemeny may be considered as +the two founders of high-class Magyar journalism. After 1867 the +greatest of modern Hungarian statesmen, Francis Deak, attached Csengery +to his personal service, and many of the momentous state documents +inspired or suggested by Deak were drawn up by Csengery. In that manner +his influence, as represented by the text of many a statute regulating +the relations between Austria and Hungary, is one of an abiding +character. As a historical writer he excelled chiefly in brilliant and +thoughtful essays on the leading political personalities of his time, +such as Paul Nagy, Bertalan, Szemere and others. He also commenced a +translation of Macaulay's _History_. He died at Budapest on the 13th of +July 1880. + + + + +CSIKY, GREGOR (1842-1891), Hungarian dramatist, was born on the 8th of +December 1842 at Pankota, in the county of Arad. He studied Roman +Catholic theology at Pest and Vienna, and was professor in the Priests' +College at Temesvar from 1870 to 1878. In the latter year, however, he +joined the Evangelical Church, and took up literature. Beginning with +novels and works on ecclesiastical history, which met with some +recognition, he ultimately devoted himself to writing for the stage. +Here his success was immediate. In his _Az ellenallhatatlan_ +("L'Irresistible"), which obtained a prize from the Hungarian Academy, +he showed the distinctive features of his talent--directness, freshness, +realistic vigour, and highly individual style. In rapid succession he +enriched Magyar literature with realistic _genre_-pictures, such as _A +Proletarok_ ("Proletariate"), _Buborckok_ ("Bubbles"), _Ket szerelem_ +("Two Loves"), _A szegyenlos_ ("The Bashful"), _Athalia_, &c., in all of +which he seized on one or another feature or type of modern life, +dramatizing it with unusual intensity, qualified by chaste and +well-balanced diction. Of the latter, his classical studies may, no +doubt, be taken as the inspiration, and his translation of Sophocles and +Plautus will long rank with the most successful of Magyar translations +of the ancient classics. Among the best known of his novels are +_Arnold_, _Az Atlasz csalad_ ("The Atlas Family"). He died at Budapest +on the 19th of November 1891. + + + + +CSOKONAI, MIHALY VITEZ (1773-1805), Hungarian poet, was born at +Debreczen in 1773. Having been educated in his native town, he was +appointed while still very young to the professorship of poetry there; +but soon after he was deprived of the post on account of the immorality +of his conduct. The remaining twelve years of his short life were passed +in almost constant wretchedness, and he died in his native town, and in +his mother's house, when only thirty-one years of age. Csokonai was a +genial and original poet with something of the lyrical fire of Petofi, +and wrote a mock-heroic poem called _Dorottya or the Triumph of the +Ladies at the Carnival_, two or three comedies or farces, and a number +of love-poems. Most of his works have been published, with a life, by +Schedel (1844-1847). + + + + +CSOMA DE KOROS, ALEXANDER (c. 1790-1842), or, as the name is written in +Hungarian, KOROSI CSOMA SANDOR, Hungarian traveller and philologist, +born about 1790 at Koros in Transylvania, belonged to a noble family +which had sunk into poverty. He was educated at Nagy-Enyed and at +Gottingen; and, in order to carry out the dream of his youth and +discover the origin of his countrymen, he divided his attention between +medicine and the Oriental languages. In 1820, having received from a +friend the promise of an annuity of 100 florins (about L10) to support +him during his travels, he set out for the East. He visited Egypt, and +made his way to Tibet, where he spent four years in a Buddhist monastery +studying the language and the Buddhist literature. To his intense +disappointment he soon discovered that he could not thus obtain any +assistance in his great object; but, having visited Bengal, his +knowledge of Tibetan obtained him employment in the library of the +Asiatic Society there, which possessed more than 1000 volumes in that +language; and he was afterwards supported by the government while he +published a Tibetan-English dictionary and grammar (both of which +appeared at Calcutta in 1834). He also contributed several articles on +the Tibetan language and literature to the _Journal of the Asiatic +Society of Bengal_, and he published an analysis of the _Kah-Gyur_, the +most important of the Buddhist sacred books. Meanwhile his fame had +reached his native country, and procured him a pension from the +government, which, with characteristic devotion to learning, he devoted +to the purchase of books for Indian libraries. He spent some time in +Calcutta, studying Sanskrit and several other languages; but, early in +1842, he commenced his second attempt to discover the origin of the +Hungarians, but he died at Darjiling on the 11th of April 1842. An +oration was delivered in his honour before the Hungarian Academy by +Eotvos, the novelist. + + + + +CTENOPHORA, in zoology, a class of jelly-fish which were briefly +described by Professor T. H. Huxley in 1875 (see ACTINOZOA, _Ency. +Brit._ 9th ed. vol. i.) as united with what we now term Anthozoa to +form the group Actinozoa; but little was known of the intimate structure +of those remarkable and beautiful forms till the appearance in 1880 of +C. Chun's Monograph of the Ctenophora occurring in the Bay of Naples. +They may be defined as Coelentera which exhibit both a radial and +bilateral symmetry of organs; with a stomodaeum; with a mesenchyma which +is partly gelatinous but partly cellular; with eight meridianal rows of +vibratile paddles formed of long fused or matted cilia; lacking +nematocysts (except in one genus). An example common on the British +coasts is furnished by _Hormiphora_ (_Cydippe_). In outward form this is +an egg-shaped ball of clear jelly, having a mouth at the pointed (oral) +pole, and a sense-organ at the broader (aboral) pole. It possesses eight +meridians (costae) of iridescent paddles in constant vibration, which +run from near one pole towards the other; it has also two pendent +feathery tentacles of considerable length, which can be retracted into +pouches. The mouth leads into an ectodermal stomodaeum ("stomach"), and +the latter into an endodermal funnel (infundibulum); these two are +compressed in planes at right angles to one another, the sectional long +axis of the stomodaeum lying in the so-called sagittal (stomodaeal or +gastric) plane, that of the funnel in the transverse (tentacular or +funnel) plane. From the funnel, canals are given off in three +directions; (a) a pair of paragastric (stomachal, or stomodaeal) canals +run orally, parallel to the stomodaeum, and end blindly near the mouth; +(b) a pair of perradial canals run in the transverse plane towards the +equator of the animal; each of these becomes divided into two short +canals at the base of the tentacle sheath which they supply, but has +previously given off a pair of short interradial canals, which again +bifurcate into two adradial canals; all these branches lie in the +equatorial plane of the animal, but the eight adradial canals then open +into eight meridianal canals which run orally and aborally under the +costae; (c) a pair of aboral vessels which run towards the sense-organ, +each of which bifurcates; of the four vessels thus formed, two only open +at the sides of the sense-organ, forming the so-called excretory +apertures. These three sets of structures, with the funnel from which +they rise, make up the endodermal coelenteron, or gastro-vascular +system. The generative organs are endodermal by origin, borne at the +sides of the meridianal canals as indicated by the signs [male] +[female]. There exists a subepithelial plexus with nerve cells and +fibres, similar to that of jelly-fishes. The sense-organ of the aboral +pole is complex, and lies under a dome of fused cilia shaped like an +inverted bell-jar; it consists of an otolith, formed of numerous +calcareous spheroids, which is supported on four plates of fused cilia +termed balancers, but is otherwise free. The ciliated ectoderm below the +organ is markedly thickened, and perhaps functionally represents a +nerve-ganglion: from it eight ciliated furrows radiate outwards, two +passing under each balancer as through an archway, and diverge each to +the head of a meridianal costa. These ciliated furrows stain deeply with +osmic acid, and nervous impulses are certainly transmitted along them. +Locomotion is effected by strokes of the paddles in an aboral direction, +driving the animal mouth forwards through the water: each paddle or comb +(Gr. [Greek: kteis]; hence Ctenophora) consists of a plate of fused or +matted cilia set transversely to the costa. The myoepithelial cells +(formerly termed neuro-muscular cells), characteristic of other +Coelentera, are not to be found in this group. On the other hand there +are well-marked muscle fibres in definite layers, derived from special +mesoblastic cells in the embryo, which are embedded in a jelly; these in +their origin and arrangement are quite comparable to the mesoderm of +Triploblastica, and, although the muscle-cells of some jelly-fish +exhibit a somewhat similar condition, nothing so highly specialized as +the mesenchyme of Ctenophora occurs in any other Coelenterate. The +nematocysts being nearly absent from their group, their chief function +is carried out by adhesive lasso-cells. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Schematic drawing of a Cydippid from the side. +(After Chun.) + + A, Adradial canals. + F, Infundibulum. + I, Interradial canal. + M, Meridianal canal lying under a costa. + N, Ciliated furrow from sense pole to costa. + Pg, Paragastric canal. + SO, Sense-organ. + St, Stomodaeum. + Subs, Subsagittal costa. + Subt, Subtentacular costa. + T, Tentacle. + Ts, Boundaries of tentacle-sheath.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Schematic drawing of a Cydippid from the aboral +pole. (After Chun.) + + T (centrally), Tentacular canal, and (distally) tentacle. + [male], Position of testes. + [female], Position of ovaries; other letters in fig. 1. The stomodaeum + lies in the sagittal plane, the funnel and tentacles in the + transverse or tentacular plane.] + +The Ctenophora are classified as follows:-- + + Sub-class i. Tentaculata, Order 1. CYDIPPIDEA, _Hormiphora_. + " 2. LOBATA, _Deiopea_. + " 3. CESTOIDEA, _Cestus_. + " ii. Nuda, " _Beroe_. + + The Tentaculata, as the name implies, may be recognized by the + presence of tentacles of some sort. The CYDIPPIDEA are generally + spherical or ovoid, with two long retrusible pinnate tentacles: the + meridianal and paragastric canals end blindly. An example of these has + already been briefly described. The LOBATA are of the same general + type as the first Order, except for the presence of four circumoral + auricles (processes of the subtransverse costae) and of a pair of + sagittal outgrowths or lobes, on to which the subsagittal costae are + continued. Small accessory tentacles lie in grooves, but there is no + tentacular pouch; the meridianal vessels anastomose in the lobes. In + the CESTOIDEA the body is compressed in the transverse plane, + elongated in the sagittal plane, so as to become riband-like: the + subtransverse costae are greatly reduced, the subsagittal costae + extend along the aboral edge of the riband. The subsagittal canals lie + immediately below their costae aborally, but continuations of the + subtransverse canals round down the middle of the riband, and at its + end unite, not only with the subsagittal but also with the paragastric + canals which run along the oral edge of the riband. The tentacular + bases and pouches are present, but there is no main tentacle as in + Cydippidea; fine accessory tentacles lie in four grooves along the + oral edge. The sub-class Nuda have no tentacles of any kind; they are + conical or ovoid, with a capacious stomodaeum like the cavity of a + thimble. There is a coelenteric network formed by anastomoses of the + meridianal and paragastric canals all over the body. + + The embryology of _Callianira_ has been worked out by E. Mechnikov. + Segmentation is complete and unequal, producing macromeres and + micromeres marked by differences in the size and in yolk-contents. + The micromeres give rise to the ectoderm; each of the sixteen + macromeres, after budding off a small mesoblast cell, passes on as + endoderm. A gastrula is established by a mixed process of embole and + epibole. The mesoblast cells travel to the aboral pole of the embryo, + and there form a cross-shaped mass, the arms of which lie in the + sagittal and transverse planes (perradii). + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Schematic Drawing of Cestus. (After Chun.) + + Subs, Subsagittal costae. + Subt, Much reduced subtentacular costae. + Subt, Branch of the subtentacular canal which runs along the centre of + the riband. + Pg, Continuation of the paragastric canal at right angles to its + original direction along the lower edge of the riband. At the + right-hand end the last two are seen to unite with the subsagittal + canal.] + +There can be but little question of the propriety of including +Ctenophora among the Coelentera. The undivided coelenteron +(gastro-vascular system) which constitutes the sole cavity of the body, +the largely radial symmetry, the presence of endodermal generative +organs on the coelenteric canals, the subepithelial nerve-plexus, the +mesogloea-like matrix of the body--all these features indicate affinity +to other Coelentera, but, as has been stated in the article under that +title, the relation is by no means close. At what period the Ctenophora +branched off from the line of descent, which culminated in the +Hydromedusae and Scyphozoa of to-day, is not clear, but it is +practically certain that they did so before the point of divergence of +these two groups from one another. The peculiar sense-organ, the +specialization of the cilia into paddles with the corresponding +modifications of the coelenteron, the anatomy and position of the +tentacles, and, above all, the character and mode of formation of the +mesenchyme, separate them widely from other Coelentera. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Schematic Drawing of _Beroe_. (After Chun.)] + +The last-named character, however, combined with the discovery of two +remarkable organisms, _Coeloplana_ and _Ctenoplana_, has suggested +affinity to the flat-worms termed Turbellaria. _Ctenoplana_, the best +known of these, has recently been redescribed by A. Willey (_Quart. +Journ. Micr. Sci._ xxxix., 1896). It is flattened along the axis which +unites sense-organ and mouth, so as to give it a dorsal (aboral) +surface, and a ventral (oral) surface on which it frequently creeps. Its +costae are very short, and retrusible; its two tentacles are pinnate and +are also retrusible. Two crescentic rows of ciliated papillae lie in the +transverse plane on each side of the sense-organ. The coelenteron +exhibits six lobes, two of which Willey identifies with the stomodaeum +of other Ctenophora; the other four give rise to a system of +anastomosing canals such as are found in _Beroe_ and Polyclad +Turbellaria. An aboral vessel embraces the sense-organ, but has no +external opening. _Ctenoplana_ is obviously a Ctenophoran flattened and +of a creeping habit. _Coeloplana_ is of similar form and habit, with two +Ctenophoran tentacles: it has no costae, but is uniformly ciliated. +These two forms at least indicate a possible stepping-stone from +Ctenophora to Turbellaria, that is to say, from diploblastic to +triploblastic Metazoa. By themselves they would present no very weighty +argument for this line of descent from two-layered to three-layered +forms, but the coincidences which occur in the development of Ctenophora +and Turbellaria,--the methods of segmentation and gastrulation, of the +separation of the mesoblast cells, and of mesenchyme +formation,--together with the marked similarity of the adult mesenchyme +in the two groups, have led many to accept this pedigree. In his +Monograph on the Polyclad Turbellaria of the Bay of Naples, A. Lang +regards a Turbellarian, so to say, as a Ctenophora, in which the sensory +pole has rotated forwards in the sagittal plane through 90 deg. as +regards the original oral-aboral axis, a rotation which actually occurs +in the development of _Thysanozoon_ (Muller's larva); and he sees, in +the eight lappets of the preoral ciliated ring of such a larva, the +rudiments of the costal plates. According to his view, a simple early +Turbellarian larva, such as that of _Stylochus_, most nearly represents +for us to-day that ancestor from which Ctenophora and Turbellaria are +alike derived. For details of this brilliant theory, the reader is +referred to the original monograph. + + LITERATURE.--G. C. Bourne, "The Ctenophora," in Ray Lankester's + _Treatise on Zoology_ (1900), where a bibliography is given; G. + Curreri, "Osservazioni sui ctenofori," _Boll. Soc. Zool. Ital._ (2), + i. pp. 190-193 et ii. pp. 58-76; A. Garbe, "Untersuchungen uber die + Entstehung der Geschlechtsorgane bei den Ctenophoren.," _Zeitschr. + Wiss. Zool._ lxix. pp. 472-491; K. C. Schneider, _Lehrbuch der + vergleich. Histologie_ (1902). (G. H. Fo.) + + + + +CTESIAS, of Cnidus in Caria, Greek physician and historian, flourished +in the 5th century B.C. In early life he was physician to Artaxerxes +Mnemon, whom he accompanied (401) on his expedition against his brother +Cyrus the Younger. Ctesias was the author of treatises on rivers, and on +the Persian revenues, of an account of India (which is of value as +recording the beliefs of the Persians about India), and of a history of +Assyria and Persia in 23 books, called _Persica_, written in opposition +to Herodotus in the Ionic dialect, and professedly founded on the +Persian royal archives. The first six books treated of the history of +Assyria and Babylon to the foundation of the Persian empire; the +remaining seventeen went down to the year 398. Of the two histories we +possess abridgments by Photius, and fragments are preserved in +Athenaeus, Plutarch and especially Diodorus Siculus, whose second book +is mainly from Ctesias. As to the worth of the _Persica_ there has been +much controversy, both in ancient and modern times. Being based upon +Persian authorities, it was naturally looked upon with suspicion by the +Greeks and censured as untrustworthy. + + For an estimate of Ctesias as a historian see G. Rawlinson's + _Herodotus_, i. 71-74; also the edition of the fragments of the + _Persica_ by J. Giimore (1888, with introduction and notes and list of + authorities). + + + + +CTESIPHON, a large village on the left bank of the Tigris, opposite to +Seleucia, of which it formed a suburb, about 25 m. below Bagdad. It is +first mentioned in the year 220 by Polybius v. 45. 4. When the Parthian +Arsacids had conquered the lands east of the Euphrates in 129 B.C., they +established their winter residence in Ctesiphon. They dared not stay in +Seleucia, as this city, the most populous town of western Asia, always +maintained her Greek self-government and a strong feeling of +independence, which made her incline to the west whenever a Roman army +attacked the Parthians. The Arsacids also were afraid of destroying the +wealth and commerce of Seleucia, if they entered it with their large +retinue of barbarian officials and soldiers (Strabo xvi. 743, Plin. vi. +122, cf. Joseph. _Ant._ xviii. 9, 2). From this time Ctesiphon increased +in size, and many splendid buildings rose; it had the outward appearance +of a large town, although it was by its constitution only a village. +From A.D. 36-43 Seleucia was in rebellion against the Parthians till at +last it was forced by King Vardanes to yield. It is very probable that +Vardanes now tried to put Ctesiphon in its place; therefore he is called +founder of Ctesiphon by Ammianus Marcellinus (xxiii. 6. 23), where King +Pacorus (78-110) is said to have increased its inhabitants and built its +walls. Seleucia was destroyed by the Romans in A.D. 164. When Ardashir +I. founded the Sassanian empire (226), and fixed his residence at +Ctesiphon, he built up Seleucia again under the name of Veh-Ardashir. +Later kings added other suburbs; Chosroes I. in 540 established the +inhabitants of Antiochia in Syria, whom he had led into captivity, in a +new city, "Chosrau-Antioch" (or "the Roman city") near his residence. +Therefore the Arabs designate the whole complex of towns which lay +together around Seleucia and Ctesiphon and formed the residence of the +Sassanids by the name Madain, "the cities,"--their number is often given +as seven. In the wars between the Roman and Persian empires, Ctesiphon +was more than once besieged and plundered, thus by Odaenathus in 261, +and by Canis in 283; Julian in 363 advanced to Ctesiphon, but was not +able to take it (Ammianus xxiv. 7). After the battle of Kadisiya +(Qadisiya) Ctesiphon and the neighbouring towns were taken and plundered +by the Arabs in 637, who brought home an immense amount of booty (see +CALIPHATE). From then, these towns decayed before the increasing +prosperity of the new Arab capitals Basra and Bagdad. The site is marked +only by the ruins of one gigantic building of brick-work, called Takhti +Khesra, "throne of Khosrau" (i.e. Chosroes). It is a great vaulted hall +ornamented with pilasters, the remainder of the palace and the most +splendid example of Sassanian architecture (see ARCHITECTURE, vol. ii. +p. 558, for further details and illustration). (Ed. M.) + + + + +CUBA (the aboriginal name), a republic, the largest and most populous of +the West India Islands, included between the meridians of 74 deg. 7' and +84 deg. 57' W. longitude and (roughly) the parallels of 19 deg. 48' and +23 deg. 13' N. latitude. It divides the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico +into two passages of nearly equal width,--the Strait of Florida, about +110 m. wide between Capes Hicacos in Cuba and Arenas in Florida (Key +West being a little over 100 m. from Havana); and the Yucatan Channel, +about 130 m. wide between Capes San Antonio and Catoche. On the N.E., E. +and S.E., narrower channels separate it from the Bahamas, Haiti (50 m.) +and Jamaica (85 m.). In 1908, by the opening of a railway along the +Florida Keys, the time of passage by water between Cuba and the United +States was reduced to a few hours. + +The island is long and narrow, somewhat in the form of an irregular +crescent, convex toward the N. It has a decided pitch to the S. Its +length from Cape Maisi to Cape San Antonio along a medial line is about +730 m.; its breadth, which averages about 50 m., ranges from a maximum +of 160 m. to a minimum of about 22 m. The total area is estimated at +41,634 sq. m. without the surrounding keys and the Isle of Pines (area +about 1180 sq. m.), and including these is approximately 44,164. The +geography of the island is still very imperfectly known, and all figures +are approximate only. The coast line, including larger bays, but +excluding reefs, islets, keys and all minute sinuosities, is about 2500 +m. in length. The N. littoral is characterized by bluffs, which grow +higher and higher toward the east, rising to 600 ft. at Cape Maisi. They +are marked by distinct terraces. The southern coast near Cape Maisi is +low and sandy. From Guantanamo to Santiago it rises in high escarpments, +and W. of Santiago, where the Sierra Maestra runs close to the sea, +there is a very high abrupt shore. To the W. of Manzanillo it sinks +again, and throughout most of the remaining distance to Cape San Antonio +is low, with a sandy or marshy littoral; at places sand hills fringe the +shore; near Trinidad there are hills of considerable height; and the +coast becomes high and rugged W. of Point Fisga, in the province of +Pinar del Rio. On both the N. and the S. side of the island there are +long chains of islets and reefs and coral keys (of which it is estimated +there are 1300), which limit access to probably half of the coast, and +on the N. render navigation difficult and dangerous. On the S. they are +covered with mangroves. A large part of the southern littoral is subject +to overflow, and much more of it is permanently marshy. The Zapata Swamp +near Cienfuegos is 600 sq. m. in area; other large swamps are the +Majaguillar, E. of Cardenas, and the Cienaga del Buey, S. of the Cauto +river. The Isle of Pines in its northern part is hilly and wooded; in +its southern part, very low, level and rather barren; a tidal swamp +almost cuts the island in two. A remarkable feature of the Cuban coast +is the number of excellent anchorages, roadsteads and harbours. On the +N. shore, beginning at the W., Bahia Honda, Havana, Matanzas, Cardenas, +Nuevitas and Nipe; and on the S. shore running westward Guantanamo, +Santiago and Cienfuegos, are harbours of the first class, several of +them among the best of the world. Mariel, Cabanas, Banes, Sagua la +Grande and Baracoa on the N., and Manzanillo, Santa Cruz, Batabano and +Trinidad on the S. are also excellent ports or anchorages. The peculiar +pouch-shape of almost all the harbours named (Matanzas being a marked +exception) greatly increases their security and defensibility. These +pouch harbours are probably "drowned" drainage basins. The number of +small bays that can be utilized for coast trade traffic is +extraordinary. + +[Illustration: Map of Cuba.] + +In popular language the different portions of the island are +distinguished as the Vuelta Abajo ("lower turn"), W. of Havana; the +Vuelta Arriba ("upper turn"), E. of Havana to Cienfuegos--Vuelta Abajo +and Vuelta Arriba are also used colloquially at any point in the island +to mean "east" and "west"--Las Cinco Villas--i.e. Villa Clara, Trinidad, +Remedios, Cienfuegos and Sancti Spiritus--between Cienfuegos and Sancti +Spiritus; and Tierra Adentro, referring to the region between Cienfuegos +and Bayamo. These names are extremely common. The province and city of +Puerto Principe are officially known as Camaguey, their original Indian +name, which has practically supplanted the Spanish name in local usage. + +Five topographic divisions of the island are fairly marked. Santiago +(now Oriente) province is high and mountainous. Camaguey is +characterized by rolling, open plains, slightly broken, especially in +the W., by low mountains. The E. part of Santa Clara province is +decidedly rough and broken. The W. part, with the provinces of Matanzas +and Havana, is flat and rolling, with occasional hills a few hundred +feet high. Finally, Pinar del Rio is dominated by a prominent mountain +range and by outlying piedmont hills and mesas. There are mountains in +Cuba from one end of the island to the other, but they are not derived +from any central mass and are not continuous. As just indicated there +are three distinctively mountainous districts, various minor groups +lying outside these. The three main systems are known in Cuba as the +occidental, central and oriental. The first, the Organ mountains, in +Pinar del Rio, rises in a sandy, marshy region near Cape San Antonio. +The crest runs near the N. shore, leaving various flanking spurs and +foothills, and a coastal plain which at its greatest breadth on the S. +is some 20 m. wide. The plain on the N. is narrower and higher. The +southern slope is smooth, and abounds in creeks and rivers. The portion +of the southern plain between the bays of Cortes and Majana is the most +famous portion of the Vuelta Abajo tobacco region. The mountain range is +capriciously broken at points, especially near Bejucal. The highest part +is the Pan de Guajaibon, near Bahia Honda, at the W. end of the chain; +its altitude has been variously estimated from 2500 to 1950 ft. The +central system has two wings, one approaching the N. coast, the other +covering the island between Sancti Spiritus and Santa Clara. It +comprehends a number of independent groups. The highest point, the Pico +Potrerillo, is about 2900 ft. in altitude. The summits are generally +well rounded, while the lower slopes are often steep. Frequent broad +intervals of low upland or low level plain extend from sea to sea +between and around the mountains. Near the coast runs a continuous belt +of plantations, while grazing, tobacco and general farm lands cover the +lower slopes of the hills, and virgin forests much of the uplands and +mountains. + +The oriental mountain region includes the province of Oriente and a +portion of Camaguey. In extent, in altitude, in mass, in complexity and +in geological interest, it is much the most important of the three +systems. Almost all the mountains are very bold. They are imperfectly +known. There are two main ranges, the Sierra Maestra, and a line of +various groups along the N. shore. The former runs from Cape Santa Cruz +eastward along the coast some 125 m. to beyond the river Baconao. The +Sierra de Cobre, a part of the system in the vicinity of Santiago, has a +general elevation of about 3000 ft. Monte Turquino, 7700-8320 ft. in +altitude, is the highest peak of the island. Gran Piedra rises more than +5200 ft., the Ojo del Toro more than 3300, the Anvil de Baracoa is +somewhat lower, and Pan de Matanzas is about 1267 ft. The western +portions of the range rise abruptly from the ocean, forming a bold and +beautiful coast. A multitude of ravines and gullies, filled with +torrential streams or dry, according to the season of the year, and +characterized by many beautiful cascades, seam the narrow coastal plain +and the flanks of the mountains. The spurs of the central range are a +highly intricate complex, covered with dense forests of superb woods. +Many points are inaccessible, and the scenery is wild in the extreme. +The mountains beyond Guantanamo are locally known by a variety of names, +though topographically a continuation of the Sierra Maestra. The same is +true of the chains that coalesce with these near Cape Maisi and diverge +northwesterly along the N. coast of the island. The general character of +this northern marginal system is much the same as that of the southern, +save that the range is much less continuous. A dozen or more groups +from Nipe in the E. to the coast N. of Camaguey in the W. are known only +by individual names. The range near Baracoa is extremely wild and +broken. The region between the lines of the two coastal systems is a +much dissected plateau, imperfectly explored. The Cauto river, the only +one flowing E. or W. and the largest of Cuba, flows through it westward +to the southern coast near Manzanillo. The scenery in the oriental +portion of the island is very beautiful, with wild mountains and +tropical forests. In the central part there are extensive prairies. In +the west there are swelling hills and gentle valleys, with the royal +palm the dominating tree. The valley of the Yumuri, near Matanzas, a +small circular basin crossed by a river that issues through a glen to +the sea, is perhaps the most beautiful in Cuba. + +A very peculiar feature of Cuba is the abundance of caverns in the +limestone deposits that underlie much of the island's surface. The caves +of Cotilla near Havana, of Bellamar near Matanzas, of Monte Libano near +Guantanamo, and those of San Juan de los Remedios, are the best known, +but there are scores of others. Many streams are "disappearing," part of +their course being through underground tunnels. Thus the Rio San Antonio +suddenly disappears near San Antonio de los Banos; the cascades of the +Jatibonico del Norte disappear and reappear in a surprising manner; the +Moa cascade (near Guantanamo) drops 300 ft. into a cavern and its waters +later reissue from the earth; the Jojo river disappears in a great +"sink" and later issues with violent current at the edge of the sea. The +springs of fresh water that bubble up among the keys of the S. coast are +also supposedly the outlets of underground streams. + +The number of rivers is very great, but almost without exception their +courses are normal to the coast, and they are so short as to be of but +slight importance. The Cauto river in Oriente province is exceptional; +it is 250 m. long, and navigable by small vessels for about 75 m. Inside +the bar at its mouth (formed by a storm in 1616) ships of 200 tons can +still ascend to Cauto. In Camaguey province the Jatibonico del Sur; in +Oriente the Salado, a branch of the Cauto; in Santa Clara the Sagua la +Grande (which is navigable for some 20 m. and has an important traffic), +and the Damuji; in Matanzas, the Canimar; and in Pinar del Rio the +Cuyaguateje, are important streams. The water-parting in the four +central provinces is very indefinite. There are few river valleys that +are noteworthy--those of the Yumuri, the Trinidad and the Guines. At +Guantanamo and Trinidad are other valleys, and between Mariel and Havana +is the fine valley of Ariguanabo. Of lakes, there are a few on the +coast, and a very few in the mountains. The finest is Lake Ariguanabo, +near Havana, 6 sq. m. in area. Of the almost innumerable river cascades, +those of the Sierra Maestra Mountains, and in particular the Moa +cascade, have already been mentioned. The Guama cascade in Oriente +province and the Hanabanilla Fall near Cienfuegos (each more than 300 +ft. high), the Rosario Fall in Pinar del Rio, and the Almendares cascade +near Havana, may also be mentioned. + + _Geology._--The foundation of the island is formed of metamorphic and + igneous rocks, which appear in the Sierra Maestra and are exposed in + other parts of the island wherever the comparatively thin covering of + later beds has been worn away. A more or less continuous band of + serpentine belonging to this series forms the principal watershed, + although it nowhere rises to any great height. It is in this band that + the greater part of the mineral wealth of Cuba is situated. These + ancient rocks have hitherto yielded no fossils and their age is + therefore uncertain, but they are probably pre-Cretaceous at least. + Fossiliferous Cretaceous limestones containing _Rudistes_ have been + found in several parts of the island (Santiago de los Banos, Santa + Clara province, &c.). At the base there is often an arkose, composed + largely of fragments of serpentine and granite derived from the + ancient floor. At Esperanza and other places in the Santa Clara + province, bituminous plant-bearing beds occur beneath the Tertiary + limestones, and at Baracoa a Radiolarian earth occupies a similar + position. The latter, like the similar deposits in other West Indian + islands, is probably of Oligocene age. It is the Tertiary limestones + which form the predominant feature in the geology of Cuba. Although + they do not exceed 1000 ft. in thickness, they probably at one time + covered the whole island except the summits of the Sierra Maestra, + where they have been observed, resting upon the older rocks, up to a + height of 2300 ft. They contain corals, but are not coral reefs. The + shells which have been found in them indicate that they belong for + the most part to the Oligocene period. They are frequently very much + disturbed and often strongly folded. Around the coast there is a + raised shelf of limestone which was undoubtedly a coral reef. But it + is of recent date and does not attain an elevation of more than 40 or + 50 ft. + + Minerals are fairly abundant in number, but few are present in + sufficient quantity to be industrially important. Traditions of gold + and silver, dating from the time of the Spanish conquest, still + endure, but these metals are in fact extremely rare. Oriente province + is distinctively the mineral province of the island. Large copper + deposits of peculiar richness occur here in the Sierra de Cobre, near + the city of Santiago; and both iron and manganese are abundant. + Besides the deposits in Oriente province, iron is known to exist in + considerable amount in Camaguey and Santa Clara, and copper in + Camaguey and Pinar del Rio provinces. The iron ores mined at Daiquiri + near Santiago are mainly rich hematites running above 60% of iron, + with very little sulphur or phosphorus admixture. The copper deposits + are mainly in well-marked fracture planes in serpentine; the ore is + pyrrhotite, with or without chalcopyrite. Manganese occurs especially + along the coast between Santiago and Manzanillo; the best ores run + above 50%. Chromium and a number of other rare minerals are known to + exist, but probably not in commercially available quantities. + Bituminous products of every grade, from clear translucent oils + resembling petroleum and refined naphtha, to lignite-like substances, + occur in all parts of the island. Much of the bituminous deposits is + on the dividing line between asphalt and coal. There is an endless + amount of stone, very little of which is hard enough to be good for + building material, the greatest part being a soft coralline limestone. + The best buildings in Havana are constructed of a very rich white + limestone, soft and readily worked when fresh, but hardening and + slightly darkening with age. There are extensive and valuable deposits + of beautiful marbles in the Isle of Pines, and lesser ones near + Santiago. The Organ Mountains contain a hard blue limestone; and + sandstones occur on the N. coast of Pinar del Rio province. Clays of + all qualities and colours abound. Mineral waters, though not yet + important in trade, are extremely abundant, and a score of places in + Cuba and the Isle of Pines are already known as health resorts. Those + near San Diego, Guanabacoa and Santa Maria del Rosario (near Havana) + and Madruga (near Guines) are the best known. + + The soil of the island is almost wholly of modern formation, mainly + alluvial, with superficial limestones as another prominent feature. In + the original formation of the island volcanic disturbances and coral + growth played some part; but there are only very slight superficial + evidences in the island of former volcanic activity. Noteworthy + earthquakes are rare. They have been most common in Oriente province. + Those of 1776, 1842 and 1852 were particularly destructive, and of + earlier ones those of 1551 and 1624 at Bayamo and of 1578 and 1678 at + Santiago. Every year there are seismic disturbances, and though + Santiago is the point of most frequent visitation, they occur in all + parts of the island, in 1880 affecting the entire western end. Notable + seismic disturbances in Cuba have coincided with similar activity in + Central America so often as to make some connexion apparent. + + _Flora._--The tropical heat and humidity of Cuba make possible a flora + of splendid richness. All the characteristic species of the West + Indies, the Central American and Mexican and southern Florida + seaboard, and nearly all the large trees of the Mexican tropic belt, + are embraced in it. As many as 3350 native flowering species were + catalogued in 1876. The total number of species of the island flora + was estimated in 1892 by a writer in the _Revista Cubana_ (vol. xv. + pp. 5-16) to be between 5000 and 6000, but hardly one-third of this + number had then been gathered into a herbarium, and all parts of the + island had not then been explored. It was estimated officially in 1904 + that the wooded lands of the island comprised 3,628,434 acres, of + which one-third were in Oriente province, another third in Camaguey, + and hardly any in Havana province. Much of this area is of primeval + forest; somewhat more than a third of the total, belonging to the + government, was opened to sale (and speculative exspoliation) in 1904. + The woods are so dense over large districts as to be impenetrable, + except by cutting a path foot by foot through the close network of + vines and undergrowth. The jaguey (_Ficus_ sp.), which stifles in its + giant coils the greatest trees of the forest, and the copei (_Clusia + rosea_) are remarkable parasitic lianas. Of the palm there are more + than thirty species. The royal palm is the most characteristic tree of + Cuba. It attains a height of from 50 to 75 ft., and sometimes of more + than 100 ft. Alone, or in groups, or in long aisles, towering above + the plantations or its fellow trees of the forest, its beautiful crest + dominates every landscape. Every portion, from its roots to its + leaves, serves some useful purpose. From it the native draws lumber + for his hut, utensils for his kitchen, thatch for his roof, medicines, + preserved delicacies, and a long list of other articles. The corojo + palm (_Cocos crispa_) rivals the royal palm in beauty and utility; + oil, sugar, drink and wood are derived from it. The coco palm (_Cocos + nucifera_) is also put to varied uses. The mango is planted with the + royal palm along the avenues of the plantations. The beautiful ceiba + (_Bombax ceiba_ L., _Ceiba pentandra_) or silk cotton tree is the + giant of the Cuban forests; it often grows to a height of 100 to 150 + ft. with enormous girth. The royal pinon (_Erythrina velatina_) is + remarkable for the magnificent purple flowers that cover it. The + tamarind and banyan are also noteworthy. Utilitarian trees and plants + are legion. There are at least forty choice cabinet and building + woods. Of these, ebonies, mahogany (for the bird's-eye variety such + enormous prices are paid as $1200 to $1800 per thousand board-feet), + culla (or cuya, _Bumelia retusa_), cocullo (cocuyo, _Bumelia nigra_), + ocuje (_Callophyllum viticifolia_, _Ornitrophis occidentalis_, _O. + cominia_), jigue (jique, _Lysiloma sabicu_), mahagua (_Hibiscus + tiliaceus_), granadillo (_Brya ebenus_), icaquillo (_Licania incania_) + and agua-baria (_Cordia gerascanthes_) are perhaps the most beautiful. + Other woods, beautiful and precious, include guayacan (Guaiacum + sanctum), baria (varia, _Cordia gerascanthoides_)--the fragrant, + hard-wood Spanish elm--the quiebra-hacha (_Copaifera hymenofolia_), + which three are of wonderful lasting qualities; the jiqui (_Malpighia + obovata_), acana (_Achras disecta_, _Bassia albescens_), caigaran (or + caguairan, _Hymenaea floribunda_), and the dagame (_Calicophyllum + candidissimum_), which four, like the culla, are all wonderfully + resistant to humidity; the caimatillo (_Chrysophyllum oliviforme_), + the yaya (or yayajabico, yayabito: _Erythalis fructicosa_, _Bocagea + virgata_, _Guateria virgata_, _Asimina Blaini_), a magnificent + construction wood; the maboa (_Cameraria latifolia_) and the jocuma + (jocum: _Sideroxylon mastichodendron_, _Bumelia saticifolia_), all of + individual beauties and qualities. Many species are rich in gums and + resins; the calambac, mastic, copal, cedar, &c. Many others are + oleaginous, among them, peanuts, sun-flowers, the bene seed (sesame), + corozo, almond and palmachristi. Others (in addition to some already + mentioned) are medicinal; as the palms, calabash, manchineel, pepper, + fustic and a long list of cathartics, caustics, emetics, astringents, + febrifuges, vermifuges, diuretics and tonics. Then, too, there are + various dyewoods; rosewood, logwood (or campeachy wood), indigo, + manaju (_Garcinia Morella_), Brazil-wood and saffron. Textile plants + are extremely common. The majagua tree grows as high as 40 ft.; from + its bark is made cordage of the finest quality, which is scarcely + affected by the atmosphere. Strong, fine, glossy fibres are yielded by + the exotic ramie (_Boehmeria nivea_), whose fibre, like that of the + majagua, is almost incorruptible; by the maya or rat-pineapple + (_Bromelia Pinguin_), and by the daquilla (or daiguiya--_Lagetta + lintearia_, _L. valenzuelana_), which like the maya yields a + brilliant, flexible product like silk; stronger cordage by the corojo + palms, and various henequen plants, native and exotic (especially + _Agave americana_, _A. Cubensis_); and various plantains, the exotic + _Sansevieria guineensis_, okra, jute, _Laportea_, various lianas, and + a great variety of reeds, supply varied textile materials of the best + quality. The yucca is a source of starch. For building and + miscellaneous purposes, in addition to the rare woods above named, + there are cedars (used in great quantities for cigar boxes); the pine, + found only in the W., where it gives its name to the Isle of Pines and + the province of Pinar del Rio; various palms; oaks of varying hardness + and colour, &c. The number of alimentary plants is extremely great. + Among economic plants should be mentioned the coffee, cacao, citron, + cinnamon, cocoanut and rubber tree. Wheat, Indian corn and many + vegetables, especially tuberous, are particularly important. Plantain + occurs in several varieties; it is in part a cheap and healthful + substitute for bread, which is also made from the bitter cassava, + after the poison is extracted. The sweet cassava yields tapioca. + Bread-trees are fairly common, but are little cared for. White and + sweet potatoes, yams, sweet and bitter yuccas, sago and okra, may also + be mentioned. + + Fruits are varied and delicious. The pineapple is the most favoured by + Cubans. Four or five annual crops grow from one plant, but not more + than three can be marketed, unless locally, as the product + deteriorates. The better ("purple") varieties are mainly consumed in + the island, and the smaller and less juicy "white" varieties exported. + The tamarind is everywhere. Bananas are grown particularly in the + region about Nipe, Gibara and Baracoa, whence they are exported in + large quantities, though there is a tendency to lessen their culture + in these parts in favour of sugar. Mangoes, though exotic, are + extremely common, and in the E. grow wild in the forests. They are the + favourite fruit of the negroes. Oranges are little cultivated, + although they offer apparently almost unlimited possibilities; their + culture decreased steadily after 1880, but after about 1900 was again + greatly extended. Lemons yield continuously through the year, but like + oranges, not much has yet been done with them commercially. + Pomegranates are as universally used in Cuba as apples in the United. + States. Figs and grapes degenerate in Cuba. Dates grow better, but + nothing has been done with them. The coco-nut palm is most abundant in + the vicinity of Baracoa. Among the common fruits are various + anonas--the custard apple (_Anona cherimolia_), sweet-sop (_A. + squamosa_), sour-sop (_A. muricata_), mamon (_A. reticulata_), and + others,--the star-apple (_Chrysophyllum cainito_, _C. pomiferum_), + rose-apple (_Eugenia jambos_), pawpaw, the sapodilla (_Sapota + achras_), the caniste (_Sapota Elongata_), jagua (_Genipa americana_), + alligator pear (_Persea gratissima_), the yellow mammee (_Mammea + americana_) and so-called "red mammee" (_Lucuma mammosa_) and limes. + + _Fauna._--The fauna of Cuba, like the flora, is still imperfectly + known. Collectively it shows long isolation from the other Antilles. + Only two land mammals are known to be indigenous. One is the hutia + (agouti) or Cuban rat, of which three species are known (_Capromys + Fournieri_, _C. melanurus_ and _C. Poey_). It lives in the most + solitary woods, especially in the eastern hills. The other is a + peculiar insectivore (_Solenodon paradoxus_), the only other + representatives of whose family are found in Madagascar. Various + animals, apparently indigenous, that are described by the early + historians of the conquest, have disappeared. An Antillean rabbit is + very abundant. Bats in prodigious numbers, and some of them of + extraordinary size, inhabit the many caves of the island; more than + twenty species are known. Rats and mice, especially the guayabita + (_Mus musculus_), an extremely destructive rodent, are very abundant. + The manatee, or sea-cow, frequents the mouths of rivers, the sargasso + drifts, and the regions of submarine fresh-water springs off the + coast. Horses, asses, cows, deer, sheep, goats, swine, cats and dogs + were introduced by the early Spaniards. The last three are common in a + wild state. Deer are not native, and are very rare; a few live in the + swamps. + + Of birds there are more than 200 indigenous species, it is said, and + migratory species are also numerous. Waders are represented by more + than fifty species. Vultures are represented by only one species, the + turkey buzzard, which is the universal scavenger of the fields, and + until recent years even of the cities, and has always been protected + by custom and the Laws of the Indies. Falcons are represented by a + score of species, at least, several of them nocturnal. Kestrels are + common. The gallinaceous order is rich in _Columbidae_. Trumpeters are + notably represented, and climbers still more so. Among the latter are + species of curious habits and remarkable colouring. Woodpeckers + (_Coloptes auratus_), macaws, parrakeets and other small parrots, and + trogons, these last of beautifully resplendent plumage, deserve + particular mention. The Cuban mocking-bird is a wonderful songster. Of + humming-birds there are said to be sixty species, probably only one + indigenous. Of the other birds mere mention may be made of the wild + pigeon, raven, indigo-bird, English lady-bird and linnet. + + Reptiles are numerous. Many tortoises are notable. The crocodile and + cayman occur in the swampy littoral of the south. Of lizards the + iguana (_Cyclura caudata_) is noteworthy. Chameleons are common. + Snakes are not numerous, and it is said that none is poisonous or + vicious. There is one enormous boa, the maja (_Epicrates angulifer_), + which feeds on pigs, goats and the like, but does not molest man. + + Fishes are present in even greater variety than birds. Felipa Poey, in + his _Ictiologia Cubana_, listed 782 species of fish and crustaceans, + of which 105 were doubtful; but more than one-half of the remainder + were first described by Poey. The fish of Cuban waters are remarkable + for their metallic colourings. The largest species are found off the + northern coast. Food fishes are relatively not abundant, presumably + because the deep sea escarpments of the N. are unfavourable to their + life. Shell fish are unimportant. Two species of blind fish, of + extreme scientific interest, are found in the caves of the island. Of + the "percoideos" there are many genera. Among the most important are + the robalo (_Labrax_), an exquisite food fish, the tunny, eel, Spanish + sardine and mangua. Of the sharks the genus _Squalus_ is represented + by individuals that grow to a length of 26 to 30 ft. The hammer-head + attains a weight at times of 600 lb. The saw-fish is common. Of + fresh-water fish the lisa, dogro, guayacon and viajocos (_Chromis + fuscomaculatus_) are possibly the most noteworthy. + + Molluscs are extraordinarily numerous; and many, both of water and + land, are rarities among their kind for size and richness of colour. + Of crustaceans, land-crabs are remarkable for size and number. + Arachnids are prodigiously numerous. Insect life is abundant and + beautiful. The bite of the scorpion and of the numerous spiders + produces no serious effects. The nigua, the Cuban jigger, is a pest of + serious consequence, and the mal de nigua (jigger sickness) sometimes + causes the death of lower animals and men. Sand-flies and biting gnats + are lesser nuisances. Lepidoptera are very brilliant in colouring. The + cucujo or Cuban firefly (_Pyrophorus noctilucus_) gives out so strong + a light that a few of them serve effectively as a lantern. The + _Stegomyia_ mosquito is the agent of yellow fever inoculation. Sponges + grow in great variety. + +_Climate._--The climate of Cuba is tropical and distinctively insular in +characteristics of humidity, equability and high mean temperature. There +are two distinct seasons: a "dry" season from November to April, and a +hotter, "wet" season. About two-thirds of the total precipitation falls +in the latter. Droughts, extensive in area and in duration, are by no +means uncommon. At Havana the mean temperature is about 76 deg. F., with +extreme monthly oscillations ranging on the average from 6 deg. to 12 +deg. F. for different months, and with a range between the means of the +coldest and warmest months of 10 deg. (70 deg. to 80 deg.); temperatures +below 50 deg. or above 90 deg. being rare. The mean rainfall at Havana +is about 40.6 in. (sometimes over 80), and the mean absolute humidity of +different months ranges from 70 to 80%. These figures represent fairly +well the conditions of much of the northern coast. In the N.E. the +rainfall is much greater. The equability of heat throughout the day is +masked and relieved by the afternoon sea breezes. The trades are steady +through the year, and in the dry season the western part of the island +enjoys cool "northers." Despite this the interior is somewhat cooler +than the coast, and in the uplands frost is not uncommon. The southern +littoral is also (except in sheltered points such as Santiago, which is +one of the hottest cities of the island) somewhat cooler than the +northern. + +More than eight or ten years rarely pass without tornadoes or hurricanes +of local severity at least. Notably destructive ones occurred in 1768, +1774, 1842, 1844, 1846, 1865, 1870, 1876, 1885 and 1894. Those of 1842 +and 1844 caused extreme distress in the island. In 1846, 300 vessels and +2000 houses were destroyed at Havana; in 1896 the banana groves of the +N.E. coast were ruined and the banana industry prostrated; and in 1906 +Havana suffered damage. The autumn months, particularly October and +November, are those in which such storms most frequently occur. + +_Health._--Convincing evidence is offered by the qualities of the +Spanish race in Cuba that white men of temperate lands can be perfectly +acclimatized in this tropical island. As for diseases, some common to +Cuba and Europe are more frequent or severe in the island, others rarer +or milder. There are the usual malarial, bilious and intermittent +fevers, and liver, stomach and intestinal complaints prevalent in +tropical countries; but unhygienic living is, in Cuba as elsewhere, +mainly responsible for their existence. Yellow fever (which first +appeared in Cuba in 1647) was long the only epidemic disease, Havana +being an endemic focus. Aside from the recurrent loss of life, the +pecuniary loss from such epidemics was enormous, and the interference +with commerce and social intercourse with other countries extremely +vexatious. The Cuban coast was uninterruptedly full of infection, and +the danger of an outbreak in each year was never absent, until the work +of the United States army in 1901-1902 conclusively proved that this +disease, though ineradicable by the most extreme sanitary measures, +based on the accepted theory of its origin as a filth-disease, could be +eradicated entirely by removing the possibility of inoculation by the +_Stegomyia_ mosquito. Since then yellow fever has ceased to be a scourge +in Cuba. Small-pox was the cause of a greater mortality than yellow +fever even before the means of combating the latter had been +ascertained. The remarkable sanitary work begun during the American +occupation and continued by the republic of Cuba, has shown that the +ravages of this and other diseases can be greatly diminished. Leprosy is +rather common, but seemingly only slightly contagious. Consumption is +very prevalent. + +_Agriculture._--Soils are of four classes: calcareous-ferruginous, +alluvial, argillous and silicious. Calcareous lands are predominant, +especially in the uplands. Deep residual clay soils derived from +underlying limestones, and coloured red or black according to the +predominance of oxides of iron or vegetable detritus, characterize the +plains. A red-black soil known as "mulatto" or tawny is perhaps the best +fitted for general cultivation. Tobacco is most generally cultivated on +loose red soils, which are rich in clays and silicates; and sugar-cane +preferably on the black and mulatto soils; but in general, contrary to +prevalent suppositions, colour is no test of quality and not a very +valuable guide in the setting of crops. Almost without exception the +lands throughout the island are of extreme fertility. The lowlands about +Cienfuegos, Trinidad, Mariel and Matanzas are noted for their richness. +The census of 1899 showed that farm lands occupied three-tenths of the +total area; the cultivated area being one-tenth of the farms or 3% of +the whole. At the end of 1905 it was officially estimated that 16% was +in cultivation. In 1902 it was officially estimated that the public land +available for permanent agrarian cultivation, including forest lands, +was only 186,967 hectares (416,995 acres), almost wholly in the province +of Oriente. The average size of a farm in 1899 was 143 acres. More than +85% of all cultivated lands were then occupied by whites; and somewhat +more than one-half (56.6%) of all occupiers were renters. Holdings of +more than 32 acres constituted only 7% of the total. As regards crops, +47% of the cultivated area was given over to sugar, 11% to sweet +potatoes, 9% to tobacco and almost 9% to bananas. But owing to the +disturbed conditions created by the war it is probable that these +figures by no means represent normal conditions. The actual sugar crop +of 1899-1900, for example, was not a quarter of that of 1894. With the +establishment of peace in 1898 and the influx of American and other +capital and of a heavy immigration, great changes took place in +agriculture as in other industrial conditions. + + + Sugar. + +Sugar has been the dominant crop since the end of the 18th century. +Before the Civil War of 1895-1898 the capital invested in sugar estates +was greater by half than that represented by tobacco and coffee +plantations, live-stock ranches and other farms. Since that time fruit +and live-stock interests have increased. The dependence of the island on +one crop has been an artificial economic condition often of grave +momentary danger to prosperity; but generally speaking, the progress of +the industry has been steady. The competition of the sugar-beet has been +felt severely. During and after the war of 1868-1878, when many Cuban +estates were confiscated, many families emigrated, and many others were +ruined, the ownership of plantations largely passed from the hands of +Cubans to Spaniards. Under the conditions of free labour, the +development of railways abroad, the improvement of machinery both in +cane and beet producing countries, the general competition of the beet, +and the fall of prices, it was impossible for the Cuban industry to +survive without radical betterment of methods. About 1885 began an +immense development of centralization (the tendency having been evident +many years before this). Plantations have increased greatly in size (and +also diminished in number), greater capital is involved, bagasse +furnaces have been introduced, double grinding mills have increased by +more than a half the yield of juice from a given weight of cane, and +extractive operations instead of being carried on on all plantations +have been (since 1880) concentrated in comparatively few "centrals" (168 +in Feb. 1908). Three-fourths of all are in the jurisdictions of +Cienfuegos, Cardenas, Havana, Matanzas and Sagua la Grande, which are +the great sugar centres of the island (three-fourths of the crop coming +from Matanzas and Santa Clara provinces). Caibarien, Guantanamo and +Manzanillo are next in importance. A comparatively low cost of labour, +the fact that labour is not, as in the days of slavery, that of +unintelligent blacks but of intelligent free labourers, the centralized +organization and modern methods that prevail on the plantations, the +remarkable fertility of the soil (which yields 5 or 6 crops on good soil +and with good management, without replanting), and the proximity of the +United States, in whose markets Cuba disposes of almost all her crop, +have long enabled her to distance her smaller West Indian rivals and to +compete with the bounty-fed beet. The methods of cultivation, however, +are still distinctly extensive, and the returns are much less than they +would be (and in some other cane countries are) under more intensive and +scientific methods of cultivation. Indeed, conditions were relatively +primitive so late as 1880, if compared with those of other +sugar-producing countries. More than four-fifths of the total area sown +to cane in the island is in the three provinces of Santa Clara, Matanzas +and Oriente (formerly Santiago), the former two representing two-thirds +of the area and three-fourths of the crop. The majority of the sugar +estates are of an area less than 3000 acres, and the most common area is +between 1500 and 2000 acres; but the extremes range from a very small +size to 60,000 acres. Only a part of the great estates is ever planted +in any one season. The most profitable unit is calculated to be a daily +consumption of 1500 tons of cane, or 150,000 in a grinding season of 100 +days, which implies a feeding area not above 6000 acres. In the season +of 1904-1905, which may be taken as typical, 179 estates, with a planted +area of 431,056 acres, produced 11,576,137 tons of cane, and yielded--in +addition to alcohol, brandy and molasses--1,089,814 tons of sugar. Of +this amount 416,862 tons were produced by 24 estates yielding more than +11,000 tons each, including one (planting 28,050 acres) that yielded +33,609, and 4 others more than 22,000 tons each. The production of the +island from 1850 to 1868 averaged 469,934 tons yearly, rising from +223,145 to 749,000; from 1869 to 1886 (continuing high during the +period of the Ten Years' War), 632,003 tons; from 1887 to 1907--omitting +the five years 1896-1900 when the industry was prostrated by +war,--909,827 tons (and including the war period, 758,066); and in the +six harvests of 1901-1906, 1,016,899 tons. Prior to 1902 the million +mark, was reached only twice--in 1894 and 1895. Following the +resuscitation of the industry after the last war, the island's crop rose +steadily from one-sixth to a full quarter of the total cane sugar output +of the world, its share in the world's product of sugar of all kinds +ranging from a tenth to an eighth. Of this enormous output, from 98.3% +upward went to the United States;[1] of whose total importation of all +sugars and of cane sugar the proportion of Cuban cane--steadily +rising--was respectively 49.8 and 53.7% in the seasons of 1900-1901 and +1904-1905. + + + Tobacco. + +If sugar is the island's greatest crop, tobacco is her most renowned in +the markets of the world. Three-fourths of the tobacco of Cuba comes +from Pinar del Rio province; the rest mainly from the provinces of +Havana and Santa Clara,--the description _de partido_ being applied to +the leaf not produced in Havana and Pinar del Rio provinces, and +sometimes to all produced outside the _vuelta abajo_. This district, +including the finest land, is on the southern slope of the Organ +Mountains between the Honda river and Mantua; bananas are cultivated +with the tobacco. "Vegas" (tobacco fields) of especially good repute are +also found near Trinidad, Remedios, Yara, Mayari and Vicana. The tobacco +industry has been uniformly prosperous, except when crippled by the +destruction of war in 1868-1878 and 1895-1898. Even in the time of +slavery tobacco was generally a white-man's crop; for it requires +intelligent labour and intensive care. In recent years the growth of the +leaf under cloth tents has greatly increased, as it has been abundantly +proved that the product thus secured is much more valuable--lighter in +colour and weight, finer in texture, with an increased proportion of +wrapper leaves, and more uniform qualities, and with lesser amounts of +cellulose, nicotine, gums and resins. In these respects the finest Cuban +tobacco crops, produced in the sun, hardly rival the finest Sumatra +product; but produced under cheese-cloth they do. "Cuban tobacco" does +not mean to-day, as a commercial fact, what the words imply; for the +original _Nicotiana Tabacum_, variety _havanensis_, can probably be +found pure to-day only in out-of-the-way corners of Pinar del Rio. After +the Ten Year's War seed of Mexican and United States tobaccos was in +great demand to re-seed the ruined vegas, and was introduced in great +quantities; and although by a later law the destruction of these exotic +species was ordered, that destruction was in fact quite impossible. +"Lusty growers and coarser than the genuine old-time Cuban ... Mexican +tobaccos (_Nicotiana Tabacum_, variety _macrophyllum_) are to-day +predominant in a large part of Cuban vegas.... Ordinary commercial Cuban +seed of to-day is largely, and often altogether, Mexican tobacco." +Though improved in the Cuban environment, the foreign tobaccos +introduced after the Ten Years' War did not lose their exotic character, +but prevailed over the indigenous forms: "Tobaccos with exactly the +character of the introduced types are now the prevalent forms" +(quotation from Bulletin of the _Estacion Central Agronomica_, Feb. +1908). In the markets of the world Cuban tobacco has always suffered +less competition than Cuban sugar, and still less has been done than in +the case of sugar cane in the study of methods of cultivation, which in +several respects are far behind those of other tobacco-growing +countries. The crop of 1907 was 201,512 bales (109,562,400 lb. Sp.). + + + Coffee. + +Coffee-raising was once a flourishing and very promising industry. It +first attained prominence with the settlement in eastern Cuba, late in +the 18th century, of French refugee immigrants from San Domingo. Some +"cafetales" were established by the newcomers near Havana, but the +industry has always been almost exclusively one of Oriente province; +with Santa Clara as a much smaller producer. Before the war of +1868-1878 the production amounted to about 25,000,000 lb. yearly. The +war of 1895-1898 still further diminished the vitality of the industry. +In 1907 the crop was 6,595,700 lb. The berries are of fine quality, and +despite the competition of Brazil there is no (agricultural) reason why +the home market at least should not be supplied from Cuban estates. + + Of other agricultural crops those of fruits are of greatest + importance--bananas (which are planted about once in three years), + pine-apples (planted about once in five years), coco-nuts, oranges, + &c. The coco-nut industry has long been largely confined to the region + about Baracoa, owing to the ruin of the trees elsewhere by a disease + not yet thoroughly understood, which, appearing finally near Baracoa, + threatened by 1908 to destroy the industry there as well. Yams and + sweet-potatoes, yuccas, malangas, cacao, rice--which is one of the + most important foods of the people, but which is not yet widely + cultivated on a profitable basis--and Indian corn, which grows + everywhere and yields two crops yearly, may be mentioned also. In very + recent years gardening has become an interest of importance, + particularly in the province of Pinar del Rio. Save on the coffee, + tobacco and sugar plantations, where competition in large markets has + compelled the adoption of adequate modern methods, agriculture in Cuba + is still very primitive. The wooden ploughstick, for instance--taking + the country as a whole--has never been displaced. A central + agricultural experiment station (founded 1904) is maintained by the + government at Santiago de las Vegas; but there is no agricultural + college, nor any special school for the scientific teaching and + improvement of sugar and tobacco farming or manufacture. + + Stock-breeding is a highly important interest. It was the + all-important one in the early history of the island, down to about + the latter part of the 18th century. Grasses grow luxuriantly, and the + savannahs of central Cuba are, in this respect, excellent cattle + ranges. The droughts to which the island is recurrently subject are, + however, a not unimportant drawback to the industry; and though the + best ranges, under favourable conditions, are luxuriant, nevertheless + the pastures of the island are in general mediocre. Practically + nothing has yet been done in the study of native grasses and the + introduction of exotic species. The possibilities of the stock + interest have as yet by no means been realized. The civil wars were + probably more disastrous to it than to any other agricultural interest + of the island. It has been authoritatively estimated, for example, + that from 90 to 95% of all horses, neat cattle and hogs in the entire + island were lost in the war years of 1895-1898. In the decade after + 1898 particularly great progress was made in the raising of + live-stock. The fishing and sponge industries are important. Batabano + and Caibarien are centres of the sponge fisheries. + +_Manufactures._--The manufacturing industries of Cuba have never been +more than insignificant as compared with what they might be. In 1907 +48.5% of all wage-earners were engaged in agriculture, fishing and +mining, 16.3 in manufactures, and 17.7 in trade and transportation. Such +manufactures as are of any consequence are mostly connected with the +sugar and tobacco industries. Forest resources have been but slightly +touched (more so since the end of Spanish rule) except mahogany, which +goes to the United States, and cedar, which is used to box the tobacco +products of the island, much going also to the United States. The value +of forest products in 1901-1902 amounted to $320,528. There are some +tanneries, some preparation of preserves and other fruit products, and +some old handicraft industries like the making of hats; but these have +been of comparatively scant importance. Despite natural advantages for +all meat industries, canned meats have generally been imported. The +leading manufactures are cigars and cigarettes, sugar, rum and whisky. +The tobacco industries are very largely concentrated in Havana, and +there are factories in Santiago de las Vegas and Bejucal. The yearly +output of cigars was locally estimated in 1908 at about 500,000,000, but +this is probably too high an estimate. In 1904-1906 the yearly average +sent to the United States was 234,063,652 cigars, 29,776,429 lb. of leaf +and 14,203,571 packages of cigarettes. The sugar industry is not +similarly centralized. With the improvement of methods the old partially +refined grades (moscobados) have disappeared. + +_Mining._--Mining is of very considerable importance. The Cobre copper +mines near Santiago were once the greatest producers of the world. They +were worked from 1524 until about 1730, when they were abandoned for +almost a century, after which they were reopened and greatly developed. +In 1828-1840 about two million dollars' worth of ore was shipped yearly +to the United States alone. After 1868 the mines were again abandoned +and flooded, the mining property being ruined during the civil war. +Finally, after 1900 they again became prosperous producers. The "Cobre" +mine is only the most famous and productive of various copper +properties. The copper output has not greatly increased since 1890, and +is of slight importance in mineral exports. Iron and manganese have, on +the contrary, been greatly developed in the same period. Iron is now the +most important mineral product. The iron ores are even more accessible +than the famous ones of the Lake Superior region in the United States. +No shafts or tunnels are necessary except for exploration; the mining +consists entirely in open-cut and terrace work. The cost of exploitation +is accordingly slight. Daiquiri, near Santiago, and mines near Nipe, on +the north coast, are the chief centres of production. Nearly the entire +product goes to the United States. The first exports from the Daiquiri +district were made by an American company in 1884; the Nipe (Cagimaya) +mines became prominent in promise in 1906. The shipments from Oriente +province from 1884 to 1901 aggregated 5,053,847 long tons, almost all +going to the United States (which is true of other mineral products +also). After 1900 production was greatly increased and by 1906 had come +to exceed half a million tons annually. There are small mines in Santa +Clara and Camaguey provinces. Manganese is mined mainly near La Maya and +El Cristo in Oriente. The traditions as to gold and silver have already +been referred to. Evidences of ancient workings remain near Holguin and +Gibara, and it is possible that some of these workings are still +exploitable. Mining for the precious metals ceased at a very early date, +after rich discoveries were made on the continent. Bituminous products, +though, as already stated, widely distributed, are not as yet much +developed. The most promising deposits and the most important workings +are in Matanzas and Santa Clara provinces. Petroleum has been used to +some extent both as a fuel and as an illuminant. Small amounts of +asphalt have been sent to the United States. Locally, asphalts are used +as gas enrichers. Grahamite and glance-pitch are common, and are +exported for use in varnish and paint manufactures. The commercial +product of stones, brick and cement is of rapidly increasing importance. +The foundation of the island is in many places almost pure carbonate of +lime, and there are numerous small limekilns. The product is used to +bleach sugar, as well as for construction and disinfection purposes. The +number of small brick plants is legion, almost all very primitive. + +_Commerce._--Commerce (resting largely upon specialized agriculture) is +vastly more prominent as yet than manufacturing and mining in the +island's economy. The leading articles of export are sugar, tobacco and +fruit products; of import, textiles, foodstuffs, lumber and wood +products, and machinery. Sugar and tobacco products together represent +seven-eighths (in 1904-1907 respectively 60.3 and 27.3%) of the normal +annual exports. In the quinquennial period 1890-1894 (immediately +preceding the War of Independence) the average yearly commerce of the +island in and out was $86,875,663 with the United States; and +$28,161,726 with Spain.[2] During the American military occupation of +the island in 1899-1902, of the total imports 45.9% were from the United +States, 14 from other American countries, 15 from Spain, 14 from the +United Kingdom, 6 from France and 4 from Germany; of the exports the +corresponding percentages for the same countries were 70.7, 2, 3, 10, 4 +and 7. No special favours were enjoyed by the United States in this +period, and about the same percentages prevailed in the years following. +The total commercial movement of the island in the five calendar years +1902-1906 averaged $177,882,640 (for the five fiscal years 1902-1903 to +1906-1907, $185,987,020) annually, and of this the share of the United +States was $108,431,000 yearly, representing 45.8% of all imports and +81.9% of all exports. The proportion of imports taken from the United +States is greatest in foodstuffs, metals and metal manufactures, timber +and furniture, mineral oils and lard. The trade of the United States +with the island was as great in 1900-1907 as with Mexico and all the +other West Indies combined; as great as its trade with Spain, Portugal +and Italy combined; and almost as great as its trade with China and +Japan. + +_Communications._--Poor means of communication have always been a great +handicap to the industries of the island. The first railroad in Cuba +(and the first in Spanish lands) was opened from Havana to Guines in +1837. In succeeding years a fairly ample system was built up between the +cities of Pinar del Rio and Santa Clara, with a number of short spurs +from the chief ports farther eastward into the interior. After the first +American occupation a private company built a line from Santa Clara to +Santiago, more than half the length of the island, finally connecting +its two ends (1902). The policy of the railways was always one rather of +extortion than of fairness or of any interest in the development of the +country, but better conditions have begun. There was ostensible +government regulation of rates after 1877, but the roads were guaranteed +outright against any loss of revenue, and in fact practically nothing +was ever done in the way of reform in the Spanish period. In 1900 the +total length of railways was 2097 m., of which 1226 were of 17 public +roads and 871 m. of 107 private roads. In August 1908 the mileage of all +railways (including electric) in Cuba was 2329.8 m. The telegraph and +telephone systems are owned by the government. Cables connect the island +with Florida, Jamaica, Haiti and San Domingo, Porto Rico, the lesser +Antilles, Panama, Venezuela and Brazil. Havana, Santiago and Cienfuegos +are cable ports. Wagon roads are still of small extent and primitive +character save in a very few localities. The peculiar two-wheeled carts +of the country, carrying enormous loads of 4 to 6 tons, destroy even the +finest road. Similar carts, slightly lighter, used in the cities, +quickly destroy any paving but stone block. The only good highways of +any considerable length in 1908 were in the two western provinces and in +the vicinity of Santiago. During the second American occupation work was +begun on a network of good rural highways. + +_Population._--Various censuses were taken in Cuba beginning in 1774; +but the results of those preceding the abolition of slavery, at least, +are probably without exception extremely untrustworthy. The census of +1887 showed a population of 1,631,687, that of 1899 a population of +1,572,792 (the decrease of 3.6% is explained by the intervening war); +and by the census of 1907 there were 2,048,980 inhabitants, 30.3% more +than in 1899. The average of settlement per square mile varied from +169.7 in Havana province to 11.8 in Camaguey, and was 46.4 for all of +Cuba; the percentage of urban population (in cities, that is, with more +than 1000 inhabitants) in the different provinces varied from 18.2 in +Pinar del Rio to 74.7 in Havana, and was 43.9 for the entire island. +There were five cities having populations above 25,000--Havana, 297,159; +Santiago, 45,470; Matanzas, 36,009; Cienfuegos, 30,100; Puerto Principe +(or Camaguey), 29,616; and fourteen more above 8000--Cardenas, +Manzanillo, Guanabacoa, Santa Clara, Sagua la Grande, Sancti Spiritus, +Guantanamo, Trinidad, Pinar del Rio, San Antonio de los Banos, +Jovellanos, Marianao, Caibarien and Guines. The proportion of the total +population which in 1907 was in cities of 8000 or more was only 30.3%; +and the proportion in cities of 25,000 or more was 21.4%. Mainly owing +to the large element of transient foreign whites without families (long +characteristic of Cuba), males outnumber females--in 1907 as 21 to 19. +Native whites, almost everywhere in the majority, constituted 59.8% of +all inhabitants; persons of negro and mixed blood, 29.7%; foreign-born +whites, 9.9%; Chinese less than 0.6%. Foreigners constituted 25.6% of +the population in the city of Havana; only 7% in Pinar del Rio province. +Native blood is most predominant in the provinces of Oriente and Pinar +del Rio. After the end of the war of 1895-1898 a large immigration from +Spain began; the inflow from the United States was very small in +comparison. The Republic strongly encourages immigration. In 1900-1906 +there were 143,122 immigrants, of whom 124,863 were Spaniards, 4557 were +from the United States, 2561 were Spanish Americans, and a few were +Italian, Syrian, Chinese, French, English, &c. The Chinese element is a +remnant of a former coolie population; their numbers in 1907 (11,217) +were less than a fourth the number in 1887. Their introduction began in +1847 and ended in 1871. Conjugal conditions in Cuba are peculiar. In +1907 only 20.7% of the total population were legally married; an +additional 8.6% were living in more or less permanent consensual unions, +these being particularly common among the negroes. Including all unions +the total is below the European proportion, but above that of Porto Rico +or Jamaica in 1899. + +The negro element is strongest in the province of Oriente and weakest in +Camaguey; in the former it constituted 43.1% of the population, in the +latter 18.3%, and in Havana City 25.5%. In Guantanamo, in Santiago de +Cuba, and in seven other towns they exceeded the whites in number. +Caibarien and San Antonio de los Banos had the largest proportion of +white population. The position of the negroes in Cuba is exceptional. +Despite the long period of slavery they are decidedly below the whites +in number. The Spanish slave laws (although in practice often +frightfully abused) were always comparatively generous to the slave, +making relatively easy, among other things, the purchase of his freedom, +the number of free blacks being always great. Since the abolition of +slavery the status of the black has been made more definite, and his +rights naturally much greater. The wars of 1868-1878 and 1895-1898 and +the threatened war of 1906 all helped to give to the negro element its +high position. There is no antagonism between the divisions of the +coloured race. All hold their own with the white in industrial +usefulness to the community, and though the blacks are more backward in +education and various other tests of social advancement, still their +outlook is full of promise. There is practically no colour caste in +Cuba; politically the negro is the white man's equal; socially there is +very little ostensible inequality and almost perfect toleration. The +negro in Cuba shows promising though undeveloped traits of landlordship. +Women labour habitually in the fields. Miscegenation of blacks and +whites was extremely common before emancipation. It is sometimes said +that since then there has been a counter-tendency, but it is impossible +to prove such a statement conclusively except with the aid of future +censuses. Few of the negroes are black; some of the blackest have the +regular features of the Caucasian; and racial mixtures are everywhere +evidenced by colour of skin and by physiognomy. Its seems certain that +the African element has been holding its own in the population totals +since emancipation. + +Cuba is overwhelmingly Roman Catholic in religion, but under the new +Republic there is a complete separation of church and state, and +liberalism and indifference are increasing. Illiteracy is extremely +widespread. In 1907 the census showed 56.6% (43.3 in 1899) of persons +above ten years who could read. Of the voting population 53.2% of native +white, and 37.3% of coloured Cuban citizens, and 71.6% of Spanish +citizens could read. A revolution in education was begun the first year +of the United States military occupation and continued under the +Republic. + +_Constitution._--The constitution upon which the government of Cuba +rests was framed during the period of the United States military +government; it was adopted the 21st of February 1901, and certain +amendments or conditions required by the United States were accepted on +the 12th of June 1901. The constitution is republican and modelled on +the Constitution of the United States, with some marked differences of +greater centralization, due to colonial experience under the rule of +Spain, notably as regards federalism; the provinces of the island being +less important than the states of the American Union. The president of +the Republic, who is elected for four years by an electoral college, and +cannot hold office for more than two successive terms, has a cabinet +whose members he may appoint and remove freely, their number being +determined by law. He sanctions, promulgates and executes the laws, and +supplements them (partly co-ordinately with congress) by administrative +regulations in harmony with their ends; holds a veto power and pardoning +power; controls with the senate political appointments and removals; and +conducts foreign relations, submitting treaties to the senate for +ratification. Congress consists of two houses. The senate contains four +members from each province, chosen for eight years by a provincial +electoral board, which consists of the provincial councilmen plus a +double number of electors (half of them paying high taxes) who are +selected at a special election by their fellow citizens. Half of the +senators retire every four years. The senate is the court of trial for +the president, officers of the cabinet, and provincial governors when +accused of political offences. It also acts jointly with the president +in political appointments and treaty making. The house of +representatives, whose members are chosen directly by the citizens for +four years, one-half retiring every two years, has the special power of +impeaching the president and cabinet officers. Congress meets twice +annually, in April and November. Its powers are extensive, including, in +addition to ordinary legislative powers, control of financial affairs, +foreign affairs, the power to declare war and approve treaties of peace, +amnesties, electoral legislation for the provinces and municipalities, +control of the electoral vote for president and vice-president, and +designation of an acting president in case of the death or incapacity of +these officers. The subjects of legislative power are very similar to +those of the United States congress; but control of railroads, canals +and public roads is explicitly given to the federal government. Justice +is administered by courts of various grades, with a supreme court at +Havana as the head; the members of this being appointed by the president +and senate. This court passes on the constitutionality of all laws, +decrees and regulations. + +There are six provinces--Pinar del Rio, Havana, Matanzas, Santa Clara, +Camaguey or Puerto Principe, and Oriente. Each has a provincial governor +and assembly chosen directly by the people, generally charged with +independent control of matters affecting the province; but the president +may interfere against an abuse of power by either the governor or the +assembly. Municipalities are administered by mayors (alcaldes) and +assemblies elected by the people, and control strictly municipal +affairs. The "termino municipal" is the chief political and +administrative civil division. It is an urban district together with +contiguous rural territory. Its divisions are "barrios." The president +may interfere if necessary in the municipality as in the province; and +so may the governor of the province. But all interference is subject to +review of claims by the courts. Both provinces and municipalities are +forbidden by the constitution to contract debts without a coincident +provision of permanent revenue for their settlement. + +The franchise is granted to every male Cuban twenty-one years of age, +not mentally incapacitated, nor previously a convict of crime, nor +serving in the army or navy of the state. Foreigners may become citizens +in five years by naturalization. Church and state are completely +separated, toleration being guaranteed for the profession and practice +of all religious beliefs, and the government may not subsidize any +religion. + + + Education. + +Primary education is declared by the constitution to be free and +compulsory; and its expenses are paid by the central government so far +as it may be beyond the power of the province or municipality to bear +them. Secondary and advanced education is controlled by the state. In +the last days of Spanish rule (1894), there were 904 public and 704 +private schools, and not more than 60,000 pupils enrolled; in 1000 there +were 3550 public schools with an enrolment of 172,273 and an average +attendance of 123,362. In the four school years from 1903-1904 to +1906-1907 the figures of enrolment and average attendance were: 201,824 +and 110,531; 194,657 and 105,706; 186,571 and 98,329; and 189,289 and +93,865. In 1906-1907 the percentage (31.6) of attendants to children of +school age was twice as large as in 1898-1899. Private schools, some of +very high grade, draw many pupils. Almost all schools are primary. The +university of Havana (founded 1728) was given greatly improved +facilities, especially of material equipment, by the American military +government, and seems to have begun an ambitious progress. In 1907 the +number of students was 554. Below the university there are six +provincial institutes, one in each province, in each of which there is a +preparatory department, a department of secondary education, and (this +due to peculiar local conditions) a school of surveying; and in that of +Havana commercial departments in addition. In Havana, also, there is a +school of painting and sculpture, a school of arts and trades, and a +national library, all of which are supported or subventioned by the +national government, as are also a public library in Matanzas, and the +Agricultural Experiment Station at Santiago de las Vegas. In connexion +with the university is a botanical garden; with the national sanitary +service, a biological laboratory, and special services for small-pox, +glanders and yellow fever. Independent of the government are various +schools and learned societies in Havana (q.v.). A school was established +by the government in Key West, Florida (U.S.A.), in 1905, for the +benefit of the Cuban colony there. Finally, the government sustains +about two score of penal establishments, reform schools, hospitals, +dispensaries and asylums, which are scattered all over the +island,--every town of any considerable size having one or more of these +charities. + + + Former government. + +Under the colonial rule of Spain the head of government was a supreme +civil-military officer, the governor and captain-general. His control of +the entire administrative life of the island was practically absolute. +Originally residents at Santiago de Cuba, the captains-general resided +after 1589 at Havana. Because of the isolation of the eastern part of +the island, the dangers from pirates, and the important considerations +which had caused Santiago de Cuba (q.v.) to be the first capital of the +island, Cuba was divided in 1607 into two departments, and a governor, +subordinate in military matters to the captain-general at Havana, was +appointed to rule the territory east of Puerto Principe. In 1801, when +the audiencia--of which the captain-general was _ex officio_ +president--began its functions at that point, the governor of Santiago +became subordinated in political matters as much as in military. Two +chief courts of justice (audiencias) sat at Havana (after 1832) and +Puerto Principe (1800-1853); appeals could go to Spain; below the +audiencias were "alcaldes mayores" or district judges and ordinary +"alcaldes" or local judges. The audiencias also held important political +powers under the Laws of the Indies. The captaincy-general of Cuba was +not originally, however, by any means so broad in powers as the +viceroyalties of Mexico and Peru; and by the creation in 1765 of the +office of intendant--the delegate of the national treasury--his +faculties were very greatly curtailed. The great powers of the intendant +were, however, merged in those of the governor-general in 1853; and the +captain-general having been given by royal order in 1825 (several times +later explicitly confirmed, and not revoked until 1870) the absolute +powers (to be assumed at his initiative and discretion) of the governor +of a besieged city, and by a royal order of 1834 the power to banish at +will persons supposed to be inimical to the public peace; and being by +virtue of his office the president and dominator of all the important +administrative boards of the government, held the government of the +island, and in any emergency the liberty and property of its +inhabitants, in his hand. The royal orders following 1825 developed a +system of extraordinary and extreme repression. In 1878, as the result +of the Ten Years' War, various administrative reforms, of a +decentralizing tendency, were introduced. The six provinces were +created, and had governors and assemblies ("diputaciones"); and a +municipal law was provided that in many ways was a sound basis for local +government. But centralization remained very great. In the municipality +the alcalde (mayor) was appointed by the governor-general, and the +ayuntamiento (council) was controlled by the veto of the provincial +governor and by the assembly of the province. The deputation was subject +in turn to the same veto of the provincial governor, and he controlled +by the governor-general. There was besides a provincial commission of +five lawyers named by the governor-general from the members of the +deputation, who settled election questions, and questions of eligibility +in this body, gave advice as to laws, acted for the deputation when it +was not sitting, and in general facilitated centralized control of the +administrative system. The character of this body was altered in 1890, +and in 1898, in which latter year its functions were reduced to the +essentially judicial. Despite superficial decentralization after 1878 +any real growth of local self-government was rendered impossible. +Moreover, no great reforms were made in the abuses naturally incident to +the old personal system. Exile and imprisonment at the will of the +government and without trial were common. Personal liberty, liberty of +conscience, speech, assembly, petition, association, press, liberty of +movement and security of home, were without real guarantee even within +the extremely small limits in which they nominally existed. Under the +constitution of the Republic the sphere of individual liberty is large +and constitutionally protected against the government. + +_Finance._--There has been a great change in the budget of Cuba since +the advent of the Republic. In 1891-1896 the average annual income was +$20,738,930, the annual average expenditure $25,967,139. More than half +of the revenue was derived from customs duties (two-thirds of the total +being collected at Havana). Of the expenditure more than ten million +dollars annually went for the public debt, 5.5 to 6 millions for the +army and navy, as much more for civil administration (including more +than two millions for purely Peninsular services with which the colony +was burdened); and on an average probably one million more went for +sinecures. Every Cuban paid about twice as heavy taxes as a Spaniard of +the Peninsula. Very little was spent on sanitation, roads, other public +works and education. The revenue receipts under the Republic have +increased especially over those of the old regime in the item of customs +duties; and the expenditure is very differently distributed. Lotteries +which were an important source of revenue under Spain were abolished +under the Republic. The debt resting on the colony in 1895 (a large part +of it as a result of the war of 1868-1878, the entire cost of which was +laid upon the island, but a part as the result of Spain's war adventures +in Mexico and San Domingo, home loans, &c.) was officially stated at +$168,500,000. The attainment of independence freed the island from this +debt, and from enormous contemplated additions to cover the expense +incurred by Spain during the last insurrection. The debt of the Republic +in April 1908 was $48,146,585, including twenty-seven millions which +were assumed in 1902 for the payment of the army of independence, four +for agriculture, and four for the payment of revolutionary debts, and +$2,196,585, representing obligations assumed by the revolution's +representative in the United States during the War of Independence. +United States and British investments, always important in the +agriculture and manufactures of the island, greatly increased following +1898, and by 1908 those of each nation were supposed to exceed +considerably $100,000,000. + +_Archaeology._--Archaeological study in Cuba has been limited, and has +not produced results of great importance. Almost nothing is actually +known of prehistoric Cuba; and a few skulls and implements are the only +basis existing for conjecture. Very little also is known as to the +natives who inhabited the island at the time of the discovery. They were +a tall race of copper hue; fairly intelligent, mild in temperament, who +lived in poor huts and practised a limited and primitive agriculture. +How numerous they were when the Spaniards first came among them cannot +be said; undoubtedly tradition has greatly exaggerated their number. +They are supposed to have been practically extinct by 1550. Even in the +19th century reports were spread of communities in which Indian blood +was supposedly still plainly dominant; but the conclusion of the +competent scientists who have investigated such rumours has been that at +least absolutely nothing of the language and traditions of the +aborigines has survived. + +_History._--Cuba was discovered by Columbus in the course of his first +voyage, on the 27th of October 1492. He died believing Cuba was part of +a continent. In 1508 Sebastian de Ocampo circumnavigated it. In 1511 +Diego Velazquez began the conquest of the island. Baracoa (the landing +point), Bayamo, Santiago de Cuba, Puerto Principe, Sancti Spiritus, +Trinidad and the original Havana were all founded by 1515. Velazquez's +reputation and legends of wealth drew many immigrants to the island. +From Cuba went the expeditions that discovered Yucatan (1517), and +explored the shores of Mexico, Hernando Cortes's expedition for the +invasion of Mexico, and de Soto's for the exploration of Florida. The +last two had a pernicious effect on Cuba, draining it of horses, money +and of men. At least as early as 1523 the African slave trade was begun. +In 1544 the Indians, so far as they had not succumbed to the labour of +the mines and fields to which they were put by the Spaniards, were +proclaimed emancipated. The administration in the 16th century was loose +and violent. The local authorities were divided among themselves by +bitter feuds--the ecclesiastical against the civil, the _ayuntamiento_ +against the governors, the administrative officers among themselves; +brigandage, mutinies and intestinal struggles disturbed the peace. As a +result of the transfer of Jamaica to England, the population of Cuba was +greatly augmented by Jamaican immigrants to about 30,000 in the middle +of the 17th century. + +The activity of English and French pirates began in the 16th century, +and reached its climax in the middle of the 17th century. So early also +began dissatisfaction with the economic regulations of the colonial +system, even grave resistance to their enforcement; and illicit trade +with privateers and foreign colonies had begun long before, and in the +17th and 18th centuries was the basis of the island's wealth. In 1762 +Havana was captured after a long resistance by a British force under +Admiral Sir George Pocock and the earl of Albemarle, with heavy loss to +the besiegers. It was returned to Spain the next year in exchange for +the Floridas. From this date begins the modern history of the island. +The British opened the port to commerce and the slave trade and revealed +its possibilities. The government of Spain, beginning in 1764, made +notable breaches in the old monopolistic system of colonial trade +throughout America; and Cuba received special privileges, also, that +were a basis for real prosperity. Spain paid increasing attention to the +island, and in harmony with the policy of the Laws of the Indies many +decrees intended to stimulate agriculture and commerce were issued by +the crown, first in the form of monopolies, then with increased freedom +and with bounties. Various colonial products and the slave trade were +favoured in this way. After the cession of the Spanish portion of San +Domingo to France hundreds of Spanish families emigrated to Cuba, and +many thousand more immigrants, mainly French, followed them from the +entire island during the revolution of the blacks. Most of them settled +in Oriente province, where their names and blood are still apparent, and +with their cafetales and sugar plantations converted that region from +neglect and poverty to high prosperity. + +Under a succession of liberal governors (especially Luis de las Casas, +1790-1796, and the marques de Someruelos, 1799-1813), at the end of the +18th century and the first part of the 19th, when the wars in Europe cut +off Spain almost entirely from the colony, Cuba was practically +independent. Trade was comparatively free, and worked a revolution in +culture and material conditions. General Las Casas, in particular, left +behind him in Cuba an undying memory of good efforts. Free commerce with +foreigners--a fact after 1809--was definitely legalized in 1818 +(confirmed in 1824). The state tobacco monopoly was abolished in 1817. +The reported populations by the (untrustworthy) censuses of 1774, 1792 +and 1817 were 161,670, 273,301 and 553,033. Something of political +freedom was enjoyed during the two terms of Spanish constitutional +government under the constitution of 1812. The sharp division between +creoles and peninsulars (i.e. between those born in Cuba and those born +in Spain), the question of annexation to the United States or possibly +to some other power, the plotting for independence, all go back to the +early years of the century. + +Partly because of political and social divisions thus revealed, +conspiracies being rife in the decade 1820-1830, and partly as +preparation for the defence against Mexico and Colombia, who throughout +these same years were threatening the island with invasion, the +captains-general, in 1825, received the powers above referred to; which +became, as time passed, monstrously in disaccord with the general +tendencies of colonial government and with increasing liberties in +Spain, but continued to be the spiritual basis of Spanish rule in the +island. Among the governors of the 19th century Miguel Tacon, governor +in 1834-1839, a forceful and high-handed soldier, deserves mention, +especially in the annals of Havana; he ruled as a tyrant, made many +reforms as regarded law and order, and left Havana, in particular, full +of municipal improvements. The good he did was limited to the spheres of +public works and police; in other respects his rule was a pernicious +influence for Cuba. Politically his rule was marked by the proclamation +at Santiago in 1836, without his consent, of the Spanish constitution of +1834; he repressed the movement, and in 1837 the deputies of Cuba to the +Cortes of Spain (to which they were admitted in the two earlier +constitutional periods) were excluded from that body, and it was +declared in the national constitution that Cuba (and Porto Rico) should +be governed by "special laws." The inapplicability of many laws passed +for the Peninsula--all of which under a constitutional system would +apply to Cuba as to any other province, unless that system be +modified--was indeed notorious; and Cuban opinion had repeatedly, +through official bodies, protested against laws thus imposed that worked +injustice, and had pleaded for special consideration of colonial +conditions. The promise of "special laws" based upon such consideration +was therefore not, in itself, unjust, nor unwelcome. But as the colony +had no voice in the Cortes, while the "special laws" were never passed +(Cuba expected special fundamental laws, reforming her government, and +the government regarded the old Laws of the Indies as satisfying the +obligation of the constitution) the arbitrary rule of the +captains-general remained quite supreme, under the will of the crown, +and colonial discontent became stronger and stronger. The rule of +Leopoldo O'Donnell was marked in 1844 by a cruel and bloody persecution +of negroes for a supposed plot of servile war; O'Donnell's actions being +partly due to the inquietude that had prevailed for some years over the +supposed machinations of English abolitionists and even of English +official residents in the island, and also over the mutual jealousies +and supposed annexation ambitions of Great Britain and the United +States. + +A Cuban international question had arisen before 1820. Spain, the United +States, England, France, Colombia and Mexico were all involved in it, +the first four continually. In the eighteen-fifties a strong pro-slavery +interest in the United States advocated the acquisition of the island. +One feature of this was the "Ostend Manifesto" (see Buchanan, James), in +which the ministers of the United States at London, Paris and Madrid +declared that if Spain refused a money offer for the colony the United +States should seize it. Their government gave this document publicity. +The Cuban policy of Presidents Pierce and Buchanan (during 1853-1861) +was vainly directed to acquiring the island. From 1849 to 1851 there +were three abortive filibustering expeditions from the United States, +two being under a Spanish general, Narciso Lopez (1798-1851). The +domestic problem, the problem of discontent in the island, had become +acute by 1850, and from this time on to 1868 the years were full of +conflict between liberal and reactionary sentiment in the colony, +centreing about the asserted connivance of the captains-general in the +illegal slave trade (declared illegal after 1820 by the treaties of 1817 +and 1835 between Great Britain and Spain), the notorious immorality and +prodigal wastefulness of the government, and the selfish exploitation of +the colony by Spaniards and the Spanish government. From early in the +19th century there had always been separatists, reformists and +repressionists in the island, but they were individuals rather than +groups. The last were peninsulars, the others mainly creoles, and among +the wealthy classes of the latter the separatists gradually gained +increasing support. + +An ineffective and extremely corrupt administration, a grave economic +condition, new and heavy taxes, military repression, recurring heavy +deficits in the budget, adding to a debt (about $150,000,000 in 1868) +already very large and burdensome, and the complete fiasco of the +_junta_ of inquiry of Cuban and Porto Rican representatives which met in +Madrid in 1866-1867--all were important influences favouring the +outbreak of the Ten Years' War. Among those who waged the war were men +who fought to compel reforms, others who fought for annexation to the +United States, others who fought for independence. The reformists +demanded, besides the correction of the above evils, action against +slavery, assimilation of rights between peninsulars and creoles and the +practical recognition of equality, e.g. in the matter of office-holding, +a grievance centuries old in Cuba as in other Spanish colonies, and +guarantees of personal liberties. The separatists, headed by Carlos +Manuel de Cespedes (1819-1874), a wealthy planter who proclaimed the +revolution at Yara on the 10th of October, demanded the same reforms, +including gradual emancipation of the slaves with indemnity to owners, +and the grant of free and universal suffrage. War was confined +throughout the ten years almost wholly to the E. provinces. The policy +of successive captains-general was alternately uncompromisingly +repressive and conciliatory. The Spanish volunteers committed horrible +excesses in Havana and other places; the rebels also burned and killed +indiscriminatingly, and the war became increasingly cruel and +sanguinary. Intervention by the United States seemed probable, but did +not come, and after alternations in the fortunes of war, Martinez Campos +in January 1878 secured the acceptance by the rebels of the convention +(pacto) of Zanjon, which promised amnesty for the war, liberty to slaves +in the rebel ranks, the abolition of slavery, reforms in government, and +colonial autonomy. A small rising after peace (the "Little War" of +1879-1880) was easily repressed. Gradual abolition of slavery was +declared by a law of the 13th of February 1880; definitive abolition in +1886; and in 1893 the equal civil status of blacks and whites in all +respects was proclaimed by General Calleja. There is no more evidence to +warrant the wholly erroneous statement sometimes made that emancipation +was an economic set-back to Cuba than could be gathered to support a +similar statement regarding the United States. Coolie importation from +China had been stopped in 1871. + +As for autonomy and political reforms it has already been remarked that +the change from the old regime was only superficial. The Spanish +constitution of 1876 was proclaimed in Cuba in 1881. In 1878-1895 +political parties had a complex development. The Liberal party was of +growing radicalism, the Union Constitutional party of growing +conservatism; and after 1893 a Reformist party was launched that drew +the compromisers and the waverers. The demands of the Liberals were as +in 1868; those for personal and property rights were much more +definitely stated, and among explicit reforms demanded were the +separation of civil and military power, general recognition of +administrative responsibility under a colonial autonomous constitutional +regime; also among economic matters, customs reforms and reciprocity +with the United States were demanded. As for the representation accorded +Cuba in the Spanish Cortes, as a rule about a quarter of her deputies +were Cuban-born, and the choice of only a few autonomists was allowed by +those who controlled the elections. Reciprocity with the United States +was in force from 1891 to 1894 and was extremely beneficial to Cuba. Its +cessation greatly increased disaffection. + +Discontent grew, and another war was prepared for. On the 23rd of +February 1895 General Calleja suspended the constitutional guarantees. +The leading chiefs of the Ten Years' War took the field again--Maximo +Gomez, Antonio Maceo, Jose Marti, Calixto Garcia and others. Unlike that +war, this was carried to the western provinces, and indeed was fiercest +there. Among the military means adopted by the Spaniards to isolate +their foe were "trochas" (i.e. entrenchments, barbwire fences, and lines +of block-houses) across the narrow parts of the island, and +"reconcentracion" of non-combatants in camps guarded by the Spanish +forces. The latter measure produced extreme suffering and much +starvation (as the reconcentrados were largely thrown upon the charity +of the beggared communities in which they were huddled). In October 1897 +the Spanish premier, P. M. Sagasta, announced the policy of autonomy, +and the new dispensation was proclaimed in Cuba in December. But again +all final authority was reserved to the captain-general. The system was +never to have a practical trial, although a full government was quickly +organized under it. The American people had sent food to the +reconcentrados; President McKinley, while opposing recognition of the +rebels, affirmed the possibility of intervention; Spain resented this +attitude; and finally, in February 1898, the United States battleship +"Maine" was blown up--by whom will probably never be known--in the +harbour of Havana. + +On the 20th of April the United States demanded the withdrawal of +Spanish troops from the island. War followed immediately. A fine Spanish +squadron seeking to escape from Santiago harbour was utterly destroyed +by the American blockading force on the 3rd of July; Santiago was +invested by land forces, and on the 15th of July the city surrendered. +Other operations in Cuba were slight. By the treaty of Paris, signed on +the 10th of December, Spain "relinquished" the island to the United +States in trust for its inhabitants; the temporary character of American +occupation being recognized throughout the treaty, in accord with the +terms of the American declaration of war, in which the United States +disclaimed any intention to control the island except for its +pacification, and expressed the determination to leave the island +thereupon to the control of its people. Spanish authority ceased on the +1st of January 1899, and was followed by American "military" rule +(January 1, 1899-May 20, 1902). During these three years the great +majority of offices were filled by Cubans, and the government was made +as different as possible from the military control to which the colony +had been accustomed. Very much was done for public works, sanitation, +the reform of administration, civil service and education. Most notable +of all, yellow fever was eradicated where it had been endemic for +centuries. A constitutional convention sat at Havana from the 5th of +November 1900 to the 21st of February 1901. The provisions of the +document thus formed have already been referred to. In the determination +of the relations that should subsist between the new republic and the +United States certain definite conditions known as the Platt Amendment +were finally imposed by the United States, and accepted by Cuba (12th of +June 1901) as a part of her constitution. By these Cuba was bound not to +incur debts her current revenues will not bear; to continue the sanitary +administration undertaken by the military government of intervention; to +lease naval stations (since located at Bahia Honda and Guantanamo) to +the United States; and finally, the right of the United States to +intervene, if necessary, in the affairs of the island was explicitly +affirmed in the provision, "That the government of Cuba consents that +the United States may exercise the right to intervene for the protection +of Cuban independence, the maintenance of a government adequate for the +protection of life, property and individual liberty, and for discharging +the obligations with respect to Cuba imposed by the treaty of Paris on +the United States, now to be assumed and undertaken by the government of +Cuba." The status thus created is very exceptional in the history of +international relations. The status of the Isle of Pines was left an +open question by the treaty of Paris, but a decision of the Supreme +Court of the United States has declared it (in a question of customs +duties) to be a part of Cuba, and though a treaty to the same end did +not secure ratification (1908) by the United States Senate, repeated +efforts by American residents thereon to secure annexation to the United +States were ignored by the United States government. + +The first Cuban congress met on the 5th of May 1902, prepared to take +over the government from the American military authorities, which it did +on the 20th of May. Tomas Estrada Palma (1835-1908) became the first +president of the Republic. In material prosperity the progress of the +island from 1902 to 1906 was very great; but in its politics, various +social and economic elements, and political habits and examples of +Spanish provenience that ill befit a democracy, led once more to +revolution. Congress neglected to pass certain laws which were required +by the constitution, and which, as regards municipal autonomy, +independence of the judiciary, and congressional representation of +minority parties, were intended to make impossible the abuses of +centralized government that had characterized Spanish administration. +Political parties were forming without very evident basis for +differences outside questions of political patronage and the good or ill +use of power; and, in the absence of the laws just mentioned, the +Moderates, being in power, used every instrument of government to +strengthen their hold on office. The preliminaries of the elections of +December 1905 and March 1906 being marked by frauds and injustice, the +Liberals deserted the polls at those elections, and instead of appealing +to judicial tribunals controlled by the Moderates, issued a manifesto of +revolution on the 28th of July 1906.[3] This insurrection rapidly +assumed large proportions. The government was weak and lacked moral +support in the whole island. After repeated petitions from President +Palma for intervention by the United States, commissioners (William H. +Taft, Secretary of War, and Robert Bacon, Acting Secretary of State) +were sent from Washington to act as peace mediators. + +All possible efforts to secure a compromise that would preserve the +Republic failed. The president resigned (on the 28th of September), +Congress dispersed without choosing a successor, and as an alternative +to anarchy the United States was compelled to proclaim on the 29th of +September 1906 a provisional government,--to last "long enough to +restore order and peace and public confidence," and hold new elections. +The insurrectionists promptly disbanded. Government was maintained under +the Cuban flag,--the diplomatic and consular relations with even the +United States remaining in outward forms unchanged; and the regular +forms of the constitution were scrupulously maintained so far as +possible. No use was made of American military force save as a passive +background to the government. The government of intervention at first +directed its main effort simply to holding the country together, without +undertaking much that could divide public opinion or seem of unpalatably +foreign impulse; and later to the establishment of a few fundamental +laws which, when intervention ceased, should give greater simplicity, +strength and stability to a new native government. These laws strictly +defined the powers of the president; more clearly separated the +executive departments, so as to lessen friction and jealousies; reformed +the courts; reformed administrative routine; and increased the strength +of the provinces at the expense of the municipalities. On the 28th of +January 1909 the American administration ceased, and the Republic was a +second time inaugurated, with General Jose Miguel Gomez (b. 1856), the +leader of the Miguelista faction of the Liberal party, as president, and +Alfredo Zayas, the leader of the Zayista faction of the same party, as +vice-president. The last American troops were withdrawn from the island +on the 1st of April 1909. + + AUTHORITIES.--General Description.--There is no trustworthy recent + description. The best books are E. Pechardo, _Geografia de la isla de + Cuba_ (4 tom., Havana, 1854); M. Rodriguez-Ferrer, _Naturaleza y + civilizacion de ... Cuba_, vol. i. (Madrid, 1876). See also _United + States Geological Survey, Bulletin 192_ (1902), H. Gannett, "A + Gazetteer of Cuba." Of general descriptions in English, in addition to + travels cited below, may be cited R. T. Hill, _Cuba and Porto Rico + with the other West Indies_ (New York, 1898). + + Fauna and Flora.--A. H. R. Grisebach, _Catalogus plantarum Cubensium_ + (Leipzig, 1866), and F. A. Sauvalle, _Flora Cubana: revisio catalogi + Grisebachiani_ (Havana, 1868); and _Flora Cubana: enumeratio nova + plantarum Cubensium_ (Havana, 1873); F. Poey et al., _Repertorio + fisico-natural de la isla de Cuba_ (2 vols., Havana, 1865-1868), and + F. Poey, _Memorias sobre la historia natural de ... Cuba_ (3 tom., + Havana, 1851-1860); Ramon de la Sagra, with many collaborators, + _Historia fisica, politica y natural de ... Cuba_ (Paris, 1842-1851, + 12 vols.; issued also in French; vols. 3-12 being the "Historia + Natural"); _Anales_ of the Academia de Ciencias (Havana, 1863- , + annual); M. Gomez de la Maza, _Flora Habanera_ (Havana, 1897); S. A. + de Morales, _Flora arboricola de Cuba aplicada_ (Havana, 1887, only + part published); D. H. Segui, _Ojeado sobre la flora medica y toxica + de Cuba_ (Havana, 1900); J. Gundlach, _Contribucion a la entomologia + Cubana_ (Havana, 1881); J. M. Fernandez y Jimenez, _Tratado de la + arboricultura Cubana_ (Havana, 1867). + + Geology and Minerals.--M. F. de Castro, "Pruebas paleontologicas de + que la isla de Cuba ha estado unida al continento americano y breve + idea de su constitucion geologica," _Bol. Com. Mapa Geol. de Esp._ + vol. viii. (1881), pp. 357-372; M. F. de Castro and P. Salterain y + Legarra, "Croquis geologico de la isla de Cuba," ibid. vol. viii. pl. + vi. (published with vol. xi., 1884). Many articles in _Anales_ of the + Academy; also, R. T. Hill in _Harvard College Museum of Comparative + Zoology, Bulletin_, vol. 16, pp. 243-288 (1895); _United States + Geological Survey_, 22nd Annual Report, 1901, C. W. Hayes _et al._, + "Geological Reconnaissance of Cuba"; _Civil Report of General Leonard + Wood_, governor of Cuba (1902), vol. v., H. C. Brown, "Report on + Mineral Resources of Cuba." + + Climate.--See the _Boletin Oficial de la Secretaria de Agricultura_, + and publications of the observatory of Havana. Sanitation.--For + conditions 1899-1902, see _Civil Reports_ of American military + governors. For conditions since 1902 consult the _Informe Mensual_ + (1903- ) of the Junta Superior de Sanidad. + + Agriculture.--Consult the _Boletin_ above mentioned, publications of + the Estacion Central Agronomica, and current statistical serial + reports of the treasury department (Hacienda) on natural resources, + live-stock interests, the sugar industry (annual), &c. + + Industries, Commerce, Communications.--See the works of Sagra and + Pezuela. For conditions about 1899 consult R. P. Porter (Special + Commissioner of the United States government), _Industrial Cuba_ (New + York, 1899); W. J. Clark, _Commercial Cuba_ (New York, 1898); reports + of foreign consular agents in Cuba; and the statistical annuals of the + Hacienda on foreign commerce and railways. + + Population.--The early censuses were extremely unreliable. + Illuminating discussions of them can be found in Humboldt's _Essay_, + Saco's _Papeles_ and Pezuela's _Diccionario_. See _United States + Department of War, Report on the Census of Cuba 1899_ (Washington, + 1899); _U.S. Bureau of the Census, Cuba: Population, History and + Resources, 1907_ (1909). + + Education.--See _Civil Reports_ of the American military government, + 1899-1902; United States commissioner of education, _Report, + 1897-1898_; current reports in _Informe del superintendente de + escuelas de Cuba ..._ (Havana, 1903- ). On Letters and Culture.--E. + Pechardo y Tapia, _Diccionario ... de voces Cubanas_ (Havana, 1836, + 4th ed., 1875; all editions with many errors); Antonio Bachiller y + Morales, _Apuntes para la historia de las letras y de la instruccion + publica de Cuba_ (3 tom., Havana, 1859-1861); J. M. Mestre, _De la + filosofia en la Habana_ (Havana, 1862); A. Mitjans, _Estudio sobre el + movimiento cientifico y literario de Cuba_ (Havana, 1890); biographies + of Varela and Luz Caballero by Rodriguez (see below); files of _La + Revista de Cuba_ (16 vols., Havana, 1877-1884) and _La Revista Cubana_ + (21 vols., Havana, 1885-1895). The literature of TRAVEL is rich. It + suffices to mention _Letters from the Havannah_, by the English consul + (London, 1821); E. M. Masse, _L'Ile de Cuba_ (Paris, 1825); D. + Turnbull, _Travels in the West_ (London, 1840), and R. R. Madden, _The + Island of Cuba_ (London, 1853)--two very important books regarding + slavery; J. B. Rosemond de Beauvallon, _L'Ile de Cuba_ (Paris, 1844); + J. G. Taylor, _The United States and Cuba_ (London, 1851); F. Bremer, + _The Homes of the New World_ (2 vols., New York, 1853); M. M. Ballou, + _History of Cuba, or Notes of a Traveller_ (Boston, 1854); R. H. Dana, + _To Cuba and Back_ (Boston, 1859); J. von Sivers, _Die Perle der + Antillen_ (Leipzig, 1861); A. C. N. Gallenga, _The Pearl of the + Antilles_ (London, 1873); S. Hazard, _Cuba with Pen and Pencil_ + (Hartford, Conn., 1873); H. Piron, _L'Ile de Cuba_ (Paris, 1876). Of + later books, F. Matthews, _The New-Born Cuba_ (New York, 1899); R. + Davey, _Cuba Past and Present_ (London, 1898). Among the writers who + have left short impressions are A. Granier de Cassagnac (1844), J. J. + A. Ampere (1855), A. Trollope (1860), J. A. Froude (1888). + + Administration.--Consult the literature of history and colonial reform + given below. Also: Leandro Garcia y Gragitena, _Guia del empleado de + hacienda_ (Havana, 1860), with very valuable historical data; Carlos + de Sedano y Cruzat, _Cuba desde 1850 a 1873_. _Coleccion de informes, + memorias, proyectos y antecedentes sobre el gobierno de la isla de + Cuba_ (Madrid, 1875); Vicente Vasquez Queipo, _Informe fiscal sobre + fomento de la poblacion blanca_ (Madrid, 1845); _Informacion sobre + reformas en Cuba y Puerto Rico celebrada en Madrid en 1866 y 67 por + los representantes de ambas islas_ (2 tom., New York, 1867; 2nd ed., + New York, 1877); and the _Diccionario_ of Pezuela. These, with the + works of Saco, Sagra, Arango and Alexander von Humboldt's work, _Essai + politique sur l'ile de Cuba_ (2 vols., Paris 1826; Spanish editions, 1 + vol., Paris, 1827 and 1840; English translation by J. S. Thrasher, + with interpolations, New York, 1856), are indispensable. For + conditions at the end of the 18th century, Fran. de Arango y Parreno, + _Obras_ (2 tom., Havana, 1888). For later conditions, E. Valdes + Dominguez, _Los Antiguos Diputados de Cuba_ (Havana, 1879); B. Huber, + _Apercu statistique de l'ile de Cuba_ (Paris, 1826); Humboldt; Sagra, + vols. 1-2 of the book cited above, being the _Historia fisica y + politica_, and also the earlier work on which they are based, + _Historia economica-politica y estadistica de ... Cuba_ (Havana, + 1831); treatises on administrative law in Cuba by J. M. Morilla + (Havana, 1847; 2nd ed., 1865, 2 vols.) and A. Govin (3 vols., Havana, + 1882-1883); A. S. Rowan and M. M. Ramsay, _The Island of Cuba_ (New + York, 1896); _Coleccion de reales ordenes, decretos y disposiciones_ + (Havana, serial, 1857-1898); _Spanish Rule in Cuba_. _Laws Governing + the Island. Reviews Published by the Colonial Office in Madrid ..._ + (New York, for the Spanish legation, 1896); and compilations of + Spanish colonial laws listed under article INDIES, LAWS OF THE. On the + new Republican regime: _Gaceta Oficial_ (Havana, 1903- ); reports of + departments of government; M. Romero Palafox, _Agenda de la republica + de Cuba_ (Havana, 1905). See also the _Civil Reports_ of the United + States military governors, J. R. Brooke (2 vols., 1899; Havana and + Washington, 1900), L. Wood (33 vols., 1900-1902; Washington, + 1901-1902). + + History.--The works (see above) of Sagra, Humboldt and Arango are + indispensable; also those of Francisco Calcagno, _Diccionario + biografico Cubano_ (ostensibly, New York, 1878); Vidal Morales y + Morales, _Iniciadores y primeros martires de la revolucion Cubana_ + (Havana, 1901); Jose Ahumada y Centurion, _Memoria historica politica + de ... Cuba_ (Havana, 1874); Jacobo de la Pezuela, _Diccionario + geografico-estadistico-historico de ... Cuba_ (4 tom., Madrid, + 1863-1866); _Historia de ... Cuba_, (4 tom., Madrid, 1868-1878; + supplanting his _Ensayo historico de ... Cuba_, Madrid and New York, + 1842); and Jose Antonio Saco, _Obras_ (2 vols., New York, 1853), + _Papeles_ (3 tom., Paris, 1858-1859), and _Coleccion postuma de + Papeles_ (Havana, 1881). Also: Rodriguez Ferrer, _op. cit._ above, + vol. 2 (Madrid, 1888); P. G. Guiteras, _Historia de ... Cuba_ (2 + vols., New York, 1865-1866). Of great value is J. Zaragoza, _Las + Insurrecciones en Cuba_. _Apuntes para la historia politica_ (2 tom., + Madrid, 1872-1873); also J. I. Rodriguez, _Vida de ... Felix Varela_ + (New York, 1878), and _Vida de D. Jose de la Luz_ (New York, 1874; 2nd + ed., 1879). On early history see _Coleccion de documentos ineditos + relativos al descubrimiento ... de ultramar_ (series 2, vols. 1, 4, 6, + Madrid, 1885-1890). On archaeology, N. Fort y Roldan, _Cuba indigena_ + (Madrid, 1881); M. Rodriguez Ferrer (see above); and especially A. + Bachiller y Morales, _Cuba primitiva_ (Havana, 1883). For the history + of the Cuban international problem consult Jose Ignacio Rodriguez, + _Idea de la anexion de la isla de Cuba a los Estados Unidos de + America_ (Havana, 1900), and J. M. Callahan, Cuba and International + Relations (Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 1898), which + supplement each other. On the domestic reform problem there is an + enormous literature, from which may be selected (see general histories + above and works cited under S Administration of this bibliography): M. + Torrente, _Bosquejo economico-politico_ (2 tom., Madrid-Havana, + 1852-1853); D. A. Galiano, _Cuba en 1858_ (Madrid, 1859); Jose de la + Concha, twice Captain-General of Cuba, _Memorias sobre el estado + politico, gobierno y administracion de ... Cuba_ (Madrid, 1853); A. + Lopez de Letona, _Isla de Cuba, reflexiones_ (Madrid, 1856); F. A. + Conte, _Aspiraciones del partido liberal de Cuba_ (Havana, 1892); P. + Valiente, _Reformes dans les iles de Cuba et de Porto Rico_ (Paris, + 1869); C. de Sedano, _Cuba: Estudios politicos_ (Madrid, 1872); H. H. + S. Aimes, _History of Slavery in Cuba, 1511-1868_ (New York, 1907); F. + Armas y Cespedes, _De la esclavitud en Cuba_ (Madrid, 1866), and + _Regimen politico de las Antillas Espanolas_ (Palma, 1882); R. + Cabrera, _Cuba y sus Jueces_ (Havana, 1887; 9th ed., Philadelphia, + 1895; 8th ed., in English, _Cuba and the Cubans_, Philadelphia, 1896); + P. de Alzola y Minondo, _El Problema Cubano_ (Bilbao, 1898); various + works by R. M. de Labra, including _La Cuestion social en las Antillas + Espanolas_ (Madrid, 1874), _Sistemas coloniales_ (Madrid, 1874), &c.; + R. Montoro, _Discursos ... 1878-1893_ (Philadelphia, 1894); Labra _et + al._, _El Problema colonial contemporanea_ (2 vols., Madrid, 1894); + articles by Em. Castelar _et al._, in Spanish reviews (1895-1898). On + the period since 1899 the best two books in English are C. M. Pepper, + _To-morrow in Cuba_ (New York, 1899); A. G. Robinson, _Cuba and the + Intervention_ (New York, 1905). (F. S. P.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Other countries taking only 27,462 long tons out of a total of + 5,719,777 in the seven fiscal years 1899-1900 to 1905-1906. + + [2] In these same years the trade of the United States with Cuba and + Porto Rico was: importations from the islands, $59,221,444 annually; + exportations to the islands, $20,017,156. The corresponding figures + for Spain were $7,265,142 and $20,035,183; and for the United + Kingdom, $714,837 and $11,971,129, the trade with other countries + being of much less amount. + + [3] In the preliminary registration by Moderate officials a total + electorate was registered of 432,313,--about 30% of the supposed + population of the island. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 7, Slice 7, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 38622.txt or 38622.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/6/2/38622/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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