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diff --git a/38606-h/38606-h.htm b/38606-h/38606-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fafc6dd --- /dev/null +++ b/38606-h/38606-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,6833 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Poultry by Hugh Piper</title> +<style type="text/css"> +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} +h1, h2, h3, h4, h5 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; +} +p { + margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; +} +hr { + width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; +} +hr.tb { + width: 45%; +} +hr.chap { + width: 65% +} +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} +.tdl { + text-align: left; +} +.tdr { + text-align: right; +} +.tdc { + text-align: center; +} +div.c7 { + text-align: center +} +.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; +} +.center { + text-align: center; +} +.smcap { + font-variant: small-caps; +} +.caption { + font-weight: bold; +} +.figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; +} +.footnote { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + font-size: 0.9em; +} +.footnote .label { + position: absolute; + right: 84%; + text-align: right; +} +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: + none; +} +.transnote { + background-color: #E6E6FA; + color: black; + font-size:smaller; + padding:0.5em; + margin-bottom:5em; + font-family:sans-serif, serif; +} +</style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Poultry, by Hugh Piper + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Poultry + A Practical Guide to the Choice, Breeding, Rearing, and + Management of all Descriptions of Fowls, Turkeys, + Guinea-fowls, Ducks, and Geese, for Profit and Exhibition. + +Author: Hugh Piper + +Release Date: January 18, 2012 [EBook #38606] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POULTRY *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + + + + + +</pre> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/i_cover.jpg" width="600" height="844" alt="" /> </div> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/i_002.jpg" width="600" height="382" alt=""/> <span class="caption">White Dorking Cock. Coloured Dorkings. Duck-winged and Black-breasted Red Game.</span> </div> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p> +<h1>POULTRY</h1> +<h3>A</h3> +<h2>Practical Guide</h2> +<h5>TO THE</h5> +<h4>CHOICE, BREEDING, REARING, AND MANAGEMENT</h4> +<h5>OF ALL DESCRIPTIONS OF</h5> +<h2>FOWLS, TURKEYS, GUINEA-FOWLS,<br /> + DUCKS, AND GEESE,</h2> +<h5>FOR</h5> +<h4>PROFIT AND EXHIBITION.</h4> +<h4> </h4> +<h5>BY</h5> +<h3> <br /> + HUGH PIPER,</h3> +<h5>AUTHOR OF "PIGEONS: THEIR VARIETIES, MANAGEMENT, BREEDING,<br /> + AND DISEASES."</h5> +<h4>ILLUSTRATED WITH EIGHT COLOURED PLATES.</h4> +<h3>Fourth Edition.</h3> +<h3>LONDON:<br /> + GROOMBRIDGE & SONS.</h3> +<h5>MDCCCLXXVII.</h5> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p> +<h4> LONDON:<br /> + BARRETT, SONS AND CO., PRINTERS,<br /> + SEETHING LANE.</h4> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2> +<p>This work is intended as a practical guide to those + about to commence Poultry keeping, and to provide those + who already have experience on the subject with the most + trustworthy information compiled from the best authorities + of all ages, and the most recent improvements in Poultry + Breeding and Management. The Author believes that he + has presented his readers with a greater amount of valuable + information and practical directions on the various + points treated than will be found in most similar works. + The book is not the result of the Author's own experience + solely, and he acknowledges the assistance he has received + from other authorities. Among those whom he has consulted + he desires specially to acknowledge his obligations + to Mr. Tegetmeier, whose "Poultry Book" (published by + Messrs. Routledge & Sons, London) contains his especial + knowledge of the Diseases of Poultry; and to Mr. L. + Wright, whose excellent and practical Treatise, entitled + "The Practical Poultry Keeper" (published by Messrs. + Cassell, Petter & Galpin, London), cannot be too highly + commended.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> +<hr class="tb" /> +<h3> GENERAL MANAGEMENT.</h3> +<div class="c7"> + <table summary="contents" style="border-collapse: collapse" id="table1"> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td class="tdr"><span><small>PAGE</small></span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="c7"><b>CHAPTER I.—<span class="smcap">Introduction</span> </b></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="tdl">Neglect of Poultry-breeding—Profit of Poultry-keeping—Value + to the Farmer—Poultry Shows—Cottage Poultry.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="c7"><b>CHAPTER II.—<span class="smcap">The Fowl-House</span> </b></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="tdl">Size of the House—Brick and Wood—Cheap Houses—The Roof—Ventilation—Light—Warmth—The + Flooring—Perches—Movable + Frame—Roosts for Cochin-Chinas and Brahma-Pootras—Nests + for laying—Cleanliness—Fowls' Dung—Doors and Entrance-holes—Lime-washing—Fumigating—Raising + Chickens under Glass.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="c7"><b>CHAPTER III.—<span class="smcap">The Fowl-Yard</span> </b></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="tdl">Soil—Situation—Covered Run—Pulverised Earth for deodorising—Diet + for confined Fowls—Height of Wall, &c.—Preventing + Fowls from flying—The Dust-heap—Material for Shells—Gravel—The + Gizzard—The Grass Run.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="c7"><b>CHAPTER IV.—<span class="smcap">Food</span> </b></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="tdl">Table of relative constituents and qualities of Food—Barley—Wheat—Oats—Meal—Refuse + Corn—Boiling Grain—Indian Corn, + or Maize—Buckwheat—Peas, Beans and Tares—Rice—Hempseed—Linseed—Potatoes—Roots—Soft + Food—Variety of Food—Quantity—Mode + of Feeding—Number of Meals—Grass and <span class="pagenum"> <a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span>Vegetables—Insects—Worms—Snails and Slugs—Animal Food—Water—Fountains.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="c7"><b>CHAPTER V.—<span class="smcap">Eggs</span> </b></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="tdl">Eggs all the Year round—Warmth essential to laying—Forcing + Eggs—Soft Shells—Shape and Colour of Eggs—The Air-bag—Preserving + Eggs—Keeping and Choosing Eggs for setting—Sex of + Eggs—Packing Setting-eggs for travelling.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="c7"><b>CHAPTER VI.—<span class="smcap">The Sitting Hen</span> </b></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="tdl">Evil of restraining a Hen from sitting—Checking the Desire—A + separate House and Run—Nests for sitting in—Damping Eggs—Filling + for Nests—Choosing their own Nests—Choosing a Hen + for sitting—Number and Age of Eggs—Food and Exercise—Absence + from the Nest—Examining the Eggs—Setting two Hens on + the same day—Time of Incubation—The "tapping" sound—Breaking + the Shell—Emerging from the Shell—Assisting the + Chicken—Artificial Mothers—Artificial Incubation.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="c7"><b>CHAPTER VII.—<span class="smcap">Rearing and Fattening Fowls</span> </b></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="tdl">The Chicken's first Food—Cooping the Brood—Basket and Wooden + Coops—Feeding Chickens—Age for Fattening—Barn-door Fattening—Fattening-Houses—Fattening-Coops—Food—"Cramming"—Capons + and Poulardes—Killing Poultry—Plucking and + packing Fowls—Preserving Feathers.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="c7"><b>CHAPTER VIII.—<span class="smcap">Stock, Breeding, and Crossing</span> </b></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="tdl">Well-bred Fowls—Choice of Breed—Signs of Age—Breeding in-and-in—Number + of Hens to one Cock—Choice of a Cock—To + prevent Cocks from fighting—Choice of a Hen—Improved Breeds—Origin + of Breeds—Crossing—Choice of Breeding Stock—Keeping + a Breed pure.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="c7"><b>CHAPTER IX.—<span class="smcap">Poultry Shows</span></b></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3" class="tdl">The first Show—The first Birmingham Show—Influence of Shows—Exhibition + Rules—Hatching for Summer and Winter Shows—Weight—Exhibition + Fowls sitting—Matching Fowls—Imparting + lustre to the Plumage—Washing Fowls—Hampers—Travelling—Treatment + on Return—Washing the Hampers and Linings—Exhibition Points—Technical Terms.</td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p> +<hr class="tb" /> +<h3> BREEDS.</h3> +<table summary="breeds" style="border-collapse: collapse" id="table2"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">X.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Cochin-Chinas, or Shanghaes</span></td> + <td class="tdr"> <a href="#CHAPTER_X">93</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XI.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Brahma-Pootras</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">101</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XII.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Malays</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">105</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XIII.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Game</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">108</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XIV.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Dorkings</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">112</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XV.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Spanish</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">115</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XVI.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Hamburgs</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">118</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XVII.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Polands</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">121</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XVIII.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Bantams</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">124</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XIX.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">French and Various</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">128</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XX.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Turkeys</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">132</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XXI.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Guinea-Fowls</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXI">139</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XXII.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Ducks</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">142</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XXIII.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Geese</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIII">147</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" > </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" >CHAPTER </td> + <td class="tdr">XXIV.—</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Diseases</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> <br /> +</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="LIST_OF_PLATES" id="LIST_OF_PLATES"></a>LIST OF PLATES.</h2> +<div class="c7"> + <table summary="ilos" style="border-collapse: collapse" + id="table3"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr"><span><small>PAGE</small></span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdl">PLATE I.—Facing the <a href="#Page_i">Title-page</a>.</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">White Dorking Cock—Coloured Dorkings—Duck-winged and + Black-breasted Red Game.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdl">PLATE II. </td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">White and Buff Cochin-China—Malay Cock—Light and Dark + Brahma-Pootras.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdl">PLATE III. </td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">Golden-pencilled and Silver-spangled Hamburgs—Black + Spanish.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdl">PLATE IV. </td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">White-crested Black Polish—Golden and Silver-spangled + Polish.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdl">PLATE V. </td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td rowspan="2" class="tdl">White and Black Bantams—Gold and Silver-laced or Sebright + Bantams—Game Bantams.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdl">PLATE VI. </td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">French: Houdans—La Flêche Cock—Crêve-Cœur Hen.</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdl">PLATE VII. </td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">Turkey—Guinea-Fowls.</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" class="tdl">PLATE VIII. </td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">Toulouse Goose—Rouen Ducks—Aylesbury Ducks.</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="PROFITABLE_AND_ORNAMENTAL" id="PROFITABLE_AND_ORNAMENTAL"></a>PROFITABLE AND ORNAMENTAL</h2> +<h1>POULTRY.</h1> +<hr class="chap" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</h2> +<h3>INTRODUCTION.</h3> +<p>Until of late years the breeding of poultry has been + almost generally neglected in Great Britain. Any kind of + mongrel fowl would do for a farmer's stock, although he + fully appreciated the importance of breeding in respect of his + cattle and pigs, and the value of improved seeds. Had he + thought at all upon the subject, it must have occurred to + him that poultry might be improved by breeding from + select specimens as much as any other kind of live stock. + The French produce a very much greater number of fowls + and far finer ones for market than we do. In France, + Bonington Mowbray observes, "poultry forms an important + part of the live stock of the farmer, and the poultry-yards + supply more animal food to the great mass of the + community than the butchers' shops"; while in Egypt, and + some other countries of the East, from time immemorial, + vast numbers of chickens have been hatched in ovens by + artificial heat to supply the demand for poultry; but in + Great Britain poultry-keeping has been generally neglected, + eggs are dear, and all kinds of poultry so great a luxury + that the lower classes and a large number of the middle + seldom, if ever, taste it, except perhaps once a year in the + form of a Christmas goose, while hundreds of thousands + cannot afford even this. It is computed that a + million of eggs are eaten daily in London and its suburbs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> alone; yet this vast number only gives one egg to every + three mouths. "It is a national waste," says Mr. Edwards, + "importing eggs by the hundreds of millions, and poultry + by tens of thousands, when we are feeding our cattle upon + corn, and grudging it to our poultry; although the return + made from the former, it is generally admitted, is not five + per cent. beyond the value of the corn consumed, whereas + an immense percentage can be realised by feeding poultry." + A writer in the <i>Times</i>, of February 1, 1853, states that, + while it will take five years to fatten an ox to the weight + of sixty stone, which will produce a profit of £30, the same + sum may be realised in five months by feeding an equal + weight of poultry for the table.</p> +<p>Although fowls are so commonly kept, the proportion to + the population is still very small, and the number of those + who rear and manage them profitably still smaller, chiefly + because most people keep them without system or order, + and have not given the slightest attention to the subject. + Nevertheless, it costs no more trouble and much less + expense to keep fowls successfully and profitably, for + neglected fowls are always falling sick, or getting into + mischief and causing annoyance, and often expense and + loss. "A man," says Mr. Edwards, "who expects a good + return of flesh and eggs from fowls insufficiently fed and + cared for, is like a miller expecting to get meal from a + neglected mill, to which he does not supply grain."</p> +<p>The antiquated idea that fowls on a farm did mischief to + the crops has been proved to be false; for if the grain is + sown as deeply as it should be, they cannot reach it by + scratching; and, besides, they greatly prefer worms and + insects. Mr. Mechi says, "commend me to poultry as + the farmer's best friend," and considers the value of fowls, + in destroying the vast number of worms, grubs, flies, beetles, + insects, larvæ, &c., which they devour, as incalculable; and + the same may be said as to their destruction of the seeds of + weeds. They also consume large quantities of kitchen and + table refuse, which is generally otherwise wasted, and often + allowed to decay and become a source of disease, or at + least of impurity.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p> +<p>The enormous prices paid at the poultry shows of 1852 + and 1853 for fancy fowls gave a new impulse to poultry-keeping; + and many persons who formerly thought the + management of poultry beneath their attention, now superintend + their yards. Mrs. Ferguson Blair, now the Hon. + Mrs. Arbuthnot, the authoress of the "Henwife," whose + experience may be judged by the fact that she gained in + four years upwards of 460 prizes in England and Scotland, + and personally superintended the management of forty + separate yards, in which above 1,000 chickens were hatched + annually, says:—</p> +<p>"I began to breed poultry for amusement only, then for + exhibition, and lastly, was glad to take the trouble to make + it pay, and do not like my poultry-yard less because it is + not a loss. It is impossible to imagine any occupation + more suited to a lady, living in the country, than that of + poultry rearing. If she has any superfluous affection to + bestow, let it be on her chicken-kind and it will be returned + cent. per cent. Are you a lover of nature? come with me + and view, with delighted gaze, her chosen dyes. Are you + a utilitarian? rejoice in such an increase of the people's + food. Are you a philanthropist? be grateful that yours + has been the privilege to afford a <i>possible</i> pleasure to the + poor man, to whom so many are <i>impossible</i>. Such we + often find fond of poultry—no mean judges of it, and frequently + successful in exhibition. A poor man's pleasure in + victory is, at least, as great as that of his richer brother. + Let him, then, have the field whereon to fight for it. Encourage + village poultry-shows, not only by your patronage, + but also by your presence. A taste for such may save + many from dissipation and much evil; no man can win + poultry honours and haunt the taproom too."</p> +<p>For those who desire to encourage a taste for poultry + keeping in young people, and their humbler neighbours, we + would recommend our smaller work on the subject as a + suitable present.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p> +<p>"It becomes," says Miss Harriet Martineau, "an interesting + wonder every year why the rural cottagers of the United + Kingdom do not rear fowls almost universally, seeing how + little the cost would be and how great the demand. We + import many millions of eggs annually. Why should we + import any? Wherever there is a cottage family living + on potatoes or better fare, and grass growing anywhere + near them, it would be worth while to nail up a little penthouse, + and make nests of clean straw, and go in for a + speculation in eggs and chickens. Seeds, worms, and + insects go a great way in feeding poultry in such places; + and then there are the small and refuse potatoes from the + heap, and the outside cabbage leaves, and the scraps of all + sorts. Very small purchases of broken rice (which is + extremely cheap), inferior grain, and mixed meal, would do + all else that is necessary. There would be probably larger + losses from vermin than in better guarded places; but these + could be well afforded as a mere deduction from considerable + gains. It is understood that the keeping of poultry is + largely on the increase in the country generally, and even + among cottagers; but the prevailing idea is of competition + as to races and specimens for the poultry-yard, rather than + of meeting the demand for eggs and fowls for the table."</p> +<p>With the exception of prizes for Dorkings, which are + chiefly bred for market, our poultry-shows have always + looked upon fowls as if they were merely ornamental birds, + and have framed their standards of excellence accordingly, + and not with any regard to the production of profitable + poultry, which is much to be regretted.</p> +<p>Martin Doyle, the cottage economist of Ireland, in his + 'Hints to Small Holders,' observes that "a few cocks and + hens, if they be prevented from scratching in the garden, + are a useful and appropriate stock about a cottage, the + warmth of which causes them to lay eggs in winter—no + trifling advantage to the children when milk is scarce. The + French, who are extremely fond of eggs, and contrive to + have them in great abundance, feed the fowls so well on + curds and buckwheat, and keep them so warm, that they + have plenty of eggs even in winter. Now, in our country<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> (Ireland), especially in a gentleman's fowl yard, there is not + an egg to be had in cold weather; but the warmth of the + poor man's cabin insures him an egg even in the most + ungenial season."</p> +<p>Such fowls obtain fresh air, fresh grass, and fresh ground + to scratch in, and prosper in spite of the most miserable, + puny, mongrel stock, deteriorating year after year from + breeding in and in, without the introduction of fresh blood + even of the same indifferent description. Many an honest + cottager might keep himself and family from the parish + by the aid of a small stock of poultry, if some kind + poultry-keeper would present him with two or three good + fowls to begin with, for the cottager has seldom capital + even for so small a purchase.</p> +<p>Considerable profit may be made by the sale of eggs for hatching and surplus + stock, if the breeds kept are good, and the stock known to be pure and vigorous. + The 'Henwife' + says: "You may reduce your expenses by selling + eggs for setting, at a remunerative price. No one should + be ashamed to own what he is not ashamed to do; therefore, + boldly announce your superfluous eggs for sale, at + such a price as you think the public will pay for them." + This is now done extensively by breeders of rank and + eminence, especially through the London <i>Field</i> and agricultural + papers. But, "beware of sending such eggs to + market. Every one would be set, and you might find + yourself beaten by your own stock, very likely in your own + local show, and at small cost to the exhibitor."</p> +<p>The great secret of success in keeping fowls profitably is to + hatch chiefly in March and April; encourage the pullets by + proper feeding to lay at the age of six months; and fatten + and dispose of them when about nineteen months old, just + before their first adult moult; and never to allow a cockerel + to exceed the age of fourteen weeks before it is fattened + and disposed of.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2> +<h3>THE FOWL-HOUSE.</h3> +<p>In this work we shall consider the accommodation and + requisites for keeping fowls successfully on a moderate + scale, and the reader must adapt them to his own premises, + circumstances, and requirements. Everywhere there must + be some alterations, omissions, or compromises. We shall + state the essentials for their proper accommodation, and + describe the mode of constructing houses, sheds, and + arranging runs, and the reader must then form his plan + according to his own wishes, resources, and the capabilities + of the place. The climate of Great Britain being so very + variable in itself, and differing in its temperature so much + in different parts, no one manner or material for building + the fowl-house can be recommended for all cases.</p> +<p>Plans for poultry establishments on large scales for the + hatching, rearing, and fattening of fowls, turkeys, ducks, + and geese, are given in our smaller work on Poultry, referred + to on <a href="#Page_3">page 3</a>.</p> +<p>The best aspects for the fowl-house are south and south-east, + and sloping ground is preferable to flat.</p> +<p>"It is only of late years," says Mr. Baily, "poultry-houses + have been much thought of. In large farmyards, + where there are cart-houses, calf-pens, pig-styes, cattle-sheds, + shelter under the eaves of barns, and numerous other + roosting-places, not omitting the trees in the immediate + vicinity, they are little required—fowls will generally do + better by choosing for themselves; and it is beyond a doubt + healthier for them to be spread about in this manner, than + to be confined to one place. But a love of order, on the one + hand, and a dread of thieves or foxes on the other, will + sometimes make it desirable to have a proper poultry-house."</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> +<p>Each family of fowls should, if possible, have a house + and run; and if they are kept as breeding stock, and the + breeds are to be preserved pure, this is essential. And + where many kinds are kept, the various houses must be + adapted to the peculiarities of the different breeds, in order + to do justice to them all, and to attain success in each.</p> +<p>The size of the house and the extent of the yard or run + should be proportioned to the number of fowls kept; but + it is better for the house to be too small than too large, + particularly in winter, for the mutual imparting of animal + heat. It is found by experience that when fowls are + crowded into a small space, their desire for laying continues + even in winter; and there is no fear of engendering + disease by crowding if the house is properly ventilated, + and thoroughly cleansed every day. Mr. Baily kept for + years a cock and four hens in a portable wooden house six + feet square, and six feet high in the centre, the sides being + somewhat shorter, and says such a house would hold six + hens as well as four. Ventilating holes were made near + the top. It had no floor, being placed upon the ground, + and could be moved at pleasure by means of two poles + placed through two staples fixed at the end of each side. + A few Cochin-Chinas may be kept where there is no other + convenience than an outhouse six feet square to serve for + their roosting, laying, and sitting, with a yard of twice that + size attached. Mr. Wright "once knew a young man + who kept fowls most profitably, with only a house of his + own construction, not more than three feet square, and a + run of the same width, under twelve feet long." The + French breeders keep their fowls in as small a space as + possible, in order to generate and preserve the warmth + that will induce them to lay; while the English breeders + allow more space for exercise, larger houses, and free circulation + of air. The French mode, is very likely the best + for the winter and the English for the summer, but the + two opposite methods may be made available by having + one or more extra houses and runs into which the fowls + can be distributed in the summer. A close, warm roosting-place + will cause the production of more eggs in winter,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> when they are scarcest and most valuable, while air and + exercise are necessary to rear superior fowls for the table; + and if they can have the run of a farmyard or good fields + in which to pick up grain or insects, their flesh will be far + superior in flavour to that of fowls kept in confinement, or + crammed in coops.</p> +<p>Almost any outbuilding, shed, or lean-to, may be easily + and cheaply converted into a good fowl-house by the exercise + of a little thought and ingenuity.</p> +<p>The best material to build a house with is brick, but the + cheapest to be durable is board, with the roof also of wood, + covered with patent felt. One objection to timber houses + is their being combustible, and easily ignited, and houses + had better be built of a single brick in thickness, unless + cheapness is a great object.</p> +<p>A lean-to fowl-house may be constructed for a very small + sum, with boards an inch thick, against the west or south + side of any wall. Whenever wood is employed it should + be tongued, which is a very cheap method of providing + against warping by heat, or admitting wind or rain; lying + flat against the uprights, it saves material and has an + external appearance far superior to any other method of + boarding. If the second coat of paint is rough cast over + with sand, it will greatly improve the appearance, and the + house will not be unsightly even in the ornamental part of + a gentleman's grounds.</p> +<p>A house may be built very cheaply by driving poles into + the ground at equal distances, and nailing weather-boarding + upon their outside. If it is to be square, one pole should + be placed at each corner, and two more will be required + for the door-posts. The house may be made with five, six, + or more sides, as many poles being used as there are sides, + and the door may occupy one side if the house be small + and the side narrow, otherwise two door-posts will be required. + If the boards are not tongued together, the chinks + between them must be well caulked by driving in string or + tow with a blunt chisel, for it is not only necessary to keep + out the rain but also to keep out the wind, which has great + influence on the health and laying of the fowls.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p> +<p>Where double boarding is employed for the sides, the + house may be made much warmer by filling up the space + with straw, or still better with marsh reeds, so durable for + thatching. This plan, unfortunately, affords a shelter for + rats, mice, and insects, and therefore, if adopted, it will be + highly advantageous to form the inside boarding in panels, + so as to be removable at pleasure for examination and + cleansing.</p> +<p>For the roof, tiles or slates alone are not sufficient, but, + if used, must have a boarding or ceiling under them; otherwise + all the heat generated by the fowls will escape through + the numerous interstices, and it will be next to impossible + to keep the house warm in winter. A corrugated roof of + galvanised iron may be used instead, but a ceiling also will + be absolutely necessary for the sake of warmth. A rough + ceiling of lath and plaster not only preserves the warmth + generated by the fowls and keeps out the cold, but has the + great advantage of being easily lime-washed, an operation + that should be performed at least four or five times a year. + Boards alone make a very good and cheap roof. They + may be laid either horizontally, one plank overlapping the + other, and the whole well tarred two or three times, and + once every autumn afterwards; or they may be laid perpendicularly + side by side, fitting closely, in which case they + should be well tarred, then covered with old sheeting, + waste calico, or thick brown paper tightly stretched over + it, and afterwards brushed over with hot tar, or a mixture + of tar boiled with a little lime, and applied while hot; + this, soaking through the calico, cements it to the roof, and + makes it waterproof. But board covered with patent felt, + and tarred once a year, is the best. The roof ought to + project considerably beyond the walls, in order to prevent + the rain from dripping down them.</p> +<p>Ventilation is most important, and the house should be + high, especially if there are many fowls, for by having it + lofty a current of air can pass through it far above the + level of the fowls, and purify the atmosphere without + causing a draught near them. They very much dislike a + draught, and will alter their positions to avoid it, and if<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> unable to do so, will seek another roosting-place. Ventilation + may be obtained by leaving out some bricks in the + wall or making holes in the boarding; and when there is a + shed at the side of the fowl-house, by boring a few holes + near the top of the wall next to the shed; all ventilators + should be considerably above the perches, in order to avoid + a draught near to the fowls; and should be entirely closed + at night in severe weather. The best method of ventilation + for a fowl-house of sufficient size and height, is by means + of an opening in the highest part of the roof, covered with + a lantern of laths or narrow boards, placed one over the + other in a slanting position, with a small space between + them like Venetian blinds.</p> +<p>Light is essential, not only for the health of the fowls, + but in order that the state of the house may be seen, and + the floor and perches may be well cleansed. It may be + admitted either through a common window, a pane or two + of thick glass placed in the sides, or glass tiles in the roof. + It also induces them to take shelter there in rough + weather.</p> +<p>Warmth is the most important point of all. Fowls that + roost in cold houses and exposed places require more food + and produce fewer eggs; and pullets which are usually + forward in laying will not easily be induced to do so in + severe weather if their house is not kept warm. It is a + great advantage when the house backs a fire-place or stable. + A gentleman told Mr. Baily that he "had been very successful + in raising early chickens in the north of Scotland, + and he attributed much of it to the following arrangements. + He had always from twenty to thirty oxen or other cattle + fattening in a long building; he made his poultry-house to + join this, and had ventilators and openings made in the + partition, so that the heat of the cattle-shed passed into + the fowl-house. Little good has resulted from the use of + stoves, or hot-water pipes, for poultry; but by skilfully + taking advantage of every circumstance like that above + mentioned, and by consulting aspect and position, many + valuable helps are obtained."</p> +<p>A house built of wood in the north of England and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> Scotland must be lined, unless artificially warmed. Felt + is the best material, as its strong smell of tar will keep + away most insects. Matting is frequently used, and will + make the house sufficiently warm, but it harbours vermin, + and therefore, if used, should be only slightly fastened to + the walls, so that it can be often taken down and well + beaten, and, if necessary, fumigated.</p> +<p>Various materials are recommended for the flooring. + Boards are warm, but they soon become foul. Beaten + earth, with loose dust scattered over it some inches deep, + is excellent for the feet of the birds, but is a harbour for + the minute vermin which are often so troublesome, and + even destructive, to domestic fowls. Mowbray recommends + a floor of "well-rammed chalk or earth, that its surface, + being smooth, may present no impediment to being swept + perfectly clean." Chalk laid on dry coal-ashes to absorb + the moisture is excellent. A mixture of cow-dung and + water, about the consistency of paint, put on the surface of + the floor, no thicker than paint, gives it a hard surface + which will bear sweeping down. It is used by the natives + of India, not only for the floors, but often for the walls of + their houses, and is supposed to be healthy in its application, + and to keep away vermin. Miss Watts says: "Dig + out the floor to about a foot deep, and fill in with burnt + clay, like that used extensively on railways, the strong + gravel which is called 'metal' in road-making, or any loose + dry material of the kind. Let this be well rammed down, + and then lay over it, with a bricklayer's trowel, a flooring + of a compost of cinder-ashes, gravel, quick-lime, and water. + This flooring is without the objections due to those which + are cold and damp, and those which imbibe foul moisture. + Stone is too cold for a flooring; beaten earth or wood + becomes foul when the place is inhabited by living animals; + and a flooring of bricks possesses both these bad qualities + united." Bricks are the worst of all materials; they retain + moisture, whether atmospheric or arising from insufficient + drainage; and thus the temperature is kept low, and disease + too often follows, especially rheumatic attacks of the + feet and legs. However, trodden earth makes a very good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> flooring, and it or other materials may easily be kept clean + by placing moveable boards beneath the perches to receive + the fowl-droppings. The floor should slope from every + direction towards the door, to facilitate its cleansing, and + to keep it dry.</p> +<p>Perches are generally placed too high, probably because + it was noticed that fowls in their natural state, or when at + large, usually roost upon high branches; but it should be + observed that, in descending from lofty branches, they have + a considerable distance to fly, and therefore alight on the + ground gently, while in a confined fowl-house the bird + flutters down almost perpendicularly, coming into contact + with the floor forcibly, by which the keel of the breast-bone + is often broken, and bumble-foot in Dorkings and corns + are caused.</p> +<p>Some writers do not object to lofty perches, provided + the fowls have a board with cross-pieces of wood fastened + on to it reaching from the ground to the perch; but this + does not obviate the evil, for they will only use it for + ascent, and not for descent. The air, too, at the upper + part of any dwelling-room, or house for animals, is much + more impure than nearer the floor, because the air that + has been breathed, and vapours from the body, are lighter + than pure air, and consequently ascend to the top. The + perches should therefore not be more than eighteen inches + from the ground, unless the breed is very small and light. + Perches are also generally made too small and round. + When they are too small in proportion to the size of the + birds, they are apt to cause the breast-bone of heavy fowls + to grow crooked, which is a great defect, and very unsightly + in a table-fowl. Those for heavy fowls should not + be less than three inches in diameter. Capital perches + may be formed of fir or larch poles, about three inches in + diameter, split into two, the round side being placed uppermost; + the birds' claws cling to it easily, and the bark is not + so hard as planed wood. The perches, if made of timber, + should be nearly square, with only the corners rounded off, + as the feet of fowls are not formed for clasping smooth + round poles. Those for chickens should not be thicker<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> than their claws can easily grasp, and neither too sharp + nor too round.</p> +<p>When more than one row of perches is required they + should be ranged obliquely—that is, one above and behind + the other; by which arrangement each perch forms a step + to the next higher one, and an equal convenience in descending, + and the birds do not void their dung over each + other. They should be placed two feet apart, and supported + on bars of wood fixed to the walls at each end; + and in order that they may be taken out to be cleaned, + they should not be nailed to the supporter, but securely + placed in niches cut in the bar, or by pieces of wood nailed + to it like the rowlocks of a boat. If the wall space at the + sides is required for laying-boxes, the perches must be + shorter than the house, and the oblique bars which support + them must be securely fastened to the back of the house, + and, if necessary, have an upright placed beneath the upper + end of each.</p> +<p>Some breeders prefer a moveable frame for roosting, + formed of two poles of the required length, joined at each + end by two narrow pieces; the frame being supported + upon four or more legs, according to its length and the + weight of the fowls. If necessary it should be strengthened + by rails—connecting the bottoms of the legs, and by pieces + crossing from each angle of the sides and ends. These + frames can conveniently be moved out of the house when + they require cleansing. Or it may be made of one pole + supported at each end by two legs spread out widely apart, + like two sides of an equilateral or equal-sided triangle. The + perch may be made more secure for heavy fowls by a rail + at each side fastened to each leg, about three inches from + the foot.</p> +<p>Mr. Baily says: "I had some fowls in a large outhouse, + where they were well provided with perches; as there was + plenty of room, I put some small faggots, cut for firing, at + one extremity, and I found many of the fowls deserted + their perches to roost on the faggots, which they evidently + preferred."</p> +<p>Cochin-Chinas and Brahma Pootras do not require<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> perches, but roost comfortably on a floor littered down + warmly with straw. It should be gathered up every + morning, and the floor cleaned and kept uncovered till + night, when the straw, if clean, should be again laid down. + It must be often changed. A bed of sand is also used, and + a latticed floor even without straw, and some use latticed + benches raised about six inches from the floor. But we + should think that latticed roosting-places must be uncomfortable + to fowls, and the dung which falls through is + often unseen, and, consequently, liable to remain for too + long a time, while a portion will stick to the sides of the + lattice-work, and be not only difficult to see, but also to + remove when seen. The "Henwife" finds, however, "that + if there are nests, there the Cochins will roost, in spite of + all attempts to make them do otherwise." It is a good + plan, in warm weather, occasionally to sprinkle water over + and about the perches, and scatter a little powdered + sulphur over the wetted parts, which will greatly tend to + keep the fowls free from insect parasites.</p> +<p>The nests for laying in are usually made on the ground, + or in a kind of trough, a little raised; but some use boxes + or wicker-baskets, which are preferable, as they can be + removed separately from time to time, and thoroughly + cleansed from dust and vermin, and can also be kept a + little apart from each other. These boxes or troughs + should be placed against the sides of the house, and a + board sloping forwards should be fixed above, to prevent + the fowls from roosting upon the edges. If required, a + row of laying-boxes or troughs may be placed on the + ground, and another about a foot or eighteen inches above + the floor. The nest should be made of wheaten, rye, or + oaten straw, but never of hay, which is too hot, and + favourable besides to the increase of vermin. Heath cut + into short pieces forms excellent material for nests, but it + cannot always be had. The material must be changed + whenever it smells foul or musty, for if it is allowed to + become offensive, the hens will often drop their eggs upon + the ground sooner than go to the nest. When the fowl-house + adjoins a passage, or it can be otherwise so contrived,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> it is an excellent plan to have a wooden flap made to open + just above the back of the nests, so that the eggs can + be removed without your going into the roosting-house, + treading the dung about, and disturbing any birds that + may be there, or about to enter to lay. Where possible + the nests in the roosting-houses should be used for laying + in only; and a separate house should be set apart for + sitting hens. Where there are but a few fowls and + only one house, if a hen is allowed to sit, a separate + nest must be made as quiet as possible for her.—<i>See</i> <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">Chapter VI.</a></p> +<p>Cleanliness must be maintained. The <i>Canada Farmer</i> suggested an admirable plan for keeping the roosting-house + clean. A broad shelf, securely fastened, but moveable, is + fixed at the back of the house, eighteen inches from the + ground, and the perch placed four or five inches above it, + a foot from the wall. The nests are placed on the ground + beneath the board, which preserves them from the roosting + fowl's droppings, and keeps them well shaded for the laying + or sitting hen, if the latter is obliged to incubate in the + same house, and the nests do not need a top. The shelf can + be easily scraped clean every morning, and should be + lightly sanded afterwards. Thus the floor of the house is + never soiled by the roosting birds, and the broad board at + the same time protects them from upward draughts of air. + Where the nests and perches are not so arranged, the idea + may be followed by placing a loose board below each + perch, upon which the dung will fall, and the board can be + taken up every morning and the dung removed. With + proper tools, a properly constructed fowl-house can be kept + perfectly clean, and all the details of management well + carried out without scarcely soiling your hands. A birch + broom is the best implement with which to clean the house + if the floor is as hard as it ought to be. A handful of ashes + or sand, sprinkled over the places from which dung has + been removed, will absorb any remaining impurity.</p> +<p>Fowls' dung is a very valuable manure, being strong, + stimulating, and nitrogenous, possessing great power in + forcing the growth of vegetables, particularly those of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> cabbage tribe, and is excellent for growing strawberries, + or indeed almost any plants, if sufficiently diluted; for, + being very strong, it should always be mixed with earth. + A fowl, according to Stevens, will void at least one ounce of + dry dung in twenty-four hours, which is worth at least + seven shillings a cwt.</p> +<p>The door should fit closely, a slight space only being left + at the bottom to admit air. It should have a square hole, + which is usually placed either at the top or bottom, for the + poultry to enter to roost. A hole at the top is generally + preferred, as it is inaccessible to vermin. The fowls ascend + by means of a ladder formed of a slanting board, with + strips of wood nailed across to assist their feet; a similar + ladder should be placed inside to enable them to descend, + if they are heavy fowls; but the evil is that, even with this + precaution, they are inclined to fly down, as they do from + high perches, without using the ladder, and thus injure + their feet. A hole in the middle of the door would be preferable + to either, and obviate the defects of both. These + holes should be fitted with sliding panels on the inside, so + that they can be closed in order to keep the fowls out + while cleaning the house, or to keep them in until they + have laid their eggs, or it may be safe to let them out in + the morning in any neighbourhood or place where they + would else be liable to be stolen. Every day, after the fowls + have left their roosts, the doors and windows should be + opened, and a thorough draught created to purify the house. + During the winter months all the entrance holes should be + closed from sunset to sunrise, unless in mild localities. + Where there are many houses, they should, if possible, + communicate with each other by doors, so that they may + be cleaned from end to end, or inspected without the necessity + of passing through the yards, which is especially + unpleasant in wet weather. The doors should be capable + of being fastened on either side, to avoid the chance of the + different breeds intermingling while your attention is occupied + in arranging the nests, collecting eggs, &c. See that + your fowls are securely locked in at night, for they are + more easily stolen than any other kind of domestic animals.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> A good dog in the yard or adjoining house or stable is an + excellent protection.</p> +<p>Every poultry-house should be lime-washed at least four + or five times a year, and oftener if convenient. Vermin of + any kind can be effectually destroyed by fumigating the + place with sulphur. In this operation a little care is requisite; + it should be commenced early in the morning, by + first closing the lattices, and stopping up every crevice + through which air can enter; then place on the ground a + pan of lighted charcoal, and throw on it some brimstone + broken into small pieces. Directly this is done the room + should be left, the door kept shut and airtight for some + hours; care too should be taken that the lattices are first + opened, and time given for the vapour to thoroughly disperse + before any one again enters, when every creature + within the building will be found destroyed.</p> +<p>It is said that a pair of caged guinea-pigs in the fowl-house + will keep away rats.</p> +<p>In a large establishment, and in a moderate one, if the + outlay is not an object, the pens for the chickens and the + passages between the various houses may be profitably + covered with glass, and grapes grown on the rafters. + Raising chickens under glass has been tried with great + success.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2> +<h3>THE FOWL-YARD.</h3> +<p>The scarcity of poultry in this country partly arises + from all gallinaceous birds requiring warmth and dryness + to keep them in perfect health, while the climate of Great + Britain is naturally moist and cold.</p> +<p>"The warmest and driest soils," says Mowbray, "are + the best adapted to the breeding and rearing of gallinaceous + fowls, more particularly chickens. A wet soil is the + worst, since, however ill affected fowls are by cold, they + endure it better than moisture. Land proper for sheep is + generally also adapted to the successful keeping of poultry + and rabbits."</p> +<p>But poultry may be reared and kept successfully even + on bad soils with good drainage and attention. The + "Henwife" says: "I do not consider any one soil necessary + for success in rearing poultry. Some think a chalk + soil essential for Dorkings, but I have proved the fallacy + of this opinion by bringing up, during three years, many + hundreds of these <i>soi disant</i> delicate birds on the strong + blue clay of the Carse of Gowrie, doubtless thoroughly + drained, that system being well understood and universally + practised by the farmers of the district. A coating of + gravel and sand once a year is all that is requisite to secure + the necessary dryness in the runs." The best soil for a + poultry-yard is gravel, or sand resting on chalk or gravel. + When the soil is clayey, or damp from any other cause, it + should be thoroughly drained, and the whole or a good + portion of the ground should be raised by the addition of + twelve inches of chalk, or bricklayer's rubbish, over which + should be spread a few inches of sand. Cramp, roup, + and some other diseases, more frequently arise from stagnant + wet in the soil than from any other cause.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p> +<p>The yard should be sheltered from the north and east + winds, and where this is effected by the position of a shrubbery + or plantation in which the fowls may be allowed to + run, it will afford the advantage of protection, not only + from wind and cold, but also shelter from the rain and the + burning sun. It also furnishes harbourage for insects, + which will find them both food and exercise in picking up. + Indeed, for all these purposes a few bushes may be advantageously + planted in or adjoining any poultry-yard. When + a tree can be enclosed in a run, it forms an agreeable object + for the eye, and affords shelter to the fowls.</p> +<p>A covered run or shed for shelter in wet or hot weather + is a great advantage, especially if chickens are reared. It + may be constructed with a few rough poles supporting a + roof of patent felt, thatch, or rough board, plain or painted + for preservation, and may be made of any length and width, + from four feet upwards, and of any height from four feet at the + back and three feet in the front, to eight feet at the back and six + feet in the front. The shed should, if possible, adjoin the fowl-house. + It should be wholly or partly enclosed with wire-work, + which should be boarded for a foot from the ground + to keep out the wet and snow, and to keep in small chickens. + The roof should project a foot beyond the uprights which + support it, in order to throw the rain well off, and have a + gutter-shoot to carry it away and prevent it from being blown + in upon the enclosed space. The floor should be a little + higher than the level of the yard, both in order to keep it + dry and the easier to keep it clean; and it should be higher + at the back than in the front, which will keep it drained if + any wet should be blown in or water upset. If preferred, + moveable netting may be used, so that the fowls can be + allowed their liberty in fine weather, and be confined in + wet weather. But the boarding must be retained to keep + out the wet. The ground may be left in its natural state + for the fowls to scratch in, in which case the surface should + be dug up from time to time and replaced with fresh earth + pressed down moderately hard. If the house is large and + has a good window, a shed is not absolutely necessary, + especially for a few fowls only, but it is a valuable addition,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> and is also very useful to shelter the coops of the mother + hens and their young birds in wet, windy, or hot weather.</p> +<p>By daily attention to cleanliness, a few fowls may be kept + in such a covered shed, without having any open run, by + employing a thick layer of dry pulverised earth as a deodoriser, + which is to be turned over with a rake every day, + and replaced with fresh dry pulverised earth once a week. + The dry earth entirely absorbs all odour. In a run of this + kind, six square feet should be allowed to each fowl kept, + for a smaller surface of the dry earth becomes moist and + will then no longer deodorise the dung. Sifted ashes + spread an inch deep over the floor of the whole shed will + be a good substitute if the dry earth cannot be had. They + should be raked over every other morning, and renewed at + least every fortnight, or oftener if possible. The ground + should be dug and turned over whenever it looks sodden, or + gives out any offensive smell; and three or four times a + year the polluted soil below the layer, that is, the earth to + the depth of three or four inches, should be removed and + replaced with fresh earth, gravel, chalk, or ashes.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> The + shed must be so contrived that the sun can shine upon the + fowls during some part of the day, or they will not continue + in health for any length of time, and it is almost impossible + to rear healthy chickens without its light and warmth; and + it will be a great improvement if part of the run is open. + Another shed will be required if chickens are to be reared.</p> +<p>Fowls that are kept in small spaces or under covered + runs will require a different diet to those that are allowed + to roam in fields and pick up insects, grass, &c., and must + be provided with green food, animal food in place of + insects, and be well supplied with mortar rubbish and + gravel.</p> +<p>The height of the wall, paling, or fencing that surrounds + the yard, and of the partitions, if the yard is divided into + compartments for the purpose of keeping two or more + breeds separate and pure, must be according to the nature + of the breed. Three feet in height will be sufficient to + retain Cochins and Brahmas; six feet will be required for + moderate-sized fowls; and eight or nine feet will be necessary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> to confine the Game, Hamburg, and Bantam breeds. + Galvanised iron wire-netting is the best material, as it does + not rust, and will not need painting for a long time. It is + made of various degrees of strength, and in different forms, + and may be had with meshes varying from three-fourths of + an inch to two inches or more; with very small meshes at + the lower part only, to keep out rats and to keep in + chickens; with spikes upon the top, or with scoloped + wire-work, which gives it a neat and finished appearance; + with doors, and with iron standards terminating in double + spikes to fix in the ground, by which wooden posts are + divided, while it can be easily fixed and removed. The + meshes should not be more than two inches wide, and if + the meshes of the lower part are not very small, it should + be boarded to about two feet six inches from the ground, + in order to keep out rats, keep in chickens, and to prevent + the cocks fighting through the wire, which fighting is + more dangerous than in the open, for the birds are very + liable to injure themselves in the meshes, and, Dorkings + especially, to tear their combs and toes in them. If iron + standards are not attached to the netting, it should be + stretched to stout posts, well fixed in the ground, eight feet + apart, and fastened by galvanised iron staples. A rail at + the top gives a neater appearance, but induces the fowls to + perch upon it, which may tempt them to fly over.</p> +<p>Where it is not convenient to fix a fence sufficiently high, + or when a hen just out with her brood has to be kept in, a + fowl may be prevented from flying over fences by stripping + off the vanes or side shoots from the first-flight feathers of + one wing, usually ten in number, which will effectually + prevent the bird from flying, and will not be unsightly, as + the primary quills are always tucked under the others when + not used for flying. This method answers much better + than clipping the quills of each wing, as the cut points are + liable to inflict injuries and cause irritation in moulting.</p> +<p>The openness of the feathers of fowls which do not throw + off the water well, like those of most birds, enables them + to cleanse themselves easier from insects and dirt, by dusting + their feathers, and then shaking off the dirt and these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> minute pests with the dust. For this purpose one or more + ample heaps of sifted ashes, or very dry sand or earth, for + them to roll in, must be placed in the sun, and, if possible, + under shelter, so as to be warm and perfectly dry. Wood + ashes are the best. This dust-heap is as necessary to fowls + as water for washing is to human beings. It cleanses their + feathers and skin from vermin and impurities, promotes the + cuticular or skin excretion, and is materially instrumental + in preserving their health. If they should be much troubled + with insects, mix in the heap plenty of wood ashes + and a little flour of sulphur.</p> +<p>A good supply of old mortar-rubbish, or similar substance, + must be kept under the shed, or in a dry place, to + provide material for the eggshells, or the hens will be + liable to lay soft-shelled eggs. Burnt oyster-shells are an + excellent substitute for common lime, and should be prepared + for use by being heated red-hot, and when cold broken + into small pieces with the fingers, but not powdered. + Some give chopped or ground bones, or a lump of chalky + marl. Eggshells roughly crushed are also good, and are + greedily devoured by the hens.</p> +<p>A good supply of gravel is also essential, the small stones + which the fowls swallow being necessary to enable them to + digest their hard food. Fowls swallow all grain whole, + their bills not being adapted for crushing it like the teeth + of the rabbit or the horse, and it is prepared for digestion + by the action of a strong and muscular gizzard, lined with + a tough leathery membrane, which forms a remarkable + peculiarity in the internal structure of fowls and turkeys. + "By the action," says Mr. W. H. L. Martin, "of the two + thick muscular sides of this gizzard on each other, the + seeds and grains swallowed (and previously macerated in + the crop, and there softened by a peculiar secretion oozing + from glandular pores) are ground up, or triturated in order + that their due digestion may take place. It is a remarkable + fact that these birds are in the habit of swallowing small + pebbles, bits of gravel, and similar substances, which it + would seem are essential to their health. The definite use + of these substances, which are certainly ground down by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> the mill-like action of the gizzard, has been a matter of + difference among various physiologists, and many experiments, + with a view to elucidate the subject, have been + undertaken. It was sufficiently proved by Spallanzani that + the digestive fluid was incapable of dissolving grains of + barley, &c., in their unbruised state; and this he ascertained + by filling small hollow and perforated balls and tubes of + metal or glass with grain, and causing them to be swallowed + by turkeys and other fowls; when examined, after twenty-four + and forty-eight hours, the grains were found to be + unaffected by the gastric fluid; but when he filled similar + balls and tubes with bruised grains, and caused them to be + swallowed, he found, after a lapse of the same number of + hours, that they were more or less dissolved by the action + of the gastric juice. In other experiments, he found that + metallic tubes introduced into the gizzard of common fowls + and turkeys, were bruised, crushed, and distorted, and even + that sharp-cutting instruments were broken up into blunt + fragments without having produced the slightest injury to + the gizzard. But these experiments go rather to prove the + extraordinary force and grinding powers of the gizzard, + than to throw light upon the positive use of the pebbles + swallowed; which, after all, Spallanzani thought were + swallowed without any definite object, but from mere + stupidity. Blumenbach and Dr. Bostock aver that fowls, + however well supplied with food, grow lean without them, + and to this we can bear our own testimony. Yet the question, + what is their precise effect? remains to be answered. + Boerhave thought it probable that they might act as + absorbents to superabundant acid; others have regarded + them as irritants or stimulants to digestion; and Borelli + supposed that they might really contribute some degree of + nutriment."</p> +<p>Sir Everard Home, in his "Comparative Anatomy," + says: "When the external form of this organ is first + attentively examined, viewing that side which is anterior in + the living bird, and on which the two bellies of the muscle + and middle are more distinct, there being no other part to + obstruct the view, the belly of the muscle on the left side is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> seen to be larger than on the right. This appears, on + reflection, to be of great advantage in producing the necessary + motion; for if the two muscles were of equal strength, + they must keep a greater degree of exertion than is necessary; + while, in the present case, the principal effect is + produced by that of the left side, and a smaller force is used + by that on the right to bring the parts back again. The + two bellies of the muscle, by their alternate action, produce + two effects—the one a constant friction on the contents of + the cavity; the other, a pressure on them. This last arises + from a swelling of the muscle inwards, which readily + explains all the instances which have been given by Spallanzani + and others, of the force of the gizzard upon substances + introduced into it—a force which is found by their experiments + always to act in an oblique direction. The internal + cavity, when opened in this distended state, is found to be + of an oval form, the long diameter being in the line of the + body; its capacity nearly equal to the size of a pullet's + egg; and on the sides there are ridges in their horny coat + (lining membrane) in the long direction of the oval. When + the horny coat is examined in its internal structure, the + fibres of which it is formed are not found in a direction perpendicular + to the ligamentous substance behind it; but in + the upper portion of the cavity it is obliquely upwards. + From this form of cavity it is evident that no part of the + sides is ever intended to be brought in contact, and that the + food is triturated by being mixed with hard bodies, and + acted on by the powerful muscles which form the gizzard."</p> +<p>The experiments of Spallanzani show that the muscular + action of the gizzard is equally powerful whether the small + stones are present or not; and that they are not at all + necessary to the trituration of the firmest food, or the hardest + foreign substances; but it is also quite clear that when + these small stones are put in motion by the muscles of the + gizzard they assist in crushing the grain, and at the same + time prevent it from consolidating into a thick, heavy, compacted + mass, which would take a far longer time in undergoing + the digestive process than when separated and + intermingled with the pebbles.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p> +<p>This was the opinion of the great physiologist, John + Hunter, who, in his treatise "On the Animal Economy," + after noticing the grinding powers of the gizzard, says, in + reference to the pebbles swallowed, "We are not, however, + to conclude that stones are entirely useless; for if we compare + the strength of the muscles of the jaws of animals + which masticate their food with those of birds who do not, + we shall say that the parts are well calculated for the + purpose of mastication; yet we are not thence to infer that + the teeth in such jaws are useless, even although we have + proof that the gums do the business when the teeth are + gone. If pebbles are of use, which we may reasonably + conclude they are, birds have an advantage over animals + having teeth, so far as pebbles are always to be found, + while the teeth are not renewed. If we constantly find in + an organ substances which can only be subservient to the + functions of that organ, should we deny their use, although + the part can do its office without them? The stones assist + in grinding down the grain, and, by separating its parts, + allow the gastric juice to come more readily in contact + with it."</p> +<p>When a paddock is used as a run for a large number of + poultry, it should be enclosed either by a wall or paling, + but not by a hedge, as the fowls can get through it, and + will also lay their eggs under the hedge. The paddock + should be well drained, and it will be a great advantage if + it contains a pond, or has a stream of water running through + or by it. Mowbray advises that the grass run should be + sown "with common trefoil or wild clover, with a mixture + of burnet, spurry, or storgrass," which last two kinds "are + particularly salubrious to poultry." If the grass is well + rooted before the fowls are allowed to run on it, they may + range there for several hours daily, according to its extent + and their number, but it should be renewed in the spring + by sowing where it has become bare or thin. A dry + common, or pasture fields, in which they may freely wander + and pick up grubs, insects, ants' eggs, worms, and leaves + of plants, is a great advantage, and they may be accustomed + to return from it at a call. Where there is a cropped<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> field, orchard, or garden, in which fowls may roam at + certain seasons, when the crops are safe from injury, each + brood should be allowed to wander in it separately for a + few hours daily, or on different days, as may be most + convenient. "A garden dung-heap," says Mr. Baily, + "overgrown with artichokes, mallows, &c., is an excellent + covert for chickens, especially in hot weather. They find + shelter and meet with many insects there." When horse-dung + is procured for the garden, or supplied from your + stables, some should be placed in a small trench, and + frequently renewed, in which the fowls will amuse themselves, + particularly in winter, by scraping for corn and + worms. When fowls have not the advantage of a grass + run they should be indulged with a square or two of fresh + turf, as often as it can be obtained, on which they will feed + and amuse themselves. It should be heavy enough to enable + them to tear off the grass, without being obliged to drag + the turf about with them.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2> +<h3>FOOD.</h3> +<p>The following table, which first appeared in the "Poultry + Diary," will show at a glance the relative constituents and + qualities of the different kinds of food, and may be consulted + with great advantage by the poultry-keeper, as it will + enable him to proportion mixed food correctly, and to + change it according to the production of growth, flesh, + or fat that may be desired, and according to the temperature + of the season. These proportions, of course, are not + absolutely invariable, for the relative proportions of the + constituents of the grain will vary with the soil, manure + used, and the growing and ripening characteristics of the + season.</p> +<div class="center"> + <table summary="food" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td rowspan="2" + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> There is in every<br /> + 100 lbs. of</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> Flesh-<br /> + forming<br /> + Food.</td> + <td colspan="2" + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> Warmth-giving<br /> + Food.</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> Bone-<br /> + making<br /> + Food.</td> + <td rowspan="2" + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> Husk<br /> + or<br /> + Fibre.</td> + <td rowspan="2" + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> Water.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> Gluten,<br /> + &c.</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> Fat or<br /> + Oil.</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> Starch,<br /> + &c.</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> Mineral<br /> + Substance</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdl"> Oats</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 15</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 6</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 47</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 2</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 20</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 10</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdl"> Oatmeal</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 18</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 6</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 63</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 2</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 2</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 9</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdl">Middlings or fine Sharps</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 18</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 6</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 53</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 5</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 4</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 14</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdl"> Wheat</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 12</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 3</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 70</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 2</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 1</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 12</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdl"> Barley</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 11</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 2</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 60</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 2</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 14</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 1</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdl"> Indian Corn</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 11</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 8</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 65</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 1</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 5</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 10</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdl"> Rice</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 7</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> a trace</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 80</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> a trace</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> --</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 13</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdl"> Beans and Peas</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 25</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 2</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 48</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 2</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 8</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 15</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdl"> Milk</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 4½</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 3</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 5</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc">¾</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> --</td> + <td + + style="border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px" + class="tdc"> 86¾</td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p> +<p>Barley is more generally used than any other grain, and, + reckoned by weight, is cheaper than wheat or oats; but, + unless in the form of meal, should not be the only grain + given, for fowls do not fatten upon it, as, though possessing + a very fair proportion of flesh-forming substances, it contains + a lesser amount of fatty matters than other varieties + of corn. In Surrey barley is the usual grain given, excepting + during the time of incubation, when the sitting + hens have oats, as being less heating to the system than + the former. Barley-meal contains the same component + parts as the whole grain, being ground with the husk, but + only inferior barley is made into meal.</p> +<p>Wheat of the best description is dearer than barley, both + by weight and measure, and possesses but about one-twelfth + part more flesh-forming material, but it is fortunate + that the small cheap wheat is the best for poultry, for Professor + Johnston says, "the small or tail corn which the + farmer separates before bringing his grain to market is + richer in gluten (flesh-forming food) than the full-grown + grain, and is therefore more nutritious." The "Henwife" + finds "light wheats or tailings the best grain for daily use, + and next to that barley."</p> +<p>Oats are dearer than barley by weight. The heaviest + should be bought, as they contain very little more husk + than the lightest, and are therefore cheaper in proportion. + Oats and oatmeal contain much more flesh-forming material + than any other kind of grain, and double the amount + of fatty material than wheat, and three times as much as + barley. Mowbray says oats are apt to cause scouring, and + chickens become tired of them; but they are recommended + by many for promoting laying, and in Kent, Sussex, and + Surrey for fattening. Fowls frequently refuse the lighter + samples of oats, but if soaked in water for a few hours so + as to swell the kernel, they will not refuse them. The + meal contains more flesh-forming material than the whole + grain.</p> +<p>The meal of wheat and barley are much the same as the + whole grain, but oatmeal is drier and separated from a + large portion of the husk, which makes it too dear except<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> for fattening fowls and feeding the youngest chickens, for + which it is the very best food. Fine "middlings," also + termed "sharps" and "thirds," and in London coarse + country flour, are much like oatmeal, but cheaper than the + best, and may be cheaply and advantageously employed + instead of oatmeal, or mixed with boiled or steamed small + potatoes or roots.</p> +<p>Many writers recommend refuse corn for fowls, and the + greater number of poultry-keepers on a small scale perhaps + think such light common grain the cheapest food; but + this is a great mistake, as, though young fowls may be fed + on offal and refuse, it is the best economy to give the older + birds the finest kind of grain, both for fattening and laying, + and even the young fowls should be fed upon the best if + fine birds for breeding or exhibition are desired. "Instead + of giving ordinary or tail corn to my fattening or breeding + poultry," says Mowbray, "I have always found it most + advantageous to allow the heaviest and the best; thus + putting the confined fowls on a level with those at the + barn-door, where they are sure to get their share of the + weightiest and finest corn. This high feeding shows itself + not only in the size and flesh of the fowls, but in the size, + weight, and substantial goodness of their eggs, which, in + these valuable particulars, will prove far superior to the + eggs of fowls fed upon ordinary corn or washy potatoes; + two eggs of the former going further in domestic use than + three of the latter." "Sweepings" sometimes contain + poisonous or hurtful substances, and are always dearer, + weight for weight, than sound grain.</p> +<p>Some poultry-keepers recommend that the grain should + be boiled, which makes it swell greatly, and consequently + fills the fowl's crop with a smaller quantity, and the bird is + satisfied with less than if dry grain be given; but others + say that the fowls derive more nutriment from the same + quantity of grain unboiled. Indeed, it seems evident that a + portion of the nutriment must pass into the water, and + also evaporate in steam. The fowl's gizzard being a + powerful grinding mill, evidently designed by Providence + for the purpose of crushing the grain into meal, it is clear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> that whole grain is the natural diet of fowls, and that + softer kinds of food are chiefly to be used for the first or + morning meal for fowls confined in houses (see <a href="#Page_34">p. 34</a>), and + for those being fattened artificially in coops, where it is + desired to help the fowl's digestive powers, and to convert + the food into flesh as quickly as possible.</p> +<p>Indian corn or maize, either whole or in meal, must not + be given in too great a proportion, as it is very fattening + from the large quantity of oil it contains; but mixed with + barley or barley-meal, it is a most economical and useful + food. It is useful for a change, but is not a good food by + itself. It may be given once or twice a week, especially in + the winter, with advantage. From its size small birds + cannot eat it and rob the fowls. Whether whole or in + meal, the maize should be scalded, that the swelling may + be done before it is eaten. The yellow-coloured maize is not + so good as that which is reddish or rather reddish-brown.</p> +<p>Buckwheat is about equal to barley in flesh-forming + food, and is very much used on the Continent. Mr. + Wright has "a strong opinion that the enormous production + of eggs and fowls in France is to some extent + connected with the almost universal use of buckwheat by + French poultry-keepers." It is not often to be had cheap + in this country, but is hardy and may be grown anywhere + at little cost. Mr. Edwards says, he "obtained (without + manure) forty bushels to the acre, on very poor sandy soil, + that would not have produced eighteen bushels of oats. + The seed is angular in form, not unlike hempseed; and is + stimulating, from the quantity of spirit it contains."</p> +<p>Peas, beans, and tares contain an extraordinary quantity + of flesh-forming material, and very little of fat-forming, + but are too stimulating for general use, and would harden + the muscular fibres and give too great firmness of flesh to + fowls that are being fattened, but where tares are at a low + price, or peas or beans plentiful, stock fowls may be + advantageously fed upon any of these, and they may + be given occasionally to fowls that are being fattened. It + is better to give them boiled than in a raw state, especially + if they are hard and dry, and the beans in particular may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> be too large for the fowls to swallow comfortably. Near + Geneva fowls are fed chiefly upon tares. Poultry reject + the wild tares of which pigeons are so fond.</p> +<p>Rice is not a cheap food. When boiled it absorbs a great + quantity of water and forms a large substance, but, of + course, only contains the original quantity of grain which + is of inferior value, especially for growing chickens, as + it consists almost entirely of starch, and does not contain + quite half the amount of flesh-forming materials as oats. + When broken or slightly damaged it may be had much + cheaper, and will do as well as the finest. Boil it for half + an hour in skim-milk or water, and then let it stand in the + water till cold, when it will have swollen greatly, and be so + firm that it can be taken out in lumps, and easily broken + into pieces. In addition to its strengthening and fattening + qualities rice is considered to improve the delicacy of the + flesh. Fowls are especially fond of it at first, but soon grow + tired of this food. If mixed with less cloying food, such as + bran, they would probably continue to relish it.</p> +<p>Hempseed is most strengthening during moulting time, + and should then be given freely, especially in cold localities.</p> +<p>Linseed steeped is occasionally given, chiefly to birds + intended for exhibition, to increase the secretion of oil, and + give lustre to their plumage.</p> +<p>Potatoes, from the large quantity of starch they contain, + are not good unmixed, as regular food, but mixed with + bran or meal are most conducive to good condition and + laying. They contain a great proportion of nutriment, + comparatively to their bulk and price; and may be advantageously + and profitably given where the number of + eggs produced is of more consequence than their flavour or + goodness. A good morning meal of soft food for a few fowls + may be provided daily almost for nothing by boiling the + potato peelings till soft, and mashing them up with enough + bran, slightly scalded, to make a tolerably stiff dry paste. + The peelings will supply as many fowls as there are persons + at the dinner table. A little salt should always + be added, and in winter a slight sprinkling of pepper + is good.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p> +<p>"It is indispensable," says Mr. Dickson, "to give the + potatoes to fowls not only in a boiled state, but hot; not + so hot, however, as to burn their mouths, as they are + stupid enough to do if permitted. They dislike cold potatoes, + and will not eat them willingly. It is likewise + requisite to break all the potatoes a little, for they will not + unfrequently leave a potato when thrown down unbroken, + taking it, probably, for a stone, since the moment the skin + is broken and the white of the interior is brought into + view, they fall upon it greedily. When pieces of raw + potatoes are accidentally in their way, fowls will sometimes + eat them, though they are not fond of these, and it is + doubtful whether they are not injurious."</p> +<p>Mangold-wurtzel, swedes, or other turnips, boiled with + a very small quantity of water, until quite soft, and then + thickened with the very best middlings or meal, is the + very best soft food, especially for Dorkings.</p> +<p>Soft food should always be mixed rather dry and <i>friable</i>, + and not <i>porridgy</i>, for they do not like sticky food, which + clings round their beaks and annoys them, besides often + causing diarrhœa. There should never be enough water in + food to cause it to glisten in the light. If the soft food is + mixed boiling hot at night and put in the oven, or covered + with a cloth, it will be warm in the morning, in which state + it should always be given in cold weather.</p> +<p>Fowls have their likes and dislikes as well as human + beings, some preferring one kind of grain to all others, + which grain is again disliked by other fowls. They also + grow tired of the same food, and will thrive all the + better for having as much variety of diet as possible, some + little change in the food being made every few days. + Fowls should not be forced or pressed to take food to + which they show a dislike. It is most important to give + them chiefly that which they like best, as it is a rule, + with but few exceptions, that what is eaten with most + relish agrees best and is most easily digested; but care + must be taken not to give too much, for one sort of grain + being more pleasing to their palate than another, induces + them to eat gluttonously more than is necessary or healthy.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> M. Réaumur made many careful experiments upon the + feeding of fowls, and among them found that they were + much more easily satisfied than might be supposed from the + greedy voracity which they exhibit when they are fed, and + that the sorts of food most easily digested by them are + those of which they eat the greatest quantity.</p> +<p>No definite scale can be given for the quantity of food + which fowls require, as it must necessarily vary with the + different breeds, sizes, ages, condition, and health of the + fowls; and with the seasons of the year, and the temperature + of the season, much more food being necessary to keep + up the proper degree of animal heat in winter than in + summer; and the amount of seeds, insects, vegetables, and + other food that they may pick up in a run of more or less + extent. Over-feeding, whether by excess of quantity or + excess of stimulating constituents, is the cause of the most + general diseases, the greater proportion of these diseases, + and of most of the deaths from natural causes among + fowls. When fowls are neither laying well nor moulting, + they should not be fed very abundantly; for in such a state + over-feeding, especially with rich food, may cause them + to accumulate too much fat. A fat hen ceases to lay, or + nearly, while an over-fed cock becomes lazy and useless, + and may die of apoplexy.</p> +<p>But half-fed fowls never pay whether kept for the table + or to produce eggs. A fowl cannot get fat or make an egg + a day upon little or poor food. A hen producing eggs will + eat nearly twice as much food as at another time. In cold + weather give plenty of dry bread soaked in ale.</p> +<p>Poultry prefer to pick their food off the ground. "No + plan," says Mr. Baily, "is so extravagant or so injurious as + to throw down heaps once or twice per day. They should + have it scattered as far and wide as possible, that the birds + may be long and healthily employed in finding it, and may + not accomplish in a few minutes that which should occupy + them for hours. For this reason every sort of feeder or + hopper is bad. It is the nature of fowls to take a grain at + a time, and to pick grass and dirt with it, which assist + digestion. They should feed as pheasants, partridges,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> grouse, and other game do in a state of nature; if, contrary + to this, they are enabled to eat corn by mouthfuls, + their crops are soon overfilled, and they seek relief in + excessive draughts of water. Nothing is more injurious + than this, and the inactivity that attends the discomfort + caused by it lays the foundation of many disorders. The + advantage of scattering the food is, that all then get their + share; while if it is thrown only on a small space the master + birds get the greater part, while the others wait around. + In most poultry-yards more than half the food is wasted; + the same quantity is thrown down day after day, without + reference to time of year, alteration of numbers, or variation + of appetite, and that which is not eaten is trodden + about, or taken by small birds. Many a poultry-yard is + coated with corn and meal."</p> +<p>If two fowls will not run after one piece, they do not + want it. If a trough is used, the best kind is the simplest, + being merely a long, open one, shaped like that used for + pigs, but on a smaller scale. It should be placed about a + foot from one of the sides of the yard, behind some round + rails driven into the ground three inches apart, so that + the fowls cannot get into the troughs, so as to upset them, + or tread in or otherwise dirty the food. The rails should + be all of the same height, and a slanting board be fixed + over the trough.</p> +<p>Some persons give but one meal a day, and that generally + in the morning; this is false economy, for the whole + of the nutriment contained in the one meal is absorbed in + keeping up the animal heat, and there is no material for + producing eggs. "The number of meals per day," says + Mr. Wright, "best consistent with real economy will vary + from two to three, according to the size of the run. If + it be of moderate extent, so that they can in any degree + forage for themselves, two are quite sufficient, at least in + summer, and should be given early in the morning and + the last thing before the birds go to roost. In any case, + these will be the principal meals; but when the fowls are + kept in confinement they will require, in addition, a scanty + feed at mid-day. The first feeding should consist of soft<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> food of some kind. The birds have passed a whole night + since they were last fed; and it is important, especially in + cold weather, that a fresh supply should as soon as possible + be got into the system, and not merely into the crop. But + if grain be given, it has to be ground in the poor bird's + gizzard before it can be digested, and on a cold winter's + morning the delay is anything but beneficial. But, for + the very same reason, at the evening meal grain forms the + best food which can be supplied; it is digested slowly, and + during the long cold nights affords support and warmth + to the fowls."</p> +<p>They should be fed at regular hours, and will then soon + become accustomed to them, and not loiter about the + house or kitchen door all day long, expecting food, which + they will do if fed irregularly or too often, and neglect to + forage about for themselves, and thus cost more for food.</p> +<p>Grass is of the greatest value for all kinds of poultry, and + where they have no paddock, or grass-plot, fresh vegetables + must be given them daily, as green food is essential to the + health of all poultry, even of the very youngest chickens. + Cabbage and lettuce leaves, spinach, endive, turnip-tops, + turnips cut into small pieces and scattered like grain, or + cut in two, radish-leaves, or any refuse, but not stale + vegetables will do; but the best thing is a large sod of + fresh-cut turf. They are partial to all the mild succulent + weeds, such as chickweed and <i>Chenopodium</i>, or fat-hen, and + eat the leaves of most trees and shrubs, even those of evergreens; + but they reject the leaves of strawberries, celery, + parsnips, carrots, potatoes, onions, and leeks. The supply + of green food may be unlimited, but poultry should never + be entirely fed on raw greens. Cabbage and spinach are + still more relaxing when boiled than raw. They are very + fond of the fruit of the mulberry and cherry trees, and will + enjoy any that falls, and prevent it from being wasted.</p> +<p>Insect food is important to fowls, and essential for + chickens and laying hens. "There is no sort of insect, + perhaps," says Mr. Dickson, "which fowls will not eat. + They are exceedingly fond of flies, beetles, grasshoppers, + and crickets, but more particularly of every sort of grub,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> caterpillar, and maggot, with the remarkable exception of + the caterpillar moth of the magpie (<i>Abraxas grossularia</i>), + which no bird will touch." M. Réaumur mentions the + circumstance of a quantity of wheat stored in a corn-loft + being much infected with the caterpillars of the small corn-moth, + which spins a web and unites several grains together. + A young lady devised the plan of taking some chickens to + the loft to feed on the caterpillars, of which they were so + fond that in a few days they devoured them all, without + touching a single grain of the corn. Mr. Dickson observes, + that "biscuit-dust from ships' stores, which consists of + biscuit mouldered into meal, mixed with fragments still + unbroken, would be an excellent food for poultry, if soaked + in boiling water and given them hot. It is thus used for + feeding pigs near the larger seaports, where it can sometimes + be had in considerable quantity, and at a very + reasonable price. It will be no detriment to this material + if it be full of weevils and their grubs, of which fowls are + fonder than of the biscuit itself."</p> +<p>There is not any food of which poultry generally are so + fond as of earthworms; but all fowls are not equally fond + of them, and some will not touch them. They will not eat + dead worms. Too many ought not to be given, or they + will become too fat and cease laying. When fowls are + intended for the table worms should not be given, as they + are said always more or less to deteriorate the flavour of + the flesh. A good supply may easily be obtained. By + stamping hard upon the ground, as anglers do, worms will + rise to the surface; but a better method is to thrust a + strong stake or a three-pronged potato-fork into the ground, + to the depth of a foot or so, and jerk it backwards and + forwards, so as to shake the soil all around. By going out + with a light at night in calm, mild weather, particularly + when there is dew, or after rain, a cautious observer will + see large numbers of worms lying on the ground, gravel-walks, + grass-plots or pastures; but they are easily frightened + into their holes, though with caution and dexterity a great + number, and those chiefly of the largest size, may be captured. + Mr. Dickson advises that cottagers' children should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> be employed to imitate the example of the rooks, by following + the plough or the digger, and collecting the worms + which are disclosed to view; and also to collect cock-chafers, + "and, what would be more advantageous, they + might be set to collect the grubs of this destructive insect + after the plough, and thus, while providing a rich banquet + for the poultry, they would be clearing the fields of a most + destructive insect."</p> +<p>Fowls are very fond of shell snails. They are still more + fattening than worms, and therefore too many must not be + given when laying, but they do not injure the flavour of + the flesh. Some will eat slugs, but they are not generally + fond of these, and many fowls will not touch them.</p> +<p>One great secret of profitable poultry-keeping is, that + hens cannot thrive and lay without a considerable quantity + of animal food, and therefore if they cannot obtain a + sufficient quantity in the form of insects, it must be supplied + in meat, which, minced small, should be given daily + and also to all fowls in winter, as insects are then not to + be had. Mr. Baily says: "Do not give fowls meat, but + always have the bones thrown out to them after dinner; + they enjoy picking them, and perform the operation perfectly. + Do not feed on raw meat; it makes fowls quarrelsome, + and gives them a propensity to peck each other, + especially in moulting time if the accustomed meat be + withheld." They will peck at the wound of another fowl to + procure blood, and even at their own wounds when within + reach. Take care that long pieces of membrane, or thick + skin, tough gristle or sinew, or pieces of bone, are not left + sticking to the meat, or it may choke them, or form a lodgment + in the crop. "Pieces of suet or fat," says Mr. + Dickson, "are liked by fowls better than any other sort of + animal food; but, if supplied in any quantity, will soon + render them too fat for continuing to lay. Should there + be any quantity of fat to dispose of, it ought, therefore, to + be given at intervals, and mixed or accompanied with bran, + which will serve to fill their crops without producing too + much nutriment." It is a good plan when there are plenty + of bones and scraps of meat to boil them well, and mix<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> bran or pollard with the liquor before giving them to the + fowls, as it makes the meat easier to mince, and extracts + nourishment from the bones. When minced-meat is + required for a large number of fowls, a mincing or sausage + machine will save much time and prepare the meat better + than chopping. They are as fond of fish, whether salted + or fresh, as of flesh. Crumbs, fragments of pastry, and all + the refuse and slops of the kitchen may be given them. + Greaves, so much advertised for fowls, are very bad, rapidly + throwing them out of condition, causing their feathers to + fall off, spoiling the flavour of the flesh; they cause premature + decrepitude, and engender many diseases, the most + common being dropsy of an incurable character.</p> +<p>Where there is no danger from thieves, foxes, or other + vermin, and the run is extensive, it is the best plan to leave + the small door of the fowl-house open, and the fowls will + go out at daybreak and pick up many an "early worm" + and insect. The morning meal may be given when the + household has risen.</p> +<p>A constant supply of fresh clean water is indispensable. + Fountains are preferable to open vessels, in which the + fowls are apt to void their dung, and the chickens to dabble + and catch cold, often causing roup, cramp, &c. The + simplest kind of water vessel is a saucer made of red + pottery, containing several circular, concentric troughs, + each about an inch wide, and of the same depth. Chickens + cannot get drowned in these shallow vessels, but unless + placed behind rails the water will be dirtied by the fowls. + They are sold at all earthenware shops, and are used for + forcing early mustard in. A capital fountain may be made + with an earthenware jar or flower-pot and a flower-pot + saucer. Bore a small hole in the jar or flower-pot an inch + and a half from the edge of the rim, or detach a piece + about three-quarters of an inch deep and one inch wide, + from the rim, and if a flower-pot is used plug the hole in + the bottom airtight with a piece of cork; fill the vessel with + water, place the saucer bottom upwards on the top, press it + closely, and quickly turn both upside down, when the + water will flow into the saucer, filling up the space between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> it and the vessel up to the same height as the hole in the + side of the jar or flower-pot, therefore the hole in the side + of the rim of the vessel must not be quite so deep as the + height of the side of the saucer; and above all the plug in + the flower-pot must be airtight. This fountain is cheap, + simple, and easily cleaned. Water may also be kept in + troughs, or earthenware pans, placed in the same way. The + fountains and pans should be washed and filled with fresh + water once every day, and oftener in warm weather; and + they should occasionally be scoured with sand to remove + the green slime which collects on the surface, and produces + roup, gapes, and other diseases. In winter the vessels + should always be emptied at night, in order to avoid ice + from forming in them, which is troublesome to remove, and + snow must never be allowed to fall into them, snow-water + being most injurious to poultry.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h2> +<h3>EGGS.</h3> +<p>During the natural process of moulting, hens cease + laying because all the superabundant nutriment is required + for the production of the new feathers. Fowls moult later + each time; the moulting occupies a longer period, and is + more severe as it becomes later, and if the weather should + be cold at its termination they seldom recommence laying + for some time. But young fowls moult in spring. Therefore, + by having pullets and hens of different ages, and + moulting at different times, a healthy laying stock may be + kept up. Pullets hatched in March, and constantly fed + highly, not only lay eggs abundantly in the autumn, but + when killed in the following February or March, are as fat + as any one could or need desire them to be, and open more + like Michaelmas geese than chickens. When eggs alone + are wanted, you can commence by buying in the spring as + many hens as you require, and your run will accommodate, + not more than a year or eighteen months old. If in good + health and condition, they will be already laying, or will + begin almost immediately; and, if well housed and fed, + will give a constant supply of eggs until they moult in the + autumn. When these hens have ceased laying, and before + they lose their good condition by moulting, they should be + either killed or sold, unless they are Hamburgs, Brahmas, + or Cochins, and replaced by pullets hatched in March + or April, which will have moulted early, and, if properly + housed and fed, will begin to lay by November at the + latest, and continue laying until February or March, when + they may be sold or killed, being then in prime condition, + and replaced as before; or, as they will not stop laying for + any length of time, the best may be kept until the autumn, + when, if profit is the chief consideration, they must be disposed <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> of.<a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> But Brahmas, Cochins, and Hamburgs will lay + through the winter up to their second, or even third year. + If you commence poultry-keeping in the autumn you + should buy pullets hatched in the preceding spring. The + best and cheapest plan of keeping up a good stock is to + keep a full-feathered Cochin or two for March or April + sitting; and, if necessary, procure eggs of the breed you + desire. The Cochin will sit again, being only too often + ready for the task; and the later-hatched chickens can be + fattened profitably for the table. But if you wish to obtain + eggs all the year round, and to avoid replacing of stock, or + object to the trouble of rearing chickens, keep only those + breeds that are non-sitters, as the Hamburgs, Polands, and + Spanish; but you must purchase younger birds from time + to time to keep a supply of laying hens while others are + moulting.</p> +<p>Warmth is most essential for promoting laying. A + severe frost will suddenly stop the laying of even the most + prolific hens. "When," says M. Bosc, "it is wished to + have eggs during the cold season, even in the dead of + winter, it is necessary to make the fowls roost over an oven, + in a stable, in a shed where many cattle are kept, or to + erect a stove in the fowl-house on purpose. By such + methods, the farmers of Ange have chickens fit for the + table in the month of April, a period when they are only + beginning to be hatched in the farms around Paris, + although farther to the south." It is the winter management + of fowls that decides the question of profit or loss, + for hens will be sure to pay in the summer, even if only + tolerably attended to. It is thought by many that each + hen can produce only a certain number of eggs; and if + such be the case, it is very advantageous to obtain a portion + of them in winter when they are generally scarce and + can be eaten while fresh, instead of having the whole + number produced in the summer, when so many are spoiled + from too long keeping in consequence of more being produced + than are required for use at the time.</p> +<p>When the time for her laying approaches, her comb and + wattles change from their previous dull hue to a bright red,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> the eye brightens, the gait becomes more spirited, and + sometimes she cackles for three or four days. After laying + her egg on leaving the nest the hen utters a loud cackling + cry, to which the cock often responds in a high-pitched + kind of scream; but some hens after laying leave the nest + in silence. Some hens will lay an egg in three days, some + every other day, and others every day. Hens should not + be forced. By unnaturally forcing a fowl with stimulating + food, and more particularly with hempseed and tallow + greaves, to lay in two years or so the eggs that should have + been the produce of several, the hen becomes prematurely + old and diseased; and it is reasonable to suppose that the + eggs are not so good as they would have been if nature + had been left to run its own course. The eggs ought to + be taken from the nest every afternoon when no more may + be expected to be laid; for if left in the nest, the heat + of the hens when laying next day will tend to corrupt + them.</p> +<p>When the shells of the eggs are somewhat soft, it is + because the hens are rather inclined to grow too fat. It is + then proper to mix up a little chalk in their water, and to + put a little mortar rubbish in their food, the quantity of + which should be diminished. We give the following + remarks by an experienced poultry-keeper of the old + school, as valuable from being the result of practice: "The + hen sometimes experiences a difficulty in laying. In this + case a few grains of salt or garlic put into the vent have + been successfully tried. The keeper should indeed make + use of the latter mode to find out the place where a hen + has laid without his knowledge; for, as the hen will be in + haste to deposit her egg, her pace towards the nest will be + quickened; she may then be followed and her secret found + out."</p> +<p>"Though one particular form," says Mr. Dickson, "is + so common to eggs, that it is known by the familiar name + of egg-shaped, yet all keepers of poultry must be aware + that eggs are sometimes nearly round, and sometimes + almost cylindrical, besides innumerable minor shades of + difference. In fact, eggs differ so much in shape, that it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> said experienced poultry-keepers can tell by the shape of + the eggs alone the hen that laid them; for, strange to say, + however different in size the eggs of any particular hen + may be occasionally, they are very rarely different in form. + Among the most remarkable eggs may be mentioned those + of the Shanghae, or Cochin-China fowl, which are of a + pale chocolate colour; and those of the Dorking fowl, + which are of a pure white, and nearly as round as balls. + The eggs of the Malay fowls are brown; those of the + Polish fowl, which are very much pointed at one end, are + of a delicate pinkish white; and those of the Bantam are + of a long oval."</p> +<p>A very important part of the egg is the air-bag, or <i>folliculus æris</i>, which is placed at the larger end, between + the shell and its lining membranes. It is, according to Dr. + Paris, about the size of the eye of a small bird in new laid + eggs, but enlarges to ten times that size during the process + of incubation. "This air-bag," says Mr. Dickson, "is of + such great importance to the development of the chick, + probably by supplying it with a limited atmosphere of + oxygen, that if the blunt end of the egg be pierced with + the point of the smallest needle (a stratagem which malice + not unfrequently suggests), the egg cannot be hatched, but + perishes."</p> +<p>An egg exposed to the air is continually losing a portion + of its moisture, the place of which is filled by the entrance + of air, and the egg consequently becomes stale, and after a + time putrid. M. Réaumur made many experiments in + preserving eggs, and found that, by coating them with varnish, + it was impossible to distinguish those which had been + kept for a year from those newly laid; but varnish, though + not expensive, is not always to be had in country places, + and it also remained on the eggs placed under a hen and + impeded the hatching, while in boiling them, the varnish, + not being soluble in hot water, prevented them from being + properly cooked. He tried other substances, and found + that fat or grease, such as suet, lard, dripping, butter, and + oil, were well adapted for the purpose, the best of these + being a mixture of mutton and beef suet thoroughly melted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> together over a slow fire, and strained through a linen cloth + into an earthen pan. It is only requisite, he says, to take + a piece of the fat or butter about the size of a pea on the + end of the finger, and rub it all over the shell, by passing + and repassing the finger so that no part be left untouched; + the transpiration of matter from the egg being as effectually + stopped by the thinnest layer of fat or grease as by a + thick coating, so that no part of the shell be left ungreased, + or the tip of the finger may be dipped into oil and passed + over the shell in the same manner. If it is desired that + the eggs should look clean, they may be afterwards wiped + with a towel, for sufficient grease or oil enters the pores of + the shell to prevent all transpiration without its being + necessary that any should be left to fill up the spaces + between the pores. They can be boiled as usual without + rubbing off the fat, as it will melt in the hot water, and + when taken out of the water the little grease that is left + upon the egg is easily wiped off with a napkin.</p> +<p>Eggs preserved in this manner can also be used for + hatching, as the fat easily melts away by the heat of the + hen; and by this means the eggs of foreign fowls might be + carried to a distance, hatched, and naturalised in this and + other countries. The French also find that a mixture of + melted beeswax and olive oil is an excellent preservative.</p> +<p>Eggs may also be preserved for cooking by packing them + in sawdust, in an earthen vessel, and covering the top with + melted mutton suet or fat; as fruit is sometimes preserved. + They are also said to keep well in salt, in a barrel arranged + in layers of salt and eggs alternately. If the salt should + become damp, it would penetrate through the pores of the + shell and pickle them to a certain extent. M. Gagne says + that eggs may be preserved in a mixture made of one + bushel of quick-lime, two pounds of salt, and eight ounces + of cream of tartar, with sufficient water to make it into a + paste of a consistency to receive the eggs, which, it is said, + may be kept in it fresh for two years; but eggs become + tasteless when preserved with lime. It may be as well to + mention here that eggs are comparatively wasted when used + in making a rice pudding, as they render it too hard and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> dry, and the pudding without them, if properly made, will + be just of the right consistency.</p> +<p>"Another way to preserve eggs," says Mr. Dickson, + "is to have them cooked in boiling water the same day + they are laid. On taking them out of the water they are + marked with red ink, to record their date, and put away in + a cool place, where they will keep, it is said, for several + months. When they are wanted for use, they are again + put into hot water to warm them. The curdy part which is + usually seen in new-laid eggs is so abundant, and the taste + is said to be so well preserved, that the nicest people may + be made to believe that they are new laid. At the end of + three or four months, however, the membrane lining the + shell becomes much thickened, and the eggs lose their + flavour. Eggs so preserved have the advantage of not + suffering from being carried about."</p> +<p>"It ought not to be overlooked," says Mr. Dickson, + "with respect to the preservation of eggs, that they not + only spoil by the transpiration of their moisture and the + putrid fermentation of their contents, in consequence of air + penetrating through the pores of the shell; but also by + being moved about, and jostled when carried to a distance + by sea or land. Any sort of rough motion indeed ruptures + the membranes which keep the white, the yolk, and the + germ of the chick in their proper places, and upon these + becoming mixed, putrefaction soon follows."</p> +<p>If the eggs are to be kept for setting, place a box, divided + by partitions into divisions for the eggs of the different + breeds, in a dry corner of your kitchen, but not too near to + the fire; fill the divisions with bran previously well dried in + an oven; place the eggs in it upright, with the larger ends + uppermost, as soon as they are laid, and cover them with + the bran. Mark each egg in pencil with the date when + laid, and description of breed or cross. They should be + kept in a cool place or a warm place according to the season. + Airtight jars, closed with airtight stoppers, may be used + if the eggs are intended to be kept for a very long time.</p> +<p>In selecting eggs for setting, choose the freshest, those + of moderate size, well-shaped, and having the air-vessel<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> distinctly visible, either in the centre of the top of the egg, + or slightly to the side, when the egg is held between the + eye and a lighted candle, in a darkened room. Reject + very small eggs, which generally have no yolk, those that + are ill-shaped, and those of equal thickness at both ends, + which latter is the usual shape of eggs with double yolks. + These should be avoided, as they are apt generally to prove + unfertile, or produce monstrosities.</p> +<p>It has been stated that the sex of the embryo chicken + can be ascertained by the position of the air-vessel; that if + it be on the top the egg will produce a cockerel, and if on + the side a pullet; but there is no proof of the truth of + this, and, notwithstanding such assertions, it appears to be + impossible to foretell the sex of the chick, from the shape of + the egg or in any other way.</p> +<p>In selecting eggs for the purpose of producing fowls + that are to be kept for laying only, being non-sitters, + choose eggs only from those hens that are prolific layers, + for prolific laying is often as characteristic of some fowls of + a breed as it is of the particular breeds, and by careful + selection this faculty, like others, may be further developed, + or continued if already fully developed.</p> +<p>If carefully packed, eggs for setting may be carried + great distances—hundreds and even thousands of miles—without + injury; vibration and even moderate shaking, and + very considerable changes of temperature, producing no ill + effect upon the germ. The chief point is to prevent the + escape of moisture by evaporation, and consequent admission + of air. A hamper travels with less vibration than a + box, and is therefore preferable, especially for a long + journey. They should be packed in hay, by which they + will be preserved from breakage much better than by being + packed in short, close material like bran, chaff, oats, or + sawdust; these being shaken into smaller space by the + vibration of travelling, the eggs often strike and crack each + other. The hamper or box should be large enough to + admit of some soft, yielding packing material being placed + all round the eggs. The bottom should be first covered + with a good layer of hay, straw, or moss. It is a good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> plan to roll each egg separately in hay or moss, fastened + with a little wool or worsted. They should be covered + with well-rubbed straw, pressed down carefully and gently. + The lid of the hamper should be sewed on tightly all round, + or in three or four places at least. If a box is used, the lid + should be fastened by cords or screws, but not with nails, + as the hammering would probably destroy the germ of the + egg.</p> +<p>In procuring eggs for hatching, be sure that the parent + birds are of mature age, but not too old, well-shaped, + vigorous, and in perfect health; that one cock is kept to + every six or seven hens; and that they are well fed and + attended to. Have a steady broody hen ready to take the + eggs.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.</h2> +<h3>THE SITTING HEN.</h3> +<p>All hens that are inclined to sit should be allowed to + hatch and bring up one brood of chickens a year; for, if + altogether restrained from sitting, a hen suffers much in + moulting, and is restless and excited for the remainder of + the season. It is unnatural, and therefore must be injurious. + The period of incubation gives her rest from producing + eggs. The hen that is always stimulated to produce + eggs, and not allowed to vary that process by hatching + and bringing up a young brood, must ultimately suffer + from this constant drain upon her system, and the eggs are + said to be unwholesome.</p> +<p>But hens frequently wish to sit when it is not convenient, + or in autumn or winter, when it is not advisable, unless + very late or early chickens are desired, and every attention + can be given to them. To check this desire, the old-fashioned + plan with farmers' wives, of plunging the broody + hen into cold water, and keeping her there for some + minutes, was not only a cruel practice, but often failed to + effect its object, and must naturally always have caused + ultimate disease in the poor bird. When it is absolutely + necessary to check the desire of a hen to sit, the best plan + is to let her sit on some nest-eggs for a week, then remove + and coop her for a few days, away from the place where + she made her nest, low diet, as boiled potatoes and boiled + rice, and water being placed near; meanwhile taking away + the eggs and destroying the nest, and, not finding it on + her return, she will generally not seek for another, unless + she is a Cochin, or the desire exceedingly strong.</p> +<p>When a hen wishes to sit, she utters a peculiar cluck, + ruffles her feathers, wanders about, searches obscure corners + and recesses, is very fidgety, feverishly hot, impatient,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> anxiously restless, and seeks for a nest. Highly-fed hens + feel this desire sooner than those that are not so highly fed. + A hen may be induced to sit at any season, by confining + her in a dark room in a covered basket, only large enough + to contain her nest, keeping her warm, and feeding her on + stimulating food, such as bread steeped in ale, a little raw + liver or fresh meat chopped small, and potatoes mashed + warm with milk and oatmeal.</p> +<p>Every large poultry establishment should have a separate + house for the sitting hens, and the run that should be provided + for their relaxation must be divided from that of the + other fowls by wire or lattice work, to prevent any intrusion. + Where there is a large number of sitting hens, each + nest should be numbered, and the date of setting, number + and description of eggs, entered in a diary or memorandum + book opposite to the number; and the number of chickens + hatched, and any particulars likely to be useful on a future + occasion, should afterwards be entered.</p> +<p>A separate house and run for each sitting hen is a great + advantage, as it prevents other hens from going to the nest + during her absence, or herself from returning to the wrong + nest, as will often happen in a common house. The run + should not be large, or the hen may be inclined to wander + and stay away too long from her nest. A separate division + for the sitting hen is often otherwise useful, for the + purpose of keeping the cock apart from the hens, or for + keeping a few additional birds for which accommodation + has not been prepared, or for the use of a pen of birds + about to be sent for exhibition.</p> +<p>"Boxes, of which every carpenter knows the form," says + Mowbray, "are to be arranged round the walls, and it is + proper to have a sufficient number, the hens being apt to + dispute possession, and sit upon one another. The board + or step at the entrance should be of sufficient height to + prevent the eggs from rolling out. Provision of a few + railed doors may be made for occasional use, to be hung + before the entrance, in order to prevent other hens from + intruding to lay their eggs upon those which sit, a habit to + which some are much addicted, and by which a brood is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> often injured. The common deep square boxes, uncovered at + top, are extremely improper, because that form obliges the + hen to jump down upon her eggs, whereas for safety she + should descend upon them from a very small height, or in + a manner walk in upon them. The same objection lies + against hampers, with the additional one of the wicker-work + admitting the cold in variable weather, during winter + or early spring sittings. Many breeders prefer to have all + the nests upon the ground, on account of the danger of + chickens falling from the nests which are placed above." + The ground is preferable for other reasons. The damp + arising from the ground assists very materially in incubation. + When fowls sit upon wooden floors, or in boxes, the eggs + become so dry and parched as to prevent the chicken from + disencumbering itself of the shell, and it is liable to perish + in its attempts. Hens in a state of nature make their + nests upon the ground; and fowls, when left to choose a + nest for themselves, generally fix upon a hedge, where the + hen conceals herself under the branches of the hedge, and + among the grass. In general, the sitting places are too + close and confined, and very different in this respect to + those that hens select for themselves.</p> +<p>But nests cannot always be allowed to be made on the + ground, unless properly secured from vermin, particularly + from rats, which will frequently convey away the whole of + the eggs from under a hen. And other considerations may + render it necessary to have them on a floor, in boxes on + the ground, or placed above; in which cases the eggs must + be kept properly moistened, for, unless the egg is kept + sufficiently damp, its inner membrane becomes so hard and + dry that the chicken cannot break through, and perishes. + When a hen steals her nest in a hedge or clump of evergreens + or bushes, she makes it on the damp ground. She + goes in search of food early in the morning, before the dew + is off the grass, and returns to her nest with her feathers + saturated with moisture. This is the cause of the comparatively + successful hatching of the eggs of wild birds. The + old farmers' wives did not understand the necessity of + damping eggs, but frequently complained of their not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> hatching, although chickens were found in them, which + was, in most cases, entirely caused by want of damping. + If, therefore, the weather is warm and wet, all will probably + go well; but if the air should be very dry, moisture + must be imparted by sprinkling the nest and eggs slightly, + when the hen is off feeding, by means of a small brush + dipped in tepid water. A small flat brush such as is used + by painters is excellent for this purpose, as it does not distribute + the water too freely. The ground round about, + also, should be watered with hot water, to cause a steam. + But the natural moisture of a damp soil is preferable, and + never fails.</p> +<p>The nest may be of any shape. A long box divided by + partitions into several compartments is much used, but + separate boxes or baskets are preferable as being more + easily cleaned and freed from vermin. Wooden nest-boxes + are preferable to wicker baskets in winter, as the latter let + in the cold air, but many prefer wicker baskets in summer + for their airiness. A round glazed earthen pan, with + shelving sides, like those used in the midland counties for + milk, and partially filled with moss, forms a good nest, the + moss being easier kept moist in such a pan than in a box. + The nest should be made so large that the hen can just fill + it, not very deep, and as nearly flat inside at the bottom as + possible, so that the eggs may not lean against each other, + or they may get broken, especially by the hen turning + them.</p> +<p>The best filling for hatching nests is fine dry sand, + mould, coal or wood ashes placed on a cut turf, covering it + and lining the sides with a little well-broken dry grass, + moss, bruised straw, lichen, or liverwort collected from + trees, or dry heather, which is the best of all, but cannot + always be had. Hay, though soft at first, soon becomes + hard and matted, and is also said to breed vermin. Straw + is good material, but must be cut into short pieces, for if + long straw is used and the hen should catch her foot in it, + and drag it after her when she leaves the nest, it will disturb, + if not break, the eggs. The nests of the sitting hens + in Her Majesty's poultry-yard at Windsor are made of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> heather, which offers an excellent medium between the + natural damp hedge-nest of the hen and the dryness of a + box filled with straw, and also enables her to free herself + from those insects which are so troublesome to sitting hens. + A thick layer of ashes placed under the straw in cold + weather will keep in the heat of the hen. A little Scotch + snuff is a good thing to keep the nests free from vermin.</p> +<p>Where only a few fowls are kept, and a separate place + cannot be found for the sitting hen, she can be placed on a + nest which should be covered over with a coop, closed in + with a little boarding or some other contrivance for a day + or two, to prevent her being disturbed by any other fowls + that have been accustomed to lay there. They will then + soon use another nest. She should be carefully lifted off + her nest, by taking hold of her under the wings, regularly + every morning, exercised and fed, and then shut in, + so that she cannot be annoyed.</p> +<p>It is best to allow a hen to keep the nest she has + chosen when she shows an inclination to sit; and if she continues + to sit steadily, and has not a sufficient number of + eggs under her, or the eggs you desire her to hatch, + remove her gently at night, replace the eggs with the + proper batch, and place her quietly upon the nest again. + Hens are very fond of choosing their own nests in out of + the way places; and where the spot is not unsafe, or too + much exposed to the weather, it is best to let her keep + possession, for it has been noticed that, when she selects + her own nest and manages for herself, she generally brings + forth a good and numerous brood. Mr. Tegetmeier observes + that he has "reason to believe, indeed, that whatever care + may be taken in keeping eggs, their vitality is better preserved + when they are allowed to remain in the nest. + Perhaps the periodical visits of the hen, while adding to + her store of eggs, has a stimulating influence. The warmth + communicated in the half-hour during which she occupies + the nest may have a tendency to preserve the embryo in a + vigorous state."</p> +<p>It is a good plan, before giving an untried hen choice + eggs, to let her sit upon a few chalk or stale eggs for a few<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> days, and if she continue to sit with constancy, then to + give her the batch for hatching. When choice can be + made out of several broody hens for a valuable batch of + eggs, one should be selected with rather short legs, a broad + body, large wings well furnished with feathers, and having + the nails and spurs not too long or sharp. As a rule, hens + which are the best layers are the worst sitters, and those + with short legs are good sitters, while long-legged hens are + not. Dorkings are the best sitters of all breeds, and by + high feeding may be induced to sit in October, especially + if they have moulted early, and with great care and + attention chickens may be reared and made fit for table by + Christmas. Early in the spring Dorkings only should be + employed as mothers, for they remain much longer with + their chickens than the Cochin-Chinas, but the latter may + safely be entrusted with a brood after April. Cochins are + excellent sitters, and, from the quantity of "fluff" which is + peculiar to them, keep the eggs at a high and regular + degree of heat. Their short legs also are advantageous + for sitting. A Cochin hen can always be easily induced to + sit, and eggs of theirs or of Brahma Pootras for sitting, + are not wanted in the coldest weather.</p> +<p>Old hens are more steady sitters than pullets, more fond + of their brood, and not so apt as pullets to leave them too + soon. Indeed, pullets were formerly never allowed to sit + before the second year of their laying, but now many + eminent authorities think it best to let them sit when they + show a strong desire to do so, considering that the prejudice + against them upon this point is unfounded, and that + young hens sit as well as older fowls. Pullets hatched + early will generally begin to lay in November or December, + if kept warm and well fed, and will sit in January or + February.</p> +<p>Broody hens brought from a distance should be carried + in a basket, covered over with a cloth.</p> +<p>The number of eggs to be set under a hen must be + according to the extent of her wings and the temperature + of the weather. Some say that the number may vary from + nine to fourteen, but others would never give more than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> nine in winter and early spring, and eleven in summer, to + the largest hen, and two fewer to the smaller fowls. A + Cochin-China may have fifteen of her own in summer. + A hen should not be allowed more eggs than she can completely + cover; for eggs that are not thoroughly covered + become chilled, and fewer and weaker chickens will be + hatched from too large a number than from a more moderate + allowance. It is not only necessary to consider how + many eggs a hen can hatch, but also how many chickens + she can cover when they are partly grown. In January + and February, not more than seven or eight eggs should + be placed under the hen, as she cannot cover more than + that number of chickens when they grow large, and exposure + to the cold during the long winter nights would + destroy many. "The common order to set egges," says + Mascall, "is in odde numbers, as seven, nyne, eleven, + thirteen, &c., whiche is to make them lye round the neste, + and to have the odde egge in the middest."</p> +<p>Eggs for sitting should be under a fortnight old, if possible, + and never more than a month. Fresh eggs hatch in + proper time, and, if good, produce strong, lively chicks; + while stale eggs are hatched sometimes as much as two + days later than new laid, and the chickens are often too + weak to break the shell, while of those well out fewer will + probably be reared. It is certain, as a general rule, that + the older the egg the weaker will be its progeny. Every + egg should be marked by a pencil or ink line drawn quite + round it, so that it can be known without touching, and if + another be laid afterwards it may be at once detected and + removed, for hens will sometimes lay several after they + have commenced sitting. Place the eggs under the hen + with their larger ends uppermost.</p> +<p>Let the hen be well fed and supplied with water before + putting her on the nest. Whole barley and soft food, + chiefly barley-meal and mashed potatoes, should be given + to her when she comes off the nest, and she must have as + much as she will eat, for she leaves the nest but once daily, + and the full heat of the body cannot be kept up without + plenty of food; or she may have the same food as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> general stock. A good supply of water must be always + within her reach. A good-sized shallow box or pan, containing + fine coal-ashes, sand, or dry earth, to cleanse herself + in, should always be ready near to the nest. She should + be left undisturbed, and, as far as possible, allowed to + manage her own business. When a hen shows impatience + of her confinement, and frequently leaves the nest, + M. Parmentier advises that half only of her usual meal + should be given, after which she should be replaced on the + nest and fed from the hand with hemp or millet seed, which + will induce her to stay constantly on her eggs. Others + will sit so long and closely that they become faint for want + of food. Such hens should not be fed on the nest, but + gently induced with some tempting dainty to take a little + exercise, for they will not leave their eggs of their own + accord, and feeding on the nest has crippled many a good + sitter. It is not healthy for the hen to feed while sitting + on or close by the nest, for she requires a little exercise + and rolling in the dust-heap, as well as that the eggs + should be exposed for the air to carry off any of that + stagnant vapour which M. Réaumur proved to be so + destructive to the embryo chickens; and it has also been + shown by physiologists that the cooling of the eggs caused + by this absence of the hen is essential to allow a supply + of air to penetrate through the pores of the shell, for the + respiration of the chick. When there are many hens sitting + at the same time, it is a good plan to take them off their + nests regularly at the same time every morning to feed, + and afterwards give them an opportunity to cleanse themselves + in a convenient dusting-place, and, if possible, allow + them exercise in a good grass run. A hen should never be + caught, but driven back gently to her nest.</p> +<p>A good hen will not stay away more than half an hour, + unless infested with vermin, from want of having a proper + dust-heap. But hens have often been absent for more than + an hour, and yet have hatched seven or eight chickens; + and instances have been known of their being absent for + five and even for nine hours, and yet hatching a few. The + following remarkable instance is recorded by an excellent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> authority: "Eggs had been supplied and a sitting hen + lent to a neighbour, and, when she had set in a granary + ten days, she was shut out through the carelessness of a + servant. Being a stranger in the farmyard, the hen was + not recognised, but supposed to have strayed in from an + adjoining walk, and thirty hours elapsed before it was discovered + that the hen had left her nest. The farmer's wife + despaired of her brood; but, to her surprise and pleasure, + eight chickens were hatched. The tiled roof of the granary + was fully exposed to the rays of the sun, and the temperature + very high, probably above 80 deg. during the day, and + not much lower at night." Valuable eggs, therefore, + should not be abandoned on account of a rather lengthened + absence; and ordinary eggs should not be discarded as + worthless if the hen has already sat upon them for a fortnight + or so; but if she has been sitting for only a few + days, it is safer to throw them away, and have a fresh + batch.</p> +<p>During the hen's absence, always look at the eggs, + remove any that may have been broken, and very gently + wash any sticky or dirty eggs with a flannel dipped in + milk-warm water. See that they are dry before putting + them back. If the nest is also dirty, replace it with fresh + material of the same kind. Gently drive the hen back to + her nest as quickly as possible, to prevent any damage + from the eggs becoming chilled. If a hen should break an + egg with her feet or otherwise, it should be removed as + soon as it is seen, or she may eat it, and, liking the taste, + break and eat the others. Some hens have a bad habit of + breaking and eating the eggs on which they are sitting, to + cure which some recommend to boil an egg hard, bore a + few holes in it, so that the inside can be seen, and give it + while hot to the culprit, who will peck at the holes and + burn herself; but hens with such propensities should be + fattened for the table, for they are generally useless either + for sitting or laying.</p> +<p>Some persons examine the eggs after the hen has sat + upon them for six or seven days, and remove all that are + sterile, by which plan more warmth and space are gained<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> for those that are fertile, and the warmth is not wasted + upon barren eggs. They may be easily proved by holding + them near to the flame of a candle, the eye being kept + shaded by one hand, when the fertile eggs will appear dark + and the sterile transparent. Another plan is to place the + eggs on a drum, or between the hands, in the sunshine, + and observe the shadow. If this wavers, by the motion of + the chick, the eggs are good; but if the shadow shows no + motion, they are unfertile. If two hens have been sitting + during the same time, and many unfertile eggs are found + in the two nests, all the fertile eggs should be placed under + one hen, and a fresh batch given to the other. The eggs + should not be moved after this time, except by the hen, + more especially when incubation has proceeded for some + time, lest the position of the chick be interfered with, + for if taken up a little time before its exit, and incautiously + replaced with the large end lowermost, the chicken, from + its position, will not be able to chip the shell, and must + therefore perish. The forepart of the chicken is towards + the biggest end of the egg, and it is so placed in the shell + that the beak is always uppermost. When the egg of a + choice breed has been cracked towards the end of the + period of incubation, the crack may be covered with a slip + of gummed paper, or the unprinted border that is round + a sheet of postage stamps, and the damaged egg will + probably yet produce a fine chick.</p> +<p>It is a good plan to set two hens on the same day, for + the two broods may be united under one if desirable, and + on the hatching day, to prevent the newly-born chickens + being crushed by the unhatched eggs, all that are hatched + can be given to one hen, and the other take charge of the + eggs, which are then more likely to be hatched, as, while + the chickens are under the hen, she will sit higher from + the eggs, and afford them less warmth when they require + it most.</p> +<p>The hen of all kinds of gallinaceous fowls, from the + Bantam to the Cochin-China, sits for twenty-one days, at + which time, on an average, the chickens break the shell; + but if the eggs are new laid it will often lessen the time<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> by five or six hours, while stale eggs will always be behind + time. For the purpose of breaking the shell, the yet soft + beak of the chicken is furnished, just above the point of the + upper mandible, with a small, hard, horny scale, which, + from the position of the head, as Mr. Yarrell observes, is + brought in contact with the inner surface of the shell. + This scale may be always seen on the beaks of newly-hatched + chickens, but in the course of a short time peels + off. It should not be removed. The peculiar sound, incorrectly + called "tapping," so perceptible within the egg + about the nineteenth day of incubation, which was universally + believed to be produced by the bill of the chick + striking against the shell in order to break it and effect + its release, has been incontestably proved, by the late Dr. + F. R. Horner, of Hull, in a paper read by him before the + British Association for the Advancement of Science, to be + a totally distinct sound, being nothing more than the + natural respiratory sound in the lungs of the young chick, + which first begins to breathe at that period. Of course + there is also an occasional sound made by the tapping of + the beak in endeavouring to break the shell.</p> +<p>The time occupied in breaking the shell varies, according + to the strength of the chick, from one to three hours + usually, but extends sometimes to twenty-four, and even + more. "I have seen," says Réaumur, "chicks continue at + work for two days together; some work incessantly, while + others take rest at intervals, according to their physical + strength. Some, I have observed, begin to break the shell + a great deal too soon; for, be it observed, they ought, + before they make their exit, to have within them provision + enough to serve for twenty-four hours without taking food, + and for this purpose the unconsumed portion of the yolk + enters through the navel. The chick, indeed, which comes + out of the shell without taking up all the yolk is certain to + droop and die in a few days after it is hatched. The + assistance which I have occasionally tried to give to several + of them, by way of completing their deliverance, has + afforded me an opportunity of observing those which had + begun to break their shells before this was accomplished;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> and I have opened many eggs much fractured, in each of + which the chick had as yet much of the yolk not absorbed. + Some chicks have greater obstacles to overcome than + others, since all shells are not of an equal thickness nor of + an equal consistence; and the same inequality takes place + in the lining membrane, and offers still greater difficulty to + the emergent chick. The shells of the eggs of birds of + various species are of a thickness proportionate to the + strength of the chick that is obliged to break through + them. The canary-bird would never be able to break the + shell it is enclosed in if that were as thick as the egg of + a barn-door fowl. The chick of a barn-door fowl, again, + would in vain try to break its shell if it were as thick and + hard as that of an ostrich; indeed, though an ostrich ready + to be hatched is perhaps thrice as large as the common + chick, it is not easy to conceive how the force of its bill + can be strong enough to break a shell thicker than a china + cup, and the smoothness and gloss of which indicate that + it is nearly as hard—sufficiently so to form, as may be + often seen, a firm drinking-cup. It is the practice in some + countries to dip the eggs into warm water at the time they + are expected to chip, on the supposition that the shell is + thereby rendered more fragile, and the labour of the chick + lightened. But, though the water should soften it, upon + drying in the air it would become as hard as at first. + When the chick is entirely or almost out of the shell, it + draws its head from under its wing, where it had hitherto + been placed, stretches out its neck, directing it forwards, + but for several minutes is unable to raise it. On seeing + for the first time a chick in this condition, we are led to + infer that its strength is exhausted, and that it is ready to + expire; but in most cases it recruits rapidly, its organs + acquire strength, and in a very short time it appears quite + another creature. After having dragged itself on its legs + a little while, it becomes capable of standing on them, and + of lifting up its neck and bending it in various directions, + and at length of holding up its head. At this period the + feathers are merely fine down, but, as they are wet with + the fluid of the egg, the chick appears almost naked.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> From the multitude of their branchlets these down feathers + resemble minute shrubs; when, however, these branchlets + are wet and sticking to each other, they take up but very + little room; as they dry they become disentangled and separated. + The branchlets, plumules, or beards of each feather + are at first enclosed in a membranous tube, by which they + are pressed and kept close together; but as soon as this + dries it splits asunder, an effect assisted also by the elasticity + of the plumules themselves, which causes them to + recede and spread themselves out. This being accomplished, + each down feather extends over a considerable + space, and when they all become dry and straight, the + chick appears completely clothed in a warm vestment of + soft down."</p> +<p>If they are not out in a few hours after the shell has been + broken, and the hole is not enlarged, they are probably glued + to the shell. Look through the egg then, and, if all the + yolk has passed into the body of the chicken, you may assist + it by enlarging the fracture with a pair of fine scissors, + cutting up towards the large end of the egg, never downwards. + "If," says Miss Watts, "the time has arrived when + the chicken may with safety be liberated, there will be no + appearance of blood in the minute blood-vessels spread + over the interior of the shell; they have done their work, + and are no longer needed by the now fully developed and + breathing chick. If there should be the slightest appearance + of blood, resist at once, for its escape would generally + be fatal. Do not attempt to let the chicken out at once, + but help it a little every two or three hours. The object + is not to hurry the chicken out of its shell, but to prevent + its being suffocated by being close shut up within it. If + the chick is tolerably strong, and the assistance needful, it + will aid its deliverance with its own exertions." When + the chicken at last makes its way out, do not interfere with + it in any way, or attempt to feed it. Animal heat alone can + restore it. Weakness has caused the delay, and this has + probably arisen from insufficient warmth, perhaps from the + hen having had too many eggs to cover thoroughly, or + they may have been stale when set. Should you have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> to assist it out of the shell, take it out gently with your + fingers, taking great care not to tear any of its tender + skin, when freeing the feathers from the shell.</p> +<p>Mr. Wright says: "We never ourselves now attempt to + assist a chick from the shell. If the eggs were fresh, and + proper care has been taken to preserve moisture during + incubation, no assistance is ever needed. To fuss about + the nest frets the hen exceedingly; and we have always + found that, even where the poor little creature survived at + the time, it never lived to maturity. Should the reader + attempt such assistance, in cases where an egg has been long + chipped, and no further progress made, let the shell be + cracked gently all round, without tearing the inside membrane; + if that be perforated, the viscid fluid inside dries + and glues the chick to the shell. Should this happen, or + should both shell and membrane be perforated at first, + introduce the point of a pair of scissors and cut up the egg + towards the large end, where there will be an empty space, + remembering that, if blood flows, all hope is at end. Then + put the chick back under the hen; she will probably + squeeze it to death, it is true—it is so very weak; but + it will never live if put by the fire, at least we always found + it so. Indeed, as we have said, we consider it quite + useless to make the attempt at all."</p> +<p>The fact is, it is scarcely worth while to attempt to assist + in the case of ordinary eggs, but if the breed is valuable + the labour may be well bestowed.</p> +<p>Some hens are reluctant to give up sitting, and will + hatch a second brood with evident pleasure; but it is cruel + to overtask their strength and patience, and they are + sure to suffer, more or less, from the unnatural exertion.</p> +<p>Some breeders use a contrivance called an "artificial + mother" for broods hatched under the hen, and it may be + employed very advantageously when any accident has happened + to her. It is made in various forms, such as a wooden + frame, or shallow box, open at both ends, and sloping like + a writing-desk, with a perforated lid lined with sheep + or lamb's skin, goose-down, or some similar warm fleecy + material hanging down, under and between which the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> chickens nestle, heat being applied to the lid either by hot + water or hot air, so as to imitate the warmth of the hen's + breast. When chickens are hatched by artificial means, + such as by the Hydro-Incubator, or the Eccaleobion, or in an + oven according to the method practised by the Egyptians, + these protectors are essential; for without a good substitute + for the hen's natural warmth the chickens would perish. + Artificial incubators are now extensively used, and where + gas is laid on they are easily managed, but the chief difficulty + is in rearing the chickens. For information on the + subject see the works of Tegetmeier, Dickson, and Wright, + on Poultry.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</h2> +<h3>REARING AND FATTENING FOWLS.</h3> +<p>The first want which the chick will feel will be that of + warmth, and there is no warmth so suited for them as that + of the hen's body. Some persons remove the chicks from + under the mother as soon as they are hatched, one by one, + placing them in a basket covered up with flannel, and + keep them there in a warm place, until the last chick + is out, when they are put back under the hen. But this is + very seldom necessary unless the weather is very cold and + the hen restless, and is generally more likely to annoy than + benefit her. Nor should the hen be induced to leave the + nest, but be left undisturbed until she leaves of her own + accord, when the last hatched chickens will be in a better + condition to follow her than if she had been tempted + to leave earlier. In a few hours they are able to run + about and follow their parent; they do not require to be + fed in the nest like most birds, but pick up the food + which their mother shows them; and repose at night + huddled up beneath her wings. The chicken during its + development in the egg is nourished by the yolk, and the + remaining portion of the yolk passes into its body previous + to its leaving the shell, being designed for its first nourishment; + and the chicken, therefore, does not require any food + whatever during the first day. The old-fashioned plan, so + popular with "practical" farmers' wives, of cramming a + peppercorn down the throat of the newly-hatched chick + is absurd and injurious.</p> +<p>The first food must be very light and delicate, such as + crumbs of bread soaked in milk, the yolk of an egg boiled + hard, and curds; but very little of anything at first except + water, for thirst will come before hunger. The thirsty hen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> will herself soon teach the little ones how to drink. If + your chicks be very weakly, you may cram them with + crumbs of good white bread, steeped in milk or wine, but + at the same time recollect that their little craws are not + capable of holding more than the bulk of a pea; so rather + under than over feed them.</p> +<p>As soon as the hen leaves the nest, she should have as + much grain as she can eat, and a good supply of pure, + clean water. In winter, or settled wet weather, she should, + if possible, be kept on her nest for a day, and, when + removed, be cooped in a warm, dry shed or outhouse; + but in summer, if the weather be fine, and the chickens + well upon their legs, they may be at once cooped out in + the sun, on dry gravel, or if possible on a nice grass-plot, + with food and water within her reach. The hen is cooped + to prevent her from wearying the brood by leading them + about until they are over-tired, besides being exposed to + danger from cats, hawks, and vermin, tumbling into ditches, + or getting wet in the high grass. They can pass in and + out between the bars of the coop, and will come when she + calls, or they wish to shelter under her wings. It is a + good plan to place the coop for the first day out upon + some dry sand, so that the hen can cleanse herself comfortably. + The common basket coop should only be used + in fine weather, and some straw, kept down by a stone, + matting, or other covering, should be placed on the top, to + shelter them from the mid-day sun; otherwise a wooden + coop should be used, open in front only, about two and + a half or three feet square; well-made of stout, sound + boards, with a gabled roof covered with felt; and at night + a thick canvas or matting should be hung over the front, + sufficient space being left for proper ventilation, but not to + admit cold draught, or to allow the chicks to get out. + Mr. Wright describes an excellent coop which is "very + common in some parts of France, and consists of two + compartments, separated by a partition of bars, one compartment + being closed in front, the other fronted with bars + like the partition. Each set of bars should have a sliding + one to serve as a door, and the whole coop should be tight<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> and sound. It is best to have no bottom, but to put it on + loose dry earth or ashes, an inch or two deep. Each half + of the coop is about two feet six inches square, and may + or may not be lighted from the top by a small pane of + glass. The advantage of such a coop is that, except in + very severe weather, no further shelter is required, even at + night [if placed under a shed]. During the day the hen + is kept in the outer compartment, the chickens having + liberty, and the food and water being placed outside; + whilst at night she is put in the inner portion of the coop, + and a piece of canvas or sacking hung over the bars of the + outer half. If the top be glazed, a little food and the + water-vessel may be placed in the outer compartment at + night, and the chicks will be able to run out and feed early + in the morning, being prevented by the canvas from going + out into the cold air. It will be only needful to remove + the coop every two days for a few minutes, to take away + the tainted earth and replace it with fresh. There should, + if possible, be a grass-plot in front of the shed, the floor + of which should be covered with dry, loose dust or earth." + The hen should be kept under a coop until the brood has + grown strong. Some breeders object to cooping, on account + of its preventing the hen from scratching for worms + and insects for her brood, and which are far superior to + the substitutes with which they must be supplied, unless, + indeed, a good supply of worms, ants' eggs, insects, or + gentles can be had. The hen too has not sufficient exercise + after her long sitting. Cooping thus has its advantages + and disadvantages, and its adoption or not should depend + upon circumstances. If it is preferred not to coop the hen, + and she should be inclined to roam too far, a small run may + be made with network, or with the moveable wire-work + described on <a href="#Page_21">page 21</a>.</p> +<p>Winter-hatched chickens must be reared and fed in + a warm place, which must be kept at an equal temperature. + They return a large profit for the great care they + require in hatching and rearing.</p> +<p>Chickens should be fed very often; every two hours is + not too frequently. The number of these meals must be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> reduced by degrees to four or five, which may be continued + until they are full grown. Grain should not be + given to newly-hatched chickens. The very best food for + them, after their first meal of bread-crumbs and egg, is + made of two parts of coarse oatmeal and one part of barley-meal, + mixed into a thick crumbly paste with milk or + water. If milk is used, it must be fresh mixed for each + meal, or it will become sour. Cold oatmeal porridge is an + excellent food, and much liked by them. After the first + week they may have cheaper food, such as bran, oatmeal, + and Indian meal mixed, or potatoes mashed with bran. + In a few days they may also have some whole grain, which + their little gizzards will then be fully able to grind. Grits, + crushed wheat, or bruised oats, should form the last meal + at night. Bread sopped in water is the worst food they + can have, and even with milk is still inferior to meal. + For the first three or four days they may also have daily + the yolk of an egg boiled hard and chopped up small, + which will be sufficient for a dozen chicks; and afterwards, + a piece of cooked meat, rather underdone, the size of a + good walnut, minced fine, should be daily given to the + brood until they are three weeks old. In winter and very + early spring this stimulating diet may be given regularly, + and once a day they should also have some stale bread + soaked in ale; and whenever chickens suffer from bad + feathering, caused either by the coldness of the season or + delicacy of constitution, they must be fed highly, and + have a daily supply of bread soaked in ale. Ants' eggs, + which are well known as the very best animal diet for + young pheasants, are also excellent for young chickens; + and when a nest can be obtained it should be thrown with + its surrounding mould into the run for them to peck at. + Where there is no grass-plot they should have some grass + cut into small pieces, or other vegetable food minced small, + until they are able to peck pieces from the large leaves. + Onion tops and leeks chopped small, cress, lettuce, and + cabbage, are much relished by all young poultry. The + French breeders give a few dried nettle seeds occasionally. + Young growing fowls can scarcely have too much food, so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> long as they eat it with a good appetite, and do not tread + any about, or otherwise leave it to waste.</p> +<p>Young poultry cannot thrive if overcrowded. They + should not be allowed to roost on the branches of trees or + shrubs, or otherwise out of doors, even in the warmest + weather, or they will acquire the habit of sleeping out, + which cannot be easily overcome; not that they would suffer + much from even severe weather, when once accustomed to + roosting out of doors, but from want of warmth the supply + of eggs would decrease, and it would, in many places, + be unsafe and, in most, inconvenient.</p> +<p>The sooner chickens can be fattened, of course the + greater must be the profit. They should be put up for + fattening as soon as they have quitted the hen, for they are + then generally in good condition, but begin to lose flesh as + their bones develop and become stronger, particularly + those fowls which stand high on the leg.</p> +<p>Fowls are in perfection for eating just before they are + fully developed. By keeping young fowls, especially the + cockerels, too long before fattening them for market + or home consumption, they eat up all the profit that would + be made by disposing of them when the pullets have + ceased laying just before their first adult moult, and the + cockerels before their appetites have become large. Fowls + intended to be fattened should be well and abundantly fed + from their birth; for if they are badly fed during their + growth they become stunted, the bones do not attain their + full size, and no amount of feeding will afterwards supply + these defects and transform them into fine, large birds. + Poultry that have been constantly fed well from their birth + will not only be always ready for the table, with very little + extra attention and feeding, but their flesh will be superior + in juiciness and rich flavour to those which are fattened + up from a poor state. In choosing full-grown fowls for + fattening, the short-legged and early-hatched should be + preferred.</p> +<p>In fattening poultry, "the well-known common + methods," Mowbray observes, "are, first, to give fowls the + run of the farmyard, where they thrive upon the offals of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> the stables and other refuse, with perhaps some small + regular feeds; but at threshing time they become fat, and + are thence styled barn-door fowls, probably the most delicate + and high-flavoured of all others, both from their full + allowance of the finest corn and from the constant health + in which they are kept, by living in the natural state, and + having the full enjoyment of air and exercise; or secondly, + they are confined during a certain number of weeks in + coops; those fowls which are soonest ready being drawn as + wanted." "The former method," says Mr. Dickson, "is + immeasurably the best as regards the flavour and even + wholesomeness of the fowls as food, and though the + latter mode may, in some cases, make the fowls fatter, it is + only when they have been always accustomed to confinement; + for when barn-door fowls are cooped up for a week + or two under the notion of improving them for the table, + and increasing their fat, it rarely succeeds, since the fowls + generally pine for their liberty, and, slighting their food, + lose instead of gaining additional flesh."</p> +<p>To fatten fowls that have not the advantage of a barn-door, + Mowbray recommends fattening-houses large enough + to contain twenty or thirty fowls, warm and airy, with + well-raised earth floors, slightly littered down with straw, + which should be often changed, and the whole place kept + perfectly clean. "Sandy gravel," he says, "should be + placed in several different layers, and often changed. A + sufficient number of troughs for both water and food + should be placed around, that the stock may feed with as + little interruption as possible from each other, and perches + in the same proportion should be furnished for those birds + which are inclined to perch, which few of them will desire + after they have begun to fatten, but it helps to keep them + easy and contented until that period. In this manner + fowls may be fattened to the highest pitch, and yet preserved + in a healthy state, their flesh being nearly equal in + quality to the barn-door fowl. To suffer fattening fowls to + perch is contrary to the general practice, since it is supposed + to bend and deform the backbone; but as soon as + they become heavy and indolent from feeding, they will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> rather incline to roost in the straw, and the liberty of + perching has a tendency to accelerate the period when they + wish for rest."</p> +<p>The practice of fattening fowls in coops, if carried to a + moderate extent, is not objectionable, and may be necessary + in many cases. The coop may be three feet high, two + feet wide, and four feet long, which will accommodate six + or eight birds, according to their size; or it may be constructed + in compartments, each being about nine inches by + eighteen, and about eighteen inches high. The floor should + not consist of board, but be formed of bars two inches + wide, and placed two inches apart. The bars should be + laid from side to side, and not from the back to the front + of the coop. They should be two inches wide at the upper + part, with slanting or rounded sides, so as to prevent the dung + from sticking to them instead of falling straight between. + The front should be made of rails three inches apart. The + house in which the coops are placed should be properly + ventilated, but free from cold draughts, and kept of an + even temperature, which should be moderately warm. The + fronts of the coops should be covered with matting or + other kind of protection in cold weather. The coop should + be placed about two inches from the ground, and a shallow + tray filled with fresh dry earth should be placed underneath + to catch the droppings, and renewed every day.</p> +<p>When fowls are put up to fat they should not have any + food given to them for some hours, and they will take it + then more eagerly than if pressed upon them when first + put into the coop. But little grain should be given to + fowls during the time they are fattening in coops; indeed + the chief secret of success consists in supplying them with + the most fattening food without stint, in such a form that + their digestive mills shall find no difficulty in grinding it. + Buckwheat-meal is the best food for fattening; and to its + use the French, in a great measure, owe the splendid condition + of the fowls they send to market. If it cannot be + had, the best substitute is an equal mixture of maize-meal + and barley-meal. The meal may be mixed with skim + milk if available. Oatmeal and barley-meal alternately,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> mixed with milk, and occasionally with a little dripping, is + good fattening food. Milk is most excellent for all young + poultry. A little chopped green food should be given + daily, to keep their bowels in a proper state.</p> +<p>The feeding-troughs, which must be kept clean by + frequent scouring, should be placed before the fowls at + regular times, and when they have eaten sufficient it + is best to remove them, and place a little gravel within + reach to assist digestion. Each fowl should have as much + food as it will eat at one time, but none should be left to + become sour. A little barley may, however, be scattered + within their reach. A good supply of clean water must be + always within their reach. If a bird appears to be troubled + with vermin, some powdered sulphur, well rubbed into the + roots of the feathers, will give immediate relief. The + coops should be thoroughly lime-washed after the fowls + are removed, and well dried before fresh birds are put up + in them.</p> +<p>It is a common practice to fatten poultry in coops by a + process called "cramming," by which they are loaded with + greasy fat in a very short time. But it is evident that + such overtaxing of the fowls' digestive powers, want of + exercise and fresh air, confinement in a small space, and + partial deprivation of light, without which nothing living, + either animal or vegetable, can flourish, cannot produce + healthy or wholesome flesh. "Indeed," as Mowbray observes, + "it seems contrary to reason, that fowls fed upon + such greasy, impure mixtures can possibly produce flesh + or fat so firm, delicate, high-flavoured, or nourishing, + as those fattened upon more simple and substantial food; + as for example, meal and milk, and perhaps either treacle + or sugar. With respect to grease of any kind, its chief + effect must be to render the flesh loose and of a coarse + flavour. Neither can any advantage be gained, except + perhaps a commercial one, by very quick feeding; for + real excellence cannot be obtained but by waiting nature's + time, and using the best food. Besides all this, I have + been very unsuccessful in my few attempts to fatten fowls + by cramming; they seem to loathe the crams, to pine, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> to lose the flesh they were put up with, instead of acquiring + flesh; and when crammed fowls do succeed, they must + necessarily, in the height of their fat, be in a state of + disease." Mr. Muirhead, poulterer to Her Majesty in + Scotland, says: "With regard to <i>cramming</i>, I may say + that it is <i>wholly</i> unnecessary, provided the fowls have + abundance of the best food at regular intervals, fresh air, and + a free run; in confinement fowls may gain fat, but they + lose flesh. None but those who have had experience can + form any idea how both qualities can be obtained in + a natural way. I have seen fowls reared at Inchmartine + (which had never been shut up, or had food forced upon + them), equal, if not superior, to the finest Surrey fowl, + or those fattened by myself for the Royal table."</p> +<p>If "cramming" is practised it should be done in the + following manner: The feeder, usually a female, should + take the fowl carefully out of the fatting-coop by placing + both her hands gently under its breast, then sit down with + the bird upon her lap, its rump under her left arm, open + its mouth with the finger and thumb of the left hand, take + the pellet with the right, dip it well into water, milk, or + pot liquor, shake the superfluous moisture from it, put it + into the mouth, "cram" it gently into the gullet with her + forefinger, then close the beak and gently assist it down + into the crop with the forefinger and thumb, without + breaking the pellet, and taking great care not to pinch the + throat. When the fowl has been "crammed" it should be + carefully carried back to its coop, both hands being placed + under its breast as before. Chickens should be "crammed" + regularly every twelve hours. The "cramming" should + commence with a few pellets, and the number be gradually + increased at each meal until it amounts to about + fifteen. But always before you begin to feed gently feel + the fowl's crop to ascertain that the preceding meal has + been digested, and if you find it to contain food, let the + bird wait until it is all digested, and give it fewer pellets + at the next meal. If the "crams" should become hardened + in the crop, some lukewarm water must be given to + the bird, or poured down its throat if disinclined to drink,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> and the crop be gently pressed with the fingers until the + hardened mass has become loosened so that the gizzard can + grind it.</p> +<p>The food chiefly used in France for "cramming" fowls + is buckwheat-meal bolted very fine and mixed with milk. + It should be prepared in the following manner: Pour the + milk, which should be lukewarm in winter, into a hole + made in the heap of meal, mixing it up with a wooden + spoon a little at a time as long as the meal will take up the + milk, and make it into the consistency of dough, keep + kneading it until it will not stick to the hands, then divide + it into pieces twice as large as an egg, which form into + rolls generally about as thick as a small finger, but more + or less thick according to the size of the fowls to be fed, + and divide the rolls into pellets about two and a half inches + in length by a slanting cut, which leaves pointed ends, that + are easier to "cram" the fowls with than if they were + square. The pellets should be rolled up as dry as + possible.</p> +<p>The operation of caponising as performed in England is + barbarous, extremely painful, and dangerous. In France + it is performed in a much more scientific and skilful + manner. But the small advantage gained by this unnatural + operation is more than counterbalanced by the + unnecessary pain inflicted on the bird, and the great risk + of losing it. Capons never moult, and lose their previously + strong, shrill voice. In warm, dry countries they + grow to a large size, and soon fatten, but do not succeed + well in our moist, cold climate. They are not common in + this country, and most of the fowls sold in the London + markets as capons are merely young cockerels well + crammed. If capons are kept they should have a separate + house, for the other fowls will not allow those even of their + own family to occupy the same roosting-perch with them. + The hens not only show them indifference, but decided + aversion. Hen chickens, deprived of their reproductive + organs in order to fatten them sooner, are common in + France, where they are styled poulardes.</p> +<p>Fattening ought to be completed in from ten to twenty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> days. When fowls are once fattened up they should be + killed, for they cannot be kept fat, but begin to lose flesh + and become feverish, which renders their flesh red and + unsaleable, and frequently causes their death.</p> +<p>Great cruelty is often ignorantly inflicted by poulterers, + higglers, and others, in "twisting the necks" of poultry. + An easy mode of killing a fowl is to give the bird a very + sharp blow with a small but heavy blunt stick, such as a + child's bat or wooden sword, at the back of the neck, about + the second or third joint from the head, which will, if + properly done, sever the spine and cause death very + speedily. But the knife is the most merciful means; the + bird being first hung up by the legs, the mouth must be + opened wide, and a long, narrow, sharp-pointed knife, like + a long penknife, which instrument is made for the purpose, + should be thrust firmly through the back part of the roof of + the mouth up into the brain, which will cause almost instant + death. Another mode of killing is to pluck a few feathers + from the side of the head, just below the ear, and make a + deep incision there. Some say that fowls should not be + bled to death like turkeys and geese, as, from the loss + of blood, the flesh becomes dry and insipid. But when + great whiteness of flesh is desired, the fowl should be + hung up by its legs immediately after being killed, and if + it has been killed without the flow of blood, an incision + should be made in the neck so that it may bleed freely.</p> +<p>Fowls that have been kept without food and water for + twelve hours before being killed will keep much better + than if they had been recently fed, as the food is apt + to ferment in the crop and bowels, which often causes the + fowl to turn green in a few hours in warm weather. If + empty they should not be drawn, and they will keep much + better. Fowls are easiest plucked at once, while warm; + they should afterwards be scalded by dipping them for a + moment in boiling water, which will give a plump appearance + to any good fowl. Fowls should not be packed for + market before they are quite cold. Old fowls should not + be roasted, but boiled, and they will then prove tolerably + good eating.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></p> +<p>The feathers are valuable and should be preserved, which + is very easily managed. "Strip the plumage," says Mr. + Wright, "from the quills of the larger feathers, and mix + with the small ones, putting the whole loosely in paper + bags, which should be hung up in the kitchen, or some + other warm place, for a few days to dry. Then let the + bags be baked three or four times for half an hour each + time, in a cool oven, drying for two days between each + baking, and the process will be completed. Less trouble + than this will do, and is often made to suffice; but the + feathers are inferior in crispness to those so treated, and + may occasionally become offensive."</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.</h2> +<h3>STOCK, BREEDING, AND CROSSING.</h3> +<p>Keep only good, healthy, vigorous, well-bred fowls, + whether you keep them to produce eggs or chickens, or + both. The ill-bred mongrel fowls which are so commonly + kept, are the most voracious, and consume larger quantities + of food, without turning it to any account; while + well-bred fowls eat less, and quickly convert that into fat, + flesh, and eggs. "Large, well-bred fowls," says Mr. + Edwards, "do not consume more food than ravenous, + mongrel breeds. It is the same with fowls as with other + stock. I have at this moment two store pigs, one highly + bred, the other a rough, ill-bred animal. They have, + since they left their mothers, been fed together and upon + the same food. The former, I am confident (from observation), + ate considerably less than the latter, which was particularly + ravenous. The former pig, however, is in excellent + condition, kind, and in a measure fat; whereas the latter + looks hard, starved, and thin, and I am sure she will require + one-third more food to make bacon of."</p> +<p>For the amateur who is content with eggs and chickens, + and does not long for prize cups, excellent birds possessing + nearly all the best characteristics of their breeds, but rendered + imperfect by a few blemishes, may be purchased at + a small cost, and will be as good layers or chicken-producers, + and answer his purpose as well as the most expensive + that can be bought.</p> +<p>The choice of breed must depend upon the object for + which the fowls are kept, whether chiefly for eggs or to + produce chickens, or for both; the climate, soil, and + situation; the space that can be allotted to them; and the + amount of attention that can be devoted to their care. If + fowls are to be bred for exhibition, you must be guided by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> your own taste, pocket, and resources, as well as by the + suitability of the situation for the particular breed desired. + The advantages, disadvantages, and peculiarities of the + various breeds will be described under their respective + heads.</p> +<p>In commencing poultry-keeping buy only young and + healthy birds. No one sign is infallible to the inexperienced. + In general, however, the legs of a young hen look delicate + and smooth, her comb and wattles are soft and fresh, and + her general outline, even in good condition (unless when + fattened for the table), rather light and graceful; whilst + an old one will have rather hard, horny-looking shanks; + her comb and wattles look somewhat harder, drier, and + more "scurfy," and her figure is well filled out. But any + of these signs may be deceptive, and the beginner should + use his own powers of observation, and try and catch the + "old look," which he will soon learn to know.</p> +<p>All authorities agree that a cock is in his prime at two + years of age, though some birds show every sign of full + vigour when only four months old. It is agreed by nearly all + the greatest authorities that the ages of the cocks and hens + should be different; however, good birds may be bred from + parents of the same age, but they should not be less than a + year old. The strongest chickens are obtained from two-year + old hens by a cockerel of about a year old; but such + broods contain a disproportion of cocks, and, therefore, + most poultry-keepers prefer to breed from well-grown + pullets of not less than nine months with a cock of two + years of age. The cock should not be related to the hens. + It is, therefore, not advisable to purchase him from the + same breeder of whom you procure the hens. Do not let + him be the parent of chickens from pullets that are his own + offspring. Breeding in-and-in causes degeneracy in fowls + as in all other animals. Some birds retain all their fire and + energy until five or even six years of age, but they are + beyond their prime after the third, or at the latest their + fourth year; and should be replaced by younger birds of the + same breed, but from a different stock.</p> +<p>Poultry-breeders differ with respect to the proper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> number of hens that should be allowed to one cock. + Columella, who wrote upon poultry about two thousand + years ago, advised twelve hens to one cock, but stated that + "our ancestors did use to give but five hens." Stephanus + gave the same number as Columella. Bradley, and the + authors of the "Complete Farmer," and the article upon + the subject in "Rees's Cyclopædia," give seven or eight; + and those who breed game-cocks are particular in limiting + the number of hens to four or five for one cock, in order to + obtain strong chickens. If fine, strong chickens be desired + for fattening or breeding, there should not be more than + five or six hens to one cock; but if the supply of eggs is + the chief consideration, ten or twelve may be allowed; + indeed, if eggs are the sole object, he can be dispensed with + altogether, and his food saved, as hens lay, if there be any + difference, rather better without one.</p> +<p>The russet red is the most hardy colour, white the most + delicate, and black the most prolific. General directions + for the choice of fowls, as to size, shape, and colour, cannot + be applicable to all breeds, which must necessarily vary + upon these points. But in all breeds the cock should, as + M. Parmentier says, "carry his head high, have a quick, + animated look, a strong, shrill voice (except in the Cochins, + which have a fuller tone), a fine red comb, shining as if + varnished, large wattles of the same colour, strong wings, + muscular thighs, thick legs furnished with strong spurs, + the claws rather bent and sharply pointed. He ought also + to be free in his motions, to crow frequently, and to scratch + the ground often in search of worms, not so much for himself, + as to treat his hens. He ought, withal, to be brisk, + spirited, ardent, and ready in caressing the hens, quick in + defending them, attentive in soliciting them to eat, in keeping + them together, and in assembling them at night."</p> +<p>To prevent cocks from fighting, old Mascall, following + Columella, says: "Now, to slacke that heate of jealousie, + ye shall slitte two pieces of thicke leather, and put them on + his legges, and those will hang over his feete, which will + correct the vehement heate of jealousie within him"; and + M. Parmentier observes that "such a bit of leather will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> cause the most turbulent cock to become as quiet as a man + who is fettered at the feet, hands, and neck."</p> +<p>The hen should be of good constitution and temper, + and, if required to sit, large in the body and wide in the + wings, so as to cover many eggs and shelter many chickens, + but short in the legs, or she could not sit well. M. + Parmentier advises the rejection of savage, quarrelsome, + or peevish hens, as such are seldom favourites with the + cocks, scarcely ever lay, and do not hatch well; also all + above four or five years of age, those that are too fat to + lay, and those whose combs and claws are rough, which + are signs that they have ceased to lay. Hens should not + be kept over their third year unless very good or choice. + Hens are not uncommon with the plumage and spurs of + the cock, and which imitate, though badly, his full-toned + crow. In such fowls the power of producing eggs is invariably + lost from internal disease, as has been fully demonstrated + by Mr. Yarrell in the "Philosophical Transactions" + for 1827, and in the "Proceedings of the Zoological + Society" for 1831. Such birds should be fattened and + killed as soon as observed.</p> +<p>By careful study of the characteristics of the various + breeds, breeding from select specimens, and judicious + crossing, great size may be attained, maturity early developed, + facility in putting on flesh encouraged, hardiness of + constitution and strength gained, and the inclination to sit + or the faculty of laying increased.</p> +<p>Sir John Sebright, speaking of breeding cattle, says: + "Animals may be said to be improved when any desired + quality has been increased by art beyond what that quality + was in the same breed in a state of nature. The swiftness + of the racehorse, the propensity to fatten in cattle, and to + produce fine wool in sheep, are improvements which have + been made in particular varieties in the species to which + these animals belong. What has been produced by art + must be continued by the same means, for the most + improved breeds will soon return to a state of nature, or + perhaps defects will arise which did not exist when the breed + was in its natural state, unless the greatest attention is paid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> to the selection of the individuals who are to breed + together."</p> +<p>The exact origin of the common domestic fowl and its + numerous varieties is unknown. It is doubtless derived + from one or more of the wild or jungle fowls of India. + Some naturalists are of opinion that it is derived from the + common jungle fowl known as the <i>Gallus bankiva</i> of Temminck, + or <i>Gallus ferrugineus</i> of Gmelin, which very closely + resembles the variety known as Black-breasted Red Game, + except that the tail of the cock is more depressed; while + others consider it to have been produced by the crossing + of that species with one or more others, as the Malay + gigantic fowl, known as the <i>Gallus giganteus</i> of Temminck, + Sonnerat's Jungle Fowl, <i>Gallus sonneratii</i>, and probably + some other species. At what period or by what people + it was reclaimed is not known, but it was probably first + domesticated in India. The writers of antiquity speak of + it as a bird long domesticated and widely spread in their + days. Very likely there are many species unknown to us + in Sumatra, Java, and the rich woods of Borneo.</p> +<p>The process by which the various breeds have been produced + "is simple and easily understood," says Mr. Wright. + "Even in the wild state the original breed will show some + amount of variation in colour, form, and size; whilst in + domestication the tendency to change, as every one + knows, is very much increased. By breeding from birds + which show any marked feature, stock is obtained of + which a portion will possess that feature in an <i>increased + degree</i>; and by again selecting the best specimens, the + special points sought may be developed to almost + any degree required. A good example of such a + process of development may be seen in the 'white face' so + conspicuous in the Spanish breed. White ears will be + observed occasionally in all fowls; even in such breeds as + Cochins or Brahmas, where white ear-lobes are considered + almost fatal blemishes; they continually occur, and by + selecting only white-eared specimens to breed from, they + might be speedily fixed in any variety as one of the + characteristics. A large pendent white ear-lobe once<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> firmly established, traces of the white <i>face</i> will now and + then be found, and by a similar method is capable of development + and fixture; whilst any colour of plumage or of + leg may be obtained and established in the same way. + The original amount of character required is <i>very</i> slight; + a single hen-tailed cock will be enough to give that + characteristic to a whole breed. Any peculiarity of <i>constitution</i>, + such as constant laying, or frequent incubation, + may be developed and perpetuated in a similar manner, all + that is necessary being care and time. That such has been + the method employed in the formation of the more distinct + races of our poultry, is proved by the fact that a continuance + of the same careful selection is needful to perpetuate + them in perfection. If the very best examples of + a breed are selected as the starting-point, and the produce + is bred from indiscriminately for many generations, the + distinctive points, whatever they are, rapidly decline, and + there is also a more or less gradual but sure return to the + primitive wild type, in size and even colour of the plumage. + The purest black or white originally, rapidly becomes first + marked with, and ultimately changed into, the original red + or brown, whilst the other features simultaneously disappear. + If, however, the process of artificial selection be + carried too far, and with reference <i>only to one</i> prominent + point, any breed is almost sure to suffer in the other + qualities which have been neglected, and this has been the + case with the very breed already mentioned—the white-faced + Spanish. We know from old fanciers that this breed + was formerly considered hardy, and even in winter rarely + failed to afford a constant supply of its unequalled large + white eggs. But of late years attention has been so <i>exclusively</i> directed to the 'white-face,' that whilst this + feature has been developed and perfected to a degree never + before known, the breed has become one of the most + delicate of all, and the laying qualities of at least many + strains have greatly fallen off. It would be difficult to + avoid such evil results if it were not for a valuable compensating + principle, which admits of <i>crossing</i>. That + principle is, that any desired point possessed in perfection<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> by a foreign breed, may be introduced by crossing into a + strain it is desired to improve, and every other characteristic + of the cross be, by selection, afterwards bred out + again. Or one or more of these additional characteristics + may be also retained, and thus a <i>new variety</i> be established, + as many have been within the last few years."</p> +<p>Size may be imparted to the Dorking by crossing it with + the Cochin, and the disposition to feather on the legs bred + out again by judicious selection; and the constitution may + be strengthened by crossing with the Game breed. Game + fowls that have deteriorated in size, strength, and fierceness, + by a long course of breeding in-and-in, may have all these + qualities restored by crossing with the fierce, powerful, and + gigantic Malay, and his peculiarities may be afterwards + bred out. The size of the eggs of the Hamburg might + very probably be increased without decreasing, or with + very slightly decreasing, the number of eggs, by crossing + with a Houdan cock; and the size would also be increased + for the table. The French breeds, Crêve-Cœur, Houdan, + and La Flêche, gain in size and hardiness by being crossed + with the Brahma cock. The cross between a Houdan cock + and a Brahma hen "produces," says the "Henwife," "the + finest possible chickens for market, but not to breed from. + Pure Brahmas and Houdans alone must be kept for that + purpose; I have always found the second cross worthless."</p> +<p>In crossing, the cockerels will more or less resemble the + male, and the pullets the hen. "Long experience," says + Mr. Wright, "has ascertained that the male bird has most + influence upon the colour of the progeny, and also upon + the comb, and what may be called the 'fancy points,' of + any breed generally; whilst the form, size, and useful + qualities are principally derived from the hen."</p> +<p>Breed only from the strongest and healthiest fowls. In + the breeding of poultry it is a rule, as in all other cases of + organised life, that the best-shaped be used for the purpose + of propagation. If a cock and hen have both the same + defect, however trifling it may be, they should never be + allowed to breed together, for the object is to improve the + breed, not to deteriorate it, even in the slightest degree.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> Hens should never be allowed to associate with a cock of + a different breed if you wish to keep the breed pure, and if + you desire superior birds, not even with an inferior male of + their own variety. "No time," says Mr. Baily, "has ever + been fixed as necessary to elapse before hens that have been + running with cocks of divers breeds, and afterwards been + placed with their legitimate partners, can be depended + upon to produce purely-bred chickens; I am disposed to + think at least two months. Time of year may have much + to do with it. In the winter the escape of a hen from one + run to the other, or the intrusion of a cock, is of little + moment; but it may be serious in the spring, and destroy + the hopes of a season." Many poultry-keepers separate + the cocks and hens after the breeding season, considering + that stronger chickens will be thereby obtained the next + season. Where there is a separate house and run for the + sitting hen this can be conveniently done when that compartment + is vacant. In order to preserve a breed perfectly + pure, it will be necessary, where there is not a large stock + of the race, to breed from birds sprung from the same + parents, but the blood should be crossed every year by + procuring one or more fowls of the same breed from a distance, + or by the exchange of eggs with some neighbouring + stock, of colour and qualities as nearly allied as possible + with the original breed.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.</h2> +<h3>POULTRY SHOWS.</h3> +<p>A few years ago poultry shows were unknown. In 1846, + the first was held in the Gardens of the Zoological Society, + in the Regent's Park; Mr. Baily being the sole judge. It + was a very fair beginning, but did not succeed, and it was + not till the Cochin-China breed was introduced into this + country, and the first Birmingham show was held, that + these exhibitions became successful.</p> +<p>In 1849, "the first poultry show that was ever held in + 'the good old town of Birmingham,' was beset with all the + untried difficulties of such a scheme, when without the + experiences of the present day, then altogether unavailable, + a few spirited individuals carried to a successful issue an + event that has now proved the foster-parent of the many + others of similar character that abound in almost every + principal town of the United Kingdom. It is quite essential, + that I may be clearly understood, to preface my + narrative by assuring fanciers that in those former days + poultry amateurs were by no means as general as at the + present time; few and far between were their locations; + and though even then, among the few who felt interest in + fowls, emulation existed, generally speaking, the keeping + of poultry was regarded as 'a useless hobby,' 'a mere + individual caprice,' 'an idle whim from which no good + result could by possibility accrue'; nay, sometimes it was + hinted, 'What a pity they have not something better to + employ them during leisure hours!' and they were styled + 'enthusiasts.' But have not the records of every age + proved that enthusiasts are invariably the pioneers of improvement? + And time, too, substantiated the verity of + this rule in reference to our subject; for, among other + proofs, it brought incontestable evidence that the raising of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> poultry was by no means the unremunerative folly idlers + supposed it to be, and hesitated not rashly to declaim it; + likewise, that it simply required to be fairly brought under + public notice, to prove its general utility, and to induce + the acknowledgment of how strangely so important a source + of emolument had been hitherto neglected and overlooked."</p> +<p>At the Birmingham Show of 1852, about five thousand + fowls were exhibited, and the specimens sold during the + four days of the show amounted to nearly two thousand + pounds, notwithstanding the high prices affixed to the pens, + and that many were placed at enormous prices amounting + to a prohibition, the owners not wishing to sell them. The + Birmingham shows now generally comprise from one to + two thousand pens of fowls and water-fowls, arranged in + nearly one hundred classes; besides an equal proportion of + pigeons. This show is the finest and most important, but + there are many others of very high character and great + extent. Poultry is also now exhibited to a considerable + extent at agricultural meetings.</p> +<p>Any one may see the wonderful improvement that has + been made in poultry-breeding by visiting the next Birmingham + or other first-class show, and comparing the fowls + there exhibited with those of his earliest recollections, and + with those mongrels and impure breeds which may still be + seen in too many farmyards. Points that were said to be + impossible of attainment have been obtained with comparative + ease by perseverance and skill, and the worst birds of a + show are now often superior to the chief prize fowls of + former days. Indeed, "a modern prize bird," says the + "Henwife," "almost merits the character which a Parisian + waiter gave of a melon, when asked to pronounce whether + it was a fruit or a vegetable, 'Gentlemen,' said he, 'a melon + is neither; it is a work of art.'"</p> +<p>Such shows must have great influence on the improvement + of the breeds and the general management of poultry, + though like all other prize exhibitions they have certain + disadvantages. "We cannot but think," says Mr. Wright, + "that our poultry shows have, to some extent, by the character + of the judging, hindered the improvement of many breeds.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> It will be readily admitted in <i>theory</i> that a breed of fowls + becomes more and more valuable as its capacity of producing + eggs is increased, and the quantity and quality of + its flesh are improved, with a small amount of bone and + offal in proportion. But, if we except the Dorking, which + certainly is judged to some extent as a table fowl, all this + is <i>totally</i> lost sight of both by breeders and judges, and + attention is fixed exclusively upon colour, comb, face, and + other equally fancy 'points.' Beauty and utility might + be <i>both</i> secured. The French have taught us a lesson of + some value in this respect. Within a comparatively recent + period they have produced, by crossing and selection, four + new varieties, which, although inferior in some points to + others of older standing, are all eminently valuable as table + fowls; and which in one particular are superior to any + English variety, not even excepting the Dorking—we + mean the very small proportion of bone and offal. This is + really useful and scientific breeding, brought to bear upon <i>one</i> definite object, and we do trust the result will prove + suggestive with regard to others equally valuable. We + should be afraid to say how much might be done if English + breeders would bring <i>their</i> perseverance and experience to + bear in a similar direction. Agricultural Societies in particular + might be expected in <i>their</i> exhibitions to show + some interest in the improvement of poultry regarded + as <i>useful stock</i>, and to them especially we commend the + matter."</p> +<p>The rules and regulations relating to exhibitions vary at + different shows, and may be obtained by applying to the + secretary. Notices of exhibitions are advertised in the + local papers, and in the <i>Field</i> and other London papers of + an agricultural character.</p> +<p>In breeding birds for exhibition the number of hens to one + cock should not exceed four or five, but if only two or three + hens of the breed are possessed, the proper number of his + harem should be made up by the addition of hens of another + breed, those being chosen whose eggs are easily known + from the others.</p> +<p>If it is intended to rear the chickens for exhibition at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> the June, July, or August shows, the earlier they are + hatched the better, and therefore a sitting should be made + in January, if you have a young, healthy hen broody. Set + her on the ground in a warm, sheltered, and quiet place, + perfectly secure from rain, or from any flow of snow water. + Feed her well, and keep water and small quantities of + food constantly within her reach, so that she may not + be tempted to leave the nest in search of food; for the + eggs soon chill in winter. Mix the best oatmeal with hot + water, and give it to her warm twice a day. A few grains + of hempseed as a stimulant may be given in the middle of + the day. The great difficulty to overcome in rearing + early chickens is to sustain their vital powers during the + very long winter nights, when they are for so many hours + without food, the only substitute for which is warmth, and + this can only be well got from the hen. Consequently + a young Cochin-China with plenty of "fluff" will provide + most warmth. The hen should not be set on more than + five, or at most seven eggs; for if she has more, although + she may sufficiently cover the chickens while very small, + she will not be able to do so when they grow larger, and + the outer ones will be chilled unless they manage to push + themselves into the inside places, and then the displaced + chickens being warm are sure to get more chilled than the + others; and so the greater number of the brood, even if they + survive, will probably be weakly, puny things, through the + greedy desire to rear so many, while if she hatch but five + chickens she will probably rear four. The hen should be + cooped until the chickens are at least ten weeks old, and + covered up at night with matting, sacking, or a piece + of carpet.</p> +<p>Give them plenty of curd, chopped egg, and oatmeal, + mixed with new milk. Stiff oatmeal porridge is the best + stock food. Some onion tops minced fine will be an excellent + addition if they can be had. They should have + some milk to drink. Feed the hen well. The best warmth + the chickens can have is that of their mother, and the best + warmth for her is generated by generous, but proper, + food, and a good supply of it. Early chickens rearing for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> show should be fed twice after dark, say at eight and eleven + o'clock, and again at seven in the morning, so that they + will not be without food for more than eight hours. The + hen should be fed at the same times, and she will become + accustomed to it, and call the chickens to feed; it will also + generate more warmth in her for their benefit. Yolk + of egg beaten up and given to drink is most strengthening + for weakly chickens; or it may be mixed with their oatmeal. + The tender breeds should not be hatched till April + or May, unless in a mild climate, or with exceptional + advantages.</p> +<p>For winter exhibition, March and April hatched birds + are preferable to those hatched earlier. Not more than + seven eggs should be set, for a hen cannot scratch up + insects and worms and find peculiar herbage for more than + six chickens. If the chickens have not a good grass run, + they must be supplied with abundance of green food.</p> +<p>They should not be allowed to roost before they are three + months old, and the perches must be sufficiently large. + Mr. Wright recommends a bed of clean, dry ashes, an + inch deep, for those that leave the hen before the proper + age for roosting, and does not allow his chickens, even + while with the hen, to bed upon straw, considering the + ashes to be much cleaner and also warmer.</p> +<p>The chickens intended to be exhibited should be distinguished + from their companions by small stripes of + different coloured silks loosely sewn round their legs, + which distinguishing colours should be entered in the + poultry-book. A few good birds should always be kept in + reserve to fill up the pen in case of accidents.</p> +<p>Weight is more important in the December and later + winter shows than at those held between August and + November, but at all shows feather and other points of + competitors being equal weight must carry the day, Game + and Bantams excepted. It is not safe to trust to the apparent + weight of a bird, for the feathers deceive, and it is therefore + advisable to weigh the birds occasionally. Each + should be weighed in a basket, allowance being made for + the weight of the basket, and they should if possible be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> weighed before a meal. But fowls that are over-fattened, + as some judges very improperly desire, cannot be in good + health anymore than "crammed" fowls, and are useless + for breeding, producing at best a few puny, delicate, or + sickly chickens; thus making the exhibition a mere + "show," barren of all useful results.</p> +<p>Pullets continue to grow until they begin to lay, which + almost or quite stops their growth; and therefore if great + size is desired for exhibition, they should be kept from the + cockerels and partly from stimulating food until a month + before the show, when they will be required to be matched + in pens. During this month they should have extra food + and attention.</p> +<p>If fowls intended for exhibition are allowed to sit, the + chickens are apt to cause injury to their plumage, and loss + of condition, while if prevented from sitting, they are liable + to suffer in moulting. Their chickens may be given to + other hens, but the best and safest plan is to set a broody + exhibition hen on duck's eggs, which will satisfy her + natural desire for sitting, while the young ducklings will + give her much less trouble, and leave her sooner than a + brood of her own kind.</p> +<p>All the birds in a pen should match in comb, colour of + their legs, and indeed in every particular. Mr. Baily + mentions "a common fault in exhibitors who send two + pens composed of three excellent and three inferior birds, + so divided as to form perhaps one third class and one + highly commended pen: whereas a different selection + would make one of unusual merit. If an amateur who + wishes to exhibit has fifteen fowls to choose from, and to + form a pen of a cock and two hens, he should study and + scan them closely while feeding at his feet in the morning. + He should then have a place similar to an exhibition pen, + wherein he can put the selected birds; they should be + raised to the height at which he can best see them, and + before he has looked long at them defects will become + apparent one after the other till, in all probability, neither + of the subjects of his first selection will go to the show. + We also advise him rather to look for defects than to dwell<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> on beauties—the latter are always prominent enough. The + pen of which we speak should be a moveable one for convenience' + sake, and it is well to leave the fowls in it for a time + that they may become accustomed to each other, and also + to an exhibition pen." Birds that are strangers should + never be put into the same hamper, for not only the cocks + but even the hens will fight with and disfigure each + other.</p> +<p>Some give linseed for a few days before the exhibition to + impart lustre to the plumage, by increasing the secretion + of oil. A small quantity of the meal should be mixed + with their usual soft food, as fowls generally refuse the + whole grain. But buckwheat and hempseed, mixed in + equal proportions, if given for the evening meal during + the last ten or twelve days, is healthier for the bird, + much liked, and will not only impart equal lustre to the + plumage, but also improve the appearance of the comb and + wattles.</p> +<p>Spanish fowls should be kept in confinement for some + days before the show, with just enough light to enable them + to feed and perch, and the place should be littered with + clean straw. This greatly improves their condition; why + we know not, but it is an established fact. Game fowls + should be kept in for a few days, and fed on meal, barley, + and bread, with a few peas, which tend to make the + plumage hard, but will make them too fat if given freely. + Dark and golden birds should be allowed to run about till + they have to be sent off. Remove all scurf or dead skin + from the comb, dry dirt from the beak, and stains from the + plumage, and wash their legs clean. White and light + fowls that have a good grass run and plenty of clean straw + in their houses and yards to scratch in, will seldom require + washing, but town birds, and country ones if not perfectly + clean, should be washed the day before the show with tepid + water and mild white soap rubbed on flannel, care being + taken to wash the feathers downwards, so as not to break + or ruffle them; afterwards wiped with a piece of flannel + that has been thoroughly soaked in clean water, and gently + dried with soft towels before the fire; or the bird may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> entirely dipped into a pan of warm water, then rinsed + thoroughly in cold water, wiped with a flannel, and placed + in a basket with soft straw before a fire to dry. They + should then be shut up in their houses with plenty of clean + straw. They should have their feet washed if dirty, and + be well fed with soft nourishing food just before being put + into the travelling-basket, for hard food is apt to cause + fever and heat while travelling, and, having to be digested + without gravel or exercise, causes indigestion, which ruffles + the plumage, dulls its colour, darkens the comb, and + altogether spoils the appearance of the bird. Sopped or + steeped bread is excellent.</p> +<p>The hampers should always be round or oval in form, as + fowls invariably creep into corners and destroy their + plumage. They should be high enough for the cocks to + stand upright in, without touching the top with their + combs. Some exhibitors prefer canvas tops to wicker lids, + considering that the former preserve the fowls' combs from + injury if they should strike against the top, while others + prefer the latter as being more secure, and allowing one + hamper to be placed upon another if necessary, and also + preserving the fowls from injury if a heavy hamper or + package should otherwise be placed over it. A good plan + is to have a double canvas top, the space between being + filled with hay. A thick layer of hay or straw should be + placed at the bottom of the basket. Wheaten straw is + the best in summer and early autumn, and oat or barley + straw later in the year and during winter. A good lining + also is essential; coarse calico stitched round the inside of + the basket is the best. Ducks and geese do not require + their hampers to be lined, except in very cold weather; + and the best lining for them is made by stitching layers of + pulled straw round the inside of the basket. Turkeys + should have their hampers lined, for although they are + very hardy, cold and wet damage their appearance more + than other poultry. Take care that the geese cannot get + at the label, for they will eat it, and also devour the + hempen fastenings if within their reach.</p> +<p>Be very careful in entering your birds for exhibition;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> describe their ages, breed, &c., exactly and accurately, and + see yourself to the packing and labelling of their hampers.</p> +<p>Mr. F. Wragg, the superintendent of the poultry-yard + of R. W. Boyle, Esq., whose fowls have a sea voyage from + Ireland besides the railway journey, and yet always appear + in splendid condition and "bloom," ties on one side of the + hamper, "near the top, a fresh-pulled cabbage, and on the + other side a good piece of the bottom side of a loaf, of + which they will eat away all the soft part. Before starting, + I give each bird half a tablespoonful of port wine, which + makes them sleep a good part of the journey. Of course, + if I go with my birds, as I generally do, I see that they, + as well as myself, have 'refreshment' on the road."<a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> The + cabbage will always be a treat, and the loaf and wine may + be added for long journeys.</p> +<p>Birds are frequently over-fed at the show, particularly + with barley, which cannot be properly digested for want of + gravel and exercise; and therefore, if upon their return + their crops are hard and combs look dark, give a tablespoonful + of castor oil; but if they look well do not interfere + with them. They should not have any grain, but be fed + sparingly on stale bread soaked in warm ale, with two or + three mouthfuls of tepid water, for liquid is most hurtful if + given in quantity. They should not be put into the yard with + the other fowls which may treat them, after their absence, + as intruders, but be joined with them at night when the + others have gone to roost. On the next day give them a + moderate allowance of soft food with a moderate supply of + water, or stale bread sopped in water, and a sod of grass + or half a cabbage leaf each, but no other green food; and + on the following day they may have their usual food.</p> +<p>When the fowls are brought back, take out the linings, + wash them, and put them by to be ready for the next + show; and after the exhibition season, on a fine dry day, + wash the hampers, dry them thoroughly, and put them in + a dry place. Never use them as quiet berths for sick birds, + which are sure to infect them and cause the illness of the + next occupants; or as nesting-places for sitting hens, + which may leave insects in the crevices that will be difficult + to eradicate.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p> +<p>In our descriptions of the various Breeds, we have given + sufficient general information upon the Exhibition Points + from the best authorities; but considerable differences of + opinion have been expressed of late years, and eminent + breeders dissent in some cases even from the generally + recognised authority of the popular "Standard of Excellence." + We, therefore, advise intending exhibitors to + ascertain the standards to be followed at the show and the + predilections of the judges, and to breed accordingly, or, if + they object to the views held, not to compete at that + exhibition.</p> +<h3>TECHNICAL TERMS.</h3> +<p><i>Coverts.</i>—The <i>upper</i> and <i>lower wing coverts</i> are those + ranges of feathers which cover the primary quills; and the <i>tail coverts</i> are those feathers growing on each side of + the tail, and are longer than the body feathers, but shorter + than those of the tail.</p> +<p><i>Dubbing.</i>—Cutting off the comb and wattles of a cock; + an operation usually confined to Game cocks.</p> +<p><i>Ear-lobe.</i>—The small feathers covering the organ of + hearing, which is placed a little behind the eye.</p> +<p><i>Flight.</i>—The last five feathers of each wing.</p> +<p><i>Fluff.</i>—The silky feathers growing on the thighs and + hinder parts of Cochin-China fowls.</p> +<p><i>Hackles.</i>—The <i>neck hackles</i> are feathers growing from + the neck, and covering the shoulders and part of the back; + and the <i>saddle hackles</i> those growing from the end of the + back, and falling over the sides.</p> +<p><i>Legs.</i>—The <i>legs</i> are properly the lower and scaly limbs, + the upper part covered with feathers and frequently mis-called + legs, being correctly styled the <i>thighs</i>.</p> +<p><i>Primary Quills.</i>—The long, strong quills, usually ten + in number, forming the chief portion of each wing, and the + means of flight.</p> +<p><i>Vulture-hocked.</i>—Feathers growing from the thigh, and + projecting backwards below the knee.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/i_104.jpg" width="600" height="382" alt=""/> <span class="caption">Buff and White Cochin-China. Malay Cock. Light and Dark Brahmas.</span> </div> +<hr class="chap"/> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X.</h2> +<h3>COCHIN-CHINAS, OR SHANGHAES.</h3> +<p>Like many other fowls these possess a name which is + incorrectly applied, for they came from Shanghae, not + Cochin-China, where they were comparatively unknown. + Mr. Fortune, who, from his travels in China, is well + qualified to give an opinion, states that they are a Chinese + breed, kept in great numbers at Shanghae; the real + Cochin-China breed being small and elegantly shaped. + But all attempts to give them the name of the port from + which they were brought have failed, and the majority of + breeders persist in calling them Cochins. In the United + States both names are used, the feather-legged being called + Shanghaes, and the clean-legged Cochins.</p> +<p>The first Shanghae fowls brought to this country were + sent from India to Her Majesty, which gave them great + importance; and the eggs having been freely distributed + by the kindness of the Queen and the Prince Consort, the + breed was soon widely spread. They were first introduced + into this country when the northern ports of China, + including Shanghae, were thrown open to European + vessels on the conclusion of the Chinese war in 1843; but + some assign the date of their introduction from 1844 to + 1847, and say that those called Cochins, exhibited by the + Queen in 1843, were not the true breed, having been not + only entirely without feathers on the shanks, but also altogether + different in form and general characteristics. A pair + which were sent by Her Majesty for exhibition at the + Dublin Cattle Show in April, 1846, created such a sensation + from their great size and immense weight, and the full, + loud, deep-pitched crowing of the cock, that almost every + one seemed desirous to possess some of the breed, and + enormous prices were given for the eggs and chickens.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> With his propensity for exaggeration, Paddy boasted that + they laid five eggs in two days, each weighing three + ounces, that the fowls equalled turkeys in size, and + "Cochin eggs became in as great demand as though they + had been laid by the fabled golden goose. Philosophers, + poets, merchants, and sweeps had alike partook of the + mania; and although the latter could hardly come up to + the price of a real Cochin, there were plenty of vagabond + dealers about, with counterfeit crossed birds of all kinds, + which were advertised to be the genuine article. For to + such a pitch did the excitement rise, that they who never + kept a fowl in their lives, and would hardly know a + Bantam from a Dorking, puzzled their shallow brains as + to the proper place to keep them, and the proper diet to + feed them on." Their justly-deserved popularity speedily + grew into a mania, and the price which had been from + fifteen to thirty shillings each, then considered a high price + for a fowl, rose to ten pounds for a fine specimen, and ultimately + a hundred guineas was repeatedly paid for a + single cock, and was not an uncommon price for a pair of + really fine birds. "They were afterwards bred," says Miss + Watts, "for qualities difficult of attainment, and, as the + result proved, little worth trying for," and "fowls with <i>many</i> excellent qualities were blamed for not being <i>perfect</i>," and + they fell from their high place, and were as unjustly + depreciated as they had been unduly exalted.</p> +<p>"Had these birds," wrote Mr. Baily many years since, + "been shy breeders—if like song birds the produce of a + pair were four, or at most five, birds in the year, prices + might have been maintained; but as they are marvellous + layers they increased. They bred in large numbers, and + consequently became cheaper, and then the mania ended, + because those who dealt most largely in them did so not + from a love of the birds or the pursuit, but as a speculation. + As they had over-praised them before, they now + treated them with contempt. Anything like a moderate + profit was despised, and the birds were left to their own + merits. These were sufficient to ensure their popularity, + and now after fluctuating in value more than anything<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> except shares, after being over-praised and then abused, + they have remained favourites with a large portion of the + public, sell at a remunerating price, and form one of the + largest classes at all the great exhibitions." This has + proved to be a perfectly correct view, and the breed is now + firmly established in public estimation, and unusually fine + birds will still sell for from five to twenty pounds each. The + mania did great service to the breeding and improvement + of poultry by awakening an interest in the subject + throughout the kingdom which has lasted.</p> +<p>They are the best of all fowls for a limited space, and + not inclined to wander even when they have an extensive + run. They cannot fly, and a fence three feet high will + keep them in. But if kept in a confined space they must + have an unlimited supply of green food. They give us + eggs when they are most expensive, and indeed, with regard + to new-laid eggs, when they are almost impossible to be + had at any price. They begin to lay soon after they are + five months old, regardless of the season or weather, and + lay throughout the year, except when requiring to sit, + which they do twice or thrice a year, and some oftener. + Pullets will sometimes lay at fourteen weeks, and want to + sit before they are six months old. Cochins have been + known to lay twice in a day, but not again on the following day, + and the instances are exceptional. Their eggs are of + a pale chocolate colour, of excellent flavour, and usually + weigh 2¼ ounces each. They are excellent sitters and + mothers. Pullets will frequently hatch, lay again, and sit + with the chickens of the first brood around them. Cochins + are most valuable as sitters early in the year, being broody + when other fowls are beginning to lay; but unless cooped + they are apt to leave their chickens too soon, especially for + early broods, and lay again. They are very hardy, and + their chickens easy to rear, doing well even in bleak places + without any unusual care. But they are backward in + fledging, chickens bred from immature fowls being the + most backward. Those which are cockerels show their + flight feathers earliest. They are very early matured.</p> +<p>A writer in the <i>Poultry Chronicle</i> well says: "These<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> fowls were sent to provide food for man; by many they are + not thought good table fowls; but when others fail, if you + keep them, you shall never want the luxury of a really + new-laid egg on your breakfast table. The snow may fall, + the frost may be thick on your windows when you first look + out on a December morning, but your Cochins will provide + you eggs. Your children shall learn gentleness and kindness + from them, for they are kind and gentle, and you + shall be at peace with your neighbours, for they will not + wander nor become depredators. They have fallen in price + because they were unnaturally exalted; but their sun + is not eclipsed; they have good qualities, and valuable. + They shall now be within the reach of all; and will make + the delight of many by their domestic habits, which will allow + them to be kept where others would be an annoyance." + They will let you take them off their roost, handle and + examine them, and put them back without struggling.</p> +<p>The fault of the Cochin-Chinas as table birds is, that + they produce most meat on the inferior parts; thus, there + is generally too little on the breast which is the prime part + of a fowl, while the leg which is an inferior part, is unusually + fleshy, but it must be admitted that the leg is more + tender than in other breeds. A greater quantity of flesh + may be raised within a given time, on a certain quantity of + food, from these fowls than from any other breed. The + cross with the Dorking is easily reared, and produces a + very heavy and well-shaped fowl for the table, and a good + layer.</p> +<p>"A great hue and cry," says Miss Watts, "has been + raised against the Cochin-Chinas as fowls for the table, but + we believe none have bestowed attention on breeding them + with a view to this valuable consideration. Square, compact, + short-legged birds have been neglected for a certain + colour of feather, and a broad chest was given up for + the wedge-form at the very time that was pronounced a + fault in the fowl. It is said that yellow-legged fowls are + yellow also in the skin, and that white skin and white legs + accompany each other; but how pertinaciously the yellow + leg of the Cochin is adhered to! Yet all who have bred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> them will attest that a little careful breeding would perpetuate + white-legged Cochins. Exhibitions are generally + excellent; but to this fowl they certainly have only been + injurious, by exaggerating useless and fancy qualities at + the expense of those which are solid and useful. Who + would favour, or even sanction, a Dorking in which size + and shape, and every property we value in them, was + sacrificed to an endeavour to breed to a particular colour? + and this is what we have been doing with the Cochin-China. + Many breeders say, eat Cochins while very young; + but we have found them much better for the table as fowls + than as chickens. A fine Cochin, from five to seven months + old, is like a turkey, and very juicy and fine in flavour."</p> +<p>A peculiar characteristic of these birds, technically called + "fluff," is a quantity of beautifully soft, long feathers, + covering the thighs till they project considerably, and + garnishing all the hinder parts of the bird in the same + manner, so that the broadest part of the bird is behind. + Its quality is a good indication of the breed; if fine and + downy the birds are probably well-bred, but if rank and + coarse they are inferior. The cocks are frequently somewhat + scanty in "fluff," but should be chosen with as much + as possible; but vulture-hocks which often accompany the + heaviest feathered birds should be avoided, as they now + disqualify at the best shows. "The fluff," says a good + authority, "in the hen especially, should so cover the tail + feathers as to give the appearance of a very short back, the + line taking an upward direction from within an inch or so + of the point of junction with the hackle." The last joint + of the wings folds up, so that the ends of the flight feathers + are concealed by the middle feathers, and their extremities + are again covered by the copious saddle, which peculiarity + has caused them to be also called the ostrich-fowl.</p> +<p>A good Cochin cock should be compact, large, and + square built; broad across the loins and hind-quarters; + with a deep keel; broad, short back; short neck; small, + delicately-shaped, well-arched head; short, strong, curved + beak; rather small, finely and evenly serrated, straight, + single, erect comb, wholly free from reduplications and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> sprigs; brilliant red face, and pendant wattles; long hanging + ear-lobe, of pure red, white being inadmissible; bright, + bold eye, approaching the plumage in colour; rich, full, + long hackle; small, closely-folded wings; short tail, + scarcely any in some fine specimens, not very erect, with + slightly twisted glossy feathers falling over it like those + of the ostrich; stout legs set widely apart, yellow and + heavily feathered to the toe; and erect carriage. The + chief defect of the breed is narrowness of breast, which + should therefore be sought for as full as possible.</p> +<p>The hen's body is much deeper in proportion than that + of the cock. She resembles him upon most points, but + differs in some; her comb having many indentations; the + fluff being softer, and of almost silky quality; the tail has + upright instead of falling feathers, and comes to a blunt + point; and her carriage is less upright.</p> +<p>Cochins lose their beauty earlier than any other breed, + and moult with more difficulty each time. They are in + their greatest beauty at from nine to eighteen months old. + The cocks' tails increase with age. In buying Cochins + avoid clean legs, fifth toes, which show that it has been + crossed with the Dorking, double combs that betray + Malay blood, and long tails, particularly taking care that + the cock has not, and ascertaining that he never had, sickle + feathers. The cock ought not to weigh less than ten or + eleven pounds, and a very fine bird will reach thirteen; + the hens from eight to ten pounds.</p> +<p>The principal colours now bred are Buff, Cinnamon, + Partridge, Grouse, Black, and White. The Buff and + White are the most popular.</p> +<p>Buff birds may have black in the tails of both sexes, + but the less there is the better. Black-pencilling in the + hackle is considered objectionable at good shows. The cock's + neck hackles, wing coverts, back, and saddle hackles, + are usually of a rich gold colour, but his breast and the + lower parts of his body should match with those of his + hens. Buff birds generally produce chickens lighter than + themselves. Most birds become rather lighter at each + moult. In making up an exhibition pen, observe that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> Grouse and Partridge hens should have a black-breasted + cock; and that Buff and Cinnamon birds should not be + placed together, but all the birds in the pen should be + either Buff or Cinnamon. The Cinnamon are of two + shades, the Light Cinnamon and the Silver, which is a pale + washy tint, that looks very delicate and pretty when perfectly + clean. Silver Cinnamon hens should not be penned + with a pale Yellow cock, but with one as near to their own + tint as can be found. Mr. Andrews's celebrated strain of + Cochins sometimes produced both cocks and hens which + were Silver Cinnamon, with streaks of gold in the hackle.</p> +<p>In Partridge birds the cock's neck and saddle hackles + should be of a bright red, striped with black, his back and + wings of dark red, the latter crossed with a well-defined + bar of metallic greenish black, and the breast and under + parts of his body should be black, and not mottled. The + hen's neck hackles should be of bright gold, striped with + black, and all the other portions of her body of a light + brown, pencilled with very dark brown. The Grouse are + very dark Partridge, have a very rich appearance, and + are particularly beautiful when laced. They are far from + common, and well worth cultivating. The Partridge are + more mossed in their markings, and not so rich in colour + as the Grouse. Cuckoo Cochins are marked like the + Cuckoo Dorkings, and difficult to breed free of yellow.</p> +<p>The White and Black were introduced later than the + others. Mr. Baily says the White were principally bred + from a pair imported and given to the Dean of Worcester, + and which afterwards became the property of Mrs. + Herbert, of Powick. White Cochins for exhibition must + have yellow legs, and they are prone to green. The origin + of the Black is disputed. It is said to be a sport from the + White, or to have been produced by a cross between the + Buff and the White. By careful breeding it has been fixed + as a decided sub-variety, but it is difficult, if not almost + impossible, to rear a cock to complete maturity entirely + free from coloured feathers. They keep perfectly pure in + colour till six months old, after which age they sometimes + show a golden patch or red feathers upon the wing, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> a few streaks of red upon the hackle, of so dark a shade as + to be imperceptible except in a strong light, and are often + found on close examination to have white under feathers, + and others barred with white.</p> +<p>The legs in all the colours should be yellow. Flesh-coloured + legs are admissible, but green, black, or white are + defects. In the Partridge and Grouse a slight wash, as of + indigo, appears to be thrown over them, which in the + Black assumes a still darker shade; but in all three yellow + should appear partially even here beneath the scales, as + the pink tinge does in the Buff and White birds.</p> +<p>Cochin-Chinas being much inclined to accumulate + internal fat, which frequently results in apoplexy, should + not be fed on food of a very fattening character, such as + Indian corn. They are liable to have inflamed feet if they + are obliged to roost on very high, small, or sharp perches, + or allowed to run over sharp-edged stones.</p> +<p>They are also subject to an affection called White Comb, + which is a white mouldy eruption on the comb and wattles + like powdered chalk; and if not properly treated in time, + will spread over the whole body, causing the feathers to + fall off. It is caused by want of cleanliness, over-stimulating + or bad food, and most frequently by want of green + food, which must be supplied, and the place rubbed with + an ointment composed of two parts of cocoanut oil, and + one of turmeric powder, to which some persons add one + half part of sulphur; and six grains of jalap may be given + to clear the bowels.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI.</h2> +<h3>BRAHMA-POOTRAS.</h3> +<p>It is a disputed point among great authorities whether + Brahmas form a distinct variety, or whether they originated + in a cross with the Cochin, and have become established + by careful breeding. When they were first introduced, + Mr. Baily considered them to be a distinct breed, and has + since seen nothing to alter his opinion. Their nature and + habits are quite dissimilar, for they wander from home and + will get their own living where a Cochin would starve, + have more spirit, deeper breasts, are hardier, lay larger + eggs, are less prone to sit, and never produce a clean-legged + chicken. Whatever their origin, by slow and sure + degrees, without any mania, they have become more and + more popular, standing upon their own merits, and are + now one of the most favourite varieties.</p> +<p>"The worst accusation," says Miss Watts, "their enemies + can advance against them is, that no one knows their + origin; but this is applicable to them only as it is when + applied to Dorkings, Spanish, Polands, and all the other + kinds which have been brought to perfection by careful + breeding, working on good originals. All we have in + England are descended from fowls imported from the + United States, and the best account of them is, that a + sailor (rather vague, certainly) appeared in an American + town (Boston or New York, I forget which) with a new + kind of fowl for sale, and that a pair bought from him + were the parents of all the Brahmas. Uncertain as this + appears, the accounts of those who pretend to trace their + origin as cross-bred fowls is, at least, equally so, and I + believe we may just act towards the Brahmas as we do + with regard to Dorkings and other good fowls, and be + satisfied to possess a first-rate, useful kind, although we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> may be unable to trace its genealogical tree back to the + root. Whatever may be their origin, I find them distinct + in their characteristics. I have found them true to their + points, generation after generation, in all the years that I + have kept them. The pea-comb is very peculiar, and I + have never had one chicken untrue in this among all that + I have bred. Their habits are very unlike the Cochins. + Although docile, they are much less inert; they lay a + larger number of eggs, and sit less frequently. Many of + my hens only wish to sit once a year; a few oftener than + that, perhaps twice or even three times in rare instances, + but never at the end of each small batch of eggs, as I find + (my almost equal favourites) the Cochins do. The division + of Light and Dark Brahmas is a fancy of the judges, + which any one who keeps them can humour with a little + care in breeding. My idea of their colour is, that it should + be black and grey (iron grey, with more or less of a blue + tinge, and devoid of any brown) on a clear white ground, + and I do not care whether the white or the marking predominates. + I believe breeders could bear me out, if they + would, when I say many fowls which pass muster as + Brahmas are the result of a cross, employed to increase + size and procure the heavy colour which some of the judges + affect."</p> +<p>For strength of constitution, both as chickens and fowls, + they surpass all other breeds. Brahmas like an extensive + range, but bear confinement as well as any fowls, and keep + cleaner in dirty or smoky places than any that have white + feathers. They are capital foragers where they have their + liberty, are smaller eaters and less expensive to keep than + Cochins, and most prolific in eggs. They lay regularly on + an average five fine large eggs a week all the year round, + even when snow is on the ground, except when moulting + or tending their brood. Mr. Boyle, of Bray, Ireland, the + most eminent breeder of Dark Brahmas in Great Britain, + says he has "repeatedly known pullets begin to lay in + autumn, and <i>never stop</i>—let it be hail, rain, snow, or storm—for + a single day till next spring." They usually lay from + thirty to forty eggs before they seek to sit. The hens do<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> not sit so often as Cochins, and a week's change of place + will generally banish the desire. They put on flesh well, + with plenty of breast-meat, and are more juicy and better + shaped for the table than most Cochins; though, after they + are six months old, the flesh is much inferior to that of the + Dorking. A cross with a Dorking or Crêve-Cœur cock + produces the finest possible table fowl, carrying almost + incredible quantities of meat of excellent quality.</p> +<p>The chickens are hardy and easy to rear. They vary in + colour when first hatched, being all shades of brown, + yellow, and grey, and are often streaked on the back and + spotted about the head; but this variety gives place, as + the feathers come, to the mixture of black, white, and + grey, which forms the distinguishing colour of the Brahma. + Mr. Baily has "hatched them in snow, and reared them + all out of doors without any other shelter than a piece of + mat or carpet thrown over the coop at night." They reach + their full size at an early age, and the pullets are in their + prime at eight months. Miss Watts noticed that Brahmas + "are more clever in the treatment of themselves when they + are ill than other fowls; when they get out of order, they + will generally fast until eating is no longer injurious," + which peculiarity is corroborated by the experienced + "Henwife." The feathers of the Brahma-Pootra are said + to be nearly equal to goose feathers.</p> +<p>The head should have a slight fulness over the eye, + giving breadth to the top; a full, pearl eye is much admired, + but far from common; comb either a small single, + or pea-comb—the single resembling that of the Cochin; + the neck short; the breast wide and full; the legs short, + yellow, and well-feathered, but not so fully as in the finest + Cochins; and the tail short but full, and in the cock + opening into a fan. They should be wide and deep made, + large and weighty, and have a free, noble carriage, equally + distinct from the waddle of the Cochin, and the erect + bearing of the Malay. Unlike the Cochins, they keep + constantly to their colour, which is a mixture of black, + white, and grey; the lightest being almost white, and the + darkest consisting of grey markings on a white ground.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> The colour is entirely a matter of taste, but the bottom + colour should always be grey.</p> +<p>"After breeding Brahmas for many years," says Miss + Watts, "through many generations and crosses (always, + however, keeping to families imported direct from America), + we are quite confirmed in the opinion that the pea-comb is <i>the</i> comb for the Brahma; and this seems now a settled + question, for single-combed birds never take prizes when + passable pea-combed birds are present. The leading + characteristic of the peculiar comb, named by the Americans + the pea-comb, is its triple character. It may be developed + and separated almost like three combs, or nearly united + into one; but its triple form is always evident. What we + think most beautiful is, where the centre division is a little + fluted, slightly serrated, and flanked by two little side + combs. The degree of the division into three varies, and + the peculiarities of the comb may be less perceptible in + December than when the hens are laying; but the triple + character of the pea-comb is always evident. It shows + itself in the chick at a few days old, in three tiny paralleled + lines." It is thick at the base, and like three combs joined + into one, the centre comb being higher than the other, but + the comb altogether must be low, rounded at the top, and + the indentations must not be deep. Whether single or + triple, all the combs in a pen should be uniform.</p> +<p>The dark and light varieties should not be crossed, as, + according to Mr. Teebay, who was formerly the most + extensive and successful breeder of Brahmas in England, + the result is never satisfactory.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII.</h2> +<h3>MALAYS.</h3> +<p>This was the first of the gigantic Asiatic breeds imported + into this country, and in height and size exceeds + any fowl yet known. The origin of the Malay breed is + supposed to be the <i>Gallus giganteus</i> of Temminck. "This + large and very remarkable species," says Mr. W. C. L. + Martin, "is a native of Java and Sumatra. The comb is + thick and low, and destitute of serrations, appearing as if + it had been partially cut off; the wattles are small, and the + throat is bare. The neck is covered with elongated + feathers, or hackles, of a pale golden-reddish colour, which + advance upon the back, and hackles of the same colour + cover the rump, and drop on each side of the base of the tail. + The middle of the back and the shoulders of the wings are of + a dark chestnut, the feathers being of a loose texture. The + greater wing-coverts are of a glossy green, and form a bar + of that colour across the wing. The primary and secondary + quill feathers are yellowish, with a tinge of rufous. + The tail feathers are of a glossy green. The under surface + uniformly is of a glossy blackish green, but the base of + each feather is a chestnut, and this colour appears on the + least derangement of the plumage. The limbs are remarkably + stout, and the robust tarsi are of a yellow colour. + The voice is a sort of crow—hoarse and short, and very + different from the clear notes of defiance uttered by our + farmyard chanticleer. This species has the habit, when + fatigued, of resting on the tarsi or legs, as we have seen + the emu do under similar circumstances."</p> +<p>In the "Proceedings of the Zoological Society" for 1832, + we find the following notice respecting this breed, by + Colonel Sykes, who observed it domesticated in the + Deccan: "Known by the name of the Kulm cock by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> Europeans in India. Met with only as a domestic bird; + and Colonel Sykes has reason to believe that it is not a + native of India, but has been introduced by the Mussulmans + from Sumatra or Java. The iris of the real game + bird should be whitish or straw yellow. Colonel Sykes + landed two cocks and a hen in England in June, 1831. + They bore the winter well; the hen laid freely, and has + reared two broods of chickens. The cock has not the shrill + clear pipe of the domestic bird, and his scale of note + appears more limited. A cock in the possession of Colonel + Sykes stood twenty-six inches high to the crown of the + head; but they attain a greater height. Length from the + tip of the bill to the insertion of the tail, twenty-three + inches. Hen one-third smaller than the male. Shaw very + justly describes the habit of the cock, of resting, when + tired, on the first joint of the leg."</p> +<p>It is a long, large, heavy bird, standing remarkably + upright, having an almost uninterrupted slope from the + head to the insertion of the tail; with very long, though + strong, yellow legs, quite free from feathers; long, stout, + firm thighs, and stands very erect; the cock, when full + grown, being at least two feet six inches, and sometimes + over three feet in height, and weighing from eight to + eleven pounds. The head has great fulness over the eye, + and is flattened above, resembling that of the snake. The + small, thick, hard comb, scarcely rising from the head, and + barely as long, like half a strawberry, resembles that of a + Game fowl dubbed. The wattles are very small; the neck + closely feathered, and like a rope, with a space for an inch + below the beak bare of feathers. It has a hard, cruel + expression of face; a brilliant bold eye, pearled around the + edge of the lids; skinny red face; very strong curved + yellow beak; and small, drooping tail, with very beautiful, + though short, sickle feathers. The hen resembles the cock + upon all these points, but is smaller.</p> +<p>Their colours now comprise different shades of red and + deep chestnut, in combination with rich browns, and there + are also black and white varieties, each of which should be + uniform. The feathers should be hard and close, which + causes it to be heavier than it appears.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p> +<p>Malays are inferior to most other breeds as layers, but + the pullets commence laying early, and are often good + winter layers. Their eggs, which weigh about 2½ ounces + each, are of a deep buff or pale chocolate colour, surpass + all others in flavour, and are so rich that two of them are + considered to be equal to three of ordinary fowls. They + are nearly always fertile.</p> +<p>Their chief excellence is as table fowls, carrying, as they + do, a great quantity of meat, which, when under a year old, + is of very good quality and flavour. Crossed with the + Spanish and Dorking, they produce excellent table fowls; + the latter cross being also good layers.</p> +<p>Malays are good sitters and mothers, if they have roomy + nests. Their chickens should not be hatched after June, + as they feather slowly, and are delicate; but the adult + birds are hardy enough, and seem especially adapted to + crowded localities, such as courts and alleys. "Malays," + says Mr. Baily, "will live anywhere; they will inhabit a + back yard of small dimensions; they will scratch in the + dust-hole, and roost under the water-butt; and yet not + only lay well, but show in good condition when requisite." + Like the Game fowl, it is terribly pugnacious, and in its + native country is kept and trained for fighting. This propensity, + which is still greater in confinement, is its greatest + disadvantage. When closely confined they are apt to eat + each other's feathers, the cure for which is turning them + into a grass run, and giving them a good supply of lettuce + leaves, with an occasional purgative of six grains of jalap. + The Chittagong is said to be a variety of the Malay.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII.</h2> +<h3>GAME.</h3> +<p>This is the kind expressly called the English breed by + Buffon and the French writers, and is the noblest and most + beautiful of all breeds, combining an admirable figure, + brilliant plumage, and stately gait. It is most probably + derived from the larger or continental Indian species of the + Javanese, or Bankiva Jungle Fowl—the <i>Gallus Bankiva</i> of + Temminck—which is a distinct species, distinguished chiefly + from the Javanese fowl by its larger size. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Page_124">page 124</a>.) + Of this continental species, Sir W. Jardine states that he + has seen three or four specimens, all of which came from + India proper. The Game cock is the undisputed king of + all poultry, and is unsurpassed for courage. The Malay is + more cruel and ferocious, but has less real courage. Game + fowls are in every respect fighting birds, and, although + cock-fighting is now very properly prohibited by law, + Game fowls are always judged mainly in reference to + fighting qualities. But their pugnacious disposition renders + them very troublesome, especially if they have not ample + range, although it does not disqualify them for small runs + to the extent generally supposed. A blow with his spur + is dangerous, and instances have been recorded of very + severe injuries inflicted upon children, even causing death. + An old newspaper states that "Mr. Johnson, a farmer in + the West Riding of Yorkshire, who has a famous breed of + the Game fowl, has had the great misfortune to lose his + little son, a boy of three years old, who was attacked by a + Game cock, and so severely injured that he died shortly + afterwards." High-bred hens are quite as pugnacious as + the cocks. The chickens are very quarrelsome, and both + cocks and hens fight so furiously, that frequently one-half + of a brood is destroyed, and the other half have to be killed.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p> +<p>Game fowls are hardy when they can have liberty, but + cannot be well kept in a confined space. They eat little, + and are excellent for an unprotected place, because by + their activity they avoid danger themselves, and by their + courage defend their chickens from enemies. The hen is a + prolific layer, and, if she has a good run, equal to any breed. + The eggs, though of moderate size only, are remarkable + for delicacy of flavour. She is an excellent sitter, and still + more excellent mother. The chickens are easily reared, + require little food, and are more robust in constitution than + almost any other variety.</p> +<p>The flesh of the Game fowl is beautifully white, and + superior to that of all other breeds for richness and delicacy + of flavour. They should never be put up to fat, as they + are impatient of confinement. "They are in no way fit for + the fattening-coop," says Mr. Baily. "They cannot bear + the extra food without excitement, and that is not favourable + to obesity. Nevertheless, they have their merits. If + they are reared like pheasants round a keeper's house, and + allowed to run semi-wild in the woods, to frequent sunny + banks and dry ditches, they will grow up like them; they + will have little fat, but they will be full of meat. They + must be eaten young; and a Game pullet four or five + months old, caught up wild in this way, and killed two days + before she is eaten, is, perhaps, the most delicious chicken + there is in point of flavour."</p> +<p>The Game-fowl continues to breed for many years without + showing any signs of decay, and in this respect is + superior to the Cochin, Brahma, and even to the Dorking.</p> +<p>The cock's head should be long, but fine; beak long, + curved, and strong; comb single, small, upright, and + bright red; wattles and face bright red; eyes large and + brilliant; neck long, arched, and strong; breast well + developed; back short and broad between the shoulders, + but tapering to the tail; thighs muscular, but short compared + to the shanks; spur low; foot flat, with powerful + claws, and his carriage erect. The form of the hen should + resemble the above on a smaller scale, with small, fine comb + and face, and wattles of a less intense red. The feathers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> of both should be very hard, firm, and close, very strong + in the quills, and seem so united that it should be almost + impossible to ruffle them, each feather if lifted up falling + readily into its original place. Size is not a point of merit, + from four to six pounds being considered sufficient, and + better than heavier weights. Among the list of imperfections + in Game cocks, Sketchley enumerates "flat sides, + short legs, thin thighs, crooked or indented breast, short + thin neck, imperfect eye, and duck or short feet."</p> +<p>"It is the custom," says Miss Watts, "consequently + imperative, that all birds which are exhibited should have + been dubbed, and this should not be done until the comb + is so much developed that it will not spring again after the + dubbing. This will be safe if the chicken is nearly six + months old, but some are more set than others at a certain + age. A keen pair of scissors is the best instrument with + which to operate. Hold the fowl with a firm hand, cut + away the deaf ears and wattles, then cut the comb, cutting + a certain distance from the back, and then from the front + to join this cut, taking especial care not to go too near the + skull. Some operators put a finger inside the mouth to + get a firm purchase. We should like to see dubbing done + away with, leaving these beautiful fowls as nature makes + them; but since amateurs and shows will not agree to + this, it is best to give directions for dubbing, as an operation + bunglingly performed is sure to give unnecessary + pain." To save the bird from excessive loss of blood his + wattles are usually cut off a week later. Every superfluous + piece of flesh and skin should be removed.</p> +<p>The "Henwife" well says: "Why these poor birds are + condemned to submit to this cruel operation is a mystery, + unfathomable, I suspect, even by the judges themselves. + Cock-fighting being forbidden by law, the cocks should, on + principle, be left undubbed, as a protest against this brutal + amusement. The comb of the Game male bird is as beautifully + formed as that of the Dorking; why then rob it of + this great ornament? It is asserted that it is necessary to + remove the comb to prevent the cocks injuring each other + fatally in fighting; but this is not true; a Dorking will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> fight for the championship as ardently as any Game bird, + and yet his comb is spared. Cockerels will not quarrel if + kept apart from hens until the breeding season, when they + should be separated, and put on their several walks. If + pugnaciously inclined I do not believe that the absence of + the comb will save the weaker opponent from destruction; + therefore I raise my voice for pity, in favour of the + beautiful Game cock."</p> +<p>The colours are various, and they are classed into + numerous varieties and sub-varieties, of which the chief + are—Black-breasted Red; Brown-Red; Silver Duck-wing + Greys, so called from the feathers resembling those of a + duck; Greys; Blues; Duns; Piles, or Pieds; Black; + White; and Brassy-winged, which is Black with yellow + on the lesser wing coverts. Colours and markings must + be allowed a somewhat wide range in this breed; and + figure, with courage, may be held to prove purity of blood + though the colour be doubtful. Mr. Douglas considers + the Black-breasted Red the finest feathered Game, and + states that he never found any come so true to colour as a + brood of that variety. White in the tail feathers is highly + objectionable, though not an absolute disqualification. + White fowls should be entirely white, with white legs. + The rules for the coloured legs are very undecided. Light + legs match light-coloured birds best. No particular colour + is imperative, but it should harmonise with the plumage, + and all in a pen must agree.</p> +<p>The best layers are the Black-breasted Reds with willow + legs, and the worst the Greys.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV.</h2> +<h3>DORKINGS.</h3> +<p>This is one of the finest breeds, and especially English. + A pure Dorking is distinguished by an additional or fifth + toe. There are several varieties, which are all comprised + in two distinct classes—the White and the Coloured. The + rose-combed white breed is <i>the</i> Dorking of the old fanciers, + and most probably the original breed, from which the + coloured varieties were produced by crossing it with the + old Sussex, or some other large coloured fowl. "That such + was the case," says Mr. Wright, "is almost proved by the + fact that only a few years ago nothing was more uncertain + than the appearance of the fifth toe in coloured chickens, + even of the best strains. Such uncertainty in any important + point is always an indication of mixed blood; and + that it was so in this case is shown by the result of long + and careful breeding, which has now rendered the fifth toe + permanent, and finally established the variety." Mr. Brent + says: "The <i>old</i> Dorking, the <i>pure</i> Dorking, the <i>only</i> Dorking, + is the <i>White</i> Dorking. It is of good size, compact + and plump form, with short neck, short white legs, five + toes, a full rose-comb, a large breast, and a plumage of + spotless white. The practice of crossing with a Game cock + was much in vogue with the old breeders, to improve a + worn-out stock (which, however, would have been better + accomplished by procuring a fresh bird of the same kind, + but not related). This cross shows itself in single combs, + loss of a claw, or an occasional red feather, but what is + still more objectionable, in pale-yellow legs and a yellow + circle about the beak, which also indicates a yellowish + skin. These, then, are faults to be avoided. As regards + size, the White Dorking is generally inferior to the Sussex + fowl (or 'coloured Dorking'), but in this respect it only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> requires attention and careful breeding. The pure White + Dorking may truly be considered as fancy stock, as well as + useful, because they will breed true to their points; but + the grey Sussex, Surrey or Coloured Dorking, often sport. + To the breeders and admirers of the so-called 'Coloured + Dorkings' I would say, continue to improve the fowl of + your choice, but let him be known by his right title; do + not support him on another's fame, nor yet deny that the + rose-comb or fifth toe is essential to a Dorking, because + your favourites are not constant to those points. The + absence of the fifth claw to the Dorking would be a great + defect, but to the Sussex fowl (erroneously called a 'Coloured + Dorking') it is my opinion it would be an improvement, + provided the leg did not get longer with the loss."</p> +<p>The fifth toe should not be excessively large, or too far + above the ordinary toe.</p> +<p>The White Dorking must have the plumage uniformly + white, though in the older birds the hackle and saddle may + attain a light golden tint. The rose-comb is preferable, + and the beak and legs should be light and clear.</p> +<p>The Coloured Dorking is now bred to great size and + beauty. It is a large, plump, compact, square-made bird, + with short white legs, and should have a well-developed + fifth toe. The plumage is very varied, and may have a + wide range, and might almost be termed immaterial, provided + a coarse mealy appearance be avoided, and the pen + is well matched. This latitude in respect of plumage is so + generally admitted that the assertion "you cannot breed + Dorkings true to colour," has almost acquired the authority + of a proverb. They may be shown with either rose or + single combs, but all the birds in a pen must match.</p> +<p>The Dorking is the perfection of a table bird, combining + delicately-flavoured white flesh, which is produced in + greatest quantity in the choicest parts—the breast, merry-thought, + and wings—equal distribution of fat, and symmetrical + shape. Mr. Baily prefers the Speckled or Grey to + the White, as "they are larger, hardier, and fatten more + readily, and although it may appear anomalous, it is not + less true that white-feathered poultry has a tendency to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> yellowness in the flesh and fat." Size is an important + point in Dorkings. Coloured prize birds weigh from seven + to fourteen pounds, and eight months' chickens six or + seven pounds. The White Dorking is smaller.</p> +<p>They are not good layers, except when very young, and + are bad winter layers. The eggs are large, averaging 2¾ + ounces, pure white, very much rounded, and nearly equal + in size at each end. The hen is an excellent sitter and + mother. The chickens are very delicate, requiring more + care when young than most breeds, and none show a + greater mortality, no more than two-thirds of a brood + usually surviving the fourth week of their life. They + should not be hatched before March, and must be kept on + gravel soil, hard clay, or other equally dry ground, and + never on brick, stone, or wooden flooring.</p> +<p>This breed will only thrive on a dry soil. They are fond + of a wide range, and cannot be kept within a fence of less + than seven feet in height. When allowed unlimited range + they appear to grow hardy, and are as easily reared as any + other breed if not hatched too early. If kept in confinement + they should have fresh turf every day, besides other + vegetable food. Dorkings degenerate more than any breed + by inter-breeding, and rapidly decrease in size.</p> +<p>Dorkings are peculiarly subject to a chronic inflammation + or abscess of the foot, known as "bumble-foot," + which probably originated in heavy fowls descending from + high perches and walking over sharp stones. The additional + toe may have rendered them more liable to this + disease. It may now arise from the same cause, and is + best prevented by using broad, low perches, and keeping + their runs clear of sharp, rough stones, but it also appears + to have become hereditary in some birds. There is no + cure for it when matured except its removal, and this + operation fails oftener than it succeeds; but Mr. Tegetmeier + states, that he has in early cases removed the corn-like or + wart-like tumours on the ball of the foot with which the + disease begins, and cauterised the part with nitrate of + silver successfully.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/i_128.jpg" width="600" height="382" alt=""/> <span class="caption">Golden-pencilled and Silver-spangled Hamburgs. Black Spanish</span> </div> +<hr class="chap" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV.</h2> +<h3>SPANISH.</h3> +<p>This splendid breed was originally imported from + Spain, and is characterised by its peculiar white face, + which in the cock should extend from the comb downwards, + including the entire face, and meet beneath in a + white cravat, hidden by the wattles; and in the hen + should be equally striking. The plumage is perfectly + black, with brilliant metallic lustre, reflecting rich green + and purple tints. The tail should resemble a sickle in the + cock, and be square in the hen. The comb should be of a + bright red, large, and high, upright in the cock, but + pendent in the hen; the legs blue, clean, and long, and + the bearing proud and gallant.</p> +<p>With care they will thrive in a very small space, and are + perhaps better adapted for town than any other variety. + They are tolerably hardy when grown, but suffer much + from cold and wet. Their combs and wattles are liable + to be injured by severe cold, from which these fowls should + be carefully protected. If frost-bitten, the parts should be + rubbed with snow or cold water, and the birds must not + be taken into a warm room until recovered.</p> +<p>The Spanish are excellent layers, producing five or six eggs + weekly from February to August, and two or three weekly + from November to February, and also laying earlier than + any other breed except the Brahma, the pullets beginning + to lay before they are six months old. Although the hens + are only of an average size, and but moderate eaters, their + eggs are larger than those of any other breed, averaging + 3½ ounces, and some weighing 4½ ounces, each. The shells + are very thin and white, and the largest eggs are laid in + the spring.</p> +<p>The flesh is excellent, but the body is small compared to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> that of the Dorking. They very seldom show any inclination + to sit, and if they hatch a brood are bad nurses. The + chickens are very delicate, and are best hatched at the end + of April and during May. They do not feather till almost + three-parts grown, and require a steady mother that will + keep with them till they are safely feathered, and therefore + the eggs should be set under a Dorking hen, because that + breed remains longer with the chicks than any other. + They almost always have white feathers in the flight of the + wings, but these become black.</p> +<p>"In purchasing Spanish fowls," says an excellent + authority, "blue legs, the entire absence of white or + coloured feathers in the plumage, and a large white face, + with a very large, high comb, which should be erect in the + cock, though pendent in the hen, should be insisted on." + Legginess is a fault that breeders must be careful to avoid.</p> +<p>The cockerels show the white face earlier than the + pullets, and a blue, shrivelly appearance in the face of the + chickens is a better sign of future whiteness than a red + fleshiness. Pullets are rarely fully white-faced till above a + year old. "The white face," says an excellent authority, + "should always extend well around the eye, and up to the + point of junction with the comb, though a line of short + black feathers is there frequently seen to intrude its undesired + presence. It is certainly objectionable, and the + less of it the better; but any attempt to remove or disguise + this eyesore should be followed by immediate disqualification." + Some exhibitors of Spanish shave the down of the + edges of the white-face, in order to make it smooth and + larger. This disgraceful practice is not allowed at the + Birmingham Show.</p> +<p>"One test of condition," says Mr. Baily, "more particularly + of the pullets, is the state of the comb, which will + be red, soft, and developed, just in proportion to the condition + of the bird. While moulting—and they are almost + naked during this process—the comb entirely shrivels up."</p> +<p>The White-faced <span class="smcap">White Spanish</span> is thought to be merely + a sport of the White-faced Black Spanish. But, whatever + their origin may have been, they possess every indication of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> common blood with their Black relatives, and their claims + to appear by their side in the exhibition room are as good + as those of the White Cochins and the White Polish. The + plumage is uniformly white, but in all other respects they + resemble the Black breed. From the absence of contrast + of colour shown in the face, comb, and plumage of the + Black Spanish, the White variety is far less striking in + appearance.</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Andalusian</span> are so called from having been brought + from the Spanish province of Andalusia. This breed is of + a bluish grey, sometimes slightly laced with a darker shade, + but having the neck hackles and tail feathers of a glossy + black, with red face and white ears. The chickens are very + hardy, and feather well, and earlier than the Spanish.</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Minorca</span> is so called from having been imported + from that island, and is a larger and more compactly-formed + breed, resembling the Spanish in its general characteristics; + black, with metallic lustre, but with red face, + and having only the ear-lobes white; showing even a + larger comb, and with shorter legs. They are better as + table fowls than the Spanish, but the Andalusian are superior + to either. The Minorca is the best layer of all the + Spanish breeds, its chickens are tolerably hardy, and it is + altogether far superior to the White-faced breed.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Ancona</span> is a provincial term applied to black and white + mottled, or "cuckoo," which on all other points resemble + Minorcas, but are smaller.</p> +<p>The "Black Rot," to which Spanish fowls are subject, is + a blackening of the comb, swelling of the legs and feet, + and general wasting of the system; and can only be cured + in the earlier stages by frequent purgings with castor oil, + combined with warm nourishing food, and strong ale, or + other stimulants, given freely. They are also subject to a + peculiar kind of swelled face, which first appears like a + small knob under the skin, and increases till it has covered + one side of the face. It is considered to be incurable.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI.</h2> +<h3>HAMBURGS.</h3> +<p>This breed is medium-sized, and should have a brilliant + red, finely-serrated rose-comb, terminating in a spike at + the back, taper blue legs, ample tail, exact markings, a + well-developed white deaf-ear, and a quick, spirited bearing. + They are classed in three varieties, the Pencilled, + Spangled, and Black varieties, with the sub-varieties of + Gold and Silver in the two former.</p> +<p>The Pencilled Hamburg is of two ground colours, gold + and silver, that is, of a brown yellow or white, and very + minutely marked. The hens of both colours should have + the body clearly pencilled across with several bars of + black. The hackle in both sexes should be free from dark + marks. In the Golden-pencilled variety the cock should + be of one uniform red all over his body without any pencilling + whatever, and his tail copper colour; but many + first-class birds have pure black tails and the sickle feathers + should be shaded with a rich bronze or copper. In the + Silver-pencilled variety the cock is often nearly white, with + yellowish wing-coverts, and a brown or chestnut patch on + the flight feathers of his wing. The tail should be black + and the sickle feathers tinged with a reddish white.</p> +<p>The Speckled or Spangled Hamburg, also called Pheasant + Fowl, from the false idea that the pheasant was one + of its parents, is of two kinds, the Golden-speckled and + Silver-speckled, according to their ground colour, the marking + taking the form of a spot upon each feather. They + have very full double and firmly fixed combs, the point at + the end turning upwards, a dark rim round the eyes, blue + legs, and mixed hackle. They were also called Moss + Fowls, and Mooneys, the latter probably because the end + of every feather should have a black rim on the yellow or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> white ground. In the Golden-spangled some judges prefer + cocks with a pure black breast, but others desire them + spangled.</p> +<p>"One chief cause of discussion," says Miss Watts, + "relating to the Hamburg, regarded the markings on the + cocks. The Yorkshire breed, which had been a favourite + in that county for many years, produced henny cocks—<i>i.e.</i> cocks with plumage resembling that of a hen. The feathers + of the hackle were not narrow and elongated like those of + cocks generally, but were short and rounded like those of + the hen; the saddle-feathers were the same, and the tail, + instead of being graced with fine flowing sickle feathers, + was merely square like that of a hen. The Lancashire + Mooneys, on the contrary, produce cocks with as fine + flowing plumage as need grace any chanticleer in the land, + and tails with sickle-feathers twenty-two inches long, fine + flowing saddle-feathers, and abundant hackle. The hen-tail + cocks had the markings, as well as the form, of the + hen; the long feathers of the others cannot, from their + form, have these markings. On this question party-spirit + ran high: York and Lancaster, Cavalier and Roundhead, + were small discussions compared with it; but the hen-cocks + were beaten, and we now seldom hear of them. A mixture + of the two breeds has been tried; but by it valuable qualities + and purity of race have been sacrificed."</p> +<p>The Black Hamburg is of a beautiful black with a + metallic lustre, and is a noble-looking bird, the cocks often + weighing seven pounds. There is little doubt that it was + produced by crossing with the Spanish, which blood shows + itself in the white face, which is often half apparent, and + in the darker legs. But it is well established as a distinct + variety, and good birds breed true to colour and points. + The cocks' combs are larger, and the hens' legs shorter, + than the other varieties.</p> +<p>Bolton Bays and Greys, Chitteprats, Turkish, and + Creoles or Corals, Pencilled Dutch fowls, and Dutch every-day + layers, are but incorrect names for the Hamburgs, + with which they are identical.</p> +<p>The Hamburgs do not attain to their full beauty until<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> three years old. "As a general rule," says Mr. Baily, + "no true bred Hamburg fowl has top-knot, single comb, + white legs, any approach to feather on the legs, white tail, + or spotted hackle." The white ear-lobe being so characteristic + a feature in all the Hamburgs, becomes most + important in judging their merits. Weight is not considered, + but still the Pencilled cock should not weigh less + than four and a half pounds, nor the hen than three and a + half; and the Spangled cock five pounds and the hen four.</p> +<p>The Hamburgs are most prolific layers naturally, without + over-stimulating feeding, surpassing all others in the + number of their eggs, and deserve their popular name of + "everlasting layers." Their eggs are white, and do not + weigh more than 1½ ounce to 1¾ ounce each; and the + hens are known to average 240 eggs yearly. Not being + large eaters, they are very profitable fowls to keep. The + eggs of the Golden-spangled are the largest, and it is the + hardiest variety, but the Pencilled lay more. The Black + variety produces large eggs, and lays a greater number + than any known breed.</p> +<p>They very seldom show any desire to sit except when + they have a free woodland range, for even if free it must + be wild to induce any desire to perpetuate the species, and + they never sit if confined to a yard. The chickens should + not be hatched earlier than May, but in the South of + England they will do very well if hatched by a Cochin-China + hen at the beginning of March. They are small + birds for table, but of excellent quality.</p> +<p>Hamburgs do not bear confinement well, and will not + thrive without a good run; a grass field is the best. + Being small and light, even a ten-feet fence will not keep + them within a small run. They may indeed be kept in a + shed, but the number must be very few in proportion to + its size, and they must be kept dry and scrupulously clean. + They are excellent guards in the country, for if disturbed + in their roosting-place they will make a great noise. + The breed has improved in this country, and British bred + fowls are much stronger than the imported birds.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/i_136.jpg" width="600" height="382" alt=""/> <span class="caption">White-crested Black. Golden and Silver-spangled.<br /> + POLISH. </span> </div> +<hr class="chap" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII.</h2> +<h3>POLANDS.</h3> +<p>This breed might with good reason be divided into + more families, but it is usual to rank as Polands all fowls + with their chief distinguishing characteristic, a full, large, + round, compact tuft on the head. The breed "is quite + unknown in Poland, and takes its name," says Mr. Dickson, + "from some resemblance having been fancied between + its tufted crest and the square-spreading crown of the + feathered caps worn by the Polish soldiers." It is much + esteemed in Egypt, and equally abundant at the Cape of + Good Hope, where their legs are feathered. Some travellers + assert that the Mexican poultry are crested, and that what + are called Poland fowls are natives of either Mexico or + South America; but others believe that they are natives of + the East, and that they, as well as all the other fowls on + the Continent of America, have been introduced from the + Old World.</p> +<p>The Golden-spangled and Silver-spangled are the most + beautiful varieties, the first being of a gold colour and the + second white, both spangled with black. The more uniform + the colour of the tuft is with that of the bird, the higher it + is valued.</p> +<p>The Black Poland is of a deep velvety black; has a large, + white, round tuft, and should not have a comb, but many + have a little comb in the form of two small points before + the tuft. The tuft to be perfect should be entirely white, + but it is rare to meet with one without a slight bordering + of black, or partly black, feathers round the front.</p> +<p>There are also Yellow, laced with white, Buff or Chamois, + spangled with white, Blue, Grey, Black, and White mottled. + All the sub-varieties should be of medium size, neat compact + form, plump, full-breasted, and have lead-coloured legs and + ample tails.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p> +<p>The top-knot of the cock should be composed of straight + feathers, growing from the centre of the crown, and falling + over outside, but not so much as to intercept the sight, + and form a circular crest. That of the hen should be + formed of feathers growing out and turning in at the + extremity, so as to resemble a cauliflower, and it should be + even, firm, and as nearly round as possible. Large, + uneven top-knots composed of loose feathers do not equal + smaller but firm and well-shaped crests. The white ear-lobe + is essential in all the varieties.</p> +<p>"Beards" in Polands were formerly not admired. + Among the early birds brought from the continent, not + one in a hundred was bearded, and those that were so were + often rejected, and it was a question of dispute whether + the pure bird should have them or not. Bearded birds at + shows were the exceptions, but an unbearded pen of Polands + is now seldom or ever seen.</p> +<p>There was formerly a breed of White, with black top-knots, + but that is lost, although it seems to have been not + only the most ornamental, but the largest and most valuable + of all the Polish varieties. The last specimen known + was seen by Mr. Brent at St. Omer in 1854, and it is + possible that the breed may still exist in France or + Ireland.</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Serai Ta-ook</span>, or <span class="smcap">Fowl of the Sultan</span>, is the + latest Polish fowl introduced into this country. They were + imported in 1854 by Miss Watts, who says: "With + regard to the name, Serai is the name of the Sultan's + palace; Tä-ook is Turkish for fowl; the simplest translation + of this is, Sultan's fowls, or fowls of the Sultan; a + name which has the double advantage of being the + nearest to be found to that by which they have been + known in their own country, and of designating the + country from which they came. In general habits + they are brisk and happy-tempered, but not kept in + as easily as Cochin-Chinas. They are very good layers; + their eggs are large and white; they are non-sitters, and + small eaters. A grass run with them will remain green + long after the crop would have been cleared by either<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> Brahmas or Cochins, and with scattered food they soon + become satisfied and walk away. They are the size of + our English Poland fowls. Their plumage is white and + flowing; they have a full-sized compact Poland tuft on the + head, are muffed, have a good flowing tail, short well-feathered + legs, and five toes upon each foot. The comb is + merely two little points, and the wattles very small. We + have never seen fowls more fully decorated—full tail, + abundant furnishing, in hackle almost touching the ground, + boots, vulture-hocks, beards, whiskers, and full round + Poland crests. Their colour is pure white."</p> +<p>They are prolific layers during spring and summer. + Their eggs are white, and weigh from 2 ounces to 2¼ + ounces each, the Spangled varieties producing the largest. + They rarely sit, and generally leave their eggs after five or + six days, and are not good mothers. The chickens require + great care for six weeks. They should never be hatched + by heavy hens, as the prominence in the skull which supports + the top-knot is never completely covered with bone, + and very sensible to injury. Like the Game breed they + improve in feather for several years. Polands never thrive + on a wet or cold soil, and are more affected by bad weather + than any other breed; the top-knots being very liable to + be saturated with wet. They are easily fattened, and their + flesh is white, juicy, and rich-flavoured, but they are not + sufficiently large for the market.</p> +<p>Mr. Hewitt cautions breeders against attempting to seize + birds suddenly, as the crest obscures their sight, and, being + taken by surprise, they are frequently so frightened as to + die in the hand. They should, therefore, always be + spoken to, or their attention otherwise attracted before + being touched.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII.</h2> +<h3>BANTAMS.</h3> +<p>Of this breed one kind is Game, and resembles the Game + fowl, except in size; another is feathered to the very toes, + the feathers on the tarsi, or beam of the leg, being long + and stiff, and often brushing the ground. They are peculiarly + fancy fowls. There are several varieties, the White, + Black, Nankin, Partridge, Booted or Feather-legged, Game, + and the Golden-laced and Silver-laced, or Sebright Bantam. + All should be very small, varying from fourteen to twenty + ounces in the hen, and from sixteen to twenty-four in the + cock. The head should be narrow; beak curved; forehead + rounded; eyes bright; back short; body round and full; + breast very prominent; legs short and clean, except in the + Booted variety; wings depressed; and the carriage unusually + erect, the back of the neck and the tail feathers + almost touching; and the whole bearing graceful, bold, + and proud.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/i_141.jpg" width="600" height="382" alt=""/> <span class="caption">Black. Sebright's Gold and Silver-laced. White. Game.<br /> + BANTAMS. </span> </div> +<p>"The Javanese jungle-fowl" (<i>Gallus Bankiva</i>), says Mr. + W. C. L. Martin, "the Ayam-utan of the Malays, is a + native of Java; but either a variety or a distinct species of + larger size, yet very similar in colouring, is found in continental + India. The Javanese, or Bankiva jungle-fowl, is + about the size of an ordinary Bantam, and in plumage + resembles the black-breasted red Game-bird of our country, + with, a steel-blue mark across the wings. The comb is + high, its edge is deeply serrated, and the wattles are rather + large. The hackle feathers of the neck and rump are long + and of a glossy golden orange; the shoulders are chestnut + red, the greater wing-coverts deep steel-blue, the quill + feathers brownish black, edged with pale, reddish yellow, + or sandy red. The tail is of a black colour, with metallic + reflections of green and blue. The under parts are black<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> the naked space round the eyes, the comb, and wattles are + scarlet. The hen closely resembles a brown hen of the + Game breed, except in being very much smaller. That + this bird, or its continental ally, is one of the sources—perhaps + the main source—of our domestic race, cannot be + doubted. It inter-breeds freely with our common poultry, + and the progeny is fertile. Most beautiful cross-breeds + between the Bankiva jungle-fowl and Bantam may be seen + in the gardens of the Zoological Society."</p> +<p>"That the Bankiva jungle-fowl of Java, or its larger continental + variety, if it be not a distinct species (and of which + Sir W. Jardine states that he has seen several specimens), + is one of the sources of our domestic breeds, cannot, we + think, be for a moment doubted. It would be difficult + to discover any difference between a clean-limbed, black-breasted + red Bantam-cock, and a cock Bankiva jungle-fowl. + Indeed, the very term Bantam goes far to prove their specific + identity. Bantam is a town or city at the bottom of + a bay on the northern coast of Java; it was first visited by + the Portuguese in 1511, at which time a great trade was + carried on by the town with Arabia, Hindostan, and China, + chiefly in pepper. Subsequently it fell into the hands of + the Dutch, and was at one time the great rendezvous for + European shipping. It is now a place of comparative + insignificance. From this it would seem that the jungle-fowls + domesticated and sold to the Europeans at Bantam + continued to be designated by the name of the place where + they were obtained, and in process of time the name was + appropriated to all our dwarfish breeds."</p> +<p>Game Bantams are exact miniatures of real Game fowls, + in Black-breasted red, Duck-wing, and other varieties. The + cocks must not have the strut of the Bantam, but the bold, + martial bearing of the Game cock. Their wings should be + carried closely, and their feathers be hard and close. The + Duck-wing cock's lower wing-coverts should be marked + with blue, forming a bar across each wing.</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Sebright</span>, or <span class="smcap">Gold and Silver-laced Bantam</span>, is a + breed with clean legs, and of most elegantly spangled + plumage, which was bred and has been brought to great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> perfection by Sir John Sebright, after whom they are + named. The attitude of the cock is singularly bold and + proud, the head being often thrown so much back as to + meet the tail feathers, which are simple like those of a hen, + the ordinary sickle-like feathers being abbreviated and + broad. The Gold-laced Sebright Bantams should have + golden brownish-yellow plumage, each feather being bordered + with a lacing of black; the tail square like that of + the hen, without sickle feathers, and carried well over the + back, each feather being tipped with black, a rose-comb + pointed at the back, the wings drooping to the ground, + neither saddle nor neck hackles, clean lead-coloured legs + and feet, and white ear-lobes; and the hen should correspond + exactly with him, but be much smaller. The Silver-laced + birds have exactly the same points except in the + ground feathering, which should be silvery, and the nearer + the shade approaches to white the more beautiful will be + the bird. Their carriage should resemble that of a good + Fantail pigeon.</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Black Bantams</span> should be uniform in colour, with + well-developed white ear-lobes, rose-combs, full hackles, + sickled and flowing tail, and deep slate-coloured legs. The <span class="smcap">White Bantams</span> should have white legs and beak. Both + should be of tiny size.</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Nankin</span>, or <span class="smcap">Common Yellow Bantam</span>, is probably + the nearest approach to the original type of the family—the + "Bankiva fowl." The cock "has a large proportion + of red and dark chestnut on the body, with a full black + tail; while the hen is a pale orange yellow, with a tail + tipped with black, and the hackle lightly pencilled with + the same colour, and clean legs. Combs vary, but the rose + is decidedly preferable. True-bred specimens of these + birds being by no means common, considerable deviations + from the above description may consequently be expected + in birds passing under this appellation."</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Booted Bantams</span> have their legs plumed to the toes, + not on one side only like Cochin-Chinas, but completely on + both, with stiff, long feathers, which brush the ground. + The most beautiful specimens are of a pure white.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> "Feathered-legged Bantams," says Mr. Baily, "may be of + any colour; the old-fashioned birds were very small, + falcon-hocked, and feathered, with long quill feathers to + the extremity of the toe. Many of them were bearded. + They are now very scarce; indeed, till exhibitions brought + them again into notice, these beautiful specimens of their + tribe were all neglected and fast passing away. Nothing + but the Sebright was cultivated; but now we bid fair to + revive the pets of our ancestors in all their beauty."</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Pekin</span>, or <span class="smcap">Cochin Bantams</span>, were taken from the + Summer Palace at Pekin during the Chinese war, and + brought to this country. They exactly resemble the Buff + Cochins in all respects except size. They are very tame.</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Japanese Bantam</span> is a recent importation, and + differs from most of the other varieties in having a very + large single comb. It has very short well-feathered legs, + and the colour varies. Some are quite white, some have + pure white bodies, with glossy, jet-black tails, others are + mottled and buff. They throw the tail up and the head + back till they nearly meet, as in the Fantailed pigeon. + They are said to be the constant companions of man in + their native country, and have a droll and good-natured + expression.</p> +<p>All the Bantam cocks are very pugnacious, and though + the hens are good mothers to their own chickens, they will + attack any stranger with fury. They are good layers of + small but exquisitely-flavoured eggs. But no breed produces + so great a proportion of unfertile eggs. June is the + best month for hatching, as the chickens are delicate. + They feather more quickly than most breeds, and are apt + to die at that period through the great drain upon the + system in producing feathers. When fully feathered they + are quite hardy. The hens are excellent mothers. The + chickens require a little more animal food than other fowls, + and extra attention for a week or two in keeping them dry. + Bantams are very useful in a garden, eating many slugs + and insects, and doing little damage.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX.</h2> +<h3>FRENCH AND VARIOUS.</h3> +<p>The French breeds are remarkable for great weight and + excellent quality of flesh, with a very small proportion of + bones and offal; their breeders having paid great attention + to those important, substantial, and commercial points + instead of devoting almost exclusive attention to colour and + other fancy points as we have done. As a rule they are + all non-sitters, or sit but rarely.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/i_147.jpg" width="600" height="382" alt=""/> <span class="caption">Houdans. La Flêche, cock. Crêvecoeur, hen.<br /> + FRENCH. </span></div> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Crêve-Cœur</span> has been known the longest and most + generally. This breed is said to derive its name from a + village so called in Normandy, whence its origin can be + distinctly traced; but others fancifully say, from the resemblance + of its peculiar comb to a broken heart. It is + scarce, and pure-bred birds are difficult to procure. The + Crêve-Cœur is a fine large bird, black in plumage, or nearly + so, with short, clean black legs, square body, deep chest, + and a large and extraordinary crest or comb, which is thus + described by M. Jacque: "Various, but always forming + two horns, sometimes parallel, straight, and fleshy; sometimes + joined at the base, slightly notched, pointed, and + separating at their extremities; sometimes adding to this + latter description interior ramifications like the horns of + a young stag. The comb, shaped like horns, gives the + Crêve-Cœur the appearance of a devil." It is bearded, and + has a top-knot or crest behind the comb. They are very + quiet, walk slowly, scratch but little, do not fly, are very + tame, ramble but little, and prefer seeking their food on + the dunghill in the poultry-yard to wandering afar off. + They are the most contented of all breeds in confinement, + and will thrive in a limited space. They are tame, tractable + fowls, but inclined to roup and similar diseases in our + climate, and therefore prosper most on a dry, light soil,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> and can scarcely have too much sun. They are excellent + layers of very large white eggs.</p> +<p>The chickens grow so fast, and are so inclined to fatten, + that they may be put up at from ten to twelve weeks of + age, and well fattened in fifteen days. The Crêve-Cœur is + a splendid table bird, both for the quantity and quality + of its flesh. The hen is heavy in proportion to the cock, + weighing eight and a half pounds against his nine and a + half, and the pullets always outweigh the cockerels.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">La Flêche</span> is thus described by M. Jacque: "A strong, + firm body, well placed on its legs, and long muscular + feet, appearing less than it really is, because the feathers + are close; every muscular part well developed; black + plumage. The La Flêche is the tallest of all French + cocks; it has many points of resemblance with the + Spanish, from which I believe it to be descended by + crossing with the Crêve-Cœur. Others believe that it is + connected with the Brêda, which it does, in fact, resemble, + in some particulars. It has white, loose, and + transparent skin; short, juicy, and delicate flesh, which + puts on fat easily."</p> +<p>"The comb is transversal, double, forming two horns + bending forward, united at their base, divided at their + summits, sometimes even and pointed, sometimes having + ramifications on the inner sides. A little double 'combling' + protrudes from the upper part of the nostrils, and + although hardly as large as a pea, this combling, which + surmounts the sort of rising formed by the protrusion of + the nostrils, contributes to the singular aspect of the head. + This measured prominence of the comb seems to add to + the characteristic depression of the beak, and gives the bird + a likeness to a rhinoceros." The plumage is jet black, + with a very rich metallic lustre; large ear-lobe of pure + white; bright red face, unusually free from feathers; and + bright lead-coloured legs, with hard, firm scales. They are + very handsome, showy, large, and lively birds, more + inclined to wander than the Crêve-Cœur, and hardier when + full grown; but their chickens are even more delicate in + wet weather, and should not be hatched before May. They<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> are easily reared, and grow quickly. They are excellent + layers of very large white eggs, but do not lay well in + winter, unless under very favourable circumstances, and + resemble the Spanish in the size and number of their eggs, + and the time and duration of laying. Their flesh is excellent, + juicy, and resembles that of the Game fowl, and the + skin white and transparent, but the legs are dark. This + breed is larger and has more style than the Crêve-Cœur, and + is better adapted to our climate; but the fowls lack constitution, + particularly the cocks, and are very liable to leg + weakness and disease of the knee-joint, and when they get + out of condition seldom recover. They are found in the + north of France, but are not common even there.</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Houdan</span> has the size, deep compact body, short legs, + and fifth toe of the Dorking. They are generally white, + some having black spots as large as a shilling, are bearded, + and should have good top-knots of black and white feathers, + falling backwards like a lark's crest; and the + remarkable comb is thus described by M. Jacque: + "Triple, transversal in the direction of the beak, composed + of two flattened spikes, of long and rectangular form, + opening from right to left, like two leaves of a book; + thick, fleshy, and variegated at the edges. A third spike + grows between these two, having somewhat the shape of an + irregular strawberry, and the size of a long nut. Another, + quite detached from the others, about the size of a pea, + should show between the nostrils, above the beak."</p> +<p>Mr. F. H. Schröder, of the National Poultry Company, + considered that this surpassed all the French breeds, combining + the size, shape, and quality of flesh of the Dorking + with earlier maturity; prolific laying of good-sized eggs, + which are nearly always fertile, and on this point the opposite + of the Dorking; and early and rapid feathering in the + chickens, which are, notwithstanding, hardier than any + breeds except the Cochin and Brahma. They are very + hardy, never sick, and will thrive in a small space. They + are smaller than the Crêve-Cœur or La Flêche, but well + shaped and plump; and for combining size and quality of + flesh with quantity and size of eggs nothing can surpass them.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="smcap">Scotch Dumpies</span>, <span class="smcap">Go Laighs</span>, <span class="smcap">Bakies</span>, or <span class="smcap">Creepers</span>, + are almost extinct; but they are profitable fowls, and + ought to be more common, as they are very hardy, productive + layers of fine large eggs, and their flesh is white + and of excellent quality. They should have large, heavy + bodies; short, white, clean legs, not above an inch and + a half or two inches in length. The plumage is a mixture + of black or brown, and white. They are good layers of fine + large eggs. They cannot be surpassed as sitters and + mothers, and are much valued by gamekeepers for hatching + the eggs of pheasants. The cocks should weigh six or + seven and the hen five or six pounds.</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Silky</span> fowl is so called from its plumage, which is + snowy white, being all discomposed and loose, and of a + silky appearance, resembling spun glass. The comb and + wattles are purple; the bones and the periosteum, or membrane + covering the bones, black, and the skin blue or + purple; but the flesh, however, is white and tender, and + superior to that of most breeds. It is a good layer of small, + round, and excellent eggs. The cock generally weighs + less than three, and the hen less than two, pounds. It + comes from Japan and China, and generally thrives in our + climate. The chickens are easily reared if not hatched + before April nor later than June. They are capital foster + mothers for partridges, and other small and tender game.</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Rumpkin</span>, or <span class="smcap">Rumpless</span> fowl, a Persian breed, not + only lacks the tail-feathers but the tail itself. It is hardy, + of moderate size, and varies in colour, but is generally + black or brown, and from the absence of tail appears + rounder than other fowls. The hens are good layers, but + the eggs are often unfertile. They are good sitters and + mothers, and the flesh is of fair quality.</p> +<p>The <span class="smcap">Friesland</span>, so named from confounding the term + "frizzled" with Friesland, is remarkable from having all + the feathers, except those of the wings and tail, frizzled, or + curled up the wrong way. It is small, very delicate, and a + shower drenches it to the skin.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Barn-door</span> fowl are a mongrel race, compounded by + chance, usually of the Game, Dorking, and Polish breeds.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX.</h2> +<h3>TURKEYS.</h3> +<p>Turkeys are not considered profitable except on light, + dry soils, which is said to be the cause of their success in + Norfolk. They prosper, however, in Ireland; but although + the air there is moist, the soil is dry, except in the boggy + districts. Miss Watts believes that "any place in which + turkeys are properly reared and fed may compete with + Norfolk. Very fine birds may be seen in Surrey, and other + places near London." The general opinion of the best + judges is, that they can barely be made to repay the cost + of their food, which is doubtless owing to the usual great + mortality among the chicks, which loss outbalances all + profit; but others make them yield a fair profit, simply + because, from good situation and judicious management, + they rear all, or nearly all, the chicks. A single brood may + be reared with ease on a small farm or private establishment + without much extra expense, where sufficient attention + can be devoted to them; but to make them profitable + they should be bred on a large scale, and receive exclusive + attention. They should have a large shed or house, with + a boarded floor, to themselves.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/i_153.jpg" width="600" height="382" alt=""/> <span class="caption">Turkey and Guinea-fowls.</span> </div> +<p>Turkeys must have space, for they are birds of rambling + habits, and only fitted for the farmyard, or extensive runs, + delighting to wander in the fields in quest of insects, on + which, with green herbage, berries, beech-mast, and various + seeds, they greedily feed. The troop will ramble about all + day, returning to roost in the evening, when they should + have a good supply of grain; and another should be given + in the morning, which will not only induce them to return + home regularly every night, but keep them in good store + condition, so that they can at any time be speedily fattened. + Peas, vetches, tares, and most sorts of pulse, are almost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> poisonous to them. Their feeding-place must be separate + from the other poultry, or they will gobble up more than + their share. Turkeys will rarely roost in a fowl-house, + and should have a very high open shed, the perches being + placed as high as possible. They are extremely hardy, + roosting, if allowed, on the highest trees in the severest + weather. But this should be prevented, as their feet are + apt to become frost-bitten in severe weather. The chickens + are as delicate. Wet is fatal to them, and the very + slightest shower even in warm weather will frequently + destroy half a brood.</p> +<p>The breeding birds should be carefully selected, any + malformation almost invariably proving itself hereditary. + The cock is at maturity when a year old, but not in his + prime till he has attained his third year, and is entering + upon his fourth, and he continues in vigour for three or + four years more. He should be vigorous, broad-breasted, + clean-legged, with ample wings, well-developed tail, bright + eyes, and the carunculated skin of the neck full and rapid + in its changes of colour. The largest possible hen should + be chosen, the size of the brood depending far more upon + the female than the male. One visit to the male is sufficient + to render all the eggs fertile, and the number of + hens may be unlimited, but to obtain fine birds, twelve or + fifteen hens to one cock is the best proportion. The hen + breeds in the spring following that in which she was + hatched, but is not in her prime till two or three years old, + and continues for two or three years in full vigour.</p> +<p>The hen generally commences laying about the middle + of March, but sometimes earlier. When from her uttering + a peculiar cry and prying about in quest of a secret spot + for sitting, it is evident that she is ready to lay, she should + be confined in the shed, barn, or other place where the + nest has been prepared for her, and let out when she has + laid an egg. The nest should be made of straw and dried + leaves, in a large wicker basket, in a quiet secluded place, + and an egg or nest-egg of chalk should be placed in it to + induce her to adopt it. Turkeys like to choose their own + laying-places, and keep to them though their eggs are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> removed daily, provided a nest-egg is left there. They + will wander to a distance in search of a secluded spot for + laying, and pay their visits to the nest so cleverly that + sometimes they keep it a secret and hatch a brood there, + which, however, does not generally prove a strong or large + one as in the case of ordinary fowls. When a hen has + chosen a safe, quiet, and sheltered place for her nest, it is + best to give her more eggs when she shows a desire to sit, + and let her stay there. The hen generally lays from fifteen + to twenty eggs, sometimes fewer and often many more. + As soon as seven are produced, they should be placed + under a good common hen, a Cochin is the best, and the + remainder can be put under her when she wants to sit. + The best hatching period is from the end of March to May, + and none should be hatched later than June. The broody + hens may be placed on their eggs in any quiet place, as + they are patient, constant sitters, and will not leave their + eggs wherever they may be put. A hen may be allowed + from nine to fifteen eggs, according to her size. During + the time the hen is sitting she requires constant attention. + She must occasionally be taken off the nest to feed, and + regularly supplied with fresh water; otherwise she will + continue to sit without leaving for food, till completely + exhausted. In general, do not let the cock go near the + sitting hen, or he will destroy the eggs or chicks; but + some behave well, and may be left at large with safety. + She should not be disturbed or visited by any one but the + person she is accustomed to be fed by, and the eggs should + not be touched unnecessarily.</p> +<p>The chickens break the shell from the twenty-sixth to + the twenty-ninth day, but sometimes as late as the thirty-first. + Let them remain in the nest for twenty-four hours, + but remove the shells, and next morning place the hen + under a roomy coop or crate, on boards, in a warm outhouse. + Keep her and her brood cooped up for two months, + moving the coop every fine day into a dry grass field, but + keep them in an outhouse in cold or wet weather. The + chicks having a great tendency to diarrhœa, the very best + food for the first week is hard-boiled eggs, chopped small,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> mixed with minced dandelion, and when that cannot be + had, with boiled nettles. They may then have boiled egg, + bread-crumbs, and barley-meal for a fortnight, when the + egg may be replaced by boiled potato, and small grain may + soon be added. Do not force them to eat, but give them + a little food on the tip of your finger, and they will soon + learn to pick it out of the trough. A little hempseed, suet, + onion-tops, green mustard, and nettle-tops, chopped very + fine, should be mixed with their food. Curds are excellent + food, and easily prepared by mixing powdered alum with + milk slightly warmed, in the proportion of one teaspoonful + of alum to four quarts of milk, and, when curdled, separating + the curds from the whey. They should be squeezed + very dry, and must always be given in a soft state. Water + should be given but sparingly, and never allowed to stand + by them, but when they have had sufficient it should be + taken or thrown away. The water must be put in pans + so contrived or placed that they cannot wet themselves. + (<i>See</i> <a href="#Page_38">page 38</a>.) Fresh milk is apt to disagree with the + young chicks, and is not necessary. If a chick shows + weakness, or has taken cold, give it some carraway seeds.</p> +<p>In their wild state the turkey rears only one brood in a + season, and it is not advisable to induce the domesticated + bird by any expedients to hatch a second, for it would be + not only detrimental to her, but the brood would be + hatched late in the season, and very difficult to rear, while + those reared would not be strong, healthy birds.</p> +<p>The coop should be like that used for common fowls, + but two feet broad, and higher, being about three feet high + in front and one foot at the back; this greater slant of the + roof being made in order to confine her movements, as + otherwise she would move about too much, and trample + upon her brood. When they have grown larger they must + have a larger coop, made of open bars wide enough apart + for them to go in and out, but too close to let in fowls to + eat their delicate food, and the hen must be placed under it + with them. A large empty crate, such as is used to contain + crockery-ware, will make a good coop for large poults; + but if one cannot be had, a coop may be made of laths or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> rails, with the bars four inches apart; it should be about + five feet long, four feet broad, and three feet high.</p> +<p>Keep her cooped for two months, moving the coop every + fine, dry day into a grass field, but on cold or wet days + keep them in the outhouse. If she is allowed her liberty + before they are well grown and strong, she will wander + away with them through the long grass, hedges, and + ditches, over highway, common, and meadow, mile after + mile, losing them on the road, and straying on with the + greatest complacency, and perfectly satisfied so long as she + has one or two following her, and never once turning her + head to see how her panting chicks are getting on, nor + troubled when they squat down tired out, and implore her + plaintively to come back; and all this arises from sheer + heedlessness, and not from want of affection, for she will + fight for her brood as valiantly as any pheasant will for + hers. When full grown they should never be allowed to + roam with her while there is heavy dew or white frost on + the grass, but be kept in till the fields and hedgerows are + dry. They will pick up many seeds and insects while + wandering about in the fields with her, but must be fed by + hand three or four times a day at regular intervals.</p> +<p>They cease to be chicks or chickens, and are called + turkey-poults when the male and female distinctive characteristics + are fairly established, the carunculated skin and + comb of the cock being developed, which is called "shooting + the red," or "putting out the red," and begins when + they are eight or ten weeks old. It is the most critical + period of their lives—much more so than moulting, and + during the process their food must be increased in quantity, + and made more nourishing by the addition of boiled + egg-yolks, bread crumbled in ale, wheaten flour, bruised + hempseed, and the like, and they must be well housed at + night. When this process is completed they will be hardy, + and able to take care of themselves; but till they are fully + fledged it will be advisable to keep them from rain and + cold, and not to try their hardness too suddenly.</p> +<p>Vegetables, as chopped nettles, turnip-tops, cabbage + sprouts, onions, docks, and the like, boiled down and well<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> mixed with barley-meal, oatmeal, or wheaten flour, and + curds, if they can be afforded, form excellent food for the + young poults; also steamed potatoes, boiled carrots, turnips, + and the like. With this diet may be given buckwheat, + barley, oats, beans, and sunflower seeds.</p> +<p>When they are old enough to be sent to the stubble and + fields, they are placed in charge of a boy or girl of from + twelve to fifteen years old, who can easily manage one + hundred poults. They are driven with a long bean stick, + and the duties of the turkey-herd is to keep the cocks from + fighting, to lead them to every place where there are + acorns, beech-mast, corn, wild fruit, insects, or other food + to be picked up. He must not allow them to get fatigued + with too long rambles, as they are not fully grown, and + must shelter them from the burning sun, and hasten + them home on the approach of rain. The best times for + these rambles are from eight to ten in the morning, when + the dew is off the grass, and from four till seven in the + evening, before it begins to fall.</p> +<p>Turkeys are crammed for the London markets. The + process of fattening may commence when they are six + months old, as they require a longer time to become fit for + the market than fowls. The large birds which are seen at + Christmas are usually males of the preceding year, and + about twenty months old. All experienced breeders + repudiate "cramming." To obtain fine birds the chickens + must be fed abundantly from their birth until they + are sent to market, and while they are being fattened they + should be sent to the fields and stubble for a shorter time + daily, and their food must be increased in quantity and + improved in quality. Early hatched, well fed young + Norfolk cocks will frequently weigh twenty-three pounds + by Christmas of the same year, and two-year-old birds + will sometimes attain to twenty pounds. When two or + more years old they are called "stags."</p> +<p>The domesticated turkey can scarcely be said to be + divided into distinct breeds like the common fowl, the + several varieties being distinguished by colour only, + but identical in their form and habits. They vary considerably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> in colour—some being of a bronzed black, + others of a coppery tint, of a delicate fawn colour, or buff, + and some of pure white. The dark coloured birds are + generally considered the most hardy, and are usually the + largest. The chief varieties are the Cambridge, Norfolk, + Irish, American, and French.</p> +<p>The Cambridge combines enormous size, a tendency to + fatten speedily, and first-rate flavour. The tortoiseshell + character of its plumage gives the adult birds a very prepossessing + appearance around the homestead, and a striking + character in the exhibition room. The colours may vary + from pale to dark grey, with a deep metallic brown tint, + and light legs. The legs should be stout and long.</p> +<p>The Norfolk breed is more compact and smaller-boned, + and produces a large quantity of meat of delicate whiteness + and excellent quality. The cocks are almost as heavy as + the Cambridge breed, but the hens are smaller and more + compact. The Norfolk should be jet, not blue black, + and free from any other colour, being uniform throughout, + including the legs and feet.</p> +<p>All the birds in a pen must be uniform.</p> +<p>The American wild turkey has become naturalised in + this country, but being of a very wandering disposition is + best adapted to be kept in parks and on large tracts of wild + land. It is slender in shape, but of good size, with uniform + metallic bronze plumage, the flight feathers being barred + with white, and the tail alternately with white, rich dark + brown, and black, and with bright pink legs. The wattles + are smaller than in the other breeds, and of a bluish tinge. + They are very hardy, but more spiteful than others, and + are said to be also more prolific. Crosses often take place + in America between the wild and tame races, and are + highly valued both for their appearance and for the table. + Eggs of the wild turkey have also often been taken from + their nests, and hatched under the domesticated hen. + The flavour of the flesh of the American breed is peculiar + and exceedingly good, but they do not attain a large size.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a>CHAPTER XXI.</h2> +<h3>GUINEA-FOWLS.</h3> +<p>The Guinea-fowl, Gallina, or Pintado (<i>Numida meleagris</i>), + is the true meleagris of the ancients, a term + generically applied by Belon, Aldrovandus, and Gesner to + the turkey, and now retained, although the error is + acknowledged, in order to prevent confusion. It is a + native of Africa, where it is extensively distributed. They + associate in large flocks and frequent open glades, the + borders of forests, and banks of rivers, which offer abundant + supplies of grain, berries, and insects, in quest of which + they wander during the day, and collect together at + evening, and roost in clusters on the branches of trees or + shrubs. Several other wild species are known, some of + which are remarkable for their beauty; but the common + Guinea-fowl is the only one domesticated in Europe. The + Guinea-fowl is about twenty-two inches long, and from + standing high on its legs, and having loose, full plumage, + appears to be larger than it really is, for when plucked it + does not weigh more than an ordinary Dorking. It is + very plump and well-proportioned. The Guinea-fowl + is not bred so much as the turkey in England or France, + is very rare in the northern parts of Europe, and in + India is bred almost exclusively by Europeans, although + it thrives as well there as in its native country. It "is + turbulent and restless," says Mr. Dickson, "continually + moving from place to place, and domineering over the + whole poultry-yard, boldly attacking even the fiercest + turkey cock, and keeping all in alarm by its petulant + pugnacity"; and the males, although without spurs, can + inflict serious injury on other poultry with their short, hard + beaks. The Guinea-fowls make very little use of their + wings, and if forced to take to flight, fly but a short<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> distance, then alight, and trust to their rapid mode of + running, and their dexterity in threading the mazes of + brushwood and dense herbage, for security. They are + shy, wary, and alert.</p> +<p>It is not much kept, its habits being wandering, and + requiring an extensive range, but as it picks up nearly all + its food, and is very prolific, it may be made very profitable + in certain localities. The whole management of both the + young and the old may be precisely the same as that of + turkeys, in hatching, feeding, and fattening. This + "species," says Mr. Dickson, "differs from all other + poultry, in its being difficult to distinguish the cock from + the hen, the chief difference being in the colour of the + wattles, which are more of a red hue in the cock, and more + tinged with blue in the hen. The cock has also a more + stately strut."</p> +<p>They mate in pairs, and therefore an equal number + of cocks and hens must be kept, or the eggs will prove + unfertile. To obtain stock, some of their eggs must be + procured, and placed under a common hen; for if old + birds are bought, they will wander away for miles in + search of their old home, and never return. They should + be fed regularly, and must always have one meal at night, + or they will scarcely ever roost at home. They will not + sleep in the fowl-house, but prefer roosting in the lower + branches of a tree, or on a thick bush, and retire early. + They make a peculiar, harsh, querulous noise, which is + oft-repeated, and not agreeable. The hens are prolific + layers, beginning in May, and continuing during the + whole summer. Their eggs are small, but of excellent + flavour, of a pale yellowish red, finely dotted with a darker + tint, and remarkable for the hardness of the shell. The + hen usually lays on a dry bank, in secret places; and + a hedgerow a quarter of a mile off is quite as likely to + contain her nest as any situation nearer her home. She + is very shy, and, if the eggs are taken from her nest, will + desert it, and find another; a few should, therefore, always + be left, and it should never be visited when she is in sight. + But she often contrives to elude all watching, and hatch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> a brood, frequently at a late period, when the weather is + too cold for the chickens. As the Guinea-fowl seldom + shows much disposition to incubate if kept under restraint, + and frequently sits too late in the season to rear a brood in + this country, it is a general practice to place her eggs + under a common fowl—Game and Bantams are the best + for the purpose. About twenty of the earliest eggs + should be set in May. The Guinea-hen will hatch another + brood when she feels inclined. They sit for twenty-six to + twenty-nine or thirty days. When she sits in due season + she generally rears a large brood, twenty not being an + unusual number.</p> +<p>The chickens are very tender, and should not be + hatched too early in spring, as a cold March wind is + generally fatal to them. They must be treated like those + of the turkey, and as carefully. They should be fed + almost immediately, within six hours of being hatched, + abundantly, and often; and they require more animal + food than other chickens. Egg boiled hard, chopped very + fine, and mixed with oatmeal, is the best food. They + will die if kept without food for three or four hours; + and should have a constant supply near them until they + are allowed to have full liberty and forage for themselves. + They will soon pick up insects, &c., and will keep themselves + in good condition with a little extra food. They + are very strong on their legs, and those hatched under + common hens may be allowed to range with her at the + end of six weeks, and be fed on the same food and at the + same times as other chickens.</p> +<p>The Guinea-fowl may be considered as somewhat intermediate + between the pheasant and turkey. After the pheasant + season, young birds that have been hatched the same year + are excellent substitutes for that fine game, and fetch a fair + price. They should never be fattened, but have a good + supply of grain and meal for a week or two before being + killed. The flesh of the young bird is very delicate, juicy, + and well-flavoured, but the old birds, even of the second + year, are dry, tough, and tasteless.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII"></a>CHAPTER XXII.</h2> +<h3>DUCKS.</h3> +<p>Ducks will not pay if all their food has to be bought, + except it is purchased wholesale, and they are reared for + town markets, for their appetites are voracious, and they + do not graze like geese. They may be kept in a limited + space, but more profitably and conveniently where they + have the run of a paddock, orchard, kitchen garden, flat + common, green lane, or farmyard, with ditches and water. + They will return at night, and come to the call of the + feeder. Nothing comes amiss to them—green vegetables, + especially when boiled, all kinds of meal made into porridge, + all kinds of grain, bread, oatcake, the refuse and + offal of the kitchen, worms, slugs, snails, insects and their + larvæ, are devoured eagerly. Where many fowls are kept, + a few ducks may be added profitably, for they may be fed + very nearly on what the hens refuse.</p> +<p>Ducks require water to swim in, but "it is a mistake," + says Mr. Baily, "to imagine that ducks require a great + deal of water. They may be kept where there is but very + little, and only want a pond or tank just deep enough to + swim in. The early Aylesbury ducklings that realise such + large prices in the London market have hardly ever had a + swim; and in rearing ducks, where size is a desideratum, + they will grow faster and become larger when kept in pens, + farmyards, or in pastures, than where they are at and in + the water all day." Where a large number of geese and + ducks are kept, water on a sufficient scale, and easily + accessible, should be in the neighbourhood.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/i_165.jpg" width="600" height="382" alt=""/> <span class="caption">Toulouse Goose.<br /> + Rouen and Aylesbury Ducks. </span> </div> +<p>Ducks, being aquatic birds, do not require heated apartments, + nor roosts on which to perch during the night. + They squat on the floors, which must be dry and warm. + They should, if possible, be kept in a house separate from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> the other poultry, and it should have a brick floor, so that + it can be easily washed. In winter the floor should be + littered with a thin layer of straw, rushes, or fern leaves, + fresh every day. The hatching-houses should be separated + from the lodging apartments, and provided with boxes for + the purpose of incubation and hatching.</p> +<p>In its wild state the duck pairs with a single mate: the + domestic duck has become polygamous, and five ducks may + be allowed to one drake, but not more than two or three + ducks should be given to one drake if eggs are required + for setting.</p> +<p>Ducks begin laying in January, and usually from that + time only during the spring; but those hatched in March + will often lay in the autumn, and continue for two or three + months. They usually lay fifty or sixty eggs, and have + been known to produce 250. The faculty of laying might + be greatly developed, as it has been in some breeds of + fowls; but they have been hitherto chiefly bred for their + flesh. They require constant watching when beginning to lay, + for they drop their eggs everywhere but in the nest made for + them, but as they generally lay in the night, or early in the + morning, when in perfect health, they should therefore + be kept in every morning till they have laid. One of + the surest signs of indisposition among them is irregularity + in laying. "The eggs of the duck," says Mr. + Dickson, "are readily known from those of the common + fowl by their bluish colour and larger size, the shell being + smoother, not so thick, and with much fewer pores. When + boiled, the white is never curdy like that of a new-laid + hen's egg, but transparent and glassy, while the yolk is + much darker in colour. The flavour is by no means so + delicate. For omelets, however, as well as for puddings + and pastry, duck eggs are much better than hen's eggs, + giving a finer colour and flavour, and requiring less butter; + qualities so highly esteemed in Picardy, that the women + will sometimes go ten or twelve miles for duck eggs to + make their holiday cakes."</p> +<p>A hen is often made to hatch ducklings, being considered + a better nurse than a duck, which is apt to take them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> while too young to the pond, dragging them under beetling + banks in search of food, and generally leaving half of them + in the water unable to get out; and if the fly or the gnat + is on the water, she will stay there till after dark, and lose + part of her brood. Ducks' eggs may be advantageously + placed under a broody exhibition hen. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Page_88">page 88</a>.) A + turkey is much better than either, from the large expanse + of the wings in covering the broods, and the greater heat + of body; but if the duck is a good sitter, it is best to let + her hatch her own eggs, taking care to keep her and them + from the water till they are strong. The nest should be + on the ground, and in a damp place. Choose the freshest + eggs, and place from nine to eleven under her. Feed her + morning and evening while sitting, and place food and + water within her reach. The duck always covers her eggs + upon leaving them, and loose straw should be placed near + the house for that purpose.</p> +<p>They are hatched in thirty days. They may generally + be left with their mother upon the nest for her own time. + When she moves coop her on the short grass if fine + weather, or under shelter if otherwise, for a week or ten + days, when they may be allowed to swim for half an hour + at a time. When hatched they require constant feeding. + A little curd, bread-crumbs, and meal, mixed with chopped + green food, is the best food when first hatched. Boiled + cold oatmeal porridge is the best food for ducklings for the + first ten days; afterwards barley-meal, pollard, and oats, + with plenty of green food. Never give them hard spring + water to drink, but that from a pond. Ducklings are + easily reared, soon able to shift for themselves, and to pick + up worms, slugs, and insects, and can be cooped together + in numbers at night if protected from rats. An old pigsty + is an excellent place for a brood of young ducks.</p> +<p>Ducklings should not be allowed to go on the water till + feathers have supplied the place of their early down, for + the latter will get saturated with the water while the former + throws off the wet. "Though the young ducklings," says + Mr. W. C. L. Martin, "take early to the water, it is + better that they should gain a little strength before they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> be allowed to venture into ponds or rivers; a shallow + vessel of water filled to the brim and sunk in the ground + will suffice for the first week or ten days, and this rule is + more especially to be adhered to when they are under the + care of a common hen, which cannot follow them into the + pond, and the calls of which when there they pay little or + no regard to. Rats, weasels, pike, and eels are formidable + foes to ducklings: we have known entire broods destroyed + by the former, which, having their burrows in a steep bank + around a sequestered pond, it was found impossible to + extirpate." If the ducklings stay too long in the water + they will have diarrhœa, in which case coop them close for + a few days, and mix bean-meal or oatmeal with their + ordinary food.</p> +<p>A troop of ducks will do good service to a kitchen + garden in the summer or autumn, when they can do no + mischief by devouring delicate salads and young sprouting + vegetables. They will search industriously for snails, + slugs, woodlice, and millipedes, and gobble them up + eagerly, getting positively fat on slugs and snails. Strawberries, + of which they are very fond, must be protected + from them. Where steamed food is daily prepared for + pigs and cattle, a portion of this mixed with bran and + barley-meal is the cheapest mode of satisfying their + voracious appetites. They should never be stinted in + food.</p> +<p>To fatten ducks let them have as much substantial food + as they will eat, bruised oats and pea-meal being the + standard, plenty of exercise, and clean water. Boiled + roots mixed with a little barley-meal is excellent food, + with a little milk added during fattening. They require + neither penning up nor cramming to acquire plumpness, + and if well fed should be fit for market in eight or ten + weeks. Celery imparts a delicious flavour.</p> +<p>The Aylesbury is the finest breed, and should be of a + spotless white, with long, flat, broad beak of a pale flesh + colour, grey eyes, long head and neck, broad and flat body + and breast, and orange legs, placed wide apart. As it + lays early, its ducklings are the earliest ready for market.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> They have produced 150 large eggs in a year, and are + better sitters than the Rouen.</p> +<p>The Rouen is hardy and easily reared, but rarely lay till + February or March. They thrive better in most parts of + England than the Aylesburys, and care less for the water + than the other varieties. They are very handsome, and + weigh eight or nine pounds each, and their flesh is + excellent.</p> +<p>The Muscovy duck is so called, says Ray, "not because + it comes from Muscovy, but because it exhales a somewhat + powerful odour of musk." Little is known of its origin, + which is generally thought to be South America; nor has + the date of its introduction into Europe been ascertained. + "This species," says Mr. W. C. L. Martin, "will inter-breed + with the common duck, but we believe the progeny + are not fertile. The Musk duck greatly exceeds the + ordinary kind in size, and moreover, differs in the colours + and character of the plumage, in general contour, and the + form of the head. The general colour is glossy blue-black, + varied more or less with white; the head is crested, + and a space of naked scarlet skin, more or less clouded + with violet, surrounds the eye, continued from scarlet caruncles + on the base of the beak; the top of the head is + crested, the feathers of the body are larger, more lax, + softer, and less closely compacted together than in the + common duck, and seem to indicate less aquatic habits. + The male far surpasses the female in size; there are no + curled feathers in his tail." The male is fierce and quarrelsome, + and when enraged has a savage appearance, and + utters deep, hoarse sounds. The flesh is very good, but + the breed is inferior as a layer to the Aylesbury or Rouen.</p> +<p>The Buenos Ayres, Labrador, or East Indian, brought + most probably from the first-named country, is a small + and very beautiful variety, with the plumage of a uniform + rich, lustrous, greenish-black, and dark legs and bills; the + drake rarely weighing five pounds, and the duck four + pounds. Their eggs are often smeared over with a slatey-coloured + matter, but the shell is really of a dull white.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXIII"></a>CHAPTER XXIII.</h2> +<h3>GEESE.</h3> +<p>Geese require much the same management as ducks. + They may be kept profitably where there is a rough + pasture or common into which they may be turned, and + the pasturage is not rendered bare by sheep, as is generally + the case; but even when the pasturage is good, a supply + of oats, barley, or other grain should be allowed every + morning and evening. Where the pasturage is poor or + bad, the old geese become thin and weak, and the young + broods never thrive and often die unless fully fed at home. A + goose-house for four should not be less than eight feet long + by six feet wide and six or seven feet high, with a smooth + floor of brick. A little clean straw should be spread over + it every other day, after removing that previously used, + and washing the floor. Each goose should have a compartment + two feet and a half square for laying and sitting, + as she will always lay where she deposited her first egg. + The house must be well ventilated. All damp must be + avoided. A pigsty makes a capital pen. Although a + pond is an advantage, they do not require more than a + large trough or tank to bathe in.</p> +<p>For breeding not more than four geese should be kept to + one gander. Their breeding powers continue to more than + twenty years old. It is often difficult to distinguish the + sexes, no one sign being infallible except close examination. + The goose lays early in a mild spring, or in an ordinary + season, if fed high throughout the winter with corn, and on + the commencement of the breeding season on boiled barley, + malt, fresh grains, and fine pollard mixed up with ale, or + other stimulants; by which two broods may be obtained in + a year. The common goose lays from nine to seventeen + eggs, usually about thirteen, and generally carries straws<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> about previously to laying. Thirteen eggs are quite enough + for the largest goose to sit on. They sit from thirty to + thirty-five days. March or early April is the best period + for hatching, and the geese should therefore begin to sit in + February or early March; for goslings hatched at any + time after April are difficult to rear. Food and water + should be placed near to her, for she sits closely. She + ought to leave her nest daily and take a bath in a neighbouring + pond. The gander is very attentive, and sits by + her, and is vigilant and daring in her defence. When her + eggs are placed under a common hen they should be + sprinkled with water daily or every other day, for the + moisture of the goose's breast is beneficial to them. (See <a href="#Page_50">page 50</a>.) A turkey is an excellent mother for goslings.</p> +<p>She should be cooped for a few days on a dry grass-plot + or meadow, with grain and water by her, of which the + goslings will eat; and they should also be supplied with + chopped cabbage or beet leaves, or other green food. They + must have a dry bed under cover and be protected from + rats. Their only dangers are heavy rains, damp floors, + and vermin; and they require but little care for the first + fortnight; while the old birds are singularly free from + maladies of all kinds common to poultry. When a fortnight + old they may be allowed to go abroad with their + mother and frequent the pond. "It has been formerly + recommended," says Mowbray, "to keep the newly-hatched + gulls in house during a week, lest they get cramp from + the damp earth; but we did not find this indoor confinement + necessary; penning the goose and her brood between + four hurdles upon a piece of dry grass well sheltered, + putting them out late in the morning, or not at all in + severe weather, and ever taking them in early in the evening. + Sometimes we have pitched double the number of + hurdles, for the convenience of two broods, there being no + quarrels among this sociable and harmless part of the + feathered race. We did not even find it necessary to interpose + a parting hurdle, which, on occasion, may be always + conveniently done. For the first range a convenient field + containing water is to be preferred to an extensive common,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> over which the gulls or goslings are dragged by the goose, + until they become cramped or tired, some of them squatting + down and remaining behind at evening." All the hemlock + or deadly nightshade within range should be destroyed. + When the corn is garnered the young geese may be turned + into the stubble which they will thoroughly glean, and + many of them will be in fine condition by Michaelmas. + Green geese are young geese fattened at about the age of + four months, usually on oatmeal and peas, mixed with + skim-milk or butter-milk, or upon oats or other grain, and + are very delicate. In fattening geese for Christmas give + oats mixed with water for the first fortnight, and afterwards + barley-meal made into a crumbling porridge. They + should be allowed to bathe for a few hours before being + killed, for they are then plucked more easily and the + feathers are in better condition. Their feathers, down, + and quills are very valuable.</p> +<p>Geese are very destructive to all garden and farm crops, + as well as young trees, and must therefore be carefully + kept out of orchards and plantations. Their dung, though + acrid and apt to injure at first, will, when it is mellowed, + much enrich the ground.</p> +<p>The Toulouse or Grey Goose is very large, of uniform + grey plumage, with long neck, having a kind of dewlap + under the throat; the abdominal pouch very much developed, + almost touching the ground; short legs; flat feet; + short, broad tail; and very upright carriage, almost like a + penguin. The Toulouse lays a large number of eggs, sometimes + as many as thirty, and even more, but rarely wishes + to sit, and is a very bad mother.</p> +<p>The Emden or pure White is very scarce. The bill is + flesh-colour, and the legs and feet orange. They require a + pond. The Toulouse, crossed with the large white or dark-coloured + common breed, produces greater weight than + either, and the objection to the former as indifferent sitters + and mothers is avoided; but is not desirable for breeding + stock, and must have a pond like the White.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXIV"></a>CHAPTER XXIV.</h2> +<h3>DISEASES.</h3> +<p>It is more economical to kill at once rather than attempt to cure common + fowls showing symptoms of any troublesome disease, and so save trouble, + loss of their carcases, and the risk of infection. But if the fowls are + favourites, or valuable, it may be desirable to use every means of cure.</p> +<p>See to a sick fowl at once; prompt attention may prevent serious illness, + and loss of the bird. When a fowl's plumage is seen to be bristled up and + disordered, and its wings hanging or dragging, it should be at once removed + from the others, and looked to. Pale and livid combs are as certain a sign + of bad health in fowls, as the paleness or lividness of the lips is in human + beings. Every large establishment should have a warm, properly ventilated, + and well-lighted house, comfortably littered down with clean straw, + to be used as a hospital, and every fowl should be removed to it upon + showing any symptoms of illness, even if the disease is not infectious, for + sick fowls are often pecked at, ill treated, and disliked by their healthy + companions. Bear in mind that prevention is better than cure, and that + proper management and housing, good feeding, pure water and greens, + cleanliness and exercise, will prevent all, or nearly all, these diseases.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Apoplexy</span> arises from over-feeding, and can seldom be treated in time to + be of service. The only remedy is bleeding, by opening the large vein + under the wing, and pouring cold water on the head for a few minutes. + Open the vein with a lancet, or if that is not at hand, with a sharp-pointed + penknife; make the incision lengthways, not across, and press the + vein with your thumb between the opening and the body, when the blood + will flow. If the fowl should recover, feed it on soft, low food for a few + days, and keep it quiet. It occurs most often in laying hens, which frequently + die on the nest while ejecting the egg; and is frequently caused by + too much of very stimulating food, such as hempseed, or improper diet of + greaves, and also by giving too much pea or bean meal.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Hard Crop</span>, or being <span class="smcap">Crop-Bound</span>, is caused by too much food, especially + of hard grain, being taken into the crop, so that it cannot be softened + by maceration, and is therefore unable to be passed into the stomach. + Although the bird has thus too large a supply of food in its crop, the + stomach becomes empty, and the fowl eats still more food. Sometimes a + fowl swallows a bone that is too large to pass into the stomach, and being + kept in the crop forms a kernel, around which fibrous and other hard material + collects. Mr. Baily says: "Pour plenty of warm water down the throat, + and loosen the food till it is soft. Then give a tablespoonful of castor-oil, + or about as much jalap as will lie on a shilling, mixed in butter; make a + pill of it, and slide it into the crop. The fowl will be well in the morning. + If the crop still remain hard after this, an operation is the only remedy.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> The feathers should be picked off the crop in a straight line down the + middle. Generally speaking, the crop will be found full of grass or hay, + that has formed a ball or some inconveniently-shaped substance. (I once + took a piece of carrot three inches long out of a crop.) When the offence + has been removed, the crop should be washed out with warm water. It + should then be sewn up with coarse thread, and the suture rubbed with + grease. Afterwards the outer skin should be served the same. The crop + and skin must not be sewed together. For three or four days the patient + should have only gruel; no hard food for a fortnight." The slit should be + made in the upper part of the crop, and just large enough to admit a blunt + instrument, with which you must gently remove the hardened mass.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Diarrhœa</span> is caused by exposure to much cold and wet, reaction after + constipation from having had too little green food, unwholesome food, and + dirt. Feed on warm barley-meal, or oatmeal mashed with a little warm + ale, and some but not very much green food, and give five grains of powdered + chalk, one grain of opium, and one grain of powdered ipecacuanha + twice a day till the looseness is checked. Boiled rice, with a little chalk + and cayenne pepper mixed, will also check the complaint. When the evacuations + are coloured with blood, the diarrhœa has become dysentery, and + cure is very doubtful.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Gapes</span>, a frequent yawning or gaping, is caused by worms in the windpipe, + which may be removed by introducing a feather, stripped to within an + inch of the point, into the windpipe, turning it round quickly, and then + drawing it out, when the parasites will be found adhering with slime upon + it; but if this be not quickly and skilfully done, and with some knowledge + of the anatomy of the parts touched, the bird may be killed instead of + cured. Another remedy is to put the fowl into a box, placing in it at the + same time a sponge dipped in spirits of turpentine on a hot water plate filled + with boiling water, and repeating this for three or four days. Some persons + recommend, as a certain cure in a few days, half a teaspoonful of spirits of + turpentine mixed with a handful of grain, giving that quantity to two dozen + of chickens each day. A pinch of salt put as far back into the mouth as possible + is also said to be effectual.</p> +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Leg_Weakness">Leg Weakness</a></span>, shown by the bird resting on the first joint, is generally + caused by the size and weight of the body being too great for the strength + of the legs; and this being entirely the result of weakness, the remedy is to + give strength by tonics and more nourishing food. The quality should be + improved, but the quantity must not be increased, as the disease has been + caused by over-feeding having produced too much weight for the strength + of the legs. Frequent bathing in cold water is very beneficial. This is + best effected by tying a towel round the fowl, and suspending it over a pail + of water, with the legs only immersed.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Loss of Feathers</span> is almost always caused by want of green food, or dust-heap + for cleansing. Let the fowls have both, and remove them to a grass + run if possible. But nothing will restore the feathers till the next moult. + Fowls, when too closely housed or not well supplied with green food and + lime, sometimes eat each other's feathers, destroying the plumage till the + next moult. In such cases green food and mortar rubbish should be supplied, + exercise allowed, the injured fowl should be removed to a separate + place, and the pecked parts rubbed over with sulphur ointment. Cut or + broken feathers should be pulled out at once.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="smcap">Pip</span>, a dry scale on the tongue, is not a disease, but the symptom of some + disease, being only analogous to "a foul tongue" in human beings. Do not + scrape the tongue, nor cut off the tip, but cure the roup, diarrhœa, bad + digestion, gapes, or whatever the disease may be, and the pip will disappear.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Roup</span> is caused by exposure to excessive wet or very cold winds. It + begins with a slight hoarseness and catching of the breath as if from cold, + and terminates in an offensive discharge from the nostrils, froth in the + corners of the eyes, and swollen lids. It is very contagious. Separate the + fowl from the others, keep it warm, add some "Douglass Mixture" (see + "<a href="#Moulting.">Moulting</a>") to its water daily, wash its head once or twice daily with tepid + water, feed it with meal, only mixed with hot ale instead of water, and + plenty of green food. Mr. Wright advises half a grain of cayenne pepper + with half a grain of powdered allspice in a bolus of the meal, or one of Baily's roup pills to be given daily. Mr. Tegetmeier recommends one grain + of sulphate of copper daily. Another advises a spoonful of castor-oil at + once, and a few hours afterwards one of Baily's roup pills, and to take the + scale off the tongue, which can easily be done by holding the beak open with + your left hand, and removing the scale with the thumbnail of your right + hand; with a pill every morning for a week. If not almost well in a week + it will be better to kill it.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">The Thrush</span> may be cured by washing the tongue and mouth with borax + dissolved in tincture of myrrh and water.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Paralysis</span> generally affects the legs and renders the fowl unable to move. + It is chiefly caused by over-stimulating food. There is no known remedy + for this disease, and the fowl seldom if ever recovers. Although chiefly + affecting the legs of fowls, it is quite a different disease from <span class="smcap"> <a href="#Leg_Weakness">Leg + Weakness</a></span>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Vertigo</span> results from too great a flow of blood to the head, and is generally + caused by over-feeding. Pouring cold water upon the fowl's head, or + holding it under a tap for a few minutes, will check this complaint, and the + bird should then be purged by a dose of castor-oil or six grains of jalap.</p> +<h3><a name="Moulting." id="Moulting."><span class="smcap">Moulting</span>.</a></h3> +<p>All birds, but especially old fowls, require more warmth and more + nourishing diet during this drain upon their system, and should roost in a + warm, sheltered, and properly-ventilated house, free from all draught. Do + not let them out early in the morning, if the weather is chilly, but feed them + under cover, and give them every morning warm, soft food, such as bread + and ale, oatmeal and milk, potatoes mashed up in pot-liquor, with a little + pepper and a little boiled meat, as liver, &c., cut small, and a little hempseed + with their grain at night. Give them in their water some iron or + "Douglass Mixture," which consists of one ounce of sulphate of iron and + one drachm of sulphuric acid dissolved in one quart of water; a teaspoonful + of the mixture is to be added to each pint of drinking water. This + chalybeate is an excellent tonic for weakly young chickens, and young birds + that are disposed to outgrow their strength. It increases their appetite, + improves the health, imparts strength, brightens the colour of the comb, + and increases the stamina of the birds. When chickens droop and seem to + suffer as the feathers on the head grow, give them once a day meat minced + fine and a little canary-seed.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<h2><a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES"></a>FOOTNOTES:</h2> +<div class="footnote"> + <p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Piper on Poultry: their Varieties, Management, Breeding, and + Diseases; Price 1s. Groombridge & Sons, 5, Paternoster Row, + London.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> + <p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The Practical Poultry Keeper. By Mr. L. Wright. Cassell, Petter & Galpin.</p> +</div> +<hr class="chap" /> +<div class="transnote"> + <h2>Transcriber's Note. </h2> + <div class="c7">Hyphenation has been standardised.</div> +</div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Poultry, by Hugh Piper + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POULTRY *** + +***** This file should be named 38606-h.htm or 38606-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/6/0/38606/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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